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gabrielaltay

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[ { "plaintext": "An ambush is a long-established military tactic in which a combatant uses an advantage of concealment or the element of surprise to attack unsuspecting enemy combatants from concealed positions, such as among dense underbrush or behind mountaintops. Ambushes have been used consistently throughout history, from ancient to modern warfare. In the 20th century, an ambush might involve thousands of soldiers on a large scale, such as over a choke point such as a mountain pass, or a small irregulars band or insurgent group attacking a regular armed force patrols. Theoretically, a single well-armed and concealed soldier could ambush other troops in a surprise attack. Sometimes an ambush can involve the exclusive or combined use of improvised explosive devices, that allow the attackers to hit enemy convoys or patrols while minimizing the risk of being exposed to return fire.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 60981, 146707, 4656210, 170736, 962433, 1656574, 374673, 1299849, 589841, 12928085, 37338, 2601678, 265112 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 47 ], [ 59, 68 ], [ 109, 128 ], [ 215, 225 ], [ 312, 319 ], [ 323, 337 ], [ 462, 475 ], [ 488, 498 ], [ 507, 516 ], [ 535, 542 ], [ 613, 620 ], [ 652, 667 ], [ 734, 762 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This use by early people of ambushing may date as far back as two million years when anthropologists have recently suggested that ambush techniques were used to hunt large game.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One example from ancient times is the Battle of the Trebia river. Hannibal encamped within striking distance of the Romans with the Trebia River between them, and placed a strong force of cavalry and infantry in concealment, near the battle zone. He had noticed, says Polybius, a \"place between the two camps, flat indeed and treeless, but well adapted for an ambuscade, as it was traversed by a water-course with steep banks, densely overgrown with brambles and other thorny plants, and here he proposed to lay a stratagem to surprise the enemy\". When the Roman infantry became entangled in combat with his army, the hidden ambush force attacked the Roman infantry in the rear. The result was slaughter and defeat for the Romans. Nevertheless, the battle also displays the effects of good tactical discipline on the part of the ambushed force. Although most of the legions were lost, about 10,000 Romans cut their way through to safety, maintaining unit cohesion. This ability to maintain discipline and break out or maneuver away from a kill zone is a hallmark of good troops and training in any ambush situation. (See Ranger reference below).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 238811, 13959, 24516, 31574789, 34331496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 58 ], [ 66, 74 ], [ 268, 276 ], [ 950, 963 ], [ 1039, 1048 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ambushes were widely utilized by the Lusitanians, in particular by their chieftain Viriathus. Their usual tactic, called concursare, involved repeatedly charging and retreating, forcing the enemy to eventually give them chase, in order to set up ambushes in difficult terrain where allied forces would be awaiting. In his first victory, he eluded the siege of Roman praetor Gaius Vetilius and attracted him to a narrow pass next to the Barbesuda river, where he destroyed his army and killed the praetor. Viriathus's ability to turn chases into ambushes would grant him victories over a number of Roman generals. Another famous Lusitanian ambush was performed by Curius and Apuleius on Roman general Quintus Fabius Maximus Servilianus, who led a numerically superior army complete with war elephants and Numidian cavalry. The ambush allowed Curius and Apuleius to steal Servilianus's loot train, although a tactic error in their retreat led to the Romans retaking the train and putting the Lusitanians to flight. Viriathus later defeated Servilianus with a surprise attack.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 620165, 446263, 20060669, 59759705, 39269037, 51948215, 16067582, 2601678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 48 ], [ 83, 92 ], [ 436, 445 ], [ 663, 682 ], [ 700, 734 ], [ 786, 799 ], [ 804, 820 ], [ 1057, 1072 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Possibly the most famous ambush in ancient warfare was that sprung by Germanic warchief Arminius against the Romans at Battle of the Teutoburg Forest. This particular ambush was to affect the course of Western history. The Germanic forces demonstrated several principles needed for a successful ambush. They took cover in difficult forested terrain, allowing the warriors time and space to mass without detection. They had the element of surprise, and this was also aided by the defection of Arminius from Roman ranks prior to the battle. They sprang the attack when the Romans were most vulnerable; when they had left their fortified camp, and were on the march in a pounding rainstorm.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 72581, 39880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 96 ], [ 119, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Germans did not dawdle at the hour of decision but attacked quickly, using a massive series of short, rapid, vicious charges against the length of the whole Roman line, with charging units sometimes withdrawing to the forest to regroup while others took their place. The Germans also used blocking obstacles, erecting a trench and earthen wall to hinder Roman movement along the route of the killing zone. The result was mass slaughter of the Romans, and the destruction of three legions. The Germanic victory caused a limit on Roman expansion in the West. Ultimately, it established the Rhine as the boundary of the Roman Empire for the next four hundred years, until the decline of the Roman influence in the West. The Roman Empire made no further concerted attempts to conquer Germania beyond the Rhine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are many notable examples of ambushes during the Roman-Persian Wars. A year after their victory at Carrhae, the Parthians invaded Syria but were driven back after a Roman ambush near Antigonia. Roman Emperor Julian was mortally wounded in an ambush near Samarra in 363 during the retreat from his Persian campaign. A Byzantine invasion of Persian Armenia was repelled by a small force at Anglon who performed a meticulous ambush by using the rough terrain as force multiplier and concealing in houses. Heraclius' discovery of a planned ambush by Shahrbaraz in 622 was a decisive factor in his campaign.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3459560, 925498, 4501200, 4451432, 16300, 6036975, 37498649, 59686239, 2264109, 13956, 161354, 6116378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 73 ], [ 105, 112 ], [ 118, 127 ], [ 189, 198 ], [ 214, 220 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 303, 319 ], [ 394, 400 ], [ 465, 481 ], [ 508, 517 ], [ 552, 562 ], [ 595, 607 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Muslim tradition, Islamic Prophet Muhammad used ambush tactics in his military campaigns. His first such use was during the Caravan raids. In the Kharrar caravan raid, Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas was ordered to lead a raid against the Quraysh. His group consisted of about twenty Muhajirs. This raid was about a month after the previous one. Sa'd, with his soldiers, set up an ambush in the valley of Kharrar on the road to Mecca and waited to raid a Meccan caravan returning from Syria. However, the caravan had already passed and the Muslims returned to Medina without any loot.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18934, 35009044, 433613, 1204154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 55 ], [ 137, 150 ], [ 240, 247 ], [ 406, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arab tribes during Muhammad's era also used ambush tactics. One example retold in Muslim tradition is said to have taken place during the First Raid on Banu Thalabah. The Banu Thalabah tribe were already aware of the impending attack; so they lay in wait for the Muslims, and when Muhammad ibn Maslama arrived at the site, the Banu Thalabah with 100 men ambushed the Muslims while they were making preparation to sleep and, after a brief resistance, killed them all except for Muhammad ibn Maslama, who feigned death. A Muslim who happened to pass that way found him and assisted him to return to Medina. The raid was unsuccessful.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 31238753, 36636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 166 ], [ 598, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In modern warfare, an ambush is most often employed by ground troops up to platoon size against enemy targets, which may be other ground troops, or possibly vehicles. However, in some situations, especially when deep behind enemy lines, the actual attack will be carried out by a platoon, a company-sized unit will be deployed to support the attack group, setting up and maintaining a forward patrol harbour from which the attacking force will deploy, and to which they will retire after the attack.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [ 166654, 145418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 82 ], [ 291, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ambushes are complex multi-phase operations and are therefore usually planned in some detail. First, a suitable killing zone is identified. This is the place where the ambush will be laid. It is generally a place where enemy units are expected to pass, and which gives reasonable cover for the deployment, execution and extraction phases of the ambush patrol. A path along a wooded valley floor would be a typical example.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ambush can be described geometrically as:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Linear, when a number of firing units are equally distant from the linear kill zone.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [ 34331496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " L-shaped, when a short leg of firing units are placed to enfilade (fire the length of) the sides of the linear kill zone.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [ 556633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " V-shaped, when the firing units are distant from the kill zone at the end where the enemy enters, so the firing units lay down bands of intersecting and interlocking fire. This ambush is normally triggered only when the enemy is well into the kill zone. The intersecting bands of fire prevent any attempt of moving out of the kill zone.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ambush criteria: The terrain for the ambush had to meet strict criteria:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " provide concealment to prevent detection from the ground or air", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " enable ambush force to deploy, encircle and divide the enemy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " allow for heavy weapons emplacements to provide sustained fire", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " enable the ambush force to set up observation posts for early detection of the enemy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " permit the secret movement of troops to the ambush position and the dispersal of troops during withdrawal", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One important feature of the ambush was that the target units should 'pile up' after being attacked, thus preventing them any easy means of withdrawal from the kill zone and hindering their use of heavy weapons and supporting fire. Terrain was usually selected which would facilitate this and slow down the enemy. Any terrain around the ambush site which was not favorable to the ambushing force, or which offered some protection to the target, was heavily mined and booby trapped or pre-registered for mortars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [ 34331496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ambush units: The NVA/VC ambush formations consisted of:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " lead-blocking element", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " main-assault element", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " rear-blocking element", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " observation posts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " command post", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other elements might also be included if the situation demanded, such as a sniper screen along a nearby avenue of approach to delay enemy reinforcements.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Command posts: When deploying into an ambush site, the NVA first occupied several observation posts, placed to detect the enemy as early as possible and to report on the formation it was using, its strength and firepower, as well as to provide early warning to the unit commander. Usually one main OP and several secondary OPs were established. Runners and occasionally radios were used to communicate between the OPs and the main command post. The OPs were located so that they could observe enemy movement into the ambush and often they would remain in position throughout the ambush in order to report routes of reinforcement and withdrawal by the enemy as well as his maneuver options. Frequently the OPs were reinforced to squad size and served as flank security. The command post was situated in a central location, often on terrain which afforded it a vantage point overlooking the ambush site.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Recon methods: Reconnaissance elements observing a potential ambush target on the move generally stayed 300–500 meters away. Sometimes a \"leapfrogging\" recon technique was used. Surveillance units were echeloned one behind the other. As the enemy drew close to the first, it fell back behind the last recon team, leaving an advance group in its place. This one in turn fell back as the enemy again closed the gap, and the cycle rotated. This method helped keep the enemy under continuous observation from a variety of vantage points, and allowed the recon groups to cover one another.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ambush predator", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8918557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Viet Cong and PAVN battle tactics", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15819635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flanking maneuver", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7898212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flypaper theory (strategy)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2196484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of military tactics", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sniper", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Extract from Lt Col Anthony B. Herbert's Soldiers handbook", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "US Army Ranger Handbook section 5-14 for ambushes and 6-11 for reaction to ambushes", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Assault_tactics", "Military_tactics", "Guerrilla_warfare_tactics", "Ambushes", "Military_operations_by_type" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "An abzyme (from antibody and enzyme), also called catmab (from catalytic monoclonal antibody), and most often called catalytic antibody or sometimes catab, is a monoclonal antibody with catalytic activity. Abzymes are usually raised in lab animals immunized against synthetic haptens, but some natural abzymes can be found in normal humans (anti-vasoactive intestinal peptide autoantibodies) and in patients with autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus, where they can bind to and hydrolyze DNA. To date abzymes display only weak, modest catalytic activity and have not proved to be of any practical use. They are, however, subjects of considerable academic interest. Studying them has yielded important insights into reaction mechanisms, enzyme structure and function, catalysis, and the immune system itself.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2362, 9257, 315043, 5914, 19468046, 21009880, 7955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 24 ], [ 29, 35 ], [ 161, 180 ], [ 186, 204 ], [ 413, 432 ], [ 441, 469 ], [ 508, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Enzymes function by lowering the activation energy of the transition state of a chemical reaction, thereby enabling the formation of an otherwise less-favorable molecular intermediate between the reactant(s) and the product(s). If an antibody is developed to bind to a molecule that is structurally and electronically similar to the transition state of a given chemical reaction, the developed antibody will bind to, and stabilize, the transition state, just like a natural enzyme, lowering the activation energy of the reaction, and thus catalyzing the reaction. By raising an antibody to bind to a stable transition-state analog, a new and unique type of enzyme is produced.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "So far, all catalytic antibodies produced have displayed only modest, weak catalytic activity. The reasons for low catalytic activity for these molecules have been widely discussed. Possibilities indicate that factors beyond the binding site may play an important role, in particular through protein dynamics. Some abzymes have been engineered to use metal ions and other cofactors to improve their catalytic activity.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 543048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 372, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The possibility of catalyzing a reaction by means of an antibody which binds the transition state was first suggested by William P. Jencks in 1969. In 1994 Peter G. Schultz and Richard A. Lerner received the prestigious Wolf Prize in Chemistry for developing catalytic antibodies for many reactions and popularizing their study into a significant sub-field of enzymology.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18718682, 1007342, 5137751, 714440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 138 ], [ 156, 172 ], [ 177, 194 ], [ 220, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are a broad range of abzymes in healthy human mothers with DNase, RNAse, and protease activity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Abzymes in Human healthy Breast Milk", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a June 2008 issue of the journal Autoimmunity Review, researchers S. Planque, Sudhir Paul, Ph.D, and Yasuhiro Nishiyama, Ph.D of the University Of Texas Medical School at Houston announced that they have engineered an abzyme that degrades the superantigenic region of the gp120 CD4 binding site. This is the one part of the HIV virus outer coating that does not change, because it is the attachment point to T lymphocytes, the key cell in cell-mediated immunity. Once infected by HIV, patients produce antibodies to the more changeable parts of the viral coat. The antibodies are ineffective because of the virus' ability to change their coats rapidly. Because this protein gp120 is necessary for HIV to attach, it does not change across different strains and is a point of vulnerability across the entire range of the HIV variant population.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Potential HIV treatment", "target_page_ids": [ 2852949, 1884678, 14170, 19167679, 170417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 275, 280 ], [ 281, 284 ], [ 327, 330 ], [ 331, 336 ], [ 411, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The abzyme does more than bind to the site: it catalytically destroys the site, rendering the virus inert, and then can attack other HIV viruses. A single abzyme molecule can destroy thousands of HIV viruses.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Potential HIV treatment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Monoclonal_antibodies", "Immune_system", "Enzymes" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "In evolutionary biology, adaptive radiation is a process in which organisms diversify rapidly from an ancestral species into a multitude of new forms, particularly when a change in the environment makes new resources available, alters biotic interactions or opens new environmental niches. Starting with a single ancestor, this process results in the speciation and phenotypic adaptation of an array of species exhibiting different morphological and physiological traits. The prototypical example of adaptive radiation is finch speciation on the Galapagos (\"Darwin's finches\"), but examples are known from around the world.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 418101, 67244, 29000, 24543, 1099348, 328709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 23 ], [ 268, 288 ], [ 351, 361 ], [ 366, 376 ], [ 432, 445 ], [ 558, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four features can be used to identify an adaptive radiation:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A common ancestry of component species: specifically a recent ancestry. Note that this is not the same as a monophyly in which all descendants of a common ancestor are included.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 20611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A phenotype-environment correlation: a significant association between environments and the morphological and physiological traits used to exploit those environments.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Trait utility: the performance or fitness advantages of trait values in their corresponding environments.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 187849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rapid speciation: presence of one or more bursts in the emergence of new species around the time that ecological and phenotypic divergence is underway.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Adaptive radiations are thought to be triggered by an ecological opportunity or a new adaptive zone. Sources of ecological opportunity can be the loss of antagonists (competitors or predators), the evolution of a key innovation or dispersal to a new environment. Any one of these ecological opportunities has the potential to result in an increase in population size and relaxed stabilizing (constraining) selection. As genetic diversity is positively correlated with population size the expanded population will have more genetic diversity compared to the ancestral population. With reduced stabilizing selection phenotypic diversity can also increase. In addition, intraspecific competition will increase, promoting divergent selection to use a wider range of resources. This ecological release provides the potential for ecological speciation and thus adaptive radiation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Conditions", "target_page_ids": [ 181592, 57559, 719509, 403627, 157057, 24543, 41161859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 178 ], [ 182, 191 ], [ 379, 390 ], [ 420, 437 ], [ 452, 462 ], [ 614, 624 ], [ 824, 845 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Occupying a new environment might take place under the following conditions:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Conditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A new habitat has opened up: a volcano, for example, can create new ground in the middle of the ocean. This is the case in places like Hawaii and the Galapagos. For aquatic species, the formation of a large new lake habitat could serve the same purpose; the tectonic movement that formed the East African Rift, ultimately leading to the creation of the Rift Valley Lakes, is an example of this. An extinction event could effectively achieve this same result, opening up niches that were previously occupied by species that no longer exist.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Conditions", "target_page_ids": [ 13270, 171118, 2019833, 552748, 9813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 141 ], [ 150, 159 ], [ 292, 309 ], [ 353, 370 ], [ 398, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This new habitat is relatively isolated. When a volcano erupts on the mainland and destroys an adjacent forest, it is likely that the terrestrial plant and animal species that used to live in the destroyed region will recolonize without evolving greatly. However, if a newly formed habitat is isolated, the species that colonize it will likely be somewhat random and uncommon arrivals.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Conditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The new habitat has a wide availability of niche space. The rare colonist can only adaptively radiate into as many forms as there are niches.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Conditions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A 2020 study found there to be no direct causal relationship between the proportionally most comparable mass radiations and extinctions in terms of \"co-occurrence of species\", substantially challenging the hypothesis of \"creative mass extinctions\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Conditions", "target_page_ids": [ 9813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Darwin's finches are an often-used textbook example of adaptive radiation. Today represented by approximately 15 species, Darwin's finches are Galapagos endemics famously adapted for a specialized feeding behavior (although one species, the Cocos finch (Pinaroloxias inornata), is not found in the Galapagos but on the island of Cocos south of Costa Rica). Darwin's finches are not actually finches in the true sense, but are members of the tanager family Thraupidae, and are derived from a single ancestor that arrived in the Galapagos from mainland South America perhaps just 3 million years ago. Excluding the Cocos finch, each species of Darwin's finch is generally widely distributed in the Galapagos and fills the same niche on each island. For the ground finches, this niche is a diet of seeds, and they have thick bills to facilitate the consumption of these hard materials. The ground finches are further specialized to eat seeds of a particular size: the large ground finch (Geospiza magnirostris) is the largest species of Darwin's finch and has the thickest beak for breaking open the toughest seeds, the small ground finch (Geospiza fuliginosa) has a smaller beak for eating smaller seeds, and the medium ground finch (Geospiza fortis) has a beak of intermediate size for optimal consumption of intermediately sized seeds (relative to G. magnirostris and G. fuliginosa). There is some overlap: for example, the most robust medium ground finches could have beaks larger than those of the smallest large ground finches. Because of this overlap, it can be difficult to tell the species apart by eye, though their songs differ. These three species often occur sympatrically, and during the rainy season in the Galapagos when food is plentiful, they specialize little and eat the same, easily accessible foods. It was not well-understood why their beaks were so adapted until Peter and Rosemary Grant studied their feeding behavior in the long dry season, and discovered that when food is scarce, the ground finches use their specialized beaks to eat the seeds that they are best suited to eat and thus avoid starvation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 3756872, 155097, 5551, 11711, 261376, 12455633, 12452953, 12452945, 1267220, 584186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 275 ], [ 319, 334 ], [ 344, 354 ], [ 391, 396 ], [ 456, 466 ], [ 985, 1005 ], [ 1137, 1156 ], [ 1232, 1247 ], [ 1669, 1682 ], [ 1884, 1908 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The other finches in the Galapagos are similarly uniquely adapted for their particular niche. The cactus finches (Geospiza sp.) have somewhat longer beaks than the ground finches that serve the dual purpose of allowing them to feed on Opuntia cactus nectar and pollen while these plants are flowering, but on seeds during the rest of the year. The warbler-finches (Certhidea sp.) have short, pointed beaks for eating insects. The woodpecker finch (Camarhynchus pallidus) has a slender beak which it uses to pick at wood in search of insects; it also uses small sticks to reach insect prey inside the wood, making it one of the few animals that use tools.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 12452929, 23649300, 36297208, 2949396, 15704241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 122 ], [ 235, 242 ], [ 365, 374 ], [ 448, 469 ], [ 631, 653 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mechanism by which the finches initially diversified is still an area of active research. One proposition is that the finches were able to have a non-adaptive, allopatric speciation event on separate islands in the archipelago, such that when they reconverged on some islands, they were able to maintain reproductive isolation. Once they occurred in sympatry, niche specialization was favored so that the different species competed less directly for resources. This second, sympatric event was adaptive radiation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 334986, 5146476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 185 ], [ 308, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The haplochromine cichlid fishes in the Great Lakes of the East African Rift (particularly in Lake Tanganyika, Lake Malawi, and Lake Victoria) form the most speciose modern example of adaptive radiation. These lakes are believed to be home to about 2,000 different species of cichlid, spanning a wide range of ecological roles and morphological characteristics. Cichlids in these lakes fill nearly all of the roles typically filled by many fish families, including those of predators, scavengers, and herbivores, with varying dentitions and head shapes to match their dietary habits. In each case, the radiation events are only a few million years old, making the high level of speciation particularly remarkable. Several factors could be responsible for this diversity: the availability of a multitude of niches probably favored specialization, as few other fish taxa are present in the lakes (meaning that sympatric speciation was the most probable mechanism for initial specialization). Also, continual changes in the water level of the lakes during the Pleistocene (which often turned the largest lakes into several smaller ones) could have created the conditions for secondary allopatric speciation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 7597526, 56230, 512047, 2019833, 169713, 61943, 72979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 18, 25 ], [ 40, 51 ], [ 59, 76 ], [ 94, 109 ], [ 111, 122 ], [ 128, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lake Tanganyika is the site from which nearly all the cichlid lineages of East Africa (including both riverine and lake species) originated. Thus, the species in the lake constitute a single adaptive radiation event but do not form a single monophyletic clade. Lake Tanganyika is also the least speciose of the three largest African Great Lakes, with only around 200 species of cichlid; however, these cichlids are more morphologically divergent and ecologically distinct than their counterparts in lakes Malawi and Victoria, an artifact of Lake Tanganyika's older cichlid fauna. Lake Tanganyika itself is believed to have formed 9–12 million years ago, putting a recent cap on the age of the lake's cichlid fauna. Many of Tanganyika's cichlids live very specialized lifestyles. The giant or emperor cichlid (Boulengerochromis microlepis) is a piscivore often ranked the largest of all cichlids (though it competes for this title with South America's Cichla temensis, the speckled peacock bass). It is thought that giant cichlids spawn only a single time, breeding in their third year and defending their young until they reach a large size, before dying of starvation some time thereafter. The three species of Altolamprologus are also piscivores, but with laterally compressed bodies and thick scales enabling them to chase prey into thin cracks in rocks without damaging their skin. Plecodus straeleni has evolved large, strangely curved teeth that are designed to scrape scales off of the sides of other fish, scales being its main source of food. Gnathochromis permaxillaris possesses a large mouth with a protruding upper lip, and feeds by opening this mouth downward onto the sandy lake bottom, sucking in small invertebrates. A number of Tanganyika's cichlids are shell-brooders, meaning that mating pairs lay and fertilize their eggs inside of empty shells on the lake bottom. Lamprologus callipterus is a unique egg-brooding species, with 15cm-long males amassing collections of shells and guarding them in the hopes of attracting females (about 6cm in length) to lay eggs in these shells. These dominant males must defend their territories from three types of rival: (1) other dominant males looking to steal shells; (2) younger, \"sneaker\" males looking to fertilize eggs in a dominant male's territory; and (3) tiny, 2–4cm \"parasitic dwarf\" males that also attempt to rush in and fertilize eggs in the dominant male's territory. These parasitic dwarf males never grow to the size of dominant males, and the male offspring of dominant and parasitic dwarf males grow with 100% fidelity into the form of their fathers. A number of other highly specialized Tanganyika cichlids exist aside from these examples, including those adapted for life in open lake water up to 200m deep.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 169713, 20611, 6682, 12603919, 14520356, 5350917, 12620860, 12614207, 12616598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 241, 253 ], [ 254, 259 ], [ 809, 837 ], [ 951, 966 ], [ 1212, 1227 ], [ 1386, 1404 ], [ 1552, 1579 ], [ 1886, 1909 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cichlids of Lake Malawi constitute a \"species flock\" of up to 1000 endemic species. Only seven cichlid species in Lake Malawi are not a part of the species flock: the Eastern happy (Astatotilapia calliptera), the sungwa (Serranochromis robustus), and five tilapia species (genera Oreochromis and Coptodon). All of the other cichlid species in the lake are descendants of a single original colonist species, which itself was descended from Tanganyikan ancestors. The common ancestor of Malawi's species flock is believed to have reached the lake 3.4 million years ago at the earliest, making Malawi cichlids' diversification into their present numbers particularly rapid. Malawi's cichlids span a similarly range of feeding behaviors to those of Tanganyika, but also show signs of a much more recent origin. For example, all members of the Malawi species flock are mouth-brooders, meaning the female keeps her eggs in her mouth until they hatch; in almost all species, the eggs are also fertilized in the female's mouth, and in a few species, the females continue to guard their fry in their mouth after they hatch. Males of most species display predominantly blue coloration when mating. However, a number of particularly divergent species are known from Malawi, including the piscivorous Nimbochromis livingtonii, which lies on its side in the substrate until small cichlids, perhaps drawn to its broken white patterning, come to inspect the predator - at which point they are swiftly eaten.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 59183795, 4048662, 39092956, 351856, 8930055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 210 ], [ 284, 295 ], [ 300, 308 ], [ 868, 882 ], [ 1293, 1317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lake Victoria's cichlids are also a species flock, once composed of some 500 or more species. The deliberate introduction of the Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) in the 1950s proved disastrous for Victoria cichlids, and the collective biomass of the Victoria cichlid species flock has decreased substantially and an unknown number of species have become extinct. However, the original range of morphological and behavioral diversity seen in the lake's cichlid fauna is still mostly present today, if endangered. These again include cichlids specialized for niches across the trophic spectrum, as in Tanganyika and Malawi, but again, there are standouts. Victoria is famously home to many piscivorous cichlid species, some of which feed by sucking the contents out of mouthbrooding females' mouths. Victoria's cichlids constitute a far younger radiation than even that of Lake Malawi, with estimates of the age of the flock ranging from 200,000 years to as little as 14,000.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 88837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hawaii has served as the site of a number of adaptive radiation events, owing to its isolation, recent origin, and large land area. The three most famous examples of these radiations are presented below, though insects like the Hawaiian drosophilid flies and Hyposmocoma moths have also undergone adaptive radiation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 13270, 9032, 2289303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 237, 248 ], [ 259, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Hawaiian honeycreepers form a large, highly morphologically diverse species group of birds that began radiating in the early days of the Hawaiian archipelago. While today only 17 species are known to persist in Hawaii (3 more may or may not be extinct), there were more than 50 species prior to Polynesian colonization of the archipelago (between 18 and 21 species have gone extinct since the discovery of the islands by westerners). The Hawaiian honeycreepers are known for their beaks, which are specialized to satisfy a wide range of dietary needs: for example, the beak of the ʻakiapōlāʻau (Hemignathus wilsoni) is characterized by a short, sharp lower mandible for scraping bark off of trees, and the much longer, curved upper mandible is used to probe the wood underneath for insects. Meanwhile, the ʻiʻiwi (Drepanis coccinea) has a very long curved beak for reaching nectar deep in Lobelia flowers. An entire clade of Hawaiian honeycreepers, the tribe Psittirostrini, is composed of thick-billed, mostly seed-eating birds, like the Laysan finch (Telespiza cantans). In at least some cases, similar morphologies and behaviors appear to have evolved convergently among the Hawaiian honeycreepers; for example, the short, pointed beaks of Loxops and Oreomystis evolved separately despite once forming the justification for lumping the two genera together. The Hawaiian honeycreepers are believed to have descended from a single common ancestor some 15 to 20 million years ago, though estimates range as low as 3.5 million years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 15975113, 12181692, 560259, 430886, 15954232, 1269793, 12181737, 12181759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 599, 618 ], [ 818, 835 ], [ 893, 900 ], [ 963, 977 ], [ 1057, 1074 ], [ 1247, 1253 ], [ 1258, 1268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adaptive radiation is not a strictly vertebrate phenomenon, and examples are also known from among plants. The most famous example of adaptive radiation in plants is quite possibly the Hawaiian silverswords, named for alpine desert-dwelling Argyroxiphium species with long, silvery leaves that live for up to 20 years before growing a single flowering stalk and then dying. The Hawaiian silversword alliance consists of twenty-eight species of Hawaiian plants which, aside from the namesake silverswords, includes trees, shrubs, vines, cushion plants, and more. The silversword alliance is believed to have originated in Hawaii no more than 6 million years ago, making this one of Hawaii's youngest adaptive radiation events. This means that the silverswords evolved on Hawaii's modern high islands, and descended from a single common ancestor that arrived on Kauai from western North America. The closest modern relatives of the silverswords today are California tarweeds of the family Asteraceae.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 971063, 971063, 5360931, 70961, 956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 206 ], [ 241, 254 ], [ 387, 407 ], [ 860, 865 ], [ 987, 997 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hawaii is also the site of a separate major floral adaptive radiation event: the Hawaiian lobelioids. The Hawaiian lobelioids are significantly more speciose than the silverswords, perhaps because they have been present in Hawaii for so much longer: they descended from a single common ancestor who arrived in the archipelago up to 15 million years ago. Today the Hawaiian lobelioids form a clade of over 125 species, including succulents, trees, shrubs, epiphytes, etc. Many species have been lost to extinction and many of the surviving species endangered.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 4679911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anole lizards are distributed broadly in the New World, from the Southeastern US to South America. With over 400 species currently recognized, often placed in a single genus (Anolis), they constitute one of the largest radiation events among all lizards. Anole radiation on the mainland has largely been a process of speciation, and is not adaptive to any great degree, but anoles on each of the Greater Antilles (Cuba, Hispaniola, Puerto Rico, and Jamaica) have adaptively radiated in separate, convergent ways. On each of these islands, anoles have evolved with such a consistent set of morphological adaptations that each species can be assigned to one of six \"ecomorphs\": trunk–ground, trunk–crown, grass–bush, crown–giant, twig, and trunk. Take, for example, crown–giants from each of these islands: the Cuban Anolis luteogularis, Hispaniola's Anolis ricordii, Puerto Rico's Anolis cuvieri, and Jamaica's Anolis garmani (Cuba and Hispaniola are both home to more than one species of crown–giant). These anoles are all large, canopy-dwelling species with large heads and large lamellae (scales on the undersides of the fingers and toes that are important for traction in climbing), and yet none of these species are particularly closely related and appear to have evolved these similar traits independently. The same can be said of the other five ecomorphs across the Caribbean's four largest islands. Much like in the case of the cichlids of the three largest African Great Lakes, each of these islands is home to its own convergent Anolis adaptive radiation event.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 322654, 334401, 298550, 5042481, 13714, 23041, 15660, 40445606, 68115224, 68234436, 40414224, 21084946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 175, 181 ], [ 396, 412 ], [ 414, 418 ], [ 420, 430 ], [ 432, 443 ], [ 449, 456 ], [ 664, 673 ], [ 815, 834 ], [ 849, 864 ], [ 880, 894 ], [ 910, 924 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Presented above are the most well-documented examples of modern adaptive radiation, but other examples are known. Populations of three-spined sticklebacks have repeatedly diverged and evolved into distinct ecotypes. On Madagascar, birds of the family Vangidae are marked by very distinct beak shapes to suit their ecological roles. Madagascan mantellid frogs have radiated into forms that mirror other tropical frog faunas, with the brightly colored mantellas (Mantella) having evolved convergently with the Neotropical poison dart frogs of Dendrobatidae, while the arboreal Boophis species are the Madagascan equivalent of tree frogs and glass frogs. The pseudoxyrhophiine snakes of Madagascar have evolved into fossorial, arboreal, terrestrial, and semi-aquatic forms that converge with the colubroid faunas in the rest of the world. These Madagascan examples are significantly older than most of the other examples presented here: Madagascar's fauna has been evolving in isolation since the island split from India some 88 million years ago, and the Mantellidae originated around 50 mya. Older examples are known: the K-Pg extinction event, which caused the disappearance of the dinosaurs and most other reptilian megafauna 65 million years ago, is seen as having triggered a global adaptive radiation event that created the mammal diversity that exists today.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Examples", "target_page_ids": [ 489642, 18964, 261401, 2384387, 3794290, 812186, 12396970, 1131010, 2385158, 15555025, 44503418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 154 ], [ 219, 229 ], [ 251, 259 ], [ 343, 352 ], [ 461, 469 ], [ 541, 554 ], [ 575, 582 ], [ 624, 634 ], [ 639, 649 ], [ 656, 673 ], [ 1121, 1142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cambrian explosion—the most notable evolutionary radiation event", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19349161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Evolutionary radiation—a more general term to describe any radiation", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1422728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of adaptive radiated Hawaiian honeycreepers by form", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27482746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of adaptive radiated marsupials by form", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27609965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nonadaptive radiation", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 64680945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wilson, E. et al. Life on Earth, by Wilson, E.; Eisner, T.; Briggs, W.; Dickerson, R.; Metzenberg, R.; O'Brien, R.; Susman, M.; Boggs, W. (Sinauer Associates, Inc., Publishers, Stamford, Connecticut), c 1974. Chapters: The Multiplication of Species; Biogeography, pp 824–877. 40 Graphs, w species pictures, also Tables, Photos, etc. Includes Galápagos Islands, Hawaii, and Australia subcontinent, (plus St. Helena Island, etc.).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 171118, 13270, 20611325, 26945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 343, 360 ], [ 362, 368 ], [ 374, 383 ], [ 404, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Leakey, Richard. The Origin of Humankindon adaptive radiation in biology and human evolution, pp.28–32, 1994, Orion Publishing.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 149154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Grant, P.R. 1999. The ecology and evolution of Darwin's Finches. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mayr, Ernst. 2001. What evolution is. Basic Books, New York, NY.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 9238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gavrilets, S. and A. Vose. 2009. Dynamic patterns of adaptive radiation: evolution of mating preferences. In Butlin, R.K., J. Bridle, and D. Schluter (eds) Speciation and Patterns of Diversity, Cambridge University Press, page.102–126.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pinto, Gabriel, Luke Mahler, Luke J. Harmon, and Jonathan B. Losos. \"Testing the Island Effect in Adaptive Radiation: Rates and Patterns of Morphological Diversification in Caribbean and Mainland Anolis Lizards.\" NCBI (2008): n. pag. Web. 28 Oct. 2014.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schluter, Dolph. The ecology of adaptive radiation. Oxford University Press, 2000.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Speciation", "Evolutionary_biology_terminology" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Agarose gel electrophoresis is a method of gel electrophoresis used in biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics, and clinical chemistry to separate a mixed population of macromolecules such as DNA or proteins in a matrix of agarose, one of the two main components of agar. The proteins may be separated by charge and/or size (isoelectric focusing agarose electrophoresis is essentially size independent), and the DNA and RNA fragments by length. Biomolecules are separated by applying an electric field to move the charged molecules through an agarose matrix, and the biomolecules are separated by size in the agarose gel matrix.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12582, 3954, 19200, 12266, 65622, 2635, 3262, 966794, 7955, 25758, 41092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 62 ], [ 71, 83 ], [ 85, 102 ], [ 104, 112 ], [ 118, 136 ], [ 225, 232 ], [ 268, 272 ], [ 327, 347 ], [ 414, 417 ], [ 422, 425 ], [ 489, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agarose gel is easy to cast, has relatively fewer charged groups, and is particularly suitable for separating DNA of size range most often encountered in laboratories, which accounts for the popularity of its use. The separated DNA may be viewed with stain, most commonly under UV light, and the DNA fragments can be extracted from the gel with relative ease. Most agarose gels used are between 0.7–2% dissolved in a suitable electrophoresis buffer.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Agarose gel is a three-dimensional matrix formed of helical agarose molecules in supercoiled bundles that are aggregated into three-dimensional structures with channels and pores through which biomolecules can pass. The 3-D structure is held together with hydrogen bonds and can therefore be disrupted by heating back to a liquid state. The melting temperature is different from the gelling temperature, depending on the sources, agarose gel has a gelling temperature of 35–42°C and a melting temperature of 85–95°C. Low-melting and low-gelling agaroses made through chemical modifications are also available.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties of agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [ 2635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agarose gel has large pore size and good gel strength, making it suitable as an anticonvection medium for the electrophoresis of DNA and large protein molecules. The pore size of a 1% gel has been estimated from 100nm to 200–500nm, and its gel strength allows gels as dilute as 0.15% to form a slab for gel electrophoresis. Low-concentration gels (0.1–0.2%) however are fragile and therefore hard to handle. Agarose gel has lower resolving power than polyacrylamide gel for DNA but has a greater range of separation, and is therefore used for DNA fragments of usually 50–20,000 bp in size. The limit of resolution for standard agarose gel electrophoresis is around 750 kb, but resolution of over 6 Mb is possible with pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). It can also be used to separate large proteins, and it is the preferred matrix for the gel electrophoresis of particles with effective radii larger than 5–10nm. A 0.9% agarose gel has pores large enough for the entry of bacteriophage T4.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties of agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [ 2669197, 951833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 718, 750 ], [ 979, 995 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The agarose polymer contains charged groups, in particular pyruvate and sulphate. These negatively charged groups create a flow of water in the opposite direction to the movement of DNA in a process called electroendosmosis (EEO), and can therefore retard the movement of DNA and cause blurring of bands. Higher concentration gels would have higher electroendosmotic flow. Low EEO agarose is therefore generally preferred for use in agarose gel electrophoresis of nucleic acids, but high EEO agarose may be used for other purposes. The lower sulphate content of low EEO agarose, particularly low-melting point (LMP) agarose, is also beneficial in cases where the DNA extracted from gel is to be used for further manipulation as the presence of contaminating sulphates may affect some subsequent procedures, such as ligation and PCR. Zero EEO agaroses however are undesirable for some applications as they may be made by adding positively charged groups and such groups can affect subsequent enzyme reactions. Electroendosmosis is a reason agarose is used in preference to agar as the agaropectin component in agar contains a significant amount of negatively charged sulphate and carboxyl groups. The removal of agaropectin in agarose substantially reduces the EEO, as well as reducing the non-specific adsorption of biomolecules to the gel matrix. However, for some applications such as the electrophoresis of serum proteins, a high EEO may be desirable, and agaropectin may be added in the gel used.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Properties of agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [ 81666, 84726, 349654, 238301, 40002050, 23647, 3262, 32363043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 67 ], [ 72, 80 ], [ 207, 224 ], [ 442, 478 ], [ 816, 824 ], [ 829, 832 ], [ 1076, 1080 ], [ 1088, 1099 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of factors can affect the migration of nucleic acids: the dimension of the gel pores (gel concentration), size of DNA being electrophoresed, the voltage used, the ionic strength of the buffer, and the concentration of intercalating dye such as ethidium bromide if used during electrophoresis.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Smaller molecules travel faster than larger molecules in gel, and double-stranded DNA moves at a rate that is inversely proportional to the logarithm of the number of base pairs. This relationship however breaks down with very large DNA fragments, and separation of very large DNA fragments requires the use of pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), which applies alternating current from different directions and the large DNA fragments are separated as they reorient themselves with the changing field.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [ 2669197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 311, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For standard agarose gel electrophoresis, larger molecules are resolved better using a low concentration gel while smaller molecules separate better at high concentration gel. Higher concentration gels, however, require longer run times (sometimes days).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The movement of the DNA may be affected by the conformation of the DNA molecule, for example, supercoiled DNA usually moves faster than relaxed DNA because it is tightly coiled and hence more compact. In a normal plasmid DNA preparation, multiple forms of DNA may be present. Gel electrophoresis of the plasmids would normally show the negatively supercoiled form as the main band, while nicked DNA (open circular form) and the relaxed closed circular form appears as minor bands. The rate at which the various forms move however can change using different electrophoresis conditions, and the mobility of larger circular DNA may be more strongly affected than linear DNA by the pore size of the gel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [ 474009, 5097443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 94, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ethidium bromide which intercalates into circular DNA can change the charge, length, as well as the superhelicity of the DNA molecule, therefore its presence in gel during electrophoresis can affect its movement. For example, the positive charge of ethidium bromide can reduce the DNA movement by 15%. Agarose gel electrophoresis can be used to resolve circular DNA with different supercoiling topology.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "DNA damage due to increased cross-linking will also reduce electrophoretic DNA migration in a dose-dependent way.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [ 1089106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rate of migration of the DNA is proportional to the voltage applied, i.e. the higher the voltage, the faster the DNA moves. The resolution of large DNA fragments however is lower at high voltage. The mobility of DNA may also change in an unsteady field – in a field that is periodically reversed, the mobility of DNA of a particular size may drop significantly at a particular cycling frequency. This phenomenon can result in band inversion in field inversion gel electrophoresis (FIGE), whereby larger DNA fragments move faster than smaller ones.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Smiley\" gels - this edge effect is caused when the voltage applied is too high for the gel concentration used. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Overloading of DNA - overloading of DNA slows down the migration of DNA fragments.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Contamination - presence of impurities, such as salts or proteins can affect the movement of the DNA.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The negative charge of its phosphate backbone moves the DNA towards the positively charged anode during electrophoresis. However, the migration of DNA molecules in solution, in the absence of a gel matrix, is independent of molecular weight during electrophoresis. The gel matrix is therefore responsible for the separation of DNA by size during electrophoresis, and a number of models exist to explain the mechanism of separation of biomolecules in gel matrix. A widely accepted one is the Ogston model which treats the polymer matrix as a sieve. A globular protein or a random coil DNA moves through the interconnected pores, and the movement of larger molecules is more likely to be impeded and slowed down by collisions with the gel matrix, and the molecules of different sizes can therefore be separated in this sieving process.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [ 322931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 573, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ogston model however breaks down for large molecules whereby the pores are significantly smaller than size of the molecule. For DNA molecules of size greater than 1 kb, a reptation model (or its variants) is most commonly used. This model assumes that the DNA can crawl in a \"snake-like\" fashion (hence \"reptation\") through the pores as an elongated molecule. A biased reptation model applies at higher electric field strength, whereby the leading end of the molecule become strongly biased in the forward direction and pulls the rest of the molecule along. Real-time fluorescence microscopy of stained molecules, however, showed more subtle dynamics during electrophoresis, with the DNA showing considerable elasticity as it alternately stretching in the direction of the applied field and then contracting into a ball, or becoming hooked into a U-shape when it gets caught on the polymer fibres.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Migration of nucleic acids in agarose gel", "target_page_ids": [ 14562492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The details of an agarose gel electrophoresis experiment may vary depending on methods, but most follow a general procedure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The gel is prepared by dissolving the agarose powder in an appropriate buffer, such as TAE or TBE, to be used in electrophoresis. The agarose is dispersed in the buffer before heating it to near-boiling point, but avoid boiling. The melted agarose is allowed to cool sufficiently before pouring the solution into a cast as the cast may warp or crack if the agarose solution is too hot. A comb is placed in the cast to create wells for loading sample, and the gel should be completely set before use.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General procedure", "target_page_ids": [ 2833999, 2257664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 90 ], [ 94, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concentration of gel affects the resolution of DNA separation. The agarose gel is composed of microscopic pores through which the molecules travel, and there is an inverse relationship between the pore size of the agarose gel and the concentration pore size decreases as the density of agarose fibers increases. High gel concentration improves separation of smaller DNA molecules, while lowering gel concentration permits large DNA molecules to be separated. The process allows fragments ranging from 50 base pairs to several mega bases to be separated depending on the gel concentration used. The concentration is measured in weight of agarose over volume of buffer used (g/ml). For a standard agarose gel electrophoresis, a 0.8% gel gives good separation or resolution of large 5–10kb DNA fragments, while 2% gel gives good resolution for small 0.2–1kb fragments. 1% gels is often used for a standard electrophoresis. High percentage gels are often brittle and may not set evenly, while low percentage gels (0.1-0.2%) are fragile and not easy to handle. Low-melting-point (LMP) agarose gels are also more fragile than normal agarose gel. Low-melting point agarose may be used on its own or simultaneously with standard agarose for the separation and isolation of DNA. PFGE and FIGE are often done with high percentage agarose gels.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Once the gel has set, the comb is removed, leaving wells where DNA samples can be loaded. Loading buffer is mixed with the DNA sample before the mixture is loaded into the wells. The loading buffer contains a dense compound, which may be glycerol, sucrose, or Ficoll, that raises the density of the sample so that the DNA sample may sink to the bottom of the well. If the DNA sample contains residual ethanol after its preparation, it may float out of the well. The loading buffer also includes colored dyes such as xylene cyanol and bromophenol blue used to monitor the progress of the electrophoresis. The DNA samples are loaded using a pipette.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General procedure", "target_page_ids": [ 1414700, 2019062, 883203, 106235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 260, 266 ], [ 516, 529 ], [ 534, 550 ], [ 639, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agarose gel electrophoresis is most commonly done horizontally in a submarine mode whereby the slab gel is completely submerged in buffer during electrophoresis. It is also possible, but less common, to perform the electrophoresis vertically, as well as horizontally with the gel raised on agarose legs using an appropriate apparatus. The buffer used in the gel is the same as the running buffer in the electrophoresis tank, which is why electrophoresis in the submarine mode is possible with agarose gel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For optimal resolution of DNA greater than 2kb in size in standard gel electrophoresis, 5 to 8 V/cm is recommended (the distance in cm refers to the distance between electrodes, therefore this recommended voltage would be 5 to 8 multiplied by the distance between the electrodes in cm). Voltage may also be limited by the fact that it heats the gel and may cause the gel to melt if it is run at high voltage for a prolonged period, especially if the gel used is LMP agarose gel. Too high a voltage may also reduce resolution, as well as causing band streaking for large DNA molecules. Too low a voltage may lead to broadening of band for small DNA fragments due to dispersion and diffusion.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since DNA is not visible in natural light, the progress of the electrophoresis is monitored using colored dyes. Xylene cyanol (light blue color) comigrates large DNA fragments, while Bromophenol blue (dark blue) comigrates with the smaller fragments. Less commonly used dyes include Cresol Red and Orange G which migrate ahead of bromophenol blue. A DNA marker is also run together for the estimation of the molecular weight of the DNA fragments. Note however that the size of a circular DNA like plasmids cannot be accurately gauged using standard markers unless it has been linearized by restriction digest, alternatively a supercoiled DNA marker may be used.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General procedure", "target_page_ids": [ 5276907, 3255211, 6563587, 1708412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 283, 293 ], [ 298, 306 ], [ 350, 360 ], [ 590, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DNA as well as RNA are normally visualized by staining with ethidium bromide, which intercalates into the major grooves of the DNA and fluoresces under UV light. The intercalation depends on the concentration of DNA and thus, a band with high intensity will indicate a higher amount of DNA compared to a band of less intensity. The ethidium bromide may be added to the agarose solution before it gels, or the DNA gel may be stained later after electrophoresis. Destaining of the gel is not necessary but may produce better images. Other methods of staining are available; examples are SYBR Green, GelRed, methylene blue, brilliant cresyl blue, Nile blue sulphate, and crystal violet. SYBR Green, GelRed and other similar commercial products are sold as safer alternatives to ethidium bromide as it has been shown to be mutagenic in Ames test, although the carcinogenicity of ethidium bromide has not actually been established. SYBR Green requires the use of a blue-light transilluminator. DNA stained with crystal violet can be viewed under natural light without the use of a UV transilluminator which is an advantage, however it may not produce a strong band.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General procedure", "target_page_ids": [ 363891, 7831807, 37832958, 238790, 19667603, 1574340, 1506024, 20359, 2766, 6445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ], [ 585, 595 ], [ 597, 603 ], [ 605, 619 ], [ 621, 642 ], [ 644, 653 ], [ 668, 682 ], [ 819, 828 ], [ 832, 841 ], [ 856, 871 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When stained with ethidium bromide, the gel is viewed with an ultraviolet (UV) transilluminator. The UV light excites the electrons within the aromatic ring of ethidium bromide, and once they return to the ground state, light is released, making the DNA and ethidium bromide complex fluoresce. Standard transilluminators use wavelengths of 302/312-nm (UV-B), however exposure of DNA to UV radiation for as little as 45 seconds can produce damage to DNA and affect subsequent procedures, for example reducing the efficiency of transformation, in vitro transcription, and PCR. Exposure of the DNA to UV radiation therefore should be limited. Using a higher wavelength of 365nm (UV-A range) causes less damage to the DNA but also produces much weaker fluorescence with ethidium bromide. Where multiple wavelengths can be selected in the transillumintor, the shorter wavelength would be used to capture images, while the longer wavelength should be used if it is necessary to work on the gel for any extended period of time.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General procedure", "target_page_ids": [ 31990, 13515245, 167544, 23647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 73 ], [ 526, 540 ], [ 551, 564 ], [ 570, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The transilluminator apparatus may also contain image capture devices, such as a digital or polaroid camera, that allow an image of the gel to be taken or printed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For gel electrophoresis of protein, the bands may be visualised with Coomassie or silver stains.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General procedure", "target_page_ids": [ 882261, 1750132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 78 ], [ 82, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The separated DNA bands are often used for further procedures, and a DNA band may be cut out of the gel as a slice, dissolved and purified. Contaminants however may affect some downstream procedures such as PCR, and low melting point agarose may be preferred in some cases as it contains fewer of the sulphates that can affect some enzymatic reactions. The gels may also be used for blotting techniques.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "General procedure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In general, the ideal buffer should have good conductivity, produce less heat and have a long life. There are a number of buffers used for agarose electrophoresis; common ones for nucleic acids include Tris/Acetate/EDTA (TAE) and Tris/Borate/EDTA (TBE). The buffers used contain EDTA to inactivate many nucleases which require divalent cation for their function. The borate in TBE buffer can be problematic as borate can polymerize, and/or interact with cis diols such as those found in RNA. TAE has the lowest buffering capacity, but it provides the best resolution for larger DNA. This means a lower voltage and more time, but a better product.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Buffers", "target_page_ids": [ 2833999, 2257664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 219 ], [ 230, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many other buffers have been proposed, e.g. lithium borate (LB), iso electric histidine, pK matched goods buffers, etc.; in most cases the purported rationale is lower current (less heat) and or matched ion mobilities, which leads to longer buffer life. Tris-phosphate buffer has high buffering capacity but cannot be used if DNA extracted is to be used in phosphate sensitive reaction. LB is relatively new and is ineffective in resolving fragments larger than 5 kbp; However, with its low conductivity, a much higher voltage could be used (up to 35 V/cm), which means a shorter analysis time for routine electrophoresis. As low as one base pair size difference could be resolved in 3% agarose gel with an extremely low conductivity medium (1 mM lithium borate).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Buffers", "target_page_ids": [ 14841597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other buffering system may be used in specific applications, for example, barbituric acid-sodium barbiturate or Tris-barbiturate buffers may be used for in agarose gel electrophoresis of proteins, for example in the detection of abnormal distribution of proteins.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Buffers", "target_page_ids": [ 2923388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Estimation of the size of DNA molecules following digestion with restriction enzymes, e.g., in restriction mapping of cloned DNA.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 26194, 6538017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 83 ], [ 95, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Estimation of the DNA concentration by comparing the intensity of the nucleic acid band with the corresponding band of the size marker.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Analysis of products of a polymerase chain reaction (PCR), e.g., in molecular genetic diagnosis or genetic fingerprinting", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 23647, 562180, 44290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 51 ], [ 78, 95 ], [ 99, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Separation of DNA fragments for extraction and purification.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Separation of restricted genomic DNA prior to Southern transfer, or of RNA prior to Northern transfer.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 28957, 21930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 63 ], [ 84, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Separation of proteins, for example, screening of protein abnormalities in clinical chemistry.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 65622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Agarose gels are easily cast and handled compared to other matrices and nucleic acids are not chemically altered during electrophoresis. Samples are also easily recovered. After the experiment is finished, the resulting gel can be stored in a plastic bag in a refrigerator.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Electrophoresis is performed in buffer solutions to reduce pH changes due to the electric field, which is important because the charge of DNA and RNA depends on pH, but running for too long can exhaust the buffering capacity of the solution. Further, different preparations of genetic material may not migrate consistently with each other, for morphological or other reasons.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the mid- to late 1960s, agarose and related gels were first found to be effective matrices for DNA and RNA electrophoresis.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gel electrophoresis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Immunodiffusion, Immunoelectrophoresis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11524213, 2428570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 17, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "SDD-AGE", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26964637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Northern blot", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 56067306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Southern blot", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "How to run a DNA or RNA gel", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Animation of gel analysis of DNA restriction fragments", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Video and article of agarose gel electrophoresis", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Step by step photos of running a gel and extracting DNA", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Drinking straw electrophoresis!", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A typical method from wikiversity", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Building a gel electrophoresis chamber", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Biological_techniques_and_tools", "Molecular_biology", "Electrophoresis", "Polymerase_chain_reaction", "Articles_containing_video_clips" ]

[ "agar gel electrophoresis" ]

[ { "plaintext": "An allele (, ; ; modern formation from Greek ἄλλος állos, \"other\") is a variation of the same sequence of nucleotides at the same place on a long DNA molecule as described in leading textbooks on genetics and evolution.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21505, 2839975, 7955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 116 ], [ 125, 135 ], [ 146, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"The chromosomal or genomic location of a gene or any other genetic element is called a locus (plural: loci) and alternative DNA sequences at a locus are called alleles.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The simplest alleles are single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP). but they can also be insertions and deletions of up to several thousand base pairs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 513091, 4292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 56 ], [ 136, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Popular definitions of 'allele' typically refer only to different alleles within genes. For example, the ABO blood grouping is controlled by the ABO gene, which has six common alleles (variants). In population genetics, nearly every living human's phenotype for the ABO gene is some combination of just these six alleles.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1586721, 15788007, 219268, 24543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 123 ], [ 145, 153 ], [ 199, 218 ], [ 248, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most alleles observed result in little or no change in the function of the gene product it codes for. However, sometimes, different alleles can result in different observable phenotypic traits, such as different pigmentation. A notable example of this is Gregor Mendel's discovery that the white and purple flower colors in pea plants were the result of a single gene with two alleles.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31006, 49598, 12562, 59407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 191 ], [ 212, 224 ], [ 255, 268 ], [ 324, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nearly all multicellular organisms have two sets of chromosomes at some point in their biological life cycle; that is, they are diploid. In this case, the chromosomes can be paired. Each chromosome in the pair contains the same genes in the same order, and place, along the length of the chromosome. For a given gene, if the two chromosomes contain the same allele, they, and the organism, are homozygous with respect to that gene. If the alleles are different, they, and the organism, are heterozygous with respect to that gene.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 299472, 6438, 319610, 23219, 312354, 2839975, 23661260, 23661260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 33 ], [ 52, 62 ], [ 87, 108 ], [ 128, 135 ], [ 174, 180 ], [ 304, 316 ], [ 394, 404 ], [ 490, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word \"allele\" is a short form of allelomorph (\"other form\", a word coined by British geneticists William Bateson and Edith Rebecca Saunders), which was used in the early days of genetics to describe variant forms of a gene detected as different phenotypes. It derives from the Greek prefix ἀλληλο-, allelo-, meaning \"mutual\", \"reciprocal\", or \"each other\", which itself is related to the Greek adjective ἄλλος, allos (cognate with Latin alius), meaning \"other\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 647967, 40190769, 12266, 4250553, 24543, 11887, 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 116 ], [ 121, 143 ], [ 182, 190 ], [ 222, 226 ], [ 249, 259 ], [ 281, 286 ], [ 435, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many cases, genotypic interactions between the two alleles at a locus can be described as dominant or recessive, according to which of the two homozygous phenotypes the heterozygote most resembles. Where the heterozygote is indistinguishable from one of the homozygotes, the allele expressed is the one that leads to the \"dominant\" phenotype, and the other allele is said to be \"recessive\". The degree and pattern of dominance varies among loci. This type of interaction was first formally-described by Gregor Mendel. However, many traits defy this simple categorization and the phenotypes are modeled by co-dominance and polygenic inheritance", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Alleles that lead to dominant or recessive phenotypes", "target_page_ids": [ 68300, 68300, 23661260, 12562, 68300, 623866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 101 ], [ 105, 114 ], [ 172, 184 ], [ 506, 519 ], [ 608, 620 ], [ 625, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"wild type\" allele is sometimes used to describe an allele that is thought to contribute to the typical phenotypic character as seen in \"wild\" populations of organisms, such as fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster). Such a \"wild type\" allele was historically regarded as leading to a dominant (overpowering – always expressed), common, and normal phenotype, in contrast to \"mutant\" alleles that lead to recessive, rare, and frequently deleterious phenotypes. It was formerly thought that most individuals were homozygous for the \"wild type\" allele at most gene loci, and that any alternative \"mutant\" allele was found in homozygous form in a small minority of \"affected\" individuals, often as genetic diseases, and more frequently in heterozygous form in \"carriers\" for the mutant allele. It is now appreciated that most or all gene loci are highly polymorphic, with multiple alleles, whose frequencies vary from population to population, and that a great deal of genetic variation is hidden in the form of alleles that do not produce obvious phenotypic differences.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Alleles that lead to dominant or recessive phenotypes", "target_page_ids": [ 33717, 173204, 8407149, 12437, 16464479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ], [ 199, 222 ], [ 383, 389 ], [ 702, 718 ], [ 765, 773 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A population or species of organisms typically includes multiple alleles at each locus among various individuals. Allelic variation at a locus is measurable as the number of alleles (polymorphism) present, or the proportion of heterozygotes in the population. A null allele is a gene variant that lacks the gene's normal function because it either is not expressed, or the expressed protein is inactive.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Multiple alleles", "target_page_ids": [ 21780446, 32575511, 2000269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 23 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 262, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, at the gene locus for the ABO blood type carbohydrate antigens in humans, classical genetics recognizes three alleles, IA, IB, and i, which determine compatibility of blood transfusions. Any individual has one of six possible genotypes (IAIA, IAi, IBIB, IBi, IAIB, and ii) which produce one of four possible phenotypes: \"Type A\" (produced by IAIA homozygous and IAi heterozygous genotypes), \"Type B\" (produced by IBIB homozygous and IBi heterozygous genotypes), \"Type AB\" produced by IAIB heterozygous genotype, and \"Type O\" produced by ii homozygous genotype. (It is now known that each of the A, B, and O alleles is actually a class of multiple alleles with different DNA sequences that produce proteins with identical properties: more than 70 alleles are known at the ABO locus. Hence an individual with \"Type A\" blood may be an AO heterozygote, an AA homozygote, or an AA heterozygote with two different \"A\" alleles.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Multiple alleles", "target_page_ids": [ 1586721, 55309, 5932, 1915, 88857, 12796, 24543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 42 ], [ 43, 53 ], [ 54, 66 ], [ 67, 74 ], [ 180, 197 ], [ 239, 247 ], [ 321, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The frequency of alleles in a diploid population can be used to predict the frequencies of the corresponding genotypes (see Hardy–Weinberg principle). For a simple model, with two alleles;", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Genotype frequencies", "target_page_ids": [ 230319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where p is the frequency of one allele and q is the frequency of the alternative allele, which necessarily sum to unity. Then, p2 is the fraction of the population homozygous for the first allele, 2pq is the fraction of heterozygotes, and q2 is the fraction homozygous for the alternative allele. If the first allele is dominant to the second then the fraction of the population that will show the dominant phenotype is p2 + 2pq, and the fraction with the recessive phenotype is q2.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Genotype frequencies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With three alleles:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Genotype frequencies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " and", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Genotype frequencies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the case of multiple alleles at a diploid locus, the number of possible genotypes (G) with a number of alleles (a) is given by the expression:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Genotype frequencies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A number of genetic disorders are caused when an individual inherits two recessive alleles for a single-gene trait. Recessive genetic disorders include albinism, cystic fibrosis, galactosemia, phenylketonuria (PKU), and Tay–Sachs disease. Other disorders are also due to recessive alleles, but because the gene locus is located on the X chromosome, so that males have only one copy (that is, they are hemizygous), they are more frequent in males than in females. Examples include red-green color blindness and fragile X syndrome.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Allelic dominance in genetic disorders", "target_page_ids": [ 12437, 45105839, 50601, 515067, 23251, 56481, 23661260, 7397, 53142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 29 ], [ 152, 160 ], [ 162, 177 ], [ 179, 191 ], [ 193, 208 ], [ 220, 237 ], [ 401, 411 ], [ 490, 505 ], [ 510, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other disorders, such as Huntington's disease, occur when an individual inherits only one dominant allele.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Allelic dominance in genetic disorders", "target_page_ids": [ 47878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While heritable traits are typically studied in terms of genetic alleles, epigenetic marks such as DNA methylation can be inherited at specific genomic regions in certain species, a process termed transgenerational epigenetic inheritance. The term epiallele is used to distinguish these heritable marks from traditional alleles, which are defined by nucleotide sequence. A specific class of epiallele, the metastable epialleles, has been discovered in mice and in humans which is characterized by stochastic (probabilistic) establishment of epigenetic state that can be mitotically inherited.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Epialleles", "target_page_ids": [ 13457, 49033, 1137227, 31182307, 331535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 22 ], [ 74, 84 ], [ 99, 114 ], [ 197, 237 ], [ 350, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term “idiomorph”, from Greek ‘morphos’ (form) and ‘idio’ (singular, unique), was introduced in 1990 in place of “allele” to denote sequences at the same locus in different strains that have no sequence similarity and probably do not share a common phylogenetic relationship. It is used mainly in the genetic research of mycology.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Idiomorph", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ALFRED: The ALlele FREquency Database", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Classical_genetics", "Genetic_genealogy" ]

[ "allel", "allelic gene", "alleles" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Ampicillin is an antibiotic used to prevent and treat a number of bacterial infections, such as respiratory tract infections, urinary tract infections, meningitis, salmonellosis, and endocarditis. It may also be used to prevent group B streptococcal infection in newborns. It is used by mouth, by injection into a muscle, or intravenously.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1805, 15464966, 3454087, 32161, 21009963, 1046292, 9659, 3193552, 334821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 27 ], [ 66, 85 ], [ 96, 123 ], [ 126, 150 ], [ 152, 162 ], [ 164, 177 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 228, 259 ], [ 297, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Common side effects include rash, nausea, and diarrhea. It should not be used in people who are allergic to penicillin. Serious side effects may include Clostridium difficile colitis or anaphylaxis. While usable in those with kidney problems, the dose may need to be decreased. Its use during pregnancy and breastfeeding appears to be generally safe.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23312, 466440, 74240, 284027, 1771587, 19347033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 118 ], [ 153, 182 ], [ 186, 197 ], [ 226, 240 ], [ 293, 302 ], [ 307, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin was discovered in 1958 and came into commercial use in 1961. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines. The World Health Organization classifies ampicillin as critically important for human medicine. It is available as a generic medication.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12039054, 293885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 140 ], [ 259, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bacterial meningitis; an aminoglycoside can be added to increase efficacy against gram-negative meningitis bacteria", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 21009963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Endocarditis by enterococcal strains (off-label use); often given with an aminoglycoside", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 9659, 191192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 16, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gastrointestinal infections caused by contaminated water or food (for example, by Salmonella)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 69720, 42114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 82, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Genito-urinary tract infections", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 619602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Healthcare-associated infections that are related to infections from using urinary catheters and that are unresponsive to other medications", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 875883, 291838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ], [ 75, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Otitis media (middle ear infection)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 215199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prophylaxis (i.e. to prevent infection) in those who previously had rheumatic heart disease or are undergoing dental procedures, vaginal hysterectomies, or C-sections. It is also used in pregnant woman who are carriers of group B streptococci to prevent early-onset neonatal infections.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2532889, 352960, 46924, 2842834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 91 ], [ 137, 151 ], [ 156, 166 ], [ 222, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Respiratory infections, including bronchitis, pharyngitis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3454087, 13629466, 223208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 34, 44 ], [ 46, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sinusitis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 28598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sepsis", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 158400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whooping cough, to prevent and treat secondary infections", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 170927, 37220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 37, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin used to also be used to treat gonorrhea, but there are now too many strains resistant to penicillins.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 18006737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin is used to treat infections by many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. It was the first \"broad spectrum\" penicillin with activity against gram-positive bacteria, including Streptococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus pyogenes, some isolates of Staphylococcus aureus (but not penicillin-resistant or methicillin-resistant strains), Trueperella, and some Enterococcus. It is one of the few antibiotics that works against multidrug resistant Enterococcus faecalis and E. faecium. Activity against gram-negative bacteria includes Neisseria meningitidis, some Haemophilus influenzae, and some of the Enterobacteriaceae (though most Enterobacteriaceae and Pseudomonas are resistant). Its spectrum of activity is enhanced by co-administration of sulbactam, a drug that inhibits beta lactamase, an enzyme produced by bacteria to inactivate ampicillin and related antibiotics. It is sometimes used in combination with other antibiotics that have different mechanisms of action, like vancomycin, linezolid, daptomycin, and tigecycline.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 12936, 12937, 503782, 92394, 118212, 192595, 45539830, 191192, 2751044, 11074490, 1966840, 929532, 10253, 339961, 3120531, 4609, 146773, 424464, 1758235, 2410595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 60 ], [ 65, 87 ], [ 190, 214 ], [ 216, 238 ], [ 257, 278 ], [ 312, 341 ], [ 344, 355 ], [ 366, 378 ], [ 452, 473 ], [ 478, 488 ], [ 539, 561 ], [ 568, 590 ], [ 608, 626 ], [ 663, 674 ], [ 752, 761 ], [ 784, 798 ], [ 987, 997 ], [ 999, 1008 ], [ 1010, 1020 ], [ 1026, 1037 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin can be administered by mouth, an intramuscular injection (shot) or by intravenous infusion. The oral form, available as capsules or oral suspensions, is not given as an initial treatment for severe infections, but rather as a follow-up to an IM or IV injection. For IV and IM injections, ampicillin is kept as a powder that must be reconstituted.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 27604245, 334821, 178769, 3053322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 39 ], [ 44, 67 ], [ 81, 101 ], [ 131, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IV injections must be given slowly, as rapid IV injections can lead to convulsive seizures.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 27154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin is one of the most used drugs in pregnancy, and has been found to be generally harmless both by the Food and Drug Administration in the U.S. (which classified it as category B) and the Therapeutic Goods Administration in Australia (which classified it as category A). It is the drug of choice for treating Listeria monocytogenes in pregnant women, either alone or combined with an aminoglycoside. Pregnancy increases the clearance of ampicillin by up to 50%, and a higher dose is thus needed to reach therapeutic levels.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 11632, 588622, 2340490, 588622, 465920, 2402393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 139 ], [ 176, 186 ], [ 196, 228 ], [ 266, 276 ], [ 317, 339 ], [ 432, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin crosses the placenta and remains in the amniotic fluid at 50–100% of the concentration in maternal plasma; this can lead to high concentrations of ampicillin in the newborn.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [ 67166, 977752, 212240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 31 ], [ 51, 65 ], [ 110, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While lactating mothers secrete some ampicillin into their breast milk, the amount is minimal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In newborns, ampicillin has a longer half-life and lower plasma protein binding. The clearance by the kidneys is lower, as kidney function has not fully developed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Medical uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin is contraindicated in those with a hypersensitivity to penicillins, as they can cause fatal anaphylactic reactions. Hypersensitivity reactions can include frequent skin rashes and hives, exfoliative dermatitis, erythema multiforme, and a temporary decrease in both red and white blood cells.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contraindications", "target_page_ids": [ 54077637, 74240, 643023, 904954, 2294802, 944199, 67158, 25164668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 77 ], [ 103, 115 ], [ 180, 184 ], [ 191, 196 ], [ 198, 220 ], [ 222, 241 ], [ 276, 279 ], [ 284, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin is not recommended in people with concurrent mononucleosis, as over 40% of patients develop a skin rash.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Contraindications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin is comparatively less toxic than other antibiotics, and side effects are more likely in those who are sensitive to penicillins and those with a history of asthma or allergies. In very rare cases, it causes severe side effects such as angioedema, anaphylaxis, and C. difficile infection (that can range from mild diarrhea to serious pseudomembranous colitis). Some develop black \"furry\" tongue. Serious adverse effects also include seizures and serum sickness. The most common side effects, experienced by about 10% of users are diarrhea and rash. Less common side effects can be nausea, vomiting, itching, and blood dyscrasias. The gastrointestinal effects, such as hairy tongue, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and colitis, are more common with the oral form of penicillin. Other conditions may develop up several weeks after treatment.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Side effects", "target_page_ids": [ 44905, 55313, 960896, 43695865, 53951, 1072308, 2382764, 27154, 12800772, 18947703, 8507183, 424302, 939703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 172 ], [ 176, 185 ], [ 245, 255 ], [ 274, 286 ], [ 323, 331 ], [ 343, 367 ], [ 383, 403 ], [ 442, 449 ], [ 455, 469 ], [ 590, 596 ], [ 598, 606 ], [ 608, 615 ], [ 627, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin overdose can cause behavioral changes, confusion, blackouts, and convulsions, as well as neuromuscular hypersensitivity, electrolyte imbalance, and kidney failure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Side effects", "target_page_ids": [ 2079352, 904825, 284027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 59 ], [ 132, 153 ], [ 159, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin reacts with probenecid and methotrexate to decrease renal excretion. Large doses of ampicillin can increase the risk of bleeding with concurrent use of warfarin and other oral anticoagulants, possibly by inhibiting platelet aggregation. Ampicillin has been said to make oral contraceptives less effective, but this has been disputed. It can be made less effective by other antibiotic, such as chloramphenicol, erythromycin, cephalosporins, and tetracyclines. For example, tetracyclines inhibit protein synthesis in bacteria, reducing the target against which ampicillin acts. If given at the same time as aminoglycosides, it can bind to it and inactivate it. When administered separately, aminoglycosides and ampicillin can potentiate each other instead.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Interactions", "target_page_ids": [ 3210446, 286517, 2402393, 238097, 8578330, 6346, 10090, 695423, 3917234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 33 ], [ 38, 50 ], [ 63, 78 ], [ 163, 171 ], [ 281, 300 ], [ 404, 419 ], [ 421, 433 ], [ 435, 449 ], [ 455, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin causes skin rashes more often when given with allopurinol.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Interactions", "target_page_ids": [ 254790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both the live cholera vaccine and live typhoid vaccine can be made ineffective if given with ampicillin. Ampicillin is normally used to treat cholera and typhoid fever, lowering the immunological response that the body has to mount.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Interactions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin is in the penicillin group of beta-lactam antibiotics and is part of the aminopenicillin family. It is roughly equivalent to amoxicillin in terms of activity. Ampicillin is able to penetrate gram-positive and some gram-negative bacteria. It differs from penicillin G, or benzylpenicillin, only by the presence of an amino group. This amino group, present on both ampicillin and amoxicillin, helps these antibiotics pass through the pores of the outer membrane of gram-negative bacteria, such as E. coli, Proteus mirabilis, Salmonella enterica, and Shigella.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pharmacology", "target_page_ids": [ 23312, 52784, 20846646, 2885, 17814577, 1412, 1305850, 457601, 92410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 41, 63 ], [ 84, 99 ], [ 136, 147 ], [ 265, 277 ], [ 327, 332 ], [ 515, 532 ], [ 534, 553 ], [ 559, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin acts as an irreversible inhibitor of the enzyme transpeptidase, which is needed by bacteria to make the cell wall. It inhibits the third and final stage of bacterial cell wall synthesis in binary fission, which ultimately leads to cell lysis; therefore, ampicillin is usually bacteriolytic.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pharmacology", "target_page_ids": [ 1103898, 30064130, 397456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 73 ], [ 200, 214 ], [ 247, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin is well-absorbed from the GI tract (though food reduces its absorption), and reaches peak concentrations in one to two hours. The bioavailability is around 62% for parenteral routes. Unlike other penicillins, which usually bind 60–90% to plasma proteins, ampicillin binds to only 15–20%.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pharmacology", "target_page_ids": [ 69720, 769021, 598379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 45 ], [ 141, 156 ], [ 249, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin is distributed through most tissues, though it is concentrated in the liver and kidneys. It can also be found in the cerebrospinal fluid when the meninges become inflamed (such as, for example, meningitis). Some ampicillin is metabolized by hydrolyzing the beta-lactam ring to penicilloic acid, though most of it is excreted unchanged. In the kidneys, it is filtered out mostly by tubular secretion; some also undergoes glomerular filtration, and the rest is excreted in the feces and bile.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pharmacology", "target_page_ids": [ 7632, 42982295, 528999, 490667, 24536042, 86092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 147 ], [ 288, 304 ], [ 392, 409 ], [ 431, 452 ], [ 486, 491 ], [ 496, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hetacillin and pivampicillin are ampicillin esters that have been developed to increase bioavailability.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Pharmacology", "target_page_ids": [ 2527451, 8294354, 9675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 15, 28 ], [ 44, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin has been used extensively to treat bacterial infections since 1961. Until the introduction of ampicillin by the British company Beecham, penicillin therapies had only been effective against gram-positive organisms such as staphylococci and streptococci. Ampicillin (originally branded as \"Penbritin\") also demonstrated activity against gram-negative organisms such as H. influenzae, coliforms, and Proteus spp.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11120809, 23173149, 29318, 1505927, 663974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 146 ], [ 233, 246 ], [ 251, 263 ], [ 394, 402 ], [ 409, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ampicillin is relatively inexpensive. In the United States, it is available as a generic medication.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Cost", "target_page_ids": [ 293885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In veterinary medicine, ampicillin is used in cats, dogs, and farm animals to treat:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Veterinary use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anal gland infections", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Veterinary use", "target_page_ids": [ 1981919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cutaneous infections, such as abscesses, cellulitis, and pustular dermatitis", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Veterinary use", "target_page_ids": [ 1032, 732173, 57713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 42, 52 ], [ 67, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " E. coli and Salmonella infections in cattle, sheep, and goats (oral form). Ampicillin use for this purpose had declined as bacterial resistance has increased. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Veterinary use", "target_page_ids": [ 26051975, 17158563, 19167553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 44 ], [ 46, 51 ], [ 57, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mastitis in sows", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Veterinary use", "target_page_ids": [ 400993, 2391490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 13, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mixed aerobic–anaerobic infections, such as from cat bites", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Veterinary use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Multidrug-resistant Enterococcus faecalis and E. faecium", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Veterinary use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Prophylactic use in poultry against Salmonella and sepsis from E. coli or Staphylococcus aureus", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Veterinary use", "target_page_ids": [ 23197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Respiratory tract infections, including tonsilitis, bovine respiratory disease, shipping fever, bronchopneumonia, and calf and bovine pneumonia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Veterinary use", "target_page_ids": [ 3454087, 903516, 42832306, 42832306, 1642470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 41, 51 ], [ 53, 79 ], [ 81, 95 ], [ 97, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Urinary tract infections in dogs", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Veterinary use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Horses are generally not treated with ampicillin, as they have low bioavailability of beta-lactams.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Veterinary use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The half-life in animals is around that same of that in humans (just over an hour). Oral absorption is less than 50% in cats and dogs, and less than 4% in horses.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Veterinary use", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Amoxycillin (p-hydroxy metabolite of ampicillin)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pivampicillin (special pro-drug of ampicillin)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8294354, 1017427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 23, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Azlocillin and pirbenicillin (urea and amide made from ampicillin)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3549886, 31734, 1422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 30, 34 ], [ 39, 44 ] ] } ]

[ "Enantiopure_drugs", "Penicillins", "Phenyl_compounds", "World_Health_Organization_essential_medicines", "Wikipedia_medicine_articles_ready_to_translate" ]

[ "ABPC", "D-(−)-ampicillin", "(2S,5R,6R)-6-{[(2R)-2-amino-2-phenylacetyl]amino}-3,3-dimethyl-7-oxo-4-thia-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]heptane-2-carboxylic acid", "AMP", "AP", "(2S,5R,6R)-6-{[(2R)-2-amino-2-phenylethanoyl]amino}-3,3-dimethyl-7-oxo-4-thia-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]heptane-2-carboxylic acid", "D-(−)-6-(α-aminophenylacetamido)penicillanic acid", "P-50", "BRL-1341", "AY-6108", "6-[D-(2-amino-2-phenylacetamido)]-3,3-dimethyl-7-oxo-4-thia-1-azabicyclo[3.2.0]heptane-2-carboxylic acid", "anhydrous ampicillin", "aminobenzylpenicillin", "D-(-)-6-(alpha-aminophenylacetamido)penicillanic acid", "D-(-)-ampicillin", "ampicillin acid" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Annealing may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annealing (biology), in genetics", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9299409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Annealing (glass), heating a piece of glass to remove stress", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3424429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Annealing (materials science), a heat treatment that alters the microstructure of a material", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3424459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quantum annealing, a method for solving combinatorial optimisation problems and ground states of glassy systems", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5219389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Simulated annealing, a numerical optimization technique", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 172244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) occurs when microbes evolve mechanisms that protect them from the effects of antimicrobials. All classes of microbes can evolve resistance. Fungi evolve antifungal resistance. Viruses evolve antiviral resistance. Protozoa evolve antiprotozoal resistance, and bacteria evolve antibiotic resistance. Those bacteria that are considered extensively drug resistant (XDR) or totally drug-resistant (TDR) are sometimes called \"superbugs\". Although antimicrobial resistance is a naturally-occurring process, it is often the results of improper usage of the drugs and management of the infections.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20377, 965323, 19178965, 575176, 19167679, 49197, 19179023, 6699055, 9028799, 1805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 50 ], [ 108, 122 ], [ 171, 176 ], [ 184, 194 ], [ 207, 212 ], [ 222, 231 ], [ 244, 252 ], [ 260, 273 ], [ 290, 298 ], [ 306, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antibiotic resistance is a major subset of AMR, that applies specifically to bacteria that become resistant to antibiotics. Resistance in bacteria can arise naturally by genetic mutation, or by one species acquiring resistance from another. Resistance can appear spontaneously because of random mutations. However, extended use of antimicrobials appears to encourage selection for mutations which can render antimicrobials ineffective.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9028799, 1805, 19702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 85 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 170, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clinical conditions due to AMR cause millions of deaths each year. Infections caused by resistant microbes are more difficult to treat, requiring higher doses of antimicrobial drugs, or alternative medications which may prove more toxic. These approaches may also be more expensive. Microbes resistant to multiple antimicrobials are called multidrug resistant (MDR).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 180121, 1474961, 1564401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 208 ], [ 226, 236 ], [ 340, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The prevention of antibiotic misuse, which can lead to antibiotic resistance, includes taking antibiotics only when prescribed. Narrow-spectrum antibiotics are preferred over broad-spectrum antibiotics when possible, as effectively and accurately targeting specific organisms is less likely to cause resistance, as well as side effects. For people who take these medications at home, education about proper use is essential. Health care providers can minimize spread of resistant infections by use of proper sanitation and hygiene, including handwashing and disinfecting between patients, and should encourage the same of the patient, visitors, and family members.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23640750, 1174501, 541592, 184729, 147020, 428502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 35 ], [ 128, 154 ], [ 175, 200 ], [ 508, 518 ], [ 523, 530 ], [ 542, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rising drug resistance is caused mainly by use of antimicrobials in humans and other animals, and spread of resistant strains between the two. Growing resistance has also been linked to releasing inadequately treated effluents from the pharmaceutical industry, especially in countries where bulk drugs are manufactured. Antibiotics increase selective pressure in bacterial populations, causing vulnerable bacteria to die; this increases the percentage of resistant bacteria which continue growing. Even at very low levels of antibiotic, resistant bacteria can have a growth advantage and grow faster than vulnerable bacteria. As resistance to antibiotics becomes more common there is greater need for alternative treatments. Calls for new antibiotic therapies have been issued, but new drug development is becoming rarer.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5745363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 341, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antimicrobial resistance is increasing globally due to increased prescription and dispensing of antibiotic drugs in developing countries. Estimates are that 700,000 to several million deaths result per year and continues to pose a major public health threat worldwide. Each year in the United States, at least 2.8million people become infected with bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics and at least 35,000 people die and US$55 billion in increased health care costs and lost productivity. According to World Health Organization (WHO) estimates, 350 million deaths could be caused by AMR by 2050. By then, the yearly death toll will be 10 million, according to a United Nations report.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 78449, 3434750, 33583, 31769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 136 ], [ 286, 299 ], [ 508, 533 ], [ 668, 682 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are public calls for global collective action to address the threat that include proposals for international treaties on antimicrobial resistance. Worldwide antibiotic resistance is not completely identified, but poorer countries with weaker healthcare systems are more affected. During the COVID-19 pandemic, action against antimicrobial resistance slowed due to scientists focusing more on SARS-CoV-2 research.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30432, 62750956, 62786585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 123 ], [ 297, 314 ], [ 398, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The WHO defines antimicrobial resistance as a microorganism's resistance to an antimicrobial drug that was once able to treat an infection by that microorganism. A person cannot become resistant to antibiotics. Resistance is a property of the microbe, not a person or other organism infected by a microbe. All types of microbes can develop drug resistance. Thus, there are antibiotic, antifungal, antiviral and antiparasitic resistance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [ 205627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antibiotic resistance is a subset of antimicrobial resistance.This more specified resistance is linked to pathogenic bacteria and thus broken down into two further subsets, microbiological and clinical. Resistance linked microbiologically is the most common and occurs from genes, mutated or inherited, that allow the bacteria to resist the mechanism associated with certain antibiotics.Clinical resistance is shown through the failure of many therapeutic techniques where the bacteria that are normally susceptible to a treatment become resistant after surviving the outcome of the treatment. In both cases of acquired resistance, the bacteria can pass the genetic catalyst for resistance through conjugation, transduction, or transformation.This allows the resistance to spread across the same pathogen or even similar bacterial pathogens.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Definition", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "WHO report released April 2014 stated, \"this serious threat is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country. Antibiotic resistance—when bacteria change so antibiotics no longer work in people who need them to treat infections—is now a major threat to public health.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Global deaths attributable to AMR numbered 1.27 million in 2019. That year, AMR may have contributed to 5 million deaths and one in five people who died due to AMR were children under five years old.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, WHO considered antibiotic resistance to be one of the biggest threats to global health, food security and development. Deaths attributable to AMR vary by area:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 216361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control calculated that in 2015 there were 671,689 infections in the EU and European Economic Area caused by antibiotic-resistant bacteria, resulting in 33,110 deaths. Most were acquired in healthcare settings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 3311574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antimicrobial resistance is mainly caused by the overuse of antimicrobials. This leads to microbes either evolving a defense against drugs used to treat them, or certain strains of microbes that have a natural resistance to antimicrobials becoming much more prevalent than the ones that are easily defeated with medication. While antimicrobial resistance does occur naturally over time, the use of antimicrobial agents in a variety of settings both within the healthcare industry and outside of has led to antimicrobial resistance becoming increasingly more prevalent.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Antimicrobial resistance can evolve naturally due to continued exposure to antimicrobials. Natural selection means that organisms that are able to adapt to their environment, survive, and continue to produce offspring. As a result, the types of microorganisms that are able to survive over time with continued attack by certain antimicrobial agents will naturally become more prevalent in the environment, and those without this resistance will become obsolete.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 21147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some contemporary antibiotic resistances have also evolved naturally before the use of antibiotics or human clinical use of respective antimicrobials. For instance, methicillin-resistance evolved in a pathogen of hedgehogs, possibly as a co-evolutionary adaptation of the pathogen to hedgehogs that are infected by a dermatophyte that naturally produces antibiotics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 1181748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 317, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over time, most of the strains of bacteria and infections present will be the type resistant to the antimicrobial agent being used to treat them, making this agent now ineffective to defeat most microbes. With the increased use of antimicrobial agents, there is a speeding up of this natural process.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Self-medication by consumers is defined as \"the taking of medicines on one's own initiative or on another person's suggestion, who is not a certified medical professional\", and it has been identified as one of the primary reasons for the evolution of antimicrobial resistance. In an effort to manage their own illness, patients take the advice of false media sources, friends, and family causing them to take antimicrobials unnecessarily or in excess. Many people resort to this out of necessity, when they have a limited amount of money to see a doctor, or in many developing countries a poorly developed economy and lack of doctors are the cause of self-medication. In these developing countries, governments resort to allowing the sale of antimicrobials as over the counter medications so people could have access to them without having to find or pay to see a medical professional. This increased access makes it extremely easy to obtain antimicrobials without the advice of a physician, and as a result many antimicrobials are taken incorrectly leading to resistant microbial strains. One major example of a place that faces these challenges is India, where in the state of Punjab 73% of the population resorted to treating their minor health issues and chronic illnesses through self-medication.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 578436, 24717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 1179, 1185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The major issue with self-medication is the lack of knowledge of the public on the dangerous effects of antimicrobial resistance, and how they can contribute to it through mistreating or misdiagnosing themselves. In order to determine the public's knowledge and preconceived notions on antibiotic resistance, a major type of antimicrobial resistance, a screening of 3537 articles published in Europe, Asia, and North America was done. Of the 55,225 total people surveyed, 70% had heard of antibiotic resistance previously, but 88% of those people thought it referred to some type of physical change in the body. With so many people around the world with the ability to self-medicate using antibiotics, and a vast majority unaware of what antimicrobial resistance is, it makes the increase of antimicrobial resistance much more likely.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Clinical misuse by healthcare professionals is another cause leading to increased antimicrobial resistance. Studies done by the CDC show that the indication for treatment of antibiotics, choice of the agent used, and the duration of therapy was incorrect in up to 50% of the cases studied. In another study done in an intensive care unit in a major hospital in France, it was shown that 30% to 60% of prescribed antibiotics were unnecessary. These inappropriate uses of antimicrobial agents promote the evolution of antimicrobial resistance by supporting the bacteria in developing genetic alterations that lead to resistance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 6811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a study done by the American Journal of Infection Control aimed to evaluate physicians' attitudes and knowledge on antimicrobial resistance in ambulatory settings, only 63% of those surveyed reported antibiotic resistance as a problem in their local practices, while 23% reported the aggressive prescription of antibiotics as necessary to avoid failing to provide adequate care. This demonstrates how a majority of doctors underestimate the impact that their own prescribing habits have on antimicrobial resistance as a whole. It also confirms that some physicians may be overly cautious and prescribe antibiotics for both medical or legal reasons, even when clinical indications for use for these medications are not always confirmed. This can lead to unnecessary antimicrobial use, a pattern which may have worsened during the COVID-19 pandemic.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 51385451, 63030231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 60 ], [ 832, 840 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Studies have shown that common misconceptions about the effectiveness and necessity of antibiotics to treat common mild illnesses contribute to their overuse.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 321956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Increased antibiotic use during the COVID-19 pandemic may exacerbate this global health challenge. Moreover, pandemic burdens on some healthcare systems may contribute to antibiotic-resistant infections. On the other hand, a study suggests that \"increased hand hygiene, decreased international travel, and decreased elective hospital procedures may reduce AMR pathogen selection and spread in the short term\". Disinfectants such as in various forms of use of alcohol-based hand sanitizers, and antiseptic hand wash may also have the potential to increase antimicrobial resistance. According to a study, \"Extensive disinfectant use leads to mutations that induce antimicrobial resistance\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 48289744, 478185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 97 ], [ 410, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Untreated effluents from pharmaceutical manufacturing industries, hospitals and clinics, and inappropriate disposal of unused or expired medication can expose microbes in the environment to antibiotics and trigger the evolution of resistance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The antimicrobial resistance crisis also extends to the food industry, specifically with food producing animals. Antibiotics are fed to livestock to act as growth supplements, and a preventative measure to decrease the likelihood of infections. This results in the transfer of resistant bacterial strains into the food that humans eat, causing potentially fatal transfer of disease. While this practice does result in better yields and meat products, it is a major issue in terms of preventing antimicrobial resistance. Though the evidence linking antimicrobial usage in livestock to antimicrobial resistance is limited, the World Health Organization Advisory Group on Integrated Surveillance of Antimicrobial Resistance strongly recommended the reduction of use of medically important antimicrobials in livestock. Additionally, the Advisory Group stated that such antimicrobials should be expressly prohibited for both growth promotion and disease prevention.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 18940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 436, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a study published by the National Academy of Sciences mapping antimicrobial consumption in livestock globally, it was predicted that in the 228 countries studied, there would be a total 67% increase in consumption of antibiotics by livestock by 2030. In some countries such as Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa it is predicted that a 99% increase will occur. Several countries have restricted the use of antibiotics in livestock, including Canada, China, Japan, and the US. These restrictions are sometimes associated with a reduction of the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in humans.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 46510, 126688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 56 ], [ 558, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most pesticides protect crops against insects and plants, but in some cases antimicrobial pesticides are used to protect against various microorganisms such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, algae, and protozoa. The overuse of many pesticides in an effort to have a higher yield of crops has resulted in many of these microbes evolving a tolerance against these antimicrobial agents. Currently there are over 4000 antimicrobial pesticides registered with the EPA and sold to market, showing the widespread use of these agents. It is estimated that for every single meal a person consumes, 0.3  g of pesticides is used, as 90% of all pesticide use is used on agriculture. A majority of these products are used to help defend against the spread of infectious diseases, and hopefully protect public health. But out of the large amount of pesticides used, it is also estimated that less than 0.1% of those antimicrobial agents, actually reach their targets. That leaves over 99% of all pesticides used available to contaminate other resources. In soil, air, and water these antimicrobial agents are able to spread, coming in contact with more microorganisms and leading to these microbes evolving mechanisms to tolerate and further resist pesticides.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Causes", "target_page_ids": [ 48340, 58666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 14 ], [ 454, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There have been increasing public calls for global collective action to address the threat, including a proposal for international treaty on antimicrobial resistance. Further detail and attention is still needed in order to recognize and measure trends in resistance on the international level; the idea of a global tracking system has been suggested but implementation has yet to occur. A system of this nature would provide insight to areas of high resistance as well as information necessary for evaluating programs and other changes made to fight or reverse antibiotic resistance.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Antibiotic treatment duration should be based on the infection and other health problems a person may have. For many infections once a person has improved there is little evidence that stopping treatment causes more resistance. Some, therefore, feel that stopping early may be reasonable in some cases. Other infections, however, do require long courses regardless of whether a person feels better.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are multiple national and international monitoring programs for drug-resistant threats, including methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), vancomycin-resistant S. aureus (VRSA), extended spectrum beta-lactamase (ESBL), vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE), and multidrug-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (MRAB).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 192595, 1064656, 4609, 2460933, 9535016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 147 ], [ 156, 186 ], [ 195, 227 ], [ 236, 269 ], [ 281, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ResistanceOpen is an online global map of antimicrobial resistance developed by HealthMap which displays aggregated data on antimicrobial resistance from publicly available and user submitted data. The website can display data for a radius from a location. Users may submit data from antibiograms for individual hospitals or laboratories. European data is from the EARS-Net (European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network), part of the ECDC.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 21000401, 2943640, 3311574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 89 ], [ 285, 296 ], [ 445, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ResistanceMap is a website by the Center for Disease Dynamics, Economics & Policy and provides data on antimicrobial resistance on a global level.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 25894745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antibiotic stewardship programmes appear useful in reducing rates of antibiotic resistance. The antibiotic stewardship program will also provide pharmacists with the knowledge to educate patients that antibiotics will not work for a virus.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 45624709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Excessive antibiotic use has become one of the top contributors to the evolution of antibiotic resistance. Since the beginning of the antibiotic era, antibiotics have been used to treat a wide range of disease. Overuse of antibiotics has become the primary cause of rising levels of antibiotic resistance. The main problem is that doctors are willing to prescribe antibiotics to ill-informed individuals who believe that antibiotics can cure nearly all illnesses, including viral infections like the common cold. In an analysis of drug prescriptions, 36% of individuals with a cold or an upper respiratory infection (both viral in origin) were given prescriptions for antibiotics. These prescriptions accomplished nothing other than increasing the risk of further evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria. Using antibiotics without prescription is another driving force leading to the overuse of antibiotics to self-treat diseases like the common cold, cough, fever, and dysentery resulting in an epidemic of antibiotic resistance in countries like Bangladesh, risking its spread around the globe. Introducing strict antibiotic stewardship in the outpatient setting may reduce the emerging bacterial resistance.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Antimicrobial stewardship teams in hospitals are encouraging optimal use of antimicrobials. The goals of antimicrobial stewardship are to help practitioners pick the right drug at the right dose and duration of therapy while preventing misuse and minimizing the development of resistance. Stewardship may reduce the length of stay by an average of slightly over 1 day while not increasing the risk of death.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 45624709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is established that the use of antibiotics in animal husbandry can give rise to AMR resistances in bacteria found in food animals to the antibiotics being administered (through injections or medicated feeds). For this reason only antimicrobials that are deemed \"not-clinically relevant\" are used in these practices.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 40364158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Recent studies have shown that the prophylactic use of \"non-priority\" or \"non-clinically relevant\" antimicrobials in feeds can potentially, under certain conditions, lead to co-selection of environmental AMR bacteria with resistance to medically important antibiotics. The possibility for co-selection of AMR resistances in the food chain pipeline may have far-reaching implications for human health.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Given the volume of care provided in primary care (General Practice), recent strategies have focused on reducing unnecessary antibiotic prescribing in this setting. Simple interventions, such as written information explaining the futility of antibiotics for common infections such as upper respiratory tract infections, have been shown to reduce antibiotic prescribing.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The prescriber should closely adhere to the five rights of drug administration: the right patient, the right drug, the right dose, the right route, and the right time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cultures should be taken before treatment when indicated and treatment potentially changed based on the susceptibility report.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "About a third of antibiotic prescriptions written in outpatient settings in the United States were not appropriate in 2010 and 2011. Doctors in the U.S. wrote 506 annual antibiotic scripts for every 1,000 people, with 353 being medically necessary.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 437724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Health workers and pharmacists can help tackle resistance by: enhancing infection prevention and control; only prescribing and dispensing antibiotics when they are truly needed; prescribing and dispensing the right antibiotic(s) to treat the illness.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "People can help tackle resistance by using antibiotics only when prescribed by a doctor; completing the full prescription, even if they feel better; never sharing antibiotics with others or using leftover prescriptions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Netherlands has the lowest rate of antibiotic prescribing in the OECD, at a rate of 11.4 defined daily doses (DDD) per 1,000 people per day in 2011.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 21148, 33853117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ], [ 70, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Germany and Sweden also have lower prescribing rates, with Sweden's rate having been declining since 2007.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 11867, 5058739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 13, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Greece, France and Belgium have high prescribing rates of more than 28 DDD.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 12108, 5843419, 3343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 15 ], [ 20, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Infectious disease control through improved water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) infrastructure needs to be included in the antimicrobial resistance (AMR) agenda. The \"Interagency Coordination Group on Antimicrobial Resistance\" stated in 2018 that \"the spread of pathogens through unsafe water results in a high burden of gastrointestinal disease, increasing even further the need for antibiotic treatment.\" This is particularly a problem in developing countries where the spread of infectious diseases caused by inadequate WASH standards is a major driver of antibiotic demand. Growing usage of antibiotics together with persistent infectious disease levels have led to a dangerous cycle in which reliance on antimicrobials increases while the efficacy of drugs diminishes. The proper use of infrastructure for water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) can result in a 47–72 percent decrease of diarrhea cases treated with antibiotics depending on the type of intervention and its effectiveness. A reduction of the diarrhea disease burden through improved infrastructure would result in large decreases in the number of diarrhea cases treated with antibiotics. This was estimated as ranging from 5 million in Brazil to up to 590million in India by the year 2030. The strong link between increased consumption and resistance indicates that this will directly mitigate the accelerating spread of AMR. Sanitation and water for all by 2030 is Goal Number 6 of the Sustainable Development Goals.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 30777141, 78449, 55820463, 38647790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 80 ], [ 442, 462 ], [ 1435, 1448 ], [ 1456, 1485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An increase in hand washing compliance by hospital staff results in decreased rates of resistant organisms.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 428502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in health facilities offer significant co-benefits for combatting AMR, and investment should be increased. There is much room for improvement: WHO and UNICEF estimated in 2015 that globally 38% of health facilities did not have a source of water, nearly 19% had no toilets and 35% had no water and soap or alcohol-based hand rub for handwashing.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Manufacturers of antimicrobials need to improve the treatment of their wastewater (by using industrial wastewater treatment processes) to reduce the release of residues into the environment.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 1558218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1997, European Union health ministers voted to ban avoparcin and four additional antibiotics used to promote animal growth in 1999. In 2006 a ban on the use of antibiotics in European feed, with the exception of two antibiotics in poultry feeds, became effective. In Scandinavia, there is evidence that the ban has led to a lower prevalence of antibiotic resistance in (nonhazardous) animal bacterial populations. As of 2004, several European countries established a decline of antimicrobial resistance in humans through limiting the use of antimicrobials in agriculture and food industries without jeopardizing animal health or economic cost.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 37064534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) collect data on antibiotic use in humans and in a more limited fashion in animals. The FDA first determined in 1977 that there is evidence of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains in livestock. The long-established practice of permitting OTC sales of antibiotics (including penicillin and other drugs) to lay animal owners for administration to their own animals nonetheless continued in all states.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 70896, 11632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 43 ], [ 59, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2000, the FDA announced their intention to revoke approval of fluoroquinolone use in poultry production because of substantial evidence linking it to the emergence of fluoroquinolone-resistant Campylobacter infections in humans. Legal challenges from the food animal and pharmaceutical industries delayed the final decision to do so until 2006. Fluroquinolones have been banned from extra-label use in food animals in the USA since 2007. However, they remain widely used in companion and exotic animals.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 31690663, 63587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 80 ], [ 196, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The increasing interconnectedness of the world and the fact that new classes of antibiotics have not been developed and approved for more than 25 years highlight the extent to which antimicrobial resistance is a global health challenge. A global action plan to tackle the growing problem of resistance to antibiotics and other antimicrobial medicines was endorsed at the Sixty-eighth World Health Assembly in May 2015. One of the key objectives of the plan is to improve awareness and understanding of antimicrobial resistance through effective communication, education and training. This global action plan developed by the World Health Organization was created to combat the issue of antimicrobial resistance and was guided by the advice of countries and key stakeholders. The WHO's global action plan is composed of five key objectives that can be targeted through different means, and represents countries coming together to solve a major problem that can have future health consequences. These objectives are as follows:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 1831570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 384, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " improve awareness and understanding of antimicrobial resistance through effective communication, education and training.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " strengthen the knowledge and evidence base through surveillance and research.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " reduce the incidence of infection through effective sanitation, hygiene and infection prevention measures.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " optimize the use of antimicrobial medicines in human and animal health.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " develop the economic case for sustainable investment that takes account of the needs of all countries and to increase investment in new medicines, diagnostic tools, vaccines and other interventions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Steps towards progress", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " React based in Sweden has produced informative material on AMR for the general public.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Videos are being produced for the general public to generate interest and awareness.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Irish Department of Health published a National Action Plan on Antimicrobial Resistance in October 2017. The Strategy for the Control of Antimicrobial Resistance in Ireland (SARI), Iaunched in 2001 developed Guidelines for Antimicrobial Stewardship in Hospitals in Ireland in conjunction with the Health Protection Surveillance Centre, these were published in 2009. Following their publication a public information campaign 'Action on Antibiotics' was launched to highlight the need for a change in antibiotic prescribing. Despite this, antibiotic prescribing remains high with variance in adherence to guidelines.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The World Health Organization has promoted the first World Antibiotic Awareness Week running from 16 to 22 November 2015. The aim of the week is to increase global awareness of antibiotic resistance. It also wants to promote the correct usage of antibiotics across all fields in order to prevent further instances of antibiotic resistance.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "World Antibiotic Awareness Week has been held every November since 2015. For 2017, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), the World Health Organization (WHO) and the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) are together calling for responsible use of antibiotics in humans and animals to reduce the emergence of antibiotic resistance.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 22789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "United Nations", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016 the Secretary-General of the United Nations convened the Interagency Coordination Group (IACG) on Antimicrobial Resistance. The IACG worked with international organizations and experts in human, animal, and plant health to create a plan to fight antimicrobial resistance. Their report released in April 2019 highlights the seriousness of antimicrobial resistance and the threat it poses to world health. It suggests five recommendations for member states to follow in order to tackle this increasing threat. The IACG recommendations are as follows:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [ 31769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Accelerate progress in countries", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Innovate to secure the future", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collaborate for more effective action", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Invest for a sustainable response", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Strengthen accountability and global governance", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Prevention", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The five main mechanisms by which bacteria exhibit resistance to antibiotics are:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Drug inactivation or modification: for example, enzymatic deactivation of penicillin G in some penicillin-resistant bacteria through the production of β-lactamases. Drugs may also be chemically modified through the addition of functional groups by transferase enzymes; for example, acetylation, phosphorylation, or adenylation are common resistance mechanisms to aminoglycosides. Acetylation is the most widely used mechanism and can affect a number of drug classes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 23312, 4609, 10911, 548012, 858843, 58894, 12780114, 617210, 48471223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 87 ], [ 152, 164 ], [ 228, 244 ], [ 249, 260 ], [ 283, 294 ], [ 296, 311 ], [ 316, 327 ], [ 364, 378 ], [ 454, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alteration of target- or binding site: for example, alteration of PBP—the binding target site of penicillins—in MRSA and other penicillin-resistant bacteria. Another protective mechanism found among bacterial species is ribosomal protection proteins. These proteins protect the bacterial cell from antibiotics that target the cell's ribosomes to inhibit protein synthesis. The mechanism involves the binding of the ribosomal protection proteins to the ribosomes of the bacterial cell, which in turn changes its conformational shape. This allows the ribosomes to continue synthesizing proteins essential to the cell while preventing antibiotics from binding to the ribosome to inhibit protein synthesis.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 4152874, 192595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 70 ], [ 113, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alteration of metabolic pathway: for example, some sulfonamide-resistant bacteria do not require para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA), an important precursor for the synthesis of folic acid and nucleic acids in bacteria inhibited by sulfonamides, instead, like mammalian cells, they turn to using preformed folic acid.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 499685, 300150, 54117, 21496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 63 ], [ 98, 120 ], [ 173, 183 ], [ 188, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reduced drug accumulation: by decreasing drug permeability or increasing active efflux (pumping out) of the drugs across the cell surface These pumps within the cellular membrane of certain bacterial species are used to pump antibiotics out of the cell before they are able to do any damage. They are often activated by a specific substrate associated with an antibiotic, as in fluoroquinolone resistance.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 213887, 5657994, 31690663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 81, 87 ], [ 379, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ribosome splitting and recycling: for example, drug-mediated stalling of the ribosome by lincomycin and erythromycin unstalled by a heat shock protein found in Listeria monocytogenes, which is a homologue of HflX from other bacteria. Liberation of the ribosome from the drug allows further translation and consequent resistance to the drug.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 3924163, 10090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 100 ], [ 105, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several different types of germs that have developed a resistance over time.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The six pathogens causing most deaths associated with resistance are Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Streptococcus pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. They were responsible for 929,000 deaths attributable to resistance and 3.57 million deaths associated with resistance in 2019.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Penicillinase-producing Neisseria gonorrhoeae developed a resistance to penicillin in 1976. Another example is Azithromycin-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which developed a resistance to azithromycin in 2011.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In gram-negative bacteria, plasmid-mediated resistance genes produce proteins that can bind to DNA gyrase, protecting it from the action of quinolones. Finally, mutations at key sites in DNA gyrase or topoisomerase IV can decrease their binding affinity to quinolones, decreasing the drug's effectiveness.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 988524, 2120845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 105 ], [ 201, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some bacteria are naturally resistant to certain antibiotics; for example, gram-negative bacteria are resistant to most β-lactam antibiotics due to the presence of β-lactamase. Antibiotic resistance can also be acquired as a result of either genetic mutation or horizontal gene transfer. Although mutations are rare, with spontaneous mutations in the pathogen genome occurring at a rate of about 1 in 105 to 1 in 108 per chromosomal replication, the fact that bacteria reproduce at a high rate allows for the effect to be significant. Given that lifespans and production of new generations can be on a timescale of mere hours, a new (de novo) mutation in a parent cell can quickly become an inherited mutation of widespread prevalence, resulting in the microevolution of a fully resistant colony. However, chromosomal mutations also confer a cost of fitness. For example, a ribosomal mutation may protect a bacterial cell by changing the binding site of an antibiotic but may result in slower growth rate. Moreover, some adaptive mutations can propagate not only through inheritance but also through horizontal gene transfer. The most common mechanism of horizontal gene transfer is the transferring of plasmids carrying antibiotic resistance genes between bacteria of the same or different species via conjugation. However, bacteria can also acquire resistance through transformation, as in Streptococcus pneumoniae uptaking of naked fragments of extracellular DNA that contain antibiotic resistance genes to streptomycin, through transduction, as in the bacteriophage-mediated transfer of tetracycline resistance genes between strains of S. pyogenes, or through gene transfer agents, which are particles produced by the host cell that resemble bacteriophage structures and are capable of transferring DNA.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 52784, 4609, 205624, 35038133, 12388, 13457, 19544, 205624, 28352410, 4460, 583438, 714053, 29027916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 139 ], [ 164, 175 ], [ 262, 286 ], [ 351, 359 ], [ 360, 366 ], [ 691, 700 ], [ 753, 767 ], [ 1100, 1124 ], [ 1203, 1211 ], [ 1303, 1314 ], [ 1370, 1384 ], [ 1532, 1544 ], [ 1664, 1683 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antibiotic resistance can be introduced artificially into a microorganism through laboratory protocols, sometimes used as a selectable marker to examine the mechanisms of gene transfer or to identify individuals that absorbed a piece of DNA that included the resistance gene and another gene of interest.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 3172558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Recent findings show no necessity of large populations of bacteria for the appearance of antibiotic resistance. Small populations of Escherichia coli in an antibiotic gradient can become resistant. Any heterogeneous environment with respect to nutrient and antibiotic gradients may facilitate antibiotic resistance in small bacterial populations. Researchers hypothesize that the mechanism of resistance evolution is based on four SNP mutations in the genome of E. coli produced by the gradient of antibiotic.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 40114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In one study, which has implications for space microbiology, a non-pathogenic strain E. coli MG1655 was exposed to trace levels of the broad spectrum antibiotic chloramphenicol, under simulated microgravity (LSMMG, or, Low Shear Modeled Microgravity) over 1000 generations. The adapted strain acquired resistance to not only chloramphenicol, but also cross-resistance to other antibiotics; this was in contrast to the observation on the same strain, which was adapted to over 1000 generations under LSMMG, but without any antibiotic exposure; the strain in this case did not acquire any such resistance. Thus, irrespective of where they are used, the use of an antibiotic would likely result in persistent resistance to that antibiotic, as well as cross-resistance to other antimicrobials.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 6346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In recent years, the emergence and spread of β-lactamases called carbapenemases has become a major health crisis. One such carbapenemase is New Delhi metallo-beta-lactamase 1 (NDM-1), an enzyme that makes bacteria resistant to a broad range of beta-lactam antibiotics. The most common bacteria that make this enzyme are gram-negative such as E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae, but the gene for NDM-1 can spread from one strain of bacteria to another by horizontal gene transfer.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 4609, 4609, 28331039, 9257, 9028799, 1914, 52784, 12937, 544934, 205624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 57 ], [ 65, 78 ], [ 140, 174 ], [ 187, 193 ], [ 205, 213 ], [ 214, 223 ], [ 244, 266 ], [ 320, 333 ], [ 354, 375 ], [ 453, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Specific antiviral drugs are used to treat some viral infections. These drugs prevent viruses from reproducing by inhibiting essential stages of the virus's replication cycle in infected cells. Antivirals are used to treat HIV, hepatitis B, hepatitis C, influenza, herpes viruses including varicella zoster virus, cytomegalovirus and Epstein-Barr virus. With each virus, some strains have become resistant to the administered drugs.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 49197, 14170, 15925628, 71491, 19572217, 4235754, 300539, 71635, 214550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 23 ], [ 223, 226 ], [ 228, 239 ], [ 241, 252 ], [ 254, 263 ], [ 265, 279 ], [ 290, 312 ], [ 314, 329 ], [ 334, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antiviral drugs typically target key components of viral reproduction; for example, oseltamivir targets influenza neuraminidase, while guanosine analogs inhibit viral DNA polymerase. Resistance to antivirals is thus acquired through mutations in the genes that encode the protein targets of the drugs.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 957081, 1506941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 95 ], [ 114, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Resistance to HIV antivirals is problematic, and even multi-drug resistant strains have evolved. One source of resistance is that many current HIV drugs, including NRTIs and NNRTIs, target reverse transcriptase; however, HIV-1 reverse transcriptase is highly error prone and thus mutations conferring resistance arise rapidly. Resistant strains of the HIV virus emerge rapidly if only one antiviral drug is used. Using three or more drugs together, termed combination therapy, has helped to control this problem, but new drugs are needed because of the continuing emergence of drug-resistant HIV strains.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 26214, 1531615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 210 ], [ 456, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Infections by fungi are a cause of high morbidity and mortality in immunocompromised persons, such as those with HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis or receiving chemotherapy. The fungi candida, Cryptococcus neoformans and Aspergillus fumigatus cause most of these infections and antifungal resistance occurs in all of them. Multidrug resistance in fungi is increasing because of the widespread use of antifungal drugs to treat infections in immunocompromised individuals.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 629684, 7172, 758403, 562589, 1391326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 84 ], [ 149, 161 ], [ 173, 180 ], [ 182, 205 ], [ 210, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of particular note, Fluconazole-resistant Candida species have been highlighted as a growing problem by the CDC. More than 20 species of Candida can cause Candidiasis infection, the most common of which is Candida albicans. Candida yeasts normally inhabit the skin and mucous membranes without causing infection. However, overgrowth of Candida can lead to Candidiasis. Some Candida strains are becoming resistant to first-line and second-line antifungal agents such as azoles and echinocandins.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 816867, 7038, 411673, 575176, 1855019, 9471292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 31 ], [ 155, 166 ], [ 206, 222 ], [ 443, 460 ], [ 469, 475 ], [ 480, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The protozoan parasites that cause the diseases malaria, trypanosomiasis, toxoplasmosis, cryptosporidiosis and leishmaniasis are important human pathogens.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 19179023, 20423, 644499, 73592, 309960, 198491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 48, 55 ], [ 57, 72 ], [ 74, 87 ], [ 89, 106 ], [ 111, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Malarial parasites that are resistant to the drugs that are currently available to infections are common and this has led to increased efforts to develop new drugs. Resistance to recently developed drugs such as artemisinin has also been reported. The problem of drug resistance in malaria has driven efforts to develop vaccines.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 727067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Trypanosomes are parasitic protozoa that cause African trypanosomiasis and Chagas disease (American trypanosomiasis). There are no vaccines to prevent these infections so drugs such as pentamidine and suramin, benznidazole and nifurtimox are used to treat infections. These drugs are effective but infections caused by resistant parasites have been reported.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 935178, 141029, 7012, 162874, 732808, 8146892, 8903697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 47, 70 ], [ 75, 89 ], [ 185, 196 ], [ 201, 208 ], [ 210, 222 ], [ 227, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leishmaniasis is caused by protozoa and is an important public health problem worldwide, especially in sub-tropical and tropical countries. Drug resistance has \"become a major concern\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mechanisms and organisms", "target_page_ids": [ 198491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1950s to 1970s represented the golden age of antibiotic discovery, where countless new classes of antibiotics were discovered to treat previously incurable diseases such as tuberculosis and syphilis. However, since that time the discovery of new classes of antibiotics has been almost nonexistent, and represents a situation that is especially problematic considering the resiliency of bacteria shown over time and the continued misuse and overuse of antibiotics in treatment.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The phenomenon of antimicrobial resistance caused by overuse of antibiotics was predicted as early as 1945 by Alexander Fleming who said \"The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily under-dose himself and by exposing his microbes to nonlethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.\" Without the creation of new and stronger antibiotics an era where common infections and minor injuries can kill, and where complex procedures such as surgery and chemotherapy become too risky, is a very real possibility. Antimicrobial resistance threatens the world as we know it, and can lead to epidemics of enormous proportions if preventive actions are not taken. In this day and age current antimicrobial resistance leads to longer hospital stays, higher medical costs, and increased mortality.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the mid-1980s pharmaceutical companies have invested in medications for cancer or chronic disease that have greater potential to make money and have \"de-emphasized or dropped development of antibiotics\". On 20 January 2016 at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, more than \"80 pharmaceutical and diagnostic companies\" from around the world called for \"transformational commercial models\" at a global level to spur research and development on antibiotics and on the \"enhanced use of diagnostic tests that can rapidly identify the infecting organism\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 172185, 99184, 26748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 236, 256 ], [ 260, 265 ], [ 267, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some global health scholars have argued that a global, legal framework is needed to prevent and control antimicrobial resistance. For instance, binding global policies could be used to create antimicrobial use standards, regulate antibiotic marketing, and strengthen global surveillance systems. Ensuring compliance of involved parties is a challenge. Global antimicrobial resistance policies could take lessons from the environmental sector by adopting strategies that have made international environmental agreements successful in the past such as: sanctions for non-compliance, assistance for implementation, majority vote decision-making rules, an independent scientific panel, and specific commitments.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For the United States 2016 budget, U.S. president Barack Obama proposed to nearly double the amount of federal funding to \"combat and prevent\" antibiotic resistance to more than $1.2billion. Many international funding agencies like USAID, DFID, SIDA and Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation have pledged money for developing strategies to counter antimicrobial resistance.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 47616341, 24113, 534366, 1169039, 146192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 33 ], [ 35, 49 ], [ 50, 62 ], [ 245, 249 ], [ 254, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 27 March 2015, the White House released a comprehensive plan to address the increasing need for agencies to combat the rise of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. The Task Force for Combating Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria developed The National Action Plan for Combating Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria with the intent of providing a roadmap to guide the US in the antibiotic resistance challenge and with hopes of saving many lives. This plan outlines steps taken by the Federal government over the next five years needed in order to prevent and contain outbreaks of antibiotic-resistant infections; maintain the efficacy of antibiotics already on the market; and to help to develop future diagnostics, antibiotics, and vaccines.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 33057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Action Plan was developed around five goals with focuses on strengthening health care, public health veterinary medicine, agriculture, food safety and research, and manufacturing. These goals, as listed by the White House, are as follows:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Slow the Emergence of Resistant Bacteria and Prevent the Spread of Resistant Infections", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Strengthen National One-Health Surveillance Efforts to Combat Resistance", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Advance Development and use of Rapid and Innovative Diagnostic Tests for Identification and Characterization of Resistant Bacteria", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Accelerate Basic and Applied Research and Development for New Antibiotics, Other Therapeutics, and Vaccines", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Improve International Collaboration and Capacities for Antibiotic Resistance Prevention, Surveillance, Control and Antibiotic Research and Development", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following are goals set to meet by 2020:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Establishment of antimicrobial programs within acute care hospital settings", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Reduction of inappropriate antibiotic prescription and use by at least 50% in outpatient settings and 20% inpatient settings", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Establishment of State Antibiotic Resistance (AR) Prevention Programs in all 50 states", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Elimination of the use of medically important antibiotics for growth promotion in food-producing animals.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Public Health England reported that the total number of antibiotic resistant infections in England rose by 9% from 55,812 in 2017 to 60,788 in 2018, but antibiotic consumption had fallen by 9% from 20.0 to 18.2 defined daily doses per 1,000 inhabitants per day between 2014 and 2018.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 35234838 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to World Health Organization, policymakers can help tackle resistance by strengthening resistance-tracking and laboratory capacity and by regulating and promoting the appropriate use of medicines. Policymakers and industry can help tackle resistance by: fostering innovation and research and development of new tools; and promoting cooperation and information sharing among all stakeholders.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Society and culture", "target_page_ids": [ 33583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Clinical investigation to rule out bacterial infections are often done for patients with pediatric acute respiratory infections. Currently it is unclear if rapid viral testing affects antibiotic use in children.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Microorganisms usually do not develop resistance to vaccines because vaccines reduce the spread of the infection and target the pathogen in multiple ways in the same host and possibly in different ways between different hosts. Furthermore, if the use of vaccines increases, there is evidence that antibiotic resistant strains of pathogens will decrease; the need for antibiotics will naturally decrease as vaccines prevent infection before it occurs. However, there are well documented cases of vaccine resistance, although these are usually much less of a problem than antimicrobial resistance.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [ 68449046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While theoretically promising, antistaphylococcal vaccines have shown limited efficacy, because of immunological variation between Staphylococcus species, and the limited duration of effectiveness of the antibodies produced. Development and testing of more effective vaccines is underway.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Two registrational trials have evaluated vaccine candidates in active immunization strategies against S. aureus infection. In a phase II trial, a bivalent vaccine of capsular proteins 5 & 8 was tested in 1804 hemodialysis patients with a primary fistula or synthetic graft vascular access. After 40 weeks following vaccination a protective effect was seen against S. aureus bacteremia, but not at 54 weeks following vaccination. Based on these results, a second trial was conducted which failed to show efficacy.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Merck tested V710, a vaccine targeting IsdB, in a blinded randomized trial in patients undergoing median sternotomy. The trial was terminated after a higher rate of multiorgan system failure–related deaths was found in the V710 recipients. Vaccine recipients who developed S. aureus infection were 5 times more likely to die than control recipients who developed S. aureus infection.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Numerous investigators have suggested that a multiple-antigen vaccine would be more effective, but a lack of biomarkers defining human protective immunity keep these proposals in the logical, but strictly hypothetical arena.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alternating therapy is a proposed method in which two or three antibiotics are taken in a rotation versus taking just one antibiotic such that bacteria resistant to one antibiotic are killed when the next antibiotic is taken. Studies have found that this method reduces the rate at which antibiotic resistant bacteria emerge in vitro relative to a single drug for the entire duration.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Studies have found that bacteria that evolve antibiotic resistance towards one group of antibiotic may become more sensitive to others. This phenomenon can be used to select against resistant bacteria using an approach termed collateral sensitivity cycling, which has recently been found to be relevant in developing treatment strategies for chronic infections caused by Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Despite its promise, large-scale clinical and experimental studies revealed limited evidence of susceptibility to antibiotic cycling across various pathogens.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the discovery of antibiotics, research and development (R&D) efforts have provided new drugs in time to treat bacteria that became resistant to older antibiotics, but in the 2000s there has been concern that development has slowed enough that seriously ill people may run out of treatment options. Another concern is that practitioners may become reluctant to perform routine surgeries because of the increased risk of harmful infection. Backup treatments can have serious side-effects; for example, antibiotics like aminoglycosides (such as amikacin, gentamicin, kanamycin, streptomycin, etc.) used for the treatment of drug-resistant tuberculosis and cystic fibrosis can cause respiratory disorders, deafness and kidney failure. The potential crisis at hand is the result of a marked decrease in industry research and development. Poor financial investment in antibiotic research has exacerbated the situation. The pharmaceutical industry has little incentive to invest in antibiotics because of the high risk and because the potential financial returns are less likely to cover the cost of development than for other pharmaceuticals. In 2011, Pfizer, one of the last major pharmaceutical companies developing new antibiotics, shut down its primary research effort, citing poor shareholder returns relative to drugs for chronic illnesses. However, small and medium-sized pharmaceutical companies are still active in antibiotic drug research. In particular, apart from classical synthetic chemistry methodologies, researchers have developed a combinatorial synthetic biology platform on single cell level in a high-throughput screening manner to diversify novel lanthipeptides.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [ 254769, 617210, 3055564, 254717, 2342749, 209023, 11321017, 3218783, 62304, 882729, 476251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 60 ], [ 523, 537 ], [ 548, 556 ], [ 558, 568 ], [ 570, 579 ], [ 581, 593 ], [ 627, 654 ], [ 1099, 1110 ], [ 1152, 1158 ], [ 1617, 1642 ], [ 1669, 1683 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, drug companies and the administration of President Barack Obama had been proposing changing the standards by which the FDA approves antibiotics targeted at resistant organisms.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [ 534366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 18 September 2014 Obama signed an executive order to implement the recommendations proposed in a report by the President's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST) which outlines strategies to stream-line clinical trials and speed up the R&D of new antibiotics. Among the proposals:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [ 5707537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Create a 'robust, standing national clinical trials network for antibiotic testing' which will promptly enroll patients once identified to have dangerous bacterial infections. The network will allow testing multiple new agents from different companies simultaneously for their safety and efficacy.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Establish a 'Special Medical Use (SMU)' pathway for FDA to approve new antimicrobial agents for use in limited patient populations, shorten the approval timeline for new drug so patients with severe infections could benefit as quickly as possible.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Provide economic incentives, especially for development of new classes of antibiotics, to offset the steep R&D costs which drive away the industry to develop antibiotics.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Scientists have started using advanced computational approaches with supercomputers for the development of new antibiotic derivatives to deal with antimicrobial resistance.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Using antibiotic-free alternatives in bone infection treatment may help decrease the use of antibiotics and thus antimicrobial resistance. The bone regeneration material bioactive glass S53P4 has shown to effectively inhibit the bacterial growth of up to 50 clinically relevant bacteria including MRSA and MRSE.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nanomaterials", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the last decades, copper and silver nanomaterials have demonstrated appealing features for the development of a new family of antimicrobial agents.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [ 49423118, 23891367, 868108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 31 ], [ 36, 42 ], [ 43, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similar to the situation in malaria therapy, where successful treatments based on ancient recipes have been found, there has already been some success in finding and testing ancient drugs and other treatments that are effective against AMR bacteria.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Distinguishing infections requiring antibiotics from self-limiting ones is clinically challenging. In order to guide appropriate use of antibiotics and prevent the evolution and spread of antimicrobial resistance, diagnostic tests that provide clinicians with timely, actionable results are needed.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Acute febrile illness is a common reason for seeking medical care worldwide and a major cause of morbidity and mortality. In areas with decreasing malaria incidence, many febrile patients are inappropriately treated for malaria, and in the absence of a simple diagnostic test to identify alternative causes of fever, clinicians presume that a non-malarial febrile illness is most likely a bacterial infection, leading to inappropriate use of antibiotics. Multiple studies have shown that the use of malaria rapid diagnostic tests without reliable tools to distinguish other fever causes has resulted in increased antibiotic use.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) can help practitioners avoid prescribing unnecessary antibiotics in the style of precision medicine, and help them prescribe effective antibiotics, but with the traditional approach it could take 12 to 48 hours. Rapid testing, possible from molecular diagnostics innovations, is defined as \"being feasible within an 8-h working shift\". Progress has been slow due to a range of reasons including cost and regulation.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [ 2943640, 40482196, 40439442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ], [ 124, 142 ], [ 284, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Optical techniques such as phase contrast microscopy in combination with single-cell analysis are another powerful method to monitor bacterial growth. In 2017, scientists from Sweden published a method that applies principles of microfluidics and cell tracking, to monitor bacterial response to antibiotics in less than 30 minutes overall manipulation time. Recently, this platform has been advanced by coupling microfluidic chip with optical tweezing in order to isolate bacteria with altered phenotype directly from the analytical matrix.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [ 18906, 299901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 242 ], [ 435, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phage therapy is the therapeutic use of bacteriophages to treat pathogenic bacterial infections. Phage therapy has many potential applications in human medicine as well as dentistry, veterinary science, and agriculture.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [ 682382, 13311819, 4185, 35038133, 15464966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 21, 32 ], [ 40, 53 ], [ 64, 74 ], [ 75, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phage therapy relies on the use of naturally-occurring bacteriophages to infect and lyse bacteria at the site of infection in a host. Due to current advances in genetics and biotechnology these bacteriophages can possibly be manufactured to treat specific infections. Phages can be bioengineered to target multidrug-resistant bacterial infections, and their use involves the added benefit of preventing the elimination of beneficial bacteria in the human body. Phages destroy bacterial cell walls and membrane through the use of lytic proteins which kill bacteria by making many holes from the inside out. Bacteriophages can even possess the ability to digest the biofilm that many bacteria develop that protect them from antibiotics in order to effectively infect and kill bacteria. Bioengineering can play a role in creating successful bacteriophages.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Understanding the mutual interactions and evolutions of bacterial and phage populations in the environment of a human or animal body is essential for rational phage therapy.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bacteriophagics are used against antibiotic resistant bacteria in Georgia (George Eliava Institute) and in one institute in Wrocław, Poland. Bacteriophage cocktails are common drugs sold over the counter in pharmacies in eastern countries. In Belgium, four patients with severe musculoskeletal infections received bacteriophage therapy with concomitant antibiotics. After a single course of phage therapy, no recurrence of infection occurred and no severe side-effects related to the therapy were detected.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further research", "target_page_ids": [ 4185, 48768, 3561236, 33603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 66, 73 ], [ 75, 98 ], [ 124, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 16-minute film about a post-antibiotic world. Review: ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Animation of Antibiotic Resistance", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " CDC Guideline \"Management of Multidrug-Resistant Organisms in Healthcare Settings, 2006\"", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Antimicrobial Stewardship Project, at the Center for Infectious Disease Research and Policy (CIDRAP), University of Minnesota", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 22850913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AMR Industry Alliance, \"members from large R&D pharma, generic manufacturers, biotech, and diagnostic companies\"", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Why won't antibiotics cure us anymore? - prof. dr. Nathaniel Martin (Universiteit Leiden)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Antimicrobial_resistance", "Evolutionary_biology", "Health_disasters", "Pharmaceuticals_policy", "Veterinary_medicine", "Global_issues" ]

[ "Antimicrobial resistance", "Drug Resistance, Microbial", "microbial drug resistance", "AMR" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In immunology, an antigen (Ag) is a molecule or molecular structure or any foreign particulate matter or a pollen grain that can bind to a specific antibody or T-cell receptor. The presence of antigens in the body may trigger an immune response. The term antigen originally referred to a substance that is an antibody generator. Antigens can be proteins, peptides (amino acid chains), polysaccharides (chains of monosaccharides/simple sugars), lipids, or nucleic acids.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14959, 19555, 93545, 2362, 2060539, 147561, 23634, 24029, 23978, 17940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ], [ 36, 44 ], [ 58, 67 ], [ 148, 156 ], [ 160, 175 ], [ 229, 244 ], [ 345, 352 ], [ 355, 362 ], [ 385, 399 ], [ 444, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigens are recognized by antigen receptors, including antibodies and T-cell receptors. Diverse antigen receptors are made by cells of the immune system so that each cell has a specificity for a single antigen. Upon exposure to an antigen, only the lymphocytes that recognize that antigen are activated and expanded, a process known as clonal selection. In most cases, an antibody can only react to and bind one specific antigen; in some instances, however, antibodies may cross-react and bind more than one antigen.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2851103, 4517354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 353 ], [ 474, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The antigen may originate from within the body (\"self-protein\") or from the external environment (\"non-self\"). The immune system identifies and attacks \"non-self\" external antigens and usually does not react to self-protein due to negative selection of T cells in the thymus and B cells in the bone marrow.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9228002, 9228002, 2911349, 170417, 56265, 211941, 196130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 61 ], [ 211, 223 ], [ 231, 249 ], [ 253, 259 ], [ 268, 274 ], [ 279, 285 ], [ 294, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vaccines are examples of antigens in an immunogenic form, which are intentionally administered to a recipient to induce the memory function of the adaptive immune system towards antigens of the pathogen invading that recipient. The vaccine for seasonal influenza is a common example.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32653, 1664060, 2859941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 147, 169 ], [ 244, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paul Ehrlich coined the term antibody (in German Antikörper) in his side-chain theory at the end of the 19th century. In 1899, Ladislas Deutsch (László Detre) named the hypothetical substances halfway between bacterial constituents and antibodies \"substances immunogènes ou antigènes\" (antigenic or immunogenic substances). He originally believed those substances to be precursors of antibodies, just as zymogen is a precursor of an enzyme. But, by 1903, he understood that an antigen induces the production of immune bodies (antibodies) and wrote that the word antigen is a contraction of antisomatogen (Immunkörperbildner). The Oxford English Dictionary indicates that the logical construction should be \"anti(body)-gen\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 23010, 2362, 1196090, 29097784, 484567, 22641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 29, 37 ], [ 68, 85 ], [ 127, 158 ], [ 404, 411 ], [ 631, 656 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Epitope – the distinct surface features of an antigen, its antigenic determinant.Antigenic molecules, normally \"large\" biological polymers, usually present surface features that can act as points of interaction for specific antibodies. Any such feature constitutes an epitope. Most antigens have the potential to be bound by multiple antibodies, each of which is specific to one of the antigen's epitopes. Using the \"lock and key\" metaphor, the antigen can be seen as a string of keys (epitopes) each of which matches a different lock (antibody). Different antibody idiotypes, each have distinctly formed complementarity-determining regions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 495045, 4295385, 8447410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 567, 576 ], [ 606, 640 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allergen – A substance capable of causing an allergic reaction. The (detrimental) reaction may result after exposure via ingestion, inhalation, injection, or contact with skin.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 58859, 55313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 46, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Superantigen – A class of antigens that cause non-specific activation of T-cells, resulting in polyclonal T-cell activation and massive cytokine release.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 1067550, 153663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 137, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tolerogen – A substance that invokes a specific immune non-responsiveness due to its molecular form. If its molecular form is changed, a tolerogen can become an immunogen.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 1915, 996278, 1664704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 86, 100 ], [ 162, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Immunoglobulin-binding protein – Proteins such as protein A, protein G, and protein L that are capable of binding to antibodies at positions outside of the antigen-binding site. While antigens are the \"target\" of antibodies, immunoglobulin-binding proteins \"attack\" antibodies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 2362, 5560666, 10536920, 10919113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 51, 60 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 77, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " T-dependent antigen – Antigens that require the assistance of T cells to induce the formation of specific antibodies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " T-independent antigen – Antigens that stimulate B cells directly.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Immunodominant antigens – Antigens that dominate (over all others from a pathogen) in their ability to produce an immune response. T cell responses typically are directed against a relatively few immunodominant epitopes, although in some cases (e.g., infection with the malaria pathogen Plasmodium spp.) it is dispersed over a relatively large number of parasite antigens.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 35038133, 20423, 287207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 82 ], [ 271, 278 ], [ 288, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigen-presenting cells present antigens in the form of peptides on histocompatibility molecules. The T cells selectively recognize the antigens; depending on the antigen and the type of the histocompatibility molecule, different types of T cells will be activated. For T-cell receptor (TCR) recognition, the peptide must be processed into small fragments inside the cell and presented by a major histocompatibility complex (MHC). The antigen cannot elicit the immune response without the help of an immunologic adjuvant. Similarly, the adjuvant component of vaccines plays an essential role in the activation of the innate immune system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 1814564, 211950, 211950, 1105073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ], [ 69, 96 ], [ 392, 424 ], [ 501, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An immunogen is an antigen substance (or adduct) that is able to trigger a humoral (innate) or cell-mediated immune response. It first initiates an innate immune response, which then causes the activation of the adaptive immune response. An antigen binds the highly variable immunoreceptor products (B-cell receptor or T-cell receptor) once these have been generated. Immunogens are those antigens, termed immunogenic, capable of inducing an immune response.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 4499573, 4007999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 47 ], [ 406, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the molecular level, an antigen can be characterized by its ability to bind to an antibody's paratopes. Different antibodies have the potential to discriminate among specific epitopes present on the antigen surface. A hapten is a small molecule that can only induce an immune response when attached to a larger carrier molecule, such as a protein. Antigens can be proteins, polysaccharides, lipids, nucleic acids or other biomolecules. This includes parts (coats, capsules, cell walls, flagella, fimbriae, and toxins) of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms. Non-microbial non-self antigens can include pollen, egg white, and proteins from transplanted tissues and organs or on the surface of transfused blood cells.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 5023490, 555023, 23634, 23634, 17940, 9028799, 19167679, 20377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 104 ], [ 221, 227 ], [ 342, 349 ], [ 367, 374 ], [ 394, 399 ], [ 524, 532 ], [ 534, 539 ], [ 553, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigens can be classified according to their source.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Exogenous antigens are antigens that have entered the body from the outside, for example, by inhalation, ingestion or injection. The immune system's response to exogenous antigens is often subclinical. By endocytosis or phagocytosis, exogenous antigens are taken into the antigen-presenting cells (APCs) and processed into fragments. APCs then present the fragments to T helper cells (CD4+) by the use of class II histocompatibility molecules on their surface. Some T cells are specific for the peptide:MHC complex. They become activated and start to secrete cytokines, substances that activate cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL), antibody-secreting B cells, macrophages and other particles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 485575, 655563, 665909, 1915, 10116, 206508, 1814564, 211949, 1884678, 6564132, 211947, 211941, 169270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 103 ], [ 105, 114 ], [ 118, 127 ], [ 171, 179 ], [ 205, 216 ], [ 220, 232 ], [ 272, 295 ], [ 369, 383 ], [ 385, 388 ], [ 405, 432 ], [ 595, 618 ], [ 645, 651 ], [ 654, 665 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some antigens start out as exogenous and later become endogenous (for example, intracellular viruses). Intracellular antigens can be returned to circulation upon the destruction of the infected cell.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Endogenous antigens are generated within normal cells as a result of normal cell metabolism, or because of viral or intracellular bacterial infection. The fragments are then presented on the cell surface in the complex with MHC class I molecules. If activated cytotoxic CD8+ T cells recognize them, the T cells secrete various toxins that cause the lysis or apoptosis of the infected cell. In order to keep the cytotoxic cells from killing cells just for presenting self-proteins, the cytotoxic cells (self-reactive T cells) are deleted as a result of tolerance (negative selection). Endogenous antigens include xenogenic (heterologous), autologous and idiotypic or allogenic (homologous) antigens. Sometimes antigens are part of the host itself in an autoimmune disease.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 20374, 37220, 1892376, 211947, 23740, 397456, 2457, 9228002, 2911349, 416114, 3324299, 10807821, 10807783, 93842, 19468046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 91 ], [ 140, 149 ], [ 224, 235 ], [ 260, 282 ], [ 327, 332 ], [ 349, 354 ], [ 358, 367 ], [ 466, 478 ], [ 552, 561 ], [ 612, 621 ], [ 638, 648 ], [ 653, 662 ], [ 666, 675 ], [ 722, 745 ], [ 752, 770 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An autoantigen is usually a self-protein or protein complex (and sometimes DNA or RNA) that is recognized by the immune system of patients with a specific autoimmune disease. Under normal conditions, these self-proteins should not be the target of the immune system, but in autoimmune diseases, their associated T cells are not deleted and instead attack.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 9228002, 9228002, 19468046, 9228002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 28, 40 ], [ 155, 173 ], [ 206, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Neoantigens are those that are entirely absent from the normal human genome. As compared with nonmutated self-proteins, neoantigens are of relevance to tumor control, as the quality of the T cell pool that is available for these antigens is not affected by central T cell tolerance. Technology to systematically analyze T cell reactivity against neoantigens became available only recently. Neoantigens can be directly detected and quantified through a method called MANA-SRM developed by a molecular diagnostics company, Complete Omics Inc., through collaborating with a team in Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 9228002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For virus-associated tumors, such as cervical cancer and a subset of head and neck cancers, epitopes derived from viral open reading frames contribute to the pool of neoantigens.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 53338, 729500, 495045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 69, 90 ], [ 92, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tumor antigens are those antigens that are presented by MHC class I or MHC class II molecules on the surface of tumor cells. Antigens found only on such cells are called tumor-specific antigens (TSAs) and generally result from a tumor-specific mutation. More common are antigens that are presented by tumor cells and normal cells, called tumor-associated antigens (TAAs). Cytotoxic T lymphocytes that recognize these antigens may be able to destroy tumor cells.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 13120422, 1892376, 6564132, 1236730, 13120422, 19702, 13120422, 211947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 56, 67 ], [ 71, 83 ], [ 112, 122 ], [ 170, 192 ], [ 244, 252 ], [ 338, 362 ], [ 372, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tumor antigens can appear on the surface of the tumor in the form of, for example, a mutated receptor, in which case they are recognized by B cells.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 211941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For human tumors without a viral etiology, novel peptides (neo-epitopes) are created by tumor-specific DNA alterations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 24029 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A large fraction of human tumor mutations is effectively patient-specific. Therefore, neoantigens may also be based on individual tumor genomes. Deep-sequencing technologies can identify mutations within the protein-coding part of the genome (the exome) and predict potential neoantigens. In mice models, for all novel protein sequences, potential MHC-binding peptides were predicted. The resulting set of potential neoantigens was used to assess T cell reactivity. Exome–based analyses were exploited in a clinical setting, to assess reactivity in patients treated by either tumor-infiltrating lymphocyte (TIL) cell therapy or checkpoint blockade. Neoantigen identification was successful for multiple experimental model systems and human malignancies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 12388, 22095859, 14580464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 235, 241 ], [ 247, 252 ], [ 576, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The false-negative rate of cancer exome sequencing is low—i.e.: the majority of neoantigens occur within exonic sequence with sufficient coverage. However, the vast majority of mutations within expressed genes do not produce neoantigens that are recognized by autologous T cells.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2015 mass spectrometry resolution is insufficient to exclude many false positives from the pool of peptides that may be presented by MHC molecules. Instead, algorithms are used to identify the most likely candidates. These algorithms consider factors such as the likelihood of proteasomal processing, transport into the endoplasmic reticulum, affinity for the relevant MHC class I alleles and gene expression or protein translation levels.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 24603, 9775, 1911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 283, 294 ], [ 326, 347 ], [ 387, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The majority of human neoantigens identified in unbiased screens display a high predicted MHC binding affinity. Minor histocompatibility antigens, a conceptually similar antigen class are also correctly identified by MHC binding algorithms. Another potential filter examines whether the mutation is expected to improve MHC binding. The nature of the central TCR-exposed residues of MHC-bound peptides is associated with peptide immunogenicity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A native antigen is an antigen that is not yet processed by an APC to smaller parts. T cells cannot bind native antigens, but require that they be processed by APCs, whereas B cells can be activated by native ones.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 170417, 211941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 91 ], [ 174, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antigenic specificity is the ability of the host cells to recognize an antigen specifically as a unique molecular entity and distinguish it from another with exquisite precision. Antigen specificity is due primarily to the side-chain conformations of the antigen. It is measurable and need not be linear or of a rate-limited step or equation. Both T cells and B cells are cellular components of adaptive immunity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Antigenic specificity", "target_page_ids": [ 170417, 211941, 1664060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 348, 354 ], [ 360, 366 ], [ 395, 412 ] ] } ]

[ "Immune_system", "Biomolecules" ]

[ "antibody generator", "Antigen", "antigens" ]

[ { "plaintext": "An autosome is any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome. The members of an autosome pair in a diploid cell have the same morphology, unlike those in allosomal (sex chromosome) pairs, which may have different structures. The DNA in autosomes is collectively known as atDNA or auDNA.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6438, 7123751, 23219, 7123751, 7955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 44, 58 ], [ 97, 104 ], [ 152, 161 ], [ 227, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, humans have a diploid genome that usually contains 22 pairs of autosomes and one allosome pair (46 chromosomes total). The autosome pairs are labeled with numbers (1–22 in humans) roughly in order of their sizes in base pairs, while allosomes are labelled with their letters. By contrast, the allosome pair consists of two X chromosomes in females or one X and one Y chromosome in males. Unusual combinations of XYY, XXY, XXX, XXXX, XXXXX or XXYY, among other Salome combinations, are known to occur and usually cause developmental abnormalities.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 682482, 23219, 42888, 7123751, 208144, 246891, 39411, 19833554, 67599209, 67170050, 67288406, 4948244, 308793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 18 ], [ 27, 34 ], [ 35, 41 ], [ 94, 102 ], [ 336, 348 ], [ 378, 390 ], [ 425, 428 ], [ 430, 433 ], [ 435, 438 ], [ 440, 444 ], [ 446, 451 ], [ 455, 459 ], [ 467, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Autosomes still contain sexual determination genes even though they are not sex chromosomes. For example, the SRY gene on the Y chromosome encodes the transcription factor TDF and is vital for male sex determination during development. TDF functions by activating the SOX9 gene on chromosome 17, so mutations of the SOX9 gene can cause humans with an ordinary Y chromosome to develop as females.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1475503, 1475503, 14723387, 3407862, 14723387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 113 ], [ 172, 175 ], [ 268, 272 ], [ 281, 294 ], [ 316, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All human autosomes have been identified and mapped by extracting the chromosomes from a cell arrested in metaphase or prometaphase and then staining them with a type of dye (most commonly, Giemsa). These chromosomes are typically viewed as karyograms for easy comparison. Clinical geneticists can compare the karyogram of an individual to a reference karyogram to discover the cytogenetic basis of certain phenotypes. For example, the karyogram of someone with Patau Syndrome would show that they possess three copies of chromosome 13. Karyograms and staining techniques can only detect large-scale disruptions to chromosomes—chromosomal aberrations smaller than a few million base pairs generally cannot be seen on a karyogram.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 584504, 1842589, 1010745, 152038, 24543, 422600, 3398738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 115 ], [ 119, 131 ], [ 190, 196 ], [ 241, 250 ], [ 407, 416 ], [ 462, 476 ], [ 522, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Autosomal genetic disorders can arise due to a number of causes, some of the most common being nondisjunction in parental germ cells or Mendelian inheritance of deleterious alleles from parents. Autosomal genetic disorders which exhibit Mendelian inheritance can be inherited either in an autosomal dominant or recessive fashion. These disorders manifest in and are passed on by either sex with equal frequency. Autosomal dominant disorders are often present in both parent and child, as the child needs to inherit only one copy of the deleterious allele to manifest the disease. Autosomal recessive diseases, however, require two copies of the deleterious allele for the disease to manifest. Because it is possible to possess one copy of a deleterious allele without presenting a disease phenotype, two phenotypically normal parents can have a child with the disease if both parents are carriers (also known as heterozygotes) for the condition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Autosomal genetic disorders", "target_page_ids": [ 481020, 19595, 68300, 1911, 23661260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 109 ], [ 136, 157 ], [ 289, 307 ], [ 548, 554 ], [ 912, 924 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Autosomal aneuploidy can also result in disease conditions. Aneuploidy of autosomes is not well tolerated and usually results in miscarriage of the developing fetus. Fetuses with aneuploidy of gene-rich chromosomes—such as chromosome 1—never survive to term, and fetuses with aneuploidy of gene-poor chromosomes—such as chromosome 21— are still miscarried over 23% of the time. Possessing a single copy of an autosome (known as a monosomy) is nearly always incompatible with life, though very rarely some monosomies can survive past birth. Having three copies of an autosome (known as a trisomy) is far more compatible with life, however. A common example is Down syndrome, which is caused by possessing three copies of chromosome 21 instead of the usual two.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Autosomal genetic disorders", "target_page_ids": [ 308793, 3398635, 3092374, 8303, 3092374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ], [ 223, 235 ], [ 320, 333 ], [ 659, 672 ], [ 720, 733 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Partial aneuploidy can also occur as a result of unbalanced translocations during meiosis. Deletions of part of a chromosome cause partial monosomies, while duplications can cause partial trisomies. If the duplication or deletion is large enough, it can be discovered by analyzing a karyogram of the individual. Autosomal translocations can be responsible for a number of diseases, ranging from cancer to schizophrenia. Unlike single gene disorders, diseases caused by aneuploidy are the result of improper gene dosage, not nonfunctional gene product.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Autosomal genetic disorders", "target_page_ids": [ 560502, 105219, 27790, 4363681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 74 ], [ 395, 401 ], [ 405, 418 ], [ 507, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aneuploidy (abnormal number of chromosomes)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 308793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Autosomal dominant", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 68300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Autosomal recessive", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 68300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homologous chromosome", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 312354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pseudoautosomal region", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4629978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " XY sex-determination system", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 49399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Genetic disorder", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] } ]

[ "Chromosomes", "Cytogenetics" ]

[ "GO:0030849", "somatic chromosome" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Antwerp is a city in Belgium and capital of the Antwerp province.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32149462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antwerp may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Belgium", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Antwerp (district)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6733132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antwerp (province)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 58186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Antwerp, Ohio", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 129697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antwerp Township, Michigan", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 119195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antwerp (village), New York", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 259835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antwerp (town), New York", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 259837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Australia", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Antwerp, Victoria", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2861051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Port of Antwerp", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 3547900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Royal Antwerp FC, a football club", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 2107074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antwerp (novel), by Roberto Bolaño", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 30538887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antwerp, a poem by Ford Madox Ford", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 50631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 34 ] ] } ]

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[]

[ { "plaintext": "Aquila is the Latin and Romance languages word for eagle. Specifically, it may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila (constellation), the astronomical constellation, the Eagle", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 269002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila (bird), a genus of birds including some eagles", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2877357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila (name), a given name or surname", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38645139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila (Roman), a Roman military standard", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1806573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila (children's magazine), a UK-based children's magazine", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 10389453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila (journal), an ornithological journal", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 29953290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila (TV series), a BBC TV production for children based on the Norriss book", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 2809888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila Theatre, a theatre company currently of New York", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 16884966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila, a 1997 book by Andrew Norriss", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 2810127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila, a series of books by S.P. Somtow", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 1182779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquilla, a character in the wargame Heroscape", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 30871862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila, a ship in the video game The Last Hope", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila, a ship in the video game Assassin's Creed III", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 25198689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila, a world in the MMORPGs Wizard101 and Pirate101", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 36661766, 44260849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ], [ 46, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila Yuna, a character in the anime Saint Seiya Omega", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 34631256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila, a medieval city in the fantasy film Ladyhawke (1985)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 455224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gaius Julius Aquila (1st century CE), Roman knight", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 53317737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Julius Gallus Aquila (probably 2nd century CE), Roman jurist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 53317896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lucius Pontius Aquila (1st century BCE), one of the assassins of Julius Caesar", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 10530647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vedius Aquila (1st century CE), Roman general", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 53319220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aquila of Sinope (fl. 130 AD), translator of the Hebrew Bible into Greek", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 3087884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aquila Chase (17th century), early Puritan settler in the American colonies and founder of the influential Chase family", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 48917557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aquila Romanus (3rd century CE), Latin grammarian", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 235967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Priscilla and Aquila, early Christian converts who appear in the New Testament", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "People", "target_page_ids": [ 610373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila, Michoacán, a town in Mexico", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 3592040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila, Switzerland, a former municipality", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 4113876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila, Veracruz, a municipality in Mexico", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 22904069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " L'Aquila, sometimes Aquila, the regional capital of Abruzzo in Italy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 505955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Province of L'Aquila, Italy", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Places", "target_page_ids": [ 1049461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila Italiana, Italian car manufacturer or brand", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 857008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila racing cars, a Danish firm", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 25385103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hyosung GV250, a cruiser motorcycle nicknamed the \"Aquila\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 18439242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila A 210, a German lightweight aircraft", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 18077823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila Airways, a British flying boat operator (19481958)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 2478342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Angus Aquila, a British aircraft", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 31253493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bristol Aquila, an aircraft engine", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 160690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Facebook Aquila, Facebook's design for an atmospheric satellite", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 55977291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lockheed MQM-105 Aquila, the U.S. Army's first battlefield reconnaissance drone", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 17844797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila, an air traffic management services company; see ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " USS Aquila (AK-47), an Aquila-class U.S. Navy cargo ship", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 12815749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " USS Aquila (PHM-4), a U.S. Navy hydrofoil", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 912626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Italian aircraft carrier Aquila, a World War II Italian aircraft carrier", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 1381223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila, Inc., a former electric and gas utility in Kansas City, Missouri, United States", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2377609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila Capital, an independent investment firm in Hamburg, Germany", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 32683473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aguila (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5232139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila College of Ministries, former name of Hillsong College", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4704988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquila Court Building of Omaha, Nebraska", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13514919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquileia, an ancient Roman city in Italy", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 75839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquilia (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53319327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquilinus (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14897549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aquilla (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1328155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Balanus aquila, a species of barnacle", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12698885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dell'Aquila, a surname", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 68312116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Macroglossum aquila, a species of moth", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22383227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roman Catholic Archdiocese of L'Aquila, Italy", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11688529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda (; , , , alternatively spelled al-Qaida and al-Qa'ida), officially known as Qaedat al-Jihad (), is a multinational militant Sunni Islamic extremist network composed of Salafist jihadists. Its members are mostly composed of Arabs, but may also include other peoples. Al-Qaeda has mounted attacks on non-military and military targets in various countries, including the 1998 United States embassy bombings, the September 11 attacks, and the 2002 Bali bombings; it has been designated as a terrorist group by the United Nations Security Council, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), the European Union, India, and Designation as a terrorist group.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 310790, 29402, 8734632, 19360285, 2185, 10078354, 5058690, 103098, 63578, 31956, 21133, 9317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 132 ], [ 133, 138 ], [ 139, 156 ], [ 177, 195 ], [ 232, 236 ], [ 377, 412 ], [ 418, 438 ], [ 448, 466 ], [ 496, 511 ], [ 519, 550 ], [ 556, 590 ], [ 603, 617 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The network was founded in 1988 by Osama bin Laden, Abdullah Azzam, and other Arab volunteers during the Soviet–Afghan War. After fighting the \"holy\" war, the group aimed to expand such operations to other parts of the world, setting up bases in parts of Africa, the Arab world and elsewhere, carrying out many attacks on people whom it considers kāfir.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22468, 992200, 80197, 159433, 261924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ], [ 52, 66 ], [ 105, 122 ], [ 267, 277 ], [ 347, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda members believe a Christian-Jewish alliance (led by the United States) is conspiring to be at war against Islam and destroy Islam. As Salafist jihadists, members of al-Qaeda believe that killing non-combatants is religiously sanctioned. Al-Qaeda also opposes what it regards as man-made laws, and wants to replace them exclusively with a strict form of sharīʿa (Islamic religious law, which is perceived as divine law). It is also responsible for instigating sectarian violence among Muslims. Al-Qaeda regards liberal Muslims, Shias, Sufis, and other Islamic sects as heretical and its members and sympathizers have attacked their mosques, shrines, and gatherings. Examples of sectarian attacks include the 2004 Ashoura massacre, the 2006 Sadr City bombings, the April 2007 Baghdad bombings, and the 2007 Yazidi community bombings.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7502, 3434750, 3406143, 6037917, 147012, 81682, 34245779, 28840, 201285, 2542993, 31557036, 325137, 26961, 28246, 2360572, 607410, 8089422, 10752381, 12771710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 43 ], [ 65, 78 ], [ 83, 93 ], [ 133, 138 ], [ 204, 217 ], [ 222, 244 ], [ 287, 299 ], [ 362, 369 ], [ 371, 392 ], [ 416, 426 ], [ 468, 500 ], [ 519, 534 ], [ 536, 541 ], [ 543, 548 ], [ 554, 573 ], [ 716, 737 ], [ 743, 766 ], [ 772, 799 ], [ 809, 839 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The United States government responded to the September 11 attacks by launching the \"war on terror\", which sought to undermine al-Qaeda and its allies. The deaths of key leaders, including that of Osama bin Laden, have led al-Qaeda's operations to shift from top-down organization and planning of attacks, to the planning of attacks carried out by a loose network of associated groups and lone-wolf operators. Al-Qaeda characteristically organizes attacks including suicide attacks and simultaneous bombing of several targets. Al-Qaeda ideologues envision the violent removal of all foreign and secular influences in Muslim countries, which it perceives as corrupt deviations. Following the death of Osama bin Laden in 2011, the group was led by Egyptian Ayman al-Zawahiri until his death in 2022. As of 2021, it has reportedly suffered from a deterioration of central command over its regional operations.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 195149, 13425800, 7746616, 751502, 18835454, 25368140, 354236, 191429, 319799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ], [ 85, 98 ], [ 189, 212 ], [ 389, 398 ], [ 466, 480 ], [ 518, 525 ], [ 595, 602 ], [ 617, 633 ], [ 755, 772 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda only indirectly controls its day-to-day operations. Its philosophy calls for the centralization of decision making, while allowing for the decentralization of execution. Al-Qaeda's top leaders have defined the organization's ideology and guiding strategy, and they have also articulated simple and easy-to-receive messages. At the same time, mid-level organizations were given autonomy, but they had to consult with top management before large-scale attacks and assassinations. Top management included the shura council as well as committees on military operations, finance, and information sharing. Through al-Qaeda's information committees, he placed special emphasis on communicating with his groups. However, after the War on Terror, al-Qaeda's leadership has become isolated. As a result, the leadership has become decentralized, and the organization has become regionalized into several al-Qaeda groups.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 323090, 49139, 13425800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 104 ], [ 148, 164 ], [ 732, 745 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many terrorism experts do not believe that the global jihadist movement is driven at every level by al-Qaeda's leadership. However, bin Laden held considerable ideological sway over some Muslim extremists before his death. Experts argue that al-Qaeda has fragmented into a number of disparate regional movements, and that these groups bear little connection with one another.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 8734632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This view mirrors the account given by Osama bin Laden in his October 2001 interview with Tayseer Allouni:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 635635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " however, Bruce Hoffman saw al-Qaeda as a cohesive network that was strongly led from the Pakistani tribal areas.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 22231212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda has the following direct affiliates:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 9794248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda in the Indian Subcontinent (AQIS)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 43735117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 30875850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " al-Shabaab", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 8726463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jama'at Nasr al-Islam wal Muslimin (JNIM)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 53401088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda in Bosnia and Herzegovina", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 45370360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda in Caucasus and Russia", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 53886111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda in Gaza", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 31499510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda in Kurdistan", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 34326206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda in Lebanon", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 23187771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al Qaeda in Spain", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 40230007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda in the Malay Archipelago", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 24373677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda in the Sinai Peninsula", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 49501412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Guardians of Religion Organization", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 56718004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda in the Land of the Two Niles (AQTN).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following are presently believed to be indirect affiliates of al-Qaeda:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Caucasus Emirate (factions)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 14912557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fatah al-Islam", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 11320004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Islamic Jihad Union", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 11415404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 389363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jaish-e-Mohammed", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 1625335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jemaah Islamiyah", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 103100 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lashkar-e-Taiba", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 649718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 566467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda's former affiliates include the following:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abu Sayyaf (pledged allegiance to ISIL in 2014)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 2216, 9087364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Mourabitoun (joined JNIM in 2017)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 41753158, 53401088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 24, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda in Iraq (became the Islamic State of Iraq, which later seceded from al-Qaeda and became ISIL)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 12786576, 39955935, 9087364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 30, 51 ], [ 98, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda in the Lands Beyond the Sahel (inactive since 2015)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 38286904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ansar al-Islam (majority merged with ISIL in 2014)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 199866, 9087364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 38, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ansar Dine (joined JNIM in 2017)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 35175793, 53401088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 20, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Islamic Jihad of Yemen (became AQAP)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 19370359, 9794248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 32, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jund al-Aqsa (pledged allegiance to ISIL in 2017)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 42772167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Movement for Oneness and Jihad in West Africa (merged with Al-Mulathameen to form Al-Mourabitoun in 2013)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 34959730, 55913903, 41753158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ], [ 60, 74 ], [ 83, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rajah Sulaiman movement", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 26003893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Nusra Front (became Hayat Tahrir al-Sham and split ties in 2017, disputed)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 34929376, 53015755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 24, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ansar Bait al-Maqdis (pledged alliance to ISIL and adopted the name Sinai Province)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 40902522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Osama bin Laden served as the emir of al-Qaeda from the organization's founding in 1988 until his assassination by US forces on May 1, 2011. Atiyah Abd al-Rahman was alleged to be second in command prior to his death on August 22, 2011.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 22468, 9638956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 141, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bin Laden was advised by a Shura Council, which consists of senior al-Qaeda members. The group was estimated to consist of 20–30 people.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 192176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayman al-Zawahiri had been al-Qaeda's deputy emir and assumed the role of emir following bin Laden's death. Al-Zawahiri replaced Saif al-Adel, who had served as interim commander. Al-Zawahiri was killed on July 31, 2022 in a drone strike in Afghanistan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 319799, 435427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 129, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On June 5, 2012, Pakistani intelligence officials announced that al-Rahman's alleged successor as second in command, Abu Yahya al-Libi, had been killed in Pakistan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 15525669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nasir al-Wuhayshi was alleged to have become al-Qaeda's overall second in command and general manager in 2013. He was concurrently the leader of al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP) until he was killed by a US airstrike in Yemen in June 2015. Abu Khayr al-Masri, Wuhayshi's alleged successor as the deputy to Ayman al-Zawahiri, was killed by a US airstrike in Syria in February 2017. Al Qaeda's next alleged number two leader, Abdullah Ahmed Abdullah, was killed by Israeli agents. His pseudonym was Abu Muhammad al-Masri, who was killed in November 2020 in Iran. He was involved in the 1998 bombings of the US embassies in Kenya and Tanzania.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 21274218, 9794248, 48226277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 145, 178 ], [ 247, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda's network was built from scratch as a conspiratorial network which drew upon the leadership of a number of regional nodes. The organization divided itself into several committees, which include:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Military Committee, which is responsible for training operatives, acquiring weapons, and planning attacks.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Money/Business Committee, which funds the recruitment and training of operatives through the hawala banking system. US-led efforts to eradicate the sources of \"terrorist financing\" were most successful in the year immediately following the September 11 attacks. Al-Qaeda continues to operate through unregulated banks, such as the 1,000 or so hawaladars in Pakistan, some of which can handle deals of up to million. The committee also procures false passports, pays al-Qaeda members, and oversees profit-driven businesses. In the 9/11 Commission Report, it was estimated that al-Qaeda required $30million per year to conduct its operations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 14132, 4308598, 1010827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 104 ], [ 165, 184 ], [ 535, 557 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Law Committee reviews Sharia law, and decides upon courses of action conform to it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 28840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Islamic Study/Fatwah Committee issues religious edicts, such as an edict in 1998 telling Muslims to kill Americans.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 11259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Media Committee ran the now-defunct newspaper Nashrat al Akhbar () and handled public relations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 24389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 2005, al-Qaeda formed As-Sahab, a media production house, to supply its video and audio materials.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 2166979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of Al Qaeda's top leaders and operational directors were veterans who fought against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in the 1980s. Osama bin Laden and his deputy, Ayman al-Zawahiri, were the leaders who were considered the operational commanders of the organization. Nevertheless, Al-Qaeda is not operationally managed by Ayman al-Zawahiri. Several operational groups exist, which consult with the leadership in situations where attacks are in preparation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 666301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 305, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When asked in 2005 about the possibility of al-Qaeda's connection to the July 7, 2005 London bombings, Metropolitan Police Commissioner Sir Ian Blair said: \"Al-Qaeda is not an organization. Al-Qaeda is a way of working... but this has the hallmark of that approach... al-Qaeda clearly has the ability to provide training... to provide expertise... and I think that is what has occurred here.\" On August 13, 2005, The Independent newspaper, reported that the July7 bombers had acted independently of an al-Qaeda mastermind.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 2185939, 607900, 1704779, 103958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 101 ], [ 103, 135 ], [ 136, 149 ], [ 413, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nasser al-Bahri, who was Osama bin Laden's bodyguard for four years in the run-up to 9/11 wrote in his memoir a highly detailed description of how the group functioned at that time. Al-Bahri described al-Qaeda's formal administrative structure and vast arsenal. However, the author Adam Curtis argued that the idea of al-Qaeda as a formal organization is primarily an American invention. Curtis contended the name \"al-Qaeda\" was first brought to the attention of the public in the 2001 trial of bin Laden and the four men accused of the 1998 US embassy bombings in East Africa. Curtis wrote:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 1142258, 10078354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 293 ], [ 537, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 2001 trial, the US Department of Justice needed to show that bin Laden was the leader of a criminal organization in order to charge him in absentia under the Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act. The name of the organization and details of its structure were provided in the testimony of Jamal al-Fadl, who said he was a founding member of the group and a former employee of bin Laden. Questions about the reliability of al-Fadl's testimony have been raised by a number of sources because of his history of dishonesty, and because he was delivering it as part of a plea bargain agreement after being convicted of conspiring to attack US military establishments. Sam Schmidt, a defense attorney who defended al-Fadl said:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 52563, 582826, 26211, 1198286, 23476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 51 ], [ 147, 158 ], [ 169, 219 ], [ 313, 326 ], [ 590, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The number of individuals in the group who have undergone proper military training, and are capable of commanding insurgent forces, is largely unknown. Documents captured in the raid on bin Laden's compound in 2011 show that the core al-Qaeda membership in 2002 was 170. In 2006, it was estimated that al-Qaeda had several thousand commanders embedded in 40 countries. , it was believed that no more than 200–300 members were still active commanders.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 2004 BBC documentary The Power of Nightmares, al-Qaeda was so weakly linked together that it was hard to say it existed apart from bin Laden and a small clique of close associates. The lack of any significant numbers of convicted al-Qaeda members, despite a large number of arrests on terrorism charges, was cited by the documentary as a reason to doubt whether a widespread entity that met the description of al-Qaeda existed. Al-Qaeda's commanders, as well as its sleeping agents, are hiding in different parts of the world to this day. They are mainly hunted by the American and Israeli secret services.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 1133403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to author Robert Cassidy, al-Qaeda maintains two separate forces which are deployed alongside insurgents in Iraq and Pakistan. The first, numbering in the tens of thousands, was \"organized, trained, and equipped as insurgent combat forces\" in the Soviet–Afghan war. The force was composed primarily of foreign mujahideen from Saudi Arabia and Yemen. Many of these fighters went on to fight in Bosnia and Somalia for global jihad. Another group, which numbered 10,000 in 2006, live in the West and have received rudimentary combat training.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other analysts have described al-Qaeda's rank and file as being \"predominantly Arab\" in its first years of operation, but that the organization also includes \"other peoples\" . It has been estimated that 62 percent of al-Qaeda members have a university education. In 2011 and the following year, the Americans successfully settled accounts with Osama bin Laden, Anwar al-Awlaki, the organization's chief propagandist, and Abu Yahya al-Libi's deputy commander. The optimistic voices were already saying it was over for al-Qaeda. Nevertheless, it was around this time that the Arab Spring greeted the region, the turmoil of which came great to al-Qaeda's regional forces. Seven years later, Ayman al-Zawahiri became arguably the number one leader in the organization, implementing his strategy with systematic consistency. Tens of thousands loyal to al-Qaeda and related organizations were able to challenge local and regional stability and ruthlessly attack their enemies in the Middle East, Africa, South Asia, Southeast Asia, Europe and Russia alike. In fact, from Northwest Africa to South Asia, al-Qaeda had more than two dozen \"franchise-based\" allies. The number of al-Qaeda militants was set at 20,000 in Syria alone, and they had 4,000 members in Yemen and about 7,000 in Somalia. The war was not over.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda usually does not disburse funds for attacks, and very rarely makes wire transfers. In the 1990s, financing came partly from the personal wealth of Osama bin Laden. Other sources of income included the heroin trade and donations from supporters in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and other Islamic Gulf states. A WikiLeaks-released 2009 internal US government cable stated that \"terrorist funding emanating from Saudi Arabia remains a serious concern.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 218449, 3088555, 8877168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 222 ], [ 295, 306 ], [ 310, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the first pieces of evidence regarding Saudi Arabia's support for al-Qaeda was the so-called \"Golden Chain\", a list of early al-Qaeda funders seized during a 2002 raid in Sarajevo by Bosnian police. The hand-written list was validated by al-Qaeda defector Jamal al-Fadl, and included the names of both donors and beneficiaries. Osama bin-Laden's name appeared seven times among the beneficiaries, while 20 Saudi and Gulf-based businessmen and politicians were listed among the donors. Notable donors included Adel Batterjee, and Wael Hamza Julaidan. Batterjee was designated as a terror financier by the US Department of the Treasury in 2004, and Julaidan is recognized as one of al-Qaeda's founders.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 11147419, 1279914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 112 ], [ 535, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Documents seized during the 2002 Bosnia raid showed that al-Qaeda widely exploited charities to channel financial and material support to its operatives across the globe. Notably, this activity exploited the International Islamic Relief Organization (IIRO) and the Muslim World League (MWL). The IIRO had ties with al-Qaeda associates worldwide, including al-Qaeda's deputy Ayman al Zawahiri. Zawahiri's brother worked for the IIRO in Albania and had actively recruited on behalf of al-Qaeda. The MWL was openly identified by al-Qaeda's leader as one of the three charities al-Qaeda primarily relied upon for funding sources.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Several Qatari citizens have been accused of funding al-Qaeda. This includes Abd Al-Rahman al-Nuaimi, a Qatari citizen and a human-rights activist who founded the Swiss-based non-governmental organization (NGO) Alkarama. On December 18, 2013, the US Treasury designated Nuaimi as a terrorist for his activities supporting al-Qaeda. The US Treasury has said Nuaimi \"has facilitated significant financial support to al-Qaeda in Iraq, and served as an interlocutor between al-Qaeda in Iraq and Qatar-based donors\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 47203366, 46539, 28082786, 53667, 7515928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 100 ], [ 175, 204 ], [ 211, 219 ], [ 247, 258 ], [ 482, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nuaimi was accused of overseeing a $2million monthly transfer to al-Qaeda in Iraq as part of his role as mediator between Iraq-based al-Qaeda senior officers and Qatari citizens. Nuaimi allegedly entertained relationships with Abu-Khalid al-Suri, al-Qaeda's top envoy in Syria, who processed a $600,000 transfer to al-Qaeda in 2013. Nuaimi is also known to be associated with Abd al-Wahhab Muhammad 'Abd al-Rahman al-Humayqani, a Yemeni politician and founding member of Alkarama, who was listed as a Specially Designated Global Terrorist (SDGT) by the US Treasury in 2013. The US authorities claimed that Humayqani exploited his role in Alkarama to fundraise on behalf of al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP). A prominent figure in AQAP, Nuaimi was also reported to have facilitated the flow of funding to AQAP affiliates based in Yemen. Nuaimi was also accused of investing funds in the charity directed by Humayqani to ultimately fund AQAP. About ten months after being sanctioned by the US Treasury, Nuaimi was also restrained from doing business in the UK.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 20582, 350939, 28082786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 113 ], [ 430, 435 ], [ 471, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another Qatari citizen, Kalifa Mohammed Turki Subayi, was sanctioned by the US Treasury on June 5, 2008, for his activities as a \"Gulf-based al-Qaeda financier\". Subayi's name was added to the UN Security Council's Sanctions List in 2008 on charges of providing financial and material support to al-Qaeda senior leadership. Subayi allegedly moved al-Qaeda recruits to South Asia-based training camps. He also financially supported Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, a Pakistani national and senior al-Qaeda officer who is believed to be the mastermind behind the September 11 attack according to the September 11 Commission report.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 31956, 353496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 193, 212 ], [ 589, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Qataris provided support to al-Qaeda through the country's largest NGO, the Qatar Charity. Al-Qaeda defector al-Fadl, who was a former member of Qatar Charity, testified in court that Abdullah Mohammed Yusef, who served as Qatar Charity's director, was affiliated to al-Qaeda and simultaneously to the National Islamic Front, a political group that gave al-Qaeda leader Osama Bin Laden harbor in Sudan in the early 1990s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 35740861, 1580709, 27421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 89 ], [ 302, 324 ], [ 396, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was alleged that in 1993 Bin Laden was using Middle East based Sunni charities to channel financial support to al-Qaeda operatives overseas. The same documents also report Bin Laden's complaint that the failed assassination attempt of Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak had compromised the ability of al-Qaeda to exploit charities to support its operatives to the extent it was capable of before 1995.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 22468, 19323, 29402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 37 ], [ 48, 59 ], [ 66, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Qatar financed al-Qaeda's enterprises through al-Qaeda's former affiliate in Syria, Jabhat al-Nusra. The funding was primarily channeled through kidnapping for ransom. The Consortium Against Terrorist Finance (CATF) reported that the Gulf country has funded al-Nusra since 2013. In 2017, Asharq Al-Awsat estimated that Qatar had disbursed $25million in support of al-Nusra through kidnapping for ransom. In addition, Qatar has launched fundraising campaigns on behalf of al-Nusra. Al-Nusra acknowledged a Qatar-sponsored campaign \"as one of the preferred conduits for donations intended for the group\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 169376, 3044253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 155 ], [ 288, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the disagreement over whether Al-Qaeda's objectives are religious or political, Mark Sedgwick describes Al-Qaeda's strategy as political in the immediate term but with ultimate aims that are religious.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On March 11, 2005, Al-Quds Al-Arabi published extracts from Saif al-Adel's document \"Al Qaeda's Strategy to the Year 2020\". Abdel Bari Atwan summarizes this strategy as comprising five stages to rid the Ummah from all forms of oppression:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [ 40229464, 435427, 3081125, 202444 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 35 ], [ 60, 72 ], [ 124, 140 ], [ 203, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Provoke the United States and the West into invading a Muslim country by staging a massive attack or string of attacks on US soil that results in massive civilian casualties.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Incite local resistance to occupying forces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Expand the conflict to neighboring countries and engage the US and its allies in a long war of attrition.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Convert al-Qaeda into an ideology and set of operating principles that can be loosely franchised in other countries without requiring direct command and control, and via these franchises incite attacks against the US and countries allied with the US until they withdraw from the conflict, as happened with the 2004 Madrid train bombings, but which did not have the same effect with the July 7, 2005 London bombings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [ 519564, 2185939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 311, 337 ], [ 387, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The US economy will finally collapse by 2020, under the strain of multiple engagements in numerous places. This will lead to a collapse in the worldwide economic system, and lead to global political instability. This will lead to a global jihad led by al-Qaeda, and a Wahhabi Caliphate will then be installed across the world.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [ 159040, 804036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 269, 276 ], [ 277, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Atwan noted that, while the plan is unrealistic, \"it is sobering to consider that this virtually describes the downfall of the Soviet Union.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [ 40494892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Fouad Hussein, a Jordanian journalist and author who has spent time in prison with Al-Zarqawi, Al Qaeda's strategy consists of seven phases and is similar to the plan described in Al Qaeda's Strategy to the year 2020. These phases include:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [ 6966452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Awakening.\" This phase was supposed to last from 2001 to 2003. The goal of the phase is to provoke the United States to attack a Muslim country by executing an attack that kills many civilians on US soil.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Opening Eyes.\" This phase was supposed to last from 2003 to 2006. The goal of this phase was to recruit young men to the cause and to transform the al-Qaeda group into a movement. Iraq was supposed to become the center of all operations with financial and military support for bases in other states.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Arising and Standing up\", was supposed to last from 2007 to 2010. In this phase, al-Qaeda wanted to execute additional attacks and focus their attention on Syria. Hussein believed other countries in the Arabian Peninsula were also in danger.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [ 47858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda expected a steady growth among their ranks and territories due to the declining power of the regimes in the Arabian Peninsula. The main focus of attack in this phase was supposed to be on oil suppliers and cyberterrorism, targeting the US economy and military infrastructure.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [ 771174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The declaration of an Islamic Caliphate, which was projected between 2013 and 2016. In this phase, al-Qaeda expected the resistance from Israel to be heavily reduced.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The declaration of an \"Islamic Army\" and a \"fight between believers and non-believers\", also called \"total confrontation\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Definitive Victory\", projected to be completed by 2020.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the seven-phase strategy, the war is projected to last less than two years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Charles Lister of the Middle East Institute and Katherine Zimmerman of the American Enterprise Institute, the new model of al-Qaeda is to \"socialize communities\" and build a broad territorial base of operations with the support of local communities, also gaining income independent of the funding of sheiks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Strategy", "target_page_ids": [ 4886900, 98692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 56 ], [ 88, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The English name of the organization is a simplified transliteration of the Arabic noun (), which means \"the foundation\" or \"the base\". The initial al- is the Arabic definite article \"the\", hence \"the base\". In Arabic, al-Qaeda has four syllables (). However, since two of the Arabic consonants in the name are not phones found in the English language, the common naturalized English pronunciations include , and . Al-Qaeda's name can also be transliterated as al-Qaida, al-Qa'ida, or el-Qaida.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 2209490, 48203, 22981, 947774, 30342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 68 ], [ 167, 183 ], [ 316, 322 ], [ 377, 399 ], [ 445, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The doctrinal concept of \"Al-Qaeda\" was first coined by the Palestinian Islamist scholar and Jihadist leader Abdullah Azzam in an April 1988 issue of Al-Jihad magazine to describe a religiously committed vanguard of Muslims who wage armed Jihad globally to liberate oppressed Muslims from foreign invaders, establish sharia (Islamic law) across the Islamic World by overthrowing the ruling secular governments; and thus restore the past Islamic prowess. This was to be implemented by establishing an Islamic state that would nurture generations of Muslim soldiers that would perpetually attack United States and its allied governments in the Muslim World. Numerous historical models were cited by Azzam as successful examples of his call; starting from the early Muslim conquests of the 7th century to the recent anti-Soviet Afghan Jihad of 1980s. According to Azzam's world-view: \"It is about time to think about a state that would be a solid base for the distribution of the (Islamic) creed, and a fortress to host the preachers from the hell of the Jahiliyyah [the pre-Islamic period].\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 23267, 15012, 7826589, 992200, 16203, 19541, 28840, 191429, 1460640, 2646438, 2867231, 2657728, 18305760, 882070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 71 ], [ 72, 80 ], [ 93, 101 ], [ 109, 123 ], [ 239, 244 ], [ 276, 283 ], [ 317, 323 ], [ 349, 362 ], [ 390, 409 ], [ 500, 513 ], [ 757, 779 ], [ 813, 824 ], [ 825, 837 ], [ 1052, 1062 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bin Laden explained the origin of the term in a videotaped interview with Al Jazeera journalist Tayseer Alouni in October 2001:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 48370461, 635635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 84 ], [ 96, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has been argued that two documents seized from the Sarajevo office of the Benevolence International Foundation prove the name was not simply adopted by the mujahideen movement and that a group called al-Qaeda was established in August 1988. Both of these documents contain minutes of meetings held to establish a new military group, and contain the term \"al-Qaeda\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 26786, 391390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 62 ], [ 77, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Former British Foreign Secretary Robin Cook wrote that the word al-Qaeda should be translated as \"the database\", because it originally referred to the computer file of the thousands of mujahideen militants who were recruited and trained with CIA help to defeat the Russians. In April 2002, the group assumed the name Qa'idat al-Jihad ( ), which means \"the base of Jihad\". According to Diaa Rashwan, this was \"apparently as a result of the merger of the overseas branch of Egypt's al-Jihad, which was led by Ayman al-Zawahiri, with the groups Bin Laden brought under his control after his return to Afghanistan in the mid-1990s.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Name", "target_page_ids": [ 186803, 26062699, 40477972, 319799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ], [ 385, 397 ], [ 480, 488 ], [ 507, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The radical Islamist movement developed during the Islamic revival and the rise of the Islamist movement after the Iranian Revolution (1978–1979).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ideology", "target_page_ids": [ 15012, 10909553, 15012, 347268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 20 ], [ 51, 66 ], [ 87, 104 ], [ 115, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some have argued that the writings of Islamic author and thinker Sayyid Qutb inspired the al-Qaeda organization. In the 1950s and 1960s, Qutb preached that because of the lack of sharia law, the Muslim world was no longer Muslim, and had reverted to the pre-Islamic ignorance known as jahiliyyah. To restore Islam, Qutb argued that a vanguard of righteous Muslims was needed in order to establish \"true Islamic states\", implement sharia, and rid the Muslim world of any non-Muslim influences. In Qutb's view, the enemies of Islam included \"world Jewry\", which \"plotted conspiracies\" and opposed Islam.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ideology", "target_page_ids": [ 23839057, 28840, 191429, 19541, 882070, 6037917, 19541, 2646438, 25955086, 360128 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 76 ], [ 179, 185 ], [ 195, 207 ], [ 222, 228 ], [ 285, 295 ], [ 308, 313 ], [ 356, 363 ], [ 403, 417 ], [ 540, 551 ], [ 569, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the words of Mohammed Jamal Khalifa, a close college friend of bin Laden: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ideology", "target_page_ids": [ 392535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Qutb also influenced Ayman al-Zawahiri. Zawahiri's uncle and maternal family patriarch, Mafouz Azzam, was Qutb's student, protégé, personal lawyer, and an executor of his estate. Azzam was one of the last people to see Qutb alive before his execution. Zawahiri paid homage to Qutb in his work Knights under the Prophet's Banner.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ideology", "target_page_ids": [ 319799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Qutb argued that many Muslims were not true Muslims. Some Muslims, Qutb argued, were apostates. These alleged apostates included leaders of Muslim countries, since they failed to enforce sharia law.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ideology", "target_page_ids": [ 1767413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Afghan jihad against the pro-Soviet government further developed the Salafist Jihadist movement which inspired Al-Qaeda. During this period, Al-Qaeda embraced the ideals of the South Asian militant revivalist Sayyid Ahmad Shahid (d. 1831/1246 A.H) who led a Jihad movement against British India from the frontiers of Afghanistan and Khyber-Pakhtunkwa in the early 19th century. Al-Qaeda readily adopted Sayyid Ahmad's doctrines such as returning to the purity of early generations (Salaf as-Salih), antipathy towards Western influences and restoration of Islamic political power. According to Pakistani journalist Hussain Haqqani, ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ideology", "target_page_ids": [ 6922857, 50465, 19360285, 21566765, 5052470, 1739108, 295335, 737, 21950, 1108215, 21208262, 28171281, 5116316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 29, 50 ], [ 73, 90 ], [ 181, 191 ], [ 213, 232 ], [ 262, 276 ], [ 285, 298 ], [ 321, 332 ], [ 337, 354 ], [ 486, 500 ], [ 521, 539 ], [ 597, 606 ], [ 618, 633 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al Qaeda aims to establish an Islamic state in the Arab World, modelled after the Rashidun Caliphate, by initiating a global Jihad against the \"International Jewish-Crusader Alliance\" led by the United States, which it sees as the \"external enemy\" and against the secular governments in Muslim countries, that are described as \"the apostate domestic enemy\". Once foreign influences and the secular ruling authorities are removed from Muslim countries through Jihad; Al Qaeda supports elections to choose the rulers of its proposed Islamic states. This is to be done through representatives of leadership councils (Shura) that would ensure the implementation of Shari'a (Islamic law). However, it opposes elections that institute parliaments which empower Muslim and non-Muslim legislators to collaborate in making laws of their own choosing. In the second edition of his book Knights Under the Banner of the Prophet, Ayman Al Zawahiri writes:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Ideology", "target_page_ids": [ 2646438, 159433, 8588509, 191429, 191429, 16203, 2646438, 192176, 28840, 319799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ], [ 51, 61 ], [ 82, 100 ], [ 287, 303 ], [ 434, 450 ], [ 459, 464 ], [ 531, 544 ], [ 614, 619 ], [ 661, 668 ], [ 917, 934 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abdel Bari Atwan wrote that:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religious compatibility", "target_page_ids": [ 3081125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following its 9/11 attack and in response to its condemnation by Islamic scholars, Al-Qaeda provided a justification for the killing of non-combatants/civilians, entitled, \"A Statement from Qaidat al-Jihad Regarding the Mandates of the Heroes and the Legality of the Operations in New York and Washington\". According to a couple of critics, Quintan Wiktorowicz and John Kaltner, it provides \"ample theological justification for killing civilians in almost any imaginable situation.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religious compatibility", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Among these justifications are that America is leading the west in waging a War on Islam so that attacks on America are a defense of Islam and any treaties and agreements between Muslim majority states and Western countries that would be violated by attacks are null and void. According to the tract, several conditions allow for the killing of civilians including:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religious compatibility", "target_page_ids": [ 316868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " retaliation for the American war on Islam which al-Qaeda alleges has targeted \"Muslim women, children and elderly\";", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religious compatibility", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " when it is too difficult to distinguish between non-combatants and combatants when attacking an enemy \"stronghold\" (hist) and/or non-combatants remain in enemy territory, killing them is allowed;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religious compatibility", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " those who assist the enemy \"in deed, word, mind\" are eligible for killing, and this includes the general population in democratic countries because civilians can vote in elections that bring enemies of Islam to power;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religious compatibility", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the necessity of killing in the war to protect Islam and Muslims;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religious compatibility", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the prophet Muhammad, when asked whether the Muslim fighters could use the catapult against the village of Taif, replied affirmatively, even though the enemy fighters were mixed with a civilian population;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religious compatibility", "target_page_ids": [ 201969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " if the women, children and other protected groups serve as human shields for the enemy;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religious compatibility", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " if the enemy has broken a treaty, killing of civilians is permitted.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religious compatibility", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Guardian in 2009 described five distinct phases in the development of al-Qaeda: its beginnings in the late 1980s, a \"wilderness\" period in 1990–1996, its \"heyday\" in 1996–2001, a network period from 2001 to 2005, and a period of fragmentation from 2005 to 2009.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19344515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The origins of al-Qaeda can be traced to the Soviet War in Afghanistan (December 1979February 1989). The United States viewed the conflict in Afghanistan in terms of the Cold War, with Marxists on one side and the native Afghan mujahideen on the other. This view led to a CIA program called Operation Cyclone, which channeled funds through Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence agency to the Afghan Mujahideen. The US government provided substantial financial support to the Afghan Islamic militants. Aid to Gulbuddin Hekmatyar, an Afghan mujahideen leader and founder of the Hezb-e Islami, amounted to more than $600million. In addition to American aid, Hekmatyar was the recipient of Saudi aid. In the early 1990s, after the US had withdrawn support, Hekmatyar \"worked closely\" with bin Laden.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 80197, 3434750, 325329, 1904053, 5183633, 8868782, 2159021, 161917, 518768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 70 ], [ 105, 118 ], [ 170, 178 ], [ 185, 192 ], [ 272, 275 ], [ 291, 308 ], [ 351, 378 ], [ 509, 528 ], [ 577, 590 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the same time, a growing number of Arab mujahideen joined the jihad against the Afghan Marxist regime, which was facilitated by international Muslim organizations, particularly the Maktab al-Khidamat (MAK). In 1984, MAK was established in Peshawar, Pakistan, by bin Laden and Abdullah Yusuf Azzam, a Palestinian Islamic scholar and member of the Muslim Brotherhood. MAK organized guest houses in Peshawar, near the Afghan border, and gathered supplies for the construction of paramilitary training camps to prepare foreign recruits for the Afghan war front. MAK was funded by the Saudi government as well as by individual Muslims including Saudi businessmen. Bin Laden also became a major financier of the mujahideen, spending his own money and using his connections to influence public opinion about the war.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 50465, 740471, 66230, 992200, 20742, 36124383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 104 ], [ 184, 202 ], [ 242, 250 ], [ 279, 299 ], [ 349, 367 ], [ 383, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1986, MAK began to set up a network of recruiting offices in the US, the hub of which was the Al Kifah Refugee Center at the Farouq Mosque on Brooklyn's Atlantic Avenue. Among notable figures at the Brooklyn center were \"double agent\" Ali Mohamed, whom FBI special agent Jack Cloonan called \"bin Laden's first trainer\", and \"Blind Sheikh\" Omar Abdel-Rahman, a leading recruiter of mujahideen for Afghanistan. Azzam and bin Laden began to establish camps in Afghanistan in 1987.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4666014, 47384, 4087395, 98564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 122 ], [ 147, 155 ], [ 240, 251 ], [ 344, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "MAK and foreign mujahideen volunteers, or \"Afghan Arabs\", did not play a major role in the war. While over 250,000 Afghan mujahideen fought the Soviets and the communist Afghan government, it is estimated that there were never more than two thousand foreign mujahideen on the field at any one time. Nonetheless, foreign mujahideen volunteers came from 43 countries, and the total number who participated in the Afghan movement between 1982 and 1992 is reported to have been 35,000. Bin Laden played a central role in organizing training camps for the foreign Muslim volunteers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 50465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Soviet Union withdrew from Afghanistan in 1989. Mohammad Najibullah's Communist Afghan government lasted for three more years, before it was overrun by elements of the mujahideen.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 20290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Toward the end of the Soviet military mission in Afghanistan, some foreign mujahideen wanted to expand their operations to include Islamist struggles in other parts of the world, such as Palestine and Kashmir. A number of overlapping and interrelated organizations were formed, to further those aspirations. One of these was the organization that would eventually be called al-Qaeda.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25682, 17337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ], [ 201, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Research suggests that al-Qaeda was formed on August 11, 1988, when a meeting in Afghanistan between leaders of Egyptian Islamic Jihad, Abdullah Azzam, and bin Laden took place. An agreement was reached to link bin Laden's money with the expertise of the Islamic Jihad organization and take up the jihadist cause elsewhere after the Soviets withdrew from Afghanistan.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40477972, 992200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 134 ], [ 136, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notes indicate al-Qaeda was a formal group by August 20, 1988. A list of requirements for membership itemized the following: listening ability, good manners, obedience, and making a pledge (Bay'at) to follow one's superiors. In his memoir, bin Laden's former bodyguard, Nasser al-Bahri, gives the only publicly available description of the ritual of giving bay'at when he swore his allegiance to the al-Qaeda chief. According to Wright, the group's real name was not used in public pronouncements because \"its existence was still a closely held secret.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4158359, 23110078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 196 ], [ 270, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Azzam was assassinated in 1989 and MAK broke up, significant numbers of MAK followers joined bin Laden's new organization.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In November 1989, Ali Mohamed, a former special forces sergeant stationed at Fort Bragg, North Carolina, left military service and moved to California. He traveled to Afghanistan and Pakistan and became \"deeply involved with bin Laden's plans.\" In 1991, Ali Mohammed is said to have helped orchestrate bin Laden's relocation to Sudan.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4087395, 127847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ], [ 77, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the Soviet Union's withdrawal from Afghanistan in February 1989, bin Laden returned to Saudi Arabia. The Iraqi invasion of Kuwait in August 1990 had put the Kingdom and its ruling House of Saud at risk. The world's most valuable oil fields were within striking distance of Iraqi forces in Kuwait, and Saddam's call to Pan-Arabism could potentially rally internal dissent.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2035563, 402558, 38667945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 139 ], [ 190, 203 ], [ 328, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the face of a seemingly massive Iraqi military presence, Saudi Arabia's own forces were outnumbered. Bin Laden offered the services of his mujahideen to King Fahd to protect Saudi Arabia from the Iraqi army. The Saudi monarch refused bin Laden's offer, opting instead to allow US and allied forces to deploy troops into Saudi territory.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 301839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The deployment angered bin Laden, as he believed the presence of foreign troops in the \"land of the two mosques\" (Mecca and Medina) profaned sacred soil. King Fahd's refusal of Bin Laden's offer to train the Mujahidin; instead giving permission for American soldiers to enter Saudi territory inorder to repel Saddam Hussein's forces would greatly anger Bin Laden. The entry of American troops into Saudi Arabia was denounced by Bin Laden as a \"Crusader Attack on Islam\" that defiled the sacred lands of Islam. He asserted that the Arabian Peninsula has been \"occupied\" by foreign invaders and excommunicated the Saudi regime due to its complicity with United States. After speaking publicly against the Saudi government for harboring American troops and rejecting their legitimacy, he was banished and forced to live in exile in Sudan. Bin Laden also vehemently denounced the elder Wahhabi scholarship; most notably Grand Mufti Abd al-Azeez Ibn Baz, accusing him of partnering with infidel forces over his verdict that permitted the entry of US troops.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21021, 36636, 29490, 349303, 4412145, 47858, 10338, 27421, 35885473, 2227738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 119 ], [ 124, 130 ], [ 309, 323 ], [ 398, 410 ], [ 444, 452 ], [ 487, 508 ], [ 593, 607 ], [ 829, 834 ], [ 916, 927 ], [ 928, 948 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From around 1992 to 1996, al-Qaeda and bin Laden based themselves in Sudan at the invitation of Islamist theoretician Hassan al-Turabi. The move followed an Islamist coup d'état in Sudan, led by Colonel Omar al-Bashir, who professed a commitment to reordering Muslim political values. During this time, bin Laden assisted the Sudanese government, bought or set up various business enterprises, and established training camps.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1088372, 393625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 134 ], [ 203, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A key turning point for bin Laden occurred in 1993 when Saudi Arabia gave support for the Oslo Accords, which set a path for peace between Israel and Palestinians. Due to bin Laden's continuous verbal assault on King Fahd of Saudi Arabia, Fahd sent an emissary to Sudan on March 5, 1994, demanding bin Laden's passport. Bin Laden's Saudi citizenship was also revoked. His family was persuaded to cut off his stipend, $7million a year, and his Saudi assets were frozen. His family publicly disowned him. There is controversy as to what extent bin Laden continued to garner support from members afterwards.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 36806601, 23267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 102 ], [ 150, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1993, a young schoolgirl was killed in an unsuccessful attempt on the life of the Egyptian prime minister, Atef Sedki. Egyptian public opinion turned against Islamist bombings, and the police arrested 280 of al-Jihad's members and executed 6. In June 1995, an attempt to assassinate Egyptian president Mubarak led to the expulsion of Egyptian Islamic Jihad (EIJ), and in May 1996, of bin Laden from Sudan.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 426170, 40477972, 40477972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 120 ], [ 263, 312 ], [ 337, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Pakistani-American businessman Mansoor Ijaz, the Sudanese government offered the Clinton Administration numerous opportunities to arrest bin Laden. Ijaz's claims appeared in numerous op-ed pieces, including one in the Los Angeles Times and one in The Washington Post co-written with former Ambassador to Sudan Timothy M. Carney. Similar allegations have been made by Vanity Fair contributing editor David Rose, and Richard Miniter, author of Losing bin Laden, in a November 2003 interview with World.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1892626, 2269057, 361745, 534478, 273319, 102226, 21322013, 286542, 2287660, 1173256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 31 ], [ 44, 56 ], [ 94, 116 ], [ 196, 201 ], [ 231, 248 ], [ 260, 279 ], [ 323, 340 ], [ 380, 391 ], [ 428, 443 ], [ 507, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several sources dispute Ijaz's claim, including the 9/11 Commission, which concluded in part: ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 353496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the fall of the Afghan communist regime in 1992, Afghanistan was effectively ungoverned for four years and plagued by constant infighting between various mujahideen groups. This situation allowed the Taliban to organize. The Taliban also garnered support from graduates of Islamic schools, which are called madrassa. According to Ahmed Rashid, five leaders of the Taliban were graduates of Darul Uloom Haqqania, a madrassa in the small town of Akora Khattak. The town is situated near Peshawar in Pakistan, but the school is largely attended by Afghan refugees. This institution reflected Salafi beliefs in its teachings, and much of its funding came from private donations from wealthy Arabs. Four of the Taliban's leaders attended a similarly funded and influenced madrassa in Kandahar. Bin Laden's contacts were laundering donations to these schools, and Islamic banks were used to transfer money to an \"array\" of charities which served as front groups for al-Qaeda.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 514860, 26690560, 3657017, 355699 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 336, 348 ], [ 396, 416 ], [ 551, 566 ], [ 595, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of the mujahideen who later joined the Taliban fought alongside Afghan warlord Mohammad Nabi Mohammadi's Harkat i Inqilabi group at the time of the Russian invasion. This group also enjoyed the loyalty of most Afghan Arab fighters.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2288681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The continuing lawlessness enabled the growing and well-disciplined Taliban to expand their control over territory in Afghanistan, and it came to establish an enclave which it called the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan. In 1994, it captured the regional center of Kandahar, and after making rapid territorial gains thereafter, the Taliban captured the capital city Kabul in September 1996.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 737, 16826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 217 ], [ 364, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1996, Taliban-controlled Afghanistan provided a perfect staging ground for al-Qaeda. While not officially working together, Al-Qaeda enjoyed the Taliban's protection and supported the regime in such a strong symbiotic relationship that many Western observers dubbed the Taliban's Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan as, \"the world's first terrorist-sponsored state.\" However, at this time, only Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates recognized the Taliban as the legitimate government of Afghanistan. In 1996, Osama Bin Laden officially issued the \"Declaration of Struggle against the Americans Occupying the Land of the Two Holy Mosques\" which called upon Muslims all over the world to take up arms against American soldiers. In an interview with the English journalist Robert Fisk; Bin Laden criticised American imperialism and its support for Zionism as the biggest sources of tyranny in the Arab World. He vehemently denounced the US-allied Gulf monarchies; especially the Saudi government for westernising the country, removing Islamic laws and hosting American, British and French troops. Bin Laden asserted that he planned to foment an armed rebellion to overthrow the Saudi regime with the help of his Mujahidin soldiers and establish an Islamic Emirate in Arabian Peninsula that properly upholds Sharia (Islamic law). Upon questioned whether he sought to launch a war against the Western world; Bin Laden replied: \"It is not a declaration of war - it's a real description of the situation. This doesn't mean declaring war against the West and Western people - but against the American regime which is against every Muslim.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22468, 51608, 215140, 34484, 159433, 3088555, 18305760, 275589, 47858, 28840, 21208200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 523, 538 ], [ 784, 795 ], [ 818, 838 ], [ 859, 866 ], [ 908, 918 ], [ 958, 973 ], [ 1223, 1232 ], [ 1259, 1274 ], [ 1278, 1295 ], [ 1318, 1324 ], [ 1402, 1415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In response to the 1998 United States embassy bombings, an al-Qaeda base in Khost Province was attacked by the United States during Operation Infinite Reach.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10078354, 457249, 495671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 54 ], [ 76, 90 ], [ 132, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While in Afghanistan, the Taliban government tasked al-Qaeda with the training of Brigade 055, an elite element of the Taliban's army. The Brigade mostly consisted of foreign fighters, veterans from the Soviet Invasion, and adherents to the ideology of the mujahideen. In November 2001, as Operation Enduring Freedom had toppled the Taliban government, many Brigade 055 fighters were captured or killed, and those who survived were thought to have escaped into Pakistan along with bin Laden.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1401135, 19666611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 93 ], [ 290, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the end of 2008, some sources reported that the Taliban had severed any remaining ties with al-Qaeda, however, there is reason to doubt this. According to senior US military intelligence officials, there were fewer than 100 members of al-Qaeda remaining in Afghanistan in 2009.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Al Qaeda chief, Asim Omar was killed in Afghanistan's Musa Qala district after a joint US–Afghanistan commando airstrike on September 23, Afghan's National Directorate of Security (NDS) confirmed in October 2019.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a report released May 27, 2020, the United Nations' Analytical Support and Sanctions Monitoring Team stated that the Taliban-Al Qaeda relations remain strong to this day and additionally, Al Qaeda itself has admitted that it operates inside Afghanistan.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On July 26, 2020, a United Nations report stated that the Al Qaeda group is still active in twelve provinces in Afghanistan and its leader al-Zawahiri is still based in the country. and that the UN Monitoring Team estimated that the total number of Al Qaeda fighters in Afghanistan were \"between 400 and 600\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 31769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1994, the Salafi groups waging Salafi jihadism in Bosnia entered into decline, and groups such as the Egyptian Islamic Jihad began to drift away from the Salafi cause in Europe. Al-Qaeda stepped in and assumed control of around 80% of non-state armed cells in Bosnia in late 1995. At the same time, al-Qaeda ideologues instructed the network's recruiters to look for Jihadi international Muslims who believed that extremist-jihad must be fought on a global level. Al-Qaeda also sought to open the \"offensive phase\" of the global Salafi jihad. Bosnian Islamists in 2006 called for \"solidarity with Islamic causes around the world\", supporting the insurgents in Kashmir and Iraq as well as the groups fighting for a Palestinian state.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19360285, 40477972, 21537836, 14558092, 7826589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 49 ], [ 105, 127 ], [ 238, 253 ], [ 254, 259 ], [ 370, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1996, al-Qaeda announced its jihad to expel foreign troops and interests from what they considered Islamic lands. Bin Laden issued a fatwa, which amounted to a public declaration of war against the US and its allies, and began to refocus al-Qaeda's resources on large-scale, propagandist strikes.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On February 23, 1998, bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri, a leader of Egyptian Islamic Jihad, along with three other Islamist leaders, co-signed and issued a fatwa calling on Muslims to kill Americans and their allies. Under the banner of the World Islamic Front for Combat Against the Jews and Crusaders, they declared:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Neither bin Laden nor al-Zawahiri possessed the traditional Islamic scholarly qualifications to issue a fatwa. However, they rejected the authority of the contemporary ulema (which they saw as the paid servants of jahiliyya rulers), and took it upon themselves.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 165511, 882070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 173 ], [ 214, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda-affiliated terrorist Ramzi Yousef operated in the Philippines in the mid-1990s and trained Abu Sayyaf soldiers. The 2002 edition of the United States Department's Patterns of Global Terrorism mention links of Abu Sayyaf to Al-Qaeda. Abu Sayyaf is known for a series of kidnappings from tourists in both the Philippines and Malaysia that netted them large sums of money through ransoms. The leader of Abu Sayyaf, Abdurajak Abubakar Janjalani, was also a veteran fighting in the Soviet-Afghan War. In 2014, Abu Sayyaf pledged allegiance to the Islamic State group.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 351496, 23440, 2216, 3607937, 4066909, 9087364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ], [ 59, 70 ], [ 100, 110 ], [ 332, 340 ], [ 421, 449 ], [ 551, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda has launched attacks against the Iraqi Shia majority in an attempt to incite sectarian violence. Al-Zarqawi purportedly declared an all-out war on Shiites while claiming responsibility for Shiite mosque bombings. The same month, a statement claiming to be from Al-Qaeda in Iraq was rejected as a \"fake\". In a December 2007 video, al-Zawahiri defended the Islamic State in Iraq, but distanced himself from the attacks against civilians, which he deemed to be perpetrated by \"hypocrites and traitors existing among the ranks\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26961, 648554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 52 ], [ 86, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "US and Iraqi officials accused Al-Qaeda in Iraq of trying to slide Iraq into a full-scale civil war between Iraq's Shiite population and Sunni Arabs. This was done through an orchestrated campaign of civilian massacres and a number of provocative attacks against high-profile religious targets. With attacks including the 2003 Imam Ali Mosque bombing, the 2004 Day of Ashura and Karbala and Najaf bombings, the 2006 first al-Askari Mosque bombing in Samarra, the deadly single-day series of bombings in which at least 215 people were killed in Baghdad's Shiite district of Sadr City, and the second al-Askari bombing in 2007, Al-Qaeda in Iraq provoked Shiite militias to unleash a wave of retaliatory attacks, resulting in death squad-style killings and further sectarian violence which escalated in 2006. In 2008, sectarian bombings blamed on al-Qaeda in Iraq killed at least 42 people at the Imam Husayn Shrine in Karbala in March, and at least 51 people at a bus stop in Baghdad in June.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 308147, 4176008, 201332, 8089422, 210704, 11778462, 123443, 16659150, 3809000, 19296487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 327, 342 ], [ 416, 446 ], [ 450, 457 ], [ 481, 540 ], [ 573, 582 ], [ 592, 616 ], [ 723, 734 ], [ 868, 886 ], [ 894, 912 ], [ 938, 956 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2014, after a prolonged dispute with al-Qaeda in Iraq's successor organisation, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIS), al-Qaeda publicly announced it was cutting all ties with the group, reportedly for its brutality and \"notorious intractability\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9087364 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Somalia, al-Qaeda agents had been collaborating closely with its Somali wing, which was created from the al-Shabaab group. In February 2012, al-Shabaab officially joined al-Qaeda, declaring loyalty in a video. Somali al-Qaeda recruited children for suicide-bomber training and recruited young people to participate in militant actions against Americans.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The percentage of attacks in the First World originating from the Afghanistan–Pakistan (AfPak) border declined starting in 2007, as al-Qaeda shifted to Somalia and Yemen. While al-Qaeda leaders were hiding in the tribal areas along the AfPak border, middle-tier leaders heightened activity in Somalia and Yemen.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 160353, 21517794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 44 ], [ 88, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2009, al-Qaeda's division in Saudi Arabia merged with its Yemeni wing to form al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula (AQAP). Centered in Yemen, the group takes advantage of the country's poor economy, demography and domestic security. In August 2009, the group made an assassination attempt against a member of the Saudi royal family. President Obama asked Ali Abdullah Saleh to ensure closer cooperation with the US in the struggle against the growing activity of al-Qaeda in Yemen, and promised to send additional aid. The wars in Iraq and Afghanistan drew US attention from Somalia and Yemen. In December 2011, US Secretary of Defense Leon Panetta said the US operations against al-Qaeda \"are now concentrating on key groups in Yemen, Somalia and North Africa.\" Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula claimed responsibility for the 2009 bombing attack on Northwest Airlines Flight 253 by Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab. The AQAP declared the Al-Qaeda Emirate in Yemen on March 31, 2011, after capturing the most of the Abyan Governorate.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9794248, 215609, 757584, 25558793, 25565709, 2597550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 122 ], [ 363, 381 ], [ 644, 656 ], [ 859, 888 ], [ 892, 917 ], [ 1018, 1035 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the Saudi-led military intervention in Yemen escalated in July 2015, fifty civilians had been killed and twenty million needed aid. In February 2016, al-Qaeda forces and Saudi Arabian-led coalition forces were both seen fighting Houthi rebels in the same battle. In August 2018, Al Jazeera reported that \"A military coalition battling Houthi rebels secured secret deals with al-Qaeda in Yemen and recruited hundreds of the group's fighters.... Key figures in the deal-making said the United States was aware of the arrangements and held off on drone attacks against the armed group, which was created by Osama bin Laden in 1988.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 46230181, 349303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 47 ], [ 173, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1998, the Director of the CIA Counterterrorism Center reported to President Bill Clinton that al-Qaeda was preparing to launch attacks in the United States, and the group was training personnel to hijack aircraft. On September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda attacked the United States, hijacking four airliners within the country and deliberately crashing two into the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. The third plane crashed into the western side of the Pentagon in Arlington County, Virginia. The fourth plane was crashed into a field in Shanksville, Pennsylvania. In total, the attackers killed 2,977 victims and injured more than 6,000 others.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12722942, 3356, 5058690, 45645094, 645042, 20740978, 91363, 133818 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 65 ], [ 88, 100 ], [ 258, 284 ], [ 388, 406 ], [ 410, 423 ], [ 474, 486 ], [ 490, 516 ], [ 563, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "US officials noted that Anwar al-Awlaki had considerable reach within the US. A former FBI agent identified Awlaki as a known \"senior recruiter for al-Qaeda\", and a spiritual motivator. Awlaki's sermons in the US were attended by three of the 9/11 hijackers, and accused Fort Hood shooter Nidal Hasan. US intelligence intercepted emails from Hasan to Awlaki between December 2008 and early 2009. On his website, Awlaki has praised Hasan's actions in the Fort Hood shooting.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6339494, 24976495, 24979391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 39 ], [ 271, 288 ], [ 289, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An unnamed official claimed there was good reason to believe Awlaki \"has been involved in very serious terrorist activities since leaving the US [in 2002], including plotting attacks against America and our allies.\" US President Barack Obama approved the targeted killing of al-Awlaki by April 2010, making al-Awlaki the first US citizen ever placed on the CIA target list. That required the consent of the US National Security Council, and officials argued that the attack was appropriate because the individual posed an imminent danger to national security. In May 2010, Faisal Shahzad, who pleaded guilty to the 2010 Times Square car bombing attempt, told interrogators he was \"inspired by\" al-Awlaki, and sources said Shahzad had made contact with al-Awlaki over the Internet. Representative Jane Harman called him \"terrorist number one\", and Investor's Business Daily called him \"the world's most dangerous man\". In July 2010, the US Treasury Department added him to its list of Specially Designated Global Terrorists, and the UN added him to its list of individuals associated with al-Qaeda. In August 2010, al-Awlaki's father initiated a lawsuit against the US government with the American Civil Liberties Union, challenging its order to kill al-Awlaki. In October 2010, US and UK officials linked al-Awlaki to the 2010 cargo plane bomb plot. In September 2011, al-Awlaki was killed in a targeted killing drone attack in Yemen. On March 16, 2012, it was reported that Osama bin Laden plotted to kill US President Barack Obama.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 534366, 33928336, 44026, 27216202, 27183796, 401022, 4665754, 53667, 25131205, 1950, 29416816, 22468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 241 ], [ 255, 271 ], [ 407, 435 ], [ 573, 587 ], [ 615, 652 ], [ 796, 807 ], [ 847, 872 ], [ 936, 958 ], [ 984, 1021 ], [ 1188, 1218 ], [ 1322, 1348 ], [ 1475, 1490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On May 1, 2011, US President Barack Obama announced that Osama bin Laden had been killed by \"a small team of Americans\" acting under direct orders, in a covert operation in Abbottabad, Pakistan. The action took place north of Islamabad. According to US officials, a team of 20–25 US Navy SEALs under the command of the Joint Special Operations Command stormed bin Laden's compound with two helicopters. Bin Laden and those with him were killed during a firefight in which US forces experienced no casualties. According to one US official the attack was carried out without the knowledge or consent of the Pakistani authorities. In Pakistan some people were reported to be shocked at the unauthorized incursion by US armed forces. The site is a few miles from the Pakistan Military Academy in Kakul. In his broadcast announcement President Obama said that US forces \"took care to avoid civilian casualties\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 31663576, 140387, 38188, 2635111, 3559531, 3263153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 169 ], [ 173, 183 ], [ 281, 294 ], [ 320, 352 ], [ 764, 789 ], [ 793, 798 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Details soon emerged that three men and a woman were killed along with bin Laden, the woman being killed when she was \"used as a shield by a male combatant\". DNA from bin Laden's body, compared with DNA samples on record from his dead sister, confirmed bin Laden's identity. The body was recovered by the US military and was in its custody until, according to one US official, his body was buried at sea according to Islamic traditions. One US official said that \"finding a country willing to accept the remains of the world's most wanted terrorist would have been difficult.\" US State Department issued a \"Worldwide caution\" for Americans following bin Laden's death and US diplomatic facilities everywhere were placed on high alert, a senior US official said. Crowds gathered outside the White House and in New York City's Times Square to celebrate bin Laden's death.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7955, 617383, 33057, 31389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 161 ], [ 390, 403 ], [ 790, 801 ], [ 825, 837 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2003, President Bashar al-Assad revealed in an interview with a Kuwaiti newspaper that he doubted al-Qaeda even existed. He was quoted as saying, \"Is there really an entity called al-Qaeda? Was it in Afghanistan? Does it exist now?\" He went on further to remark about bin Laden, commenting \"[he] cannot talk on the phone or use the Internet, but he can direct communications to the four corners of the world? This is illogical.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 364813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the mass protests that took place in 2011, which demanded the resignation of al-Assad, al-Qaeda-affiliated groups and Sunni sympathizers soon began to constitute an effective fighting force against al-Assad. Before the Syrian Civil War, al-Qaeda's presence in Syria was negligible, but its growth thereafter was rapid. Groups such as the al-Nusra Front and the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant have recruited many foreign Mujahideen to train and fight in what has gradually become a highly sectarian war. Ideologically, the Syrian Civil War has served the interests of al-Qaeda as it pits a mainly Sunni opposition against a secular government. Al-Qaeda and other fundamentalist Sunni militant groups have invested heavily in the civil conflict, at times actively backing and supporting the mainstream Syrian Opposition.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30741795, 34929376, 9087364, 18305760, 30741795, 33975261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 245 ], [ 348, 362 ], [ 371, 407 ], [ 436, 446 ], [ 538, 554 ], [ 816, 833 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On February 2, 2014, al-Qaeda distanced itself from ISIS and its actions in Syria; however, during 2014–15, ISIS and the al-Qaeda-linked al-Nusra Front were still able to occasionally cooperate in their fight against the Syrian government. Al-Nusra (backed by Saudi Arabia and Turkey as part of the Army of Conquest during 2015–2017) launched many attacks and bombings, mostly against targets affiliated with or supportive of the Syrian government. From October 2015, Russian air strikes targeted positions held by al-Nusra Front, as well as other Islamist and non-Islamist rebels, while the US also targeted al-Nusra with airstrikes. In early 2016, a leading ISIL ideologue described al-Qaeda as the \"Jews of jihad\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 34929376, 46226442, 49277698, 48026864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 151 ], [ 299, 315 ], [ 360, 368 ], [ 468, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2014, al-Zawahiri announced al-Qaeda was establishing a front in India to \"wage jihad against its enemies, to liberate its land, to restore its sovereignty, and to revive its Caliphate.\" Al-Zawahiri nominated India as a beachhead for regional jihad taking in neighboring countries such as Myanmar and Bangladesh. The motivation for the video was questioned, as it appeared the militant group was struggling to remain relevant in light of the emerging prominence of ISIS. The new wing was to be known as \"Qaedat al-Jihad fi'shibhi al-qarrat al-Hindiya\" or al-Qaida in the Indian Subcontinent (AQIS). Leaders of several Indian Muslim organizations rejected al-Zawahiri's pronouncement, saying they could see no good coming from it, and viewed it as a threat to Muslim youth in the country.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, Zee News reported that Bruce Riedel, a former CIA analyst and National Security Council official for South Asia, had accused the Pakistani military intelligence and Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) of organising and assisting Al-Qaeda to organise in India, that Pakistan ought to be warned that it will be placed on the list of State Sponsors of Terrorism, and that \"Zawahiri made the tape in his hideout in Pakistan, no doubt, and many Indians suspect the ISI is helping to protect him.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14883038, 15795463, 2159021, 83986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 32, 44 ], [ 174, 201 ], [ 338, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2021, after the success of 2021 Taliban offensive, al-Qaeda congratulated Taliban and called for liberation of Kashmir from the \"clutches of the enemies of Islam\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 68187748, 30635, 17337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 62 ], [ 87, 94 ], [ 124, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda has carried out a total of six major attacks, four of them in its jihad against America. In each case the leadership planned the attack years in advance, arranging for the shipment of weapons and explosives and using its businesses to provide operatives with safehouses and false identities.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Attacks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To prevent the former Afghan king Mohammed Zahir Shah from coming back from exile and possibly becoming head of a new government, bin Laden instructed a Portuguese convert to Islam, Paulo Jose de Almeida Santos, to assassinate Zahir Shah. On November 4, 1991, Santos entered the king's villa in Rome posing as a journalist and tried to stab him with a dagger. A tin of cigarillos in the king's breast pocket deflected the blade and saved Zahir Shah's life. Santos was apprehended and jailed for 10 years in Italy.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Attacks", "target_page_ids": [ 20886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On December 29, 1992, al-Qaeda launched the 1992 Yemen hotel bombings. Two bombs were detonated in Aden, Yemen. The first target was the Movenpick Hotel and the second was the parking lot of the Goldmohur Hotel.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Attacks", "target_page_ids": [ 39247096, 38050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 69 ], [ 99, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bombings were an attempt to eliminate American soldiers on their way to Somalia to take part in the international famine relief effort, Operation Restore Hope. Internally, al-Qaeda considered the bombing a victory that frightened the Americans away, but in the US, the attack was barely noticed. No American soldiers were killed because no soldiers were staying in the hotel which was bombed. However, an Australian tourist and a Yemeni hotel worker were killed in the bombing. Seven others, mostly Yemenis, were severely injured. Two fatwas are said to have been appointed by al-Qaeda's members, Mamdouh Mahmud Salim, to justify the killings according to Islamic law. Salim referred to a famous fatwa appointed by Ibn Taymiyyah, a 13th-century scholar much admired by Wahhabis, which sanctioned resistance by any means during the Mongol invasions.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Attacks", "target_page_ids": [ 3176864, 9759031, 272074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 162 ], [ 601, 621 ], [ 719, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1996, bin Laden personally engineered a plot to assassinate United States President Bill Clinton while the president was in Manila for the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. However, intelligence agents intercepted a message before the motorcade was to leave, and alerted the US Secret Service. Agents later discovered a bomb planted under a bridge.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Attacks", "target_page_ids": [ 3356, 184334, 135976, 58221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 99 ], [ 127, 133 ], [ 142, 175 ], [ 279, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On August 7, 1998, al-Qaeda bombed the US embassies in East Africa, killing 224 people, including 12 Americans. In retaliation, a barrage of cruise missiles launched by the US military devastated an al-Qaeda base in Khost, Afghanistan. The network's capacity was unharmed. In late 1999 and 2000, Al-Qaeda planned attacks to coincide with the millennium, masterminded by Abu Zubaydah and involving Abu Qatada, which would include the bombing of Christian holy sites in Jordan, the bombing of Los Angeles International Airport by Ahmed Ressam, and the bombing of the .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Attacks", "target_page_ids": [ 10078354, 6590, 400068, 400976, 3117, 2739046, 18131, 194217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 66 ], [ 141, 155 ], [ 216, 221 ], [ 313, 352 ], [ 370, 382 ], [ 397, 407 ], [ 491, 524 ], [ 528, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On October 12, 2000, al-Qaeda militants in Yemen bombed the missile destroyer USS Cole in a suicide attack, killing 17 US servicemen and damaging the vessel while it lay offshore. Inspired by the success of such a brazen attack, al-Qaeda's command core began to prepare for an attack on the US itself.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Attacks", "target_page_ids": [ 31981, 232005, 197334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 55 ], [ 60, 77 ], [ 78, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The September 11 attacks on America by al-Qaeda killed 2,977 people2,507 civilians, 343 firefighters, 72 law enforcement officers, and 55 military personnel. Two commercial airliners were deliberately flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center, a third into the Pentagon, and a fourth, originally intended to target either the United States Capitol or the White House, crashed in a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania. It was also the deadliest foreign attack on American soil since the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Attacks", "target_page_ids": [ 31979, 33057, 133818, 60098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 358 ], [ 366, 377 ], [ 426, 451 ], [ 521, 552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The attacks were conducted by al-Qaeda, acting in accord with the 1998 fatwa issued against the US and its allies by persons under the command of bin Laden, al-Zawahiri, and others. Evidence points to suicide squads led by al-Qaeda military commander Mohamed Atta as the culprits of the attacks, with bin Laden, Ayman al-Zawahiri, Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, and Hambali as the key planners and part of the political and military command.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Attacks", "target_page_ids": [ 2825413, 20487, 190884, 368299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 76 ], [ 251, 263 ], [ 331, 353 ], [ 359, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Messages issued by bin Laden after September 11, 2001, praised the attacks, and explained their motivation while denying any involvement. Bin Laden legitimized the attacks by identifying grievances felt by both mainstream and Islamist Muslims, such as the general perception that the US was actively oppressing Muslims.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Attacks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bin Laden asserted that America was massacring Muslims in \"Palestine, Chechnya, Kashmir and Iraq\" and Muslims should retain the \"right to attack in reprisal\". He also claimed the 9/11 attacks were not targeted at people, but \"America's icons of military and economic power\", despite the fact he planned to attack in the morning when most of the people in the intended targets were present and thus generating the maximum number of human casualties.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Attacks", "target_page_ids": [ 24093, 6095, 17337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 68 ], [ 70, 78 ], [ 80, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evidence later came to light that the original targets for the attack may have been nuclear power stations on the US East Coast. The targets were later altered by al-Qaeda, as it was feared that such an attack \"might get out of hand\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Attacks", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda is deemed a designated terrorist group by the following countries and international organizations:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Designation as a terrorist group", "target_page_ids": [ 63578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " designated Al-Qaeda's Turkish branch", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Designation as a terrorist group", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " United Nations Security Council", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Designation as a terrorist group", "target_page_ids": [ 31956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the immediate aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, the US government responded, and began to prepare its armed forces to overthrow the Taliban, which it believed was harboring al-Qaeda. The US offered Taliban leader Mullah Omar a chance to surrender bin Laden and his top associates. The first forces to be inserted into Afghanistan were paramilitary officers from the CIA's elite Special Activities Division (SAD).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "War on terror", "target_page_ids": [ 5831875, 32212, 86175, 740220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 75 ], [ 102, 114 ], [ 213, 224 ], [ 378, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Taliban offered to turn over bin Laden to a neutral country for trial if the US would provide evidence of bin Laden's complicity in the attacks. US President George W. Bush responded by saying: \"We know he's guilty. Turn him over\", and British Prime Minister Tony Blair warned the Taliban regime: \"Surrender bin Laden, or surrender power.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "War on terror", "target_page_ids": [ 30635, 284003, 3414021, 3301347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 48, 63 ], [ 162, 176 ], [ 263, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soon thereafter the US and its allies invaded Afghanistan, and together with the Afghan Northern Alliance removed the Taliban government as part of the war in Afghanistan. As a result of the US special forces and air support for the Northern Alliance ground forces, a number of Taliban and al-Qaeda training camps were destroyed, and much of the operating structure of al-Qaeda is believed to have been disrupted. After being driven from their key positions in the Tora Bora area of Afghanistan, many al-Qaeda fighters tried to regroup in the rugged Gardez region of the nation.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "War on terror", "target_page_ids": [ 2288455, 19666611, 23489383, 600792, 3563707, 31300, 194162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 105 ], [ 152, 170 ], [ 194, 208 ], [ 213, 224 ], [ 290, 313 ], [ 465, 474 ], [ 550, 556 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By early 2002, al-Qaeda had been dealt a serious blow to its operational capacity, and the Afghan invasion appeared to be a success. Nevertheless, a significant Taliban insurgency remained in Afghanistan.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "War on terror", "target_page_ids": [ 4512092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Debate continued regarding the nature of al-Qaeda's role in the 9/11 attacks. The US State Department released a videotape showing bin Laden speaking with a small group of associates somewhere in Afghanistan shortly before the Taliban was removed from power. Although its authenticity has been questioned by a couple of people, the tape definitively implicates bin Laden and al-Qaeda in the September 11 attacks. The tape was aired on many television channels, with an accompanying English translation provided by the US Defense Department.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "War on terror", "target_page_ids": [ 31975, 32755, 29840, 7279897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 101 ], [ 113, 122 ], [ 440, 459 ], [ 518, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2004, the 9/11 Commission officially concluded that the attacks were conceived and implemented by al-Qaeda operatives. In October 2004, bin Laden appeared to claim responsibility for the attacks in a videotape released through Al Jazeera, saying he was inspired by Israeli attacks on high-rises in the 1982 invasion of Lebanon: \"As I looked at those demolished towers in Lebanon, it entered my mind that we should punish the oppressor in kind and that we should destroy towers in America in order that they taste some of what we tasted and so that they be deterred from killing our women and children.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "War on terror", "target_page_ids": [ 353496, 1115808, 181820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 38 ], [ 213, 222 ], [ 320, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the end of 2004, the US government proclaimed that two-thirds of the most senior al-Qaeda figures from 2001 had been captured and interrogated by the CIA: Abu Zubaydah, Ramzi bin al-Shibh and Abd al-Rahim al-Nashiri in 2002; Khalid Sheikh Mohammed in 2003; and Saif al Islam el Masry in 2004. Mohammed Atef and several others were killed. The West was criticized for not being able to handle Al-Qaida despite a decade of the war.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "War on terror", "target_page_ids": [ 3117, 85201, 1027583, 190884, 9908776, 38850084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 170 ], [ 172, 190 ], [ 195, 218 ], [ 228, 250 ], [ 264, 286 ], [ 296, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda involvement in Africa has included a number of bombing attacks in North Africa, while supporting parties in civil wars in Eritrea and Somalia. From 1991 to 1996, bin Laden and other al-Qaeda leaders were based in Sudan.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 19174448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Islamist rebels in the Sahara calling themselves al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb have stepped up their violence in recent years. French officials say the rebels have no real links to the al-Qaeda leadership, but this has been disputed. It seems likely that bin Laden approved the group's name in late 2006, and the rebels \"took on the al Qaeda franchise label\", almost a year before the violence began to escalate.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 325363, 30875850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 29 ], [ 49, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Mali, the Ansar Dine faction was also reported as an ally of al-Qaeda in 2013. The Ansar al Dine faction aligned themselves with the AQIM.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 35175793, 30875850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 23 ], [ 136, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011, Al-Qaeda's North African wing condemned Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi and declared support for the Anti-Gaddafi rebels.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 53029, 31018476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 78 ], [ 108, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the Libyan Civil War, the removal of Gaddafi and the ensuing period of post-civil war violence in Libya, various Islamist militant groups affiliated with al-Qaeda were able to expand their operations in the region. The 2012 Benghazi attack, which resulted in the death of US Ambassador J. Christopher Stevens and three other Americans, is suspected of having been carried out by various Jihadist networks, such as Al-Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb, Ansar al-Sharia and several other Al-Qaeda affiliated groups. The capture of Nazih Abdul-Hamed al-Ruqai, a senior al-Qaeda operative wanted by the United States for his involvement in the 1998 United States embassy bombings, on October 5, 2013, by US Navy Seals, FBI and CIA agents illustrates the importance the US and other Western allies have placed on North Africa.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 30706524, 53029, 34477025, 15012, 37018641, 153068, 36993318, 7826589, 30875850, 33653498, 695470, 10078354, 38188, 11127, 5183633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 30 ], [ 47, 54 ], [ 81, 113 ], [ 123, 131 ], [ 229, 249 ], [ 282, 295 ], [ 296, 318 ], [ 397, 405 ], [ 424, 455 ], [ 457, 472 ], [ 534, 560 ], [ 645, 680 ], [ 705, 718 ], [ 720, 723 ], [ 728, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the September 11 attacks, al-Qaeda was present in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and its members were mostly veterans of the El Mudžahid detachment of the Bosnian Muslim Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Three al-Qaeda operatives carried out the Mostar car bombing in 1997. The operatives were closely linked to and financed by the Saudi High Commission for Relief of Bosnia and Herzegovina founded by then-prince King Salman of Saudi Arabia.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 5058690, 45370360, 14540798, 4675739, 46552515, 8324524, 2049120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 33 ], [ 35, 43 ], [ 127, 138 ], [ 172, 218 ], [ 262, 280 ], [ 348, 406 ], [ 435, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the 9/11 attacks and the US invasion of Afghanistan, westerners who had been recruits at al-Qaeda training camps were sought after by al-Qaeda's military wing. Language skills and knowledge of Western culture were generally found among recruits from Europe, such was the case with Mohamed Atta, an Egyptian national studying in Germany at the time of his training, and other members of the Hamburg Cell. Osama bin Laden and Mohammed Atef would later designate Atta as the ringleader of the 9/11 hijackers. Following the attacks, Western intelligence agencies determined that al-Qaeda cells operating in Europe had aided the hijackers with financing and communications with the central leadership based in Afghanistan.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 20487, 867270, 22468, 38850084, 28045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 288, 300 ], [ 397, 409 ], [ 411, 426 ], [ 431, 444 ], [ 497, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2003, Islamists carried out a series of bombings in Istanbul killing fifty-seven people and injuring seven hundred. Seventy-four people were charged by the Turkish authorities. Some had previously met bin Laden, and though they specifically declined to pledge allegiance to al-Qaeda they asked for its blessing and help.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 3391396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, three Londoners, Tanvir Hussain, Assad Sarwar and Ahmed Abdullah Ali, were convicted of conspiring to detonate bombs disguised as soft drinks on seven airplanes bound for Canada and the US The MI5 investigation regarding the plot involved more than a year of surveillance work conducted by over two hundred officers. British and US officials said the plotunlike many similar homegrown European Islamic militant plotswas directly linked to al-Qaeda and guided by senior al-Qaeda members in Pakistan.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 24276432, 100076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 197 ], [ 202, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, Russian Intelligence indicated that al-Qaeda had given a call for \"forest jihad\" and has been starting massive forest fires as part of a strategy of \"thousand cuts\".", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following Yemeni unification in 1990, Wahhabi networks began moving missionaries into the country. Although it is unlikely bin Laden or Saudi al-Qaeda were directly involved, the personal connections they made would be established over the next decade and used in the USS Cole bombing. Concerns grew over Al Qaeda's group in Yemen.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 5832149, 31981, 25816542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ], [ 268, 284 ], [ 325, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Iraq, al-Qaeda forces loosely associated with the leadership were embedded in the Jama'at al-Tawhid wal-Jihad group commanded by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi. Specializing in suicide operations, they have been a \"key driver\" of the Sunni insurgency. Although they played a small part in the overall insurgency, between 30% and 42% of all suicide bombings which took place in the early years were claimed by Zarqawi's group. Reports have indicated that oversights such as the failure to control access to the Qa'qaa munitions factory in Yusufiyah have allowed large quantities of munitions to fall into the hands of al-Qaida. In November 2010, the militant group Islamic State of Iraq, which is linked to al-Qaeda in Iraq, threatened to \"exterminate all Iraqi Christians\".", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 748820, 8484783, 847626, 7987722, 39955935, 11930493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 112 ], [ 132, 152 ], [ 227, 243 ], [ 531, 540 ], [ 657, 678 ], [ 748, 764 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda did not begin training Palestinians until the late 1990s. Large groups such as Hamas and Palestinian Islamic Jihad have rejected an alliance with al-Qaeda, fearing that al-Qaeda will co-opt their cells. This may have changed recently. The Israeli security and intelligence services believe al-Qaeda has managed to infiltrate operatives from the Occupied Territories into Israel, and is waiting for an opportunity to attack.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 23267, 13913, 13093253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 44 ], [ 88, 93 ], [ 98, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Turkey are openly supporting the Army of Conquest, an umbrella rebel group fighting in the Syrian Civil War against the Syrian government that reportedly includes an al-Qaeda linked al-Nusra Front and another Salafi coalition known as Ahrar al-Sham.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 46226442, 30741795, 34929376, 19360285, 36980009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 75 ], [ 117, 133 ], [ 208, 222 ], [ 235, 241 ], [ 261, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bin Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri consider India to be a part of an alleged Crusader-Zionist-Hindu conspiracy against the Islamic world. According to a 2005 report by the Congressional Research Service, bin Laden was involved in training militants for Jihad in Kashmir while living in Sudan in the early 1990s. By 2001, Kashmiri militant group Harkat-ul-Mujahideen had become a part of the al-Qaeda coalition. According to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), al-Qaeda was thought to have established bases in Pakistan administered Kashmir (in Azad Kashmir, and to some extent in Gilgit–Baltistan) during the 1999 Kargil War and continued to operate there with tacit approval of Pakistan's Intelligence services.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 370772, 1260693, 31964, 17337, 2745, 18807336, 803754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 199 ], [ 342, 362 ], [ 425, 470 ], [ 530, 559 ], [ 564, 576 ], [ 600, 616 ], [ 634, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of the militants active in Kashmir were trained in the same madrasahs as Taliban and al-Qaeda. Fazlur Rehman Khalil of Kashmiri militant group Harkat-ul-Mujahideen was a signatory of al-Qaeda's 1998 declaration of Jihad against America and its allies. In a 'Letter to American People' (2002), bin Laden wrote that one of the reasons he was fighting America was because of its support to India on the Kashmir issue. In November 2001, Kathmandu airport went on high alert after threats that bin Laden planned to hijack a plane and crash it into a target in New Delhi. In 2002, US Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld, on a trip to Delhi, suggested that al-Qaeda was active in Kashmir though he did not have any evidence. Rumsfeld proposed hi-tech ground sensors along the Line of Control to prevent militants from infiltrating into Indian-administered Kashmir.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 209717, 30635, 34827697, 1260693, 16203, 17168, 8629, 285059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 72 ], [ 78, 85 ], [ 100, 120 ], [ 148, 168 ], [ 219, 224 ], [ 438, 447 ], [ 604, 619 ], [ 775, 790 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An investigation in 2002 found evidence that al-Qaeda and its affiliates were prospering in Pakistan-administered Kashmir with tacit approval of Pakistan's Inter-Services Intelligence. In 2002, a special team of Special Air Service and Delta Force was sent into Indian-Administered Kashmir to hunt for bin Laden after receiving reports that he was being sheltered by Kashmiri militant group Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, which had been responsible for kidnapping western tourists in Kashmir in 1995. Britain's highest-ranking al-Qaeda operative Rangzieb Ahmed had previously fought in Kashmir with the group Harkat-ul-Mujahideen and spent time in Indian prison after being captured in Kashmir.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 2159021, 55942, 328809, 17337, 1260693, 11032567, 20758543, 1260693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 183 ], [ 212, 231 ], [ 236, 247 ], [ 262, 289 ], [ 391, 411 ], [ 444, 490 ], [ 537, 551 ], [ 600, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "US officials believe al-Qaeda was helping organize attacks in Kashmir in order to provoke conflict between India and Pakistan. Their strategy was to force Pakistan to move its troops to the border with India, thereby relieving pressure on al-Qaeda elements hiding in northwestern Pakistan. In 2006 al-Qaeda claimed they had established a wing in Kashmir. However Indian Army General H. S. Panag argued that the army had ruled out the presence of al-Qaeda in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir. Panag also said al-Qaeda had strong ties with Kashmiri militant groups Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed based in Pakistan. It has been noted that Waziristan has become a battlefield for Kashmiri militants fighting NATO in support of al-Qaeda and Taliban. Dhiren Barot, who wrote the Army of Madinah in Kashmir and was an al-Qaeda operative convicted for involvement in the 2004 financial buildings plot, had received training in weapons and explosives at a militant training camp in Kashmir.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 35575751, 61449812, 649718, 1625335, 536143, 21133, 7413094, 7410265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 383, 394 ], [ 478, 495 ], [ 568, 583 ], [ 588, 604 ], [ 647, 657 ], [ 715, 719 ], [ 756, 768 ], [ 874, 903 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maulana Masood Azhar, the founder of Kashmiri group Jaish-e-Mohammed, is believed to have met bin Laden several times and received funding from him. In 2002, Jaish-e-Mohammed organized the kidnapping and murder of Daniel Pearl in an operation run in conjunction with al-Qaeda and funded by bin Laden. According to American counter-terrorism expert Bruce Riedel, al-Qaeda and Taliban were closely involved in the 1999 hijacking of Indian Airlines Flight 814 to Kandahar which led to the release of Maulana Masood Azhar and Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh from an Indian prison. This hijacking, Riedel said, was rightly described by then Indian Foreign Minister Jaswant Singh as a 'dress rehearsal' for September 11 attacks. Bin Laden personally welcomed Azhar and threw a lavish party in his honor after his release. Ahmed Omar Saeed Sheikh, who had been in prison for his role in the 1994 kidnappings of Western tourists in India, went on to murder Daniel Pearl and was sentenced to death in Pakistan. Al-Qaeda operative Rashid Rauf, who was one of the accused in 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot, was related to Maulana Masood Azhar by marriage.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 3033908, 1625335, 1625335, 202851, 83392, 15795463, 405170, 17260, 3033908, 5729585, 1026360, 21487043, 202851, 6395288, 24276432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 52, 68 ], [ 158, 174 ], [ 214, 226 ], [ 323, 340 ], [ 348, 360 ], [ 430, 456 ], [ 460, 468 ], [ 497, 517 ], [ 522, 545 ], [ 652, 665 ], [ 876, 921 ], [ 941, 953 ], [ 1013, 1024 ], [ 1056, 1088 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lashkar-e-Taiba, a Kashmiri militant group which is thought to be behind 2008 Mumbai attacks, is also known to have strong ties to senior al-Qaeda leaders living in Pakistan. In late 2002, top al-Qaeda operative Abu Zubaydah was arrested while being sheltered by Lashkar-e-Taiba in a safe house in Faisalabad. The FBI believes al-Qaeda and Lashkar have been 'intertwined' for a long time while the CIA has said that al-Qaeda funds Lashkar-e-Taiba. Jean-Louis Bruguière told Reuters in 2009 that \"Lashkar-e-Taiba is no longer a Pakistani movement with only a Kashmir political or military agenda. Lashkar-e-Taiba is a member of al-Qaeda.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 649718, 20413485, 3117, 649718, 401880, 573931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 73, 92 ], [ 212, 224 ], [ 263, 278 ], [ 298, 308 ], [ 448, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a video released in 2008, American-born senior al-Qaeda operative Adam Yahiye Gadahn said that \"victory in Kashmir has been delayed for years; it is the liberation of the jihad there from this interference which, Allah willing, will be the first step towards victory over the Hindu occupiers of that Islam land.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 682505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2009, a US drone strike reportedly killed Ilyas Kashmiri who was the chief of Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami, a Kashmiri militant group associated with al-Qaeda. Kashmiri was described by Bruce Riedel as a 'prominent' al-Qaeda member while others have described him as head of military operations for al-Qaeda. Kashmiri was also charged by the US in a plot against Jyllands-Posten, the Danish newspaper which was at the center of Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy. US officials also believe that Kashmiri was involved in the Camp Chapman attack against the CIA. In January 2010, Indian authorities notified Britain of an al-Qaeda plot to hijack an Indian airlines or Air India plane and crash it into a British city. This information was uncovered from interrogation of Amjad Khwaja, an operative of Harkat-ul-Jihad al-Islami, who had been arrested in India.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 21539058, 24422793, 5592225, 15795463, 3020403, 7765099, 25643947, 5592225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 36 ], [ 55, 69 ], [ 91, 116 ], [ 196, 208 ], [ 373, 388 ], [ 438, 483 ], [ 545, 564 ], [ 820, 845 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2010, US Defense secretary Robert Gates, while on a visit to Pakistan, said that al-Qaeda was seeking to destabilize the region and planning to provoke a nuclear war between India and Pakistan.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 845943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda and its successors have migrated online to escape detection in an atmosphere of increased international vigilance. The group's use of the Internet has grown more sophisticated, with online activities that include financing, recruitment, networking, mobilization, publicity, and information dissemination, gathering and sharing.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Abu Ayyub al-Masri's al-Qaeda movement in Iraq regularly releases short videos glorifying the activity of jihadist suicide bombers. In addition, both before and after the death of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi (the former leader of al-Qaeda in Iraq), the umbrella organization to which al-Qaeda in Iraq belongs, the Mujahideen Shura Council, has a regular presence on the Web.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 5547200, 8484783, 12786576, 4347338, 15095926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 180, 200 ], [ 223, 239 ], [ 307, 331 ], [ 347, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The range of multimedia content includes guerrilla training clips, stills of victims about to be murdered, testimonials of suicide bombers, and videos that show participation in jihad through stylized portraits of mosques and musical scores. A website associated with al-Qaeda posted a video of captured American entrepreneur Nick Berg being decapitated in Iraq. Other decapitation videos and pictures, including those of Paul Johnson, Kim Sun-il, and Daniel Pearl, were first posted on jihadist websites.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 648529, 729868, 744003, 202851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 326, 335 ], [ 422, 434 ], [ 436, 446 ], [ 452, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2004 an audio message claiming to be from bin Laden was posted directly to a website, rather than sending a copy to al Jazeera as he had done in the past. Al-Qaeda turned to the Internet for release of its videos in order to be certain they would be available unedited, rather than risk the possibility of al Jazeera editing out anything critical of the Saudi royal family.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 48370461, 402558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 138 ], [ 366, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alneda.com and Jehad.net were perhaps the most significant al-Qaeda websites. Alneda was initially taken down by American Jon Messner, but the operators resisted by shifting the site to various servers and strategically shifting content.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 1017525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The US government charged a British information technology specialist, Babar Ahmad, with terrorist offences related to his operating a network of English-language al-Qaeda websites, such as Azzam.com. He was convicted and sentenced to years in prison.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 13120686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, al-Qaeda released Mujahedeen Secrets, encryption software used for online and cellular communications. A later version, Mujahideen Secrets 2, was released in 2008.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 40668315, 40668315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 45 ], [ 129, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Al-Qaeda is believed to be operating a clandestine aviation network including \"several Boeing 727 aircraft\", turboprops and executive jets, according to a 2010 Reuters story. Based on a US Department of Homeland Security report, the story said al-Qaeda is possibly using aircraft to transport drugs and weapons from South America to various unstable countries in West Africa. A Boeing 727 can carry up to ten tons of cargo. The drugs eventually are smuggled to Europe for distribution and sale, and the weapons are used in conflicts in Africa and possibly elsewhere. Gunmen with links to al-Qaeda have been increasingly kidnapping Europeans for ransom. The profits from the drug and weapon sales, and kidnappings can, in turn, fund more militant activities.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [ 91030, 31039, 247003, 18998750, 58236, 169376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 97 ], [ 109, 119 ], [ 124, 137 ], [ 160, 167 ], [ 189, 220 ], [ 620, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following is a list of military conflicts in which Al-Qaeda and its direct affiliates have taken part militarily.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Activities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Experts debate the notion that al-Qaeda attacks were an indirect result from the American CIA's Operation Cyclone program to help the Afghan mujahideen. Robin Cook, British Foreign Secretary from 1997 to 2001, has written that al-Qaeda and bin Laden were \"a product of a monumental miscalculation by western security agencies\", and that \"Al-Qaida, literally 'the database', was originally the computer file of the thousands of mujahideen who were recruited and trained with help from the CIA to defeat the Russians.\"", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Alleged CIA involvement", "target_page_ids": [ 8868782, 7826589, 186803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 113 ], [ 141, 151 ], [ 153, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Munir Akram, Permanent Representative of Pakistan to the United Nations from 2002 to 2008, wrote in a letter published in The New York Times on January 19, 2008:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Alleged CIA involvement", "target_page_ids": [ 18637915, 18861899, 30680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 13, 71 ], [ 122, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CNN journalist Peter Bergen, Pakistani ISI Brigadier Mohammad Yousaf, and CIA operatives involved in the Afghan program, such as Vincent Cannistraro, deny that the CIA or other American officials had contact with the foreign mujahideen or bin Laden, or that they armed, trained, coached or indoctrinated them. In his 2004 book Ghost Wars, Steve Coll writes that the CIA had contemplated providing direct support to the foreign mujahideen, but that the idea never moved beyond discussions.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Alleged CIA involvement", "target_page_ids": [ 62028, 5596460, 2159021, 16907685, 6922857, 16305086, 3240530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ], [ 15, 27 ], [ 29, 42 ], [ 129, 148 ], [ 217, 235 ], [ 327, 337 ], [ 339, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bergen and others argue that there was no need to recruit foreigners unfamiliar with the local language, customs or lay of the land since there were a quarter of a million local Afghans willing to fight. Bergen further argues that foreign mujahideen had no need for American funds since they received several million dollars per year from internal sources. Lastly, he argues that Americans could not have trained the foreign mujahideen because Pakistani officials would not allow more than a handful of them to operate in Pakistan and none in Afghanistan, and the Afghan Arabs were almost invariably militant Islamists reflexively hostile to Westerners whether or not the Westerners were helping the Muslim Afghans.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Alleged CIA involvement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Bergen, who conducted the first television interview with bin Laden in 1997: the idea that \"the CIA funded bin Laden or trained bin Laden... [is] a folk myth. There's no evidence of this... Bin Laden had his own money, he was anti-American and he was operating secretly and independently... The real story here is the CIA didn't really have a clue about who this guy was until 1996 when they set up a unit to really start tracking him.\"", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Alleged CIA involvement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jason Burke also wrote:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Alleged CIA involvement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anders Behring Breivik, the perpetrator of the 2011 Norway attacks, was inspired by Al-Qaeda, calling it \"the most successful revolutionary movement in the world.\" While admitting different aims, he sought to \"create a European version of Al-Qaida.\"", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Broader influence", "target_page_ids": [ 32501324, 32496189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 47, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The appropriate response to offshoots is a subject of debate. A journalist reported in 2012 that a senior US military planner had asked: \"Should we resort to drones and Special Operations raids every time some group raises the black banner of al Qaeda? How long can we continue to chase offshoots of offshoots around the world?\"", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Broader influence", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Islamic extremism dates back to the early history of Islam with the emergence of the Kharijites in the 7th century CE. From their essentially political position, the Kharijites developed extreme doctrines that set them apart from both mainstream Sunni and Shiʿa Muslims. The original schism between Kharijites, Sunnis, and Shiʿas among Muslims was disputed over the political and religious succession to the guidance of the Muslim community (Ummah) after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Shiʿas believe Ali ibn Abi Talib is the true successor to Muhammad, while Sunnis consider Abu Bakr to hold that position. The Kharijites broke away from both the Shiʿas and the Sunnis during the First Fitna (the first Islamic Civil War); they were particularly noted for adopting a radical approach to takfīr (excommunication), whereby they declared both Sunni and Shiʿa Muslims to be either infidels (kuffār) or false Muslims (munāfiḳūn), and therefore deemed them worthy of death for their perceived apostasy (ridda).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 8734632, 13306, 296037, 296037, 29402, 26961, 19541, 1751742, 202444, 30933488, 18934, 405374, 1715, 2183153, 962838, 261924, 2136760, 47616174, 1767413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 36, 58 ], [ 85, 95 ], [ 299, 309 ], [ 311, 317 ], [ 323, 329 ], [ 336, 343 ], [ 366, 400 ], [ 424, 440 ], [ 472, 487 ], [ 488, 496 ], [ 513, 530 ], [ 588, 596 ], [ 693, 704 ], [ 800, 806 ], [ 890, 898 ], [ 911, 924 ], [ 964, 979 ], [ 1000, 1008 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to a number of sources, a \"wave of revulsion\" has been expressed against al-Qaeda and its affiliates by \"religious scholars, former fighters and militants\" who are alarmed by al-Qaeda's takfir and its killing of Muslims in Muslim countries, especially in Iraq.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Noman Benotman, a former militant member of the Libyan Islamic Fighting Group (LIFG), went public with an open letter of criticism to Ayman al-Zawahiri in November 2007, after persuading the imprisoned senior leaders of his former group to enter into peace negotiations with the Libyan regime. While Ayman al-Zawahiri announced the affiliation of the group with al-Qaeda in November 2007, the Libyan government released 90 members of the group from prison several months after \"they were said to have renounced violence.\"", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 31406057, 413480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 48, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, on the anniversary of the September 11 attacks, the Saudi sheikh Salman al-Ouda delivered a personal rebuke to bin Laden. Al-Ouda, a religious scholar and one of the fathers of the Sahwa, the fundamentalist awakening movement that swept through Saudi Arabia in the 1980s, is a widely respected critic of jihadism. Al-Ouda addressed al-Qaeda's leader on television asking him:", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 9360795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Pew polls, support for al-Qaeda had dropped in the Muslim world in the years before 2008. Support of suicide bombings in Indonesia, Lebanon, and Bangladesh, dropped by half or more in the last five years. In Saudi Arabia, only ten percent had a favorable view of al-Qaeda, according to a December 2017 poll by Terror Free Tomorrow, a Washington-based think tank.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 37101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 364, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, the imprisoned Sayyed Imam Al-Sharif, an influential Afghan Arab, \"ideological godfather of al-Qaeda\", and former supporter of takfir, withdrew his support from al-Qaeda with a book Wathiqat Tarshid Al-'Aml Al-Jihadi fi Misr w'Al-'Alam ().", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 14691887, 14691887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 45 ], [ 191, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although once associated with al-Qaeda, in September 2009 LIFG completed a new \"code\" for jihad, a 417-page religious document entitled \"Corrective Studies\". Given its credibility and the fact that several other prominent Jihadists in the Middle East have turned against al-Qaeda, the LIFG's reversal may be an important step toward staunching al-Qaeda's recruitment.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 413480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bilal Abdul Kareem, an American journalist based in Syria created a documentary about al-Shabab, al-Qaeda's affiliate in Somalia. The documentary included interviews with former members of the group who stated their reasons for leaving al-Shabab. The members made accusations of segregation, lack of religious awareness and internal corruption and favoritism. In response to Kareem, the Global Islamic Media Front condemned Kareem, called him a liar, and denied the accusations from the former fighters.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 8726463, 37635439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 95 ], [ 387, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In mid-2014 after the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant declared that they had restored the Caliphate, an audio statement was released by the then-spokesman of the group Abu Muhammad al-Adnani claiming that \"the legality of all emirates, groups, states, and organizations, becomes null by the expansion of the Caliphate's authority.\" The speech included a religious refutation of Al-Qaeda for being too lenient regarding Shiites and their refusal to recognize the authority Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, al-Adnani specifically noting: \"It is not suitable for a state to give allegiance to an organization.\" He also recalled a past instance in which Osama bin Laden called on al-Qaeda members and supporters to give allegiance to Abu Omar al-Baghdadi when the group was still solely operating in Iraq, as the Islamic State of Iraq, and condemned Ayman al-Zawahiri for not making this same claim for Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. Zawahiri was encouraging factionalism and division between former allies of ISIL such as the al-Nusra Front.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 9087364, 804036, 43489242, 26961, 33348100, 22468, 5962943, 39955935, 319799, 34929376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 58 ], [ 95, 104 ], [ 173, 195 ], [ 424, 431 ], [ 477, 497 ], [ 644, 659 ], [ 724, 744 ], [ 803, 824 ], [ 840, 857 ], [ 1008, 1022 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda involvement in Asia", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19174557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al Qaeda Network Exord", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 20145243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allegations of support system in Pakistan for Osama bin Laden", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31664178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Belligerents in the Syrian civil war", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39969011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bin Laden Issue Station (former CIA unit for tracking bin Laden)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9787550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Steven Emerson", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1183062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fatawā of Osama bin Laden", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2825413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism (by region)", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 48259730, 54498179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 52 ], [ 54, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iran – Alleged Al-Qaeda ties", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12613249 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Islamic Military Counter Terrorism Coalition", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 48829596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Operation Cannonball", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18203534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Psychological warfare", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 144615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Religious terrorism", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 239287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Takfir wal-Hijra", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32595136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Videos and audio recordings of Osama bin Laden", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Violent extremism", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40655294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al Qaeda Handbook", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3992693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Management of Savagery", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6027256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alt URL", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda in Oxford Islamic Studies Online", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Qaeda, Counter Extremism Project profile", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 45082221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 17 de-classified documents captured during the Abbottabad raid and released to the Combating Terrorism Center", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Media", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Peter Taylor. (2007). \"War on the West\". Age of Terror, No. 4, series 1. BBC.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 4465432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Investigating Al-Qaeda, BBC News", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 1139893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Al Qaeda's New Front\" from PBS Frontline, January 2005", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 235262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 42 ] ] } ]

[ "Al-Qaeda", "1988_establishments_in_Asia", "Osama_bin_Laden", "Anti-communism_in_Afghanistan", "Anti-communist_organizations", "Anti-communist_terrorism", "Anti-government_factions_of_the_Syrian_civil_war", "Antisemitism_in_Pakistan", "Antisemitism_in_the_Arab_world", "Antisemitism_in_the_Middle_East", "Anti-Shi'ism", "Anti-Zionism_in_the_Arab_world", "Anti-Zionism_in_the_Middle_East", "Islam_and_antisemitism", "Islamic_fundamentalism_in_the_United_States", "Islamic_fundamentalism", "Islamist_groups", "Islam-related_controversies", "Jihadist_groups_in_Afghanistan", "Jihadist_groups_in_Algeria", "Jihadist_groups_in_Bangladesh", "Jihadist_groups_in_Egypt", "Jihadist_groups_in_India", "Jihadist_groups_in_Iraq", "Jihadist_groups_in_Pakistan", "Jihadist_groups_in_Syria", "Jihadist_groups", "Mohamed_Atta", "Organisations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Australia", "Organisations_designated_as_terrorist_by_India", "Organisations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Iran", "Organisations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Japan", "Organisations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Pakistan", "Organisations_designated_as_terrorist_by_the_United_Kingdom", "Organizations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Bahrain", "Organizations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Canada", "Organizations_designated_as_terrorist_by_China", "Organizations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Israel", "Organizations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Malaysia", "Organizations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Paraguay", "Organizations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Russia", "Organizations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Saudi_Arabia", "Organizations_designated_as_terrorist_by_the_United_Arab_Emirates", "Organizations_designated_as_terrorist_by_the_United_States", "Organizations_designated_as_terrorist_by_Turkey", "Organizations_designated_as_terrorist_in_Asia", "Organizations_established_in_1988", "Pan-Islamism", "Rebel_groups_in_Afghanistan", "Rebel_groups_in_Iraq", "Rebel_groups_in_Yemen", "Rebel_groups_that_actively_control_territory", "Salafi_Jihadism", "Violence_against_LGBT_people", "Violence_against_Shia_Muslims" ]

[ "al-Qa'ida", "al-Qaida", "al-Qaeda", "Qaedat al-Jihad", "Al Qaeda", "The Base", "The Foundation", "al-Qa'idah" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta (, ; 18 February 1745 – 5 March 1827) was an Italian physicist, chemist and lay Catholic who was a pioneer of electricity and power who is credited as the inventor of the electric battery and the discoverer of methane. He invented the voltaic pile in 1799, and reported the results of his experiments in 1800 in a two-part letter to the president of the Royal Society. With this invention Volta proved that electricity could be generated chemically and debunked the prevalent theory that electricity was generated solely by living beings. Volta's invention sparked a great amount of scientific excitement and led others to conduct similar experiments, which eventually led to the development of the field of electrochemistry.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23269, 5636, 3223924, 9550, 24236, 19174720, 18582230, 32566, 496064, 9601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 106 ], [ 108, 115 ], [ 124, 132 ], [ 154, 165 ], [ 170, 175 ], [ 215, 231 ], [ 254, 261 ], [ 279, 291 ], [ 398, 411 ], [ 752, 768 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Volta also drew admiration from Napoleon Bonaparte for his invention, and was invited to the Institute of France to demonstrate his invention to the members of the institute. Volta enjoyed a certain amount of closeness with the emperor throughout his life and he was conferred numerous honours by him. Volta held the chair of experimental physics at the University of Pavia for nearly 40 years and was widely idolised by his students.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 69880, 732266, 666346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 50 ], [ 93, 112 ], [ 354, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite his professional success, Volta tended to be a person inclined towards domestic life and this was more apparent in his later years. At this time he tended to live secluded from public life and more for the sake of his family until his eventual death in 1827 from a series of illnesses which began in 1823. The SI unit of electric potential is named in his honour as the volt.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26764, 59615, 32567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 318, 320 ], [ 329, 347 ], [ 378, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Volta was born in Como, a town in northern Italy, on 18 February 1745. In 1794, Volta married an aristocratic lady also from Como, Teresa Peregrini, with whom he raised three sons: Zanino, Flaminio, and Luigi. His father, Filippo Volta, was of noble lineage. His mother, Donna Maddalena, came from the family of the Inzaghis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and works", "target_page_ids": [ 60679, 14532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 22 ], [ 43, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1774, he became a professor of physics at the Royal School in Como. A year later, he improved and popularised the electrophorus, a device that produced static electricity. His promotion of it was so extensive that he is often credited with its invention, even though a machine operating on the same principle was described in 1762 by the Swedish experimenter Johan Wilcke. In 1777, he travelled through Switzerland. There he befriended H. B. de Saussure.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and works", "target_page_ids": [ 225270, 200136, 2575232, 204137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 130 ], [ 155, 173 ], [ 362, 374 ], [ 439, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the years between 1776 and 1778, Volta studied the chemistry of gases. He researched and discovered methane after reading a paper by Benjamin Franklin of the United States on \"flammable air\". In November 1776, he found methane in the marshes of Angera on Lake Maggiore, and by 1778 he managed to isolate methane. He devised experiments such as the ignition of methane by an electric spark in a closed vessel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and works", "target_page_ids": [ 5180, 18582230, 3986, 6110282, 708615, 5638, 75049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 63 ], [ 103, 110 ], [ 136, 153 ], [ 248, 254 ], [ 258, 271 ], [ 351, 359 ], [ 386, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Volta also studied what we now call electrical capacitance, developing separate means to study both electrical potential difference (V) and charge (Q), and discovering that for a given object, they are proportional. This is called Volta's Law of Capacitance, and for this work the unit of electrical potential has been named the volt.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and works", "target_page_ids": [ 140711, 32567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 58 ], [ 329, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1779, he became a professor of experimental physics at the University of Pavia, a chair that he occupied for almost 40 years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and works", "target_page_ids": [ 666346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Volta's lectures were so crowded with students that the subsequent emperor Joseph II ordered the construction (based on a project by Leopold Pollack) of a new \"physical theater\", today the \"Aula Volta\". Furthermore, the emperor granted Volta substantial funding to equip the physics cabinet with instruments, purchased by Volta in England and France. At the University History Museum of the University of Pavia there are 150 of them, used by Alessandro Volta.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and works", "target_page_ids": [ 148313, 36972416, 27566335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 84 ], [ 133, 148 ], [ 358, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Luigi Galvani, an Italian physicist, discovered something he named, \"animal electricity\" when two different metals were connected in series with a frog's leg and to one another. Volta realised that the frog's leg served as both a conductor of electricity (what we would now call an electrolyte) and as a detector of electricity. He also understood that the frog's legs were irrelevant to the electric current, which was caused by the two differing metals. He replaced the frog's leg with brine-soaked paper, and detected the flow of electricity by other means familiar to him from his previous studies.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volta and Galvani", "target_page_ids": [ 88344, 48336, 6207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 282, 293 ], [ 392, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In this way he discovered the electrochemical series, and the law that the electromotive force (emf) of a galvanic cell, consisting of a pair of metal electrodes separated by electrolyte, is the difference between their two electrode potentials (thus, two identical electrodes and a common electrolyte give zero net emf). This may be called Volta's Law of the electrochemical series.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volta and Galvani", "target_page_ids": [ 38877, 65894, 254510, 10008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 52 ], [ 75, 94 ], [ 106, 119 ], [ 151, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1800, as the result of a professional disagreement over the galvanic response advocated by Galvani, Volta invented the voltaic pile, an early electric battery, which produced a steady electric current. Volta had determined that the most effective pair of dissimilar metals to produce electricity was zinc and copper. Initially he experimented with individual cells in series, each cell being a wine goblet filled with brine into which the two dissimilar electrodes were dipped. The voltaic pile replaced the goblets with cardboard soaked in brine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Volta and Galvani", "target_page_ids": [ 32566, 19174720, 34420, 125293, 70663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 134 ], [ 145, 161 ], [ 303, 307 ], [ 312, 318 ], [ 421, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In announcing his discovery of the voltaic pile, Volta paid tribute to the influences of William Nicholson, Tiberius Cavallo, and Abraham Bennet.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early battery", "target_page_ids": [ 851520, 943811, 13061257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 106 ], [ 108, 124 ], [ 130, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The battery made by Volta is credited as one of the first electrochemical cells. It consists of two electrodes: one made of zinc, the other of copper. The electrolyte is either sulfuric acid mixed with water or a form of saltwater brine. The electrolyte exists in the form 2H+ and . Zinc metal, which is higher in the electrochemical series than both copper and hydrogen, is oxidized to zinc cations (Zn2+) and creates electrons that move to the copper electrode. The positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) capture electrons from the copper electrode, forming bubbles of hydrogen gas, H2. This makes the zinc rod the negative electrode and the copper rod the positive electrode.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early battery", "target_page_ids": [ 34420, 125293, 48336, 29247, 70663, 38877, 23317, 9476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 128 ], [ 143, 149 ], [ 155, 166 ], [ 177, 190 ], [ 231, 236 ], [ 318, 340 ], [ 502, 508 ], [ 519, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, there are two terminals, and an electric current will flow if they are connected. The chemical reactions in this voltaic cell are as follows:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early battery", "target_page_ids": [ 6271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Zinc:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early battery", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zn Zn2+ + 2e−", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early battery", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sulfuric acid:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early battery", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2H+ + 2e− H2", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early battery", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Copper metal does not react, but rather it functions as a catalyst for the hydrogen-gas formation and an electrode for the electric current. The sulfate anion () does not undergo any chemical reaction either, but migrates to the zinc anode to compensate for the charge of the zinc cations formed there.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early battery", "target_page_ids": [ 5914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, this cell also has some disadvantages. It is unsafe to handle, since sulfuric acid, even if diluted, can be hazardous. Also, the power of the cell diminishes over time because the hydrogen gas is not released. Instead, it accumulates on the surface of the copper electrode and forms a barrier between the metal and the electrolyte solution.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early battery", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1809, Volta became associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands. In honour of his work, Volta was made a count by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1810.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Last years and retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 392098, 69880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 81 ], [ 132, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Volta retired in 1819 to his estate in Camnago, a frazione of Como, Italy, now named \"Camnago Volta\" in his honour. He died there on 5 March 1827, just after his 82nd birthday. Volta's remains were buried in Camnago Volta.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Last years and retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 1990430, 60679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 58 ], [ 62, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Volta's legacy is celebrated by the Tempio Voltiano memorial located in the public gardens by the lake. There is also a museum that has been built in his honour, which exhibits some of the equipment that Volta used to conduct experiments. Nearby stands the Villa Olmo, which houses the Voltian Foundation, an organization promoting scientific activities. Volta carried out his experimental studies and produced his first inventions near Como. ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Last years and retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 28081506, 22632725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 51 ], [ 257, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Old Campus of the University of Pavia there is the classroom (Aula Volta) commissioned by Emperor Joseph II to Leopoldo Pollack in 1787 for the lectures of Alessandro Volta, while in the University History Museum there are many scientific instruments that belonged to Volta and his chair and his blackboard.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Last years and retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 71504457, 666346, 148313, 36972416, 27566335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ], [ 25, 44 ], [ 105, 114 ], [ 118, 134 ], [ 194, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His image was depicted on the Italian Lire 10,000 note (1990–1997) along with a sketch of his voltaic pile.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Last years and retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 990886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In late 2017, Nvidia announced a new workstation-focused GPU microarchitecture called Volta.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Last years and retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 390214, 1410175, 42312620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 60 ], [ 61, 78 ], [ 86, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The electric eel species Electrophorus voltai, described in 2019 and the strongest bioelectricity producer in nature, was named after Volta.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Last years and retirement", "target_page_ids": [ 61262925, 69575617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 25, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Volta was raised as a Catholic and for all of his life continued to maintain his belief. Because he was not ordained a clergyman as his family expected, he was sometimes accused of being irreligious and some people have speculated about his possible unbelief, stressing that \"he did not join the Church\", or that he virtually \"ignored the church's call\". Nevertheless, he cast out doubts in a declaration of faith in which he said:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religious beliefs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "I do not understand how anyone can doubt the sincerity and constancy of my attachment to the religion which I profess, the Roman, Catholic and Apostolic religion in which I was born and brought up, and of which I have always made confession, externally and internally. I have, indeed, and only too often, failed in the performance of those good works which are the mark of a Catholic Christian, and I have been guilty of many sins: but through the special mercy of God I have never, as far as I know, wavered in my faith... In this faith I recognise a pure gift of God, a supernatural grace; but I have not neglected those human means which confirm belief, and overthrow the doubts which at times arise. I studied attentively the grounds and basis of religion, the works of apologists and assailants, the reasons for and against, and I can say that the result of such study is to clothe religion with such a degree of probability, even for the merely natural reason, that every spirit unperverted by sin and passion, every naturally noble spirit must love and accept it. May this confession which has been asked from me and which I willingly give, written and subscribed by my own hand, with authority to show it to whomsoever you will, for I am not ashamed of the Gospel, may it produce some good fruit!", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Religious beliefs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Briefe über thierische elektricität (1900) (Letters about thieric electricity, Available through Worldcat.org libraries, Leipzig, W. Engelmann, publisher) ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Untersuchungen über den Galvanismus, 1796 bis 1800 (Studies on Galvanism, Available through Worldcat.org libraries)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Del modo di render sensibilissima la più debole elettricità sia naturale, sia artificiale (Of the method of rendering very sensible the weakest natural or artificial electricity By Mr. Alexander Volta, Professor Of Experimental Philosophy In Como, &c. Read at the Royal Society, 14 March 1782, Held in Worldcat libraries)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Armstrong effect", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57718998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eudiometer", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1515736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the battery", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8720264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of the internal combustion engine", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18859390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lemon battery", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 217946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mercury beating heart", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12281120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Thermoelectric effect", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 448321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Volta pistol", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1515736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Volta potential", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15553696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Volta (lunar crater)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1295795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Volta Prize", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16817373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Volta and the \"Pile\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alessandro Volta Google Doodle", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alessandro Volta ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Count Alessandro Volta", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alessandro Volta (1745–1827)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Electrical units history.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " References to Volta in European historic newspapers", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Life of Alessandro Volta: Biography; Inventions; Facts", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Alessandro_Volta", "1745_births", "1827_deaths", "People_from_Como", "19th-century_Italian_physicists", "Battery_inventors", "Enlightenment_scientists", "Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society", "Independent_scientists", "History_of_neuroscience", "18th-century_Italian_inventors", "18th-century_Italian_physicists", "Italian_Roman_Catholics", "Members_of_the_Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences", "People_associated_with_electricity", "Recipients_of_the_Copley_Medal", "Italian_scientific_instrument_makers", "University_of_Pavia_faculty" ]

[ "Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Argo Navis (the Ship Argo), or simply Argo, was a large constellation in the southern sky. The genitive was \"Argus Navis\", abbreviated \"Arg\". Flamsteed and other early modern astronomers called it Navis (the Ship), genitive \"Navis\", abbreviated \"Nav\".", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5267, 43344021, 42880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 69 ], [ 77, 89 ], [ 143, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The constellation proved to be of unwieldy size, as it was 28% larger than the next largest constellation and had more than 160 easily visible stars. The 1755 catalogue of Nicolas Louis de Lacaille divided it into the three modern constellations that occupy much of the same area: Carina (the keel), Puppis (the poop deck) and Vela (the sails).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21628, 6363, 23990, 32568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 198 ], [ 282, 288 ], [ 301, 307 ], [ 328, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Argo derived from the ship Argo in Greek mythology, sailed by Jason and the Argonauts to Colchis in search of the Golden Fleece. Some stars of Puppis and Vela can be seen from Mediterranean latitudes in winter and spring, the ship appearing to skim along the \"river of the Milky Way.\" Due to precession of the equinoxes, the position of the stars from Earth's viewpoint has shifted southward, and though most of the constellation was visible in Classical times, the constellation is now not easily visible from most of the northern hemisphere. All the stars of Argo Navis are easily visible from the tropics southward, and pass near zenith from southern temperate latitudes. The brightest of these is Canopus (α Carinae), the second-brightest night-time star, now assigned to Carina.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 80988, 23416994, 15885, 77334, 81958, 77335, 19006, 2589714, 24714, 1283638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 31 ], [ 35, 50 ], [ 62, 67 ], [ 76, 85 ], [ 89, 96 ], [ 114, 127 ], [ 176, 189 ], [ 274, 283 ], [ 293, 320 ], [ 703, 710 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Argo Navis was long-known to Greek observers, who are theorised to have derived it from Egypt around 1000BC. Plutarch attributed it to the Egyptian \"Boat of Osiris.\" Some academics theorized a Sumerian origin related to the Epic of Gilgamesh, a hypothesis rejected for lack of evidence that the Sumerians or other Mesopotamian culture considered these stars, or any portion of them, to form a boat.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 874, 24517, 22763, 50521, 80028, 20189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 93 ], [ 109, 117 ], [ 157, 163 ], [ 194, 199 ], [ 225, 242 ], [ 315, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over time, Argo became identified exclusively with ancient Greek myth of Jason and the Argonauts. In his Almagest, Claudius Ptolemy described Argo Navis as occupying the portion of the Milky Way between Canis Major and Centaurus, and identified stars comprising such details as the \"little shield\", the \"steering-oar\", the \"mast-holder\", and the \"stern-ornament\", which continued to be reflected in cartographic representations in celestial atlases into the nineteenth century (see below). The ship appeared to rotate about the pole sternwards, so nautically in reverse. Aratus, the Greek poet / historian living in the third centuryBCE, noted this backward progression writing, \"Argo by the Great Dog's [Canis Major's] tail is drawn; for hers is not a usual course, but backward turned she comes...\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15885, 77334, 148060, 23979, 6366, 6371, 89859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 78 ], [ 87, 96 ], [ 105, 113 ], [ 124, 131 ], [ 203, 214 ], [ 219, 228 ], [ 571, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In modern times, Argo Navis was considered unwieldy due to its enormous size (28% larger than Hydra, the largest modern constellation). In his 1763 star atlas, Nicolas Louis de Lacaille explained that there were more than a hundred and sixty stars clearly visible to the naked eye in Navis, and so he used the set of lowercase and uppercase Latin letters three times on portions of the constellation referred to as \"Argûs in carina\" (Carina, the keel), \"Argûs in puppi\" (Puppis, the poop deck or stern), and \"Argûs in velis\" (Vela, the sails). Lacaille replaced Bayer's designations with new ones that followed stellar magnitudes more closely, but used only a single Greek-letter sequence and described the constellation for those stars as \"Argûs\". Similarly, faint unlettered stars were listed only as in \"Argûs\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 213468, 21628, 6363, 219807, 23990, 153968, 17333662, 32568, 43354034, 4199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 99 ], [ 160, 185 ], [ 434, 440 ], [ 446, 450 ], [ 471, 477 ], [ 483, 492 ], [ 496, 501 ], [ 526, 530 ], [ 536, 540 ], [ 570, 582 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The final breakup and abolition of Argo Navis was proposed by Sir John Herschel in 1841 and again in 1844. Despite this, the constellation remained in use in parallel with its constituent parts into the 20thcentury. In 1922, along with the other constellations, it received a three-letter abbreviation: Arg. The breakup and relegation to a former constellation occurred in 1930 when the IAU defined the 88 modern constellations, formally instituting Carina, Puppis, and Vela, and declaring Argo obsolete. Lacaille's designations were kept in the offspring, so Carina has α, β, and ε; Vela has γ and δ; Puppis has ζ; and so on. As a result of this breakup, Argo Navis is the only one of the 48 listed by Ptolemy in his Almagest no longer officially recognized as a single constellation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 43592, 4030730, 287159, 23979, 148060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 79 ], [ 340, 360 ], [ 403, 412 ], [ 703, 710 ], [ 718, 726 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, the constellation Pyxis (the mariner's compass) occupies an area near that which in antiquity was considered part of Argo's mast. Some recent authors state that modern Pyxis was part of the ancient Greek conception of Argo Navis, but magnetic compasses were unknown in ancient Greek times, nor does it appear that the stars now in Pyxis were included in the original conception of Argo Navis. Lacaille considered it a separate constellation representing a modern scientific instrument (like Microscopium and Telescopium), that he created for maps of the stars of the southern hemisphere. Pyxis was listed among his 14new constellations, separate from Argo. In 1844, John Herschel suggested formalizing the mast as a new constellation, Malus, to replace Lacaille's Pyxis, but the idea did not catch on. Similarly, an effort by Edmond Halley to detach the \"cloud of mist\" at the prow of Argo Navis to form a new constellation named Robur Carolinum (Charles' Oak) in honor of King Charles II, his patron, was unsuccessful.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23984, 39316, 19924, 30664, 1586886, 36858805, 992202, 1586565, 46688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 36 ], [ 42, 59 ], [ 504, 516 ], [ 521, 532 ], [ 748, 753 ], [ 839, 852 ], [ 867, 882 ], [ 943, 958 ], [ 986, 1001 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Vedic astronomy, Indian observers also saw the asterism as \"the Boat\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Representations in other cultures", "target_page_ids": [ 21476772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Māori had several names for the constellation, including Te Waka-o-Tamarereti (the canoe of Tamarereti), Te Kohi-a-Autahi (an expression meaning \"cold of autumn settling down on land and water\"), and Te Kohi.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Representations in other cultures", "target_page_ids": [ 23202689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Asterism (astronomy)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1028265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of stars in Argo Navis", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31646013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Starry Night Photography : Argo Navis Image", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Star Tales – Argo Navis", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Warburg Institute Iconographic Database – Argo (Navis) (medieval and early modern images of Argo Navis)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Argo_Navis", "Constellations_listed_by_Ptolemy", "Former_constellations" ]

[ "Argo" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In Greek mythology, Andromeda (; or , Andromédē) is the daughter of the king of Aethiopia, Cepheus, and his wife, Cassiopeia. When Cassiopeia boasts that she is more beautiful than the Nereids, Poseidon sends the sea monster Cetus to ravage the coast of Aethiopia as divine punishment. Andromeda is chained to a rock as a sacrifice to sate the monster, but is saved from death by Perseus, who marries her and takes her to Greece to reign as his queen.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 8681060, 3676637, 54010676, 21586, 22948, 261293, 79553, 209446, 12108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 81, 90 ], [ 92, 99 ], [ 115, 125 ], [ 186, 193 ], [ 195, 203 ], [ 214, 225 ], [ 226, 231 ], [ 381, 388 ], [ 423, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Her name is the Latinized form of the Greek (Androméda) or (Andromédē) 'ruler of men', from (anēr, andrós) meaning 'man, husband, human being', and (medō) 'I protect, rule over'.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a subject, Andromeda has been popular in art since classical times; rescued by a Greek hero, Andromeda's narration is considered the forerunner to the \"princess and dragon\" motif. From the Renaissance, interest revived in the original story, typically as derived from Ovid's Metamorphoses (4.663ff).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 840140, 957837, 15870439, 25532, 37802, 83101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 94 ], [ 155, 174 ], [ 176, 181 ], [ 192, 203 ], [ 271, 275 ], [ 278, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Greek mythology, Andromeda is the daughter of Cepheus and Cassiopeia, king and queen of ancient Ethiopia. Her mother Cassiopeia foolishly boasts that she is more beautiful than the Nereids, a display of hubris by a human that is unacceptable to the gods. To punish the queen for her arrogance, Poseidon floods the Ethiopian coast and sends a sea monster named Cetus to ravage the kingdom's inhabitants. In desperation, King Cepheus consults the oracle of Ammon, who announces that no respite can be found until the king sacrifices his daughter, Andromeda, to the monster. She is thus chained to a rock by the sea to await her death.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 3676637, 54010676, 8681060, 21586, 14282, 22948, 261293, 79553, 22589, 19230789, 80329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 49, 56 ], [ 61, 71 ], [ 99, 107 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 206, 212 ], [ 297, 305 ], [ 345, 356 ], [ 363, 368 ], [ 448, 454 ], [ 458, 463 ], [ 523, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Perseus is just then flying near the coast of Ethiopia on his winged sandals, having slain the Gorgon Medusa and carrying her severed head, which instantly turns to stone any who look at it. Upon seeing Andromeda bound to the rock, Perseus falls in love with her, and he secures Cepheus' promise of her hand in marriage if he can save her. Perseus kills the monster with the magical sword he had used against Medusa, saving Andromeda. Preparations are then made for their marriage, in spite of her having been previously promised to her uncle, Phineus. At the wedding, a quarrel between the rivals ends when Perseus shows Medusa's head to Phineus and his allies, turning them to stone.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 209446, 1981177, 80990, 392192, 9248867, 35567072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 62, 76 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 102, 108 ], [ 375, 388 ], [ 544, 551 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andromeda follows her husband to his native island of Serifos, where he rescues his mother, Danaë. They next go to Argos, where Perseus is the rightful heir to the throne. However, after accidentally killing Argos' king, his grandfather, Acrisius, Perseus chooses to become king of neighboring Tiryns instead. Perseus and Andromeda have seven sons: Perses (who, according to folk etymology, is the ancestor of the Persians), Alcaeus, Heleus, Mestor, Sthenelus, Electryon, and Cynurus as well as two daughters, Autochthe and Gorgophone. Their descendants rule Mycenae from Electryon down to Eurystheus, after whom Atreus attains the kingdom. The great hero Heracles (Hercules in Roman mythology) is also a descendant, his mother Alcmene being Electryon's daughter, while (like his grandfather Perseus) his father is the god Zeus. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 1805495, 83148, 70011, 81101, 252193, 4267381, 11709, 24607, 693485, 20691672, 20580428, 13531321, 79125, 20691755, 20691712, 54541483, 37548, 79125, 10164, 80577, 13815, 13770, 28957716, 1579, 34398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 61 ], [ 92, 97 ], [ 115, 120 ], [ 238, 246 ], [ 294, 300 ], [ 349, 355 ], [ 375, 389 ], [ 414, 422 ], [ 425, 432 ], [ 434, 440 ], [ 442, 448 ], [ 450, 459 ], [ 461, 470 ], [ 476, 483 ], [ 510, 519 ], [ 524, 534 ], [ 559, 566 ], [ 572, 581 ], [ 590, 600 ], [ 613, 619 ], [ 656, 664 ], [ 666, 674 ], [ 678, 693 ], [ 728, 735 ], [ 823, 827 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The goddess Athena (or her Roman version Minerva) places Andromeda in the northern sky at her death as the constellation Andromeda, along with Perseus and her parents Cepheus and Cassiopeia, in commemoration of Perseus' bravery in fighting the sea monster Cetus.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 1182, 28957716, 19845, 153353, 209441, 274231, 207685, 6362 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 18 ], [ 27, 40 ], [ 41, 48 ], [ 107, 130 ], [ 143, 150 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 179, 189 ], [ 256, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Variants of this story include:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A 6th-century BC vase painting shows Perseus throwing stones at Cetus instead of using his sword (right).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Images from Classical antiquity often show Andromeda bound to two posts instead of to a rock (see example above).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 252905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In Hyginus's account (Fabulae, 64) Perseus does not ask for Andromeda's hand in marriage before saving her, and when he afterwards intends to keep her for his wife, both her father Cepheus and her uncle Phineas plot against him, and Perseus resorts to using Medusa's head to turn them to stone.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 143691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The primary Classical sources have Perseus kill Cetus with his magical sword, even though he also carries Medusa's head, which could easily turn the monster to stone (and Perseus does use Medusa's head for this purpose in other situations). The earliest straightforward account of Perseus using Medusa's head against Cetus, however, is from the later 2nd-century AD satirist Lucian (The Hall, 22) ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 412589, 9248867, 26791, 165457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 30 ], [ 64, 77 ], [ 367, 375 ], [ 376, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 12th-century Byzantine writer John Tzetzes, in his Scholiast (notes) on Lycophron's Alexandra (836), says that Cetus swallows Perseus, who kills the monster by hacking his way out with his sword. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 16972981, 360254, 213879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 27 ], [ 35, 47 ], [ 77, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Conon (Narrations, 40) places the story in Joppa (Iope or Jaffa, on the coast of modern Israel), and seeks to rationalize the myth by making Andromeda's uncles Phineus and Phoinix rivals for her hand in marriage; her father Cepheus contrives to have Phoinix abduct her in a ship named Cetos from a small island she visits to make sacrifices to Aphrodite, and Perseus, sailing nearby, intercepts and destroys Cetos and its crew, who are \"petrified by shock\" at his bravery. Conon thus explains away all the exotic and magical elements of the story.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 21793566, 30060020, 9282173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 59, 64 ], [ 90, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andromeda was the daughter of the king and queen of Ethiopia (Aithiopia/Aethiopia), which ancient Greeks located at the edge of the world of the lands south of Egypt (Nubia). The term Aithiops was generally applied to Nubians and other peoples who dwelt above the equator, between the Atlantic Ocean and the Indian Ocean, being derived from the Greek words and (aitho 'I burn' + ops 'face'), translating as burnt-face in noun form and red-brown in adjectival form, as a reference to the Black African natives of the Kingdom of Kush. Homer says the Ethiopians live \"at the world's end, and lie in two halves, the one looking West and the other East,\" an idea echoed by Ovid, who located Ethiopia next to India, close to where the sun rises each day. The 5th century BC historian Herodotus writes that \"Where south inclines westwards, the part of the world stretching farthest towards the sunset is Ethiopia\", and also included a plan by Cambyses II of Persia to invade Ethiopia (Kush).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ethnicities of Andromeda", "target_page_ids": [ 8681060, 66540, 8087628, 21492837, 698, 14580, 27067, 21624273, 13633, 37802, 14533, 13574, 46601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 81 ], [ 90, 104 ], [ 160, 165 ], [ 167, 172 ], [ 285, 299 ], [ 308, 320 ], [ 489, 501 ], [ 518, 533 ], [ 535, 540 ], [ 670, 674 ], [ 705, 710 ], [ 780, 789 ], [ 938, 959 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the 1st century BC a rival location for Andromeda's story had been established, however: an outcrop of rocks near the harbor of the ancient port city of Joppa (Iope or Jaffa, today part of Tel Aviv, Israel) had become associated with the place of Andromeda's chaining and rescue, as reported by Pliny the Elder, the traveler Pausanias, the geographer Strabo, and the historian Josephus. A case has been made that this new version of the myth was exploited to enhance the fame and serve the local tourist trade of Joppa, which also became connected with the biblical story of Jonah featuring yet another huge sea creature. This was, of course, at odds with Andromeda's African origins, adding to the confusion already surrounding her ethnicity, as reflected in 5th century Greek vase images showing Andromeda attended by dark-skinned African servants and wearing clothing that would have looked foreign to Greeks, yet with light skin.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ethnicities of Andromeda", "target_page_ids": [ 30060020, 31453, 9282173, 44920, 416255, 52121, 16494, 3390, 16224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 176 ], [ 192, 200 ], [ 202, 208 ], [ 298, 313 ], [ 328, 337 ], [ 354, 360 ], [ 380, 388 ], [ 560, 568 ], [ 578, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Greek Anthology, Philodemus (1st century BC) wrote about the \"Indian Andromeda\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ethnicities of Andromeda", "target_page_ids": [ 241075, 2625475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 20, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elizabeth McGrath, in her article The Black Andromeda, discusses the tradition, as promoted by the influential Roman poet Ovid, of Andromeda being a dark-skinned woman of either Ethiopian or Indian origin. In his Heroides Ovid has Sappho explain to Phaon: \"though I'm not pure white, Cepheus's dark Andromeda/charmed Perseus with her native color./White doves often choose mates of different hue/and the parrot loves the black turtle dove\"; the Latin word Ovid uses here for \"dark Andromeda\" refers to the color black or brown. Elsewhere he says that Perseus brought Andromeda from \"darkest\" India and declares \"Nor was Andromeda's color any problem/to her wing-footed aerial lover\" adding that \"White suits dark girls; you looked so attractive in white, Andromeda\". Ovid's account of Andromeda's story follows Euripides' play Andromeda in having Perseus initially mistake the chained Andromeda for a statue of marble, which has been taken to mean she was light-skinned; but since statues in Ovid's time were commonly painted to look like living people, her skin tone could have been of any color.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ethnicities of Andromeda", "target_page_ids": [ 56792796, 27878498, 37802, 2842461, 9808, 18863585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 122, 126 ], [ 213, 221 ], [ 812, 821 ], [ 828, 837 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Aethiopica, a Greek romance attributed to the 3rd-century AD writer Heliodorus of Emesa, reflects the ambiguity between dark-skinned and light-skinned Andromedas in Late Antiquity. In the kingdom of Meroë (modern Sudan), Queen Persinna gives birth to her daughter, Chariclea, who, despite having black parents, is born with white skin. The mother's explanation is that, during the moment of conception, she was gazing at a picture of a white-skinned Andromeda \"brought down by Perseus naked from the rock, and so by mishap engendered presently a thing like to her.\" After being long separated from her parents, living in Egypt and Greece, Princess Chariclea returns home with her lover Theagnes and proves both her heritage and her mother's story as true by showing her parents a single black spot upon her elbow. Like the mythical Andromeda, Chariclea thus 'passes' as a member of the Greek/Roman world as well as of her African birthplace.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ethnicities of Andromeda", "target_page_ids": [ 5738625, 501147, 823343, 524267, 27421, 46828, 496519, 2194994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 72, 91 ], [ 169, 183 ], [ 203, 208 ], [ 217, 222 ], [ 395, 405 ], [ 625, 630 ], [ 635, 641 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This ambiguity is also reflected in a description by the 2nd-century AD sophist Philostratus of a painting depicting Perseus and Andromeda. He emphasizes the painting's Ethiopian setting, and notes that Andromeda \"is charming in that she is fair of skin though in Ethiopia,\" in clear contrast to the other \"charming Ethiopians with their strange coloring and their grim smiles\" who have assembled to cheer Perseus in this picture.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ethnicities of Andromeda", "target_page_ids": [ 49646, 80271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 79 ], [ 80, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through the centuries, Ovid's descriptions of Andromeda and/or other authors' references to her African/Indian origins have influenced some artists but not the majority, for various reasons. Not all artists would have had suitable darker-skinned models available to them. The alternative tradition of Andromeda's story taking place at Joppa (on the coast of modern Israel) suggested that she was of light complexion to some artists. Others may simply followed the tendency of artists everywhere to make the main subjects of their works look like themselves and the people around them. Roman frescoes from Pompeii show light-skinned Andromedas, for instance, but a 2nd–3rd century AD Roman mosaic found at Zeugma in modern Turkey shows her with darker skin tones, which would be more common in the Middle East (see illustrations). A few Renaissance and Baroque artists, such as Piero di Cosimo, Titian, Giorgio Vasari, and Abraham van Diepenbeeck, painted Andromedas with darker or dusky-colored skin tones (see Gallery), but Ovid's tradition was not continued by their contemporaries or later artists.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Ethnicities of Andromeda", "target_page_ids": [ 9282173, 25507, 11144, 21476593, 61309, 1872746, 11125639, 19323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 365, 371 ], [ 585, 590 ], [ 591, 597 ], [ 605, 612 ], [ 689, 695 ], [ 705, 711 ], [ 722, 728 ], [ 797, 808 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andromeda is represented in the Northern sky by the constellation Andromeda, which contains the Andromeda Galaxy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 43696720, 5267, 153353, 74331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 44 ], [ 52, 65 ], [ 66, 75 ], [ 96, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several constellations are associated with the myth. Viewing the fainter stars visible to the naked eye, the constellations are rendered as:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A maiden (Andromeda) chained up, facing or turning away from the ecliptic.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 153353, 9264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 66, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A warrior (Perseus), often depicted holding the head of Medusa, next to Andromeda.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 209441, 392192, 153353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 19 ], [ 57, 63 ], [ 73, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A huge man (Cepheus) wearing a crown, upside down with respect to the ecliptic.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 274231, 95353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 32, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A smaller figure (Cassiopeia) next to the man, sitting on a chair; as it is near the pole star, it may be seen by observers in the Northern Hemisphere through the whole year, although sometimes upside down.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 207685, 23230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 86, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A whale or sea monster (Cetus) just beyond Pisces, to the south-east.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 33777, 6362, 23227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ], [ 25, 30 ], [ 44, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The flying horse Pegasus, who was born from the stump of Medusa's neck after Perseus had decapitated her.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 212523, 392192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ], [ 58, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The paired fish of the constellation Pisces, that in myth were caught by Dictys the fisherman who was brother of Polydectes, king of Seriphos, the place where Perseus and his mother Danaë were stranded.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 23227, 83150, 242592, 83151, 1805495, 83148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 44 ], [ 74, 80 ], [ 85, 94 ], [ 114, 124 ], [ 134, 142 ], [ 183, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sophocles, Andromeda (5th century BC), lost tragedy except for fragments", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 26984, 631802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 45, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Euripides, Andromeda (412 BC), lost tragedy except for fragments; parodied by Aristophanes in his comedy Thesmophoriazusae (411 BC) and influential in the ancient world", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 9808, 18863585, 631802, 18960192, 1028, 1420518, 969353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 12, 21 ], [ 37, 44 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 79, 91 ], [ 99, 105 ], [ 106, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " George Chapman's poem in Heroic couplets Andromeda liberata, Or the nuptials of Perseus and Andromeda, written for the 1614 wedding of the Robert Carr, 1st Earl of Somerset and Frances Howard.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 314809, 14123, 291435, 1084945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 26, 40 ], [ 140, 173 ], [ 178, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ludovico Ariosto's influential epic poem Orlando Furioso (1516-1532) features a pagan princess named Angelica who at one point is in exactly the same situation as Andromeda, chained naked to a rock on the sea as a sacrifice to a sea monster, and is saved at the last minute by the Saracen knight Ruggiero.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 17901, 9418, 174471, 23340, 6583979, 46689, 10256908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 32, 41 ], [ 42, 57 ], [ 81, 86 ], [ 102, 110 ], [ 282, 289 ], [ 297, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lope de Vega's play El Perseo (1621)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 379771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pierre Corneille's verse play Andromède (1650), popular for its stage machinery effects, including Perseus astride Pegasus as he battles the sea monster, the success of which helped inspire Jean-Baptiste Lully's opera Persée.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 58193, 1061167, 28130775, 23986, 23474985, 6867401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 20, 30 ], [ 31, 40 ], [ 116, 123 ], [ 191, 210 ], [ 219, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pedro Calderón de la Barca's play Las Fortunas de Perseo y Andrómeda (1653)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 217358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Weaver, Perseus and Andromeda (1716), a pantomimic entertainment", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 3457761, 2101713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 46, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " John Keats' 1819 sonnet On the Sonnet compares the restricted sonnet form to the bound Andromeda as being \"Fetter’d, in spite of pained loveliness\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 16455, 28260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 18, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In Moby-Dick (1851), Herman Melville's narrator Ishmael discusses the Perseus and Andromeda myth in two chapters. Chapter 55, \"Of the Monstrous Pictures of Whales,\" mentions depictions of Perseus rescuing Andromeda from Cetus in artwork by Guido Reni and William Hogarth. In Chapter 82, \"The Honor and Glory of Whaling,\" Ishmael recounts the myth and says that the Romans found a giant whale skeleton in Joppa that they believed to be the skeleton of Cetus.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 19859, 13623, 605079, 103020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 22, 37 ], [ 241, 251 ], [ 256, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " James Robinson Planché and Charles Dance's Victorian burlesque, The Deep deep sea, or Perseus and Andromeda; an original mythological, aquatic, equestrian burletta in one act (1857)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 1191246, 25095512, 7159081, 13125809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 28, 43 ], [ 44, 63 ], [ 156, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charles Kingsley's free verse poem retelling the myth, Andromeda (1858)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 96810, 11478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 20, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Brough's Victorian burlesque Perseus and Andromeda, or, The Maid and the Monster: A Classical Extravaganza (1861)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 30530571, 7159081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 18, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " William Morris retells the story of Perseus and Andromeda in his epic poem The Earthly Paradise (1868) April: The Doom of King Acrisius", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 33277, 9418, 42451408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 66, 75 ], [ 76, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gerard Manley Hopkins' sonnet Andromeda (1879) (see box) has invited many interpretations", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 12523, 28260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 24, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Julia Constance Fletcher (who wrote under the pseudonym George Fleming), Andromeda, a Novel (1885)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 52207573, 40594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 47, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Williams Buchanan's novel Andromeda, An Idyl of the Great River (1901), updates the myth using characters in a 19th-century fishing community on the River Thames", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 386495, 23713433, 49031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 28, 33 ], [ 157, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Richard Le Gallienne's prose version of Ovid's account, Perseus and Andromeda, A Retelling (1902)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 1039315, 52103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 24, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " British poet, novelist and journalist Alphonse Courlander's (1881-1914) long poem Perseus and Andromeda in 1903", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 16716141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Carlton Dawe's 1909 novel The New Andromeda (published in America as The Woman, the Man, and the Monster) retells the Andromeda story in a modern setting", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 5596298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Muriel Stuart's closet drama Andromeda Unfettered (1922), featuring: Andromeda, \"the spirit of woman\"; Perseus, \"the new spirit of man\"; a chorus of \"women who desire the old thrall\"; and a chorus of \"women who crave the new freedom\" ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 2602926, 1061223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 17, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Robert Nichols' short story Perseus and Andromeda (1923) satirically retells the story in two contrasting styles", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 1029843, 28296, 26791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 17, 28 ], [ 58, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In her novel The Sea, the Sea (1978), Iris Murdoch uses the Andromeda myth, as presented in a reproduction of Titian's painting Perseus and Andromeda, to reflect the character and motives of her characters", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 410932, 60315, 154239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 30 ], [ 39, 51 ], [ 111, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Michael McClure's poem Fragments of Perseus (1983) \"presents fragments of an imaginary journal by Perseus, son of Zeus and Danae, slayer of the snake-haired Medusa, and husband of Andromeda\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 385553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andromeda is the main character in Harry Turtledove's 1999 short story Miss Manners' Guide to Greek Missology, a satire filled with role reversals, puns, and deliberate anachronisms relating to pop culture", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 40212, 26791, 24145, 60731, 18993927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 52 ], [ 114, 120 ], [ 149, 152 ], [ 170, 181 ], [ 195, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The main character in Jodi Picoult's My Sister's Keeper (2004) is named Andromeda, linking her parents' expecting her to sacrifice organs to keep her sister alive to the mythical Andromeda who was sacrificed by her parents", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 2449618, 2449650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 35 ], [ 38, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In Rick Riordan’s Percy Jackson & the Olympians series, the cruise ship Percy and Annabeth first board in The Sea of Monsters that is controlled by Luke and his group of half-bloods supporting the Titan Lord Kronos is called the Princess Andromeda, and bears a figurative masthead at the front of the ship of the princess in a Greek chiton with an expression of terror on her face.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 8093233, 6143564, 7906594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 19, 48 ], [ 107, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Claudio Monteverdi, Andromeda (1618-1620), opera; the libretto exists but the music has been lost", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 6226, 22348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 44, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jean-Baptiste Lully, Persée (1682), tragédie lyrique in 5 acts", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 23474985, 6867401, 1447627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 22, 28 ], [ 37, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Georg Philipp Telemann, Perseus und Andromeda (1704), opera in 3 acts", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 13062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antonio Maria Bononcini, Andromeda (1707), cantata for 4 voices and orchestra", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 3511806, 44138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 44, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andromeda liberata (1726), a pasticcio-serenata on the subject of Perseus freeing Andromeda, made as a collective tribute to the visiting Cardinal Pietro Ottoboni by at least five composers working in Venice, including Vivaldi", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 56785240, 2170979, 956677, 2794567, 1425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 30, 39 ], [ 40, 48 ], [ 140, 164 ], [ 221, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Louis Antoine Lefebvre, Andromède (1762?), cantata for solo voice and orchestra ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Giovanni Piasiello, Andromeda (1773), 3-act opera ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 37945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Carl Ditters von Dittersdorf, Symphony in F (Perseus' Rescue of Andromeda) and Symphony in D (The Petrification of Phineus and his Friends), Nos. 4 and 5 of his Symphonies after Ovid's Metamorphoses (ca. 1781)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 570302, 44114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ], [ 31, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Augusta Holmès, Andromède (1883), symphonic poem ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 668242, 148820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 35, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Guillaume Lekeu, Andromède (1891), cantata for 4 voices, chorus & orchestra ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 2520726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cyril Rootham, Andromeda (1905), a musical setting of Charles Kingsley's poem Andromeda", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 7807576, 41863791, 96810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 36, 51 ], [ 55, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jacques Ibert, Persée et Andromède, ou le Plus heureux des trois (1929), opera in 2 acts", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 590346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jose Antonio Bottiroli, Andrómeda, Micro-sorrow I in D minor B96 for piano (1984)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 33520488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Salvatore Sciarrino, Perseo e Andromeda (1990), opera in one act for 4 voices and synthesized sound", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 3910755, 9510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 83, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Caroline Mallonée, Portraits of Andromeda for cello and string orchestra (2019)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 61448935, 6558, 180103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 47, 52 ], [ 57, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Weyes Blood, “Andromeda” on her album Titanic Rising (2019)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 52371022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ensiferum, “Andromeda” on the album Thalassic (2020)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 999848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Perseus (1973), a short animated film by Soviet animator Alexandra Snezhko-Blotskaya, pits Perseus' natural kindness against the god Hermes' greed, and presents the Ethiopian Andromeda as dark-skinned (while making Perseus blond).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 593, 1060946, 45676342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 38 ], [ 42, 57 ], [ 58, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The 1981 film Clash of the Titans is loosely based on the story of Perseus, Andromeda, and Cassiopeia, and makes several changes to the original myth. In the film Cassiopeia boasts that her daughter is more beautiful than the single Nereid Thetis, rather than the Nereids as a group. Andromeda and Perseus meet and fall in love after he saves her soul from the enslavement of Thetis' \"son\" Calibos (a character created for the film to provide Perseus with a dramatic foil) and before he slays Medusa, whereas in the myth they first meet when Perseus finds Andromeda chained to the rock as he is returning home from having already slain Medusa. In the film the monster is called a kraken (the name of a giant squid-like sea monster in Norse mythology) and its design differs from the whale-like Cetos of Greek mythology. Perseus defeats the sea monster by showing it Medusa's face to turn it into stone, even though the Classical sources typically say he killed the monster with his magical sword. In the film Perseus tames and rides the flying horse Pegasus, which in Classical mythology was done by the hero Bellerophon. Perseus' use of Pegasus, along with his turning the monster to stone, was added to Perseus' myth in Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. Also, Henry Louis Gates, Jr. criticizes this film and its 2010 remake for using white actresses to portray the Ethiopian princess Andromeda.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 948548, 37552, 254515, 21005627, 23417070, 79553, 23416994, 412589, 9248867, 23986, 412589, 23768767, 823343, 18836, 45245513 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 34 ], [ 241, 247 ], [ 459, 472 ], [ 681, 687 ], [ 735, 750 ], [ 795, 800 ], [ 804, 819 ], [ 920, 937 ], [ 983, 996 ], [ 1051, 1058 ], [ 1069, 1088 ], [ 1111, 1122 ], [ 1224, 1238 ], [ 1247, 1258 ], [ 1266, 1287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the Japanese anime Saint Seiya (1986-1989), the character Shun represents the Andromeda constellation using chains as his main weapons, reminiscent of Andromeda being chained before she was saved by Perseus. In order to attain the Andromeda Cloth, he was chained between two large pillars of rock and he had to overcome the chains before the tide came in and killed him, also reminiscent of this myth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 371069, 4343639, 153353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 34 ], [ 62, 66 ], [ 82, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andromeda appears in Disney's The Animated Series (1998-1999) as a new student of \"Prometheus Academy\" which Hercules and other characters from Greek mythology attend.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 37398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The main character in My Sister's Keeper (2009), adapted from the 2004 novel of the same name, is named Andromeda, linking her parents' plan for her to sacrifice organs to keep her sister alive to the mythical Andromeda who was sacrificed by her parents.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 15739815, 2449650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 41 ], [ 63, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Andromeda is featured in the 2010 film Clash of the Titans, a remake of the 1981 version which strays from the myth's ancient sources, and Greek mythology in general. As in the 1981 version, she is set to be sacrificed to the kraken but is saved by Perseus. The 2012 sequel, Wrath of the Titans, draws more from Norse mythology's twilight of the gods (Ragnarök), than Greek mythology.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 22358819, 30470648, 23417070, 25829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 59 ], [ 276, 295 ], [ 313, 328 ], [ 353, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andromeda, and her role in the popular myth of Perseus, has been the subject of numerous ancient and modern works of art, where she is represented as a bound and helpless, typically beautiful, young woman placed in terrible danger, who must be saved through the unswerving courage of a hero who loves her: (see Gallery)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Although ancient artists at first presented her fully clothed, nude images of Andromeda started appearing during Classical antiquity, and by the Renaissance the chained nude figure of Andromeda, either alone or being rescued, had become the standard, as seen in works by Titian, Joachim Wtewael, Cesari, Passerotti, Veronese, Rubens, Bertin, Boucher, van Loo, Moreau, Stanhope, and Burne-Jones. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 252905, 25532, 154239, 5312349, 902123, 8380172, 236906, 21463370, 27841404, 44517, 1809752, 67575, 8804290, 178877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 133 ], [ 146, 157 ], [ 272, 278 ], [ 280, 295 ], [ 297, 303 ], [ 305, 315 ], [ 317, 325 ], [ 327, 333 ], [ 335, 341 ], [ 343, 350 ], [ 352, 359 ], [ 361, 367 ], [ 369, 377 ], [ 383, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rather than dwelling on Andromeda's physical beauty, artists such as Rembrandt, Fetti, Chassériau, Delacroix, Doré, Leighton, and (satirically) Vallotton, have focused on her terror and vulnerability as she awaits the monster.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 4254144, 1390445, 861782, 169832, 266334, 330700, 26791, 7657254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 79 ], [ 81, 86 ], [ 88, 98 ], [ 100, 109 ], [ 111, 115 ], [ 117, 125 ], [ 132, 143 ], [ 145, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Some artists such as Piero di Cosimo, Jan Keynooghe, Jacob Matham, and Pierre Mignard, have shown Andromeda in relation to her parents and onlookers. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 225501, 18512183, 921280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ], [ 54, 66 ], [ 72, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andromeda was a popular subject for artists especially in the Renaissance and Baroque eras, followed by a resurgence of interest in her myth in the 19th century, but since then artists have shown much less interest in this subject.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 25532, 3957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 73 ], [ 78, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other Art Traditions Inspired by the Andromeda Myth:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The legend of Saint George and the Dragon, in which a courageous knight rescues a princess from a monster (with clear parallels to the Andromeda myth), became a popular subject for art in the Late Middle Ages, and artists drew from both traditions. One result is the idea of having Perseus riding the flying horse Pegasus when fighting the sea monster (as seen in paintings by Matham, Passerotti, Cesari, Wtewael, Rubens, Mignard, Bertin, and Leighton below), despite classical sources consistently stating that he flew using winged sandals and connecting Pegasus to the hero Bellerophon's adventures.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 250715, 16897, 2287895, 23986, 18512183, 8380172, 902123, 5312349, 21463370, 921280, 27841404, 330700, 412589, 1981177, 23768767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 42 ], [ 66, 72 ], [ 193, 209 ], [ 315, 322 ], [ 378, 384 ], [ 386, 396 ], [ 398, 404 ], [ 406, 413 ], [ 415, 421 ], [ 423, 430 ], [ 432, 438 ], [ 444, 452 ], [ 469, 486 ], [ 527, 541 ], [ 577, 590 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ludovico Ariosto's influential epic poem Orlando Furioso (1516-1532) features a pagan princess named Angelica who at one point is in exactly the same situation as Andromeda, chained naked to a rock on the sea as a sacrifice to a sea monster, and is saved at the last minute by the Saracen knight Ruggiero. Artists were drawn to this subject for the same reasons they appreciated the Andromeda myth, and images of Angelica and Ruggiero (or Roggiero/Roger) are often hard to distinguish from those of Andromeda and Perseus", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 17901, 9418, 174471, 23340, 6583979, 46689, 10256908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 32, 41 ], [ 42, 57 ], [ 81, 86 ], [ 102, 110 ], [ 282, 289 ], [ 297, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Angelica", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6583979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atalanta", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Danaë", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 83148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ethiopia (Greek mythology)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8681060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " White Aethiopians", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31830292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hesione", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 77733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iphigenia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 79258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For Full Text and Translations of Source Materials and Articles on Mythology:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Perseus Digital Library (Tufts University) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Theoi Greek Mythology ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Primary Greek and Roman sources:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollodorus, Library (Bibliotheca) 2.4.3–5 (online English translation by James George Frazer (1921): )", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 620653, 85577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ovid, Metamorphoses 4.668–5.235 (online English translation by Brooks More (1922): )", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 37802, 83101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 7, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Comprehensive Studies of the Perseus myth:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Edwin Hartland, The Legend of Perseus: A Study of Tradition in Story, Custom and Belief, 3 vols. (1894-1896) (available online at: )", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Daniel Ogden, Perseus (Routledge, 2008) ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Metamorphoses_characters", "Princesses_in_Greek_mythology", "Queens_in_Greek_mythology", "Characters_in_Greek_mythology", "Deeds_of_Poseidon", "Love_stories", "Nude_art", "Iconography", "Ethiopian_characters_in_Greek_mythology" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Antlia (; from Ancient Greek ἀντλία) is a constellation in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere. Its name means \"pump\" in Latin and Greek; it represents an air pump. Originally Antlia Pneumatica, the constellation was established by Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille in the 18th century. Its non-specific (single-word) name, already in limited use, was preferred by John Herschel then welcomed by the astronomic community which officially accepted this. North of stars forming some of the sails of the ship Argo Navis (the constellation Vela), Antlia is completely visible from latitudes south of 49 degrees north.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 148363, 5267, 43344021, 23617, 17730, 11887, 2781960, 21628, 43592, 1924, 32568, 328341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 28 ], [ 42, 55 ], [ 63, 92 ], [ 110, 114 ], [ 119, 124 ], [ 129, 134 ], [ 153, 161 ], [ 230, 255 ], [ 355, 368 ], [ 496, 506 ], [ 526, 530 ], [ 586, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antlia is a faint constellation; its brightest star is Alpha Antliae, an orange giant that is a suspected variable star, ranging between apparent magnitudes 4.22 and 4.29. S Antliae is an eclipsing binary star system, changing in brightness as one star passes in front of the other. Sharing a common envelope, the stars are so close they will one day merge to form a single star. Two star systems with known exoplanets, HD 93083 and WASP-66, lie within Antlia, as do NGC 2997, a spiral galaxy, and the Antlia Dwarf Galaxy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2781976, 568726, 63025, 1962, 18132932, 52713, 22387642, 1564630, 46178534, 3727914, 207620, 6864597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 68 ], [ 80, 85 ], [ 106, 119 ], [ 137, 155 ], [ 172, 181 ], [ 188, 204 ], [ 293, 308 ], [ 420, 428 ], [ 433, 440 ], [ 467, 475 ], [ 479, 492 ], [ 502, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille first described the constellation in French as la Machine Pneumatique (the Pneumatic Machine) in 1751–52, commemorating the air pump invented by the French physicist Denis Papin. De Lacaille had observed and catalogued almost 10,000 southern stars during a two-year stay at the Cape of Good Hope, devising fourteen new constellations in uncharted regions of the Southern Celestial Hemisphere not visible from Europe. He named all but one in honour of instruments that symbolised the Age of Enlightenment. Lacaille depicted Antlia as a single-cylinder vacuum pump used in Papin's initial experiments, while German astronomer Johann Bode chose the more advanced double-cylinder version. Lacaille Latinised the name to Antlia pneumatica on his 1763 chart. English astronomer John Herschel proposed shrinking the name to one word in 1844, noting that Lacaille himself had abbreviated his constellations thus on occasion. This was universally adopted. The International Astronomical Union adopted it as one of the 88 modern constellations in 1922.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21628, 2781960, 81861, 44252, 43344021, 30758, 16097, 17730, 43592, 14878, 287159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 47 ], [ 172, 180 ], [ 214, 225 ], [ 326, 343 ], [ 410, 439 ], [ 531, 551 ], [ 672, 683 ], [ 742, 747 ], [ 820, 833 ], [ 999, 1031 ], [ 1057, 1081 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although visible to the Ancient Greeks, Antlia's stars were too faint to have been commonly recognised as a figurative object, or part of one, in ancient asterisms. The stars that now comprise Antlia are in a zone of the sky associated with the asterism/old constellation Argo Navis, the ship, the Argo, of the Argonauts, in its latter centuries. This, due to its immense size, was split into hull, poop deck and sails by Lacaille in 1763. Ridpath reports that due to their faintness, the stars of Antlia did not make up part of the classical depiction of Argo Navis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4385475, 1924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 38 ], [ 272, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chinese astronomers were able to view what is modern Antlia from their latitudes, and incorporated its stars into two different constellations. Several stars in the southern part of Antlia were a portion of \"Dong'ou\", which represented an area in southern China. Furthermore, Epsilon, Eta, and Theta Antliae were incorporated into the celestial temple, which also contained stars from modern Pyxis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1524517, 2781986, 2782065, 2782045, 23984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 276, 283 ], [ 285, 288 ], [ 294, 307 ], [ 392, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Covering 238.9 square degrees and hence 0.579% of the sky, Antlia ranks 62nd of the 88 modern constellations by area. Its position in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of 49°N. Hydra the sea snake runs along the length of its northern border, while Pyxis the compass, Vela the sails, and Centaurus the centaur line it to the west, south and east respectively. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union, is \"Ant\". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon with an east side, south side and ten other sides (facing the two other cardinal compass points) (illustrated in infobox at top-right). In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −24.54° and −40.42°.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 287159, 43344021, 5267, 328341, 213468, 23984, 32568, 6371, 590453, 48384, 26073, 8612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 108 ], [ 138, 167 ], [ 189, 202 ], [ 236, 240 ], [ 242, 247 ], [ 314, 319 ], [ 333, 337 ], [ 353, 362 ], [ 608, 623 ], [ 801, 829 ], [ 835, 850 ], [ 909, 920 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lacaille gave nine stars Bayer designations, labelling them Alpha through to Theta, combining two stars next to each other as Zeta. Gould later added a tenth, Iota Antliae. Beta and Gamma Antliae (now HR 4339 and HD 90156) ended up in the neighbouring constellation Hydra once the constellation boundaries were delineated in 1930. Within the constellation's borders, there are 42 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude6.5.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 4199, 2782001, 47574551, 25207007, 1962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 42 ], [ 159, 171 ], [ 201, 208 ], [ 213, 221 ], [ 412, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The constellation's two brightest stars—Alpha and Epsilon Antliae—shine with a reddish tinge. Alpha is an orange giant of spectral type K4III that is a suspected variable star, ranging between apparent magnitudes 4.22 and 4.29. It is located 320 ± 10 light-years away from Earth. Estimated to be shining with around 480 to 555 times the luminosity of the Sun, it is most likely an ageing star that is brightening and on its way to becoming a Mira variable star, having converted all its core fuel into carbon. Located 590 ± 30 light-years from Earth, Epsilon Antliae is an evolved orange giant star of spectral type K3 IIIa, that has swollen to have a diameter about 69 times that of the Sun, and a luminosity of around 1279 Suns. It is slightly variable. At the other end of Antlia, Iota Antliae is likewise an orange giant of spectral type K1 III. It is 202 ± 2 light-years distant.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2781976, 2781986, 568726, 28927, 28927, 63025, 1962, 23473595, 44790, 204539, 2782001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 45 ], [ 50, 65 ], [ 113, 118 ], [ 122, 135 ], [ 136, 141 ], [ 162, 175 ], [ 193, 211 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 337, 347 ], [ 442, 455 ], [ 784, 796 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Located near Alpha is Delta Antliae, a binary star, 450 ± 10 light-years distant from Earth. The primary is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B9.5V and magnitude 5.6, and the secondary is a yellow-white main sequence star of spectral type F9Ve and magnitude 9.6. Zeta Antliae is a wide optical double star. The brighter star—Zeta1 Antliae—is 410 ± 40 light-years distant and has a magnitude of 5.74, though it is a true binary star system composed of two white main sequence stars of magnitudes 6.20 and 7.01 that are separated by 8.042 arcseconds. The fainter star—Zeta2 Antliae—is 386 ± 5 light-years distant and of magnitude 5.9. Eta Antliae is another double composed of a yellow white star of spectral type F1V and magnitude 5.31, with a companion of magnitude 11.3. Theta Antliae is likewise double, most likely composed of an A-type main sequence star and a yellow giant. S Antliae is an eclipsing binary star system that varies in apparent magnitude from 6.27 to 6.83 over a period of 15.6 hours. The system is classed as a W Ursae Majoris variable—the primary is hotter than the secondary and the drop in magnitude is caused by the latter passing in front of the former. Calculating the properties of the component stars from the orbital period indicates that the primary star has a mass 1.94 times and a diameter 2.026 times that of the Sun, and the secondary has a mass 0.76 times and a diameter 1.322 times that of the Sun. The two stars have similar luminosity and spectral type as they have a common envelope and share stellar material. The system is thought to be around 5–6 billion years old. The two stars will eventually merge to form a single fast-spinning star.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2782184, 52713, 1575837, 28927, 1575734, 28927, 2782245, 53603, 25141634, 1575751, 2431, 25141667, 2782065, 2782045, 1575751, 18132932, 52713, 2705353, 44790, 28927, 22387642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 39, 50 ], [ 110, 139 ], [ 157, 162 ], [ 205, 236 ], [ 254, 258 ], [ 278, 290 ], [ 309, 320 ], [ 340, 353 ], [ 470, 495 ], [ 552, 561 ], [ 581, 594 ], [ 648, 659 ], [ 787, 800 ], [ 848, 873 ], [ 894, 903 ], [ 910, 926 ], [ 1047, 1071 ], [ 1478, 1488 ], [ 1493, 1506 ], [ 1522, 1537 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "T Antliae is a yellow-white supergiant of spectral type F6Iab and Classical Cepheid variable ranging between magnitude 8.88 and 9.82 over 5.9 days. U Antliae is a red C-type carbon star and is an irregular variable that ranges between magnitudes 5.27 and 6.04. At 910 ± 50 light-years distant, it is around 5819 times as luminous as the Sun. BF Antliae is a Delta Scuti variable that varies by 0.01 of a magnitude. HR 4049, also known as AG Antliae, is an unusual hot variable ageing star of spectral type B9.5Ib-II. It is undergoing intense loss of mass and is a unique variable that does not belong to any class of known variable star, ranging between magnitudes 5.29 and 5.83 with a period of 429 days. It is around 6000 light-years away from Earth. UX Antliae is an R Coronae Borealis variable with a baseline apparent magnitude of around 11.85, with irregular dimmings down to below magnitude 18.0. A luminous and remote star, it is a supergiant with a spectrum resembling that of a yellow-white F-type star but it has almost no hydrogen.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 25500910, 18070419, 29828324, 2782166, 28927, 597244, 1121766, 47885343, 2674245, 18110071, 18138668, 15515673, 170853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 15, 38 ], [ 66, 92 ], [ 148, 157 ], [ 167, 173 ], [ 174, 185 ], [ 196, 214 ], [ 342, 352 ], [ 358, 378 ], [ 415, 422 ], [ 753, 763 ], [ 770, 797 ], [ 940, 950 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "HD 93083 is an orange dwarf star of spectral type K3V that is smaller and cooler than the Sun. It has a planet that was discovered by the radial velocity method with the HARPS spectrograph in 2005. About as massive as Saturn, the planet orbits its star with a period of 143 days at a mean distance of 0.477 AU. WASP-66 is a sunlike star of spectral type F4V. A planet with 2.3 times the mass of Jupiter orbits it every 4 days, discovered by the transit method in 2012. DEN 1048-3956 is a brown dwarf of spectral type M8 located around 13 light-years distant from Earth. At magnitude 17 it is much too faint to be seen with the unaided eye. It has a surface temperature of about 2500 K. Two powerful flares lasting 4–5 minutes each were detected in 2002. 2MASS 0939-2448 is a system of two cool and faint brown dwarfs, probably with effective temperatures of about 500 and 700 K and masses of about 25 and 40 times that of Jupiter, though it is also possible that both objects have temperatures of 600 K and 30 Jupiter masses.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 1564630, 10932739, 1071088, 46178534, 9819646, 44401, 54648, 28835772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 138, 160 ], [ 170, 188 ], [ 311, 318 ], [ 469, 482 ], [ 488, 499 ], [ 699, 705 ], [ 754, 769 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antlia contains many faint galaxies, the brightest of which is NGC 2997 at magnitude 10.6. It is a loosely wound face-on spiral galaxy of type Sc. Though nondescript in most amateur telescopes, it presents bright clusters of young stars and many dark dust lanes in photographs. Discovered in 1997, the Antlia Dwarf is a 14.8m dwarf spheroidal galaxy that belongs to the Local Group of galaxies. In 2018 the discovery was announced of a very low surface brightness galaxy near Epsilon Antliae, Antlia 2, which is a satellite galaxy of the Milky Way.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 3727914, 207620, 826216, 6864597, 993396, 18093, 1358431, 59113400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 71 ], [ 121, 134 ], [ 143, 145 ], [ 302, 314 ], [ 326, 349 ], [ 370, 381 ], [ 445, 463 ], [ 493, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Antlia Cluster, also known as Abell S0636, is a cluster of galaxies located in the Hydra-Centaurus Supercluster. It is the third nearest to the Local Group after the Virgo Cluster and the Fornax Cluster. The cluster's distance from earth is to Located in the southeastern corner of the constellation, it boasts the giant elliptical galaxies NGC 3268 and NGC 3258 as the main members of a southern and northern subgroup respectively, and contains around 234 galaxies in total.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 14442399, 58950, 902229, 18093, 214067, 2841242, 33587530, 33587711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 52, 71 ], [ 87, 115 ], [ 148, 159 ], [ 170, 183 ], [ 192, 206 ], [ 347, 355 ], [ 360, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Antlia", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The clickable Antlia", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Antlia", "Southern_constellations", "Constellations_listed_by_Lacaille" ]

[ "Antila", "Ant", "Antliae" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Ara (Latin for \"the Altar\") is a southern constellation between Scorpius, Telescopium, Triangulum Australe, and Norma. It was (as ) one of the Greek bulk (namely 48) described by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations designated by the International Astronomical Union.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 43344021, 5267, 26933, 30664, 30662, 185763, 23979, 287159, 14878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 10 ], [ 33, 41 ], [ 42, 55 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 74, 85 ], [ 87, 106 ], [ 112, 117 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 241, 265 ], [ 284, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The orange supergiant Beta Arae, to us its brightest star measured with near-constant apparent magnitude of 2.85, is marginally brighter than blue-white Alpha Arae. Seven star systems are known to host planets. Sunlike Mu Arae hosts four known planets. Gliese 676 is a (gravity-paired) binary red dwarf system with four known planets.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2877751, 1962, 2877787, 931735, 25206992, 56099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ], [ 86, 104 ], [ 153, 163 ], [ 219, 226 ], [ 253, 263 ], [ 293, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Milky Way crosses the northwestern part of Ara. Within the constellation is Westerlund 1, a super star cluster that contains the red supergiant Westerlund 1-26, one of the largest stars known.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7175685, 6115906, 200011, 40512978, 21244432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 92 ], [ 96, 114 ], [ 133, 147 ], [ 148, 163 ], [ 165, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In ancient Greek mythology, Ara was identified as the altar where the gods first made offerings and formed an alliance before defeating the Titans. One of the southernmost constellations depicted by Ptolemy, it had been recorded by Aratus in 270 BC as lying close to the horizon, and the Almagest portrays stars as far south as Gamma Arae. Professor Bradley Schaefer proposes such Ancients must have been able to see as far south as Zeta Arae, for a pattern that looked like an altar.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 68640, 47401, 23979, 89859, 148060, 2878022, 1408204, 2877977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 54, 59 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 199, 206 ], [ 232, 238 ], [ 288, 296 ], [ 328, 338 ], [ 350, 366 ], [ 433, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In illustrations, Ara is usually depicted as compact classical altar with its smoke 'rising' southward. However, depictions often vary. In the early days of printing, a 1482 woodcut of Gaius Julius Hyginus's classic Poeticon Astronomicon depicts the altar as surrounded by demons. Johann Bayer in 1603 depicted Ara as an altar with burning incense. Hyginus depicted the same though his featured devils on either side of the flames. Willem Blaeu, a Dutch uranographer of the 16th and 17th centuries, drew Ara as an altar for sacrifices, with a burning animal offering unusually whose smoke rises northward, represented by Alpha Arae.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 68640, 162300, 143691, 16061, 143691, 784698, 10780895, 2877787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 68 ], [ 174, 181 ], [ 185, 205 ], [ 281, 293 ], [ 349, 356 ], [ 432, 444 ], [ 454, 466 ], [ 621, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Castle of Knowledge by Robert Record of 1556 lists the constellation stating that \"Under the Scorpions tayle, standeth the Altar.\"; a decade later a translation of a fairly recent mainly astrological work by Marcellus Palingenius of 1565, by Barnabe Googe states \"Here mayst thou both the Altar, and the myghty Cup beholde.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 310247, 567591, 343299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 40 ], [ 212, 233 ], [ 246, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Chinese astronomy, the stars of the constellation Ara lie within The Azure Dragon of the East (東方青龍, Dōng Fāng Qīng Lóng). Five stars of Ara formed Guī (龜), a tortoise, while another three formed Chǔ (杵), a pestle.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27876919, 3219844, 140618, 317450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 68, 96 ], [ 162, 170 ], [ 210, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Wardaman people of the Northern Territory in Australia saw the stars of Ara and the neighbouring constellation Pavo as flying foxes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9365001, 21638, 214340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 27, 45 ], [ 115, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Covering 237.1 square degrees and hence 0.575% of the sky, Ara ranks 63rd of the 88 modern constellations by area. Its position in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of 22°N. Scorpius runs along the length of its northern border, while Norma and Triangulum Australe border it to the west, Apus to the south, and Pavo and Telescopium to the east respectively. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union, is \"Ara\". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of twelve segments. In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −45.49° and −67.69°.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 287159, 43344021, 5267, 18196850, 26933, 185763, 30662, 1933, 214340, 30664, 590453, 48384, 26073, 8612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 105 ], [ 135, 164 ], [ 186, 199 ], [ 233, 237 ], [ 239, 247 ], [ 300, 305 ], [ 310, 329 ], [ 353, 357 ], [ 376, 380 ], [ 385, 396 ], [ 606, 621 ], [ 683, 711 ], [ 717, 732 ], [ 791, 802 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bayer gave eight stars Bayer designations, labelling them Alpha through to Theta, though he had never seen the constellation directly as it never rises above the horizon in Germany. After charting the southern constellations, French astronomer Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille recharted the stars of Ara from Alpha though to Sigma, including three pairs of stars next to each other as Epsilon, Kappa and Nu.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 4199, 21628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 40 ], [ 244, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ara contains part of the Milky Way to the south of Scorpius and thus has rich star fields. Within the constellation's borders, there are 71 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude6.5.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 26933, 1962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 59 ], [ 172, 190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Just shading Alpha Arae, Beta Arae is the brightest star in the constellation. It is an orange-hued star of spectral type K3Ib-IIa that has been classified as a supergiant or bright giant, that is around 650 light-years from Earth. It is around 8.21 times as massive and 5,636 times as luminous as the Sun. At apparent magnitude 2.85, this difference in brightness between the two is undetectable by the unaided eye. Close to Beta Arae is Gamma Arae, a blue-hued supergiant of spectral type B1Ib. Of apparent magnitude 3.3, it is 1110 ± 60 light-years from Earth. It has been estimated to be between 12.5 and 25 times as massive as the Sun, and have around 120,000 times its luminosity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2877751, 1962, 2878022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ], [ 310, 328 ], [ 439, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Arae is a blue-white main sequence star of magnitude 2.95, that is 270 ± 20 light-years from Earth. This star is around 9.6 times as massive as the Sun, and has an average of 4.5 times its radius. It is 5,800 times as luminous as the Sun, its energy emitted from its outer envelope at an effective temperature of 18,044K. A Be star, Alpha Arae is surrounded by a dense equatorial disk of material in Keplerian (rather than uniform) rotation. The star is losing mass by a polar stellar wind with a terminal velocity of approximately 1,000km/s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2877787, 1575837, 535458, 1460629, 47577681, 183934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 16, 45 ], [ 274, 288 ], [ 295, 316 ], [ 331, 338 ], [ 485, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The third brightest star in Ara at magnitude 3.13 is Zeta Arae, an orange giant of spectral type K3III that is located 490 ± 10 light-years from Earth. Around 7–8 times as massive as the Sun, it has swollen to a diameter around 114 times that of the Sun and is 3800 times as luminous. Were it not dimmer by intervening interstellar dust, it would be significantly brighter at magnitude 2.11.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2877977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Delta Arae is a blue-white main sequence star of spectral type B8Vn and magnitude 3.6, 198 ± 4 light-years from Earth. It is around 3.56 times as massive as the Sun.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2878186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epsilon1 Arae is an orange giant of apparent magnitude 4.1, 360 ± 10 light-years distant from Earth. It is around 74% more massive than the Sun. At an age of about 1.7billion years, the outer envelope of the star has expanded to almost 34 times the Sun's radius.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2878385, 535458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 186, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eta Arae is an orange giant of apparent magnitude 3.76, located 299 ± 5 light-years distant from Earth. Estimated to be around five billion years old, it has reached the giant star stage of its evolution. With 1.12 times the mass of the Sun, it has an outer envelope that has expanded to 40 times the Sun's radius. The star is now spinning so slowly that it takes more than eleven years to complete a single rotation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2878298, 568726, 27980, 172987, 535458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 170, 180 ], [ 194, 203 ], [ 225, 240 ], [ 252, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GX 339-4 (V821 Arae) is a moderately strong variable galactic low-mass X-ray binary (LMXB) source and black-hole candidate that flares from time to time. From spectroscopic measurements, the mass of the black-hole was found to be at least of 5.8 solar masses.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 20188462, 191717, 4650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 62, 83 ], [ 102, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Exoplanets have been discovered in seven star systems in the constellation. Mu Arae (Cervantes) is a sunlike star that hosts four planets. HD 152079 is a sunlike star with a jupiter-like planet with an orbital period of 2097 ± 930 days. HD 154672 is an ageing sunlike star with a Hot Jupiter. HD 154857 is a sunlike star with one confirmed and one suspected planet. HD 156411 is a star hotter and larger than the sun with a gas giant planet in orbit. Gliese 674 is a nearby red dwarf star with a planet. Gliese 676 is a binary star system composed of two red dwarves with four planets.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 9763, 931735, 26165838, 19251094, 961349, 12150816, 25161786, 2644998, 25206992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 140, 149 ], [ 238, 247 ], [ 281, 292 ], [ 294, 303 ], [ 367, 376 ], [ 452, 462 ], [ 505, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The northwest corner of Ara is crossed by the galactic plane of the Milky Way and contains several open clusters (notably NGC 6200) and diffuse nebulae (including the bright cluster/nebula pair NGC 6188 and NGC 6193). The brightest of the globular clusters, sixth magnitude NGC 6397, lies at a distance of just , making it one of the closest globular clusters to the Solar System.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 693623, 2589714, 22669, 18928265, 21664, 32560603, 18828832, 12866, 936409, 26903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 60 ], [ 68, 77 ], [ 99, 111 ], [ 122, 130 ], [ 136, 150 ], [ 194, 202 ], [ 207, 215 ], [ 239, 255 ], [ 274, 282 ], [ 367, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ara also contains Westerlund 1, a super star cluster containing itself the possible red supergiant Westerlund 1-237 and the red supergiant Westerlund 1-26. The latter is one of the largest stars known with an estimate varying between and .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 7175685, 6115906, 200011, 64097017, 200011, 40512978, 21244432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ], [ 34, 52 ], [ 84, 98 ], [ 99, 115 ], [ 124, 138 ], [ 139, 154 ], [ 181, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Ara lies close to the heart of the Milky Way, two spiral galaxies (NGC 6215 and NGC 6221) are visible near star Eta Arae.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 207620, 48848546, 48030331, 2878298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ], [ 76, 84 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 121, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NGC 6193 is an open cluster containing approximately 30 stars with an overall magnitude of 5.0 and a size of 0.25 square degrees, about half the size of the full Moon. It is approximately 4200 light-years from Earth. It has one bright member, a double star with a blue-white hued primary of magnitude 5.6 and a secondary of magnitude 6.9. NGC 6193 is surrounded by NGC 6188, a faint nebula only normally visible in long-exposure photographs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 18828832, 22669, 11432, 32560603, 21664, 143115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 16, 28 ], [ 158, 167 ], [ 366, 374 ], [ 384, 390 ], [ 416, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NGC 6200", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 18928265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NGC 6204", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 18928331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NGC 6208", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 18927978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NGC 6250", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 18928423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NGC 6253", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " IC 4651", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 26606485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NGC 6352", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 32585915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NGC 6362", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 32585814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NGC 6397 is a globular cluster with an overall magnitude of 6.0; it is visible to the naked eye under exceptionally dark skies and is normally visible in binoculars. It is a fairly close globular cluster, at a distance of 10,500 light-years.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 936409, 12866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 15, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Stingray Nebula (Hen 3–1357), the youngest known planetary nebula as of 2010, formed in Ara; the light from its formation was first observable around 1987.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 447797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NGC 6326. A planetary nebula that might have a binary system at its center.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 48047606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Online sources", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Ara", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (medieval and early modern images of Ara)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Ara_(constellation)", "Constellations", "Southern_constellations", "Constellations_listed_by_Ptolemy" ]

[ "Arae", "Ara (constellation)" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Auriga or AURIGA can refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Auriga (constellation), a constellation of stars", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 209960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Auriga (slave), a Roman charioteer", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 209961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HMS Auriga (P419), a British submarine launched in 1945", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7334134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Auriga of Delphi, name of the statue Charioteer of Delphi", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 599798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " USM Auriga, a spaceship in the film Alien Resurrection", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 213246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Auriga, a fictional planet in the Endless franchise by Amplitude Studios", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 46814260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AURIGA, a gravitational wave detector in Italy", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37965697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Auriga-1.2V (Аурига-1.2В), a Russian satellite communications system, and a component of the MK VTR-016 (МК ВТР-016) mobile video transmission system", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", a number of steamships with this name", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[]

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[ { "plaintext": "Arkansas ( ) is a landlocked state in the South Central United States. It is bordered by Missouri to the north, Tennessee and Mississippi to the east, Louisiana to the south, and Texas and Oklahoma to the west. Its name is from the Osage language, a Dhegiha Siouan language, and referred to their relatives, the Quapaw people. The state's diverse geography ranges from the mountainous regions of the Ozark and Ouachita Mountains, which make up the U.S. Interior Highlands, to the densely forested land in the south known as the Arkansas Timberlands, to the eastern lowlands along the Mississippi River and the Arkansas Delta.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 297503, 18618239, 665836, 19571, 30395, 16949861, 18130, 29810, 22489, 804205, 22920775, 2068724, 242683, 325860, 13710821, 9183724, 19579, 14146903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 28 ], [ 29, 34 ], [ 42, 69 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 112, 121 ], [ 126, 137 ], [ 151, 160 ], [ 179, 184 ], [ 189, 197 ], [ 232, 246 ], [ 250, 273 ], [ 312, 318 ], [ 400, 405 ], [ 410, 428 ], [ 448, 471 ], [ 528, 548 ], [ 584, 601 ], [ 610, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas is the 29th largest by area and the 34th most populous state, with a population of just over 3 million at the 2020 census. The capital and most populous city is Little Rock, in the central part of the state, a hub for transportation, business, culture, and government. The northwestern corner of the state, including the Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area and Fort Smith metropolitan area, is a population, education, and economic center. The largest city in the state's eastern part is Jonesboro. The largest city in the state's southeastern part is Pine Bluff.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 87513, 87525, 23962196, 18520327, 38623550, 3295007, 106925, 107057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 36 ], [ 45, 63 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 170, 181 ], [ 330, 378 ], [ 383, 411 ], [ 510, 519 ], [ 574, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Previously part of French Louisiana and the Louisiana Purchase, the Territory of Arkansas was admitted to the Union as the 25th state on June 15, 1836. Much of the Delta had been developed for cotton plantations, and landowners there largely depended on enslaved African Americans' labor. In 1861, Arkansas seceded from the United States and joined the Confederate States of America during the American Civil War. On returning to the Union in 1868, Arkansas continued to suffer economically, due to its overreliance on the large-scale plantation economy. Cotton remained the leading commodity crop, and the cotton market declined. Because farmers and businessmen did not diversify and there was little industrial investment, the state fell behind in economic opportunity. In the late 19th century, the state instituted various Jim Crow laws to disenfranchise and segregate the African-American population. During the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, Arkansas and particularly Little Rock were major battlegrounds for efforts to integrate schools.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2591353, 17628, 453537, 30688587, 253264, 7023, 863, 1653010, 19481110, 49001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 35 ], [ 44, 62 ], [ 68, 89 ], [ 94, 115 ], [ 254, 280 ], [ 353, 382 ], [ 394, 412 ], [ 535, 553 ], [ 827, 840 ], [ 917, 938 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "White interests dominated Arkansas's politics, with disfranchisement of African Americans and refusal to reapportion the legislature. Only after the civil rights movement and federal legislation passed were more African Americans able to vote. The Supreme Court overturned rural domination in the South and other states that had refused to reapportion their state legislatures or retained rules based on geographic districts. In the landmark ruling of one man, one vote, it held that states had to organize their legislatures by districts that held approximately equal populations, and that these had to be redefined as necessary after each decade's census.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2495537, 49001, 1895016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 149, 170 ], [ 452, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following World War II in the 1940s, Arkansas began to diversify its economy and see prosperity. During the 1960s, the state became the base of the Walmart corporation, the world's largest company by revenue, headquartered in Bentonville. In the 21st century, Arkansas's economy is based on service industries, aircraft, poultry, steel, and tourism, along with important commodity crops of cotton, soybeans and rice.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 33589, 997455, 106832, 62784, 36979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 148, 155 ], [ 173, 207 ], [ 226, 237 ], [ 398, 406 ], [ 411, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas's culture is observable in museums, theaters, novels, television shows, restaurants, and athletic venues across the state. Notable people from the state include politician and educational advocate William Fulbright; former president Bill Clinton, who also served as the 40th and 42nd governor of Arkansas; general Wesley Clark, former NATO Supreme Allied Commander; Walmart founder and magnate Sam Walton; singer-songwriters Johnny Cash, Charlie Rich, Jimmy Driftwood, and Glen Campbell; actor-filmmaker Billy Bob Thornton; poet C. D. Wright; physicist William L. McMillan, a pioneer in superconductor research; poet laureate Maya Angelou; Douglas MacArthur; musician Al Green; actor Alan Ladd; basketball player Scottie Pippen; singer Ne-Yo; Chelsea Clinton; actress Sheryl Underwood; and author John Grisham.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 36770630, 333951, 3356, 250701, 21133, 322063, 33589, 155317, 11983070, 625857, 328549, 171038, 4471, 1104073, 34303754, 288140, 48596, 149459, 517195, 322448, 2172695, 200683, 5781419, 61998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 206, 223 ], [ 242, 254 ], [ 323, 335 ], [ 344, 348 ], [ 349, 373 ], [ 375, 382 ], [ 403, 413 ], [ 434, 445 ], [ 447, 459 ], [ 461, 476 ], [ 482, 495 ], [ 513, 531 ], [ 538, 550 ], [ 562, 581 ], [ 635, 647 ], [ 649, 666 ], [ 677, 685 ], [ 693, 702 ], [ 722, 736 ], [ 745, 750 ], [ 752, 767 ], [ 777, 793 ], [ 806, 818 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name Arkansas initially applied to the Arkansas River. It derives from a French term, Arcansas, their plural term for their transliteration of akansa, an Algonquian term for the Quapaw people. These were a Dhegiha Siouan-speaking people who settled in Arkansas around the 13th century. Akansa is likely also the root term for Kansas, which was named after the related Kaw people.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 267577, 10597, 52115, 2068724, 22920775, 16716, 161361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 57 ], [ 77, 83 ], [ 158, 168 ], [ 182, 188 ], [ 210, 224 ], [ 330, 336 ], [ 372, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name has been pronounced and spelled in a variety of ways. In 1881, the state legislature defined the official pronunciation of Arkansas as having the final \"s\" be silent (as it would be in French). A dispute had arisen between the state's two senators over the pronunciation issue. One favored (), the other ().", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, the state legislature passed a non-binding resolution declaring that the possessive form of the state's name is Arkansas's, which the state government has increasingly followed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Before European settlement of North America, Arkansas, was inhabited by indigenous peoples for thousands of years. The Caddo, Osage, and Quapaw peoples encountered European explorers. The first of these Europeans was Spanish explorer Hernando de Soto in 1541, who crossed the Mississippi and marched across central Arkansas and the Ozark Mountains. After finding nothing he considered of value and encountering native resistance the entire way, he and his men returned to the Mississippi River where de Soto fell ill. From his deathbed he ordered his men to massacre all the men of the nearby village of Anilco, who he feared had been plotting with a powerful polity down the Mississippi River, Quigualtam. His men obeyed and did not stop with the men, but were said to have massacred women and children as well. He died the following day in what is believed to be the vicinity of modern-day McArthur, Arkansas, in May 1542. His body was weighted down with sand and he was consigned to a watery grave in the Mississippi River under cover of darkness by his men. De Soto had attempted to deceive the native population into thinking he was an immortal deity, sun of the sun, in order to forestall attack by outraged Native Americans on his by then weakened and bedraggled army. In order to keep the ruse up, his men informed the locals that de Soto had ascended into the sky. His will at the time of his death listed \"four Indian slaves, three horses and 700 hogs\" which were auctioned off. The starving men, who had been living off maize stolen from natives, immediately started butchering the hogs and later, commanded by former aide-de-camp Moscoso, attempted an overland return to Mexico. They made it as far as Texas before running into territory too dry for maize farming and too thinly populated to sustain themselves by stealing food from the locals. The expedition promptly backtracked to Arkansas. After building a small fleet of boats they then headed down the Mississippi River and eventually on to Mexico by water.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 508180, 1572279, 2068724, 52739, 56446278, 34435801, 239481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 124 ], [ 126, 131 ], [ 137, 143 ], [ 234, 250 ], [ 695, 705 ], [ 892, 910 ], [ 1629, 1641 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later explorers included the French Jacques Marquette and Louis Jolliet in 1673, and Frenchmen Robert La Salle and Henri de Tonti in 1681. Tonti established Arkansas Post at a Quapaw village in 1686, making it the first European settlement in the territory. The early Spanish or French explorers of the state gave it its name, which is probably a phonetic spelling of the Illinois tribe's name for the Quapaw people, who lived downriver from them. The name Arkansas has been pronounced and spelled in a variety of fashions. The region was organized as the Territory of Arkansaw on July 4, 1819, with the territory admitted to the United States as the state of Arkansas on June 15, 1836. The name was historically , , and several other variants. Historically and modernly, the people of Arkansas call themselves either \"Arkansans\" or \"Arkansawyers\". In 1881, the Arkansas General Assembly passed Arkansas Code 1-4-105 (official text):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 266221, 125317, 189917, 319413, 313388, 1571240, 2068724, 453537, 24685076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 53 ], [ 58, 71 ], [ 95, 110 ], [ 115, 129 ], [ 157, 170 ], [ 372, 380 ], [ 402, 408 ], [ 556, 577 ], [ 862, 887 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whereas, confusion of practice has arisen in the pronunciation of the name of our state and it is deemed important that the true pronunciation should be determined for use in oral official proceedings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "And, whereas, the matter has been thoroughly investigated by the State Historical Society and the Eclectic Society of Little Rock, which have agreed upon the correct pronunciation as derived from history, and the early usage of the American immigrants.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Be it therefore resolved by both houses of the General Assembly, that the only true pronunciation of the name of the state, in the opinion of this body, is that received by the French from the native Indians and committed to writing in the French word representing the sound. It should be pronounced in three (3) syllables, with the final \"s\" silent, the \"a\" in each syllable with the Italian sound, and the accent on the first and last syllables. The pronunciation with the accent on the second syllable with the sound of \"a\" in \"man\" and the sounding of the terminal \"s\" is an innovation to be discouraged.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Citizens of the state of Kansas often pronounce the Arkansas River as , in a manner similar to the common pronunciation of the name of their state.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16716, 267577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 31 ], [ 52, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Settlers, such as fur trappers, moved to Arkansas in the early 18th century. These people used Arkansas Post as a home base and entrepôt. During the colonial period, Arkansas changed hands between France and Spain following the Seven Years' War, although neither showed interest in the remote settlement of Arkansas Post. In April 1783, Arkansas saw its only battle of the American Revolutionary War, a brief siege of the post by British Captain James Colbert with the assistance of the Choctaw and Chickasaw.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1191426, 5843419, 26667, 19039354, 771, 39586457, 7222, 92809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 136 ], [ 197, 203 ], [ 208, 213 ], [ 228, 244 ], [ 373, 399 ], [ 409, 414 ], [ 487, 494 ], [ 499, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Napoleon Bonaparte sold French Louisiana to the United States in 1803, including all of Arkansas, in a transaction known today as the Louisiana Purchase. French soldiers remained as a garrison at Arkansas Post. Following the purchase, the balanced give-and-take relationship between settlers and Native Americans began to change all along the frontier, including in Arkansas. Following a controversy over allowing slavery in the territory, the Territory of Arkansas was organized on July 4, 1819. Gradual emancipation in Arkansas was struck down by one vote, the Speaker of the House Henry Clay, allowing Arkansas to organize as a slave territory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 69880, 1989580, 17628, 313388, 7743069, 453537, 46023, 47620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 24, 40 ], [ 134, 152 ], [ 196, 209 ], [ 386, 438 ], [ 444, 465 ], [ 563, 583 ], [ 584, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Slavery became a wedge issue in Arkansas, forming a geographic divide that remained for decades. Owners and operators of the cotton plantation economy in southeast Arkansas firmly supported slavery, as they perceived slave labor as the best or \"only\" economically viable method of harvesting their commodity crops. The \"hill country\" of northwest Arkansas was unable to grow cotton and relied on a cash-scarce, subsistence farming economy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 253264, 1653010, 27992, 323964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 132, 150 ], [ 217, 228 ], [ 411, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As European Americans settled throughout the East Coast and into the Midwest, in the 1830s the United States government forced the removal of many Native American tribes to Arkansas and Indian Territory west of the Mississippi River.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15080, 21217, 57193, 19579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 138 ], [ 147, 162 ], [ 186, 202 ], [ 215, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additional Native American removals began in earnest during the territorial period, with final Quapaw removal complete by 1833 as they were pushed into Indian Territory. The capital was relocated from Arkansas Post to Little Rock in 1821, during the territorial period.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18520327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Arkansas applied for statehood, the slavery issue was again raised in Washington, D.C. Congress eventually approved the Arkansas Constitution after a 25-hour session, admitting Arkansas on June 15, 1836, as the 25th state and the 13th slave state, having a population of about 60,000. Arkansas struggled with taxation to support its new state government, a problem made worse by a state banking scandal and worse yet by the Panic of 1837.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 108956, 2117426, 505770, 23136859, 225600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 91 ], [ 125, 146 ], [ 240, 251 ], [ 384, 407 ], [ 429, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early antebellum Arkansas, the southeast Arkansas slave-based economy developed rapidly. On the eve of the American Civil War in 1860, enslaved African Americans numbered 111,115 people, just over 25% of the state's population. Plantation agriculture set the state and region behind the nation for decades. The wealth developed among planters of southeast Arkansas caused a political rift to form between the northwest and southeast.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many politicians were elected to office from the Family, the Southern rights political force in antebellum Arkansas. Residents generally wanted to avoid a civil war. When the Gulf states seceded in early 1861, Arkansas voted to remain in the Union. Arkansas did not secede until Abraham Lincoln demanded Arkansas troops be sent to Fort Sumter to quell the rebellion there. On May 6, a state convention voted to terminate Arkansas's membership in the Union and join the Confederate States of America.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16075489, 307, 81464, 339819, 7023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 55 ], [ 279, 294 ], [ 331, 342 ], [ 352, 371 ], [ 469, 498 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas held a very important position for the Rebels, maintaining control of the Mississippi River and surrounding Southern states. The bloody Battle of Wilson's Creek just across the border in Missouri shocked many Arkansans who thought the war would be a quick and decisive Southern victory. Battles early in the war took place in northwest Arkansas, including the Battle of Cane Hill, Battle of Pea Ridge, and Battle of Prairie Grove. Union general Samuel Curtis swept across the state to Helena in the Delta in 1862. Little Rock was captured the following year. The government shifted the state Confederate capital to Hot Springs, and then again to Washington from 1863 to 1865, for the remainder of the war. Throughout the state, guerrilla warfare ravaged the countryside and destroyed cities. Passion for the Confederate cause waned after implementation of programs such as the draft, high taxes, and martial law.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19579, 635536, 1219560, 299387, 298699, 415450, 3550304, 106991, 107018, 12720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 100 ], [ 145, 169 ], [ 369, 388 ], [ 390, 409 ], [ 415, 438 ], [ 454, 467 ], [ 494, 500 ], [ 624, 635 ], [ 655, 665 ], [ 737, 746 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under the Military Reconstruction Act, Congress declared Arkansas restored to the Union in June 1868, after the Legislature accepted the 14th Amendment. The Republican-controlled reconstruction legislature established universal male suffrage (though temporarily disfranchising former Confederate Army officers, who were all Democrats), a public education system for blacks and whites, and passed general issues to improve the state and help more of the population. The State soon came under control of the Radical Republicans and Unionists, and led by Governor Powell Clayton, they presided over a time of great upheaval as Confederate sympathizers and the Ku Klux Klan fought the new developments, particularly voting rights for African Americans.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 55040, 352697, 293470, 16779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 37 ], [ 506, 525 ], [ 561, 575 ], [ 657, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1874, the Brooks-Baxter War, a political struggle between factions of the Republican Party shook Little Rock and the state governorship. It was settled only when President Ulysses S. Grant ordered Joseph Brooks to disperse his militant supporters.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 303569, 32070, 31752, 8396923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 30 ], [ 77, 93 ], [ 175, 191 ], [ 200, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the Brooks-Baxter War, a new state constitution was ratified, re-enfranchising former Confederates.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1881, the Arkansas state legislature enacted a bill that adopted an official pronunciation of the state's name, to combat a controversy then simmering. (See Law and Government below.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After Reconstruction, the state began to receive more immigrants and migrants. Chinese, Italian, and Syrian men were recruited for farm labor in the developing Delta region. None of these nationalities stayed long at farm labor; the Chinese especially quickly became small merchants in towns around the Delta. Many Chinese became such successful merchants in small towns that they were able to educate their children at college.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4599312, 1981818, 385155, 8862873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 64 ], [ 69, 77 ], [ 88, 95 ], [ 101, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Construction of railroads enabled more farmers to get their products to market. It also brought new development into different parts of the state, including the Ozarks, where some areas were developed as resorts. In a few years at the end of the 19th century, for instance, Eureka Springs in Carroll County grew to 10,000 people, rapidly becoming a tourist destination and the fourth-largest city of the state. It featured newly constructed, elegant resort hotels and spas planned around its natural springs, considered to have healthful properties. The town's attractions included horse racing and other entertainment. It appealed to a wide variety of classes, becoming almost as popular as Hot Springs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 106876, 97493, 106991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 274, 288 ], [ 292, 306 ], [ 692, 703 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1880s, the worsening agricultural depression catalyzed Populist and third party movements, leading to interracial coalitions. Struggling to stay in power, in the 1890s the Democrats in Arkansas followed other Southern states in passing legislation and constitutional amendments that disfranchised blacks and poor whites. In 1891 state legislators passed a requirement for a literacy test, knowing it would exclude many blacks and whites. At the time, more than 25% of the population could neither read nor write. In 1892, they amended the state constitution to require a poll tax and more complex residency requirements, both of which adversely affected poor people and sharecroppers, forcing most blacks and many poor whites from voter rolls.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9704515, 667884, 26726864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 295, 308 ], [ 386, 399 ], [ 583, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1900 the Democratic Party expanded use of the white primary in county and state elections, further denying blacks a part in the political process. Only in the primary was there any competition among candidates, as Democrats held all the power. The state was a Democratic one-party state for decades, until after passage of the federal Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965 to enforce constitutional rights.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7688975, 188746, 55791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 62 ], [ 338, 362 ], [ 367, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1905 and 1911, Arkansas began to receive a small immigration of German, Slovak, and Scots-Irish from Europe. The German and Slovak peoples settled in the eastern part of the state known as the Prairie, and the Irish founded small communities in the southeast part of the state. The Germans were mostly Lutheran and the Slovaks were primarily Catholic. The Irish were mostly Protestant from Ulster, of Scots and Northern Borders descent. Some early 20th-century immigration included people from eastern Europe. Together, these immigrants made the Delta more diverse than the rest of the state. In the same years, some black migrants moved into the area because of opportunities to develop the bottomlands and own their own property.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 152735, 265170, 66549, 32066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 78 ], [ 80, 86 ], [ 201, 208 ], [ 398, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Black sharecroppers began to try to organize a farmers' union after World WarI. They were seeking better conditions of payment and accounting from white landowners of the area cotton plantations. Whites resisted any change and often tried to break up their meetings. On September 30, 1919, two white men, including a local deputy, tried to break up a meeting of black sharecroppers who were trying to organize a farmers' union. After a white deputy was killed in a confrontation with guards at the meeting, word spread to town and around the area. Hundreds of whites from Phillips and neighboring areas rushed to suppress the blacks, and started attacking blacks at large. Governor Charles Hillman Brough requested federal troops to stop what was called the Elaine massacre. White mobs spread throughout the county, killing an estimated 237 blacks before most of the violence was suppressed after October 1. Five whites also died in the incident. The governor accompanied the troops to the scene; President Woodrow Wilson had approved their use.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 233866, 303885, 303320, 33523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 673, 681 ], [ 682, 704 ], [ 758, 773 ], [ 1007, 1021 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 flooded the areas along the Ouachita Rivers along with many other rivers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 301810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on the order of President Franklin D. Roosevelt given shortly after Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor, nearly 16,000 Japanese Americans were forcibly removed from the West Coast of the United States and incarcerated in two internment camps in the Arkansas Delta. The Rohwer Camp in Desha County operated from September 1942 to November 1945 and at its peak interned 8,475 prisoners. The Jerome War Relocation Center in Drew County operated from October 1942 to June 1944 and held about 8,000.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10979, 183897, 60098, 19477504, 174579, 14146903, 5676356, 97479, 5676118, 97478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 53 ], [ 74, 88 ], [ 91, 113 ], [ 129, 147 ], [ 179, 210 ], [ 259, 273 ], [ 279, 290 ], [ 294, 306 ], [ 399, 427 ], [ 431, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Supreme Court ruled segregation in public schools unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954), some students worked to integrate schools in the state. The Little Rock Nine brought Arkansas to national attention in 1957 when the federal government had to intervene to protect African-American students trying to integrate a high school in the capital. Governor Orval Faubus had ordered the Arkansas National Guard to help segregationists prevent nine African-American students from enrolling at Little Rock's Central High School. After attempting three times to contact Faubus, President Dwight D. Eisenhower sent 1,000 troops from the active-duty 101st Airborne Division to escort and protect the African-American students as they entered school on September 25, 1957. In defiance of federal court orders to integrate, the governor and city of Little Rock decided to close the high schools for the remainder of the school year. By the fall of 1959, the Little Rock high schools were completely integrated.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 31737, 66402, 20329639, 285980, 4542141, 8182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 80, 125 ], [ 194, 210 ], [ 399, 411 ], [ 428, 451 ], [ 626, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas borders Louisiana to the south, Texas to the southwest, Oklahoma to the west, Missouri to the north, and Tennessee and Mississippi to the east. The United States Census Bureau classifies Arkansas as a southern state, sub-categorized among the West South Central States. The Mississippi River forms most of its eastern border, except in Clay and Greene counties, where the St. Francis River forms the western boundary of the Missouri Bootheel, and in many places where the channel of the Mississippi has meandered (or been straightened by man) from its original 1836 course.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 18130, 29810, 22489, 19571, 30395, 16949861, 57070, 179553, 920048, 19579, 57787, 97471, 671027, 851935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 26 ], [ 41, 46 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 87, 95 ], [ 114, 123 ], [ 128, 139 ], [ 157, 184 ], [ 210, 218 ], [ 252, 277 ], [ 283, 300 ], [ 345, 349 ], [ 354, 360 ], [ 381, 398 ], [ 433, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas can generally be split into two halves, the highlands in the northwest and the lowlands of the southeast. The highlands are part of the Southern Interior Highlands, including The Ozarks and the Ouachita Mountains. The southern lowlands include the Gulf Coastal Plain and the Arkansas Delta. This split can yield to a regional division into northwest, southwest, northeast, southeast, and central Arkansas. These regions are broad and not defined along county lines. Arkansas has seven distinct natural regions: the Ozark Mountains, Ouachita Mountains, Arkansas River Valley, Gulf Coastal Plain, Crowley's Ridge, and the Arkansas Delta, with Central Arkansas sometimes included as a blend of multiple regions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 242683, 325860, 1165604, 14146903, 28131241, 293110, 1145410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 194 ], [ 203, 221 ], [ 257, 275 ], [ 284, 298 ], [ 561, 582 ], [ 604, 619 ], [ 650, 666 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The southeastern part of Arkansas along the Mississippi Alluvial Plain is sometimes called the Arkansas Delta. This region is a flat landscape of rich alluvial soils formed by repeated flooding of the adjacent Mississippi. Farther from the river, in the southeastern part of the state, the Grand Prairie has a more undulating landscape. Both are fertile agricultural areas. The Delta region is bisected by a geological formation known as Crowley's Ridge. A narrow band of rolling hills, Crowley's Ridge rises above the surrounding alluvial plain and underlies many of eastern Arkansas's major towns.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 1399658, 166931, 293110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 70 ], [ 146, 193 ], [ 438, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Northwest Arkansas is part of the Ozark Plateau including the Ozark Mountains, to the south are the Ouachita Mountains, and these regions are divided by the Arkansas River; the southern and eastern parts of Arkansas are called the Lowlands. These mountain ranges are part of the U.S. Interior Highlands region, the only major mountainous region between the Rocky Mountains and the Appalachian Mountains. The state's highest point is Mount Magazine in the Ouachita Mountains, which is above sea level.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 242683, 242683, 325860, 267577, 13710821, 25459, 85023, 325349, 325860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 47 ], [ 62, 77 ], [ 100, 118 ], [ 157, 171 ], [ 279, 302 ], [ 357, 372 ], [ 381, 402 ], [ 433, 447 ], [ 455, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas is home to many caves, such as Blanchard Springs Caverns. The State Archeologist has catalogued more than 43,000 Native American living, hunting and tool-making sites, many of them Pre-Columbian burial mounds and rock shelters. Crater of Diamonds State Park near Murfreesboro is the world's only diamond-bearing site accessible to the public for digging. Arkansas is home to a dozen Wilderness Areas totaling . These areas are set aside for outdoor recreation and are open to hunting, fishing, hiking, and primitive camping. No mechanized vehicles nor developed campgrounds are allowed in these areas.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 2182675, 325867, 327411, 107189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 30 ], [ 40, 65 ], [ 237, 266 ], [ 272, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas has many rivers, lakes, and reservoirs within or along its borders. Major tributaries to the Mississippi River include the Arkansas River, the White River, and the St. Francis River. The Arkansas is fed by the Mulberry and Fourche LaFave Rivers in the Arkansas River Valley, which is also home to Lake Dardanelle. The Buffalo, Little Red, Black and Cache Rivers are all tributaries to the White River, which also empties into the Mississippi. Bayou Bartholomew and the Saline, Little Missouri, and Caddo Rivers are all tributaries to the Ouachita River in south Arkansas, which empties into the Mississippi in Louisiana. The Red River briefly forms the state's boundary with Texas. Arkansas has few natural lakes and many reservoirs, such as Bull Shoals Lake, Lake Ouachita, Greers Ferry Lake, Millwood Lake, Beaver Lake, Norfork Lake, DeGray Lake, and Lake Conway.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 267577, 311548, 671027, 3861580, 778874, 4576965, 299281, 335237, 2566419, 337144, 311548, 13198633, 326474, 329199, 329540, 329469, 2342007, 194242, 299340, 4227424, 2564683, 4077042, 313948, 3194729, 4287123, 4620896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 146 ], [ 152, 163 ], [ 173, 190 ], [ 219, 227 ], [ 232, 253 ], [ 306, 321 ], [ 327, 334 ], [ 336, 346 ], [ 348, 353 ], [ 358, 370 ], [ 398, 409 ], [ 452, 469 ], [ 478, 484 ], [ 486, 501 ], [ 507, 518 ], [ 547, 561 ], [ 581, 615 ], [ 634, 643 ], [ 751, 767 ], [ 769, 782 ], [ 784, 801 ], [ 803, 816 ], [ 818, 829 ], [ 831, 843 ], [ 845, 856 ], [ 862, 873 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas's temperate deciduous forest is divided into three broad ecoregions: the Ozark, Ouachita-Appalachian Forests, the Mississippi Alluvial and Southeast USA Coastal Plains, and the Southeastern USA Plains. The state is further divided into seven subregions: the Arkansas Valley, Boston Mountains, Mississippi Alluvial Plain, Mississippi Valley Loess Plain, Ozark Highlands, Ouachita Mountains, and the South Central Plains. A 2010 United States Forest Service survey determined of Arkansas's land is forestland, or 56% of the state's total area. Dominant species in Arkansas's forests include Quercus (oak), Carya (hickory), Pinus echinata (shortleaf pine) and Pinus taeda (loblolly pine).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 298047, 1399658, 293110, 42652, 39696, 360939, 507828, 435341 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 284, 300 ], [ 302, 328 ], [ 330, 360 ], [ 436, 464 ], [ 599, 606 ], [ 614, 619 ], [ 631, 645 ], [ 667, 678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas's plant life varies with its climate and elevation. The pine belt stretching from the Arkansas delta to Texas consists of dense oak-hickory-pine growth. Lumbering and paper milling activity is active throughout the region. In eastern Arkansas, one can find Taxodium (cypress), Quercus nigra (water oaks), and hickories with their roots submerged in the Mississippi Valley bayous indicative of the deep south. Nearby Crowley's Ridge is the only home of the tulip tree in the state, and generally hosts more northeastern plant life such as the beech tree. The northwestern highlands are covered in an oak-hickory mixture, with Ozark white cedars, cornus (dogwoods), and Cercis canadensis (redbuds) also present. The higher peaks in the Arkansas River Valley play host to scores of ferns, including the Woodsia scopulina and Adiantum (maidenhair fern) on Mount Magazine. Arkansas wildlife is famous for the white-tailed deer, elk, and bald eagle. The white-tailed deer is the official state mammal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 9183724, 221411, 6579442, 155383, 165252, 446151, 284788, 313951, 27562539, 481433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 74 ], [ 266, 274 ], [ 287, 300 ], [ 466, 476 ], [ 552, 557 ], [ 635, 653 ], [ 655, 661 ], [ 678, 695 ], [ 810, 827 ], [ 832, 840 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas generally has a humid subtropical climate. While not bordering the Gulf of Mexico, Arkansas, is still close enough to the warm, large body of water for it to influence the weather in the state. Generally, Arkansas, has hot, humid summers and slightly drier, mild to cool winters. In Little Rock, the daily high temperatures average around with lows around in July. In January highs average around and lows around . In Siloam Springs in the northwest part of the state, the average high and low temperatures in July are and in January the average high and low are . Annual precipitation throughout the state averages between about ; it is somewhat wetter in the south and drier in the northern part of the state. Snowfall is infrequent but most common in the northern half of the state. The half of the state south of Little Rock is apter to see ice storms. Arkansas's record high is at Ozark on August 10, 1936; the record low is at Gravette, on February 13, 1905.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 19792392, 21076367, 18520327, 106849, 106983, 106841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 50 ], [ 76, 90 ], [ 292, 303 ], [ 430, 444 ], [ 900, 905 ], [ 948, 956 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas is known for extreme weather and frequent storms. A typical year brings thunderstorms, tornadoes, hail, snow and ice storms. Between both the Great Plains and the Gulf States, Arkansas, receives around 60 days of thunderstorms. Arkansas is located in Tornado Alley, and as a result, a few of the most destructive tornadoes in U.S. history have struck the state. While sufficiently far from the coast to avoid a direct hit from a hurricane, Arkansas can often get the remnants of a tropical system, which dumps tremendous amounts of rain in a short time and often spawns smaller tornadoes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 51464, 11969, 896811, 8282374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 163 ], [ 172, 183 ], [ 260, 273 ], [ 490, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Little Rock has been Arkansas's capital city since 1821 when it replaced Arkansas Post as the capital of the Territory of Arkansas. The state capitol was moved to Hot Springs and later Washington during the American Civil War when the Union armies threatened the city in 1862, and state government did not return to Little Rock until after the war ended. Today, the Little Rock–North Little Rock–Conway metropolitan area is the largest in the state, with a population of 724,385 in 2013.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 18520327, 255627, 313386, 453537, 106991, 107018, 863, 1145410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 32, 44 ], [ 73, 86 ], [ 109, 130 ], [ 163, 174 ], [ 185, 195 ], [ 207, 225 ], [ 366, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Fayetteville–Springdale–Rogers Metropolitan Area is the second-largest metropolitan area in Arkansas, growing at the fastest rate due to the influx of businesses and the growth of the University of Arkansas and Walmart.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 38623550, 296857, 33589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 52 ], [ 188, 210 ], [ 215, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The state has eight cities with populations above 50,000 (based on 2010 census). In descending order of size, they are Little Rock, Fort Smith, Fayetteville, Springdale, Jonesboro, North Little Rock, Conway, and Rogers. Of these, only Fort Smith and Jonesboro are outside the two largest metropolitan areas. Other cities in Arkansas include Pine Bluff, Crossett, Bryant, Lake Village, Hot Springs, Bentonville, Texarkana, Sherwood, Jacksonville, Russellville, Bella Vista, West Memphis, Paragould, Cabot, Searcy, Van Buren, El Dorado, Blytheville, Harrison, Dumas, Rison, Warren, and Mountain Home.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 18520327, 107254, 107293, 106850, 106925, 107224, 106968, 106848, 107057, 106813, 107238, 106881, 106991, 106832, 107129, 107226, 107221, 107209, 106831, 106948, 107007, 107110, 107316, 106936, 107282, 107132, 106858, 106958, 106908, 106867, 106827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 130 ], [ 132, 142 ], [ 144, 156 ], [ 158, 168 ], [ 170, 179 ], [ 181, 198 ], [ 200, 206 ], [ 212, 218 ], [ 341, 351 ], [ 353, 361 ], [ 363, 369 ], [ 371, 383 ], [ 385, 396 ], [ 398, 409 ], [ 411, 420 ], [ 422, 430 ], [ 432, 444 ], [ 446, 458 ], [ 460, 471 ], [ 473, 485 ], [ 487, 496 ], [ 498, 503 ], [ 505, 511 ], [ 513, 522 ], [ 524, 533 ], [ 535, 546 ], [ 548, 556 ], [ 558, 563 ], [ 565, 570 ], [ 572, 578 ], [ 584, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The United States Census Bureau estimated that the population of Arkansas was 3,017,804 on July 1, 2019, a 3.49% increase since the 2010 United States census. At the 2020 U.S. census, Arkansas had a resident population of 3,011,524.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 57070, 3448729, 23962196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 132, 157 ], [ 166, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From fewer than 15,000 in 1820, Arkansas's population grew to 52,240 during a special census in 1835, far exceeding the 40,000 required to apply for statehood. Following statehood in 1836, the population doubled each decade until the 1870 census conducted following the American Civil War. The state recorded growth in each successive decade, although it gradually slowed in the 20th century.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 4595346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 234, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It recorded population losses in the 1950 and 1960 censuses. This outmigration was a result of multiple factors, including farm mechanization, decreasing labor demand, and young educated people leaving the state due to a lack of non-farming industry in the state. Arkansas again began to grow, recording positive growth rates ever since and exceeding two million by the 1980 Census. Arkansas's rate of change, age distributions, and gender distributions mirror national averages. Minority group data also approximates national averages. There are fewer people in Arkansas of Hispanic or Latino origin than the national average. The center of population of Arkansas for 2000 was located in Perry County, near Nogal.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 4595400, 4595406, 3748248, 437868, 1697267, 97445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 41 ], [ 46, 57 ], [ 370, 381 ], [ 480, 494 ], [ 632, 652 ], [ 689, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas is 72.0% non-Hispanic white, 15.4% Black or African American, 0.5% American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.5% Asian, 0.4% Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander, 0.1% some other race, 2.4% two or more races, and 7.7% Hispanic or Latin American of any race. In 2011, the state was 80.1% white (74.2% non-Hispanic white), 15.6% Black or African American, 0.9% American Indian and Alaska Native, 1.3% Asian, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race made up 6.6% of the population. As of 2011, 39.0% of Arkansas's population younger than age1 were minorities.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 24849513, 2154, 21217, 525001, 18855594, 1007667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 308, 326 ], [ 344, 360 ], [ 367, 382 ], [ 387, 400 ], [ 407, 412 ], [ 447, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "European Americans have a strong presence in the northwestern Ozarks and the central part of the state. African Americans live mainly in the southern and eastern parts of the state. Arkansans of Irish, English and German ancestry are mostly found in the far northwestern Ozarks near the Missouri border. Ancestors of the Irish in the Ozarks were chiefly Scots-Irish, Protestants from Northern Ireland, the Scottish lowlands and northern England part of the largest group of immigrants from Great Britain and Ireland before the American Revolution. English and Scots-Irish immigrants settled throughout the back country of the South and in the more mountainous areas. Americans of English stock are found throughout the state.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 242683, 519331, 21265, 26994, 158019, 168432, 20557093, 1883734, 20557093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 68 ], [ 354, 365 ], [ 384, 400 ], [ 406, 414 ], [ 490, 503 ], [ 508, 515 ], [ 548, 555 ], [ 560, 571 ], [ 680, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 2010 survey of the principal ancestries of Arkansas's residents revealed the following: 15.5% African American, 12.3% Irish, 11.5% German, 11.0% American, 10.1% English, 4.7% Mexican, 2.1% French, 1.7% Scottish, 1.7% Dutch, 1.6% Italian, and 1.4% Scots-Irish.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 2154, 46284800, 290327, 22642703, 20557093, 220841, 2196211, 2413595, 2555166, 125320, 1883734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 112 ], [ 120, 125 ], [ 133, 139 ], [ 147, 155 ], [ 163, 170 ], [ 177, 184 ], [ 191, 197 ], [ 204, 212 ], [ 219, 224 ], [ 231, 238 ], [ 249, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most people identifying as \"American\" are of English descent and/or Scots-Irish descent. Their families have been in the state so long, in many cases since before statehood, that they choose to identify simply as having American ancestry or do not in fact know their ancestry. Their ancestry primarily goes back to the original 13 colonies and for this reason many of them today simply claim American ancestry. Many people who identify as of Irish descent are in fact of Scots-Irish descent.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 2006–2008 American Community Survey, 93.8% of Arkansas's population (over the age of five) spoke only English at home. About 4.5% of the state's population spoke Spanish at home. About 0.7% of the state's population spoke another Indo-European language. About 0.8% of the state's population spoke an Asian language, and 0.2% spoke other languages.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 14848, 147426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 269 ], [ 317, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like most other Southern states, Arkansas is part of the Bible Belt and predominantly Protestant. The largest denominations by number of adherents in 2010 were the Southern Baptist Convention with 661,382; the United Methodist Church with 158,574; non-denominational Evangelical Protestants with 129,638; the Catholic Church with 122,662; and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 31,254. Some residents of the state have other religions, such as Islam, Judaism, Wicca/Paganism, Hinduism, Buddhism, and some have no religious affiliation. In 2014, the Pew Research Center determined that 79% of the population was Christian, dominated by Evangelicals in the Southern Baptist and independent Baptist churches. In contrast with many other states, the Catholic Church as of 2014 was not the single largest Christian denomination in Arkansas. Of the unaffiliated population, 2% were atheist in 2014.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 247364, 25814008, 117407, 32304, 606848, 5935, 6037917, 15624, 33295, 23340, 13543, 3267529, 3091083, 15247542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 67 ], [ 86, 96 ], [ 164, 191 ], [ 210, 233 ], [ 309, 324 ], [ 343, 390 ], [ 462, 467 ], [ 469, 476 ], [ 478, 483 ], [ 484, 492 ], [ 494, 502 ], [ 504, 512 ], [ 567, 586 ], [ 894, 901 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once a state with a cashless society in the uplands and plantation agriculture in the lowlands, Arkansas's economy has evolved and diversified. The state's gross domestic product (GDP) was $119billion in 2015. Six Fortune 500 companies are based in Arkansas, including the world's #1 retailer, Walmart; Tyson Foods, J.B. Hunt, Dillard's, Murphy USA, and Windstream are also headquartered in the state. The per capita personal income in 2015 was $39,107, ranking 45th in the nation. The median household income from 2011 to 2015 was $41,371, ranking 49th in the nation. The state's agriculture outputs are poultry and eggs, soybeans, sorghum, cattle, cotton, rice, hogs, and milk. Its industrial outputs are food processing, electric equipment, fabricated metal products, machinery, and paper products. Arkansas's mines produce natural gas, oil, crushed stone, bromine, and vanadium. According to CNBC, Arkansas is the 20th-best state for business, with the 2nd-lowest cost of doing business, 5th-lowest cost of living, 11th-best workforce, 20th-best economic climate, 28th-best-educated workforce, 31st-best infrastructure and the 32nd-friendliest regulatory environment. Arkansas gained 12 spots in the best state for business rankings since 2011. As of 2014, it was the most affordable state to live in.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 1653010, 276447, 33589, 1100202, 8321118, 1520389, 4380020, 5080702, 4391996, 2021534, 223441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 66 ], [ 214, 225 ], [ 294, 301 ], [ 303, 314 ], [ 316, 325 ], [ 327, 336 ], [ 338, 348 ], [ 354, 364 ], [ 406, 432 ], [ 486, 509 ], [ 896, 900 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of June 2021, the state's unemployment rate was 4.4%; the preliminary rate for November 2021 is 3.4%.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas's earliest industries were fur trading and agriculture, with development of cotton plantations in the areas near the Mississippi River. They were dependent on slave labor through the American Civil War.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 452887, 31510137, 863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 47 ], [ 92, 103 ], [ 192, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today only about three percent of the population are employed in the agricultural sector, it remains a major part of the state's economy, ranking 13th in the nation in the value of products sold. Arkansas is the nation's largest producer of rice, broilers, and turkeys, and ranks in the top three for cotton, pullets, and aquaculture (catfish). Forestry remains strong in the Arkansas Timberlands, and the state ranks fourth nationally and first in the South in softwood lumber production. Automobile parts manufacturers have opened factories in eastern Arkansas to support auto plants in other states. Bauxite was formerly a large part of the state's economy, mined mostly around Saline County.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 862804, 36806, 37402, 9183724, 3760, 97436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 254 ], [ 301, 307 ], [ 309, 316 ], [ 376, 396 ], [ 603, 610 ], [ 681, 694 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tourism is also very important to the Arkansas economy; the official state nickname \"The Natural State\" was created for state tourism advertising in the 1970s, and is still used to this day. The state maintains 52 state parks and the National Park Service maintains seven properties in Arkansas. The completion of the William Jefferson Clinton Presidential Library in Little Rock has drawn many visitors to the city and revitalized the nearby River Market District. Many cities also hold festivals, which draw tourists to Arkansas culture, such as The Bradley County Pink Tomato Festival in Warren, King Biscuit Blues Festival, Ozark Folk Festival, Toad Suck Daze, and Tontitown Grape Festival.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 334595, 161535, 1180426, 57821874, 22886879, 325209, 8938475, 107299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 225 ], [ 234, 255 ], [ 318, 364 ], [ 443, 464 ], [ 599, 626 ], [ 628, 647 ], [ 649, 663 ], [ 669, 693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Transportation in Arkansas is overseen by the Arkansas Department of Transportation (ArDOT), headquartered in Little Rock. Several main corridors pass through Little Rock, including Interstate30 (I-30) and I-40 (the nation's 3rd-busiest trucking corridor). Arkansas first designated a state highway system in 1924, and first numbered its roads in 1926. Arkansas had one of the first paved roads, the Dollarway Road, and one of the first members of the Interstate Highway System. The state maintains a large system of state highways today, in addition to eight Interstates and 20 U.S. Routes.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 6299774, 18520327, 89533, 13099242, 23166063, 43950, 1317979, 22468516, 22655916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 83 ], [ 110, 121 ], [ 182, 194 ], [ 206, 210 ], [ 400, 414 ], [ 452, 477 ], [ 517, 531 ], [ 560, 571 ], [ 579, 590 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In northeast Arkansas, I-55 travels north from Memphis to Missouri, with a new spur to Jonesboro (I-555). Northwest Arkansas is served by the segment of I-49 from Fort Smith to the beginning of the Bella Vista Bypass. This segment of I-49 currently follows mostly the same route as the former section of I-540 that extended north of I-40. The state also has the 13th largest state highway system in the nation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 13274592, 48607, 19571, 106925, 1005722, 15304714, 15304714, 1865482, 1317979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 27 ], [ 47, 54 ], [ 58, 66 ], [ 87, 96 ], [ 98, 103 ], [ 153, 157 ], [ 198, 216 ], [ 286, 309 ], [ 375, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas is served by of railroad track divided among twenty-six railroad companies including three Class I railroads. Freight railroads are concentrated in southeast Arkansas to serve the industries in the region. The Texas Eagle, an Amtrak passenger train, serves five stations in the state Walnut Ridge, Little Rock, Malvern, Arkadelphia, and Texarkana.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 345663, 498239, 10330624, 10330684, 5028257, 7768524, 10331001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 118 ], [ 220, 231 ], [ 294, 306 ], [ 308, 319 ], [ 321, 328 ], [ 330, 341 ], [ 347, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas also benefits from the use of its rivers for commerce. The Mississippi River and Arkansas River are both major rivers. The United States Army Corps of Engineers maintains the McClellan-Kerr Arkansas River Navigation System, allowing barge traffic up the Arkansas River to the Port of Catoosa in Tulsa, Oklahoma.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 19579, 267577, 83180, 6966907, 3016541, 150969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 85 ], [ 90, 104 ], [ 132, 169 ], [ 184, 231 ], [ 285, 300 ], [ 304, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are four airports with commercial service: Clinton National Airport (formerly Little Rock National Airport or Adams Field), Northwest Arkansas Regional Airport, Fort Smith Regional Airport, and Texarkana Regional Airport, with dozens of smaller airports in the state.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 241584, 268332, 2317771, 2318008, 4670403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 73 ], [ 130, 165 ], [ 167, 194 ], [ 200, 226 ], [ 233, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Public transit and community transport services for the elderly or those with developmental disabilities are provided by agencies such as the Central Arkansas Transit Authority and the Ozark Regional Transit, organizations that are part of the Arkansas Transit Association.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 24369308, 25107229, 24665799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 176 ], [ 185, 207 ], [ 244, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with the federal government of the United States, political power in Arkansas is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial. Each officer's term is four years long. Office holders are term-limited to two full terms plus any partial terms before the first full term.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 505825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a 2020 study, Arkansas was ranked as the 9th hardest state for citizens to vote in.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The governor of Arkansas is Asa Hutchinson, a Republican, who was inaugurated on January 13, 2015. The six other elected executive positions in Arkansas are lieutenant governor, secretary of state, attorney general, treasurer, auditor, and land commissioner. The governor also appoints the leaders of various state boards, committees, and departments. Arkansas governors served two-year terms until a referendum lengthened the term to four years, effective with the 1986 election.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 1184212, 32070, 6512795, 19490744, 11545199, 5471660, 19274744, 44432293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 42 ], [ 46, 56 ], [ 157, 176 ], [ 178, 196 ], [ 198, 214 ], [ 216, 225 ], [ 227, 234 ], [ 240, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Arkansas, the lieutenant governor is elected separately from the governor and thus can be from a different political party.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Arkansas General Assembly is the state's bicameral bodies of legislators, composed of the Senate and House of Representatives. The Senate contains 35 members from districts of approximately equal population. These districts are redrawn decennially with each US census, and in election years ending in \"2\", the entire body is put up for reelection. Following the election, half of the seats are designated as two-year seats and are up for reelection again in two years, these \"half-terms\" do not count against a legislator's term limits. The remaining half serve a full four-year term. This staggers elections such that half the body is up for reelection every two years and allows for complete body turnover following redistricting. Arkansas voters elected a 21–14 Republican majority in the Senate in 2012. Arkansas House members can serve a maximum of three two-year terms. House districts are redistricted by the Arkansas Board of Apportionment. In the 2012 elections, Republicans gained a 51–49 majority in the House of Representatives.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 24685076, 204299, 3562043, 3562398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 45, 54 ], [ 94, 100 ], [ 105, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Republican Party majority status in the Arkansas State House of Representatives after the 2012 elections is the party's first since 1874. Arkansas was the last state of the old Confederacy to never have Republicans control either chamber of its house since the American Civil War.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 216313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the term limits changes, studies have shown that lobbyists have become less influential in state politics. Legislative staff, not subject to term limits, have acquired additional power and influence due to the high rate of elected official turnover.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas's judicial branch has five court systems: Arkansas Supreme Court, Arkansas Court of Appeals, Circuit Courts, District Courts and City Courts.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 4034596, 18675135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 73 ], [ 75, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most cases begin in district court, which is subdivided into state district court and local district court. State district courts exercise district-wide jurisdiction over the districts created by the General Assembly, and local district courts are presided over by part-time judges who may privately practice law. 25 state district court judges preside over 15 districts, with more districts created in 2013 and 2017. There are 28 judicial circuits of Circuit Court, with each contains five subdivisions: criminal, civil, probate, domestic relations, and juvenile court. The jurisdiction of the Arkansas Court of Appeals is determined by the Arkansas Supreme Court, and there is no right of appeal from the Court of Appeals to the high court. The Arkansas Supreme Court can review Court of Appeals cases upon application by either a party to the litigation, upon request by the Court of Appeals, or if the Arkansas Supreme Court feels the case should have been initially assigned to it. The twelve judges of the Arkansas Court of Appeals are elected from judicial districts to renewable six-year terms.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 35925403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 682, 697 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Arkansas Supreme Court is the court of last resort in the state, composed of seven justices elected to eight-year terms. Established by the Arkansas Constitution in 1836, the court's decisions can be appealed to only the Supreme Court of the United States.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 31737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both Arkansas's U.S. senators, John Boozman and Tom Cotton, are Republicans. The state has four seats in U.S. House of Representatives. All four seats are held by Republicans: Rick Crawford (1st district), French Hill (2nd district), Steve Womack (3rd district), and Bruce Westerman (4th district).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 408553, 33938394, 19468510, 28573959, 6585865, 44279869, 6594137, 28033707, 6594468, 40128833, 6597542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 43 ], [ 48, 58 ], [ 105, 134 ], [ 176, 189 ], [ 191, 203 ], [ 206, 217 ], [ 219, 231 ], [ 234, 246 ], [ 248, 260 ], [ 267, 282 ], [ 284, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas governor Bill Clinton brought national attention to the state with a long speech at the 1988 Democratic National Convention endorsing Michael Dukakis. Some journalists suggested the speech was a threat to his ambitions; Clinton defined it \"a comedy of error, just one of those fluky things\". He won the Democratic nomination for president in 1992. Presenting himself as a \"New Democrat\" and using incumbent George H. W. Bush's broken promise against him, Clinton won the 1992 presidential election with 43.0% of the vote to Bush's 37.5% and independent billionaire Ross Perot's 18.9%.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 3356, 602874, 74453, 11955, 39529, 43505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 30 ], [ 97, 132 ], [ 143, 158 ], [ 416, 433 ], [ 480, 506 ], [ 574, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most Republican strength traditionally lay mainly in the northwestern part of the state, particularly Fort Smith and Bentonville, as well as North Central Arkansas around the Mountain Home area. In the latter area, Republicans have been known to get 90% or more of the vote, while the rest of the state was more Democratic. After 2010, Republican strength expanded further to the Northeast and Southwest and into the Little Rock suburbs. The Democrats are mostly concentrated to central Little Rock, the Mississippi Delta, the Pine Bluff area, and the areas around the southern border with Louisiana.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 107254, 106832, 106827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 112 ], [ 117, 128 ], [ 175, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas has elected only three Republicans to the U.S. Senate since Reconstruction: Tim Hutchinson, who was defeated after one term by Mark Pryor; John Boozman, who defeated incumbent Blanche Lincoln; and Tom Cotton, who defeated Pryor in 2014. Before 2013, the General Assembly had not been controlled by the Republican Party since Reconstruction, with the GOP holding a 51-seat majority in the state House and a 21-seat (of 35) in the state Senate following victories in 2012. Arkansas was one of just three states among the states of the former Confederacy that sent two Democrats to the U.S. Senate (the others being Florida and Virginia) for any period during the first decade of the 21st century.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 55040, 959011, 221440, 408553, 334667, 33938394, 7023, 32432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 83 ], [ 85, 99 ], [ 136, 146 ], [ 148, 160 ], [ 185, 200 ], [ 206, 216 ], [ 549, 560 ], [ 634, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, Republicans captured three of the state's four seats in the U.S. House of Representatives. In 2012, they won election to all four House seats. Arkansas held the distinction of having a U.S. House delegation composed entirely of military veterans (Rick Crawford, Army; Tim Griffin, Army Reserve; Steve Womack, Army National Guard; Tom Cotton, Army). When Pryor was defeated in 2014, the entire congressional delegation was in GOP hands for the first time since Reconstruction.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 19468510, 28573959, 32087, 10055966, 1187028, 28033707, 37988, 33938394, 55040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 98 ], [ 256, 269 ], [ 271, 275 ], [ 277, 288 ], [ 290, 302 ], [ 304, 316 ], [ 323, 337 ], [ 339, 349 ], [ 469, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reflecting the state's large evangelical population, Arkansas has a strong social conservative bent. In the aftermath of the landmark Supreme Court decision Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization, Arkansas became one of nine states where abortion is banned. Under the Arkansas Constitution, Arkansas is a right to work state. Its voters passed a ban on same-sex marriage in 2004, with 75% voting yes, although that ban has been inactive since the Supreme Court protected same-sex marriage in Obergefell v. Hodges.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 219177, 67689552, 765, 2117426, 392198, 92656, 44399484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 94 ], [ 157, 201 ], [ 244, 252 ], [ 274, 295 ], [ 311, 330 ], [ 359, 376 ], [ 498, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Strategic Air Command facility of Little Rock Air Force Base was one of eighteen silos in the command of the 308th Strategic Missile Wing (308th SMW), specifically one of the nine silos within its 374th Strategic Missile Squadron (374th SMS). The squadron was responsible for Launch Complex 374–7, site of the 1980 explosion of a TitanII Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) in Damascus, Arkansas.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 28118, 1206007, 9974390, 25327021, 41626636, 20052024, 106969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 38, 64 ], [ 113, 141 ], [ 201, 233 ], [ 314, 328 ], [ 334, 341 ], [ 387, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Taxes are collected by the Arkansas Department of Finance and Administration.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 1930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2012, Arkansas, as with many Southern states, has a high incidence of premature death, infant mortality, cardiovascular deaths, and occupational fatalities compared to the rest of the United States. The state is tied for 43rd with New York in percentage of adults who regularly exercise. Arkansas is usually ranked as one of the least healthy states due to high obesity, smoking, and sedentary lifestyle rates, but according to a Gallup poll, Arkansas made the most immediate progress in reducing its number of uninsured residents after the Affordable Care Act passed. The percentage of uninsured in Arkansas dropped from 22.5 in 2013 to 12.4 in August 2014.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Health", "target_page_ids": [ 8210131, 25226624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 237, 245 ], [ 547, 566 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Arkansas Clean Indoor Air Act, a statewide smoking ban excluding bars and some restaurants, went into effect in 2006.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Health", "target_page_ids": [ 5718985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Healthcare in Arkansas is provided by a network of hospitals as members of the Arkansas Hospital Association. Major institutions with multiple branches include Baptist Health, Community Health Systems, and HealthSouth. The University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (UAMS) in Little Rock operates the UAMS Medical Center, a teaching hospital ranked as high performing nationally in cancer and nephrology. The pediatric division of UAMS Medical Center is known as Arkansas Children's Hospital, nationally ranked in pediatric cardiology and heart surgery. Together, these two institutions are the state's only Level I trauma centers.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Health", "target_page_ids": [ 4846224, 1520220, 1649632, 28985328, 66494203, 105219, 22028, 2204869, 5421, 286790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 200 ], [ 206, 217 ], [ 223, 266 ], [ 302, 321 ], [ 325, 342 ], [ 383, 389 ], [ 394, 404 ], [ 464, 492 ], [ 525, 535 ], [ 609, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas has 1,064 state-funded kindergartens, elementary, junior and senior high schools.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The state supports a network of public universities and colleges, including two major university systems: Arkansas State University System and University of Arkansas System. The University of Arkansas, flagship campus of the University of Arkansas System in Fayetteville was ranked #63 among public schools in the nation by U.S. News & World Report. Other public institutions include University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff, Arkansas Tech University, Henderson State University, Southern Arkansas University, and University of Central Arkansas across the state. It is also home to 11 private colleges and universities including Hendrix College, one of the nation's top 100 liberal arts colleges, according to U.S. News & World Report.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 19725260, 11046161, 2414440, 296857, 449826, 988951, 1941251, 1633123, 2447346, 1134157, 319904, 18674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ], [ 106, 138 ], [ 143, 172 ], [ 178, 200 ], [ 324, 348 ], [ 384, 420 ], [ 422, 446 ], [ 448, 474 ], [ 476, 504 ], [ 510, 540 ], [ 625, 640 ], [ 670, 682 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1920s the state required all children to attend public schools. The school year was set at 131 days, although some areas were unable to meet that requirement.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Generally prohibited in the West at large, school corporal punishment is not unusual in Arkansas, with 20,083 public school students paddled at least one time, according to government data for the 2011–12 school year. The rate of corporal punishment in public schools is higher only in Mississippi.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 21208200, 20411847, 2102987, 16949861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 32 ], [ 43, 69 ], [ 133, 140 ], [ 286, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas is one of the least educated U.S. states. It ranks near the bottom in terms of percentage of the population with a high school or college degree. The state's educational system has a history of underfunding, low teachers' salaries and political meddling in the curriculum.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Educational statistics during the early days are fragmentary and unreliable. Many counties did not submit full reports to the secretary of state, who did double duty as commissioner of common schools. But the percentage of whites over 20 years old who were illiterate was given as:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1840, 21%", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1850, 25%", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1860, 17%", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010 Arkansas students earned an average score of 20.3 on the ACT exam, just below the national average of 21. These results were expected due to the large increase in the number of students taking the exam since the establishment of the Academic Challenge Scholarship. Top high schools receiving recognition from the U.S. News & World Report are spread across the state, including Haas Hall Academy in Fayetteville, KIPP Delta Collegiate in Helena-West Helena, Bentonville, Rogers, Rogers Heritage, Valley Springs, Searcy, and McCrory. A total of 81 Arkansas high schools were ranked by the U.S. News & World Report in 2012.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 82577, 449826, 37001899, 37010726, 3550304, 1975656, 14135722, 22063369, 20526881, 36825599, 37011374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 73 ], [ 321, 345 ], [ 385, 402 ], [ 420, 441 ], [ 445, 463 ], [ 465, 476 ], [ 478, 484 ], [ 486, 501 ], [ 503, 517 ], [ 519, 525 ], [ 531, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas ranks as the 32nd smartest state on the Morgan Quitno Smartest State Award, 44th in percentage of residents with at least a high school diploma, and 48th in percentage of bachelor's degree attainment. Arkansas has been making strides in education reform. Education Week has praised the state, ranking Arkansas in the top 10 of their Quality Counts Education Rankings every year since 2009 while scoring it in the top5 during 2012 and 2013. Arkansas specifically received an A in Transition and Policy Making for progress in this area consisting of early-childhood education, college readiness, and career readiness. Governor Mike Beebe has made improving education a major issue through his attempts to spend more on education. Through reforms, the state is a leader in requiring curricula designed to prepare students for postsecondary education, rewarding teachers for student achievement, and providing incentives for principals who work in lower-tier schools.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 3177153, 7777797, 2045993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 62 ], [ 264, 278 ], [ 634, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As an organized territory, and later in the early days of statehood, education was funded by the sales of federally controlled public lands. This system was inadequate and prone to local graft. In an 1854 message to the legislature, Governor Elias N. Conway said, \"We have a common-school law intended as a system to establish common schools in all part of the state; but for the want of adequate means there are very few in operation under this law.\" At the time, only about a quarter of children were enrolled in school.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 305550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 242, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " By the beginning of the American Civil War, the state had only twenty-five publicly funded common schools.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1867, the state legislature was still controlled by ex-Confederates. It passed a Common Schools Law that allowed public funded but limited schools to white children.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 1868 legislature banned former Confederates and passed a more wide-ranging law detailing funding and administrative issues and allowing black children to attend school. In furtherance of this, the postwar 1868 state constitution was the first to permit a personal-property tax to fund the lands and buildings for public schools. With the 1868 elections, the first county school commissioners took office.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2014, the state spent $9,616 per student, compared with a national average of about $11,000 putting Arkansas in nineteenth place.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1829 Territorial legislature permits townships to establish schools", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1868 State law requires racial segregation of schools", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1871 University of Arkansas established", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 296857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1873 University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff established as a school to train black teachers", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 988951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1877 Philander Smith College established as a school for black students", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 3881245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1890 Henderson State University established (as a private school, becoming Henderson State Teachers College in 1929)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 1633123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1885 Arkansas School for the Deaf and Arkansas School for the Blind established", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 38008500, 37997342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 34 ], [ 39, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1909 Arkansas Tech University, Southern Arkansas University, University of Arkansas at Monticello and Arkansas State University established as schools offering high school diplomas and vocational training", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 1941251, 2447346, 2417531, 292999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 30 ], [ 32, 60 ], [ 62, 98 ], [ 103, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Schooling made compulsory", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1925 University of Central Arkansas established (as Arkansas State Normal School)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 1134157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1948 University of Arkansas School of Law admits a black student", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 12843988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 Governor Orval Faubus uses National Guard troops to oppose racial integration of Little Rock Central High School", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 285980, 298129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ], [ 87, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1958 United States Supreme Court overrules the governor", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 5153230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Arkansas State Supreme Court rules that the state's funding of education is Constitutionally deficient", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 4034596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2010 many Arkansas local newspapers are owned by WEHCO Media, Alabama-based Lancaster Management, Kentucky-based Paxton Media Group, Missouri-based Rust Communications, Nevada-based Stephens Media, and New York-based GateHouse Media.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 5925565, 5957536, 28969078, 7728589, 8274472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 66 ], [ 119, 137 ], [ 154, 173 ], [ 188, 202 ], [ 223, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The culture of Arkansas includes distinct cuisine, dialect, and traditional festivals. Sports are also very important to the culture, including football, baseball, basketball, hunting, and fishing. Perhaps the best-known aspect of Arkansas's culture is the stereotype that its citizens are shiftless hillbillies. The reputation began when early explorers characterized the state as a savage wilderness full of outlaws and thieves. The most enduring icon of Arkansas's hillbilly reputation is The Arkansas Traveller, a painted depiction of a folk tale from the 1840s. Though intended to represent the divide between rich southeastern plantation Arkansas planters and the poor northwestern hill country, the meaning was twisted to represent a Northerner lost in the Ozarks on a white horse asking a backwoods Arkansan for directions. The state also suffers from the racial stigma common to former Confederate states, with historical events such as the Little Rock Nine adding to Arkansas's enduring image.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 294425, 20329639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 492, 514 ], [ 950, 966 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Art and history museums display pieces of cultural value for Arkansans and tourists to enjoy. Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art in Bentonville was visited by 604,000 people in 2012, its first year. The museum includes walking trails and educational opportunities in addition to displaying over 450 works covering five centuries of American art. Several historic town sites have been restored as Arkansas state parks, including Historic Washington State Park, Powhatan Historic State Park, and Davidsonville Historic State Park.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3986620, 106832, 334595, 332966, 37653785, 6628321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 132 ], [ 136, 147 ], [ 409, 420 ], [ 432, 462 ], [ 464, 492 ], [ 498, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas features a variety of native music across the state, ranging from the blues heritage of West Memphis, Pine Bluff, Helena–West Helena to rockabilly, bluegrass, and folk music from the Ozarks. Festivals such as the King Biscuit Blues Festival and Bikes, Blues, and BBQ pay homage to the history of blues in the state. The Ozark Folk Festival in Mountain View is a celebration of Ozark culture and often features folk and bluegrass musicians. Literature set in Arkansas such as I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings by Maya Angelou and A Painted House by John Grisham describe the culture at various time periods.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3352, 106948, 107057, 3550304, 171930, 60590, 22886879, 4237678, 107280, 1219913, 288140, 1703709, 61998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 84 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 111, 121 ], [ 123, 141 ], [ 145, 155 ], [ 157, 166 ], [ 222, 249 ], [ 254, 275 ], [ 352, 365 ], [ 484, 515 ], [ 519, 531 ], [ 536, 551 ], [ 555, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sports have become an integral part of the culture of Arkansas, and her residents enjoy participating in and spectating various events throughout the year.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Team sports and especially collegiate football are important to Arkansans. College football in Arkansas began from humble beginnings, when the University of Arkansas first fielded a team in 1894. Over the years, many Arkansans have looked to Arkansas Razorbacks football as the public image of the state. Although the University of Arkansas is based in Fayetteville, the Razorbacks have always played at least one game per season at War Memorial Stadium in Little Rock in an effort to keep fan support in central and south Arkansas.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 296857, 55846286, 7957059, 107293, 2771242, 18520327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 165 ], [ 190, 194 ], [ 242, 270 ], [ 353, 365 ], [ 433, 453 ], [ 457, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas State University became the second NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) (then known as Division I-A) team in the state in 1992 after playing in lower divisions for nearly two decades. The two schools have never played each other, due to the University of Arkansas's policy of not playing intrastate games. Two other campuses of the University of Arkansas System are Division I members. The University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff is a member of the Southwestern Athletic Conference, a league whose members all play football in the second-level Football Championship Subdivision (FCS). The University of Arkansas at Little Rock, known for sports purposes as Little Rock, is a member of the FBS Sun Belt Conference, but is one of two conference schools that have no football program. The state's other DivisionI member is the University of Central Arkansas (UCA), which joined the ASUN Conference in 2021 after leaving the FCS Southland Conference. Because the ASUN does not plan to start FCS football competition until at least 2022, UCA football is competing in the Western Athletic Conference as part of a formal football partnership between the two leagues. Seven of Arkansas's smaller colleges play in NCAA Division II, with six in the Great American Conference and one in the Lone Star Conference. Two other small Arkansas colleges compete in NCAA Division III, in which athletic scholarships are prohibited. High school football also began to grow in Arkansas in the early 20th century.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 292999, 15100051, 2414440, 988951, 79383, 19921503, 2448407, 79369, 39962486, 1134157, 672965, 393467, 79375, 29729755, 79633, 3142324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 44, 85 ], [ 352, 381 ], [ 410, 446 ], [ 466, 498 ], [ 561, 594 ], [ 606, 643 ], [ 710, 729 ], [ 778, 797 ], [ 841, 871 ], [ 896, 911 ], [ 942, 962 ], [ 1083, 1110 ], [ 1256, 1281 ], [ 1297, 1317 ], [ 1392, 1412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baseball runs deep in Arkansas and has been popular before the state hosted Major League Baseball (MLB) spring training in Hot Springs from 1886 to the 1920s. Two minor league teams are based in the state. The Arkansas Travelers play at Dickey–Stephens Park in North Little Rock, and the Northwest Arkansas Naturals play in Arvest Ballpark in Springdale. Both teams compete in Double-A Central.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 38776, 18952605, 106991, 48704155, 672582, 13723131, 107224, 10060417, 6874110, 106850, 70292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 97 ], [ 104, 119 ], [ 123, 134 ], [ 163, 175 ], [ 210, 228 ], [ 237, 257 ], [ 261, 278 ], [ 288, 315 ], [ 324, 339 ], [ 343, 353 ], [ 377, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Related to the state's frontier past, hunting continues in the state. The state created the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission in 1915 to regulate hunting and enforce those regulations. Today a significant portion of Arkansas's population participates in hunting duck in the Mississippi flyway and deer across the state. Millions of acres of public land are available for both bow and modern gun hunters.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 66921474, 37674, 3483849, 38428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 125 ], [ 262, 266 ], [ 274, 292 ], [ 297, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fishing has always been popular in Arkansas, and the sport and the state have benefited from the creation of reservoirs across the state. Following the completion of Norfork Dam, the Norfork Tailwater and the White River have become a destination for trout fishers. Several smaller retirement communities such as Bull Shoals, Hot Springs Village, and Fairfield Bay have flourished due to their position on a fishing lake. The National Park Service has preserved the Buffalo National River in its natural state and fly fishers visit it annually.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3194729, 7211788, 311548, 47326, 107122, 106992, 106902, 161535, 299281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 177 ], [ 183, 200 ], [ 209, 220 ], [ 251, 256 ], [ 313, 324 ], [ 326, 345 ], [ 351, 364 ], [ 426, 447 ], [ 466, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arkansas is home to many areas protected by the National Park System. These include:", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Attractions", "target_page_ids": [ 161535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arkansas Post National Memorial at Gillett", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Attractions", "target_page_ids": [ 313388, 106809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ], [ 36, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Blanchard Springs Caverns", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Attractions", "target_page_ids": [ 325867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Buffalo National River", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Attractions", "target_page_ids": [ 299281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fort Smith National Historic Site", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Attractions", "target_page_ids": [ 2152040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hot Springs National Park", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Attractions", "target_page_ids": [ 758431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Little Rock Central High School National Historic Site", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Attractions", "target_page_ids": [ 298129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pea Ridge National Military Park", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Attractions", "target_page_ids": [ 313397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " President William Jefferson Clinton Birthplace Home National Historic Site", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Attractions", "target_page_ids": [ 4342777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arkansas State Capitol Building", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Attractions", "target_page_ids": [ 1813037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Arkansas state parks", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Attractions", "target_page_ids": [ 334595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Index of Arkansas-related articles", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17588353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Outline of Arkansas", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21930214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Spanish Empire", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 303062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " History of Louisiana", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8817671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Blair, Diane D. & Jay Barth Arkansas Politics & Government: Do the People Rule? (2005)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Deblack, Thomas A. With Fire and Sword: Arkansas, 1861–1874 (2003)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Donovan, Timothy P. and Willard B. Gatewood Jr., eds. The Governors of Arkansas (1981)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dougan, Michael B. Confederate Arkansas (1982),", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Duvall, Leland. ed., Arkansas: Colony and State (1973)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hamilton, Peter Joseph. The Reconstruction Period (1906), full length history of era; Dunning School approach; 570 pp; ch 13 on Arkansas", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 3281041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hanson, Gerald T. and Carl H. Moneyhon. Historical Atlas of Arkansas (1992)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Key, V. O. Southern Politics (1949)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kirk, John A., Redefining the Color Line: Black Activism in Little Rock, Arkansas, 1940–1970 (2002).", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McMath, Sidney S. Promises Kept (2003)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Moore, Waddy W. ed., Arkansas in the Gilded Age, 1874–1900 (1976).", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Peirce, Neal R. The Deep South States of America: People, Politics, and Power in the Seven Deep South States (1974).", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thompson, Brock. The Un-Natural State: Arkansas and the Queer South (2010)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thompson, George H. Arkansas and Reconstruction (1976)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Whayne, Jeannie M. Arkansas Biography: A Collection of Notable Lives (2000)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " White, Lonnie J. Politics on the Southwestern Frontier: Arkansas Territory, 1819–1836 (1964)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Williams, C. Fred. ed. A Documentary History Of Arkansas (2005)", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arkansas.gov—Official State Website", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arkansas State Facts from USDA", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Official State tourism website", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Encyclopedia of Arkansas", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Energy & Environmental Data for Arkansas", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " U.S. Census Bureau", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2000 Census of Population and Housing for Arkansas, U.S. Census Bureau", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 57070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " USGS real-time, geographic, and other scientific resources of Arkansas", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arkansas Summer Camps", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arkansas Shakespeare Theatre", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arkansas State Code (the state statutes of Arkansas)", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arkansas State Databases—Annotated list of searchable databases produced by Arkansas state agencies and compiled by the Government Documents Roundtable of the American Library Association.", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Arkansas", "1836_establishments_in_the_United_States", "South_Central_United_States", "Southern_United_States", "States_and_territories_established_in_1836", "States_of_the_Confederate_States_of_America", "States_of_the_United_States", "Contiguous_United_States" ]

[ "AR", "Ark.", "State of Arkansas", "The Natural State", "Arkansas, United States", "AR-kən-saw", "ARkənsaw", "Arkensaw", "Arkansaw" ]

[ { "plaintext": "An atmosphere is a gas layer around a celestial body.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 202899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Atmosphere may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere (unit), a unit of pressure", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 582780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere of Earth", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 202898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Extraterrestrial atmospheres", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 11346753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stellar atmosphere", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Science", "target_page_ids": [ 535458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere (music group), an American hip-hop duo from Minnesota", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 502791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere (Polish band)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 21675873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere (Atmosphere album) (1997)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 21675873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere (Eloy Fritsch album) (2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 2789832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere (Kaskade album) (2013), or the title song", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 40481807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere (Sevenglory album) (2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 27417734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere, a 1969 album by Colours, produced by Dan Moore and Richard Delvy", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 26415308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmospheres (album) (2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 46642569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Atmosphere\" (Joy Division song) (1980)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 10504617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Atmosphere\" (Kaskade song) (2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 41296942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Atmosphere\" (1975), from Let's Take It to the Stage by Funkadelic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 113706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Atmosphere\" (1984), by Russ Abbot", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 1512233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphères (1961), an orchestral piece by György Ligeti", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 8588586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere (journal), an open access scientific journal", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 43611016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere (magazine), the inflight magazine of Air Transat", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 348076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmospheres (TV series)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 14521333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmospheric theatre, a type of cinema architecture", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 11185917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere, another term for a film extra", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 2576761 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere (literature), a literary term referring to the mood surrounding a story", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 38360894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere (service), a video on-demand service that provides content in a business-to-business capacity", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Arts, entertainment, and media", "target_page_ids": [ 70519597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere (architecture and spatial design)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 33081680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere (Kolkata), a residential superstructure in India", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 54419926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adobe Atmosphere, a computer graphics platform", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 615193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosphere Visual Effects, a Canadian company", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 9129597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atmosfear (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40394473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Apus is a small constellation in the southern sky. It represents a bird-of-paradise, and its name means \"without feet\" in Greek because the bird-of-paradise was once wrongly believed to lack feet. First depicted on a celestial globe by Petrus Plancius in 1598, it was charted on a star atlas by Johann Bayer in his 1603 Uranometria. The French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille charted and gave the brighter stars their Bayer designations in 1756.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5267, 43344021, 162540, 11887, 475254, 16061, 1449829, 21628, 4199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 29 ], [ 37, 49 ], [ 67, 83 ], [ 122, 127 ], [ 236, 251 ], [ 295, 307 ], [ 320, 331 ], [ 368, 393 ], [ 436, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The five brightest stars are all reddish in hue. Shading the others at apparent magnitude 3.8 is Alpha Apodis, an orange giant that has around 48 times the diameter and 928 times the luminosity of the Sun. Marginally fainter is Gamma Apodis, another ageing giant star. Delta Apodis is a double star, the two components of which are 103 arcseconds apart and visible with the naked eye. Two star systems have been found to have planets.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1962, 2797048, 44790, 2797065, 2797225, 53603, 2431, 9763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 89 ], [ 97, 109 ], [ 183, 193 ], [ 228, 240 ], [ 269, 281 ], [ 287, 298 ], [ 336, 346 ], [ 426, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apus was one of twelve constellations published by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman who had sailed on the first Dutch trading expedition, known as the Eerste Schipvaart, to the East Indies. It first appeared on a 35-cm (14in) diameter celestial globe published in 1598 in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius. De Houtman included it in his southern star catalogue in 1603 under the Dutch name De Paradijs Voghel, \"The Bird of Paradise\", and Plancius called the constellation Paradysvogel Apis Indica; the first word is Dutch for \"bird of paradise\". Apis (Latin for \"bee\") is assumed to have been a typographical error for avis (\"bird\").", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 475254, 2083895, 412128, 25575789, 76488, 1155218, 19985174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 66 ], [ 92, 115 ], [ 120, 140 ], [ 208, 225 ], [ 234, 245 ], [ 356, 371 ], [ 582, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After its introduction on Plancius's globe, the constellation's first known appearance in a celestial atlas was in German cartographer Johann Bayer's Uranometria of 1603. Bayer called it Apis Indica while fellow astronomers Johannes Kepler and his son-in-law Jakob Bartsch called it Apus or Avis Indica. The name Apus is derived from the Greek apous, meaning \"without feet\". This referred to the Western misconception that the bird-of-paradise had no feet, which arose because the only specimens available in the West had their feet and wings removed. Such specimens began to arrive in Europe in 1522, when the survivors of Ferdinand Magellan's expedition brought them home. The constellation later lost some of its tail when Nicolas-Louis de Lacaille used those stars to establish Octans in the 1750s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16061, 1449829, 15736, 1423404, 19914843, 37462359, 21628, 22475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 147 ], [ 150, 161 ], [ 224, 239 ], [ 259, 272 ], [ 624, 642 ], [ 645, 655 ], [ 726, 751 ], [ 782, 788 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Covering 206.3 square degrees and hence 0.5002% of the sky, Apus ranks 67th of the 88 modern constellations by area. Its position in the Southern Celestial Hemisphere means that the whole constellation is visible to observers south of 7°N. It is bordered by Ara, Triangulum Australe and Circinus to the north, Musca and Chamaeleon to the west, Octans to the south, and Pavo to the east. The three-letter abbreviation for the constellation, as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, is \"Aps\". The official constellation boundaries, as set by Belgian astronomer Eugène Delporte in 1930, are defined by a polygon of six segments (illustrated in infobox). In the equatorial coordinate system, the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between and , while the declination coordinates are between −67.48° and −83.12°.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Characteristics", "target_page_ids": [ 287159, 43344021, 5267, 20895429, 1927, 30662, 211816, 211825, 6436, 214340, 14878, 590453, 48384, 26073, 8612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 107 ], [ 137, 166 ], [ 188, 201 ], [ 235, 238 ], [ 258, 261 ], [ 263, 282 ], [ 287, 295 ], [ 310, 315 ], [ 320, 330 ], [ 369, 373 ], [ 458, 490 ], [ 578, 593 ], [ 677, 705 ], [ 711, 726 ], [ 785, 796 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lacaille gave twelve stars Bayer designations, labelling them Alpha through to Kappa, including two stars next to each other as Delta and another two stars near each other as Kappa. Within the constellation's borders, there are 39 stars brighter than or equal to apparent magnitude6.5. Beta, Gamma and Delta Apodis form a narrow triangle, with Alpha Apodis lying to the east. The five brightest stars are all red-tinged, which is unusual among constellations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 4199, 1962, 2797089, 2797065, 2797225, 2797048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ], [ 263, 281 ], [ 286, 290 ], [ 292, 297 ], [ 302, 314 ], [ 344, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Apodis is an orange giant of spectral type K3III located 430 ± 20 light-years away from Earth, with an apparent magnitude of 3.8. It spent much of its life as a blue-white (B-type) main sequence star before expanding, cooling and brightening as it used up its core hydrogen. It has swollen to 48 times the Sun's diameter, and shines with a luminosity approximately 928 times that of the Sun, with a surface temperature of 4312 K. Beta Apodis is an orange giant 149 ± 2 light-years away, with a magnitude of 4.2. It is around 1.84 times as massive as the Sun, with a surface temperature of 4677 K. Gamma Apodis is a yellow giant of spectral type G8III located 150 ± 4 light-years away, with a magnitude of 3.87. It is approximately 63 times as luminous the Sun, with a surface temperature of 5279 K. Delta Apodis is a double star, the two components of which are 103 arcseconds apart and visible through binoculars. Delta1 is a red giant star of spectral type M4III located 630 ± 30 light-years away. It is a semiregular variable that varies from magnitude +4.66 to +4.87, with pulsations of multiple periods of 68.0, 94.9 and 101.7 days. Delta2 is an orange giant star of spectral type K3III, located 550 ± 10 light-years away, with a magnitude of 5.3. The separate components can be resolved with the naked eye.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 568726, 23473595, 1575837, 44790, 19593121, 568726, 53603, 21245707, 568726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 31 ], [ 72, 82 ], [ 167, 205 ], [ 346, 356 ], [ 433, 434 ], [ 621, 633 ], [ 823, 834 ], [ 933, 942 ], [ 1157, 1169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fifth-brightest star is Zeta Apodis at magnitude 4.8, a star that has swollen and cooled to become an orange giant of spectral type K1III, with a surface temperature of 4649 K and a luminosity 133 times that of the Sun. It is 300 ± 4 light-years distant. Near Zeta is Iota Apodis, a binary star system 1,040 ± 60 light-years distant, that is composed of two blue-white main sequence stars that orbit each other every 59.32 years. Of spectral types B9V and B9.5 V, they are both over three times as massive as the Sun.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2797254, 2797478, 52713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 39 ], [ 272, 283 ], [ 287, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eta Apodis is a white main sequence star located 140.8 ± 0.9 light-years distant. Of apparent magnitude 4.89, it is 1.77 times as massive, 15.5 times as luminous as the Sun and has 2.13 times its radius. Aged 250 ± 200 million years old, this star is emitting an excess of 24μm infrared radiation, which may be caused by a debris disk of dust orbiting at a distance of more than 31 astronomical units from it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2797429, 1575751, 11633005, 8741245, 1210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 16, 40 ], [ 263, 269 ], [ 323, 334 ], [ 382, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Theta Apodis is a cool red giant of spectral type M7 III located 350 ± 30 light-years distant. It shines with a luminosity approximately 3879 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 3151 K. A semiregular variable, it varies by 0.56 magnitudes with a period of 119 days—or approximately 4 months. It is losing mass at the rate of times the mass of the Sun per year through its stellar wind. Dusty material ejected from this star is interacting with the surrounding interstellar medium, forming a bow shock as the star moves through the galaxy. NO Apodis is a red giant of spectral type M3III that varies between magnitudes 5.71 and 5.95. Located 780 ± 20 light-years distant, it shines with a luminosity estimated at 2059 times that of the Sun and has a surface temperature of 3568 K. S Apodis is a rare R Coronae Borealis variable, an extremely hydrogen-deficient supergiant thought to have arisen as the result of the merger of two white dwarfs; fewer than 100 have been discovered as of 2012. It has a baseline magnitude of 9.7. R Apodis is a star that was given a variable star designation, yet has turned out not to be variable. Of magnitude 5.3, it is another orange giant.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2797942, 183934, 69453, 1020537, 18180005, 46822421, 15515673, 2797553, 32799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 392, 404 ], [ 480, 499 ], [ 511, 520 ], [ 559, 568 ], [ 800, 808 ], [ 819, 846 ], [ 1047, 1055 ], [ 1083, 1108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two star systems have had exoplanets discovered by doppler spectroscopy, and the substellar companion of a third star system—the sunlike star HD 131664—has since been found to be a brown dwarf with a calculated mass of the companion to 23 times that of Jupiter (minimum of 18 and maximum of 49 Jovian masses). HD 134606 is a yellow sunlike star of spectral type G6IV that has begun expanding and cooling off the main sequence. Three planets orbit it with periods of 12, 59.5 and 459 days, successively larger as they are further away from the star. HD 137388 is another star—of spectral type K2IV—that is cooler than the Sun and has begun cooling off the main sequence. Around 47% as luminous and 88% as massive as the Sun, with 85% of its diameter, it is thought to be around 7.4 ± 3.9 billion years old. It has a planet that is 79 times as massive as the Earth and orbits its sun every 330 days at an average distance of 0.89 astronomical units (AU).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 9763, 10932739, 20090166, 44401, 47885498, 19605, 47885527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ], [ 51, 71 ], [ 142, 151 ], [ 181, 192 ], [ 310, 319 ], [ 412, 425 ], [ 549, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Milky Way covers much of the constellation's area. Of the deep-sky objects in Apus, there are two prominent globular clusters—NGC 6101 and IC 4499—and a large faint nebula that covers several degrees east of Beta and Gamma Apodis. NGC 6101 is a globular cluster of apparent magnitude 9.2 located around 50,000 light-years distant from Earth, which is around 160 light-years across. Around 13 billion years old, it contains a high concentration of massive bright stars known as blue stragglers, thought to be the result of two stars merging. IC 4499 is a loose globular cluster in the medium-far galactic halo; its apparent magnitude is 10.6.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 2589714, 12866, 33587801, 50658551, 21664, 207397, 875134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 112, 128 ], [ 130, 138 ], [ 143, 150 ], [ 169, 175 ], [ 481, 495 ], [ 599, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The galaxies in the constellation are faint. IC 4633 is a very faint spiral galaxy surrounded by a vast amount of Milky Way line-of-sight integrated flux nebulae—large faint clouds thought to be lit by large numbers of stars.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Features", "target_page_ids": [ 42499080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dutch celestial cartography in the Age of Exploration (Early systematic mapping of the far southern sky, c. 1595–1599)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5645470, 5645470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 54 ], [ 56, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Constellations created and listed by Dutch celestial cartographers", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5645470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IAU-recognized constellations", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 287159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Deep Photographic Guide to the Constellations: Apus", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The clickable Apus", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Apus_(constellation)", "Southern_constellations", "Constellations_listed_by_Petrus_Plancius", "Dutch_celestial_cartography_in_the_Age_of_Discovery", "Astronomy_in_the_Dutch_Republic", "1590s_in_the_Dutch_Republic" ]

[ "Aps", "Apodis" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Abadan ( Ābādān, ) is a city and capital of Abadan County, Khuzestan Province, which is located in the southwest of Iran. It lies on Abadan Island ( long, 3–19km or 2–12miles wide). The island is bounded in the west by the Arvand waterway and to the east by the Bahmanshir outlet of the Karun River (the Arvand Rood), from the Persian Gulf, near the Iran–Iraq border. Abadan is 140km from the provincial capital city of Ahvaz.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7349534, 448079, 14653, 13928312, 147227, 27180806, 2242523, 147227, 24761, 18013870, 599079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 57 ], [ 59, 77 ], [ 116, 120 ], [ 133, 146 ], [ 223, 229 ], [ 262, 272 ], [ 287, 298 ], [ 304, 315 ], [ 328, 340 ], [ 351, 360 ], [ 421, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest mention of the island of Abadan, if not the port itself, is found in works of the geographer Marcian, who renders the name \"Apphadana\". Earlier, the classical geographer Ptolemy notes \"Apphana\" as an island off the mouth of the Tigris (which is where the modern Island of Abadan is located). An etymology for this name is presented by B. Farahvashi to be derived from the Persian word \"ab\" (water) and the root \"pā\" (guard, watch) thus \"coastguard station\").", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 17271645, 23979, 31259, 888207, 11600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 113 ], [ 183, 190 ], [ 241, 247 ], [ 308, 317 ], [ 385, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Islamic times, a pseudo-etymology was produced by the historian Ahmad ibn Yahya al-Baladhuri (d. 892) quoting a folk story that the town was presumably founded by one \"Abbad bin Hosayn\" from the Arabian Tribe of Banu Tamim, who established a garrison there during the governorship of Hajjaj in the Ummayad period.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 2905339, 2032815, 49855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 95 ], [ 215, 225 ], [ 301, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the subsequent centuries, the Persian version of the name had begun to come into general use before it was adopted by official decree in 1935.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The civilian population of the city dropped close to zero during the eight years of the Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988). The 1986 census recorded only 6 people. In 1991, 84,774 had returned to live in the city. By 2001, the population had jumped to 206,073, and it was 217,988, in 48,061 families, according to 2006 census. Abadan Refinery is one of the largest in the world. The population today has reached almost 350,000 people.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 14889, 15220170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 101 ], [ 318, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Only 9% of managers (of the oil company) were from Khuzestan. The proportion of natives of Tehran, the Caspian, Azerbaijan, and Kurdistan rose from 4% of blue collar workers to 22% of white collar workers to 45% of managers, thus Arabic-speakers were concentrated on the lower rungs of the work force, managers tended to be brought in from some distance. There is also a single Armenian church in the centre of the city, Saint Garapet church.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Population", "target_page_ids": [ 57654, 8097037, 882499, 448112, 246816, 246818, 70156767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 97 ], [ 103, 110 ], [ 112, 122 ], [ 128, 137 ], [ 154, 165 ], [ 184, 196 ], [ 421, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abadan is thought to have been further developed into a major port city under the Abbasids' rule. The city was then a commercial source of salt and woven mats. The siltation of the river delta forced the town further away from water; In the 14th century, however, Ibn Battutah described Abadan just as a small port in a flat salty plain. Politically, Abadan was often the subject of dispute between the nearby states. In 1847, Persia acquired it from the Ottoman Empire in which state Abadan has remained since. From the 17th century onward, the island of Abadan was part of the lands of the Arab Ka'ab (Bani Kaab) tribe. One section of the tribe, Mohaysen, had its headquarters at Mohammara (now Khorramshahr), until the removal of Shaikh Khaz'al Khan in 1924.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49856, 535805, 5573115, 15229, 22278, 2185, 5531382, 464970, 1885076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 89 ], [ 154, 157 ], [ 164, 173 ], [ 264, 276 ], [ 455, 469 ], [ 592, 596 ], [ 604, 613 ], [ 697, 709 ], [ 740, 752 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was not until the 20th century that rich oil fields were discovered in the area. On 16 July 1909, after secret negotiation with the British consul, Percy Cox, assisted by Arnold Wilson, and Sheik Khaz'al agreed to a rental agreement for the island, including Abadan. The Sheik continued to administer the island until 1924. The Anglo-Persian Oil Company built their first pipeline terminus oil refinery in Abadan, starting in 1909 and completing it in 1912, with oil flowing by August 1912 (see Abadan Refinery). Refinery throughput numbers rose from 33,000 tons in 1912–1913 to 4,338,000 tons in 1931. By 1938, it was the largest in the world.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 739486, 3561788, 1885076, 866367, 195137, 15220170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 160 ], [ 174, 187 ], [ 193, 206 ], [ 331, 356 ], [ 393, 405 ], [ 498, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During World War II, Abadan was the site of brief combat between Iranian forces and British and Indian troops during the Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran. Later, Abadan was a major logistics centre for Lend-Lease aircraft being sent to the Soviet Union by the United States.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 37116347, 55832, 26779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 121, 150 ], [ 199, 209 ], [ 237, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1951, Iran nationalised all oil properties and refining ground to a stop on the island. Rioting broke out in Abadan, after the government had decided to nationalise the oil facilities, and three British workers were killed. It was not until 1954 that a settlement was reached, which allowed a consortium of international oil companies to manage the production and refining on the island. That continued until 1973, when the NIOC took over all facilities. After the total nationalisation, Iran focused on supplying oil domestically and built a pipeline from Abadan to Tehran.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2023824, 57654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 427, 431 ], [ 570, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abadan was not a major cultural or religious centre, but it played an important role in the Islamic Revolution. On 19 August 1978, the anniversary of the US-backed coup d'état that had overthrown the nationalist and popular Iranian prime minister, Mohammed Mossadegh, the Cinema Rex, a movie theatre in Abadan, was set ablaze. The Cinema Rex Fire caused 430 deaths, but more importantly, it was another event that kept the Islamic Revolution moving ahead. At the time, there was much confusion and misinformation about the perpetrators of the incident. The public largely put the blame on the local police chief and also the Shah and SAVAK. The reformist Sobhe Emrooz newspaper in one of its editorials revealed that the Cinema Rex was burned down by radical Islamists. The newspaper was shut down immediately after. Over time, the true culprits, radical Islamists, were apprehended, and the logic behind this act was revealed, as they were trying both to foment the general public to distrust the government even more, and they also perceived cinema as a link to the Americans. The fire was one of four during a short period in August, with other fires in Mashhad, Rizaiya, and Shiraz.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 347268, 216440, 6773873, 205740, 406512, 615663, 39622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 110 ], [ 248, 266 ], [ 331, 346 ], [ 634, 639 ], [ 1157, 1164 ], [ 1166, 1173 ], [ 1179, 1185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1980, Abadan was almost overrun during a surprise attack on Khuzestan by Iraq, marking the beginning of the Iran–Iraq War. For 12 months, Abadan was besieged, but never captured, by Iraqi forces, and in September 1981, the Iranians broke the siege of Abadan. Much of the city, including the oil refinery, which was the world's largest refinery with capacity of 628,000 barrels per day, was badly damaged or destroyed by the siege and by bombing. Prior to the war, the city's civilian population was about 300,000, but at the war's end nearly the entire populace had sought refuge elsewhere in Iran.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the war, the biggest concern was the rebuilding of Abadan's oil refinery, as it was operating at 10% of capacity due to damage. In 1993, the refinery began limited operation and the port reopened. By 1997, the refinery reached the same rate of production as before the war. Recently, Abadan has been the site of major labour activity as workers at the oil refineries in the city have staged walkouts and strikes to protest non-payment of wages and the political situation in the country.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To honor the 100th anniversary of the refining of oil in Abadan, city officials are planning an oil museum. The Abadan oil refinery was featured on the reverse side of Iran's 100-rial banknotes printed in 1965 and from 1971 to 1973. Abadan today has been declared as a free zone city. The healthy relationship between Iran and Iraq has become one of the transit cities connecting both countries through a 40-minute drive.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Recent events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The climate in Abadan is arid (Köppen climate classification BWh) and similar to Baghdad's, but slightly hotter due to Abadan's lower latitude. Summers are dry and extremely hot, with temperatures above almost daily and temperatures above can be almost common. Abadan is notably one of the few hottest populated places on earth and experiences a few sand and dust storms per year. Winters are mildly wet and spring-like, though subject to cold spells. Winter temperatures are around . The world's highest unconfirmed temperature was a temperature flare up during a heat burst in June 1967, with a temperature of . The lowest recorded temperature in the city range is . which was recorded on 20 January 1964 and 3 February 1967 while the highest is , recorded on 11 July 1951, 9 August 1981 and 5 August 2022.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 170350, 484254, 4492, 47551734, 2103026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 29 ], [ 31, 60 ], [ 81, 88 ], [ 491, 530 ], [ 567, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Abadan Institute of Technology was established in Abadan in 1939. The school specialized in engineering and petroleum chemistry, and was designed to train staff for the refinery in town. The school's name has since changed several times, but since 1989 has been considered a branch campus of the Petroleum University of Technology, centred in Tehran. Abadan University of Medical Sciences, It was founded by Ministry of Health and Medical Education in September 1941 as a Nursing Faculty and in 2012 it became an independent faculty of medical school. Program study of this school is similar to curriculum that applies most Iranian medical faculties.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [ 5180, 13025600, 57654, 53020094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 131 ], [ 301, 335 ], [ 348, 354 ], [ 356, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abadan was chosen for constructing a refinery because of its strategic position and proximity to other resources. The Abadan Refinery construction project started in 1909 and its operation began in 1962 by a production capacity of 2500 barrels per day.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [ 15220170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is an international airport in Abadan. It is represented by the IATA airport code ABD.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [ 8199565, 150179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 33 ], [ 71, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a large amount of external investment from East Asian countries that are building oil refineries and developing a lot of real estate.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Today, Abadan is known for its lively fish market where locals buy fresh catch of the day used in the many delicious seafood dishes of the city. Abadan is also part of the Arvand Free Zone, a 155 square kilometer industrial and security zone.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [ 5122234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abadan Oil Refining Co", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Abadan Petrochemical Company", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Iranol Oil Company", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pasargad Oil", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pars Opal Co", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "U-PVC Novin", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "KPC Karun", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Yekta Tahviyeh Arvand Co", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vina Naghsh Industrial Group", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tam Arvand Machine", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Afra Arvand", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Homa Chemistry", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Shirin Diar Arvand Co", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Petroleum University of Technology", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [ 13025600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abadan University of Medical Sciences", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [ 53020094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Islamic Azad University of Abadan", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "MehrArvand University", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "PNU of Abadan", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Economics and Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bahmanshir Bridge at Istgah-e Haft", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 56124185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Imam Reza Cable Bridge", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rangooniha Mosque", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 61343696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abadan Museum", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Historical and Handwritten Documents Museum", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abadan Gasoline House Museum", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Oil Museum of Abadan", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " St. Karapet Armenian Church", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [ 70156767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cinema Naft", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shirin Movie Theater", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Main sights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nasser Taghvai - Director", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4757222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amir Naderi - Director", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4757944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ahmad Reza Abedzadeh - Football player", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 2434650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Najaf Daryabandari - Writer", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 37608203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hamid Farrokhnezhad - Actor", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 25708355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bahman Golbarnezhad - Paralympic racing cyclist", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 51637390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abie Nathan - Peace activist", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 10928111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gholam Hossein Mazloumi - Football coach", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 7646203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Firoozeh Dumas - Writer", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 9903754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zoya Pirzad - Writer", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 8790914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Martik - Singer", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 52095686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Parviz Dehdari - Football coach", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 18096054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cyma Zarghami - TV producer", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 20281750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Patrik Baboumian - Strongman", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 14281886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bizhan Emkanian - Actor", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4757519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hossein Vafaei - Snooker player", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 33962749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mehdi Hasheminasab - Football player", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 6710821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Manouchehr Mohammadi - Film producer", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 4757963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nasrollah Radesh - Actor", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sussan Babaie - Art", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 54778813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hossein Nassim - Water polo coach", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 37064188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mohsen Bayatinia - Football player", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 12204613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hossein Kanaanizadegan - Football player", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 36056678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mojahed Khaziravi - Football player", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 5242549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abdolhassan Kazemi - Retired football player", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 32643273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Parviz Mazloumi - Football coach", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 13875875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Farhad Hasanzadeh - Poet", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 55538454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hamid Rashidi - Lawyer", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [ 39990457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Siroos Moghaddam - Director", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Yadolah Dodge - Professor", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Notable people", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The city is served by Abadan-Ayatollah Jami International Airport with flights on various commercial airlines.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 8199565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nearest railway station is in Khorramshahr, about 10km north of Abadan. Daytime trains from Ahvaz as well as overnight trains from Tehran and Mashhad are available.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 464970, 599079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ], [ 92, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sanat Naft Abadan F.C., is one of the Iranian football clubs that is currently competing with other teams in the Iranian Football Premier League.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 32078099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Takhti Stadium, the main stadium is the city and the team.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sport", "target_page_ids": [ 4560625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Karamay, China", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 1085629, 5405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 9 ], [ 11, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Borujerd, Iran", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 1968927, 14653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 10 ], [ 12, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abadan Crisis", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1159294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abadan crisis timeline", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16901644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Battle of Abadan", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10661591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bechari House", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47381925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bostan", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23633078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Iran–Iraq War", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Khorramshahr", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 464970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Shadegan", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1851412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Susangerd", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10833670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tidal irrigation at Abadan island, Iran", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24705863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amateur Astronomers Association of Abadan", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abadan Oil Refinery – Home page (Persian only)", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abadan Photo Gallery from the Khuzestan Governorship", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abadan's travel review", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Petroleum University of Technology (Abadan)", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abadan Social Network", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Abadan Network", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " VISTA Internet Cafe", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Abadan,_Iran", "Cities_in_Khuzestan_Province", "Populated_places_in_Abadan_County", "Shatt_al-Arab_basin" ]

[ "Ābadān" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Attorney may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Attorney at law, an official title of lawyers in some jurisdictions", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Roles", "target_page_ids": [ 21900706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attorney general, the principal legal officer of (or advisor to) a government", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Roles", "target_page_ids": [ 54376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attorney-in-fact, a holder of a power of attorney who is (though not necessarily a lawyer) able to act on another's behalf in legal and financial contexts", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Roles", "target_page_ids": [ 166138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lawyer, a synonym for attorney", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Roles", "target_page_ids": [ 17541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attorney, the name of some plants in the genus Clusia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2252457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attorney's fee, compensation for legal services performed by an attorney (lawyer or law firm) for a client", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2437392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attorney–client privilege, or lawyer–client privilege, a \"client's right to refuse to disclose and to prevent any other person from disclosing confidential communications between the client and the attorney\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 326572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Attorney, a 2013 South Korean film", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 41478115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Sir Alexander Fleming (6 August 1881 – 11 March 1955) was a Scottish physician and microbiologist, best known for discovering the world's first broadly effective antibiotic substance, which he named penicillin. His discovery in 1928 of what was later named benzylpenicillin (or penicillin G) from the mould Penicillium rubens is described as the \"single greatest victory ever achieved over disease.\" For this discovery, he shared the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1945 with Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 539355, 1805, 23312, 17814577, 36414604, 52502, 40494, 740289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 98 ], [ 163, 173 ], [ 200, 210 ], [ 258, 274 ], [ 308, 326 ], [ 435, 472 ], [ 486, 499 ], [ 504, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He also discovered the enzyme lysozyme from his nasal discharge in 1922, and along with it a bacterium he named Micrococcus Lysodeikticus, later renamed Micrococcus luteus.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9257, 541957, 1972453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 29 ], [ 30, 38 ], [ 153, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fleming was knighted for his scientific achievements in 1944. In 1999, he was named in Time magazine's list of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th century. In 2002, he was chosen in the BBC's television poll for determining the 100 Greatest Britons, and in 2009, he was also voted third \"greatest Scot\" in an opinion poll conducted by STV, behind only Robert Burns and William Wallace.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39617, 31600, 200958, 9376574, 21222213, 33832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 20 ], [ 87, 91 ], [ 234, 254 ], [ 341, 344 ], [ 358, 370 ], [ 375, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Born on 6 August 1881 at Lochfield farm near Darvel, in Ayrshire, Scotland, Alexander Fleming was the third of four children of farmer Hugh Fleming (1816–1888) and Grace Stirling Morton (1848–1928), the daughter of a neighbouring farmer. Hugh Fleming had four surviving children from his first marriage. He was 59 at the time of his second marriage to Grace, and died when Alexander was seven.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 1701844, 68208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 51 ], [ 56, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fleming went to Loudoun Moor School and Darvel School, and earned a two-year scholarship to Kilmarnock Academy before moving to London, where he attended the Royal Polytechnic Institution. After working in a shipping office for four years, the twenty-year-old Alexander Fleming inherited some money from an uncle, John Fleming. His elder brother, Tom, was already a physician and suggested to him that he should follow the same career, and so in 1903, the younger Alexander enrolled at St Mary's Hospital Medical School in Paddington; he qualified with an MBBS degree from the school with distinction in 1906.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 450836, 4747978, 6179123, 14903854, 94211, 910147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 23 ], [ 92, 110 ], [ 158, 187 ], [ 486, 519 ], [ 523, 533 ], [ 556, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fleming, who was a private in the London Scottish Regiment of the Volunteer Force from 1900 to 1914, had been a member of the rifle club at the medical school. The captain of the club, wishing to retain Fleming in the team, suggested that he join the research department at St Mary's, where he became assistant bacteriologist to Sir Almroth Wright, a pioneer in vaccine therapy and immunology. In 1908, he gained a BSc degree with gold medal in Bacteriology, and became a lecturer at St Mary's until 1914.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 24795, 1825163, 11698500, 1437618, 32653, 21068988, 58475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 26 ], [ 34, 58 ], [ 66, 81 ], [ 333, 347 ], [ 362, 369 ], [ 415, 418 ], [ 445, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commissioned lieutenant in 1914 and promoted captain in 1917, Fleming served throughout World War I in the Royal Army Medical Corps, and was Mentioned in Dispatches. He and many of his colleagues worked in battlefield hospitals at the Western Front in France. In 1918 he returned to St Mary's Hospital, where he was elected Professor of Bacteriology of the University of London in 1928. In 1951 he was elected the Rector of the University of Edinburgh for a term of three years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early life and education", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 1182289, 841947, 51499, 1142128, 60919, 23592200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 99 ], [ 107, 131 ], [ 141, 164 ], [ 235, 248 ], [ 283, 301 ], [ 357, 377 ], [ 428, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During World War I, Fleming with Leonard Colebrook and Sir Almroth Wright joined the war efforts and practically moved the entire Inoculation Department of St Mary's to the British military hospital at Boulogne-sur-Mer. Serving as Temporary Lieutenant of the Royal Army Medical Corps, he witnessed the death of many soldiers from sepsis resulting from infected wounds. Antiseptics, which were used at the time to treat infected wounds, he observed, often worsened the injuries. In an article published in the medical journal The Lancet in 1917, he described an ingenious experiment, which he was able to conduct as a result of his own glass blowing skills, in which he explained why antiseptics were killing more soldiers than infection itself during the war. Antiseptics worked well on the surface, but deep wounds tended to shelter anaerobic bacteria from the antiseptic agent, and antiseptics seemed to remove beneficial agents produced that protected the patients in these cases at least as well as they removed bacteria, and did nothing to remove the bacteria that were out of reach. Wright strongly supported Fleming's findings, but despite this, most army physicians over the course of the war continued to use antiseptics even in cases where this worsened the condition of the patients.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 17606420, 128242, 158400, 338154, 65555, 463899, 92640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 50 ], [ 202, 218 ], [ 330, 336 ], [ 361, 366 ], [ 369, 379 ], [ 525, 535 ], [ 834, 852 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At St Mary's Hospital, Fleming continued his investigations into bacteria culture and antibacterial substances. As his research scholar at the time V.D. Allison recalled, Fleming was not a tidy researcher and usually expected unusual bacterial growths in his culture plates. Fleming had teased Allison of his \"excessive tidiness in the laboratory,\" and Allison rightly attributed such untidiness as the success of Fleming's experiments, and said, \"[If] he had been as tidy as he thought I was, he would not have made his two great discoveries.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1921, while he was maintaining agar plates for bacteria, he found that one of the plates was contaminated with bacteria from the air. When he added nasal mucus, he found that the mucus inhibited the bacterial growth. Surrounding the mucus area was a clear transparent circle (1cm from the mucus), indicating the killing zone of bacteria, followed by a glassy and translucent ring beyond which was an opaque area indicating normal bacterial growth. In the next test, he used bacteria maintained in saline that formed a yellow suspension. Within two minutes of adding fresh mucus, the yellow saline turned completely clear. He extended his tests using tears, which were contributed by his co-workers. As Allison reminisced, saying, \"For the next five or six weeks, our tears were the source of supply for this extraordinary phenomenon. Many were the lemons we used (after the failure of onions) to produce a flow of tears... The demand by us for tears was so great, that laboratory attendants were pressed into service, receiving threepence for each contribution.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 254713, 6677141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ], [ 324, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His further tests with sputum, cartilage, blood, semen, ovarian cyst fluid, pus, and egg white showed that the bactericidal agent was present in all of these. He reported his discovery before the Medical Research Club in December and before the Royal Society the next year but failed to stir any interest, as Allison recollected:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 496064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "I was present at this [Medical Research Club] meeting as Fleming's guest. His paper describing his discovery was received with no questions asked and no discussion, which was most unusual and an indication that it was considered to be of no importance. The following year he read a paper on the subject before the Royal Society, Burlington House, Piccadilly and he and I gave a demonstration of our work. Again with one exception little comment or attention was paid to it.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Reporting in the 1 May 1922 issue of the Biological Sciences under the title \"On a remarkable bacteriolytic element found in tissues and secretions,\" Fleming wrote:In this communication I wish to draw attention to a substance present in the tissues and secretions of the body, which is capable of rapidly dissolving certain bacteria. As this substance has properties akin to those of ferments I have called it a \"Lysozyme,\" and shall refer to it by this name throughout the communication. The lysozyme was first noticed during some investigations made on a patient suffering from acute coryza.This was the first recorded discovery of lysozyme. With Allison, he published further studies on lysozyme in October issue of the British Journal of Experimental Pathology the same year. Although he was able to obtain larger amounts of lysozyme from egg whites, the enzyme was only effective against small counts of harmless bacteria, and therefore had little therapeutic potential. This indicates one of the major differences between pathogenic and harmless bacteria.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 541957, 533143, 15464966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 414, 422 ], [ 581, 593 ], [ 1029, 1039 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Described in the original publication, \"a patient suffering from acute coryza\" was later identified as Fleming himself. His research notebook dated 21 November 1921 showed a sketch of the culture plate with a small note: “Staphyloid coccus from A.F.'s nose.\" He also identified the bacterium present in the nasal mucus as Micrococcus Lysodeikticus, giving the species name (meaning \"lysis indicator\" for its susceptibility to lysozymal activity). The species was reassigned as Micrococcus luteus in 1972. The \"Fleming strain\" (NCTC2665) of this bacterium has become a model in different biological studies. The importance of lysozyme was not recognised, and Fleming was well aware of this, in his presidential address at the Royal Society of Medicine meeting on 18 October 1932, he said:I choose lysozyme as the subject for this address for two reasons, firstly because I have a fatherly interest in the name, and, secondly, because its importance in connection with natural immunity does not seem to be generally appreciated. In his Nobel lecture on 11 December 1945 he briefly mentioned lysozyme, saying, \"Penicillin was not the first antibiotic I happened to discover.\" It was only towards the end of the 20th century that the true importance of Fleming's discovery in immunology was realised as lysozyme became the first antimicrobial protein discovered that constitute part of our innate immunity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 1972453, 1914245, 2065768, 3113497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 477, 495 ], [ 725, 750 ], [ 1325, 1346 ], [ 1386, 1401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1927, Fleming had been investigating the properties of staphylococci. He was already well known from his earlier work, and had developed a reputation as a brilliant researcher. In 1928, he studied the variation of Staphylococcus aureus grown under natural condition, after the work of Joseph Warwick Bigger, who discovered that the bacterium could grow into a variety of types (strains). On 3 September 1928, Fleming returned to his laboratory having spent a holiday with his family at Suffolk. Before leaving for his holiday, he inoculated staphylococci on culture plates and left them on a bench in a corner of his laboratory. On his return, Fleming noticed that one culture was contaminated with a fungus, and that the colonies of staphylococci immediately surrounding the fungus had been destroyed, whereas other staphylococci colonies farther away were normal, famously remarking \"That's funny\". Fleming showed the contaminated culture to his former assistant Merlin Pryce, who reminded him, \"That's how you discovered lysozyme.\" He identified the mould as being from the genus Penicillium. He suspected it to be P. chrysogenum, but a colleague Charles J. La Touche identified it as P. rubrum. (It was later corrected as P. notatum and then officially accepted as P. chrysogenum; but finally in 2011, it was resolved as P. rubens.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 23173149, 118212, 162264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 71 ], [ 217, 238 ], [ 1087, 1098 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The laboratory in which Fleming discovered and tested penicillin is preserved as the Alexander Fleming Laboratory Museum in St. Mary's Hospital, Paddington. The source of the fungal contaminant was established in 1966 as coming from La Touche's room, which was directly below Fleming's.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 1142128, 94211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 120 ], [ 145, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fleming grew the mould in a pure culture and found that the culture broth contained an antibacterial substance. He investigated its anti-bacterial effect on many organisms, and noticed that it affected bacteria such as staphylococci and many other Gram-positive pathogens that cause scarlet fever, pneumonia, meningitis and diphtheria, but not typhoid fever or paratyphoid fever, which are caused by Gram-negative bacteria, for which he was seeking a cure at the time. It also affected Neisseria gonorrhoeae, which causes gonorrhoea, although this bacterium is Gram-negative. After some months of calling it \"mould juice\" or \"the inhibitor\", he gave the name penicillin on 7 March 1929 for the antibacterial substance present in the mould.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 12936, 92396, 52135, 21009963, 58937, 31596, 4102337, 12937, 61837, 18006737, 23312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 261 ], [ 283, 296 ], [ 298, 307 ], [ 309, 319 ], [ 324, 334 ], [ 344, 357 ], [ 361, 378 ], [ 400, 413 ], [ 486, 507 ], [ 522, 532 ], [ 659, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fleming presented his discovery on 13 February 1929 before the Medical Research Club. His talk on \"A medium for the isolation of Pfeiffer's bacillus\" did not receive any particular attention or comment. Henry Dale, the then Director of National Institute for Medical Research and chair of the meeting, much later reminisced that he did not even sense any striking point of importance in Fleming's speech. Fleming published his discovery in 1929 in the British Journal of Experimental Pathology, but little attention was paid to the article. His problem was the difficulty of producing penicillin in large amounts, and moreover, isolation of the main compound. Even with the help of Harold Raistrick and his team of biochemists at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, chemical purification was futile. \"As a result, penicillin languished largely forgotten in the 1930s,\" as Milton Wainwright described.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 929532, 2314361, 531365, 40701582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 148 ], [ 236, 275 ], [ 734, 780 ], [ 888, 905 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As late as in 1936, there was no appreciation for penicillin. When Fleming talked of its medical importance at the Second International Congress of Microbiology held in London, no one believed him. As Allison, his companion in both the Medical Research Club and international congress meeting, remarked the two occasions:[Fleming at the Medical Research Club meeting] suggested the possible value of penicillin for the treatment of infection in man. Again there was a total lack of interest and no discussion. Fleming was keenly disappointed, but worse was to follow. He read a paper on his work on penicillin at a meeting of the International Congress of Microbiology, attended by the foremost bacteriologists from all over the world. There was no support for his views on its possible future value for the prevention and treatment of human infections and discussion was minimal. Fleming bore these disappointments stoically, but they did not alter his views or deter him from continuing his investigation of penicillin.In 1941, the British Medical Journal reported that \"[Penicillin] does not appear to have been considered as possibly useful from any other point of view.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 541927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1034, 1057 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Oxford, Ernst Boris Chain and Edward Abraham were studying the molecular structure of the antibiotic. Abraham was the first to propose the correct structure of penicillin. Shortly after the team published its first results in 1940, Fleming telephoned Howard Florey, Chain's head of department, to say that he would be visiting within the next few days. When Chain heard that Fleming was coming, he remarked \"Good God! I thought he was dead.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 740289, 918984, 40494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ], [ 33, 47 ], [ 254, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Norman Heatley suggested transferring the active ingredient of penicillin back into water by changing its acidity. This produced enough of the drug to begin testing on animals. There were many more people involved in the Oxford team, and at one point the entire Sir William Dunn School of Pathology was involved in its production. After the team had developed a method of purifying penicillin to an effective first stable form in 1940, several clinical trials ensued, and their amazing success inspired the team to develop methods for mass production and mass distribution in 1945.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 587780, 16896725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 262, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fleming was modest about his part in the development of penicillin, describing his fame as the \"Fleming Myth\" and he praised Florey and Chain for transforming the laboratory curiosity into a practical drug. Fleming was the first to discover the properties of the active substance, giving him the privilege of naming it: penicillin. He also kept, grew, and distributed the original mould for twelve years, and continued until 1940 to try to get help from any chemist who had enough skill to make penicillin. But Sir Henry Harris said in 1998: \"Without Fleming, no Chain; without Chain, no Florey; without Florey, no Heatley; without Heatley, no penicillin.\" The discovery of penicillin and its subsequent development as a prescription drug mark the start of modern antibiotics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 3073517, 1805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 515, 527 ], [ 764, 775 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his first clinical trial, Fleming treated his research scholar Stuart Craddock who had developed severe infection of the nasal antrum (sinusitis). The treatment started on 9 January 1929 but without any effect. It probably was due to the fact that the infection was with influenza bacillus (Haemophilus influenzae), the bacterium which he had found unsusceptible to penicillin. Fleming gave some of his original penicillin samples to his colleague-surgeon Arthur Dickson Wright for clinical test in 1928. Although Wright reportedly said that it \"seemed to work satisfactorily,\" there are no records of its specific use. Cecil George Paine, a pathologist at the Royal Infirmary in Sheffield and former student of Fleming, was the first to use penicillin successfully for medical treatment. He cured eye infections (conjunctivitis) of one adult and three infants (neonatal conjunctivitis) on 25 November 1930.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 452672, 28598, 5038206, 44410, 3910832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 136 ], [ 138, 147 ], [ 664, 692 ], [ 817, 831 ], [ 865, 888 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fleming also successfully treated severe conjunctivitis in 1932. Keith Bernard Rogers, who had joined St Mary's as medical student in 1929, was captain of the London University rifle team and was about to participate in inter-hospital rifle shooting competition when he developed conjunctivitis. Fleming applied his penicillin and cured Rogers before the competition. It is said that the \"penicillin worked and the match was won.\" However, the report that \"Keith was probably the first patient to be treated clinically with penicillin ointment\" is no longer true as Paine's medical records showed up.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is a popular assertion both in popular and scientific literature that Fleming largely abandoned penicillin work in the early 1930s. In his review of André Maurois's The Life of Sir Alexander Fleming, Discoverer of Penicillin, William L. Kissick went so far as to say that \"Fleming had abandoned penicillin in 1932... Although the recipient of many honors and the author of much scientific work, Sir Alexander Fleming does not appear to be an ideal subject for a biography.\" This is a false, as Fleming continued to pursue penicillin research. As late as in 1939, Fleming's notebook shows attempts to make better penicillin production using different media. In 1941, he published a method for assessment of penicillin effectiveness. As to the chemical isolation and purification, Howard Florey and Ernst Boris Chain at the Radcliffe Infirmary in Oxford took up the research to mass-produce it, which they achieved with support from World War II military projects under the British and US governments.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 1406209, 40494, 740289, 5815135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 168 ], [ 785, 798 ], [ 803, 820 ], [ 828, 847 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By mid-1942, the Oxford team produced the pure penicillin compound as yellow powder. In August 1942, Harry Lambert (an associate of Fleming's brother Robert) was admitted to St Mary's Hospital due to life-threatening infection of the nervous system (streptococcal meningitis). Fleming treated him with sulphonamides, but Lambert's condition deteriorated. He tested the antibiotic susceptibility and found that his penicillin could kill the bacteria. He requested Florey for the isolated sample. When Florey sent the incompletely purified sample, which Fleming immediately administered into Lambert's spinal canal. Lambert showed signs of improvement the very next day, and completely recovered within a week. Fleming published the clinical case in The Lancet in 1943.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 21009963, 42797118, 824448, 463899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 274 ], [ 302, 315 ], [ 600, 612 ], [ 748, 758 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon this medical breakthrough, Allison informed the British Ministry of Health of the importance of penicillin and the need for mass production. The War Cabinet was convinced of the usefulness upon which Sir Cecil Weir, Director General of Equipment, called for a meeting on the mode of action on 28 September 1942. The Penicillin Committee was created on 5 April 1943. The committee consisted of Weir as chairman, Fleming, Florey, Sir Percival Hartley, Allison and representatives from pharmaceutical companies as members. The main goals were to produce penicillin rapidly in large quantities with collaboration of American companies, and to supply the drug exclusively for Allied armed forces. By D-Day in 1944, enough penicillin had been produced to treat all the wounded of the Allied troops.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 373579, 594796, 21890267, 39175041, 2198844, 252854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 79 ], [ 150, 161 ], [ 209, 219 ], [ 437, 453 ], [ 676, 695 ], [ 700, 705 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fleming also discovered very early that bacteria developed antibiotic resistance whenever too little penicillin was used or when it was used for too short a period. Almroth Wright had predicted antibiotic resistance even before it was noticed during experiments. Fleming cautioned about the use of penicillin in his many speeches around the world. On 26 June 1945, he made the following cautionary statements: \"the microbes are educated to resist penicillin and a host of penicillin-fast organisms is bred out... In such cases the thoughtless person playing with penicillin is morally responsible for the death of the man who finally succumbs to infection with the penicillin-resistant organism. I hope this evil can be averted.\" He cautioned not to use penicillin unless there was a properly diagnosed reason for it to be used, and that if it were used, never to use too little, or for too short a period, since these are the circumstances under which bacterial resistance to antibiotics develops.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [ 1914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It had been experimentally shown in 1942 that S. aureus could develop penicillin resistance under prolonged exposure. Elaborating the possibility of penicillin resistance in clinical conditions in his Nobel Lecture, Fleming said:The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily underdose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.It was around that time that the first clinical case of penicillin resistance was reported.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Scientific contributions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 24 December 1915, Fleming married a trained nurse, Sarah Marion McElroy of Killala, County Mayo, Ireland. Their only child, Robert Fleming (1924–2015), became a general medical practitioner. After his first wife's death in 1949, Fleming married Amalia Koutsouri-Vourekas, a Greek colleague at St. Mary's, on 9 April 1953; she died in 1986.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 1019597, 197817, 16053194, 42056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 85 ], [ 164, 192 ], [ 248, 273 ], [ 277, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fleming came from a Presbyterian background, while his first wife Sarah was a (lapsed) Roman Catholic. It is said that he was not particularly religious, and their son Robert was later received into the Anglican church, while still reportedly inheriting his two parents' fairly irreligious disposition.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 24403, 1214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 32 ], [ 203, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Fleming learned of Robert D. Coghill and Andrew J. Moyer patenting the method of penicillin production in US in 1944, he was furious, and commented:I found penicillin and have given it free for the benefit of humanity. Why should it become a profit-making monopoly of manufacturers in another country?From 1921 until his death in 1955, Fleming owned a country home named \"The Dhoon\" in Barton Mills, Suffolk.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 3221682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 391, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 11 March 1955, Fleming died at his home in London of a heart attack. His ashes are buried in St Paul's Cathedral.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 102198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fleming's discovery of penicillin changed the world of modern medicine by introducing the age of useful antibiotics; penicillin has saved, and is still saving, millions of people around the world.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The laboratory at St Mary's Hospital where Fleming discovered penicillin is home to the Fleming Museum, a popular London attraction. His alma mater, St Mary's Hospital Medical School, merged with Imperial College London in 1988. The Sir Alexander Fleming Building on the South Kensington campus was opened in 1998, where his son Robert and his great granddaughter Claire were presented to the Queen; it is now one of the main preclinical teaching sites of the Imperial College School of Medicine.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1142128, 14903854, 61116, 542549, 2244729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 102 ], [ 149, 182 ], [ 196, 219 ], [ 271, 287 ], [ 460, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His other alma mater, the Royal Polytechnic Institution (now the University of Westminster) has named one of its student halls of residence Alexander Fleming House, which is near to Old Street.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Awards and legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 6179123, 234212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 90 ], [ 182, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1942, penicillin, produced as pure compound, was still in short supply and not available for clinical use. When Fleming used the first few samples prepared by the Oxford team to treat Harry Lambert who had streptococcal meningitis, the successful treatment was a major news, particularly popularised in The Times. Wright was surprised to discover that Fleming and the Oxford team were not mentioned, though Oxford was attributed as the source of the drug. Wright wrote to the editor of The Times, which eagerly interviewed Fleming, but Florey prohibited the Oxford team from seeking media coverage. As a consequence, only Fleming was widely publicised in the media, which led to the misconception that he was entirely responsible for the discovery and development of the drug. Fleming himself referred to this incident as \"the Fleming myth.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Myths", "target_page_ids": [ 39127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 306, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The popular story of Winston Churchill's father paying for Fleming's education after Fleming's father saved young Winston from death is false. According to the biography, Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution by Kevin Brown, Alexander Fleming, in a letter to his friend and colleague Andre Gratia, described this as \"A wondrous fable.\" Nor did he save Winston Churchill himself during World War II. Churchill was saved by Lord Moran, using sulphonamides, since he had no experience with penicillin, when Churchill fell ill in Carthage in Tunisia in 1943. The Daily Telegraph and The Morning Post on 21 December 1943 wrote that he had been saved by penicillin. He was saved by the new sulphonamide drug Sulphapyridine, known at the time under the research code M&B 693, discovered and produced by May & Baker Ltd, Dagenham, Essex – a subsidiary of the French group Rhône-Poulenc. In a subsequent radio broadcast, Churchill referred to the new drug as \"This admirable M&B\". It is highly probable that the correct information about the sulphonamide did not reach the newspapers because, since the original sulphonamide antibacterial, Prontosil, had been a discovery by the German laboratory Bayer, and as Britain was at war with Germany at the time, it was thought better to raise British morale by associating Churchill's cure with a British discovery, penicillin.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Myths", "target_page_ids": [ 309513, 33265, 11647620, 32927, 4126534, 499685, 6555, 23797577, 1266215, 12965750, 20860110, 143776, 7698810, 499685, 2153700, 23748305, 21212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 47 ], [ 114, 121 ], [ 238, 249 ], [ 411, 423 ], [ 448, 458 ], [ 466, 479 ], [ 552, 560 ], [ 581, 600 ], [ 605, 621 ], [ 728, 742 ], [ 822, 833 ], [ 839, 847 ], [ 890, 903 ], [ 1059, 1071 ], [ 1157, 1166 ], [ 1214, 1219 ], [ 1252, 1259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " People on Scottish banknotes", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10137505 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Life Of Sir Alexander Fleming, Jonathan Cape, 1959. Maurois, André.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Nobel Lectures, the Physiology or Medicine 1942–1962, Elsevier Publishing Company, Amsterdam, 1964", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An Outline History of Medicine. London: Butterworths, 1985. Rhodes, Philip.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Cambridge Illustrated History of Medicine. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press, 1996. Porter, Roy, ed.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Penicillin Man: Alexander Fleming and the Antibiotic Revolution, Stroud, Sutton, 2004. Brown, Kevin.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Fleming: The Man and the Myth, Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1984. Macfarlane, Gwyn", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 18324702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fleming, Discoverer of Penicillin, Ludovici, Laurence J., 1952", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Penicillin Man: the Story of Sir Alexander Fleming, Lutterworth Press, 1957, Rowland, John.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander Fleming Obituary", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " including the Nobel Lecture, 11 December 1945 Penicillin", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Some places and memories related to Alexander Fleming", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1881_births", "1955_deaths", "Scottish_military_personnel", "People_from_East_Ayrshire", "People_educated_at_Kilmarnock_Academy", "20th-century_biologists", "British_Army_personnel_of_World_War_I", "Alumni_of_Imperial_College_London", "Alumni_of_the_University_of_Westminster", "Academics_of_Imperial_College_London", "Academics_of_the_University_of_London", "Burials_at_St_Paul's_Cathedral", "Honorary_Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh", "Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society", "Fellows_of_the_Royal_College_of_Physicians_of_Edinburgh", "Fellows_of_the_Royal_College_of_Physicians", "Fellows_of_the_Royal_College_of_Surgeons", "Members_of_the_Pontifical_Academy_of_Sciences", "Knights_Bachelor", "Nobel_laureates_in_Physiology_or_Medicine", "Recipients_of_the_Civil_Order_of_Alfonso_X,_the_Wise", "Rectors_of_the_University_of_Edinburgh", "Royal_Army_Medical_Corps_officers", "Scottish_bacteriologists", "Scottish_biologists", "Scottish_inventors", "Scottish_knights", "20th-century_Scottish_medical_doctors", "Scottish_Freemasons", "Scottish_microbiologists", "Scottish_Nobel_laureates", "Scottish_pharmacologists", "London_Scottish_soldiers", "Scottish_surgeons", "Alumni_of_St_Mary's_Hospital_Medical_School", "People_from_Forest_Heath_(district)", "Physicians_of_Guy's_Hospital", "Physicians_of_St_Mary's_Hospital,_London" ]

[ "Sir Alexander Fleming" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Andrew Carnegie (, English approximation: ; November 25, 1835August 11, 1919) was a Scottish-American industrialist and philanthropist. Carnegie led the expansion of the American steel industry in the late 19th century and became one of the richest Americans in history. He became a leading philanthropist in the United States and in the British Empire. During the last 18 years of his life, he gave away around $350 million (roughly $billion in ), almost 90 percent of his fortune, to charities, foundations and universities. His 1889 article proclaiming \"The Gospel of Wealth\" called on the rich to use their wealth to improve society, expressed support for progressive taxation and an estate tax, and stimulated a wave of philanthropy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2413595, 416486, 220050, 47511069, 24968372, 220050, 3434750, 4721, 463198, 301892, 5824627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 102 ], [ 103, 116 ], [ 121, 135 ], [ 171, 194 ], [ 242, 259 ], [ 292, 306 ], [ 314, 327 ], [ 339, 353 ], [ 558, 578 ], [ 661, 676 ], [ 689, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie was born in Dunfermline, Scotland, and emigrated to the United States with his parents in 1848 at age 12. Carnegie started work as a telegrapher, and by the 1860s had investments in railroads, railroad sleeping cars, bridges, and oil derricks. He accumulated further wealth as a bond salesman, raising money for American enterprise in Europe. He built Pittsburgh's Carnegie Steel Company, which he sold to J. P. Morgan in 1901 for $303,450,000; it formed the basis of the U.S. Steel Corporation. After selling Carnegie Steel, he surpassed John D. Rockefeller as the richest American for the next several years.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 190470, 2533579, 1183070, 25101, 2516079, 181579, 315801, 186300 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 142, 153 ], [ 243, 251 ], [ 361, 373 ], [ 374, 396 ], [ 415, 427 ], [ 481, 503 ], [ 548, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie devoted the remainder of his life to large-scale philanthropy, with special emphasis on local libraries, world peace, education, and scientific research. With the fortune he made from business, he built Carnegie Hall in New York, NY, and the Peace Palace and founded the Carnegie Corporation of New York, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Carnegie Institution for Science, Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland, Carnegie Hero Fund, Carnegie Mellon University, and the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh, among others.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 497231, 169321, 490343, 1964018, 426077, 14383299, 5999187, 1620533, 48093, 1417203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 112 ], [ 212, 225 ], [ 251, 263 ], [ 280, 312 ], [ 314, 356 ], [ 358, 390 ], [ 392, 439 ], [ 441, 459 ], [ 461, 487 ], [ 497, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andrew Carnegie was born to Margaret Morrison Carnegie and William Carnegie in Dunfermline, Scotland, in a typical weaver's cottage with only one main room, consisting of half the ground floor, which was shared with the neighboring weaver's family. The main room served as a living room, dining room and bedroom. He was named after his paternal grandfather. In 1836, the family moved to a larger house in Edgar Street (opposite Reid's Park), following the demand for more heavy damask, from which his father benefited. He was educated at the Free School in Dunfermline, a gift to the town from the philanthropist Adam Rolland of Gask.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 190470, 1252036, 51269922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 90 ], [ 478, 484 ], [ 613, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie's maternal uncle, Scottish political leader George Lauder, Sr., deeply influenced him as a boy by introducing him to Robert Burns' writings and historical Scottish heroes such as Robert the Bruce, William Wallace, and Rob Roy. Lauder's son, also named George Lauder, grew up with Carnegie and became his business partner. When Carnegie was 12, his father had fallen on very hard times as a handloom weaver; making matters worse, the country was in starvation. His mother helped support the family by assisting her brother and by selling potted meats at her \"sweetie shop\", leaving her as the primary breadwinner. Struggling to make ends meet, the Carnegies then decided to borrow money from George Lauder, Sr. and move to Allegheny, Pennsylvania, in the United States in 1848 for the prospect of a better life. Carnegie's migration to America would be his second journey outside Dunfermline – the first being an outing to Edinburgh to see Queen Victoria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 59180112, 21222213, 26582, 33832, 651768, 37934065, 992180, 9602, 47923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 71 ], [ 126, 138 ], [ 188, 204 ], [ 206, 221 ], [ 227, 234 ], [ 261, 274 ], [ 731, 754 ], [ 931, 940 ], [ 948, 962 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1848, Carnegie arrived with his family in Allegheny. Carnegie's father struggled to sell his product on his own. Eventually, the father and son both received job offers at the same Scottish-owned cotton mill, Anchor Cotton Mills. Carnegie's first job in 1848 was as a bobbin boy, changing spools of thread in a cotton mill 12 hours a day, 6 days a week in a Pittsburgh cotton factory. His starting wage was $1.20 per week ($ by inflation).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 369173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 281, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His father quit his position at the cotton mill soon after, returning to his loom and removing him as breadwinner once again. But Carnegie attracted the attention of John Hay, a Scottish manufacturer of bobbins, who offered him a job for $2.00 per week ($ by inflation). In his autobiography, Carnegie writes about the hardships he had to endure with this new job.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1849, Carnegie became a telegraph messenger boy in the Pittsburgh Office of the Ohio Telegraph Company, at $2.50 per week ($ by inflation) following the recommendation of his uncle. He was a hard worker and would memorize all of the locations of Pittsburgh's businesses and the faces of important men. He made many connections this way. He also paid close attention to his work and quickly learned to distinguish the different sounds the incoming telegraph signals produced. He developed the ability to translate signals by ear, without using the paper slip, and within a year was promoted to an operator. Carnegie's education and passion for reading were given a boost by Colonel James Anderson, who opened his personal library of 400 volumes to working boys each Saturday night. Carnegie was a consistent borrower and a \"self-made man\" in both his economic development and his intellectual and cultural development. He was so grateful to Colonel Anderson for the use of his library that he \"resolved, if ever wealth came to me, [to see to it] that other poor boys might receive opportunities similar to those for which we were indebted to the nobleman\". His capacity, his willingness for hard work, his perseverance and his alertness soon brought him opportunities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 25107030, 36045906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 677, 699 ], [ 827, 840 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Starting in 1853, when Carnegie was around 18 years old, Thomas A. Scott of the Pennsylvania Railroad Company employed him as a secretary/telegraph operator at a salary of $4.00 per week ($ by inflation). Carnegie accepted the job with the railroad as he saw more prospects for career growth and experience there than with the telegraph company. At age 24, Scott asked Carnegie if he could handle being superintendent of the Western Division of the Pennsylvania Railroad. On December 1, 1859, Carnegie officially became superintendent of the Western Division. Carnegie then hired his sixteen-year-old brother, Tom, to be his personal secretary and telegraph operator. Not only did Carnegie hire his brother, but he also hired his cousin, Maria Hogan, who became the first female telegraph operator in the country. As superintendent Carnegie made a salary of fifteen hundred dollars a year ($ by inflation). His employment by the Pennsylvania Railroad Company would be vital to his later success. The railroads were the first big businesses in America, and the Pennsylvania was one of the largest of them all. Carnegie learned much about management and cost control during these years, and from Scott in particular.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 2922441, 320965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 72 ], [ 80, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scott also helped him with his first investments. Many of these were part of the corruption indulged in by Scott and the president of Pennsylvania Railroad, John Edgar Thomson, which consisted of inside trading in companies that the railroad did business with, or payoffs made by contracting parties \"as part of a quid pro quo\". In 1855, Scott made it possible for Carnegie to invest $500 in the Adams Express, which contracted with the Pennsylvania to carry its messengers. The money was secured by his mother's placing of a $600 mortgage on the family's $700 home, but the opportunity was available only because of Carnegie's close relationship with Scott. A few years later, he received a few shares in Theodore Tuttle Woodruff's sleeping car company, as a reward for holding shares that Woodruff had given to Scott and Thomson, as a payoff. Reinvesting his returns in such inside investments in railroad-related industries: (iron, bridges, and rails), Carnegie slowly accumulated capital, the basis for his later success. Throughout his later career, he made use of his close connections to Thomson and Scott, as he established businesses that supplied rails and bridges to the railroad, offering the two men a stake in his enterprises.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 320965, 1422800, 174355, 4405764, 47126511, 321365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 155 ], [ 157, 175 ], [ 314, 326 ], [ 396, 409 ], [ 706, 730 ], [ 948, 953 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the Civil War, Carnegie arranged a merger between Woodruff's company and that of George Pullman, the inventor of the sleeping car for first class travel, which facilitated business travel at distances over . The investment proved a success and a source of profit for Woodruff and Carnegie. The young Carnegie continued to work for the Pennsylvania's Tom Scott, and introduced several improvements in the service.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 43808, 10573494, 254759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 102 ], [ 120, 136 ], [ 141, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In spring 1861, Carnegie was appointed by Scott, who was now Assistant Secretary of War in charge of military transportation, as Superintendent of the Military Railways and the Union Government's telegraph lines in the East. Carnegie helped open the rail lines into Washington D.C. that the rebels had cut; he rode the locomotive pulling the first brigade of Union troops to reach Washington D.C. Following the defeat of Union forces at Bull Run, he personally supervised the transportation of the defeated forces. Under his organization, the telegraph service rendered efficient service to the Union cause and significantly assisted in the eventual victory. Carnegie later joked that he was \"the first casualty of the war\" when he gained a scar on his cheek from freeing a trapped telegraph wire.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 228867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 437, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The defeat of the Confederacy required vast supplies of munitions, as well as railroads (and telegraph lines) to deliver the goods. The war demonstrated how integral the industries were to American success.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 18940621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1864, Carnegie was one of the early investors in the Columbia Oil Company in Venango County, Pennsylvania. In one year, the farm yielded over $1,000,000 in cash dividends, and petroleum from oil wells on the property sold profitably. The demand for iron products, such as armor for gunboats, cannons, and shells, as well as a hundred other industrial products, made Pittsburgh a center of wartime production. Carnegie worked with others in establishing a steel rolling mill, and steel production and control of industry became the source of his fortune. Carnegie had some investments in the iron industry before the war.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 91924, 3183196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 108 ], [ 464, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the war, Carnegie left the railroads to devote his energies to the ironworks trade. Carnegie worked to develop several ironworks, eventually forming the Keystone Bridge Works and the Union Ironworks, in Pittsburgh. Although he had left the Pennsylvania Railroad Company, he remained connected to its management, namely Thomas A. Scott and J. Edgar Thomson. He used his connection to the two men to acquire contracts for his Keystone Bridge Company and the rails produced by his ironworks. He also gave the stock to Scott and Thomson in his businesses, and the Pennsylvania was his best customer. When he built his first steel plant, he made a point of naming it after Thomson. As well as having good business sense, Carnegie possessed charm and literary knowledge. He was invited to many important social functions, which Carnegie exploited to his advantage.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 23628264, 1997191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 430, 453 ], [ 484, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie, through Keystone, supplied the steel for and owned shares in the landmark Eads Bridge project across the Mississippi River at St. Louis, Missouri (completed 1874). This project was an important proof-of-concept for steel technology, which marked the opening of a new steel market.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 592063, 19579, 27687, 19571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 95 ], [ 115, 132 ], [ 136, 145 ], [ 147, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie believed in using his fortune for others and doing more than making money. He wrote:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie made his fortune in the steel industry, controlling the most extensive integrated iron and steel operations ever owned by an individual in the United States. One of his two great innovations was in the cheap and efficient mass production of steel by adopting and adapting the Bessemer process, which allowed the high carbon content of pig iron to be burnt away in a controlled and rapid way during steel production. Steel prices dropped as a result, and Bessemer steel was rapidly adopted for rails; however, it was not suitable for buildings and bridges.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 40180, 53694, 189284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 285, 301 ], [ 344, 352 ], [ 407, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second was in his vertical integration of all suppliers of raw materials. In 1883, Carnegie bought the rival Homestead Steel Works, which included an extensive plant served by tributary coal and iron fields, a long railway, and a line of lake steamships. In the late 1880s, Carnegie Steel was the largest manufacturer of pig iron, steel rails, and coke in the world, with a capacity to produce approximately 2,000 tons of pig iron per day.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 206269, 3256990, 1515223, 53694, 85342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 42 ], [ 113, 134 ], [ 243, 258 ], [ 326, 334 ], [ 353, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1889, the U.S. output of steel exceeded that of the UK, and Carnegie owned a large part of it. Carnegie's empire grew to include the J. Edgar Thomson Steel Works in Braddock, (named for John Edgar Thomson, Carnegie's former boss and president of the Pennsylvania Railroad), Pittsburgh Bessemer Steel Works, the Lucy Furnaces, the Union Iron Mills, the Union Mill (Wilson, Walker & County), the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines. Carnegie combined his assets and those of his associates in 1892 with the launching of the Carnegie Steel Company.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 8291229, 131082, 1422800, 71525522, 2516079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 164 ], [ 168, 176 ], [ 189, 207 ], [ 314, 326 ], [ 587, 609 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie's success was also due to his convenient relationship with the railroad industries, which not only relied on steel for track, but were also making money from steel transport. The steel and railroad barons worked closely to negotiate prices instead of free-market competition determinations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Besides Carnegie's market manipulation, United States trade tariffs were also working in favor of the steel industry. Carnegie spent energy and resources lobbying congress for a continuation of favorable tariffs from which he earned millions of dollars a year. Carnegie tried to keep this information concealed, but legal documents released in 1900, during proceedings with the ex-chairman of Carnegie Steel, Henry Clay Frick, revealed how favorable the tariffs had been.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 425134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 409, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1901, Carnegie was 65 years of age and considering retirement. He reformed his enterprises into conventional joint stock corporations as preparation for this. John Pierpont Morgan was a banker and America's most important financial deal maker. He had observed how efficiently Carnegie produced profits. He envisioned an integrated steel industry that would cut costs, lower prices to consumers, produce in greater quantities and raise wages to workers. To this end, he needed to buy out Carnegie and several other major producers and integrate them into one company, thereby eliminating duplication and waste. He concluded negotiations on March 2, 1901, and formed the United States Steel Corporation. It was the first corporation in the world with a market capitalization of over $1 billion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 362024, 181579, 315801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 135 ], [ 162, 182 ], [ 672, 703 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The buyout, secretly negotiated by Charles M. Schwab (no relation to Charles R. Schwab), was the largest such industrial takeover in United States history to date. The holdings were incorporated in the United States Steel Corporation, a trust organized by Morgan, and Carnegie retired from business. His steel enterprises were bought out for $303,450,000.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 438701, 1319448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 52 ], [ 69, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie's share of this amounted to $225.64 million (in , $), which was paid to Carnegie in the form of 5%, 50-year gold bonds. The letter agreeing to sell his share was signed on February 26, 1901. On March 2, the circular formally filed the organization and capitalization (at $1.4 billion – 4 percent of the U.S. gross domestic product (GDP) at the time) of the United States Steel Corporation actually completed the contract. The bonds were to be delivered within two weeks to the Hudson Trust Company of Hoboken, New Jersey, in trust to Robert A. Franks, Carnegie's business secretary. There, a special vault was built to house the physical bulk of nearly $230 million worth of bonds.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 125235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 510, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie continued his business career; some of his literary intentions were fulfilled. He befriended the English poet Matthew Arnold, the English philosopher Herbert Spencer, and the American humorist Mark Twain, as well as being in correspondence and acquaintance with most of the U.S. Presidents, statesmen, and notable writers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 114057, 248859, 154450, 24113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 133 ], [ 159, 174 ], [ 202, 212 ], [ 283, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie constructed commodious swimming-baths for the people of his hometown in Dunfermline in 1879. In the following year, Carnegie gave £8,000 for the establishment of a Dunfermline Carnegie Library in Scotland. In 1884, he gave $50,000 to Bellevue Hospital Medical College (now part of New York University Medical Center) to found a histological laboratory, now called the Carnegie Laboratory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 190470, 51506581, 1617671, 19061352, 13570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 92 ], [ 173, 201 ], [ 243, 276 ], [ 290, 324 ], [ 337, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1881, Carnegie took his family, including his 70-year-old mother, on a trip to the United Kingdom. They toured Scotland by coach, and enjoyed several receptions en route. The highlight was a return to Dunfermline, where Carnegie's mother laid the foundation stone of a Carnegie Library which he funded. Carnegie's criticism of British society did not mean dislike; on the contrary, one of Carnegie's ambitions was to act as a catalyst for a close association between English-speaking peoples. To this end, in the early 1880s in partnership with Samuel Storey, he purchased numerous newspapers in England, all of which were to advocate the abolition of the monarchy and the establishment of \"the British Republic\". Carnegie's charm, aided by his wealth, afforded him many British friends, including Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 497231, 5914, 4848671, 33954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 288 ], [ 429, 437 ], [ 548, 561 ], [ 816, 839 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1886, Carnegie's younger brother Thomas died at age 43. While owning steel works, Carnegie had purchased at low cost the most valuable of the iron ore fields around Lake Superior. The same year Carnegie became a figure of controversy. Following his tour of the UK, he wrote about his experiences in a book entitled An American Four-in-hand in Britain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 17951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although actively involved in running his many businesses, Carnegie had become a regular contributor to numerous magazines, most notably The Nineteenth Century, under the editorship of James Knowles, and the influential North American Review, led by the editor Lloyd Bryce.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 303631, 250716, 11592987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 159 ], [ 185, 198 ], [ 261, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1886, Carnegie wrote his most radical work to date, entitled Triumphant Democracy. Liberal in its use of statistics to make its arguments, the book argued his view that the American republican system of government was superior to the British monarchical system. It gave a highly favorable and idealized view of American progress and criticized the British royal family. The cover depicted an upended royal crown and a broken scepter. The book created considerable controversy in the UK. The book made many Americans appreciate their country's economic progress and sold over 40,000 copies, mostly in the US.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 19013, 95353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 256 ], [ 409, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1889, Carnegie published \"Wealth\" in the June issue of the North American Review. After reading it, Gladstone requested its publication in England, where it appeared as \"The Gospel of Wealth\" in the Pall Mall Gazette. Carnegie argued that the life of a wealthy industrialist should comprise two parts. The first part was the gathering and the accumulation of wealth. The second part was for the subsequent distribution of this wealth to benevolent causes. Philanthropy was key to making life worthwhile.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 640843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie was a well-regarded writer. He published three books on travel.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the aftermath of the Spanish–American War, the United States seemed poised to annex Cuba, Guam, Puerto Rico and the Philippines. Carnegie strongly opposed the idea of American colonies. He opposed the annexation of the Philippines almost to the point of supporting William Jennings Bryan against McKinley in 1900. In 1898, Carnegie tried to arrange independence for the Philippines. As the conclusion of the Spanish–American War neared, the United States purchased the Philippines from Spain for $20 million. To counter what he perceived as American imperialism, Carnegie personally offered $20 million to the Philippines so that the Filipino people could purchase their independence from the United States. However, nothing came of the offer. In 1898 Carnegie joined the American Anti-Imperialist League, in opposition to the U.S. annexation of the Philippines. Its membership included former presidents of the United States Grover Cleveland and Benjamin Harrison and literary figures such as Mark Twain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 28265, 34348347, 11974, 23041, 30385148, 40608, 215140, 2298105, 919365, 12495, 7766419, 154450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 44 ], [ 87, 91 ], [ 93, 97 ], [ 99, 110 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 268, 290 ], [ 544, 564 ], [ 637, 652 ], [ 775, 807 ], [ 929, 945 ], [ 950, 967 ], [ 997, 1007 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie spent his last years as a philanthropist. From 1901 forward, public attention was turned from the shrewd business acumen which had enabled Carnegie to accumulate such a fortune, to the public-spirited way in which he devoted himself to utilizing it on philanthropic projects. He had written about his views on social subjects and the responsibilities of great wealth in Triumphant Democracy  (1886) and Gospel of Wealth (1889). Carnegie devoted the rest of his life to providing capital for purposes of public interest and social and educational advancement. He saved letters of appreciation from those he helped in a desk drawer labeled \"Gratitude and Sweet Words.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 463198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 412, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was a powerful supporter of the movement for spelling reform, as a means of promoting the spread of the English language. His organization, the Simplified Spelling Board, created the Handbook of Simplified Spelling, which was written wholly in reformed spelling.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 156920, 19077643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 63 ], [ 147, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among his many philanthropic efforts, the establishment of public libraries throughout the United States, Britain, Canada and other English-speaking countries was especially prominent. In this special driving interest of his, Carnegie was inspired by meetings with philanthropist Enoch Pratt (1808–1896). The Enoch Pratt Free Library (1886) of Baltimore, Maryland, impressed Carnegie deeply; he said, \"Pratt was my guide and inspiration.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 182010, 1283596, 230023, 26997138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 75 ], [ 280, 291 ], [ 309, 333 ], [ 344, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie turned over management of the library project by 1908 to his staff, led by James Bertram (1874–1934). The first Carnegie Library opened in 1883 in Dunfermline. His method was to provide funds to build and equip the library, but only on the condition that the local authority matched that by providing the land and a budget for operation and maintenance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 18830936, 497231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 97 ], [ 122, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To secure local interest, in 1885, he gave $500,000 to Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania for a public library, and in 1886, he gave $250,000 to Allegheny City, Pennsylvania for a music hall and library; and $250,000 to Edinburgh for a free library. In total, Carnegie funded some 3,000 libraries, located in 47 US states, and also in Canada, Britain, Ireland, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, the West Indies, and Fiji. He also donated £50,000 to help set up the University of Birmingham in 1899.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 25101, 992180, 9602, 5574915, 10707, 209935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 79 ], [ 135, 163 ], [ 210, 219 ], [ 393, 404 ], [ 410, 414 ], [ 459, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Van Slyck (1991) showed, during the last years of the 19th century, there was the increasing adoption of the idea that free libraries should be available to the American public. But the design of such libraries was the subject of prolonged and heated debate. On one hand, the library profession called for designs that supported efficiency in administration and operation; on the other, wealthy philanthropists favored buildings that reinforced the paternalistic metaphor and enhanced civic pride. Between 1886 and 1917, Carnegie reformed both library philanthropy and library design, encouraging a closer correspondence between the two.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1900, Carnegie gave $2 million to start the Carnegie Institute of Technology (CIT) at Pittsburgh and the same amount in 1902 to found the Carnegie Institution at Washington, D.C., for encourage research and discovery. He later contributed more to these and other schools. CIT is now known as Carnegie Mellon University after it merged with the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research. Carnegie also served on the Boards of Cornell University and Stevens Institute of Technology.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 48093, 14383299, 48093, 1482031, 7954422, 292132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 79 ], [ 141, 161 ], [ 295, 321 ], [ 347, 386 ], [ 426, 444 ], [ 449, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1911, Carnegie became a sympathetic benefactor to George Ellery Hale, who was trying to build the Hooker Telescope at Mount Wilson, and donated an additional ten million dollars to the Carnegie Institution with the following suggestion to expedite the construction of the telescope: \"I hope the work at Mount Wilson will be vigorously pushed, because I am so anxious to hear the expected results from it. I should like to be satisfied before I depart, that we are going to repay to the old land some part of the debt we owe them by revealing more clearly than ever to them the new heavens.\" The telescope saw first light on November 2, 1917, with Carnegie still alive.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 623538, 213583, 213583, 14383299, 178238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 71 ], [ 102, 118 ], [ 122, 134 ], [ 189, 209 ], [ 613, 624 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1901, in Scotland, he gave $10 million to establish the Carnegie Trust for the Universities of Scotland. It was created by a deed that he signed on June 7, 1901, and it was incorporated by the Royal Charter on August 21, 1902. The establishing gift of $10 million was then an unprecedented sum: at the time, total government assistance to all four Scottish universities was about £50,000 a year. The aim of the Trust was to improve and extend the opportunities for scientific research in the Scottish universities and to enable the deserving and qualified youth of Scotland to attend a university. He was subsequently elected Lord Rector of University of St. Andrews in December 1901, and formally installed as such in October 1902, serving until 1907. He also donated large sums of money to Dunfermline, the place of his birth. In addition to a library, Carnegie also bought the private estate which became Pittencrieff Park and opened it to all members of the public, establishing the Carnegie Dunfermline Trust to benefit the people of Dunfermline. A statue of Carnegie was later built between 1913-14 in the park as a commemoration for his creation of the park.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5999187, 66772, 181348, 20332652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 106 ], [ 629, 640 ], [ 644, 669 ], [ 911, 928 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He gave a further $10 million in 1913 to endow the Carnegie United Kingdom Trust, a grant-making foundation. He transferred to the trust the charge of all his existing and future benefactions, other than university benefactions in the United Kingdom. He gave the trustees a wide discretion, and they inaugurated a policy of financing rural library schemes rather than erecting library buildings, and of assisting the musical education of the people rather than granting organs to churches.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 23569528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1901, Carnegie also established large pension funds for his former employees at Homestead and, in 1905, for American college professors. The latter fund evolved into TIAA-CREF. One critical requirement was that church-related schools had to sever their religious connections to get his money.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1042251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His interest in music led him to fund the construction of 7,000 church organs. He built and owned Carnegie Hall in New York City.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 169321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie was a large benefactor of the Tuskegee Institute for African-American education under Booker T. Washington. He helped Washington create the National Negro Business League.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 293288, 37242, 8167678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 57 ], [ 95, 115 ], [ 149, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1904, he founded the Carnegie Hero Fund for the United States and Canada (a few years later also established in the United Kingdom, Switzerland, Norway, Sweden, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium, Denmark, and Germany) for the recognition of deeds of heroism. Carnegie contributed $1,500,000 in 1903 for the erection of the Peace Palace at The Hague; and he donated $150,000 for a Pan-American Palace in Washington as a home for the International Bureau of American Republics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1620533, 490343, 30269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 42 ], [ 332, 344 ], [ 348, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When it became obvious that Carnegie could not give away his entire fortune within his lifetime, he established the Carnegie Corporation of New York in 1911 \"to promote the advancement and diffusion of knowledge and understanding\" and continue his program of giving.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1964018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie was honored for his philanthropy and support of the arts by initiation as an honorary member of Phi Mu Alpha Sinfonia fraternity on October 14, 1917, at the New England Conservatory of Music in Boston, Massachusetts. The fraternity's mission reflects Carnegie's values by developing young men to share their talents to create harmony in the world.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 22877878, 672156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 126 ], [ 166, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the standards of 19th-century tycoons, Carnegie was not a particularly ruthless man but a humanitarian with enough acquisitiveness to go in the ruthless pursuit of money. \"Maybe with the giving away of his money,\" commented biographer Joseph Wall, \"he would justify what he had done to get that money.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3249228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To some, Carnegie represents the idea of the American dream. He was an immigrant from Scotland who came to America and became successful. He is not only known for his successes but his huge amounts of philanthropic works, not only for charities but also to promote democracy and independence to colonized countries.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie died on August 11, 1919, in Lenox, Massachusetts, at his Shadow Brook estate, of bronchial pneumonia. He had already given away $350,695,653 (approximately US$ in dollars) of his wealth. After his death, his last $30,000,000 was given to foundations, charities, and to pensioners. He was buried at Sleepy Hollow Cemetery in Sleepy Hollow, New York. The grave site is located on the Arcadia Hebron plot of land at the corner of Summit Avenue and Dingle Road. Carnegie is buried only a few yards away from union organizer Samuel Gompers, another important figure of industry in the Gilded Age.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 407597, 18719351, 58555, 58551, 327155, 485133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 57 ], [ 66, 78 ], [ 308, 330 ], [ 334, 357 ], [ 530, 544 ], [ 590, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie was one of more than 50 members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club, which has been blamed for the Johnstown Flood that killed 2,209 people in 1889.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 2525038, 454915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 83 ], [ 115, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the suggestion of his friend Benjamin Ruff, Carnegie's partner Henry Clay Frick had formed the exclusive South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club high above Johnstown, Pennsylvania. The sixty-odd club members were the leading business tycoons of Western Pennsylvania and included among their number Frick's best friend, Andrew Mellon, his attorneys Philander Knox and James Hay Reed, as well as Frick's business partner, Carnegie. High above the city, near the small town of South Fork, the South Fork Dam was originally built between 1838 and 1853 by the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania as part of a canal system to be used as a reservoir for a canal basin in Johnstown. With the coming-of-age of railroads superseding canal barge transport, the lake was abandoned by the Commonwealth, sold to the Pennsylvania Railroad, and sold again to private interests, and eventually came to be owned by the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club in 1881. Prior to the flood, speculators had purchased the abandoned reservoir, made less than well-engineered repairs to the old dam, raised the lake level, built cottages and a clubhouse, and created the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club. Less than downstream from the dam sat the city of Johnstown.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 425134, 161537, 435365, 1422503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 82 ], [ 318, 331 ], [ 347, 361 ], [ 489, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The dam was high and long. Between 1881, when the club was opened, and 1889, the dam frequently sprang leaks and was patched, mostly with mud and straw. Additionally, a previous owner removed and sold for scrap the three cast iron discharge pipes that previously allowed a controlled release of water. There had been some speculation as to the dam's integrity, and concerns had been raised by the head of the Cambria Iron Works downstream in Johnstown. Such repair work, a reduction in height, and unusually high snowmelt and heavy spring rains combined to cause the dam to give way on May 31, 1889, resulting in twenty million tons of water sweeping down the valley as the Johnstown Flood. When word of the dam's failure was telegraphed to Pittsburgh, Frick and other members of the South Fork Fishing and Hunting Club gathered to form the Pittsburgh Relief Committee for assistance to the flood victims as well as determining never to speak publicly about the club or the flood. This strategy was a success, and Knox and Reed were able to fend off all lawsuits that would have placed blame upon the club's members.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 132784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Cambria Iron and Steel's facilities were heavily damaged by the flood, they returned to full production within a year. After the flood, Carnegie built Johnstown a new library to replace the one built by Cambria's chief legal counsel Cyrus Elder, which was destroyed in the flood. The Carnegie-donated library is now owned by the Johnstown Area Heritage Association, and houses the Flood Museum.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Homestead Strike was a bloody labor confrontation lasting 143 days in 1892, one of the most serious in U.S. history. The conflict was centered on Carnegie Steel's main plant in Homestead, Pennsylvania, and grew out of a labor dispute between the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers (AA) and the Carnegie Steel Company.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 246242, 131123, 5728405, 2516079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 181, 204 ], [ 250, 299 ], [ 313, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie left on a trip to Scotland before the unrest peaked. In doing so, Carnegie left mediation of the dispute in the hands of his associate and partner Henry Clay Frick. Frick was well known in industrial circles for maintaining staunch anti-union sentiment. With the collective bargaining agreement between the union and company expiring at the end of June, Frick and the leaders of the local AA union entered into negotiations in February. With the steel industry doing well and prices higher, the AA asked for a wage increase; the AA represented about 800 of the 3,800 workers at the plant. Frick immediately countered with an average 22% wage decrease that would affect nearly half the union's membership and remove a number of positions from the bargaining unit.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 425134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The union and company failed to come to an agreement, and management locked the union out. Workers considered the stoppage a \"lockout\" by management and not a \"strike\" by workers. As such, the workers would have been well within their rights to protest, and subsequent government action would have been a set of criminal procedures designed to crush what was seen as a pivotal demonstration of the growing labor rights movement, strongly opposed by management. Frick brought in thousands of strikebreakers to work the steel mills and Pinkerton agents to safeguard them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 511550, 408186, 144856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 133 ], [ 406, 427 ], [ 534, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On July 6, the arrival of a force of 300 Pinkerton agents from New York City and Chicago resulted in a fight in which 10 men — seven strikers and three Pinkertons — were killed and hundreds were injured. Pennsylvania Governor Robert Pattison ordered two brigades of the state militia to the strike site. Then allegedly in response to the fight between the striking workers and the Pinkertons, anarchist Alexander Berkman shot at Frick in an attempted assassination, wounding him. While not directly connected to the strike, Berkman was tied in for the assassination attempt. According to Berkman, \"...with the elimination of Frick, responsibility for Homestead conditions would rest with Carnegie.\" Afterwards, the company successfully resumed operations with non-union immigrant employees in place of the Homestead plant workers, and Carnegie returned to the United States. However, Carnegie's reputation was permanently damaged by the Homestead events.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 443594, 12, 420350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 241 ], [ 393, 402 ], [ 403, 420 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie did not want to marry during his mother's lifetime, instead choosing to take care of her in her illness towards the end of her life. After she died in 1886, the 51-year-old Carnegie married Louise Whitfield, who was 21 years his junior. In 1897, the couple had their only child, a daughter, whom they named after Carnegie's mother, Margaret.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 16557195, 10045405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 215 ], [ 341, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie bought Skibo Castle in Scotland, and made his home partly there and partly in his New York mansion located at 2 East 91st Street at Fifth Avenue. The building was completed in late 1902, and he lived there until his death in 1919. His wife Louise continued to live there until her death in 1946. The building is now used as the Cooper-Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum, part of the Smithsonian Institution. The surrounding neighborhood on Manhattan's Upper East Side has come to be called Carnegie Hill. The mansion was designated as a National Historic Landmark in 1966.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 806505, 12287106, 9310320, 341863, 1007120, 65828, 327270, 893363, 404013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 28 ], [ 91, 107 ], [ 126, 137 ], [ 141, 153 ], [ 337, 377 ], [ 391, 414 ], [ 460, 475 ], [ 498, 511 ], [ 545, 571 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie gave \"formal allegiance\" to the Republican Party, though he was said to be \"a violent opponent of some of the most sacred doctrines\" of the party.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In his final days, Carnegie had pneumonia. Before his death on August 11, 1919, Carnegie had donated $350,695,654 for various causes. The \"Andrew Carnegie Dictum\" was:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To spend the first third of one's life getting all the education one can.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To spend the next third making all the money one can.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To spend the last third giving it all away for worthwhile causes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie was involved in philanthropic causes, but he kept himself away from religious circles. He wanted to be identified by the world as a \"positivist\". He was highly influenced in public life by John Bright.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 2871407, 251195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 152 ], [ 198, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As early as 1868, at age 33, he drafted a memo to himself. He wrote: \"...The amassing of wealth is one of the worse species of idolatry. No idol more debasing than the worship of money.\" In order to avoid degrading himself, he wrote in the same memo he would retire at age 35 to pursue the practice of philanthropic giving for \"... the man who dies thus rich dies disgraced.\" However, he did not begin his philanthropic work in all earnest until 1881, at age 46, with the gift of a library to his hometown of Dunfermline, Scotland.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie wrote \"The Gospel of Wealth\", an article in which he stated his belief that the rich should use their wealth to help enrich society. In that article, Carnegie also expressed sympathy for the ideas of progressive taxation and an estate tax:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 463198, 301892, 19279011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 36 ], [ 209, 224 ], [ 237, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following is taken from one of Carnegie's memos to himself:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie claimed to be a champion of evolutionary thought – particularly the work of Herbert Spencer, even declaring Spencer his teacher. Although Carnegie claimed to be a disciple of Spencer, many of his actions went against the ideas he espoused.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 248859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spencerian evolution was for individual rights and against government interference. Furthermore, Spencerian evolution held that those unfit to sustain themselves must be allowed to perish. Spencer believed that just as there were many varieties of beetles, respectively modified to existence in a particular place in nature, so too had human society \"spontaneously fallen into division of labour\". Individuals who survived to this, the latest and highest stage of evolutionary progress would be \"those in whom the power of self-preservation is the greatest—are the select of their generation.\" Moreover, Spencer perceived governmental authority as borrowed from the people to perform the transitory aims of establishing social cohesion, insurance of rights, and security. Spencerian 'survival of the fittest' firmly credits any provisions made to assist the weak, unskilled, poor and distressed to be an imprudent disservice to evolution. Spencer insisted people should resist for the benefit of collective humanity, as severe fate singles out the weak, debauched, and disabled.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Andrew Carnegie's political and economic focus during the late nineteenth and early twentieth century was the defense of laissez-faire economics. Carnegie emphatically resisted government intrusion in commerce, as well as government-sponsored charities. Carnegie believed the concentration of capital was essential for societal progress and should be encouraged. Carnegie was an ardent supporter of commercial \"survival of the fittest\" and sought to attain immunity from business challenges by dominating all phases of the steel manufacturing procedure. Carnegie's determination to lower costs included cutting labor expenses as well. In a notably Spencerian manner, Carnegie argued that unions impeded the natural reduction of prices by pushing up costs, which blocked evolutionary progress. Carnegie felt that unions represented the narrow interest of the few while his actions benefited the entire community.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On the surface, Andrew Carnegie appears to be a strict laissez-faire capitalist and follower of Herbert Spencer, often referring to himself as a disciple of Spencer. Conversely, Carnegie, a titan of industry, seems to embody all of the qualities of Spencerian survival of the fittest. The two men enjoyed a mutual respect for one another and maintained a correspondence until Spencer's death in 1903. There are, however, some major discrepancies between Spencer's capitalist evolutionary conceptions and Andrew Carnegie's capitalist practices.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Spencer wrote that in production the advantages of the superior individual are comparatively minor, and thus acceptable, yet the benefit that dominance provides those who control a large segment of production might be hazardous to competition. Spencer feared that an absence of \"sympathetic self-restraint\" of those with too much power could lead to the ruin of their competitors. He did not think free-market competition necessitated competitive warfare. Furthermore, Spencer argued that individuals with superior resources who deliberately used investment schemes to put competitors out of business were committing acts of \"commercial murder\". Carnegie built his wealth in the steel industry by maintaining an extensively integrated operating system. Carnegie also bought out some regional competitors, and merged with others, usually maintaining the majority shares in the companies. Over the course of twenty years, Carnegie's steel properties grew to include the Edgar Thomson Steel Works, the Lucy Furnace Works, the Union Iron Mills, the Homestead Works, the Keystone Bridge Works, the Hartman Steel Works, the Frick Coke Company, and the Scotia ore mines among many other industry-related assets.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Herbert Spencer absolutely was against government interference in business in the form of regulatory limitations, taxes, and tariffs as well. Spencer saw tariffs as a form of taxation that levied against the majority in service to \"the benefit of a small minority of manufacturers and artisans\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite Carnegie's personal dedication to Herbert Spencer as a friend, his adherence to Spencer's political and economic ideas is more contentious. In particular, it appears Carnegie either misunderstood or intentionally misrepresented some of Spencer's principal arguments. Spencer remarked upon his first visit to Carnegie's steel mills in Pittsburgh, which Carnegie saw as the manifestation of Spencer's philosophy, \"Six months' residence here would justify suicide.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On the subject of charity Andrew Carnegie's actions diverged in the most significant and complex manner from Herbert Spencer's philosophies. In his 1854 essay \"Manners and Fashion\", Spencer referred to public education as \"Old schemes\". He went on to declare that public schools and colleges fill the heads of students with inept, useless knowledge and exclude useful knowledge. Spencer stated that he trusted no organization of any kind, \"political, religious, literary, philanthropic\", and believed that as they expanded in influence so too did their regulations expand. In addition, Spencer thought that as all institutions grow they become evermore corrupted by the influence of power and money. The institution eventually loses its \"original spirit, and sinks into a lifeless mechanism\". Spencer insisted that all forms of philanthropy that uplift the poor and downtrodden were reckless and incompetent. Spencer thought any attempt to prevent \"the really salutary sufferings\" of the less fortunate \"bequeath to posterity a continually increasing curse\". Carnegie, a self-proclaimed devotee of Spencer, testified to Congress on February 5, 1915: \"My business is to do as much good in the world as I can; I have retired from all other business.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie held that societal progress relied on individuals who maintained moral obligations to themselves and to society. Furthermore, he believed that charity supplied the means for those who wish to improve themselves to achieve their goals. Carnegie urged other wealthy people to contribute to society in the form of parks, works of art, libraries and other endeavors that improve the community and contribute to the \"lasting good\". Carnegie also held a strong opinion against inherited wealth. Carnegie believed that the sons of prosperous businesspersons were rarely as talented as their fathers. By leaving large sums of money to their children, wealthy business leaders were wasting resources that could be used to benefit society. Most notably, Carnegie believed that the future leaders of society would rise from the ranks of the poor. Carnegie strongly believed in this because he had risen from the bottom. He believed the poor possessed an advantage over the wealthy because they receive greater attention from their parents and are taught better work ethics.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie and his family belonged to the Presbyterian Church in the United States of America, also known informally as the Northern Presbyterian Church. In his early life Carnegie was skeptical of Calvinism, and religion as a whole, but reconciled with it later in his life. In his autobiography, Carnegie describes his family as moderate Presbyterian believers, writing that \"there was not one orthodox Presbyterian\" in his family; various members of his family having somewhat distanced themselves from Calvinism, some of them leaning more towards Swedenborgianism. While a child, his family led vigorous theological and political disputes. His mother avoided the topic of religion. His father left the Presbyterian church after a sermon on infant damnation, while, according to Carnegie, still remaining very religious on his own.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 1408123, 6024, 24403, 4907523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 91 ], [ 196, 205 ], [ 338, 350 ], [ 549, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Witnessing sectarianism and strife in 19th century Scotland regarding religion and philosophy, Carnegie kept his distance from organized religion and theism. Carnegie instead preferred to see things through naturalistic and scientific terms stating, \"Not only had I got rid of the theology and the supernatural, but I had found the truth of evolution.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Later in life, Carnegie's firm opposition to religion softened. For many years he was a member of Madison Avenue Presbyterian Church, pastored from 1905 to 1926 by Social Gospel exponent Henry Sloane Coffin, while his wife and daughter belonged to the Brick Presbyterian Church. He also prepared (but did not deliver) an address in which he professed a belief in \"an Infinite and Eternal Energy from which all things proceed\". Records exist of a short period of correspondence around 1912–1913 between Carnegie and 'Abdu'l-Bahá, the eldest son of Bahá'u'lláh, founder of the Baháʼí Faith. In these letters, one of which was published in the New York Times in full text, Carnegie is extolled as a \"lover of the world of humanity and one of the founders of Universal Peace\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 52850037, 638252, 4594529, 40111383, 3019, 28361679, 4251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 132 ], [ 164, 177 ], [ 187, 206 ], [ 252, 277 ], [ 515, 527 ], [ 547, 558 ], [ 575, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Influenced by his \"favorite living hero in public life\" John Bright, Carnegie started his efforts in pursuit of world peace at a young age, and supported causes that opposed military intervention. His motto, \"All is well since all grows better\", served not only as a good rationalization of his successful business career, but also his view of international relations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 251195, 1958801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 67 ], [ 174, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite his efforts towards international peace, Carnegie faced many dilemmas on his quest. These dilemmas are often regarded as conflicts between his view on international relations and his other loyalties. Throughout the 1880s and 1890s, for example, Carnegie allowed his steel works to fill large orders of armor plate for the building of an enlarged and modernized United States Navy, but he opposed American overseas expansion.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite that, Carnegie served as a major donor for the newly-established International Court of Arbitration's Peace Palace – brainchild of Russian Tsar Nicolas II.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 7458048, 490343, 30172853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 107 ], [ 110, 122 ], [ 152, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His largest and in the long run most influential peace organization was the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, formed in 1910 with a $10 million endowment. In 1913, at the dedication of the Peace Palace in The Hague, Carnegie predicted that the end of the war was as certain to come, and come soon, as day follows night.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 426077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1914, on the eve of the First World War, Carnegie founded the Church Peace Union (CPU), a group of leaders in religion, academia, and politics. Through the CPU, Carnegie hoped to mobilize the world's churches, religious organizations, and other spiritual and moral resources to join in promoting moral leadership to put an end to war forever. For its inaugural international event, the CPU sponsored a conference to be held on August 1, 1914, on the shores of Lake Constance in southern Germany. As the delegates made their way to the conference by train, Germany was invading Belgium.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite its inauspicious beginning, the CPU thrived. Today its focus is on ethics and it is known as the Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs, an independent, nonpartisan, nonprofit organization, whose mission is to be the voice for ethics in international affairs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 7939943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The outbreak of the First World War was clearly a shock to Carnegie and his optimistic view on world peace. Although his promotion of anti-imperialism and world peace had all failed, and the Carnegie Endowment had not fulfilled his expectations, his beliefs and ideas on international relations had helped build the foundation of the League of Nations after his death, which took world peace to another level.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 44494572, 17926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 150 ], [ 334, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the matter of American colonial expansion, Carnegie had always thought it is an unwise gesture for the United States. He did not oppose the annexation of the Hawaiian islands or Puerto Rico, but he opposed the annexation of the Philippines. Carnegie believed that it involved a denial of the fundamental democratic principle, and he also urged William McKinley to withdraw American troops and allow the Filipinos to live with their independence. This act strongly impressed the other American anti-imperialists, who soon elected him vice-president of the Anti-Imperialist League.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 215140, 788738, 23041, 184779, 33521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 44 ], [ 143, 177 ], [ 181, 192 ], [ 213, 242 ], [ 347, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After he sold his steel company in 1901, Carnegie was able to get fully involved in the peace cause, both financially and personally. He gave away much of his fortunes to various peace-keeping agencies in order to keep them growing. When his friend, the British writer William T. Stead, asked him to create a new organization for the goal of a peace and arbitration society, his reply was:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 604619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 269, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie believed that it is the effort and will of the people, that maintains the peace in international relations. Money is just a push for the act. If world peace depended solely on financial support, it would not seem a goal, but more like an act of pity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Like Stead, he believed that the United States and the British Empire would merge into one nation, telling him \"We are heading straight to the Re-United States\". Carnegie believed that the combined country's power would maintain world peace and disarmament. The creation of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in 1910 was regarded as a milestone on the road to the ultimate goal of abolition of war. Beyond a gift of $10 million for peace promotion, Carnegie also encouraged the \"scientific\" investigation of the various causes of war, and the adoption of judicial methods that should eventually eliminate them. He believed that the Endowment exists to promote information on the nations' rights and responsibilities under existing international law and to encourage other conferences to codify this law.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Philosophy", "target_page_ids": [ 4721, 426077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 69 ], [ 278, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie was a frequent contributor to periodicals on labor issues. In addition to Triumphant Democracy (1886) and The Gospel of Wealth (1889), he also wrote Our Coaching Trip, Brighton to Inverness (1882), An American Four-in-hand in Britain (1883), Round the World (1884), The Empire of Business (1902), The Secret of Business is the Management of Men (1903), James Watt (1905) in the Famous Scots Series, Problems of Today (1907), and his posthumously published Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie (1920).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Writings", "target_page_ids": [ 463198, 42683389, 24240688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 135 ], [ 275, 297 ], [ 387, 406 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie received the honorary Doctor of Laws (DLL) from the University of Glasgow in June 1901, and received the Freedom of the City of Glasgow \"in recognition of his munificence\" later the same year. In July 1902 he received the Freedom of the city of St Andrews, \"in testimony of his great zeal for the welfare of his fellow-men on both sides of the Atlantic\", and in October 1902 the Freedom of the City of Perth \"in testimony of his high personal worth and beneficial influence, and in recognition of widespread benefactions bestowed on this and other lands, and especially in gratitude for the endowment granted by him for the promotion of University education in Scotland\" and the Freedom of the City of Dundee. Also in 1902, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society. He received an honorary Doctor of Laws (LLD) from the University of Aberdeen in 1906. In 1910, he received the Freedom of the City of Belfast and was made as well Commander of the National Order of the Legion of Honour by the French government. Carnegie was awarded as Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Orange-Nassau by Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands on August 25, 1913. Carnegie received July 1, 1914 an honorary doctorate from the University of Groningen the Netherlands.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 1593615, 39569, 348775, 68736, 353224, 58730, 8828, 283120, 213135, 348775, 160188, 1012603, 102298, 464751, 255460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 45 ], [ 61, 82 ], [ 114, 133 ], [ 137, 144 ], [ 254, 264 ], [ 411, 416 ], [ 711, 717 ], [ 768, 798 ], [ 854, 876 ], [ 911, 941 ], [ 980, 1018 ], [ 1095, 1117 ], [ 1127, 1156 ], [ 1211, 1229 ], [ 1239, 1262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The dinosaur Diplodocus carnegiei (Hatcher) was named for Carnegie after he sponsored the expedition that discovered its remains in the Morrison Formation (Jurassic) of Utah. Carnegie was so proud of \"Dippi\" that he had casts made of the bones and plaster replicas of the whole skeleton donated to several museums in Europe and South America. The original fossil skeleton is assembled and stands in the Hall of Dinosaurs at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 20597793, 1149977, 15655, 31716, 1417189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 33 ], [ 136, 154 ], [ 156, 164 ], [ 169, 173 ], [ 428, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Spanish–American War, Carnegie offered to donate $20 million to the Philippines so they could buy their independence.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 28265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie, Pennsylvania, and Carnegie, Oklahoma, were named in his honor.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 131087, 130066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ], [ 28, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Saguaro cactus's scientific name, Carnegiea gigantea, is named after him.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 18952895, 18952895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 11 ], [ 38, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Carnegie Medal for the best children's literature published in the UK was established in his name.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 70116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Carnegie Faculty of Sport and Education, at Leeds Beckett University, UK, is named after him.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 703698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concert halls in Dunfermline and New York are named after him.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 190470, 645042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 37, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the height of his career, Carnegie was the second-richest person in the world, behind only John D. Rockefeller of Standard Oil.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 186300, 28931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 113 ], [ 117, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie Mellon University in Pittsburgh was named after Carnegie, who founded the institution as the Carnegie Technical Schools.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 48093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lauder College (named after his uncle George Lauder Sr.) in the Halbeath area of Dunfermline was renamed Carnegie College in 2007.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 59180112, 51543831, 1989615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 55 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 105, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A street in Belgrade (Serbia), next to the Belgrade University Library which is one of the Carnegie libraries, is named in his honor.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 55904, 29265, 27249094, 497231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 20 ], [ 22, 28 ], [ 43, 70 ], [ 91, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An American high school, Carnegie Vanguard High School in Houston, Texas, is named after him", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 3780886, 13774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 54 ], [ 58, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie was awarded the Freedom of the Burgh of Kilmarnock in Scotland in 1903, prior to laying the foundation stone of Loanhead Public School.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 355055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to biographer Burton J. Hendrick:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 1457890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His benefactions amounted to $350,000,000 – for he gave away not only his annual income of something more than $12,500,000, but most of the principal as well. Of this sum, $62,000,000 was allotted to the British Empire and $288,000,000 to the United States, for Carnegie, in the main, confined his benefactions to the English-speaking nations. His largest gifts were $125,000,000 to the Carnegie Corporation of New York (this same body also became his residuary legatee), $60,000,000 to public library buildings, $20,000,000 to colleges (usually the smaller ones), $6,000,000 to church organs, $29,000,000 to the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, $22,000,000 to the Carnegie Institute of Pittsburgh, $22,000,000 to the Carnegie Institution of Washington, $10,000,000 to Hero Funds, $10,000,000 to the Endowment for International Peace, $10,000,000 to the Scottish Universities Trust, $10,000,000 to the United Kingdom Trust, and $3,750,000 to the Dunfermline Trust.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hendrick argues that:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These gifts fairly picture Carnegie's conception of the best ways to improve the status of the common man. They represent all his personal tastes – his love of books, art, music, and nature – and the reforms which he regarded as most essential to human progress – scientific research, education both literary and technical, and, above all, the abolition of war. The expenditure the public most associates with Carnegie's name is that for public libraries. Carnegie himself frequently said that his favorite benefaction was the Hero Fund – among other reasons, because \"it came up my ain back\"; but probably deep in his own mind his library gifts took precedence over all others in importance. There was only one genuine remedy, he believed, for the ills that beset the human race, and that was enlightenment. \"Let there be light\" was the motto that, in the early days, he insisted on placing in all his library buildings. As to the greatest endowment of all, the Carnegie Corporation, that was merely Andrew Carnegie in permanently organized form; it was established to carry on, after Carnegie's death, the work to which he had given personal attention in his own lifetime.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie's personal papers are at the Library of Congress Manuscript Division.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 18944081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Carnegie Collections of the Columbia University Rare Book and Manuscript Library consist of the archives of the following organizations founded by Carnegie: The Carnegie Corporation of New York (CCNY); The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace (CEIP); the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching (CFAT);The Carnegie Council on Ethics and International Affairs (CCEIA). These collections deal primarily with Carnegie philanthropy and have very little personal material related to Carnegie. Carnegie Mellon University and the Carnegie Library of Pittsburgh jointly administer the Andrew Carnegie Collection of digitized archives on Carnegie's life.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy and honors", "target_page_ids": [ 1964018, 426077, 2038887, 48093, 731458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 197 ], [ 210, 252 ], [ 265, 316 ], [ 510, 536 ], [ 545, 575 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wall, Joseph Frazier, ed. The Andrew Carnegie reader (1992) online free", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Round the World. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1884.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An American Four-in-Hand in Britain. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1886.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Triumphant Democracy, or, Fifty Years' March of the Republic. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1886.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bugaboo of Trusts. Reprinted from North American Review, vol. 148, no. 377 (Feb. 1889).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Wealth,\" North American Review, vol. 148, no. 381 (June 1889), pp.653–64. ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Gospel of Wealth and Other Timely Essays. New York: The Century Co., 1901.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Industrial Peace: Address at the Annual Dinner of the National Civic Federation, New York City, December 15, 1904. [n.c.]: [National Civic Federation], [1904].", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "James Watt. New York: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1905.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Edwin M. Stanton: An Address by Andrew Carnegie on Stanton Memorial Day at Kenyon College. New York: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1906.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Problems of Today: Wealth – Labor – Socialism. New York: Doubleday, Page and Co., 1908.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Speech at the Annual Meeting of the Peace Society, at the Guildhall, London, EC, May 24th, 1910. London: The Peace Society, 1910.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A League of Peace: A Rectorial Address Delivered to the Students in the University of St. Andrews, 17th October 1905. New York: New York Peace Society, 1911.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Autobiography of Andrew Carnegie. Boston: Houghton and Mifflin, 1920.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 632400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commemoration of the American Civil War on postage stamps", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41678310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History of public library advocacy", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28909474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of Carnegie libraries in the United States", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23270047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of peace activists", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38646474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of richest Americans in history", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24968372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of wealthiest historical figures", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12944918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of universities named after people", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1834995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Collections", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Cited sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bostaph, Samuel. (2015). Andrew Carnegie: An Economic Biography. Lexington Books, Lanham, MD. ; 125pp online review", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ewing, Heather. (2014). Life of a Mansion: The Story of Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum. Cooper Hewitt, Smithsonian Design Museum, New York. ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Goldin, Milton. \"Andrew Carnegie and the Robber Baron Myth\". In Myth America: A Historical Anthology, Volume II. 1997. Gerster, Patrick, and Cords, Nicholas. (editors.) Brandywine Press, St. James, NY. ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hendrick, Burton Jesse/ The life of Andrew Carnegie (2 vol. 1933) vol 2 online; scholarly biography", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Josephson; Matthew. (1938). The Robber Barons: The Great American Capitalists, 1861–1901 ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Krass, Peter. (2002). Carnegie Wiley. , scholarly biography", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lester, Robert M. (1941). Forty Years of Carnegie Giving: A Summary of the Benefactions of Andrew Carnegie and of the Work of the Philanthropic Trusts Which He Created. C. Scribner's Sons, New York.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Livesay, Harold C. (1999). Andrew Carnegie and the Rise of Big Business, 2nd Edition. short biography by a scholar; online free", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Patterson, David S. \"Andrew Carnegie's quest for world peace.\" Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 114#5 (1970): 371-383. online", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rees, Jonathan. (1997). \"Homestead in Context: Andrew Carnegie and the Decline of the Amalgamated Association of Iron and Steel Workers.\" Pennsylvania History 64(4): 509–533. ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "VanSlyck, Abigail A. \"'The Utmost Amount of Effective Accommodation': Andrew Carnegie and the Reform of the American Library.\" Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 1991 50(4): 359–383. (Fulltext: in Jstor)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Wall, Joseph Frazier. Andrew Carnegie (1989). (Along with Nasaw the most detailed scholarly biography) online free", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Documentary: \"Andrew Carnegie: Rags to Riches, Power to Peace\"", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Carnegie Birthplace Museum website", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Booknotes interview with Peter Krass on Carnegie, November 24, 2002.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Marguerite Martyn, \"Andrew Carnegie on Prosperity, Income Tax, and the Blessings of Poverty,\" May 1, 1914, City Desk Publishing", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Andrew_Carnegie", "1835_births", "1919_deaths", "20th-century_American_businesspeople", "Activists_from_Massachusetts", "American_billionaires", "American_Civil_War_industrialists", "American_company_founders", "American_industrialists", "American_librarianship_and_human_rights", "American_philanthropists", "American_railway_entrepreneurs", "American_spiritualists", "American_steel_industry_businesspeople", "Bessemer_Gold_Medal", "Lauder_Greenway_Family", "Burials_at_Sleepy_Hollow_Cemetery", "Businesspeople_from_Pittsburgh", "Carnegie_Endowment_for_International_Peace", "Carnegie_Mellon_University_people", "Deaths_from_pneumonia_in_Massachusetts", "Deaths_from_bronchopneumonia", "English-language_spelling_reform_advocates", "Gilded_Age", "Hall_of_Fame_for_Great_Americans_inductees", "Massachusetts_Republicans", "Non-interventionism", "People_associated_with_the_University_of_Birmingham", "People_from_Dunfermline", "People_from_Lenox,_Massachusetts", "Progressive_Era_in_the_United_States", "Rectors_of_the_University_of_St_Andrews", "Scottish_billionaires", "Scottish_emigrants_to_the_United_States", "Scottish_spiritualists", "U.S._Steel_people", "University_and_college_founders", "Presidents_of_the_Saint_Andrew's_Society_of_the_State_of_New_York", "Carnegie_family" ]

[ "Endriu Karnegi", "A. Carnegie" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Approximants are speech sounds that involve the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough nor with enough articulatory precision to create turbulent airflow. Therefore, approximants fall between fricatives, which do produce a turbulent airstream, and vowels, which produce no turbulence. This class is composed of sounds like (as in rest) and semivowels like and (as in yes and west, respectively), as well as lateral approximants like (as in less).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22981, 82238, 19942, 11762, 32693, 69209, 18678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 30 ], [ 48, 60 ], [ 157, 174 ], [ 213, 223 ], [ 269, 274 ], [ 362, 372 ], [ 431, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before Peter Ladefoged coined the term \"approximant\" in the 1960s, the terms \"frictionless continuant\" and \"semivowel\" were used to refer to non-lateral approximants.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 1933869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In phonology, \"approximant\" is also a distinctive feature that encompasses all sonorants except nasals, including vowels, taps and trills.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Terminology", "target_page_ids": [ 23247, 2168966, 616350, 22110, 32693, 539628, 539532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 12 ], [ 38, 57 ], [ 79, 87 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 114, 119 ], [ 122, 125 ], [ 131, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some approximants resemble vowels in acoustic and articulatory properties and the terms semivowel and glide are often used for these non-syllabic vowel-like segments. The correlation between semivowels and vowels is strong enough that cross-language differences between semivowels correspond with the differences between their related vowels.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [ 69209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vowels and their corresponding semivowels alternate in many languages depending on the phonological environment, or for grammatical reasons, as is the case with Indo-European ablaut. Similarly, languages often avoid configurations where a semivowel precedes its corresponding vowel. A number of phoneticians distinguish between semivowels and approximants by their location in a syllable. Although he uses the terms interchangeably, remarks that, for example, the final glides of English par and buy differ from French par ('through') and baille ('tub') in that, in the latter pair, the approximants appear in the syllable coda, whereas, in the former, they appear in the syllable nucleus. This means that opaque (if not minimal) contrasts can occur in languages like Italian (with the i-like sound of piede 'foot', appearing in the nucleus: , and that of piano 'plan', appearing in the syllable onset: ) and Spanish (with a near minimal pair being abyecto 'abject' and abierto 'opened').", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [ 166929, 44911, 44911, 14708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 181 ], [ 615, 628 ], [ 673, 689 ], [ 769, 776 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "{|class=\"wikitable\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|+Approximant-vowel correspondences", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Vowel", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Correspondingapproximant", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Place of articulation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "! Example", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| || ** || Palatal || Spanish amplío ('I extend') vs. amplió ('he extended')", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| || || Labiopalatal || French aigu ('sharp') vs. aiguille ('needle')", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| || ** || Velar || ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| || || Labiovelar || Spanish continúo ('I continue') vs. continuó ('he continued')", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| || || Pharyngeal || ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| || || Postalveolar, retroflex ||North American English waiter vs. waitress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Because of the articulatory complexities of the American English rhotic, there is some variation in its phonetic description. A transcription with the IPA character for an alveolar approximant () is common, though the sound is more postalveolar. Actual retroflexion may occur as well and both occur as variations of the same sound. However, makes a distinction between the vowels of American English (which he calls \"rhotacized\") and vowels with \"retroflexion\" such as those that appear in Badaga; , on the other hand, labels both as r-colored and notes that both have a lowered third formant.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [ 524774, 450794, 1265435, 1586113, 11024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 193 ], [ 233, 245 ], [ 492, 498 ], [ 536, 545 ], [ 587, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Because the vowels are articulated with spread lips, spreading is implied for their approximant analogues, . However, these sounds generally have little or no lip-spreading. The fricative letters with a lowering diacritic, , may therefore be justified for a neutral articulation between spread and rounded .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In articulation and often diachronically, palatal approximants correspond to front vowels, velar approximants to back vowels, and labialized approximants to rounded vowels. In American English, the rhotic approximant corresponds to the rhotic vowel. This can create alternations (as shown in the above table).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [ 25779664, 594845, 32819, 594850, 600576, 26515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 49 ], [ 77, 88 ], [ 91, 96 ], [ 113, 123 ], [ 157, 170 ], [ 198, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to alternations, glides can be inserted to the left or the right of their corresponding vowels when they occur next to a hiatus. For example, in Ukrainian, medial triggers the formation of an inserted that acts as a syllable onset so that when the affix is added to футбол ('football') to make футболіст 'football player', it is pronounced , but маоїст ('Maoist'), with the same affix, is pronounced with a glide. Dutch for many speakers has a similar process that extends to mid vowels:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [ 46279, 46636, 19985174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 166 ], [ 370, 376 ], [ 430, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " bioscoop → ('cinema')", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " zee + en → ('seas')", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " fluor → ('fluorine')", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " reu + en → ('male dogs')", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rwanda → ('Rwanda')", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [ 25645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boaz → ('Boaz')", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [ 157116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly, vowels can be inserted next to their corresponding glide in certain phonetic environments. Sievers' law describes this behaviour for Germanic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [ 5500144, 11883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 114 ], [ 144, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Non-high semivowels also occur. In colloquial Nepali speech, a process of glide-formation occurs, where one of two adjacent vowels becomes non-syllabic; the process includes mid vowels so that ('cause to wish') features a non-syllabic mid vowel. Spanish features a similar process and even nonsyllabic can occur so that ahorita ('right away') is pronounced . It is not often clear, however, whether such sequences involve a semivowel (a consonant) or a diphthong (a vowel), and in many cases, it may not be a meaningful distinction.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [ 47864412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although many languages have central vowels , which lie between back/velar and front/palatal , there are few cases of a corresponding approximant . One is in the Korean diphthong or though it is more frequently analyzed as velar (as in the table above), and Mapudungun may be another, with three high vowel sounds, , , and three corresponding consonants, , and , and a third one is often described as a voiced unrounded velar fricative; some texts note a correspondence between this approximant and that is parallel to – and –. An example is liq (?) ('white').", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [ 594848, 354027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 42 ], [ 261, 271 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has been noted that the expected symbols for the approximant correlates of are .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Semivowels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to less turbulence, approximants also differ from fricatives in the precision required to produce them. When emphasized, approximants may be slightly fricated (that is, the airstream may become slightly turbulent), which is reminiscent of fricatives. For example, the Spanish word ayuda ('help') features a palatal approximant that is pronounced as a fricative in emphatic speech. Spanish can be analyzed as having a meaningful distinction between fricative, approximant, and intermediate . However, such frication is generally slight and intermittent, unlike the strong turbulence of fricative consonants.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Approximants versus fricatives", "target_page_ids": [ 26825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 280, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For places of articulation further back in the mouth, languages do not contrast voiced fricatives and approximants. Therefore, the IPA allows the symbols for the voiced fricatives to double for the approximants, with or without a lowering diacritic.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Approximants versus fricatives", "target_page_ids": [ 8439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 239, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Occasionally, the glottal \"fricatives\" are called approximants, since typically has no more frication than voiceless approximants, but they are often phonations of the glottis without any accompanying manner or place of articulation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Approximants versus fricatives", "target_page_ids": [ 25037 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "bilabial approximant (usually transcribed )", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Central approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "labiodental approximant ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Central approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "dental approximant (usually transcribed )", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Central approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "alveolar approximant ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Central approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "retroflex approximant (a consonantal )", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Central approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "palatal approximant (a consonantal )", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Central approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "velar approximant (a consonantal )", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Central approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "uvular approximant (usually transcribed )", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Central approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "pharyngeal approximant (a consonantal ; usually transcribed )", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Central approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "breathy-voiced glottal approximant ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Central approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "creaky-voiced glottal approximant ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Central approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 47761969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In lateral approximants, the center of tongue makes solid contact with the roof of the mouth. However, the defining location is the side of the tongue, which only approaches the teeth, allowing free passage of air.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Lateral approximants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " voiced alveolar lateral approximant ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Lateral approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " retroflex lateral approximant ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Lateral approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " voiced palatal lateral approximant ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Lateral approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " velar lateral approximant ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Lateral approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 524847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " uvular lateral approximant ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Lateral approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 45545316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "labialized velar approximant (a consonantal )", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Coarticulated approximants with dedicated IPA symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 524836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "labialized palatal approximant (a consonantal )", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Coarticulated approximants with dedicated IPA symbols", "target_page_ids": [ 524834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Voiceless approximants are not recognized by all phoneticians as a discrete phonetic category. There are problems in distinguishing voiceless approximants from voiceless fricatives.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Voiceless approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 11762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fricative consonants are generally said to be the result of turbulent airflow at a place of articulation in the vocal tract. However, an audible voiceless sound may be made without this turbulent airflow: makes a distinction between \"local friction\" (as in or ) and \"cavity friction\" (as in voiceless vowels like and ). More recent research distinguishes between \"turbulent\" and \"laminar\" airflow in the vocal tract. It is not clear if it is possible to describe voiceless approximants categorically as having laminar airflow (or cavity friction in Pike's terms) as a way of distinguishing them from fricatives. write that \"the airflow for voiced approximants remains laminar (smooth), and does not become turbulent. Voiceless approximants are rare in the languages of the world, but when they do occur the airflow is usually somewhat turbulent.\" Audible voiceless sounds may also be produced by means of turbulent airflow at the glottis, as in ; in such a case, it is possible to articulate an audible voiceless sound without the production of local friction at a supraglottal constriction. describes such sounds, but classes them as sonorants.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Voiceless approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 11762, 616350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 1140, 1148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Voiceless approximants are rarely if ever distinguished phonemically from voiceless fricatives in the sound system of a language. discuss the issue and conclude \"In practice, it is difficult to distinguish between a voiceless approximant and a voiceless fricative at the same place of articulation... there is no evidence that any language in the world makes such a distinction crucial.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Voiceless approximants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Voiceless approximants are treated as a phonetic category by (among others) , , and . However, the term voiceless approximant is seen by some phoneticians as controversial. It has been pointed out that if approximant is defined as a speech sound that involves the articulators approaching each other but not narrowly enough to create turbulent airflow, then it is difficult to see how a voiceless approximant could be audible. As John C. Wells puts it in his blog, \"voiceless approximants are by definition inaudible... If there's no friction and no voicing, there's nothing to hear.\" A similar point is made in relation to frictionless continuants by : \"There are no voiceless frictionless continuants because this would imply silence; the voiceless counterpart of the frictionless continuant is the voiceless fricative.\" argue that the increased airflow arising from voicelessness alone makes a voiceless continuant a fricative, even if lacking a greater constriction in the oral cavity than a voiced approximant.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Voiceless approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 868237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 430, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " argue that Burmese and Standard Tibetan have voiceless lateral approximants and Navajo and Zulu voiceless lateral fricatives , but also say that \"in other cases it is difficult to decide whether a voiceless lateral should be described as an approximant or a fricative\". compared voiceless laterals in Estonian Swedish, Icelandic, and Welsh and found that Welsh-speakers consistently used , that Icelandic-speakers consistently used , and that speakers of Estonian Swedish varied in their pronunciation. They conclude that there is \"a range of variants within voiceless laterals, rather than a categorical split between lateral fricatives and voiceless approximant laterals\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Voiceless approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 338207, 5451939, 176526, 61487, 36098005, 19999853, 33545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 19 ], [ 24, 40 ], [ 82, 88 ], [ 93, 97 ], [ 304, 320 ], [ 322, 331 ], [ 337, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "(Not to be confused with 'nasal continuant', which is a synonym for nasal consonant)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Nasalized approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 22110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Examples are:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Nasalized approximants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "nasal palatal approximant ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Nasalized approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 30249320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "nasal labialized velar approximant ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Nasalized approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 30253604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "voiceless nasal glottal approximant ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Nasalized approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 34420610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Portuguese, the nasal glides and historically became and in some words. In Edo, the nasalized allophones of the approximants and are nasal occlusives, and .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Nasalized approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 23915, 1901116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 13 ], [ 82, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "What are transcribed as nasal approximants may include non-syllabic elements of nasal vowels or diphthongs.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Nasalized approximants", "target_page_ids": [ 616332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Liquid consonant", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of phonetics topics", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 598555 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semivowel", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 69209 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] } ]

[ "Manner_of_articulation", "Approximant_consonants" ]

[ "approximant", "frictionless continuant" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Astronomer Royal is a senior post in the Royal Households of the United Kingdom. There are two officers, the senior being the Astronomer Royal dating from 22 June 1675; the second is the Astronomer Royal for Scotland dating from 1834.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17441763, 1599913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 79 ], [ 187, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The post was created by King Charles II in 1675, at the same time as he founded the Royal Observatory Greenwich. He appointed John Flamsteed, instructing him \".\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 46688, 43989, 42880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 39 ], [ 84, 111 ], [ 126, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Astronomer Royal was director of the Royal Observatory Greenwich from the establishment of the post in 1675 until 1972. The Astronomer Royal became an honorary title in 1972 without executive responsibilities and a separate post of Director of the Royal Greenwich Observatory was created to manage the institution.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 45374373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 236, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Astronomer Royal today receives a stipend of 100 GBP per year and is a member of the Royal Household, under the general authority of the Lord Chamberlain. After the separation of the two offices, the position of Astronomer Royal has been largely honorary, though they remain available to advise the Sovereign on astronomical and related scientific matters, and the office is of great prestige.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1704572, 270673, 1572709, 318753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 45 ], [ 53, 56 ], [ 89, 104 ], [ 141, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There was also formerly a Royal Astronomer of Ireland, a post that seemingly ended with Irish independence.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1744211, 42953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 53 ], [ 88, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Astronomer Royal is mentioned in H.G. Wells' novel The War of the Worlds and in George Orwell's Down and Out in Paris and London. He also makes an appearance in the lyrics of Gilbert and Sullivan'''s The Pirates of Penzance and plays an important role in Fred Hoyle's The Black Cloud''.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13459, 32688947, 11891, 49759, 13021, 46667, 11001, 2108187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 47 ], [ 55, 76 ], [ 84, 97 ], [ 100, 132 ], [ 179, 199 ], [ 204, 227 ], [ 259, 269 ], [ 272, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Official website", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Astronomers_Royal", "Ceremonial_officers_in_the_United_Kingdom", "Lists_of_British_people", "Positions_within_the_British_Royal_Household", "Lists_of_space_scientists", "Royal_Observatory,_Greenwich" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The word aeon , also spelled eon (in American and Australian English), originally meant \"life\", \"vital force\" or \"being\", \"generation\" or \"a period of time\", though it tended to be translated as \"age\" in the sense of \"ages\", \"forever\", \"timeless\" or \"for eternity\". It is a Latin transliteration from the koine Greek word (ho aion), from the archaic (aiwon). In Homer it typically refers to life or lifespan. Its latest meaning is more or less similar to the Sanskrit word kalpa and Hebrew word olam. A cognate Latin word aevum or aeuum (cf. ) for \"age\" is present in words such as longevity and mediaeval.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1890, 1897, 217472, 17730, 33696661, 13633, 27698, 5493064, 13450, 1250641, 6328, 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 45 ], [ 50, 68 ], [ 256, 264 ], [ 275, 280 ], [ 306, 317 ], [ 366, 371 ], [ 463, 471 ], [ 477, 482 ], [ 487, 493 ], [ 499, 503 ], [ 507, 514 ], [ 515, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the term aeon may be used in reference to a period of a thousand million years (especially in geology, cosmology and astronomy), its more common usage is for any long, indefinite period. Aeon can also refer to the four aeons on the geologic time scale that make up the Earth's history, the Hadean, Archean, Proterozoic, and the current aeon, Phanerozoic.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12207, 1864889, 50650, 12967, 55397, 62692, 58134, 23743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 110 ], [ 112, 121 ], [ 126, 135 ], [ 242, 261 ], [ 300, 306 ], [ 308, 315 ], [ 317, 328 ], [ 352, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In astronomy an aeon is defined as a billion years (109 years, abbreviated AE).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Astronomy and cosmology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Roger Penrose uses the word aeon to describe the period between successive and cyclic Big Bangs within the context of conformal cyclic cosmology.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Astronomy and cosmology", "target_page_ids": [ 26193, 4116, 29777578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 86, 94 ], [ 118, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Buddhism, an \"aeon\" or mahakalpa (Sanskrit: महाकल्प) is often said to be 1,334,240,000 years, the life cycle of the world.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophy and mysticism", "target_page_ids": [ 5493064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Plato used the word aeon to denote the eternal world of ideas, which he conceived was \"behind\" the perceived world, as demonstrated in his famous allegory of the cave.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophy and mysticism", "target_page_ids": [ 22954, 89525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 146, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christianity's idea of \"eternal life\" comes from the word for life, zōḗ (ζωή), and a form of aión (αἰών), which could mean life in the next aeon, the Kingdom of God, or Heaven, just as much as immortality, as in .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophy and mysticism", "target_page_ids": [ 5211, 33026550, 403882, 13811 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 24, 36 ], [ 150, 164 ], [ 169, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Christian universalism, the Greek New Testament scriptures use the word aión (αἰών) to mean a long period and the word aiṓnion (αἰώνιον) to mean \"during a long period\"; Thus there was a time before the aeons, and the aeonian period is finite. After each person's mortal life ends, they are judged worthy of aeonian life or aeonian punishment. That is, after the period of the aeons, all punishment will cease and death is overcome and then God becomes the all in each one (). This contrasts with the conventional Christian belief in eternal life and eternal punishment.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophy and mysticism", "target_page_ids": [ 1290363, 2056409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 35 ], [ 41, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Occultists of the Thelema and O.T.O. (English: \"Order of the Temple of the East\") traditions sometimes speak of a \"magical Aeon\" that may last for perhaps as little as 2,000 years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophy and mysticism", "target_page_ids": [ 22487, 30356, 155528, 4775145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 18, 25 ], [ 30, 36 ], [ 115, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aeon may also be an archaic name for omnipotent beings, such as gods.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophy and mysticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In many Gnostic systems, the various emanations of God, who is also known by such names as the One, the Monad, Aion teleos (\"The Broadest Aeon\", Greek ), Bythos (\"depth or profundity\", Greek ), Proarkhe (\"before the beginning\", Greek ), Arkhe (\"the beginning\", Greek ), Sophia (\"wisdom\"), and Christos (\"the Anointed One\"), are called Aeons. In the different systems these emanations are differently named, classified, and described, but the emanation theory itself is common to all forms of Gnosticism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophy and mysticism", "target_page_ids": [ 12471, 206553, 5042765, 1114435, 1114435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 15 ], [ 37, 47 ], [ 51, 54 ], [ 104, 109 ], [ 155, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Basilidian Gnosis they are called sonships (υἱότητες huiotetes; singular: huiotes); according to Marcus, they are numbers and sounds; in Valentinianism they form male/female pairs called \"syzygies\" (Greek , from σύζυγοι syzygoi).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophy and mysticism", "target_page_ids": [ 1591693, 15122090, 1946569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 145, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aion (deity)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3333582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kalpa (aeon)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5493064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saeculum – comparable Latin concept", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 94620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] } ]

[ "Concepts_in_metaphysics", "Latin_words_and_phrases", "New_Testament_Greek_words_and_phrases", "Platonism", "Theories_in_ancient_Greek_philosophy", "Time", "Units_of_time" ]

[ "eon" ]

[ { "plaintext": "An airline is a company that provides air transport services for traveling passengers and freight. Airlines use aircraft to supply these services and may form partnerships or alliances with other airlines for codeshare agreements, in which they both offer and operate the same flight. Generally, airline companies are recognized with an air operating certificate or license issued by a governmental aviation body. Airlines may be scheduled or charter operators.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18575446, 4582654, 396550, 849, 222783, 105349, 105097, 12233278, 2870621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 60 ], [ 75, 84 ], [ 90, 97 ], [ 112, 120 ], [ 159, 170 ], [ 175, 184 ], [ 209, 229 ], [ 337, 362 ], [ 443, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first airline was the German airship company DELAG, founded on 16 November 1909. The four oldest non-airship airlines that still exist are the Netherlands' KLM (1919), Colombia's Avianca (1919), Australia's Qantas (1920) and the Czech Republic's Czech Airlines (1923).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16594564, 58005, 6779060, 16882, 82195, 25254, 335703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 33, 40 ], [ 49, 54 ], [ 160, 163 ], [ 183, 190 ], [ 211, 217 ], [ 250, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Airline ownership has seen a shift from mostly personal ownership until the 1930s to government-ownership of major airlines from the 1940s to 1980s and back to large-scale privatization following the mid-1980s. Since the 1980s, there has also been a trend of major airline mergers and the formation of airline alliances. The largest alliances are Star Alliance, SkyTeam and Oneworld, and these three collectively account for more than 60% of global commercial air traffic in 2015. Airline alliances coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent-flyer programs), offer special interline tickets and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24661, 20769, 286390, 333199, 293815, 2313845, 254753, 10401525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 185 ], [ 273, 280 ], [ 347, 360 ], [ 362, 369 ], [ 374, 382 ], [ 552, 559 ], [ 564, 587 ], [ 604, 613 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", the largest airline by passengers carried and fleet size was the American Airlines Group, while Delta Air Lines was the largest by revenue. Lufthansa Group was the largest by number of employees, FedEx Express by freight tonne-kilometres, Turkish Airlines by number of countries served and UPS Airlines by number of destinations served (though United Airlines was the largest passenger airline by number of destinations served).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1374854, 38521579, 77549, 247120, 97733, 314993, 1693066, 11599751, 167925, 9704675, 32307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 21 ], [ 67, 90 ], [ 98, 113 ], [ 133, 140 ], [ 142, 157 ], [ 187, 195 ], [ 198, 211 ], [ 223, 239 ], [ 241, 257 ], [ 292, 304 ], [ 346, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DELAG, Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-Aktiengesellschaft I was the world's first airline. It was founded on 16 November 1909, with government assistance, and operated airships manufactured by The Zeppelin Corporation. Its headquarters were in Frankfurt. The first fixed-wing scheduled airline was started on 1 January 1914, from St. Petersburg, Florida, to Tampa, Florida, operated by the St. Petersburg–Tampa Airboat Line. The four oldest non-dirigible airlines that still exist are the Netherlands' KLM (1919), Colombia's Avianca (1919), Australia's Qantas (1921), and the Czech Republic's Czech Airlines (1923).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6779060, 16594564, 34440, 10992, 46770, 84504, 92995, 20983602, 16594564, 16882, 82195, 25254, 335703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 61, 82 ], [ 190, 210 ], [ 237, 246 ], [ 258, 268 ], [ 323, 346 ], [ 351, 365 ], [ 383, 416 ], [ 427, 456 ], [ 495, 498 ], [ 518, 525 ], [ 546, 552 ], [ 586, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest fixed wing airline in Europe was Aircraft Transport and Travel, formed by George Holt Thomas in 1916; via a series of takeovers and mergers, this company is an ancestor of modern-day British Airways. Using a fleet of former military Airco DH.4A biplanes that had been modified to carry two passengers in the fuselage, it operated relief flights between Folkestone and Ghent. On 15 July 1919, the company flew a proving flight across the English Channel, despite a lack of support from the British government. Flown by Lt. H Shaw in an Airco DH.9 between RAF Hendon and Paris – Le Bourget Airport, the flight took 2 hours and 30 minutes at £21 per passenger.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10854746, 31564629, 3970, 3323781, 160891, 88301, 12341, 9230, 7447714, 2994746, 606404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 75 ], [ 87, 105 ], [ 196, 211 ], [ 246, 256 ], [ 321, 329 ], [ 366, 376 ], [ 381, 386 ], [ 450, 465 ], [ 548, 558 ], [ 567, 577 ], [ 582, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 25 August 1919, the company used DH.16s to pioneer a regular service from Hounslow Heath Aerodrome to Le Bourget, the first regular international service in the world. The airline soon gained a reputation for reliability, despite problems with bad weather, and began to attract European competition. In November 1919, it won the first British civil airmail contract. Six Royal Air Force Airco DH.9A aircraft were lent to the company, to operate the airmail service between Hawkinge and Cologne. In 1920, they were returned to the Royal Air Force.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10663184, 30628344, 357156, 25679, 8944078, 1628051, 6187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 42 ], [ 77, 101 ], [ 352, 359 ], [ 374, 389 ], [ 390, 401 ], [ 476, 484 ], [ 489, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other British competitors were quick to follow – Handley Page Transport was established in 1919 and used the company's converted wartime Type O/400 bombers with a capacity for 12 passengers, to run a London-Paris passenger service.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9934607, 4764461, 512615, 3446, 17867, 22989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 71 ], [ 129, 136 ], [ 137, 147 ], [ 148, 154 ], [ 200, 206 ], [ 207, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first French airline was Société des lignes Latécoère, later known as Aéropostale, which started its first service in late 1918 to Spain. The Société Générale des Transports Aériens was created in late 1919, by the Farman brothers and the Farman F.60 Goliath plane flew scheduled services from Toussus-le-Noble to Kenley, near Croydon, England. Another early French airline was the Compagnie des Messageries Aériennes, established in 1919 by Louis-Charles Breguet, offering a mail and freight service between Le Bourget Airport, Paris and Lesquin Airport, Lille.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2165081, 13492986, 5000599, 9543003, 5572089, 1157183, 491650, 18179831, 937393, 606404, 22989, 5212573, 50116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 57 ], [ 146, 185 ], [ 219, 225 ], [ 243, 262 ], [ 298, 314 ], [ 318, 324 ], [ 331, 338 ], [ 386, 421 ], [ 446, 467 ], [ 513, 531 ], [ 533, 538 ], [ 543, 558 ], [ 560, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first German airline to use heavier than air aircraft was Deutsche Luft-Reederei established in 1917 which started operating in February 1919. In its first year, the D.L.R. operated regularly scheduled flights on routes with a combined length of nearly 1000 miles. By 1921 the D.L.R. network was more than 3000km (1865 miles) long, and included destinations in the Netherlands, Scandinavia and the Baltic Republics. Another important German airline was Junkers Luftverkehr, which began operations in 1921. It was a division of the aircraft manufacturer Junkers, which became a separate company in 1924. It operated joint-venture airlines in Austria, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Hungary, Latvia, Norway, Poland, Sweden and Switzerland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15447363, 6838088, 242050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 84 ], [ 457, 476 ], [ 557, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dutch airline KLM made its first flight in 1920, and is the oldest continuously operating airline in the world. Established by aviator Albert Plesman, it was immediately awarded a \"Royal\" predicate from Queen Wilhelmina. Its first flight was from Croydon Airport, London to Amsterdam, using a leased Aircraft Transport and Travel DH-16, and carrying two British journalists and a number of newspapers. In 1921, KLM started scheduled services.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21148, 16882, 2466123, 102298, 101216, 17867, 844, 10854746, 10663184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 18, 21 ], [ 139, 153 ], [ 207, 223 ], [ 251, 266 ], [ 268, 274 ], [ 278, 287 ], [ 304, 333 ], [ 334, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Finland, the charter establishing Aero O/Y (now Finnair) was signed in the city of Helsinki on 12 September 1923. Junkers F.13 D-335 became the first aircraft of the company, when Aero took delivery of it on 14 March 1924. The first flight was between Helsinki and Tallinn, capital of Estonia, and it took place on 20 March 1924, one week later.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 10577, 144592, 13696, 486829, 31577, 28222445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 10 ], [ 51, 58 ], [ 86, 94 ], [ 117, 129 ], [ 268, 275 ], [ 288, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Soviet Union, the Chief Administration of the Civil Air Fleet was established in 1921. One of its first acts was to help found Deutsch-Russische Luftverkehrs A.G. (Deruluft), a German-Russian joint venture to provide air transport from Russia to the West. Domestic air service began around the same time, when Dobrolyot started operations on 15 July 1923 between Moscow and Nizhni Novgorod. Since 1932 all operations had been carried under the name Aeroflot.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26779, 89659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 456, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early European airlines tended to favor comfort – the passenger cabins were often spacious with luxurious interiors – over speed and efficiency. The relatively basic navigational capabilities of pilots at the time also meant that delays due to the weather were commonplace.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the early 1920s, small airlines were struggling to compete, and there was a movement towards increased rationalization and consolidation. In 1924, Imperial Airways was formed from the merger of Instone Air Line Company, British Marine Air Navigation, Daimler Airway and Handley Page Transport, to allow British airlines to compete with stiff competition from French and German airlines that were enjoying heavy government subsidies. The airline was a pioneer in surveying and opening up air routes across the world to serve far-flung parts of the British Empire and to enhance trade and integration.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15357, 11698762, 16103275, 14604189, 9934607, 4721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 166 ], [ 197, 221 ], [ 223, 252 ], [ 254, 268 ], [ 273, 295 ], [ 550, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first new airliner ordered by Imperial Airways, was the Handley Page W8f City of Washington, delivered on 3 November 1924. In the first year of operation the company carried 11,395 passengers and 212,380 letters. In April 1925, the film The Lost World became the first film to be screened for passengers on a scheduled airliner flight when it was shown on the London-Paris route.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6949413, 2509613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 76 ], [ 241, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two French airlines also merged to form Air Union on 1 January 1923. This later merged with four other French airlines to become Air France, the country's flagship carrier to this day, on 17 May 1933.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18179879, 14998012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 49 ], [ 129, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Germany's Deutsche Luft Hansa was created in 1926 by merger of two airlines, one of them Junkers Luftverkehr. Luft Hansa, due to the Junkers heritage and unlike most other airlines at the time, became a major investor in airlines outside of Europe, providing capital to Varig and Avianca. German airliners built by Junkers, Dornier, and Fokker were among the most advanced in the world at the time.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6838088, 6838088, 242188, 26158862, 242050, 93334, 51522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ], [ 89, 108 ], [ 133, 140 ], [ 270, 275 ], [ 315, 322 ], [ 324, 331 ], [ 337, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1926, Alan Cobham surveyed a flight route from the UK to Cape Town, South Africa, following this up with another proving flight to Melbourne, Australia. Other routes to British India and the Far East were also charted and demonstrated at this time. Regular services to Cairo and Basra began in 1927 and were extended to Karachi in 1929. The London-Australia service was inaugurated in 1932 with the Handley Page HP 42 airliners. Further services were opened up to Calcutta, Rangoon, Singapore, Brisbane and Hong Kong passengers departed London on 14 March 1936 following the establishment of a branch from Penang to Hong Kong.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 663926, 6653, 17416221, 17306237, 4689264, 3574003, 11672, 6293, 57580, 17123, 4689264, 1419858, 47905, 57404, 27318, 192093, 13404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 60, 69 ], [ 71, 83 ], [ 134, 143 ], [ 145, 154 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 194, 202 ], [ 272, 277 ], [ 282, 287 ], [ 323, 330 ], [ 351, 360 ], [ 402, 420 ], [ 467, 475 ], [ 477, 484 ], [ 486, 495 ], [ 497, 505 ], [ 510, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Imperial's aircraft were small, most seating fewer than twenty passengers, and catered for the rich. Only about 50,000 passengers used Imperial Airways in the 1930s. Most passengers on intercontinental routes or on services within and between British colonies were men doing colonial administration, business or research.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Like Imperial Airways, Air France and KLM's early growth depended heavily on the needs to service links with far-flung colonial possessions (North Africa and Indochina for the French and the East Indies for the Dutch). France began an air mail service to Morocco in 1919 that was bought out in 1927, renamed Aéropostale, and injected with capital to become a major international carrier. In 1933, Aéropostale went bankrupt, was nationalized and merged into Air France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14998012, 16882, 762984, 52053, 23476997, 19291, 2165081, 4695, 14998012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 33 ], [ 38, 41 ], [ 141, 153 ], [ 158, 167 ], [ 191, 202 ], [ 255, 262 ], [ 308, 319 ], [ 414, 422 ], [ 457, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Germany lacked colonies, it also began expanding its services globally. In 1931, the airship Graf Zeppelin began offering regular scheduled passenger service between Germany and South America, usually every two weeks, which continued until 1937. In 1936, the airship Hindenburg entered passenger service and successfully crossed the Atlantic 36 times before crashing at Lakehurst, New Jersey, on 6 May 1937. In 1938, a weekly air service from Berlin to Kabul, Afghanistan, started operating.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 567983, 55106, 16826, 737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 115 ], [ 276, 286 ], [ 462, 467 ], [ 469, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From February 1934 until World War II began in 1939 Deutsche Lufthansa operated an airmail service from Stuttgart, Germany via Spain, the Canary Islands and West Africa to Natal in Brazil. This was the first time an airline flew across an ocean.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6838088, 28565, 11867, 26667, 5717, 658282, 3383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 70 ], [ 104, 113 ], [ 115, 122 ], [ 127, 132 ], [ 138, 152 ], [ 172, 177 ], [ 181, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the end of the 1930s Aeroflot had become the world's largest airline, employing more than 4,000 pilots and 60,000 other service personnel and operating around 3,000 aircraft (of which 75% were considered obsolete by its own standards). During the Soviet era Aeroflot was synonymous with Russian civil aviation, as it was the only air carrier. It became the first airline in the world to operate sustained regular jet services on 15 September 1956 with the Tupolev Tu-104.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 89659, 229909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 32 ], [ 459, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Deregulation of the European Union airspace in the early 1990s has had substantial effect on the structure of the industry there. The shift towards 'budget' airlines on shorter routes has been significant. Airlines such as EasyJet and Ryanair have often grown at the expense of the traditional national airlines.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9317, 180466, 262878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 34 ], [ 223, 230 ], [ 235, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There has also been a trend for these national airlines themselves to be privatized such as has occurred for Aer Lingus and British Airways. Other national airlines, including Italy's Alitalia, suffered – particularly with the rapid increase of oil prices in early 2008.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 140665, 3970, 22741252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 119 ], [ 124, 139 ], [ 184, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Finnair, the largest airline of Finland, had no fatal or hull-loss accidents since 1963, and is recognized for its safety.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 144592, 10577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 32, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tony Jannus conducted the United States' first scheduled commercial airline flight on 1 January 1914 for the St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line. The 23-minute flight traveled between St. Petersburg, Florida and Tampa, Florida, passing some above Tampa Bay in Jannus' Benoist XIV wood and muslin biplane flying boat. His passenger was a former mayor of St. Petersburg, who paid $400 for the privilege of sitting on a wooden bench in the open cockpit. The Airboat line operated for about four months, carrying more than 1,200 passengers who paid $5 each. Chalk's International Airlines began service between Miami and Bimini in the Bahamas in February 1919. Based in Ft. Lauderdale, Chalk's claimed to be the oldest continuously operating airline in the United States until its closure in 2008.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1939939, 20983602, 84504, 92995, 11890610, 573803, 3451, 109028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 109, 142 ], [ 182, 205 ], [ 210, 224 ], [ 267, 278 ], [ 553, 583 ], [ 630, 637 ], [ 665, 679 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following World War I, the United States found itself swamped with aviators. Many decided to take their war-surplus aircraft on barnstorming campaigns, performing aerobatic maneuvers to woo crowds. In 1918, the United States Postal Service won the financial backing of Congress to begin experimenting with air mail service, initially using Curtiss Jenny aircraft that had been procured by the United States Army Air Service. Private operators were the first to fly the mail but due to numerous accidents the US Army was tasked with mail delivery. During the Army's involvement they proved to be too unreliable and lost their air mail duties. By the mid-1920s, the Postal Service had developed its own air mail network, based on a transcontinental backbone between New York City and San Francisco. To supplement this service, they offered twelve contracts for spur routes to independent bidders. Some of the carriers that won these routes would, through time and mergers, evolve into Pan Am, Delta Air Lines, Braniff Airways, American Airlines, United Airlines (originally a division of Boeing), Trans World Airlines, Northwest Airlines, and Eastern Air Lines.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4764461, 50591, 31756, 357156, 251858, 662917, 50591, 645042, 49728, 81024, 77549, 383819, 2386, 32307, 18933266, 152449, 146068, 92313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 211, 239 ], [ 269, 277 ], [ 306, 314 ], [ 340, 353 ], [ 393, 423 ], [ 664, 678 ], [ 764, 777 ], [ 782, 795 ], [ 983, 989 ], [ 991, 1006 ], [ 1008, 1023 ], [ 1025, 1042 ], [ 1044, 1059 ], [ 1086, 1092 ], [ 1095, 1115 ], [ 1117, 1135 ], [ 1141, 1158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Service during the early 1920s was sporadic: most airlines at the time were focused on carrying bags of mail. In 1925, however, the Ford Motor Company bought out the Stout Aircraft Company and began construction of the all-metal Ford Trimotor, which became the first successful American airliner. With a 12-passenger capacity, the Trimotor made passenger service potentially profitable. Air service was seen as a supplement to rail service in the American transportation network.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 357156, 30433662, 3890442, 536357, 25715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 108 ], [ 132, 150 ], [ 166, 188 ], [ 229, 242 ], [ 427, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the same time, Juan Trippe began a crusade to create an air network that would link America to the world, and he achieved this goal through his airline, Pan Am, with a fleet of flying boats that linked Los Angeles to Shanghai and Boston to London. Pan Am and Northwest Airways (which began flights to Canada in the 1920s) were the only U.S. airlines to go international before the 1940s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 244525, 81024, 18110, 27643, 24437894, 17867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 29 ], [ 156, 162 ], [ 205, 216 ], [ 220, 228 ], [ 233, 239 ], [ 243, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the introduction of the Boeing 247 and Douglas DC-3 in the 1930s, the U.S. airline industry was generally profitable, even during the Great Depression. This trend continued until the beginning of World War II.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 487888, 167815, 19283335, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 39 ], [ 44, 56 ], [ 139, 155 ], [ 201, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "World War II, like World War I, brought new life to the airline industry. Many airlines in the Allied countries were flush from lease contracts to the military, and foresaw a future explosive demand for civil air transport, for both passengers and cargo. They were eager to invest in the newly emerging flagships of air travel such as the Boeing Stratocruiser, Lockheed Constellation, and Douglas DC-6. Most of these new aircraft were based on American bombers such as the B-29, which had spearheaded research into new technologies such as pressurization. Most offered increased efficiency from both added speed and greater payload.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 444990, 274115, 494192, 53179, 1413453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 339, 359 ], [ 361, 383 ], [ 389, 401 ], [ 473, 477 ], [ 540, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1950s, the De Havilland Comet, Boeing 707, Douglas DC-8, and Sud Aviation Caravelle became the first flagships of the Jet Age in the West, while the Eastern bloc had Tupolev Tu-104 and Tupolev Tu-124 in the fleets of state-owned carriers such as Czechoslovak ČSA, Soviet Aeroflot and East-German Interflug. The Vickers Viscount and Lockheed L-188 Electra inaugurated turboprop transport.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 182728, 67409, 186219, 319451, 229909, 534390, 335703, 89659, 568281, 323960, 488719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ], [ 38, 48 ], [ 50, 62 ], [ 68, 90 ], [ 173, 187 ], [ 192, 206 ], [ 266, 269 ], [ 278, 286 ], [ 303, 312 ], [ 318, 334 ], [ 339, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 4 October 1958, British Overseas Airways Corporation started transatlantic flights between London Heathrow and New York Idlewild with a Comet 4, and Pan Am followed on 26 October with a Boeing 707 service between New York and Paris.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 44866611, 669724, 13595, 97218, 81024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 55 ], [ 64, 84 ], [ 94, 109 ], [ 114, 131 ], [ 152, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next big boost for the airlines would come in the 1970s, when the Boeing 747, McDonnell Douglas DC-10, and Lockheed L-1011 inaugurated widebody (\"jumbo jet\") service, which is still the standard in international travel. The Tupolev Tu-144 and its Western counterpart, Concorde, made supersonic travel a reality. Concorde first flew in 1969 and operated through 2003. In 1972, Airbus began producing Europe's most commercially successful line of airliners to date. The added efficiencies for these aircraft were often not in speed, but in passenger capacity, payload, and range. Airbus also features modern electronic cockpits that were common across their aircraft to enable pilots to fly multiple models with minimal cross-training.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4614, 150296, 103076, 181206, 31102, 7045, 26220236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 80 ], [ 82, 105 ], [ 111, 126 ], [ 139, 147 ], [ 228, 242 ], [ 272, 280 ], [ 380, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1978 U.S. airline industry deregulation lowered federally controlled barriers for new airlines just as a downturn in the nation's economy occurred. New start-ups entered during the downturn, during which time they found aircraft and funding, contracted hangar and maintenance services, trained new employees, and recruited laid-off staff from other airlines.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 64671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Major airlines dominated their routes through aggressive pricing and additional capacity offerings, often swamping new start-ups. In the place of high barriers to entry imposed by regulation, the major airlines implemented an equally high barrier called loss leader pricing. In this strategy an already established and dominant airline stomps out its competition by lowering airfares on specific routes, below the cost of operating on it, choking out any chance a start-up airline may have. The industry side effect is an overall drop in revenue and service quality. Since deregulation in 1978 the average domestic ticket price has dropped by 40%. So has airline employee pay. By incurring massive losses, the airlines of the USA now rely upon a scourge of cyclical Chapter 11 bankruptcy proceedings to continue doing business. America West Airlines (which has since merged with US Airways) remained a significant survivor from this new entrant era, as dozens, even hundreds, have gone under.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 408006, 80404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 265 ], [ 828, 849 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In many ways, the biggest winner in the deregulated environment was the air passenger. Although not exclusively attributable to deregulation, indeed the U.S. witnessed an explosive growth in demand for air travel. Many millions who had never or rarely flown before became regular fliers, even joining frequent flyer loyalty programs and receiving free flights and other benefits from their flying. New services and higher frequencies meant that business fliers could fly to another city, do business, and return the same day, from almost any point in the country. Air travel's advantages put long-distance intercity railroad travel and bus lines under pressure, with most of the latter having withered away, whilst the former is still protected under nationalization through the continuing existence of Amtrak.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 254753, 25715, 1062429, 51928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 315 ], [ 616, 624 ], [ 751, 766 ], [ 803, 809 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the 1980s, almost half of the total flying in the world took place in the U.S., and today the domestic industry operates over 10,000 daily departures nationwide.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Toward the end of the century, a new style of low cost airline emerged, offering a no-frills product at a lower price. Southwest Airlines, JetBlue, AirTran Airways, Skybus Airlines and other low-cost carriers began to represent a serious challenge to the so-called \"legacy airlines\", as did their low-cost counterparts in many other countries. Their commercial viability represented a serious competitive threat to the legacy carriers. However, of these, ATA and Skybus have since ceased operations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 428422, 63032, 374328, 321331, 4491265, 149874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ], [ 119, 137 ], [ 139, 146 ], [ 148, 163 ], [ 165, 180 ], [ 455, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Increasingly since 1978, US airlines have been reincorporated and spun off by newly created and internally led management companies, and thus becoming nothing more than operating units and subsidiaries with limited financially decisive control. Among some of these holding companies and parent companies which are relatively well known, are the UAL Corporation, along with the AMR Corporation, among a long list of airline holding companies sometime recognized worldwide. Less recognized are the private-equity firms which often seize managerial, financial, and board of directors control of distressed airline companies by temporarily investing large sums of capital in air carriers, to rescheme an airlines assets into a profitable organization or liquidating an air carrier of their profitable and worthwhile routes and business operations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22499, 146080, 146080, 3038280, 1042296, 21285280, 13240432, 4822, 68804, 565034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 74 ], [ 265, 282 ], [ 287, 303 ], [ 345, 360 ], [ 377, 392 ], [ 407, 440 ], [ 496, 515 ], [ 562, 580 ], [ 660, 667 ], [ 750, 761 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus the last 50 years of the airline industry have varied from reasonably profitable, to devastatingly depressed. As the first major market to deregulate the industry in 1978, U.S. airlines have experienced more turbulence than almost any other country or region. In fact, no U.S. legacy carrier survived bankruptcy-free. Among the outspoken critics of deregulation, former CEO of American Airlines, Robert Crandall has publicly stated: \"Chapter 11 bankruptcy protection filing shows airline industry deregulation was a mistake.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8305907, 536887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 296 ], [ 401, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Congress passed the Air Transportation Safety and System Stabilization Act (P.L. 107–42) in response to a severe liquidity crisis facing the already-troubled airline industry in the aftermath of the 11 September terrorist attacks. Through the ATSB Congress sought to provide cash infusions to carriers for both the cost of the four-day federal shutdown of the airlines and the incremental losses incurred through 31 December 2001, as a result of the terrorist attacks. This resulted in the first government bailout of the 21st century. Between 2000 and 2005 US airlines lost $30 billion with wage cuts of over $15 billion and 100,000 employees laid off.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5058690, 2304457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 229 ], [ 243, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In recognition of the essential national economic role of a healthy aviation system, Congress authorized partial compensation of up to $5 billion in cash subject to review by the U.S. Department of Transportation and up to $10 billion in loan guarantees subject to review by a newly created Air Transportation Stabilization Board (ATSB). The applications to DOT for reimbursements were subjected to rigorous multi-year reviews not only by DOT program personnel but also by the Government Accountability Office and the DOT Inspector General.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 58235, 2304457, 199096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 212 ], [ 291, 329 ], [ 477, 509 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ultimately, the federal government provided $4.6 billion in one-time, subject-to-income-tax cash payments to 427 U.S. air carriers, with no provision for repayment, essentially a gift from the taxpayers. (Passenger carriers operating scheduled service received approximately $4 billion, subject to tax.) In addition, the ATSB approved loan guarantees to six airlines totaling approximately $1.6 billion. Data from the U.S. Treasury Department show that the government recouped the $1.6 billion and a profit of $339 million from the fees, interest and purchase of discounted airline stock associated with loan guarantees.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 53667 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 418, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The three largest major carriers and Southwest Airlines control 70% of the U.S. passenger market.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 753433, 63032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ], [ 37, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Philippine Airlines (PAL) was officially founded on 26 February 1941, its license to operate as an airliner was derived from merged Philippine Aerial Taxi Company (PATCO) established by mining magnate Emmanuel N. Bachrach on 3 December 1930, making it Asia's oldest scheduled carrier still in operation. Commercial air service commenced three weeks later from Manila to Baguio, making it Asia's first airline route. Bachrach's death in 1937 paved the way for its eventual merger with Philippine Airlines in March 1941 and made it Asia's oldest airline. It is also the oldest airline in Asia still operating under its current name. Bachrach's majority share in PATCO was bought by beer magnate Andres R. Soriano in 1939 upon the advice of General Douglas MacArthur and later merged with newly formed Philippine Airlines with PAL as the surviving entity. Soriano has controlling interest in both airlines before the merger. PAL restarted service on 15 March 1941, with a single Beech Model 18 NPC-54 aircraft, which started its daily services between Manila (from Nielson Field) and Baguio, later to expand with larger aircraft such as the DC-3 and Vickers Viscount.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 296889, 184334, 162480, 48596, 2045174, 184334, 162122, 162480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 28 ], [ 369, 375 ], [ 379, 385 ], [ 755, 772 ], [ 985, 999 ], [ 1058, 1064 ], [ 1071, 1084 ], [ 1090, 1096 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cathay Pacific was one of the first airlines to be launched among the other Asian countries in 1946 along with Asiana Airlines, which later joined in 1988. The license to operate as an airliner was granted by the federal government body after reviewing the necessity at the national assembly. The Hanjin occupies the largest ownership of Korean Air as well as few low-budget airlines as of now. Korean Air is one of the four founders of SkyTeam, which was established in 2000. Asiana Airlines joined Star Alliance in 2003. Korean Air and Asiana Airlines comprise one of the largest combined airline miles and number of passenger served at the regional market of Asian airline industry", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 151575, 331239, 1171882, 333199, 286390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 111, 126 ], [ 297, 303 ], [ 437, 444 ], [ 500, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "India was also one of the first countries to embrace civil aviation. One of the first Asian airline companies was Air India, which was founded as Tata Airlines in 1932, a division of Tata Sons Ltd. (now Tata Group). The airline was founded by India's leading industrialist, JRD Tata. On 15 October 1932, J. R. D. Tata himself flew a single engined De Havilland Puss Moth carrying air mail (postal mail of Imperial Airways) from Karachi to Bombay via Ahmedabad. The aircraft continued to Madras via Bellary piloted by Royal Air Force pilot Nevill Vintcent. Tata Airlines was also one of the world's first major airlines which began its operations without any support from the Government.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14533, 26457880, 26457880, 156818, 177603, 2428776, 15357, 17123, 19189, 206337, 45139, 25679, 10702069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 114, 123 ], [ 146, 159 ], [ 203, 213 ], [ 274, 282 ], [ 348, 370 ], [ 405, 421 ], [ 428, 435 ], [ 439, 445 ], [ 450, 459 ], [ 487, 493 ], [ 517, 532 ], [ 539, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the outbreak of World War II, the airline presence in Asia came to a relative halt, with many new flag carriers donating their aircraft for military aid and other uses. Following the end of the war in 1945, regular commercial service was restored in India and Tata Airlines became a public limited company on 29 July 1946, under the name Air India. After the independence of India, 49% of the airline was acquired by the Government of India. In return, the airline was granted status to operate international services from India as the designated flag carrier under the name Air India International.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 161022, 553883, 26457880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 364, 385 ], [ 426, 445 ], [ 580, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 31 July 1946, a chartered Philippine Airlines (PAL) DC-4 ferried 40 American servicemen to Oakland, California, from Nielson Airport in Makati with stops in Guam, Wake Island, Johnston Atoll and Honolulu, Hawaii, making PAL the first Asian airline to cross the Pacific Ocean. A regular service between Manila and San Francisco was started in December. It was during this year that the airline was designated as the flag carrier of Philippines.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 518813, 50548, 5407, 210279, 11974, 33189, 15704, 13887, 13270, 23070, 184334, 49728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 59 ], [ 94, 101 ], [ 103, 113 ], [ 139, 145 ], [ 160, 164 ], [ 166, 177 ], [ 179, 193 ], [ 198, 206 ], [ 208, 214 ], [ 264, 277 ], [ 305, 311 ], [ 316, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the era of decolonization, newly born Asian countries started to embrace air transport. Among the first Asian carriers during the era were Cathay Pacific of Hong Kong (founded in September 1946), Orient Airways (later Pakistan International Airlines; founded in October 1946), Air Ceylon (later SriLankan Airlines; founded in 1947), Malayan Airways Limited in 1947 (later Singapore and Malaysia Airlines), El Al in Israel in 1948, Garuda Indonesia in 1949, Japan Airlines in 1951, Thai Airways in 1960, and Korean National Airlines in 1947.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 302084, 151575, 13404, 4487481, 194124, 3127316, 483603, 1528210, 161591, 153162, 101594, 9282173, 175837, 197676, 303449, 7526662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 32 ], [ 146, 160 ], [ 164, 173 ], [ 203, 217 ], [ 225, 256 ], [ 284, 294 ], [ 302, 320 ], [ 340, 363 ], [ 379, 388 ], [ 393, 410 ], [ 413, 418 ], [ 422, 428 ], [ 438, 454 ], [ 464, 478 ], [ 488, 500 ], [ 514, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Singapore Airlines had won quality awards.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 161591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the first countries to have regular airlines in Latin America and the Caribbean were Bolivia with Lloyd Aéreo Boliviano, Cuba with Cubana de Aviación, Colombia with Avianca (the first airline established in the Americas), Argentina with Aerolíneas Argentinas, Chile with LAN Chile (today LATAM Airlines), Brazil with Varig, the Dominican Republic with Dominicana de Aviación, Mexico with Mexicana de Aviación, Trinidad and Tobago with BWIA West Indies Airways (today Caribbean Airlines), Venezuela with Aeropostal, Puerto Rico with Puertorriquena; and TACA based in El Salvador and representing several airlines of Central America (Costa Rica, Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua). All the previous airlines started regular operations well before World War II. Puerto Rican commercial airlines such as Prinair, Oceanair, Fina Air and Vieques Air Link came much after the second world war, as did several others from other countries like Mexico's Interjet and Volaris, Venezuela's Aserca Airlines and others.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3462, 162436, 5042481, 162126, 5222, 82195, 85198, 5489, 419797, 28375816, 3383, 26158862, 8060, 173215, 3966054, 98591, 3565457, 615407, 6954813, 32374, 1489828, 23041, 11938901, 417568, 9356, 6121, 5551, 17238567, 13394, 21362, 32927, 85450, 504015, 245007, 103422, 3502023, 3717400, 2069687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 98 ], [ 104, 125 ], [ 127, 131 ], [ 137, 155 ], [ 157, 165 ], [ 171, 178 ], [ 243, 264 ], [ 266, 271 ], [ 277, 286 ], [ 294, 308 ], [ 311, 317 ], [ 323, 328 ], [ 334, 352 ], [ 358, 380 ], [ 382, 388 ], [ 394, 414 ], [ 416, 435 ], [ 441, 465 ], [ 473, 491 ], [ 494, 503 ], [ 509, 519 ], [ 521, 532 ], [ 538, 552 ], [ 558, 562 ], [ 572, 583 ], [ 621, 636 ], [ 638, 648 ], [ 650, 659 ], [ 661, 669 ], [ 674, 683 ], [ 751, 763 ], [ 806, 813 ], [ 815, 823 ], [ 825, 833 ], [ 838, 854 ], [ 950, 958 ], [ 963, 970 ], [ 984, 999 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The air travel market has evolved rapidly over recent years in Latin America. Some industry estimates indicate that over 2,000 new aircraft will begin service over the next five years in this region.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These airlines serve domestic flights within their countries, as well as connections within Latin America and also overseas flights to North America, Europe, Australia, and Asia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Only five airline groups – Avianca, Panama's Copa, Mexico's Volaris, the Irelandia group and LATAM Airlines – have international subsidiaries and cover many destinations within the Americas as well as major hubs in other continents. LATAM with Chile as the central operation along with Peru, Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil and Argentina and formerly with some operations in the Dominican Republic. The Avianca group has its main operation in Colombia based around the hub in Bogotá, Colombia, as well as subsidiaries in various Latin American countries with hubs in San Salvador, El Salvador, as well as Lima, Peru, with a smaller operation in Ecuador. Copa has subsidiaries Copa Airlines Colombia and Wingo, both in Colombia, while Volaris of Mexico has Volaris Costa Rica and Volaris El Salvador, and the Irelandia group formerly included Viva Aerobus of Mexico; it now includes Viva Colombia and Viva Air Peru.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 82195, 298877, 3717400, 28375816, 5489, 170691, 9334, 5222, 3383, 18951905, 8060, 38907811, 299434, 11705288, 102000, 29077041, 52048759, 52501910, 65009308, 4395127, 31334708, 53708496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 34 ], [ 45, 49 ], [ 60, 67 ], [ 93, 107 ], [ 244, 249 ], [ 286, 290 ], [ 292, 299 ], [ 301, 309 ], [ 311, 317 ], [ 322, 331 ], [ 373, 391 ], [ 397, 404 ], [ 470, 476 ], [ 561, 573 ], [ 599, 603 ], [ 670, 692 ], [ 697, 702 ], [ 750, 768 ], [ 774, 793 ], [ 837, 849 ], [ 877, 890 ], [ 895, 908 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many countries have national airlines that the government owns and operates. Fully private airlines are subject to a great deal of government regulation for economic, political, and safety concerns. For instance, governments often intervene to halt airline labor actions to protect the free flow of people, communications, and goods between different regions without compromising safety.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 465816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The United States, Australia, and to a lesser extent Brazil, Mexico, India, the United Kingdom, and Japan have \"deregulated\" their airlines. In the past, these governments dictated airfares, route networks, and other operational requirements for each airline. Since deregulation, airlines have been largely free to negotiate their own operating arrangements with different airports, enter and exit routes easily, and to levy airfares and supply flights according to market demand. The entry barriers for new airlines are lower in a deregulated market, and so the U.S. has seen hundreds of airlines start up (sometimes for only a brief operating period). This has produced far greater competition than before deregulation in most markets. The added competition, together with pricing freedom, means that new entrants often take market share with highly reduced rates that, to a limited degree, full service airlines must match. This is a major constraint on profitability for established carriers, which tend to have a higher cost base.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As a result, profitability in a deregulated market is uneven for most airlines. These forces have caused some major airlines to go out of business, in addition to most of the poorly established new entrants.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, the airline industry is dominated by four large firms. Because of industry consolidation, after fuel prices dropped considerably in 2015, very little of the savings were passed on to consumers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Regulation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Groups such as the International Civil Aviation Organization establish worldwide standards for safety and other vital concerns. Most international air traffic is regulated by bilateral agreements between countries, which designate specific carriers to operate on specific routes. The model of such an agreement was the Bermuda Agreement between the US and UK following World War II, which designated airports to be used for transatlantic flights and gave each government the authority to nominate carriers to operate routes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 14985, 1273079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 60 ], [ 319, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bilateral agreements are based on the \"freedoms of the air\", a group of generalized traffic rights ranging from the freedom to overfly a country to the freedom to provide domestic flights within a country (a very rarely granted right known as cabotage). Most agreements permit airlines to fly from their home country to designated airports in the other country: some also extend the freedom to provide continuing service to a third country, or to another destination in the other country while carrying passengers from overseas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 483651, 1624953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 58 ], [ 243, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1990s, \"open skies\" agreements became more common. These agreements take many of these regulatory powers from state governments and open up international routes to further competition. Open skies agreements have met some criticism, particularly within the European Union, whose airlines would be at a comparative disadvantage with the United States' because of cabotage restrictions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Regulation", "target_page_ids": [ 483651, 1624953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 25 ], [ 368, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, 4.1 billion passengers have been carried by airlines in 41.9 million commercial scheduled flights (an average payload of passengers), for 7.75 trillion passenger kilometres (an average trip of km) over 45,091 airline routes served globally. In 2016, air transport generated $704.4 billion of revenue in 2016, employed 10.2 million workers, supported 65.5 million jobs and $2.7 trillion of economic activity: 3.6% of the global GDP.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 11599751, 12594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 181 ], [ 438, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2016, the total weekly airline capacity was 181.1 billion Available Seat Kilometers (+6.9% compared to July 2015): 57.6bn in Asia-Pacific, 47.7bn in Europe, 46.2bn in North America, 12.2bn in Middle East, 12.0bn in Latin America and 5.4bn in Africa.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 2844597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Airlines have substantial fixed and operating costs to establish and maintain air services: labor, fuel, airplanes, engines, spares and parts, IT services and networks, airport equipment, airport handling services, booking commissions, advertising, catering, training, aviation insurance and other costs. Thus all but a small percentage of the income from ticket sales is paid out to a wide variety of external providers or internal cost centers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 7092977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 269, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Moreover, the industry is structured so that airlines often act as tax collectors. Airline fuel is untaxed because of a series of treaties existing between countries. Ticket prices include a number of fees, taxes and surcharges beyond the control of airlines. Airlines are also responsible for enforcing government regulations. If airlines carry passengers without proper documentation on an international flight, they are responsible for returning them back to the original country.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Analysis of the 1992–1996 period shows that every player in the air transport chain is far more profitable than the airlines, who collect and pass through fees and revenues to them from ticket sales. While airlines as a whole earned 6% return on capital employed (2–3.5% less than the cost of capital), airports earned 10%, catering companies 10–13%, handling companies 11–14%, aircraft lessors 15%, aircraft manufacturers 16%, and global distribution companies more than 30%.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There has been continuing cost competition from low cost airlines. Many companies emulate Southwest Airlines in various respects. The lines between full-service and low-cost airlines have become blurred – e.g., with most \"full service\" airlines introducing baggage check fees despite Southwest not doing so.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 428422, 63032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 64 ], [ 90, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many airlines in the U.S. and elsewhere have experienced business difficulty. U.S. airlines that have declared Chapter 11 bankruptcy since 1990 have included American Airlines, Continental Airlines (twice), Delta Air Lines, Northwest Airlines, Pan Am, United Airlines and US Airways (twice).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 7279, 2386, 113558, 77549, 146068, 81024, 32307, 291315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 121 ], [ 158, 175 ], [ 177, 197 ], [ 207, 222 ], [ 224, 242 ], [ 244, 250 ], [ 252, 267 ], [ 272, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Where an airline has established an engineering base at an airport, then there may be considerable economic advantages in using that same airport as a preferred focus (or \"hub\") for its scheduled flights.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fuel hedging is a contractual tool used by transportation companies like airlines to reduce their exposure to volatile and potentially rising fuel costs. Several low-cost carriers such as Southwest Airlines adopt this practice. Southwest is credited with maintaining strong business profits between 1999 and the early 2000s due to its fuel hedging policy. Many other airlines are replicating Southwest's hedging policy to control their fuel costs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 19402331, 19280537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 18, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Operating costs for US major airlines are primarily aircraft operating expense including jet fuel, aircraft maintenance, depreciation and aircrew for 44%, servicing expense for 29% (traffic 11%, passenger 11% and aircraft 7%), 14% for reservations and sales and 13% for overheads (administration 6% and advertising 2%). An average US major Boeing 757-200 flies stages 11.3 block hours per day and costs $2,550 per block hour: $923 of ownership, $590 of maintenance, $548 of fuel and $489 of crew; or $13.34 per 186 seats per block hour. For a Boeing 737-500, a low-cost carrier like Southwest have lower operating costs at $1,526 than a full service one like United at $2,974, and higher productivity with 399,746 ASM per day against 264,284, resulting in a unit cost of $cts/ASM against $cts/ASM.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 753433, 899058, 1205435, 8917371, 291268, 1001906, 9525663, 151995, 15103676, 424899, 2844597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 36 ], [ 61, 78 ], [ 89, 97 ], [ 99, 119 ], [ 121, 133 ], [ 138, 145 ], [ 270, 279 ], [ 340, 350 ], [ 544, 558 ], [ 689, 701 ], [ 715, 718 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "McKinsey observes that \"newer technology, larger aircraft, and increasingly efficient operations continually drive down the cost of running an airline\", from nearly 40 US cents per ASK at the beginning of the jet age, to just above 10 cents since 2000. Those improvements were passed onto the customer due to high competition: fares have been falling throughout the history of airlines.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 642328, 2844597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 181, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Airlines assign prices to their services in an attempt to maximize profitability. The pricing of airline tickets has become increasingly complicated over the years and is now largely determined by computerized yield management systems.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 1053994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the complications in scheduling flights and maintaining profitability, airlines have many loopholes that can be used by the knowledgeable traveler. Many of these airfare secrets are becoming more and more known to the general public, so airlines are forced to make constant adjustments.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most airlines use differentiated pricing, a form of price discrimination, to sell air services at varying prices simultaneously to different segments. Factors influencing the price include the days remaining until departure, the booked load factor, the forecast of total demand by price point, competitive pricing in force, and variations by day of week of departure and by time of day. Carriers often accomplish this by dividing each cabin of the aircraft (first, business and economy) into a number of travel classes for pricing purposes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 156259, 1055318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 72 ], [ 504, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A complicating factor is that of origin-destination control (\"O&D control\"). Someone purchasing a ticket from Melbourne to Sydney (as an example) for A$200 is competing with someone else who wants to fly Melbourne to Los Angeles through Sydney on the same flight, and who is willing to pay A$1400. Should the airline prefer the $1400 passenger, or the $200 passenger plus a possible Sydney-Los Angeles passenger willing to pay $1300? Airlines have to make hundreds of thousands of similar pricing decisions daily.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The advent of advanced computerized reservations systems in the late 1970s, most notably Sabre, allowed airlines to easily perform cost-benefit analyses on different pricing structures, leading to almost perfect price discrimination in some cases (that is, filling each seat on an aircraft at the highest price that can be charged without driving the consumer elsewhere).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 1155993, 374583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 94 ], [ 131, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The intense nature of airfare pricing has led to the term \"fare war\" to describe efforts by airlines to undercut other airlines on competitive routes. Through computers, new airfares can be published quickly and efficiently to the airlines' sales channels. For this purpose the airlines use the Airline Tariff Publishing Company (ATPCO), who distribute latest fares for more than 500 airlines to Computer Reservation Systems across the world.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 256487, 7887688, 1155952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 67 ], [ 295, 328 ], [ 396, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The extent of these pricing phenomena is strongest in \"legacy\" carriers. In contrast, low fare carriers usually offer pre-announced and simplified price structure, and sometimes quote prices for each leg of a trip separately.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Computers also allow airlines to predict, with some accuracy, how many passengers will actually fly after making a reservation to fly. This allows airlines to overbook their flights enough to fill the aircraft while accounting for \"no-shows\", but not enough (in most cases) to force paying passengers off the aircraft for lack of seats, stimulative pricing for low demand flights coupled with overbooking on high demand flights can help reduce this figure. This is especially crucial during tough economic times as airlines undertake massive cuts to ticket prices to retain demand.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 7142922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 393, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over January/February 2018, the cheapest airline surveyed by price comparator rome2rio was now-defunct Tigerair Australia with $0.06/km followed by AirAsia X with $0.07/km, while the most expensive was Charterlines, Inc. with $1.26/km followed by Buddha Air with $1.18/km.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 31463412, 10548601, 8780449, 1597626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 86 ], [ 103, 121 ], [ 148, 157 ], [ 247, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the IATA, the global airline industry revenue was $754 billion in 2017 for a $38.4 billion collective profit, and should rise by 10.7% to $834 billion in 2018 for a $33.8 billion profit forecast, down by 12% due to rising jet fuel and labor costs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 65840, 247120, 19417927, 1205435, 857255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 12 ], [ 42, 49 ], [ 106, 112 ], [ 226, 234 ], [ 239, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The demand for air transport will be less elastic for longer flights than for shorter flights, and more elastic for leisure travel than for business travel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 171614, 8758086, 12482068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 49 ], [ 54, 68 ], [ 140, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Airlines often have a strong seasonality, with traffic low in winter and peaking in summer. In Europe the most extreme market are the Greek islands with July/August having more than ten times the winter traffic, as Jet2 is the most seasonal among low-cost carriers with July having seven times the January traffic, whereas legacy carriers are much less with only 85/115% variability.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 20130172, 12634, 861124, 428422, 8305907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 40 ], [ 134, 147 ], [ 215, 219 ], [ 247, 263 ], [ 323, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Airline financing is quite complex, since airlines are highly leveraged operations. Not only must they purchase (or lease) new airliner bodies and engines regularly, they must make major long-term fleet decisions with the goal of meeting the demands of their markets while producing a fleet that is relatively economical to operate and maintain; comparably Southwest Airlines and their reliance on a single airplane type (the Boeing 737 and derivatives), with the now defunct Eastern Air Lines which operated 17 different aircraft types, each with varying pilot, engine, maintenance, and support needs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 149697, 92313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 426, 436 ], [ 476, 493 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A second financial issue is that of hedging oil and fuel purchases, which are usually second only to labor in its relative cost to the company. However, with the current high fuel prices it has become the largest cost to an airline. Legacy airlines, compared with new entrants, have been hit harder by rising fuel prices partly due to the running of older, less fuel efficient aircraft. While hedging instruments can be expensive, they can easily pay for themselves many times over in periods of increasing fuel costs, such as in the 2000–2005 period.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 338007, 23195, 21188370, 18178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 43 ], [ 44, 47 ], [ 52, 56 ], [ 101, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In view of the congestion apparent at many international airports, the ownership of slots at certain airports (the right to take-off or land an aircraft at a particular time of day or night) has become a significant tradable asset for many airlines. Clearly take-off slots at popular times of the day can be critical in attracting the more profitable business traveler to a given airline's flight and in establishing a competitive advantage against a competing airline.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 37575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If a particular city has two or more airports, market forces will tend to attract the less profitable routes, or those on which competition is weakest, to the less congested airport, where slots are likely to be more available and therefore cheaper. For example, Reagan National Airport attracts profitable routes due partly to its congestion, leaving less-profitable routes to Baltimore-Washington International Airport and Dulles International Airport.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 181392, 48314, 33591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 263, 286 ], [ 378, 420 ], [ 425, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other factors, such as surface transport facilities and onward connections, will also affect the relative appeal of different airports and some long-distance flights may need to operate from the one with the longest runway. For example, LaGuardia Airport is the preferred airport for most of Manhattan due to its proximity, while long-distance routes must use John F. Kennedy International Airport's longer runways.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 248547, 45470, 97218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 237, 254 ], [ 292, 301 ], [ 360, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Codesharing is the most common type of airline partnership; it involves one airline selling tickets for another airline's flights under its own airline code. An early example of this was Japan Airlines' (JAL) codesharing partnership with Aeroflot in the 1960s on Tokyo–Moscow flights; Aeroflot operated the flights using Aeroflot aircraft, but JAL sold tickets for the flights as if they were JAL flights. This practice allows airlines to expand their operations, at least on paper, into parts of the world where they cannot afford to establish bases or purchase aircraft. Another example was the Austrian–Sabena partnership on the Vienna–Brussels–New York/JFK route during the late '60s, using a Sabena Boeing 707 with Austrian livery.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 105097, 30057, 19004, 3368467, 162886, 55866, 3708, 645042, 67409, 12296627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 263, 268 ], [ 269, 275 ], [ 597, 605 ], [ 606, 612 ], [ 632, 638 ], [ 639, 647 ], [ 648, 656 ], [ 704, 714 ], [ 729, 735 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since airline reservation requests are often made by city-pair (such as \"show me flights from Chicago to Düsseldorf\"), an airline that can codeshare with another airline for a variety of routes might be able to be listed as indeed offering a Chicago–Düsseldorf flight. The passenger is advised however, that airline no. 1 operates the flight from say Chicago to Amsterdam (for example), and airline no. 2 operates the continuing flight (on a different airplane, sometimes from another terminal) to Düsseldorf. Thus the primary rationale for code sharing is to expand one's service offerings in city-pair terms to increase sales.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 65711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 250, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A more recent development is the airline alliance, which became prevalent in the late 1990s. These alliances can act as virtual mergers to get around government restrictions. The largest are Star Alliance, SkyTeam and Oneworld, and these accounted for over 60% of global commercial air traffic . Alliances of airlines coordinate their passenger service programs (such as lounges and frequent-flyer programs), offer special interline tickets and often engage in extensive codesharing (sometimes systemwide). These are increasingly integrated business combinations—sometimes including cross-equity arrangements—in which products, service standards, schedules, and airport facilities are standardized and combined for higher efficiency. One of the first airlines to start an alliance with another airline was KLM, who partnered with Northwest Airlines. Both airlines later entered the SkyTeam alliance after the fusion of KLM and Air France in 2004.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 105349, 286390, 333199, 293815, 2313845, 254753, 10401525, 105097, 16882, 146068, 357689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 49 ], [ 191, 204 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 218, 226 ], [ 371, 378 ], [ 383, 405 ], [ 423, 432 ], [ 471, 482 ], [ 806, 809 ], [ 830, 848 ], [ 909, 937 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Often the companies combine IT operations, or purchase fuel and aircraft as a bloc to achieve higher bargaining power. However, the alliances have been most successful at purchasing invisible supplies and services, such as fuel. Airlines usually prefer to purchase items visible to their passengers to differentiate themselves from local competitors. If an airline's main domestic competitor flies Boeing airliners, then the airline may prefer to use Airbus aircraft regardless of what the rest of the alliance chooses.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 36674345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The world's largest airlines can be defined in several ways. , American Airlines Group was the largest by fleet size, passengers carried and revenue passenger mile. Delta Air Lines was the largest by revenue, assets value and market capitalization. Lufthansa Group was the largest by number of employees, FedEx Express by freight tonne-kilometres, Turkish Airlines by number of countries served and UPS Airlines by number of destinations served (though United Airlines was the largest passenger airline by number of destinations served).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 1374854, 38521579, 4582654, 4582654, 77549, 247120, 18934838, 58829, 97733, 314993, 1693066, 11599751, 167925, 9704675, 32307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 28 ], [ 63, 86 ], [ 118, 127 ], [ 141, 163 ], [ 165, 180 ], [ 200, 207 ], [ 209, 214 ], [ 226, 247 ], [ 249, 264 ], [ 294, 302 ], [ 305, 318 ], [ 330, 346 ], [ 348, 364 ], [ 399, 411 ], [ 453, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historically, air travel has survived largely through state support, whether in the form of equity or subsidies. The airline industry as a whole has made a cumulative loss during its 100-year history.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One argument is that positive externalities, such as higher growth due to global mobility, outweigh the microeconomic losses and justify continuing government intervention. A historically high level of government intervention in the airline industry can be seen as part of a wider political consensus on strategic forms of transport, such as highways and railways, both of which receive public funding in most parts of the world. Although many countries continue to operate state-owned or parastatal airlines, many large airlines today are privately owned and are therefore governed by microeconomic principles to maximize shareholder profit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 61193, 48519, 25715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 43 ], [ 342, 349 ], [ 355, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1991, the collapse of Pan Am, an airline often credited for shaping the international airline industry, highlighted the financial complexities faced by major airline companies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Following the 1978 deregulation, U.S. carriers did not manage to make an aggregate profit for 12 years in 31, including four years where combined losses amounted to $10 billion, but rebounded with eight consecutive years of profits since 2010, including its four with over $10 billion profits. They drop loss-making routes, avoid fare wars and market share battles, limit capacity growth, add hub feed with regional jets to increase their profitability. They change schedules to create more connections, buy used aircraft, reduce international frequencies and leverage partnerships to optimise capacities and benefit from overseas connectivity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 64671, 14252702, 14620731, 256487, 8012445, 2153809, 1726928, 5053838, 14252702, 4941851, 222783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 31 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 146, 152 ], [ 330, 338 ], [ 344, 356 ], [ 372, 380 ], [ 393, 396 ], [ 407, 419 ], [ 439, 452 ], [ 466, 474 ], [ 569, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aircraft engines emit noise pollution, gases and particulate emissions, and contribute to global dimming.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environment", "target_page_ids": [ 66599, 407233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ], [ 90, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Growth of the industry in recent years raised a number of ecological questions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Domestic air transport grew in China at 15.5 percent annually from 2001 to 2006. The rate of air travel globally increased at 3.7 percent per year over the same time. In the EU greenhouse gas emissions from aviation increased by 87% between 1990 and 2006. However it must be compared with the flights increase, only in UK, between 1990 and 2006 terminal passengers increased from 100 000 thousands to 250 000 thousands., according to AEA reports every year, 750 million passengers travel by European airlines, which also share 40% of merchandise value in and out of Europe. Without even pressure from \"green activists\", targeting lower ticket prices, generally, airlines do what is possible to cut the fuel consumption (and gas emissions connected therewith). Further, according to some reports, it can be concluded that the last piston-powered aircraft were as fuel-efficient as the average jet in 2005.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environment", "target_page_ids": [ 9528025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite continuing efficiency improvements from the major aircraft manufacturers, the expanding demand for global air travel has resulted in growing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Currently, the aviation sector, including US domestic and global international travel, make approximately 1.6 percent of global anthropogenic GHG emissions per annum. North America accounts for nearly 40 percent of the world's GHG emissions from aviation fuel use.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " emissions from the jet fuel burned per passenger on an average airline flight is about 353 kilograms (776pounds). Loss of natural habitat potential associated with the jet fuel burned per passenger on a airline flight is estimated to be 250 square meters (2700 square feet).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environment", "target_page_ids": [ 1205435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the context of climate change and peak oil, there is a debate about possible taxation of air travel and the inclusion of aviation in an emissions trading scheme, with a view to ensuring that the total external costs of aviation are taken into account.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environment", "target_page_ids": [ 849508, 30297, 37104, 61193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 45 ], [ 80, 88 ], [ 139, 156 ], [ 204, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The airline industry is responsible for about 11 percent of greenhouse gases emitted by the U.S. transportation sector. Boeing estimates that biofuels could reduce flight-related greenhouse-gas emissions by 60 to 80 percent. The solution would be blending algae fuels with existing jet fuel:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environment", "target_page_ids": [ 21350772, 18933266, 188543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 74 ], [ 120, 126 ], [ 142, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boeing and Air New Zealand are collaborating with leading Brazilian biofuel maker Tecbio, New Zealand's Aquaflow Bionomic and other jet biofuel developers around the world.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environment", "target_page_ids": [ 140958, 1205435, 4913064, 19242924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 27 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 91, 102 ], [ 105, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Virgin Atlantic and Virgin Green Fund are looking into the technology as part of a biofuel initiative.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environment", "target_page_ids": [ 93765, 14631445 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 21, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " KLM has made the first commercial flight with biofuel in 2009.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environment", "target_page_ids": [ 16882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are projects on electric aircraft, and some of them are fully operational as of 2013.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Environment", "target_page_ids": [ 6358896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Main Article : Aviation call signs", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Call signs", "target_page_ids": [ 49025367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Each operator of a scheduled or charter flight uses an airline call sign when communicating with airports or air traffic control centres. Most of these call-signs are derived from the airline's trade name, but for reasons of history, marketing, or the need to reduce ambiguity in spoken English (so that pilots do not mistakenly make navigational decisions based on instructions issued to a different aircraft), some airlines and air forces use call-signs less obviously connected with their trading name. For example, British Airways uses a Speedbird call-sign, named after the logo of one of its predecessors, BOAC, while SkyEurope used Relax.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Call signs", "target_page_ids": [ 5116754, 44866611, 303835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 72 ], [ 612, 616 ], [ 624, 633 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The various types of airline personnel include Flight crew, responsible for the operation of the aircraft. Flight crew members include: Pilots (Captain and First Officer: some older aircraft also required a Flight Engineer and/or a Navigator); Flight attendants (led by a purser on larger aircraft); In-flight security personnel on some airlines (most notably El Al)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 1001906, 66691, 7277773, 2537084, 417742, 399311, 173394, 1556369, 428395, 101594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 58 ], [ 136, 142 ], [ 144, 151 ], [ 156, 169 ], [ 207, 222 ], [ 232, 241 ], [ 244, 260 ], [ 272, 278 ], [ 300, 328 ], [ 360, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Groundcrew, responsible for operations at airports, include Aerospace and avionics engineers responsible for certifying the aircraft for flight and management of aircraft maintenance; Aerospace engineers, responsible for airframe, powerplant and electrical systems maintenance; Avionics engineers responsible for avionics and instruments maintenance; Airframe and powerplant technicians; Electric System technicians, responsible for maintenance of electrical systems; Flight dispatchers; Baggage handlers; Ramp Agents; Remote centralised weight and balancing; Gate agents; Ticket agents; Passenger service agents (such as airline lounge employees); Reservation agents, usually (but not always) at facilities outside the airport; Crew schedulers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 1001917, 154711, 2039, 463408, 158681, 4070946, 1818852, 13607327, 2313845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 184, 193 ], [ 278, 286 ], [ 351, 359 ], [ 364, 374 ], [ 468, 485 ], [ 488, 503 ], [ 560, 570 ], [ 622, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Airlines follow a corporate structure where each broad area of operations (such as maintenance, flight operations (including flight safety), and passenger service) is supervised by a vice president. Larger airlines often appoint vice presidents to oversee each of the airline's hubs as well. Airlines employ lawyers to deal with regulatory procedures and other administrative tasks.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 7485, 17541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 27 ], [ 308, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The pattern of ownership has been privatized since the mid-1980s, that is, the ownership has gradually changed from governments to private and individual sectors or organizations. This occurs as regulators permit greater freedom and non-government ownership, in steps that are usually decades apart. This pattern is not seen for all airlines in all regions. Many major airlines operating between the 1940s and 1980s were government-owned or government-established. However, most airlines from the earliest days of air travel in the 1920s and 1930s were personal businesses.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Trends", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Growth rates are not consistent in all regions, but countries with a de-regulated airline industry have more competition and greater pricing freedom. This results in lower fares and sometimes dramatic spurts in traffic growth. The U.S., Australia, Canada, Japan, Brazil, India and other markets exhibit this trend. The industry has been observed to be cyclical in its financial performance. Four or five years of poor earnings precede five or six years of improvement. But profitability even in the good years is generally low, in the range of 2–3% net profit after interest and tax. In times of profit, airlines lease new generations of airplanes and upgrade services in response to higher demand. Since 1980, the industry has not earned back the cost of capital during the best of times. Conversely, in bad times losses can be dramatically worse. Warren Buffett in 1999 said \"the money that had been made since the dawn of aviation by all of this country's airline companies was zero. Absolutely zero.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Trends", "target_page_ids": [ 15573, 3383, 14533, 211518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 256, 261 ], [ 263, 269 ], [ 271, 276 ], [ 849, 863 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As in many mature industries, consolidation is a trend. Airline groupings may consist of limited bilateral partnerships, long-term, multi-faceted alliances between carriers, equity arrangements, mergers, or takeovers. Since governments often restrict ownership and merger between companies in different countries, most consolidation takes place within a country. In the U.S., over 200 airlines have merged, been taken over, or gone out of business since the Airline Deregulation Act in 1978. Many international airline managers are lobbying their governments to permit greater consolidation to achieve higher economy and efficiency.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Trends", "target_page_ids": [ 20769, 56119, 64671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 202 ], [ 207, 215 ], [ 458, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several types of passenger airlines, mainly", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mainline airlines operate flights by the airline's main operating unit, rather than by regional affiliates or subsidiaries", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 11643377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Regional airlines, non-\"mainline\" airlines that operate regional aircraft; regionals typically operate over shorter non-intercontinental distances, often as feeder services for legacy mainline networks", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 361361, 324902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 57, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Low-cost carriers, giving a \"basic\", \"no-frills\" and perceived inexpensive service", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 428422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Business class airline, an airline aimed at the business traveler, featuring all business class seating and amenities", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 17685523, 1420254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 82, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Charter airlines, operating outside regular schedule intervals", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 2870621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flag carriers, the historically nationally owned airlines that were considered representative of the country overseas. ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 465816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Legacy carriers, US carriers that predate the Airline Deregulation Act of 1978", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 8305907, 64671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 47, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Major airlines of the United States, airlines with at least $1 billion in revenues", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Types", "target_page_ids": [ 753433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"A history of the world's airlines\", R.E.G. Davies, Oxford U.P, 1964", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 178717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The airline encyclopedia, 1909–2000.” Myron J. Smith, Scarecrow Press, 2002", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Flying Off Course: The Economics of International Airlines,\" 3rd edition. Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2002.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Airline Business in the 21st Century.\" Rigas Doganis, Routledge, New York, 2001.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Airlines", "Economics_of_transport_and_utility_industries" ]

[ "air carrier" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Australian Democrats is a centrist political party in Australia. Founded in 1977 from a merger of the Australia Party and the New Liberal Movement, both of which were descended from Liberal Party dissenting splinter groups, it was Australia's largest minor party from its formation in 1977 through to 2004 and frequently held the balance of power in the Senate during that time.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 39619035, 4689264, 185052, 1346577, 18453, 18003191, 14433440, 165705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 38 ], [ 58, 67 ], [ 106, 121 ], [ 130, 150 ], [ 186, 199 ], [ 255, 266 ], [ 334, 350 ], [ 358, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Democrats' inaugural leader was Don Chipp, a former Liberal cabinet minister, who famously promised to \"keep the bastards honest\". At the 1977 federal election, the Democrats polled 11.1 percent of the Senate vote and secured two seats. The party would retain a presence in the Senate for the next 30 years, at its peak (between 1999 and 2002) holding nine out of 76 seats, though never securing a seat in the lower house. The party's share of the vote collapsed at the 2004 election and was further diminished in 2007 with the last senators leaving office in 2008.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 978858, 9937552, 165705, 61565, 456666, 1056082 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 45 ], [ 142, 163 ], [ 206, 212 ], [ 414, 425 ], [ 474, 487 ], [ 515, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the party's numbers in the Senate, both Liberal and Labor governments required the assistance of the Democrats to pass contentious legislation, most notably in the case of the Howard Government's goods and services tax. Ideologically, the Democrats were usually regarded as centrists, occupying the political middle ground between the Liberal Party and the Labor Party.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1495, 17780763, 962277, 39619035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 64 ], [ 183, 200 ], [ 203, 225 ], [ 281, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over three decades, the Australian Democrats achieved representation in the legislatures of the ACT, South Australia, New South Wales, Western Australia and Tasmania as well as Senate seats in all six states. However, at the 2004 and 2007 federal elections, all seven of its Senate seats were lost. The last remaining State parliamentarian, David Winderlich, left the party and was defeated as an independent in 2010.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1944, 165705, 456666, 1056082, 21158991, 14887546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 99 ], [ 177, 183 ], [ 225, 229 ], [ 234, 238 ], [ 341, 357 ], [ 412, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The party was formally deregistered in 2016 for not having the required 500 members. In 2018 the Australian Democrats merged with Country Minded, an Australian political party seeking accountable regional and agricultural representation. On 7 April 2019 the merged entity regained registration of the name \"Australian Democrats\" with the Australian Electoral Commission.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 45458262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2020, the National President of the party is former Parliamentary Leader and Senator, Lyn Allison.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 637881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian Democrats were formed in May 1977 from an amalgamation of the Australia Party and the New Liberal Movement. The two groups found a common basis for a new political movement in the widespread discontent with the two major parties. Former Liberal minister Don Chipp agreed to lead the new party.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 185052, 1346577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 92 ], [ 101, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The party's broad aim was to achieve a balance of power in one or more parliaments and to exercise it responsibly in line with policies determined by membership.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first Australian Democrat parliamentarian was Robin Millhouse, the sole New LM member of the South Australian House of Assembly, who joined the Democrats in 1977. Millhouse held his seat (Mitcham) at the 1977 and 1979 state elections. In 1982, Millhouse resigned to take up a senior judicial appointment, and Heather Southcott won the by-election for the Democrats, but lost the seat to the Liberals later that year at the 1982 state election. Mitcham was the only single-member lower-house seat anywhere in Australia to be won by the Democrats.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1193406, 579453, 22343804, 8823396, 8823221, 20009808, 21390839, 8821950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 65 ], [ 97, 131 ], [ 192, 199 ], [ 208, 212 ], [ 217, 221 ], [ 313, 330 ], [ 339, 350 ], [ 427, 446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first Democrat federal parliamentarian was Senator Janine Haines, who in 1977 was nominated by the South Australian Parliament to fill the casual vacancy caused by the resignation of Liberal Senator Steele Hall. Hall had been elected as a Liberal Movement senator, before rejoining the Liberal Party in 1976, and South Australian premier Don Dunstan nominated Haines on the basis that the Democrats was the successor party to the Liberal Movement.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1010283, 1117087, 1330528, 543848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 68 ], [ 203, 214 ], [ 243, 259 ], [ 342, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 1977 election, the Australian Democrats secured two seats in the Senate with the election of Colin Mason (NSW) and Don Chipp (VIC), though Haines lost her seat in South Australia. At the 1980 election, this increased to five seats with the election of Michael Macklin (QLD) and John Siddons (VIC) and the return of Janine Haines (SA). Thereafter they frequently held enough seats to give them the balance of power in the upper chamber.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9937552, 9937264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 194, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At a Melbourne media conference on 19 September 1980, in the midst of the 1980 election campaign, Chipp described his party's aim as to \"keep the bastards honest\"—the \"bastards\" being the major parties and/or politicians in general. This became a long-lived slogan for the Democrats.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9937264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Don Chipp resigned from the Senate on 18 August 1986, being succeeded as party leader by Janine Haines and replaced as a senator for Victoria by Janet Powell.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1054185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 1987 election following a double dissolution, the reduced quota of 7.7% necessary to win a seat assisted the election of three new senators. 6-year terms were won by Paul McLean (NSW) and incumbents Janine Haines (South Australia) and Janet Powell (Victoria). In South Australia, a second senator, John Coulter, was elected for a 3-year term, as were incumbent Michael Macklin (Queensland) and Jean Jenkins (Western Australia).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4041845, 1336913, 165705, 12112238, 1054186, 12162286, 5085171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 33, 51 ], [ 65, 70 ], [ 173, 184 ], [ 305, 317 ], [ 368, 383 ], [ 401, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 saw the voluntary departure from the Senate of Janine Haines (a step with which not all Democrats agreed) and the failure of her strategic goal of winning the House of Representatives seat of Kingston.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1142438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The casual vacancy was filled by Meg Lees several months before the election of Cheryl Kernot in place of retired deputy leader Michael Macklin. The ambitious Kernot immediately contested the party's national parliamentary deputy leadership. Being unemployed at the time, she requested and obtained party funds to pay for her travel to address members in all seven divisions. In the event, Victorian Janet Powell was elected as leader and John Coulter was chosen as deputy leader.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 917290, 710660, 1054185, 1054186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 41 ], [ 80, 93 ], [ 400, 412 ], [ 439, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the loss of Haines and the WA Senate seat (through an inconsistent national preference agreement with the ALP), the 1990 federal election heralded something of a rebirth for the party, with a dramatic rise in primary vote. This was at the same time as an economic recession was building, and events such as the Gulf War in Kuwait were beginning to shepherd issues of globalisation and transnational trade on to national government agendas.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25382, 182000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 281 ], [ 319, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian Democrats had a long-standing policy to oppose war and so opposed Australia's support of, and participation in, the Gulf War. Whereas the House of Representatives was able to avoid any debate about the war and Australia's participation, the Democrats took full advantage of the opportunity to move for a debate in the Senate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the party's pacifist-based opposition to the Gulf War, there was mass-media antipathy and negative publicity which some construed as poor media performance by Janet Powell, the party's standing having stalled at about 10%. Before 12 months of her leadership had passed, the South Australian and Queensland divisions were circulating the party's first-ever petition to criticise and oust the parliamentary leader. The explicit grounds related to Powell's alleged responsibility for poor AD ratings in Gallup and other media surveys of potential voting support. When this charge was deemed insufficient, interested party officers and senators reinforced it with negative media 'leaks' concerning her openly established relationship with Sid Spindler and exposure of administrative failings resulting in excessive overtime to a staff member. With National Executive blessing, the party room pre-empted the ballot by replacing the leader with deputy John Coulter. In the process, severe internal divisions were generated. One major collateral casualty was the party whip Paul McLean who resigned and quit the Senate in disgust at what he perceived as in-fighting between close friends. The casual NSW vacancy created by his resignation was filled by Karin Sowada. Powell duly left the party, along with many leading figures of the Victorian branch of the party, and unsuccessfully stood as an Independent candidate when her term expired. In later years, she campaigned for the Australian Greens.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24956, 1818846, 16049861, 1054186, 12112238, 2945155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 31 ], [ 680, 693 ], [ 746, 758 ], [ 957, 969 ], [ 1078, 1089 ], [ 1257, 1269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The party's parliamentary influence was weakened in 1996 after the Howard Government was elected, and a Labor senator, Mal Colston, resigned from the Labor Party. Since the Democrats now shared the parliamentary balance of power with two Independent senators, the Coalition government was able on occasion to pass legislation by negotiating with Colston and Brian Harradine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 17780763, 1908418, 1070257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 84 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 358, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 1997, party leader Cheryl Kernot resigned, announcing that she would be joining the Australian Labor Party. (Five years later it was revealed that she had been in a sexual relationship with Labor deputy leader Gareth Evans). Kernot resigned from the Senate and was replaced by Andrew Bartlett, while deputy Meg Lees became the new party leader.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 710660, 1495, 761546, 391902, 917290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 43 ], [ 95, 117 ], [ 221, 233 ], [ 288, 303 ], [ 318, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under Lees' leadership, in the 1998 federal election, the Democrats' candidate John Schumann came within 2 per cent of taking Liberal Foreign Minister Alexander Downer's seat of Mayo in the Adelaide Hills under Australia's preferential voting system. The party's representation increased to nine senators, and they regained the balance of power, holding it until the Coalition gained a Senate majority at the 2004 election.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 455788, 6455342, 331078, 1446813, 36968102, 456666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 52 ], [ 79, 92 ], [ 151, 167 ], [ 178, 182 ], [ 223, 242 ], [ 409, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Internal conflict and leadership tensions from 2000 to 2002, blamed on the party's support for the Government's Goods and Services Tax, was damaging to the Democrats. Opposed by the Labor Party, the Australian Greens and independent Senator Harradine, the tax required Democrat support to pass. In an election fought on tax, the Democrats publicly stated that they liked neither the Liberal's nor the Labor's tax packages, but pledged to work with whichever party was elected to make theirs better. They campaigned with the slogan \"No Goods and Services Tax on Food\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 962277, 171629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 134 ], [ 199, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1999, after negotiations with Prime Minister Howard, Meg Lees, Andrew Murray and the party room senators agreed to support the A New Tax System legislation with exemptions from goods and services tax for most food and some medicines, as well as many environmental and social concessions. Five Australian Democrats senators voted in favour. However, two dissident senators on the party's left Natasha Stott Despoja and Andrew Bartlett voted against the goods and services tax.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4689709, 2889886, 21876, 391902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ], [ 66, 79 ], [ 395, 416 ], [ 421, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2001, a leadership spill saw Meg Lees replaced as leader by Natasha Stott Despoja after a very public and bitter leadership battle. Despite criticism of Stott Despoja's youth and lack of experience, the 2001 election saw the Democrats receive similar media coverage to the previous election. Despite the internal divisions, the Australian Democrats' election result in 2001 was quite good. However, it was not enough to prevent the loss of Vicki Bourne's Senate seat in NSW.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2735735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 443, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2002 South Australian election was the last time an Australian Democrat would be elected to an Australian parliament. Sandra Kanck was re-elected to a second eight-year term from an upper house primary vote of 7.3 percent.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3976330, 5669833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 34 ], [ 122, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Resulting tensions between Stott Despoja and Lees led to Meg Lees leaving the party in 2002, becoming an independent and forming the Australian Progressive Alliance. Stott Despoja stood down from the leadership following a loss of confidence by her party room colleagues. It led to a protracted leadership battle in 2002, which eventually led to the election of Senator Andrew Bartlett as leader. While the public fighting stopped, the public support for the party remained at record lows.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 757467, 391902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 164 ], [ 370, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 6 December 2003, Bartlett stepped aside temporarily as leader of the party, after an incident in which he swore at Liberal Senator Jeannie Ferris on the floor of Parliament while intoxicated. The party issued a statement stating that deputy leader Lyn Allison would serve as the acting leader of the party. Bartlett apologised to the Democrats, Jeannie Ferris and the Australian public for his behaviour and assured all concerned that it would never happen again. On 29 January 2004, after seeking medical treatment, Bartlett returned to the Australian Democrats leadership, vowing to abstain from alcohol.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18453, 2148325, 302298, 637881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 125 ], [ 134, 148 ], [ 165, 175 ], [ 251, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following internal conflict over the goods and services tax and resultant leadership changes, a dramatic decline occurred in the Democrats' membership and voting support in all states. Simultaneously, an increase was recorded in support for the Australian Greens who, by 2004, were supplanting the Democrats as a substantial third party. The trend was noted that year by political scientists Dean Jaensch et al.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 171629, 18003191, 2799471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 262 ], [ 325, 336 ], [ 392, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Support for the Australian Democrats fell significantly at the 2004 federal election in which they achieved only 2.4 per cent of the national vote. Nowhere was this more noticeable than in their key support base of suburban Adelaide in South Australia, where they received between 1 and 4 percent of the lower house vote; by comparison, they tallied between 7 and 31 per cent of the vote in 2001. No Democrat senators were elected, though four kept their seats due to being elected in 2001, thus their representation fell from eight senators to four. Three incumbent senators were defeated: Aden Ridgeway (NSW), Brian Greig (WA) and John Cherry (Qld). Following the loss, the customary post-election leadership ballot installed Allison as leader, with Bartlett as her deputy. From 1 July 2005 the Australian Democrats lost official parliamentary party status, being represented by only four senators while the governing Liberal-National Coalition gained a majority and potential control of the Senate—the first time this advantage had been enjoyed by any government since 1980.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 456666, 1148, 521415, 967350, 968210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 84 ], [ 224, 232 ], [ 591, 604 ], [ 612, 623 ], [ 633, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 28 August 2006, the founder of the Australian Democrats, Don Chipp, died. Former prime minister Bob Hawke said: \"... there is a coincidental timing almost between the passing of Don Chipp and what I think is the death throes of the Democrats.\" In November 2006, the Australian Democrats fared very poorly in the Victorian state election, receiving a Legislative Council vote tally of only 0.83%, less than half of the party's result in 2002 (1.79 per cent).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Democrats again had no success at the 2007 federal election, and lost all four of their remaining Senate seats. Two incumbent senators, Lyn Allison (Victoria) and Andrew Bartlett (Queensland), were defeated, their seats both reverting to major parties. Their two remaining colleagues, Andrew Murray (WA) and Natasha Stott Despoja (SA), retired. All four senators' terms expired on 30 June 2008—leaving the Australian Democrats with no federal representation for the first time since its founding in 1977. Later, in 2009, Jaensch suggested it was possible the Democrats could make a political comeback at the 2010 South Australian election, but this did not occur.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1056082, 391902, 14887546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 63 ], [ 167, 182 ], [ 612, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Tasmanian division of the party was deregistered for having insufficient members in January 2006.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the 2006 South Australian election, the Australian Democrats were reduced to 1.7 per cent of the Legislative Council (upper house) vote. Their sole councillor up for re-election, Kate Reynolds, was defeated. In July 2006, Richard Pascoe, national and South Australian party president, resigned, citing slumping opinion polls and the poor result in the 2006 South Australian election as well as South Australian parliamentary leader Sandra Kanck's comments regarding the drug MDMA which he saw as damaging to the party.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1899754, 4398185, 26716, 5669833, 10024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 37 ], [ 182, 195 ], [ 254, 269 ], [ 435, 447 ], [ 478, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the New South Wales state election of March 2007, the Australian Democrats lost their last remaining NSW Upper House representative, Arthur Chesterfield-Evans. The party fared poorly, gaining only 1.8 per cent of the Legislative Council vote.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6809861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 13 September 2007, the ACT Democrats (Australian Capital Territory Division of the party) was deregistered by the ACT Electoral Commissioner, being unable to demonstrate a minimum membership of 100 electors.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These losses left Sandra Kanck, in South Australia, as the party's only parliamentarian. She retired in 2009 and was replaced by David Winderlich, making him (as of 2020) the last Democrat to sit in any Australian parliament. The Democrats lost all representation when Winderlich resigned from the party in October 2009. He sat the remainder of his term as an independent, and lost his seat at the 2010 South Australian election.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21158991, 14887546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 145 ], [ 398, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 16 April 2015, the Australian Electoral Commission deregistered the Australian Democrats as a political party for failure to demonstrate the requisite 500 members to maintain registration. However, the party did run candidates and remain registered for a period of time thereafter in the New South Wales Democrats and Queensland Democrat divisions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 38070903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 321, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2018 there was a report that CountryMinded, a de-registered microparty, would merge with the Australian Democrats in a new bid to seek membership growth, electoral re-registration and financial support. In February 2019, application for registration was submitted to the AEC and was upheld on 7 April 2019, despite an objection from the Australian Democrats (Queensland Division).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 45458262, 66870920, 38070903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 54 ], [ 72, 82 ], [ 349, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The party unsuccessfully contested the lower-house seat of Adelaide and a total of six Senate seats (two in each state of New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia) at the 2019 federal election.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 50466375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The party was founded on principles of honesty, tolerance, compassion and direct democracy through postal ballots of all members, so that \"there should be no hierarchical structure ... by which a carefully engineered elite could make decisions for the members.\" From the outset, members' participation was fiercely protected in national and divisional constitutions prescribing internal elections, regular meeting protocols, annual conferences—and monthly journals for open discussion and balloting. Dispute resolution procedures were established, with final recourse to a party ombudsman and membership ballot.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 95816, 13998, 26289198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 90 ], [ 158, 170 ], [ 579, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Policies determined by the unique participatory method promoted environmental awareness and sustainability, opposition to the primacy of economic rationalism (Australian neoliberalism), preventative approaches to human health and welfare, animal rights, rejection of nuclear technology and weapons.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 18413531, 152800, 93088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 106 ], [ 137, 157 ], [ 170, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian Democrats were the first representatives of green politics at the federal level in Australia. They \"were in the vanguard of environmentalism in Australia. From the early 1980s they were unequivocally opposed to the building of the Franklin Dam in Tasmania and they opposed the mining and export of uranium and the development of nuclear power plants in Australia.\" In particular, leader Don Chipp, and Tasmanian state Democrat Norm Sanders, played crucial legislative roles in protecting the Franklin Dam.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 188641, 581762, 978858, 7280788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 73 ], [ 246, 258 ], [ 402, 411 ], [ 442, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The party's centrist role made it subject to criticism from both the right and left of the political spectrum. In particular, Chipp's former conservative affiliation was frequently recalled by opponents on the left. This problem was to torment later leaders and strategists who, by 1991, were proclaiming \"the electoral objective\" as a higher priority than the rigorous participatory democracy espoused by the party's founders.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 18453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of their numbers on the cross benches during the Hawke and Keating governments, the Democrats were sometimes regarded as exercising a balance of power—which attracted electoral support from a significant sector of the electorate which had been alienated by both Labor and Coalition policies and practices.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 21881444, 24316242, 14433440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 62 ], [ 67, 74 ], [ 142, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notes", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Federal parliamentary leaders", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1977–1986: Ivor Vivian, member of the House of Assembly", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 65868429, 16723913 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 38, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977–1986: Gordon Walsh, member of the House of Assembly", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 47341552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2001–2004: Roslyn Dundas, member of the Legislative Assembly", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 1164129, 579454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ], [ 40, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981–1998: Elisabeth Kirkby, member of the Legislative Council", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 5593694, 579432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 43, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988–1996: Richard Jones, member of the Legislative Council", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 2143233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998–2007: Arthur Chesterfield-Evans, member of the Legislative Council", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 6809861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977–1982: Robin Millhouse, member of the House of Assembly", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 1193406, 579453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ], [ 42, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979–1985: Lance Milne, member of the Legislative Council", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 7159002, 579450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 38, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1982: Heather Southcott, member of the House of Assembly", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 20009808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1982–1993, 1997–2006: Ian Gilfillan, member of the Legislative Council", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 22124797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985–2003: Mike Elliott, member of the Legislative Council", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 24336218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993–2009: Sandra Kanck, member of the Legislative Council", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 5669833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003–2006: Kate Reynolds, member of the Legislative Council", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 4398185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2009: David Winderlich, member of the Legislative Council", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 21158991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980–1982: Norm Sanders, member of the House of Assembly", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 7280788, 579456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 23 ], [ 39, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1997–2001: Helen Hodgson, member of the Legislative Council", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 21992230, 1557423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ], [ 40, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1997–2001: Norm Kelly, member of the Legislative Council", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Parliamentarians", "target_page_ids": [ 21992350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Social liberalism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 765430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Liberalism worldwide", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 864886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of liberal parties", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 864886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Liberal democracy", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9282116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Timeline of (small-l) liberal parties in Australia", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 858185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bennett D, Discord in the Democrats PWHCE article, Melbourne 2002", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beyond Our Expectations—Proceedings of the Australian Democrats First National Conference, Canberra, 16–17 February 1980. [Papers by: Don Chipp, Sir Mark Oliphant, Prof. Stephen Boyden, Bob Whan, Julian Cribb, Colin Mason, John Siddons, A. McDonald]", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Chipp D (ed. Larkin J) Chipp, Methuen Haynes, North Ryde NSW, 1987 ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gauja A Evaluating the Success and Contribution of a Minor Party: the Case of the Australian Democrats Parliamentary Affairs (2010) 63(3): 486–503, 21 January 2010, at Oxford Journals. (Paid subscription, Athens or participating library membership required)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 21699141, 48518, 47971613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 124 ], [ 168, 183 ], [ 205, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Paul A and Miller L The Third Team July 2007 A historical essay in 30 Years—Australian Democrats Melbourne 2007. (A 72-page anthology of historical and biographical monographs about the state and federal parliamentary experiences of the Democrats, for the party's 30th anniversary.)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sugita H Challenging 'twopartism'—the contribution of the Australian Democrats to the Australian party system, PhD thesis, Flinders University of South Australia, July 1995", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Warhurst J (ed.) Keeping the bastards honest Allen & Unwin Sydney 1997 ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Warhurst J, Don Chipp Was The Right Man In The Right Place At The Right Time Canberra Times 7 September 2006", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1977_establishments_in_Australia", "2015_disestablishments_in_Australia", "Centrist_parties_in_Australia", "Organisations_based_in_Adelaide", "Political_parties_disestablished_in_2015", "Political_parties_established_in_1977", "Political_parties_established_in_2019", "Social_liberal_parties", "Republican_parties_in_Australia" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Australian Capital Territory (commonly abbreviated as ACT), known as the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) until 1938, is a landlocked federal territory of Australia containing the national capital Canberra and some surrounding townships. It is located in southeastern Australian mainland as an enclave completely within the state of New South Wales. Founded after Federation as the seat of government for the new nation, all important institutions of the Australian Government are headquartered in the territory.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 297503, 2458895, 4689264, 181337, 51983, 81439, 51151665, 4848945, 4689096, 21654, 1241326, 183552, 1222540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 136 ], [ 137, 154 ], [ 158, 167 ], [ 183, 199 ], [ 200, 208 ], [ 230, 238 ], [ 272, 291 ], [ 298, 305 ], [ 328, 333 ], [ 337, 352 ], [ 368, 378 ], [ 386, 404 ], [ 459, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies of Australia was achieved. Section 125 of the new Australian Constitution provided that land, situated in New South Wales and at least from Sydney, would be ceded to the new federal government. Following discussion and exploration of various areas within New South Wales, the Seat of Government Act 1908 was passed in 1908 which specified a capital in the Yass-Canberra region. The territory was transferred to the federal government by New South Wales in 1911, two years prior to the capital city being founded and formally named as Canberra in 1913.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1241326, 18579518, 27862, 1222540, 3154868, 21654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 45 ], [ 96, 119 ], [ 187, 193 ], [ 221, 239 ], [ 323, 350 ], [ 484, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the overwhelming majority of the population reside in the city of Canberra in the ACT's north-east, the territory also includes some surrounding townships such as Williamsdale, Naas, Uriarra, Tharwa and Hall. The ACT also includes the Namadgi National Park which comprises the majority of land area of the territory. Despite a common misconception, the Jervis Bay Territory is not part of the ACT although the laws of the Australian Capital Territory apply as if Jervis Bay did form part of the ACT. The territory has a relatively dry, continental climate experiencing warm to hot summers and cool to cold winters.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 51983, 4115229, 11831651, 2645302, 2645254, 2645174, 54366, 100791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 80 ], [ 169, 181 ], [ 183, 187 ], [ 189, 196 ], [ 198, 204 ], [ 209, 213 ], [ 241, 262 ], [ 359, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian Capital Territory is home to many important institutions of the federal government, national monuments and museums. This includes the Parliament of Australia, the High Court of Australia, the Australian Defence Force Academy and the Australian War Memorial. It also hosts the majority of foreign embassies in Australia as well as regional headquarters of many international organisations, not-for-profit groups, lobbying groups and professional associations. Several major universities also have campuses in the ACT including the Australian National University, the University of Canberra, the University of New South Wales, Charles Sturt University and the Australian Catholic University.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 302298, 314201, 7464687, 440815, 285106, 426946, 146078, 543841, 95200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 172 ], [ 178, 201 ], [ 207, 239 ], [ 248, 271 ], [ 545, 575 ], [ 581, 603 ], [ 609, 638 ], [ 640, 664 ], [ 673, 703 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A locally elected legislative assembly has governed the territory since 1988. However, the Commonwealth maintains authority over the territory and may overturn local laws. It still maintains control over the area known as the Parliamentary Triangle through the National Capital Authority. Residents of the territory elect three members of the House of Representatives and two senators.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 579454, 2116941, 38192277, 61565, 165705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ], [ 226, 248 ], [ 261, 287 ], [ 343, 367 ], [ 376, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With 453,324 residents, the Australian Capital Territory is the second smallest mainland state or territory by population. At the , the median weekly income for people in the territory aged over 15 was $998, significantly higher than the national average of $662. The average level of degree qualification in the ACT is also higher than the national average. Within the ACT, 37.1% of the population hold a bachelor's degree level or above education compared to the national figure of 20%.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aboriginal Australian peoples have long inhabited the area. Evidence indicates habitation dating back at least 25,000 years, and it is possible that the area was inhabited for considerably longer, with evidence of an Aboriginal presence at Lake Mungo dating back around 40,000–62,000 years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2912594, 30860272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 29 ], [ 202, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The principal group occupying the region were the Ngunnawal people, with the Ngarigo and Walgalu living immediately to the south, the Wandadian to the East, the Gandangara to the North and the Wiradjuri to the north-west.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2737609, 42723581, 17876215, 28170964, 5910104, 70161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 66 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 89, 96 ], [ 134, 143 ], [ 161, 171 ], [ 193, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following European settlement, the growth of the new colony of New South Wales led to an increasing demand for arable land. Governor Lachlan Macquarie supported expeditions to open up new lands to the south of Sydney. The 1820s saw further exploration in the Canberra area associated with the construction of a road from Sydney to the Goulburn plains. While working on the project, Charles Throsby learned of a nearby lake and river from the local Indigenous peoples and he accordingly sent Wild to lead a small party to investigate the site. The search was unsuccessful, but they did discover the Yass River and it is surmised that they would have set foot on part of the future territory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 903, 323691, 27862, 525857, 3113063, 3188950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 122 ], [ 133, 150 ], [ 210, 216 ], [ 335, 343 ], [ 382, 397 ], [ 598, 608 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A second expedition was mounted shortly thereafter and they became the first Europeans to camp at the Molonglo (Ngambri) and Queanbeyan (Jullergung) Rivers. However, they failed to find the Murrumbidgee River. The issue of the Murrumbidgee was solved in 1821 when Throsby mounted a third expedition and successfully reached the watercourse, on the way providing the first detailed account of the land where Canberra now resides. The last expedition in the region before settlement was undertaken by Allan Cunningham in 1824. He reported that the region was suitable for grazing and the settlement of the Limestone Plains followed immediately thereafter.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 586111, 2587820, 270052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 110 ], [ 125, 135 ], [ 499, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first land grant in the region was made to Joshua John Moore in 1823 and European settlement in the area began in 1824 with the construction of a homestead by his stockmen on what is now the Acton Peninsula. Moore formally purchased the site in 1826 and named the property Canberry or Canberra.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23394923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A significant influx of population and economic activity occurred around the 1850s goldrushes. The goldrushes prompted the establishment of communication between Sydney and the region by way of the Cobb & Co coaches, which transported mail and passengers. The first post offices opened in Ginninderra in 1859 and at Lanyon in 1860.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30865472, 613975, 11663892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 93 ], [ 198, 207 ], [ 289, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During colonial times, the European communities of Ginninderra, Molonglo and Tuggeranong settled and farmed the surrounding land. The region was also called the Queanbeyan-Yass district, after the two largest towns in the area. The villages of Ginninderra and Tharwa developed to service the local agrarian communities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5818359, 586412, 614061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 72 ], [ 161, 171 ], [ 172, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the first 20 years of settlement, there was only limited contact between the settlers and Aboriginal people. Over the succeeding years, the Ngunnawal and other local indigenous people effectively ceased to exist as cohesive and independent communities adhering to their traditional ways of life. Those who had not succumbed to disease and other predations either dispersed to the local settlements or were relocated to more distant Aboriginal reserves set up by the New South Wales government in the latter part of the 19th century.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37077630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 439, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1898, a referendum on a proposed Constitution was held in four of the colonies – New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. Although the referendum achieved a majority in all four colonies, the New South Wales referendum failed to gain the minimum number of votes needed for the bill to pass. Following this result, a meeting of the four Premiers in 1898 heard from George Reid, the Premier of New South Wales, who argued that locating the future capital in New South Wales would be sufficient to ensure the passage of the Bill. The 1899 referendum on this revised bill was successful and passed with sufficient numbers. Section 125 of the Australian Constitution thus provided that, following Federation in 1901, land would be ceded freely to the new Federal Government.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21654, 4689460, 26716, 29944, 239440, 24654, 18579518, 1222540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 99 ], [ 101, 109 ], [ 111, 126 ], [ 131, 139 ], [ 383, 394 ], [ 400, 426 ], [ 657, 680 ], [ 769, 787 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This, however, left open the question of where to locate the capital. In 1906 and after significant deliberations, New South Wales agreed to cede sufficient land on the condition that it was in the Yass-Canberra region, this site being closer to Sydney. Initially, Dalgety, New South Wales remained at the forefront, but Yass-Canberra prevailed after voting by federal representatives. The Seat of Government Act 1908 was passed in 1908, which repealed the 1904 Act and specified a capital in the Yass-Canberra region. Government surveyor Charles Scrivener was deployed to the region in the same year to map out a specific site and, after an extensive search, settled upon the present location.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 614061, 51983, 1976248, 3154868, 2510412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 202 ], [ 203, 211 ], [ 265, 289 ], [ 390, 417 ], [ 539, 556 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian Capital Territory was transferred to the Commonwealth by New South Wales on 1 January 1911, two years before the naming of Canberra as the national capital on 20 March 1913.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1911, an international competition to design the future capital was held, which was won by the Chicago architect Walter Burley Griffin in 1912. The official naming of Canberra occurred on 12 March 1913 and construction began immediately.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 53409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Griffin's departure following difficulty in implementing his project, the Federal Capital Advisory Committee was established in 1920 to advise the government of the construction efforts. The committee had limited success meeting its goals. However, the chairman, John Sulman, was instrumental in applying the ideas of the garden city movement to Griffin's plan. The committee was replaced in 1925 by the Federal Capital Commission.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 38192277, 3309402, 1980293, 38192277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 114 ], [ 269, 280 ], [ 328, 348 ], [ 410, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1930, the ACT Advisory Council was established to advise the minister for territories on the community's concerns. In 1934, Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory was established.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1970938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1938 to 1957, the National Capital Planning and Development Committee continued to plan the further expansion of Canberra. However, the National Capital Planning and Development Committee did not have executive power, and decisions were made on the development of Canberra without the committee's consultation. During this time, Prime Minister Robert Menzies regarded the state of the national capital as an embarrassment.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 38192277, 38192277, 25839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 74 ], [ 141, 192 ], [ 349, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After World War II, there was a shortage of housing and office space in Canberra. A Senate Select Committee hearing was held in 1954 to address its development requirements. This Committee recommended the creation of a single planning body with executive power. Consequently, the National Capital Planning and Development Committee was replaced by the National Capital Development Commission in 1957. The National Capital Development Commission ended four decades of disputes over the shape and design of Lake Burley Griffin and construction was completed in 1964 after four years of work. The completion of the centrepiece of Griffin's design finally laid the platform for the development of Griffin's Parliamentary Triangle.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 38192277, 38192277, 38192277, 584593, 2116941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 280, 331 ], [ 352, 391 ], [ 405, 444 ], [ 505, 524 ], [ 703, 725 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1978, an advisory referendum was held to determine the views of ACT citizens about whether there should be self-government. Just under 64 percent of voters rejected devolved government options, in favour of the status quo. Nevertheless, in 1988, the new minister for the Australian Capital Territory Gary Punch received a report recommending the abolition of the National Capital Development Commission and the formation of a locally elected government. Punch recommended that the Hawke government accept the report's recommendations and subsequently Clyde Holding introduced legislation to grant self-government to the territory in October 1988.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15717024, 38192277, 4059, 4463299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 303, 313 ], [ 366, 405 ], [ 484, 500 ], [ 554, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The enactment on 6 December 1988 of the Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 established the framework for self-government. The first election for the 17-member Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly was held on 4 March 1989.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3288199, 3343582, 579454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 95 ], [ 147, 161 ], [ 180, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The initial years of self-government were difficult and unstable. A majority of ACT residents had opposed self-government and had it imposed upon them by the federal parliament. At the first election, 4 of the 17 seats were won by anti-self-government single-issue parties due to a protest vote by disgruntled territorians and a total of 8 were won by minor parties and independents.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1992, Labor won eight seats and the minor parties and independents won only three. Stability increased, and in 1995, Kate Carnell became the first elected Liberal chief minister. In 1998, Carnell became the first chief minister to be re-elected.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 450313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian Capital Territory is the smallest mainland territory (aside from the Jervis Bay Territory) and covers a total land area of , slightly smaller than Luxembourg.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 100791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is bounded by the Goulburn-Cooma railway line in the east, the watershed of Naas Creek in the south, the watershed of the Cotter River in the west and the watershed of the Molonglo River in the north-east. These boundaries were set to give the ACT an adequate water supply. The ACT extends about North-South between 35.124°S and 35.921°S, and West-East between 148.763°E and 149.399°E. The city area of Canberra occupies the north-eastern corner of this area.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 525857, 632724, 2518907, 11831651, 2633390, 586111, 51983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 30, 35 ], [ 66, 75 ], [ 79, 89 ], [ 125, 137 ], [ 175, 189 ], [ 408, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian Capital Territory includes the city of Canberra and some other townships such as Williamsdale, Naas, Uriarra, Tharwa and Hall. The Australian Capital Territory also contains agricultural land (sheep, dairy cattle, vineyards and small amounts of crops) and a large area of national park (Namadgi National Park), much of it mountainous and forested.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 51983, 4115229, 11831651, 2645302, 2645254, 2645174, 17158563, 969613, 167276, 54366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 62 ], [ 96, 108 ], [ 110, 114 ], [ 116, 123 ], [ 125, 131 ], [ 136, 140 ], [ 208, 213 ], [ 215, 227 ], [ 229, 237 ], [ 302, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tidbinbilla is a locality to the south-west of Canberra that features the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve and the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex, operated by the United States' National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) as part of its Deep Space Network.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 102063, 1063098, 18426568, 231522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 100 ], [ 109, 150 ], [ 183, 228 ], [ 251, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are a large range of mountains, rivers and creeks throughout the territory and are largely contained within the Namadgi National Park. These include the Naas and Murrumbidgee Rivers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 54366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The territory has a relatively dry, continental climate experiencing warm to hot summers and cool to cold winters. Under Köppen-Geiger classification, the territory has an oceanic climate (Cfb).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 484254, 560047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 149 ], [ 172, 187 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "January is the hottest month with an average high of . July is the coldest month when the average high drops to . The highest maximum temperature recorded in the territory was on 4 January 2020. The lowest minimum temperature was on 11 July 1971.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Rainfall varies significantly across the territory. Much higher rainfall occurs in the mountains to the west of Canberra compared to the east. The mountains act as a barrier during winter with the city receiving less rainfall. Average annual rainfall in the territory is and there is an average of 108 rain days annually. The wettest month is October with an average rainfall of and the driest month is June with an average of .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Frost is common in the winter months. Snow is rare in Canberra's city centre, but the surrounding areas get annual snowfall through winter and often the snow-capped mountains can be seen from the city. The last significant snowfall in the city centre was in 1968.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Smoke haze became synonymous with the 2019/2020 Australian summer. On 1 January 2020 Canberra had the worst air quality of any major city in the world, with an AQI of 7700 (USAQI 949).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Notable geological formations in the Australian Capital Territory include the Canberra Formation, the Pittman Formation, Black Mountain Sandstone and State Circle Shale.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1840s fossils of brachiopods and trilobites from the Silurian period were discovered at Woolshed Creek near Duntroon. At the time, these were the oldest fossils discovered in Australia, though this record has now been far surpassed. Other specific geological places of interest include the State Circle cutting and the Deakin anticline.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 10958, 19827372, 61990, 26904, 1062808, 1345538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ], [ 24, 34 ], [ 40, 49 ], [ 60, 68 ], [ 115, 123 ], [ 333, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oldest rocks in the ACT date from the Ordovician around 480 million years ago. During this period the region along with most of Eastern Australia was part of the ocean floor; formations from this period include the Black Mountain Sandstone formation and the Pittman Formation consisting largely of quartz-rich sandstone, siltstone and shale. These formations became exposed when the ocean floor was raised by a major volcanic activity in the Devonian forming much of the east coast of Australia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 22265, 25233, 27772, 496360, 44211, 53879, 7992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 52 ], [ 302, 308 ], [ 314, 323 ], [ 325, 334 ], [ 339, 344 ], [ 421, 438 ], [ 446, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The environments range from alpine area on the higher mountains, to sclerophyll forest and to woodland. Much of the ACT has been cleared for grazing and is also burnt off by bushfires several times per century. The kinds of plants can be grouped into vascular plants, that include gymnosperms, flowering plants, and ferns, as well as bryophytes, lichens, fungi and freshwater algae. Four flowering plants are endemic to the ACT. Several lichens are unique to the territory. Most plants in the ACT are characteristic of the Flora of Australia and include well known plants such as Grevillea, Eucalyptus trees and kangaroo grass.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 496730, 159851, 66986, 20827796, 66966, 290236, 66512, 312249, 172396, 19178965, 633, 18952795, 980466, 49871, 6473840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 34 ], [ 68, 79 ], [ 94, 102 ], [ 174, 182 ], [ 251, 266 ], [ 281, 291 ], [ 316, 320 ], [ 334, 343 ], [ 346, 352 ], [ 355, 360 ], [ 376, 381 ], [ 523, 541 ], [ 580, 589 ], [ 591, 601 ], [ 612, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The native forest in the Canberra region was almost wholly eucalypt species and provided a resource for fuel and domestic purposes. By the early 1960s, logging had depleted the eucalypt, and concern about water quality led to the forests being closed. Interest in forestry began in 1915 with trials of a number of species including Pinus radiata on the slopes of Mount Stromlo. Since then, plantations have been expanded, with the benefit of reducing erosion in the Cotter catchment, and the forests are also popular recreation areas.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 49871, 320931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 67 ], [ 332, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fauna of the territory includes representatives from most major Australian animal groups. This includes kangaroos, wallabies, koalas, platypus, echidna, emu, kookaburras and dragon lizards.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Ecology", "target_page_ids": [ 49860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACT has internal self-government, but Australia's Constitution does not afford a territory legislature the high degree of independence provided to that of a state. Instead, each territory is governed under a Commonwealth statutefor the ACT, the Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988. The chief minister performs many of the roles that a state governor normally holds in the context of a state; however, the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly gazettes the laws and summons meetings of the Assembly.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 18579518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Laws are made in a 25-member Legislative Assembly that combines both state and local government functions (prior to 2016, the Assembly was made up of 17 members).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 579454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Members of the Legislative Assembly are elected via the Hare–Clark system.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 54656974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The executive of the Australian Capital Territory, also known as the ACT Government, consists of the chief minister and such other ministers as are appointed by the chief minister. The ACT chief minister (currently Andrew Barr, Labor) is elected by members of the Legislative Assembly. The chief minister represents the ACT Government as a member of the National Cabinet.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 12851273, 12851273, 23740923, 4645391, 47192712, 63440399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 83 ], [ 131, 140 ], [ 186, 204 ], [ 216, 227 ], [ 229, 234 ], [ 355, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike other self-governing Australian territories (for example, the Northern Territory), the ACT does not have an Administrator. The Crown is represented in government of the ACT by the Australian Governor-General. Until 4 December 2011, the decisions of the assembly could be overruled by the Governor-General (effectively by the national government) under section 35 of the Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988, although the federal parliament voted in 2011 to abolish this veto power, instead requiring a majority of both houses of the federal parliament to override an enactment of the ACT.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 21638, 12601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 87 ], [ 198, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The court system of the territory consists of the Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory, the Magistrates Court of the Australian Capital Territory and the ACT Civil and Administrative Tribunal. It is unique in that the territory does not have an intermediary court like other mainland states and territories; there is only the superior court and a court of summary jurisdiction. the Chief Justice is Helen Murrell and the current Chief Magistrate is Lorraine Walker.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 1970938, 11315232, 56265345, 53573904, 60179488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 99 ], [ 105, 158 ], [ 167, 204 ], [ 413, 426 ], [ 463, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ACT Policing (part of the Australian Federal Police) is responsible for providing policing services to the ACT. Canberra had the lowest rate of crime of any capital city in Australia . ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 2080299, 341221, 51983, 4689264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 26, 51 ], [ 112, 120 ], [ 173, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Australia's Federal Parliament, the ACT is represented by five federal members: three members of the House of Representatives represent the Division of Bean, the Division of Canberra and the Division of Fenner, and it is one of only two territories to be represented in the Senate, with two Senators (the other being the Northern Territory). The Member for Bean and the ACT Senators also represent the constituents of Norfolk Island. The Member for Fenner and the ACT Senators also represent the constituents of the Jervis Bay Territory.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 302298, 61565, 57066577, 1078167, 1077218, 165705, 21422, 100791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 33 ], [ 104, 128 ], [ 143, 159 ], [ 165, 185 ], [ 194, 212 ], [ 294, 302 ], [ 421, 435 ], [ 519, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1915, the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915 created the Jervis Bay Territory as an annex to the Federal Capital Territory. While the Act's use of the language of \"annexed\" is sometimes interpreted as implying that the Jervis Bay Territory was to form part of the Federal Capital Territory, the accepted legal position is that it has been a legally distinct territory from its creation despite being subject to ACT law and, prior to ACT self-government in 1988, being administratively treated as part of the ACT.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 3271769, 100791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 53 ], [ 66, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1988, when the ACT gained self-government, Jervis Bay was formally pronounced as a separate territory administered by the Commonwealth known as the Jervis Bay Territory. However, the laws of the ACT continue to apply to the Jervis Bay Territory. Magistrates from the ACT regularly travel to the Jervis Bay Territory to conduct court.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another occasional misconception is that the ACT retains a small area of territory on the coast on the Beecroft Peninsula, consisting of a strip of coastline around the northern headland of Jervis Bay. While the land is owned by the Commonwealth Government, that area itself is still considered to be under the jurisdiction of New South Wales government, not a separate territory nor a part of the ACT.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Government and politics", "target_page_ids": [ 2753553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian Bureau of Statistics estimates that the population of the territory was 453,324 on 31 December 2021, with an annual growth in 2021 of 0.4%. A 2019 projection estimated the population would reach to approximately 700,000 by 2058.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 4732815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The overwhelming majority of the population reside in the city of Canberra.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the , the median weekly income for people in the territory aged over 15 was $998 while the national average was $662.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The average level of degree qualification in the ACT is higher than the national average. Within the ACT, 37.1% of the population hold a bachelor's degree level or above education compared to the national figure of 20%.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian Capital Territory consists of the city of Canberra and some surrounding townships including Williamsdale, Naas, Uriarra, Tharwa and Hall.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 51983, 4115229, 11831651, 2645302, 2645254, 2645174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 65 ], [ 107, 119 ], [ 121, 125 ], [ 127, 134 ], [ 136, 142 ], [ 147, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The urban areas of Canberra are organised into a hierarchy of districts, town centres, group centres, local suburbs as well as other industrial areas and villages. There are seven districts (with an eighth currently under construction), each of which is divided into smaller suburbs, and most of which have a town centre which is the focus of commercial and social activities. The districts were settled in the following chronological order:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " North Canberra: mostly settled in the 1920s and '30s, with expansion up to the 1960s, now 14 suburbs;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 651539 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " South Canberra: settled from the 1920s to '60s, 13 suburbs;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 1166689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Woden Valley: first settled in 1963, 12 suburbs;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 1174162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Belconnen: first settled in 1967, 25 suburbs;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 651414 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Weston Creek: settled in 1969, 8 suburbs;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 1451318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tuggeranong: settled in 1974, 19 suburbs;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 716099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gungahlin: settled in the early 1990s, 18 suburbs although only 15 are developed or under development;", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 1268326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Molonglo Valley: first suburbs currently under construction.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 25534536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The North and South Canberra districts are substantially based on Walter Burley Griffin's designs. In 1967, the then National Capital Development Commission adopted the \"Y Plan\" which laid out future urban development in Canberra around a series of central shopping and commercial area known as the 'town centres' linked by freeways, the layout of which roughly resembled the shape of the letter Y, with Tuggeranong at the base of the Y and Belconnen and Gungahlin located at the ends of the arms of the Y.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 38192277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 2016 census, the most commonly nominated ancestries were: ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 2016 census showed that 32% of the ACT's inhabitants were born overseas. Of inhabitants born outside of Australia, the most prevalent countries of birth were England, China, India, New Zealand and the Philippines.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 1100670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1.6% of the population, or 6,476 people, identified as Indigenous Australians (Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders) in 2016.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 12598742, 2912594, 595809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 77 ], [ 79, 101 ], [ 106, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the 2016 census, 72.7% of people spoke only English at home. The other languages most commonly spoken at home were Mandarin (3.1%), Vietnamese (1.1%), Cantonese (1%), Hindi (0.9%) and Spanish (0.8%).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 24657, 32511, 1092292, 13652, 26825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 126 ], [ 135, 145 ], [ 154, 163 ], [ 170, 175 ], [ 187, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most common responses in the for religion in the territory were No Religion (36.2%), Catholic (22.3%), Anglican (10.8%), Not stated (9.2%) and Hinduism (2.6%). In Australian Capital Territory, Christianity was the largest religious group reported overall (49.9%).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Almost all educational institutions in the Australian Capital Territory are located within Canberra. The ACT public education system schooling is normally split up into Pre-School, Primary School (K-6), High School (7–10) and College (11–12) followed by studies at university or CIT (Canberra Institute of Technology). Many private high schools include years 11 and 12 and are referred to as colleges. Children are required to attend school until they turn 17 under the ACT Government's \"Learn or Earn\" policy.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 51983, 420020, 5689, 12851273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 99 ], [ 169, 179 ], [ 226, 233 ], [ 470, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2004 there were 140 public and non-governmental schools in ACT; 96 were operated by the Government and 44 are non-Government. In 2005, there were 60,275 students in the ACT school system. 59.3% of the students were enrolled in government schools with the remaining 40.7% in non-government schools. There were 30,995 students in primary school, 19,211 in high school, 9,429 in college and a further 340 in special schools.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2359659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of May 2004, 30% of people in the ACT aged 15–64 had a level of educational attainment equal to at least a bachelor's degree, significantly higher than the national average of 19%. The two main tertiary institutions are the Australian National University (ANU) in Acton and the University of Canberra (UC) in Bruce. There are also two religious university campuses in Canberra: Signadou is a campus of the Australian Catholic University and St Mark's Theological College is a campus of Charles Sturt University. Tertiary level vocational education is also available through the multi-campus Canberra Institute of Technology.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 188874, 285106, 1043651, 426946, 2525736, 95200, 543841, 2582386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 127 ], [ 227, 257 ], [ 267, 272 ], [ 281, 303 ], [ 312, 317 ], [ 409, 439 ], [ 489, 513 ], [ 594, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA) and the Royal Military College, Duntroon (RMC) are in the suburb of Campbell in Canberra's inner northeast. ADFA teaches military undergraduates and postgraduates and is officially a campus of the University of New South Wales while Duntroon provides Australian Army Officer training.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 7464687, 478799, 1060608, 153981, 146078, 2795, 36301328, 156423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 36 ], [ 52, 84 ], [ 112, 120 ], [ 193, 206 ], [ 241, 270 ], [ 295, 310 ], [ 311, 318 ], [ 319, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Academy of Interactive Entertainment (AIE) offers courses in computer game development and 3D animation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4324105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian Capital Territory is home to a number of major professional sports league franchise teams including the ACT Brumbies (Rugby Union), Canberra United (Football), Canberra Raiders (Rugby League) and the Canberra Capitals (Basketball).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 673823, 18636887, 454452, 4121869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 131 ], [ 147, 162 ], [ 175, 191 ], [ 215, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Prime Minister's XI (Cricket), started by Robert Menzies in the 1950s and revived by Bob Hawke in 1984, has been played every year at Manuka Oval against an overseas touring team.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3288512, 25839, 4059, 2072357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 46, 60 ], [ 89, 98 ], [ 138, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Greater Western Sydney Giants (Australian Rules) play three regular season matches a year and one pre-season match in Canberra at Manuka Oval.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 16740068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The territory is home to many national monuments and institutions such as the Australian War Memorial, the National Gallery of Australia, the National Portrait Gallery, the National Library, the National Archives, the Australian Academy of Science, the National Film and Sound Archive and the National Museum. Many Commonwealth government buildings in Canberra are open to the public, including Parliament House, the High Court and the Royal Australian Mint.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 440815, 255840, 1138089, 796059, 1358182, 1527421, 6744757, 583014, 333768, 314201, 583069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 101 ], [ 107, 136 ], [ 142, 167 ], [ 173, 189 ], [ 195, 212 ], [ 218, 247 ], [ 253, 284 ], [ 293, 308 ], [ 395, 411 ], [ 417, 427 ], [ 436, 457 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lake Burley Griffin is the site of the Captain James Cook Memorial and the National Carillon. Other sites of interest include the Telstra Tower, the Australian National Botanic Gardens, the National Zoo and Aquarium, the National Dinosaur Museum and Questacon – the National Science and Technology Centre.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 23036034, 1131219, 583035, 1104902, 2583448, 2596483, 2574795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 66 ], [ 75, 92 ], [ 130, 143 ], [ 149, 184 ], [ 190, 215 ], [ 221, 245 ], [ 250, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Canberra Museum and Gallery in the city is a repository of local history and art, housing a permanent collection and visiting exhibitions. Several historic homes are open to the public: Lanyon and Tuggeranong Homesteads in the Tuggeranong Valley, Mugga-Mugga in Symonston, and Blundells' Cottage in Parkes all display the lifestyle of the early European settlers. Calthorpes' House in Red Hill is a well-preserved example of a 1920s house from Canberra's very early days.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2512957, 1044033, 716099, 1167065, 1110851, 1166902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 35, 43 ], [ 231, 249 ], [ 266, 275 ], [ 303, 309 ], [ 389, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canberra has many venues for live music and theatre: the Canberra Theatre and Playhouse which hosts many major concerts and productions; and Llewellyn Hall (within the ANU School of Music), a world-class concert hall are two of the most notable. The Albert Hall was Canberra's first performing arts venue, opened in 1928. It was the original performance venue for theatre groups such as the Canberra Repertory Society.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 10691374, 10138353, 1416386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 87 ], [ 168, 187 ], [ 246, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are numerous bars and nightclubs which also offer live entertainment, particularly concentrated in the areas of Dickson, Kingston and the city. Most town centres have facilities for a community theatre and a cinema, and they all have a library. Popular cultural events include the National Folk Festival, the Royal Canberra Show, the Summernats car festival, Enlighten festival and the National Multicultural Festival in February.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2184185, 1164106, 1044033, 3412397, 7707789, 2534095, 41984318, 14015250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 125 ], [ 127, 135 ], [ 140, 148 ], [ 287, 309 ], [ 315, 334 ], [ 340, 350 ], [ 365, 374 ], [ 392, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canberra and the territory have a daily newspaper, The Canberra Times, which was established in 1926. There are also several free weekly publications, including news magazines CityNews and Canberra Weekly.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 41427131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Major daily newspapers such as The Daily Telegraph and The Sydney Morning Herald from Sydney, The Age and The Herald Sun from Melbourne as well as national publications The Australian and The Australian Financial Review are also available for purchase via retail outlets or via home delivery in the Australian Capital Territory.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 172311, 259082, 172350, 79797, 396952, 1251177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 50 ], [ 55, 80 ], [ 94, 101 ], [ 106, 120 ], [ 169, 183 ], [ 188, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are a number of AM and FM stations broadcasting throughout the ACT (AM/FM Listing). The main commercial operators are the Capital Radio Network (2CA and 2CC), and Austereo/ARN (104.7 and Mix 106.3). There are also several community operated stations as well as the local and national stations of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 14191400, 4687973, 9185320, 3206841, 575878, 575873, 4046728, 15472074, 3079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 87 ], [ 128, 149 ], [ 151, 154 ], [ 159, 162 ], [ 169, 177 ], [ 178, 181 ], [ 183, 188 ], [ 193, 202 ], [ 306, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A DAB+ digital radio trial is also in operation, it simulcasts some of the AM/FM stations, and also provides several digital only stations (DAB+ Trial Listing).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 22871559 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 158 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Five free-to-air television stations service the territory:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ABC Canberra (ABC)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 7596277, 8312339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 15, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SBS New South Wales (SBS)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 162469, 7613564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 23, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " WIN Television Southern NSW & ACT (WIN) – Nine Network affiliate", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 527187, 13596926, 176014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 36, 39 ], [ 43, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prime7 Southern NSW & ACT (CBN) – A Seven Network owned & operated station", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 564441, 4758412, 494657 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 28, 31 ], [ 37, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Southern Cross 10 Southern NSW & ACT (CTC) – Network 10 affiliate", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1028778, 13181402, 342308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 39, 42 ], [ 46, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Each station broadcasts a primary channel and several multichannels.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3762057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pay television services are available from Foxtel (via satellite) and telecommunications company TransACT (via cable).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 661989, 494665, 1948876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 43, 49 ], [ 97, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Australian Capital Territory has two large public hospitals both located in Canberra: the approximately 600-bed Canberra Hospital in Garran and the 174-bed Calvary Public Hospital in Bruce. Both are teaching institutions. The largest private hospital is the Calvary John James Hospital in Deakin. Calvary Private Hospital in Bruce and Healthscope's National Capital Private Hospital in Garran are also major healthcare providers.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 10726259, 2632850, 2525736, 1049299, 5862993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 133 ], [ 137, 143 ], [ 187, 192 ], [ 293, 299 ], [ 339, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canberra has 10 aged care facilities. Canberra's hospitals receive emergency cases from throughout southern New South Wales, and ACT Ambulance Service is one of four operational agencies of the ACT Emergency Services Authority. NETS provides a dedicated ambulance service for inter-hospital transport of sick newborns within the ACT and into surrounding New South Wales.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 5462904, 9930622, 5491915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 150 ], [ 194, 226 ], [ 228, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The automobile is by far the dominant form of transport in Canberra and the territory. The city is laid out so that arterial roads connecting inhabited clusters run through undeveloped areas of open land or forest, which results in a low population density; this also means that idle land is available for the development of future transport corridors if necessary without the need to build tunnels or acquire developed residential land. In contrast, other capital cities in Australia have substantially less green space.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Canberra's districts are generally connected by parkways—limited access dual carriageway roads with speed limits generally set at a maximum of . An example is the Tuggeranong Parkway which links Canberra's CBD and Tuggeranong, and bypasses Weston Creek. In most districts, discrete residential suburbs are bounded by main arterial roads with only a few residential linking in, to deter non-local traffic from cutting through areas of housing.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 2524652, 154487, 692197, 2706512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 48, 55 ], [ 72, 88 ], [ 163, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ACTION, the government-operated bus service, provides public transport throughout Canberra. Qcity Transit provides bus services between Canberra and nearby areas of New South Wales through their Transborder Express brand (Murrumbateman and Yass) and as Qcity Transit (Queanbeyan). A light rail line that opened in April 2019 links the CBD with the northern district of Gungahlin. At the 2016 census, 7.1% of the journeys to work involved public transport while 4.5% were on foot.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 2517364, 17251775, 5832650, 1450187, 614061, 586412, 38655581, 1268326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 92, 105 ], [ 195, 214 ], [ 222, 235 ], [ 240, 244 ], [ 268, 278 ], [ 283, 298 ], [ 369, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are two local taxi companies. Aerial Capital Group enjoyed monopoly status until the arrival of Cabxpress in 2007. In October 2015, the ACT Government passed legislation to regulate ride sharing, allowing ride share services including Uber to operate legally in Canberra. The ACT Government was the first jurisdiction in Australia to enact legislation to regulate the service.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 12759330, 722459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 56 ], [ 241, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An interstate NSW TrainLink railway service connects Canberra to Sydney. Canberra's railway station is in the inner south suburb of Kingston. Train services to Melbourne are provided by way of a NSW TrainLink bus service which connects with a rail service between Sydney and Melbourne in Yass, about a one-hour drive from Canberra.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 38405520, 4713360, 1164106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ], [ 73, 99 ], [ 132, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canberra is about three hours by road from Sydney on the Federal Highway (National Highway 23), which connects with the Hume Highway (National Highway 31) near Goulburn, and seven hours by road from Melbourne on the Barton Highway (National Highway 25), which joins the Hume Highway at Yass. It is a two-hour drive on the Monaro Highway (National Highway 23) to the ski fields of the Snowy Mountains and the Kosciuszko National Park. Batemans Bay, a popular holiday spot on the New South Wales coast, is also two hours away via the Kings Highway.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 614052, 252272, 525857, 614058, 632721, 28891, 101050, 464774, 944396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 72 ], [ 120, 132 ], [ 160, 168 ], [ 216, 230 ], [ 322, 336 ], [ 384, 399 ], [ 408, 432 ], [ 434, 446 ], [ 532, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canberra Airport provides direct domestic services to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Gold Coast, Hobart and Perth, with connections to other domestic centres. There are also direct flights to small regional towns: Dubbo and Newcastle in New South Wales. Regular direct international flights operate to Singapore and Doha from the airport daily, but both with a stopover in Sydney before Canberra. Canberra Airport is, as of September 2013, designated by the Australian Government Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development as a restricted use designated international airport. Until 2003, the civilian airport shared runways with RAAF Base Fairbairn. In June of that year, the Air Force base was decommissioned and from that time the airport was fully under civilian control.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 1085682, 27862, 17306237, 192093, 1148, 59251, 13699, 24355, 368550, 52665, 27318, 26214389, 56101300, 30862417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 54, 60 ], [ 62, 71 ], [ 73, 81 ], [ 83, 91 ], [ 93, 103 ], [ 105, 111 ], [ 116, 121 ], [ 222, 227 ], [ 232, 241 ], [ 310, 319 ], [ 324, 328 ], [ 466, 541 ], [ 649, 668 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The government-owned ACTEW Corporation manages the territory's water and sewerage infrastructure. ActewAGL is a joint venture between ACTEW and AGL, and is the retail provider of Canberra's utility services including water, natural gas, electricity, and also some telecommunications services via a subsidiary TransACT.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 2908330, 2797324, 1279907, 1948876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ], [ 98, 106 ], [ 144, 147 ], [ 309, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canberra's water is stored in four reservoirs, the Corin, Bendora and Cotter dams on the Cotter River and the Googong Dam on the Queanbeyan River. Although the Googong Dam is located in New South Wales, it is managed by the ACT government. ACTEW Corporation owns Canberra's two wastewater treatment plants, located at Fyshwick and on the lower reaches of the Molonglo River.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 2633390, 374469, 586111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 101 ], [ 318, 326 ], [ 359, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electricity for Canberra mainly comes from the national power grid through substations at Holt and Fyshwick (via Queanbeyan). Power was first supplied from a thermal plant built in 1913, near the Molonglo River, but this was finally closed in 1957. The ACT has four solar farms, which were opened between 2014 and 2017: Royalla (rated output of 20 megawatts, 2014), Mount Majura (2.3 MW, 2016), Mugga Lane (13 MW, 2017) and Williamsdale (11 MW, 2017). In addition numerous houses in Canberra have photovoltaic panels and/or solar hot water systems. In 2015/16, rooftop solar systems supported by the ACT government's feed-in tariff had a capacity of 26.3 megawatts, producing 34,910 MWh. In the same year, retailer-supported schemes had a capacity of 25.2 megawatts and exported 28,815 MWh to the grid (power consumed locally was not recorded).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [ 55955965, 2639210, 374469, 586412, 38348798, 41807461, 55961876, 4115229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ], [ 90, 94 ], [ 99, 107 ], [ 113, 123 ], [ 320, 327 ], [ 366, 378 ], [ 395, 405 ], [ 424, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACT has the highest rate with internet access at home (94percent of households in 2014–15).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Infrastructure", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The economic activity of the Australian Capital Territory is heavily concentrated around the city of Canberra.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A stable housing market, steady employment and rapid population growth in the 21st century have led to economic prosperity and, in 2011, CommSec ranked the ACT as the second best performing economic region in the country. This trend continued into 2016, when the territory was ranked the third best performing out of all of Australia's states and territories.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 6927480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017–18, the ACT had the fastest rate of growth in the nation due to a rapid growth in population, a strongly performing higher education sector as well as a significant housing and infrastructure investment.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Higher education is the territory's largest export industry. Canberra is home to a significant number of universities and higher education providers. The other major services exports of the ACT in 2017-18 were government services and personal travel. The major goods exports of the territory in 2017-18 were gold coin, legal tender coin, metal structures and fish, though these represent a small proportion of the economy compared to services exports.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The economy of the ACT is largely dependent on the public sector with 30% of the jobs in the territory being in the public sector. Decisions by the federal government regarding the public service can have a significant impact on the territory's economy.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ACT's gross state product in 2017-18 was $39.8 billion which represented 2.2% of the overall gross domestic product of Australia. In 2017-18 the ACT economy grew by 4.0 per cent, the highest growth rate of any jurisdiction in Australia. This brought real economic growth over the three years to June 2018 to 12 per cent.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Community Based Corrections", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1953881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Human Rights Act 2004", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6648195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Index of Australia-related articles", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 401603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jervis Bay Territory", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 100791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Revenue stamps of the Australian Capital Territory", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38072001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Government of the Australian Capital Territory", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Statistical Subdivisions of the Australian Capital Territory", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Australian_Capital_Territory", "Capital_districts_and_territories", "1911_establishments_in_Australia", "Enclaves_and_exclaves", "States_and_territories_established_in_1911" ]

[ "ACT", "A.C.T." ]

[ { "plaintext": "Units of alcohol are used in the United Kingdom (UK) as a measure to quantify the actual alcoholic content within a given volume of an alcoholic beverage, in order to provide guidance on total alcohol consumption.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18948043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of other countries (including Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the US) use the concept of a standard drink, the definition of which varies from country to country, for the same purpose. Standard drinks were referred to in the first UK guidelines (1984) that published \"safe limits\" for drinking, but these were replaced by references to \"alcohol units\" in the 1987 guidelines and the latter term has been used in all subsequent UK guidance.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 922129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One unit of alcohol (UK) is defined as 10 millilitres (8 grams) of pure alcohol. Typical drinks (i.e., typical quantities or servings of common alcoholic drinks) may contain 1–3 units of alcohol.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18094, 146839, 10048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 53 ], [ 57, 61 ], [ 72, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Containers of alcoholic drinks sold directly to UK consumers are normally labelled to indicate the number of units of alcohol in a typical serving (optional) and in the full container (can or bottle), as well as information about responsible drinking.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As an approximate guideline, a typical healthy adult can metabolise (break down) about one unit of alcohol per hour, although this may vary depending on sex, age, weight, health and many other factors.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The number of UK units of alcohol in a drink can be determined by multiplying by its , and dividing by 1000.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formula", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For example, one imperial pint (568 ml) of beer at 4% alcohol by volume (ABV) contains:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formula", "target_page_ids": [ 15492, 222881, 409309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 25 ], [ 26, 30 ], [ 54, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The formula uses . This results in exactly one unit per percentage point per litre, of any alcoholic beverage.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formula", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The formula can be simplified for everyday use by expressing the serving size in centilitres and the alcohol content literally as a percentage:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formula", "target_page_ids": [ 18094, 64493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 91 ], [ 132, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus, a 750ml bottle of wine at 12% ABV contains 75cl × 12% = 9 units. Alternatively, the serving size in litres multiplied by the alcohol content as a number, the above example giving 0.75 × 12 = 9 units:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formula", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both pieces of input data are usually mentioned in this form on the bottle, so is easy to retrieve.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Formula", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Research in the UK has shown that including pictures of units and a statement of the drinking guidelines could help people understand the recommended limits better.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Labelling", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "UK alcohol companies pledged in March 2011 to implement an innovative health labelling scheme to provide more information about responsible drinking on alcohol labels and containers. This voluntary scheme is the first of its kind in Europe and has been developed in conjunction with the UK Department of Health. The pledge stated:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Labelling", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"We will ensure that over 80% of products on shelf (by December 2013) will have labels with clear unit content, NHS guidelines and a warning about drinking when pregnant.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Labelling", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At the end of 2014, 101 companies had committed to the pledge labelling scheme.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Labelling", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are five elements included within the overall labelling scheme, the first three being mandatory, and the last two optional:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Labelling", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Unit alcohol content per container (mandatory), and per serving (optional)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Labelling", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chief Medical Officer's daily guidelines for lower-risk consumption", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Labelling", "target_page_ids": [ 13324187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pregnancy warning (in text or as a graphic)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Labelling", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mention of \"drinkaware.co.uk\" (optional)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Labelling", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Responsibility statement (e.g., \"please drink responsibly\") (optional)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Labelling", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Further detailed specifications about the labelling scheme are available from the \"Alcohol labelling tool kit\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Labelling", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Drinks companies had pledged to display the three mandatory items on 80% of drinks containers on shelves in the UK off-trade by the end of December 2013. A report published in November 2014, confirmed that UK drinks producers had delivered on that pledge with a 79.3% compliance with the pledge elements as measured by products on shelf. Compared with labels from 2008 on a like-for-like basis, information on Unit alcohol content had increased by 46%; 91% of products displayed alcohol and pregnancy warnings (18% in 2008); and 75% showed the Chief Medical Officers' lower risk daily guidelines (6% in 2008).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Labelling", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is sometimes misleadingly stated that there is one unit per half-pint of beer, or small glass of wine, or single measure of spirits. However, such statements do not take into account the various strengths and volumes supplied in practice.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For example, the ABV of beer typically varies from 3.5% to 5.5%. A typical \"medium\" glass of wine with 175 ml at 12% ABV has 2.1 units. And spirits, although typically 35–40% ABV, have single measures of 25ml or 35ml (so 1 or 1.4 units) depending on location.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The misleading nature of \"one unit per half-pint of beer, or small glass of wine, or single measure of spirits\" can lead to people underestimating their alcohol intake.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Half an imperial pint (284 ml) of beer with 3.5% ABV contains almost exactly one unit; however, most beers are stronger. In pubs in the United Kingdom, beers generally range from 3.5 to 5.5% ABV, and continental lagers start at around 4% ABV. An imperial pint of such lager (e.g., 568 ml at 5.2%) contains almost 3 units of alcohol rather than the oft-quoted 2 units.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [ 222881, 3363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 22 ], [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stronger beer (6–12%) may contain 2 units or more per half pint (imperial).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A half-litre (500ml) of standard lager or ale (5%) contains 2.5 units.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [ 19555312, 47840874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 39 ], [ 43, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " One litre (1000ml) of typical Oktoberfest beer (5.5–6%) contains 5.5–6 units of alcohol.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [ 7688189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A beer bottle is typically 333-355ml, approximately 1.7 units at 5%.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A medium glass (175ml) of 12% ABV wine contains around two units of alcohol. However, British pubs and restaurants often supply larger quantities (large glass ≈ 250ml), which contain 3 units. Red wines often have a higher alcohol content (on average 12.5%, sometimes up to 16%).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [ 32961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wine sold by the glass is often served in nearly full glasses. Wine served at home, or when bought by the bottle in, say, a restaurant, is usually served in glasses less than half filled; the capacity of a wine glass is not the only criterion for judging quantity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A 750ml bottle of 12% ABV wine contains 9 units; 16% ABV wine contains 12 units; a fortified wine such as port at 20% ABV contains 15 units.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [ 10998, 153990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 98 ], [ 107, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A small glass (50ml) of sherry, fortified wine, or cream liqueur (≈20% ABV) contains about one unit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [ 160246, 10998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 31 ], [ 33, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most spirits sold in the United Kingdom have 40% ABV or slightly less. In England, a single pub measure (25ml) of a spirit contains one unit. However, a larger 35ml measure is increasingly used (and in particular is standard in Northern Ireland), which contains 1.4 units of alcohol at 40% ABV. Sellers of spirits by the glass must state the capacity of their standard measure in ml.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [ 1318497, 31717, 21265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 12 ], [ 25, 39 ], [ 228, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " According to Alcohol and You Northern Ireland resource website, \"Most alcopops contain 1.1–1.5 units per bottle. For example, a normal 275ml bottle of WKD contains 1.1 units, whereas Bacardi Breezer and Smirnoff Ice both contain 1.5 units of alcohol.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Quantities", "target_page_ids": [ 2952, 1455064, 3483540, 265806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 79 ], [ 152, 155 ], [ 184, 199 ], [ 204, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On average, it takes about one hour for the body to metabolise (break down) one unit of alcohol. However, this will vary with body weight, sex, age, personal metabolic rate, recent food intake, the type and strength of the alcohol, and medications taken. Alcohol may be metabolised more slowly if liver function is impaired.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Time to metabolise", "target_page_ids": [ 20374, 17384301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 62 ], [ 297, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1992 to 1995, the UK government advised that men should drink no more than 21 units per week, and women no more than 14. (The difference between the sexes was due to the typically lower weight and water-to-body-mass ratio of women). The Times claimed in October 2007 that these limits had been \"plucked out of the air\" and had no scientific basis.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recommended maximum", "target_page_ids": [ 39127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 239, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This was changed after a government study showed that many people were in effect \"saving up\" their units and using them at the end of the week, a form of binge drinking. Since 1995 the advice was that regular consumption of 3–4 units a day for men, or 2–3 units a day for women, would not pose significant health risks, but that consistently drinking four or more units a day (men), or three or more units a day (women), is not advisable.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recommended maximum", "target_page_ids": [ 19592348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An international study of about 6,000 men and 11,000 women for a total of 75,000 person-years found that people who reported that they drank more than a threshold value of 2 units of alcohol a day had a higher risk of fractures than non-drinkers. For example, those who drank over 3 units a day had nearly twice the risk of a hip fracture.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Recommended maximum", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Standard drink", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 922129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "IARD: Drinking Guidelines General Population by country", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alcohol Labelling, with downloadable \"Alcohol labelling tool kit\" including labelling specifications", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Online converter between different countries' standard drinks and units", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Drinkaware", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NHS Choices: Drinking and alcohol", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NHS Choices: Alcohol unit calculator", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Online alcohol demotivator calculator", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Units_of_measurement", "Alcohol_measurement" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Aotus (the name is derived from the Ancient Greek words for \"earless\" in both cases: the monkey is missing external ears, and the pea is missing earlike bracteoles) may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 148363, 768413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 49 ], [ 116, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aotus (plant), one of the plant genera commonly known as golden peas in the family Fabaceae (bean family)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1167242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aotus (monkey), the genus of night monkeys in the family Aotidae", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 62889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AOTUS, the acronym for the Archivist of the United States", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1596427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 58 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Ally McBeal is an American legal comedy drama television series, originally aired on Fox from September 8, 1997, to May 20, 2002. Created by David E. Kelley, the series stars Calista Flockhart in the title role as a lawyer working in the Boston law firm Cage and Fish, with other lawyers whose lives and loves are eccentric, humorous, and dramatic. The series received critical acclaim in its early seasons, winning the Golden Globe Award for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy in 1998 and 1999, and also winning the Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 1999. As of 2021, a revival is possibly in development.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 62000, 317308, 46252, 262332, 7517, 4954014, 24437894, 5654000, 4719642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 32 ], [ 33, 45 ], [ 85, 88 ], [ 141, 156 ], [ 175, 192 ], [ 200, 210 ], [ 238, 244 ], [ 245, 253 ], [ 525, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The series, set in the fictional Boston law firm Cage & Fish, begins with main character Allison Marie \"Ally\" McBeal joining the firm co-owned by her law school classmate Richard Fish (Greg Germann) after leaving her previous job due to sexual harassment. On her first day, Ally is horrified to find that she will be working alongside her ex-boyfriend Billy Thomas (Gil Bellows)—whom she has never gotten over. To make things worse, Billy is now married to fellow lawyer Georgia (Courtney Thorne-Smith), who later joins Cage and Fish. The triangle among the three forms the basis for the main plot for the show's first three seasons.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 24437894, 5654000, 4954014, 892426, 1741200, 276395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 39 ], [ 40, 48 ], [ 89, 116 ], [ 185, 197 ], [ 366, 377 ], [ 480, 501 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although ostensibly a legal drama, the main focus of the series was the romantic and personal lives of the main characters, often using legal proceedings as plot devices to contrast or reinforce a character's drama. For example, bitter divorce litigation of a client might provide a backdrop for Ally's decision to break up with a boyfriend. Legal arguments were also frequently used to explore multiple sides of various social issues.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 171435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cage and Fish (which becomes Cage/Fish & McBeal or Cage, Fish, & Associates towards the end of the series), the fictional law firm where most of the characters work, is depicted as a highly sexualized environment symbolized by its unisex restroom. Lawyers and secretaries in the firm routinely date, flirt with, or have a romantic history with one another and frequently run into former or potential romantic interests in the courtroom or on the street outside.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The series had many offbeat and frequently surreal running gags and themes, such as Ally's tendency to immediately fall over whenever she met somebody she found attractive, Richard Fish's wattle fetish and humorous mottos (\"Fishisms\" & \"Bygones\"), John's gymnastic dismounts out of the office's unisex bathroom stalls, or the dancing twins (played by Eric & Steve Cohen) at the bar, that ran through the series. The show also used vivid, dramatic fantasy sequences for Ally's and other characters' wishful thinking; of particular note is the early internet sensation the dancing baby.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 8619843, 23534170, 855639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 194 ], [ 447, 454 ], [ 571, 583 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The series also featured regular visits to a local bar where singer Vonda Shepard regularly performed (though occasionally handing over the microphone to the characters). Star contemporary singers also performed in the bar at the end of the shows, including acts such as Mariah Carey, Barry White and Anastacia. The series also took place in the same continuity as David E. Kelley's legal drama The Practice (which aired on ABC), as the two shows crossed over with one another on occasion, a very rare occurrence for two shows that aired on different networks.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 649101, 19499, 56386, 1016502, 5899, 520401, 62027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 81 ], [ 271, 283 ], [ 285, 296 ], [ 301, 310 ], [ 351, 361 ], [ 395, 407 ], [ 424, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ultimately, in the last installment of the fifth and final season, \"Bygones\", Ally decided to resign from Cage & Fish, leave Boston, and go to New York City.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fox canceled Ally McBeal after five seasons. In addition to being the lowest-rated season of Ally McBeal and the grounds for the show's cancellation, the fifth season was also the only season of the show that failed to win any Emmy or Golden Globe awards. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Cancellation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Australia, Ally McBeal was aired by the Seven Network from 1997 to 2002. In 2010, it was aired repeatedly by Network 10.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Episodes", "target_page_ids": [ 494657, 342308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 56 ], [ 112, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Seymore Walsh, a stern judge often exasperated by the eccentricities of the Cage & Fish lawyers and played by actor Albert Hall, was also a recurring character on The Practice. In addition, Judge Jennifer (Whipper) Cone appears on The Practice episode \"Line of Duty\" (S02 E15), while Judge Roberta Kittelson, a recurring character on The Practice, has a featured guest role in the Ally McBeal episode \"Do you Wanna Dance?\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Episodes", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most of the primary Practice cast members guest starred in the Ally McBeal episode \"The Inmates\" (S01 E20), in a storyline that concluded with the Practice episode \"Axe Murderer\" (S02 E26), featuring Calista Flockhart and Gil Bellows reprising their Ally characters. What is unusual about this continuing storyline is that Ally McBeal and The Practice aired on different networks. Bobby Donnell, the main character of The Practice played by Dylan McDermott, was featured heavily in both this crossover and another Ally McBeal episode, \"These are the Days\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Episodes", "target_page_ids": [ 656549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 441, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regular Practice cast members Lara Flynn Boyle and Michael Badalucco each had a cameo in Ally McBeal (Boyle as a woman who trades insults with Ally in the episode \"Making Spirits Bright\" and Badalucco as one of Ally's dates in the episode \"I Know him by Heart\") but it is unclear whether they were playing the same characters they play on The Practice.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Episodes", "target_page_ids": [ 243368, 656583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 46 ], [ 51, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Season 5, Lara Flynn Boyle had an uncredited guest appearance as a rebuttal witness opposite guest star Heather Locklear's character in the episode, \"Tom Dooley\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Episodes", "target_page_ids": [ 243368, 174821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 29 ], [ 107, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "14 Beacon Street in Boston was the exterior which was used as the location for the law firm \"Cage & Fish\" (later \"Cage, Fish, & McBeal\"), which was located on the 7th floor of this building.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Filming location", "target_page_ids": [ 8492465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon premiering in 1997, the show was an instant hit, averaging around 11 million viewers per episode. The show's second season saw an increase in ratings and soon became a top 20 show, averaging around 13 million viewers per episode. The show's ratings began to decline in the third season, but stabilized in the fourth season after Robert Downey Jr. joined the regular cast as Ally's boyfriend Larry Paul, and a fresher aesthetic was created by new art director Matthew DeCoste. However, Downey's character was written out after the end of the season due to the actor's troubles with drug addiction.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 171045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 334, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first two seasons, as well as the fourth, remain the most critically acclaimed and saw the most awards success at the Emmys, SAG Awards and the Golden Globes. In 2007, Ally McBeal placed #48 on Entertainment Weekly 2007 \"New TV Classics\" list.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 541239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ally McBeal received some criticism from TV critics and feminists who found the title character annoying and demeaning to women (specifically regarding professional women) because of her perceived flightiness, lack of demonstrated legal knowledge, short skirts, and emotional instability. Perhaps the most notorious example of the debate sparked by the show was the June 29, 1998, cover story of Time magazine, which juxtaposed McBeal with three pioneering feminists (Susan B. Anthony, Betty Friedan, Gloria Steinem) and asked \"Is Feminism Dead?\" In episode 12 of the second season of the show, Ally talks to her co-worker John Cage about a dream she had, saying \"You know, I had a dream that they put my face on the cover of Time magazine as 'the face of feminism'.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Feminist criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 31600, 27954, 253063, 299078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 396, 400 ], [ 468, 484 ], [ 486, 499 ], [ 501, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Music was a prominent feature of Ally McBeal. Vonda Shepard, a relatively unknown musician at the time, performed regularly on the show and her song \"Searchin' My Soul\" was the show's theme song. Many of the songs Shepard performed were established hits with lyrics that paralleled the events of each episode, for example, \"Both Sides Now\", \"Hooked on a Feeling\" and \"Tell Him\". Besides recording background music for the show, Shepard frequently appeared at the ends of episodes as a musician performing at a local piano bar frequented by the main characters. On rare occasions, her character would have conventional dialogue. A portion of \"Searchin' My Soul\" was played at the beginning of each episode, but the song was never played in its entirety.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 649101, 6572508, 4755515, 5176105, 3540865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 59 ], [ 324, 338 ], [ 342, 361 ], [ 368, 376 ], [ 516, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several of the characters had a musical leitmotif that played when they appeared. John Cage's was \"You're the First, the Last, My Everything\", Ling Woo's was the Wicked Witch of the West theme from The Wizard of Oz, and Ally McBeal herself picked \"Tell Him\", when told by a psychiatrist that she needed a theme song in a Season 1 episode.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 149832, 7770112, 933294, 561315, 23279434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 49 ], [ 99, 140 ], [ 162, 186 ], [ 198, 214 ], [ 321, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the popularity of the show and Shepard's music, a soundtrack titled Songs from Ally McBeal was released in 1998, as well as a successor soundtrack titled New Songs from Ally McBeal in 1999. Two compilation albums from the show featuring Shepard were also released in 2000 and 2001. A Christmas album was also released under the title Ally McBeal: A Very Ally Christmas. The album received positive reviews, and Shephard's version of Kay Starr's Christmas song \"(Everybody's Waitin' for) The Man with the Bag\", received considerable airplay during the holiday season.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 1911711, 592161, 37325000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 97 ], [ 441, 450 ], [ 469, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other artists featured on the show include Barry White, Al Green, Gladys Knight, Tina Turner, Macy Gray, Gloria Gaynor, Chayanne, Barry Manilow, Anastacia, Elton John, Sting and Mariah Carey. Josh Groban played the role of Malcolm Wyatt in the May 2001 season finale, performing \"You're Still You\". The series creator, David E. Kelley, was impressed with Groban's performance at The Family Celebration event and based on the audience reaction to Groban's singing, Kelley created a character for him in that finale. The background score for the show was composed by Danny Lux.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Music", "target_page_ids": [ 56386, 149459, 165909, 82061, 168875, 12509, 85932, 526538, 1016502, 5052197, 83312, 19499, 453244, 1563292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ], [ 56, 64 ], [ 66, 79 ], [ 81, 92 ], [ 94, 103 ], [ 105, 118 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 130, 143 ], [ 145, 154 ], [ 156, 166 ], [ 168, 173 ], [ 178, 190 ], [ 192, 203 ], [ 565, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to music licensing issues, none of the seasons of Ally McBeal were available on DVD in the United States (only 6 random episodes could be found on the R1 edition) until 2009, though the show had been available in Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Japan, Hong Kong, Portugal, Spain, France, Germany, the United Kingdom, Mexico, Taiwan, Australia, Brazil, and the Czech Republic with all the show's music intact since 2005. In the UK, Ireland, and Spain all seasons are available in a complete box set.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Home media", "target_page_ids": [ 2399872, 18938049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ], [ 84, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "20th Century Fox released the complete first season on DVD in Region 1 on October 6, 2009. They also released a special complete series edition on the same day. Season 1 does not contain any special features, but the complete series set contains several bonus features, including featurettes, an all-new retrospective, the episode of The Practice in which Calista Flockhart guest-starred, and a bonus disc entitled \"The Best of Ally McBeal Soundtrack.\" In addition, both releases contain all of the original music. Season 2 was released on April 6, 2010. Seasons 3, 4, and 5 were all released on October 5, 2010.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Home media", "target_page_ids": [ 1749993, 9728631, 520401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 323, 330 ], [ 334, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1999, at the height of the show's popularity, a half-hour version entitled Ally began airing in parallel with the main program. This version, designed in a sitcom format, used re-edited scenes from the main program, along with previously unseen footage. The intention was to further develop the plots in the comedy drama in a sitcom style. It also focused only on Ally's personal life, cutting all the courtroom plots. The repackaged show was cancelled partway through its initial run. While 13 episodes of Ally were produced, only ten aired.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Ally (1999)", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2021, it was reported that a revival as a limited series was in early development by 20th Television with Flockhart possibly returning. In August 2022, it was reported that ABC was in early development a sequel series with Karin Gist writing and executive producing.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Possible revival", "target_page_ids": [ 5817689, 62027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 109 ], [ 182, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In episode 2, season 3 of the British comedy The Adam and Joe Show, the show was parodied as \"Ally McSqueal\" using soft toys.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 171682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Episode 12, season 1 of the show Futurama, \"When Aliens Attack\", centers on an invasion of Earth by the Omicronians precipitated by a signal loss during the climax of an episode of Single Female Lawyer, whose main character is Jenny McNeal.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 228211, 3341829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 41 ], [ 44, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In episode 8, season 4 of the show The Good Place, the Judge hands Ted Danson's character a petition to reboot Ally McBeal stating \"everything else is getting rebooted.\"", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 49079847, 217241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ], [ 67, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2021 film The Mauritanian, Guantanamo Bay detention camp detainee Mohamedou Ould Salahi says to a US judge \"Even in Mauritania, we have watched Law & Order and Ally McBeal.\"", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 62223931, 4406774, 881741, 173629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 32 ], [ 34, 63 ], [ 73, 94 ], [ 151, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ally McBeal: Woman of the '90s or Retro Airhead", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Ally_McBeal", "1997_American_television_series_debuts", "2002_American_television_series_endings", "1990s_American_comedy-drama_television_series", "1990s_American_legal_television_series", "1990s_American_romantic_comedy_television_series", "1990s_American_workplace_comedy_television_series", "1990s_American_workplace_drama_television_series", "1990s_romantic_drama_television_series", "2000s_American_comedy-drama_television_series", "2000s_American_legal_television_series", "2000s_American_romantic_comedy_television_series", "2000s_American_workplace_comedy_television_series", "2000s_American_workplace_drama_television_series", "2000s_romantic_drama_television_series", "American_romantic_drama_television_series", "Best_Musical_or_Comedy_Series_Golden_Globe_winners", "English-language_television_shows", "Fox_Broadcasting_Company_original_programming", "Outstanding_Performance_by_an_Ensemble_in_a_Comedy_Series_Screen_Actors_Guild_Award_winners", "Peabody_Award-winning_television_programs", "Primetime_Emmy_Award_for_Outstanding_Comedy_Series_winners", "Primetime_Emmy_Award-winning_television_series", "Television_series_by_20th_Century_Fox_Television", "Television_series_created_by_David_E._Kelley", "Television_shows_set_in_Boston", "The_Practice" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Andreas Capellanus (Capellanus meaning \"chaplain\"), also known as Andrew the Chaplain, and occasionally by a French translation of his name, André le Chapelain, was the 12th-century author of a treatise commonly known as De amore (\"About Love\"), and often known in English, somewhat misleadingly, as The Art of Courtly Love, though its realistic, somewhat cynical tone suggests that it is in some measure an antidote to courtly love. Little is known of Andreas Capellanus's life, but he is presumed to have been a courtier of Marie de Champagne, and probably of French origin.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8717999, 63792, 174282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 229 ], [ 420, 432 ], [ 526, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "De Amore was written at the request of Marie de Champagne, daughter of King Louis VII of France and of Eleanor of Aquitaine. In it, the author informs a young pupil, Walter, of the pitfalls of love. A dismissive allusion in the text to the \"wealth of Hungary\" has suggested the hypothesis that it was written after 1184, at the time when Bela III of Hungary had sent to the French court a statement of his income and had proposed marriage to Marie's half-sister Marguerite of France, but before 1186, when his proposal was accepted.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "His work", "target_page_ids": [ 48436, 9962, 379358, 2471885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 95 ], [ 103, 123 ], [ 338, 357 ], [ 462, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "De Amore is made up of three books. The first book covers the etymology and definition of love and is written in the manner of an academic lecture. The second book consists of sample dialogues between members of different social classes; it outlines how the romantic process between the classes should work. This second work is largely considered to be an inferior to the first. Book three is made of stories from actual courts of love presided over by noble women.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "His work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "John Jay Parry, the editor of one modern edition of De Amore, quotes critic Robert Bossuat as describing De Amore as \"one of those capital works which reflect the thought of a great epoch, which explains the secret of a civilization\". It may be viewed as didactic, mocking, or merely descriptive; in any event it preserves the attitudes and practices that were the foundation of a long and significant tradition in Western literature.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "His work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The social system of \"courtly love\", as gradually elaborated by the Provençal troubadours from the mid twelfth century, soon spread. One of the circles in which this poetry and its ethic were cultivated was the court of Eleanor of Aquitaine (herself the granddaughter of an early troubadour poet, William IX of Aquitaine). It has been claimed that De Amore codifies the social and sexual life of Eleanor's court at Poitiers between 1170 and 1174, though it was evidently written at least ten years later and, apparently, at Troyes. It deals with several specific themes that were the subject of poetical debate among late twelfth century troubadours and trobairitz.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "His work", "target_page_ids": [ 682906, 63788, 544552, 8305529, 4146500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 77 ], [ 78, 88 ], [ 297, 320 ], [ 596, 611 ], [ 655, 665 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The meaning of De Amore has been debated over the centuries. In the years immediately following its release many people took Andreas' opinions concerning Courtly Love seriously. In more recent times, however, scholars have come to view the priest's work as satirical. Many scholars now agree that Andreas was commenting on the materialistic, superficial nature of medieval nobles. Andreas seems to have been warning young Walter, his protégé, about love in the Middle Ages.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "His work", "target_page_ids": [ 63792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Martianus Capella", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 737686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quadrivium", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Andreas Capellanus: The Art of Courtly Love, trans. John Jay Parry. New York: Columbia University Press, 1941. (Reprinted: New York: Norton, 1969.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Andreas Capellanus: On Love, ed. and trans. P. G. Walsh. London: Duckworth, 1982.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Excerpts of De Amore in English", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "12th-century_Latin_writers", "12th-century_births", "French_essayists", "Date_of_death_unknown", "French_male_essayists", "12th-century_French_writers" ]

[ "Andrea Cappellano", "André le Chapelain", "Andre le Chapelain" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) is a nonprofit organization founded in 1920 \"to defend and preserve the individual rights and liberties guaranteed to every person in this country by the Constitution and laws of the United States\". The ACLU works through litigation and lobbying, and has over 1,800,000 members as of July 2018, with an annual budget of over $300 million. Affiliates of the ACLU are active in all 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico. The ACLU provides legal assistance in cases where it considers civil liberties to be at risk. Legal support from the ACLU can take the form of direct legal representation or preparation of amicus curiae briefs expressing legal arguments when another law firm is already providing representation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 72487, 31644, 27552742, 113258, 48934, 108956, 23041, 37476, 236334, 425202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 69 ], [ 196, 208 ], [ 213, 238 ], [ 264, 274 ], [ 279, 287 ], [ 437, 457 ], [ 463, 474 ], [ 539, 554 ], [ 665, 678 ], [ 679, 685 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to representing persons and organizations in lawsuits, the ACLU lobbies for policy positions that have been established by its board of directors. Current positions of the ACLU include opposing the death penalty; supporting same-sex marriage and the right of LGBT people to adopt; supporting reproductive rights such as birth control and abortion rights; eliminating discrimination against women, minorities, and LGBT people; decarceration in the United States; supporting the rights of prisoners and opposing torture; and upholding the separation of church and state by opposing government preference for religion over non-religion or for particular faiths over others. Lost impartiality accusations have been raised of a loss in impartiality in the organisation's free speech advocacy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 412425, 249623, 36523292, 706186, 33463304, 256024, 31682629, 437868, 66936, 63808723, 23814321, 7619181, 596325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 223 ], [ 236, 253 ], [ 262, 291 ], [ 304, 323 ], [ 332, 345 ], [ 350, 365 ], [ 379, 393 ], [ 409, 419 ], [ 425, 429 ], [ 438, 472 ], [ 489, 508 ], [ 522, 529 ], [ 549, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Legally, the ACLU consists of two separate but closely affiliated nonprofit organizations, namely the American Civil Liberties Union, a 501(c)(4) social welfare group; and the ACLU Foundation, a 501(c)(3) public charity. Both organizations engage in civil rights litigation, advocacy, and education, but only donations to the 501(c)(3) foundation are tax deductible, and only the 501(c)(4) group can engage in unlimited political lobbying. The two organizations share office space and employees.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1979418, 5971097, 1176679, 37071, 48934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 145 ], [ 195, 204 ], [ 205, 219 ], [ 250, 262 ], [ 430, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU was founded in 1920 by a committee including Helen Keller, Roger Nash Baldwin, Crystal Eastman, Walter Nelles, Morris Ernst, Albert DeSilver, Arthur Garfield Hays, Jane Addams, Felix Frankfurter, Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, and Rose Schneiderman. Its focus was on freedom of speech, primarily for anti-war protesters. It was founded in response to the controversial Palmer raids, which saw thousands of radicals arrested in matters which violated their constitutional search and seizures protection. During the 1920s, the ACLU expanded its scope to include protecting the free speech rights of artists and striking workers, and working with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) to mitigate discrimination. During the 1930s, the ACLU started to engage in work combating police misconduct and supporting Native American rights. Many of the ACLU's cases involved the defense of Communist Party members and Jehovah's Witnesses. In 1940, the ACLU leadership voted to exclude communists from its leadership positions, a decision rescinded in 1968. During World War II, the ACLU defended Japanese-American citizens, unsuccessfully trying to prevent their forcible relocation to internment camps. During the Cold War, the ACLU headquarters was dominated by anti-communists, but many local affiliates defended members of the Communist Party.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 14254, 1318076, 7611, 18401789, 3581463, 3139268, 1733882, 152277, 356028, 2707335, 1651351, 21401843, 37000, 25624937, 4068178, 19386436, 452981, 52547, 32927, 46884, 325329, 18940658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 66 ], [ 68, 86 ], [ 88, 103 ], [ 105, 118 ], [ 120, 132 ], [ 134, 149 ], [ 151, 171 ], [ 173, 184 ], [ 186, 203 ], [ 205, 227 ], [ 233, 250 ], [ 269, 286 ], [ 371, 383 ], [ 650, 708 ], [ 808, 825 ], [ 841, 863 ], [ 914, 929 ], [ 942, 961 ], [ 1088, 1100 ], [ 1210, 1226 ], [ 1239, 1247 ], [ 1288, 1303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1964, membership had risen to 80,000, and the ACLU participated in efforts to expand civil liberties. In the 1960s, the ACLU continued its decades-long effort to enforce separation of church and state. It defended several anti-war activists during the Vietnam War. The ACLU was involved in the Miranda case, which addressed conduct by police during interrogations, and in the New York Times case, which established new protections for newspapers reporting on government activities. In the 1970s and 1980s, the ACLU ventured into new legal areas, involving the rights of homosexuals, students, prisoners, and the poor. In the twenty-first century, the ACLU has fought the teaching of creationism in public schools and challenged some provisions of anti-terrorism legislation as infringing on privacy and civil liberties. Fundraising and membership spiked after the 2016 presidential election and the ACLU's current membership is more than 1.2 million.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Overview", "target_page_ids": [ 37476, 168714, 39766716, 32611, 168892, 212629, 5326, 32191, 21377251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 103 ], [ 173, 203 ], [ 225, 242 ], [ 255, 266 ], [ 293, 309 ], [ 375, 398 ], [ 686, 697 ], [ 750, 776 ], [ 867, 893 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU is led by a president and an executive director, Deborah N. Archer and Anthony Romero, respectively, in 2021. The president acts as chair of the ACLU's board of directors, leads fundraising, and facilitates policy-setting. The executive director manages the day-to-day operations of the organization. The board of directors consists of 80 persons, including representatives from each state affiliate, as well as at-large delegates. The organization has its headquarters in 125 Broad Street, a 40-story skyscraper located in Lower Manhattan, New York City.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 66580753, 1952885, 41951964, 455646, 645042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 75 ], [ 80, 94 ], [ 482, 498 ], [ 533, 548 ], [ 550, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The leadership of the ACLU does not always agree on policy decisions; differences of opinion within the ACLU leadership have sometimes grown into major debates. In 1937, an internal debate erupted over whether to defend Henry Ford's right to distribute anti-union literature. In 1939, a heated debate took place over whether to prohibit communists from serving in ACLU leadership roles. During the early 1950s and Cold War McCarthyism, the board was divided on whether to defend communists. In 1968, a schism formed over whether to represent Benjamin Spock's anti-war activism. In 1973, as the Watergate Scandal continued to unfold, leadership was initially divided over whether to call for President Nixon's impeachment and removal from office. In 2005, there was internal conflict about whether or not a gag rule should be imposed on ACLU employees to prevent publication of internal disputes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 13371, 9209651, 325329, 43805, 54522, 52382, 25473, 62967886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 230 ], [ 337, 347 ], [ 414, 422 ], [ 423, 434 ], [ 542, 556 ], [ 594, 611 ], [ 701, 706 ], [ 806, 814 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the year ending March 31, 2014, the ACLU and the ACLU Foundation had a combined income from support and revenue of $100.4million, originating from grants (50.0%), membership donations (25.4%), donated legal services (7.6%), bequests (16.2%), and revenue (0.9%). Membership dues are treated as donations; members choose the amount they pay annually, averaging approximately $50 per member per year. In the year ending March 31, 2014, the combined expenses of the ACLU and ACLU Foundation were $133.4million, spent on programs (86.2%), management (7.4%), and fundraising (8.2%). (After factoring in other changes in net assets of +$30.9 million, from sources such as investment income, the organization had an overall decrease in net assets of $2.1 million.) Over the period from 2011 to 2014 the ACLU Foundation, on the average, has accounted for roughly 70% of the combined budget, and the ACLU roughly 30%.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU solicits donations to its charitable foundation. The ACLU is accredited by the Better Business Bureau, and the Charity Navigator has ranked the ACLU with a four-star rating. The local affiliates solicit their own funding; however, some also receive funds from the national ACLU, with the distribution and amount of such assistance varying from state to state. At its discretion, the national organization provides subsidies to smaller affiliates that lack sufficient resources to be self-sustaining; for example, the Wyoming ACLU chapter received such subsidies until April 2015, when, as part of a round of layoffs at the national ACLU, the Wyoming office was closed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 479512, 3549998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 110 ], [ 120, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2004, the ACLU rejected $1.5million from both the Ford Foundation and Rockefeller Foundation because the foundations had adopted language from the USA PATRIOT Act in their donation agreements, including a clause stipulating that none of the money would go to \"underwriting terrorism or other unacceptable activities\". The ACLU views this clause, both in federal law and in the donors' agreements, as a threat to civil liberties, saying it is overly broad and ambiguous.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 92405, 227730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 76 ], [ 81, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Due to the nature of its legal work, the ACLU is often involved in litigation against governmental bodies, which are generally protected from adverse monetary judgments; a town, state or federal agency may be required to change its laws or behave differently, but not to pay monetary damages except by an explicit statutory waiver. In some cases, the law permits plaintiffs who successfully sue government agencies to collect money damages or other monetary relief. In particular, the Civil Rights Attorney's Fees Award Act of 1976 leaves the government liable in some civil rights cases. Fee awards under this civil rights statute are considered \"equitable relief\" rather than damages, and government entities are not immune from equitable relief. Under laws such as this, the ACLU and its state affiliates sometimes share in monetary judgments against government agencies. In 2006, the Public Expressions of Religion Protection Act sought to prevent monetary judgments in the particular case of violations of church-state separation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 7849628, 7224820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 485, 531 ], [ 888, 933 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU has received court awarded fees from opponents, for example, the Georgia affiliate was awarded $150,000 in fees after suing a county demanding the removal of a Ten Commandments display from its courthouse; a second Ten Commandments case in the state, in a different county, led to a $74,462 judgment. The State of Tennessee was required to pay $50,000, the State of Alabama $175,000, and the State of Kentucky $121,500, in similar Ten Commandments cases.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 2539671, 30395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 185 ], [ 314, 332 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of the organization's workload is performed by its local affiliates. There is at least one affiliate organization in each state, as well as one in Washington, D.C., and in Puerto Rico. California has three affiliates. The affiliates operate autonomously from the national organization; each affiliate has its own staff, executive director, board of directors, and budget. Each affiliate consists of two non-profit corporations: a 501(c)(3) corporation–called the ACLU Foundation–that does not perform lobbying, and a 501(c)(4) corporation–called ACLU–which is entitled to lobby. Both organizations share staff and offices", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5971097, 1979418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 435, 444 ], [ 522, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ACLU affiliates are the basic unit of the ACLU's organization and engage in litigation, lobbying, and public education. For example, in 2020 the ACLU's New Jersey chapter argued 26 cases before the New Jersey Supreme Court, about one third of total cases heard in that court. They sent over 50,000 emails to officials or agencies and had 28 full-time staff. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 28861701, 1265234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 170 ], [ 198, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU's official position statements included the following policies:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Affirmative action – The ACLU supports affirmative action.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 6677413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Birth control and abortion – The ACLU supports the right to abortion, as established in the Roe v. Wade decision. The ACLU believes that everyone should have affordable access to the full range of contraceptive options. The ACLU's Reproductive Freedom Project manages efforts related to reproductive rights.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 33463304, 256024, 68493, 18978770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 19, 27 ], [ 93, 104 ], [ 198, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Campaign funding – The ACLU believes that the current system is badly flawed, and supports a system based on public funding. The ACLU supports full transparency to identify donors. However, the ACLU opposes attempts to control political spending. The ACLU supported the Supreme Court's decision in Citizens United v. FEC, which allowed corporations and unions more political speech rights.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 40557, 22097436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 299, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Criminal law reform – The ACLU seeks an end to what it feels are excessively harsh sentences that \"stand in the way of a just and equal society\". The ACLU's Criminal Law Reform Project focuses on this issue.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 45555344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Death penalty – The ACLU is opposed to the death penalty in all circumstances. The ACLU's Capital Punishment Project focuses on this issue.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 412425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Free speech – The ACLU supports free speech, including the right to express unpopular or controversial ideas, such as flag desecration, racist or sexist views, etc. However, a leaked ACLU memo from June 2018 said that speech that can \"inflict serious harms\" and \"impede progress toward equality\" may be a lower priority for the organization.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 634892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gun rights – The national ACLU's position is that the Second Amendment protects a collective right to own guns rather than an individual right, despite the 2008 Supreme Court decision in District of Columbia v. Heller that the Second Amendment is an individual right. The national organization's position is based on the phrases \"a well regulated Militia\" and \"the security of a free State\". However, the ACLU opposes any effort to create a registry of gun owners and has worked with the National Rifle Association to prevent a registry from being created, and it has favored protecting the right to carry guns under the 4th Amendment.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 450957, 9964644, 70101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 188, 218 ], [ 489, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HIV/AIDS – The policy of the ACLU is to \"create a world in which discrimination based on HIV status has ended, people with HIV have control over their medical information and care, and where the government's HIV policy promotes public health and respect and compassion for people living with HIV and AIDS\". This effort is managed by the ACLU's AIDS Project.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 89768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Human rights – The ACLU's Human Rights project advocates (primarily in an international context) for children's rights, disability rights, immigrants rights, gay rights, and other international obligations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 23814321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Immigrants' rights – The ACLU supports civil liberties for immigrants to the United States.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 15051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender rights – The ACLU's LGBT Rights Project supports equal rights for all gays and lesbians, and works to eliminate discrimination. The ACLU supports equal employment, housing, civil marriage and adoption rights for LGBT couples.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 3510770, 36523292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ], [ 232, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National security – The ACLU is opposed to compromising civil liberties in the name of national security. In this context, the ACLU has condemned government use of spying, indefinite detention without charge or trial, and government-sponsored torture. This effort is led by the ACLU's National Security Project.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 28648113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Prisoners' rights – The ACLU's National Prison Project believes that incarceration should only be used as a last resort, and that prisons should focus on rehabilitation. The ACLU works to ensure that prisons treat prisoners in accordance with the Constitution and domestic law.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 13765215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Privacy and technology – The ACLU's Project on Speech, Privacy, and Technology promotes \"responsible uses of technology that enhance privacy protection\", and opposes uses \"that undermine our freedoms and move us closer to a surveillance society\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 1287559, 331195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 225, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Racial issues – The ACLU's Racial Justice Program combats racial discrimination in all aspects of society, including the educational system, justice system, and the application of the death penalty. However, the ACLU opposes state censorship of the Confederate flag.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 2162835, 189155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 250, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Religion – The ACLU supports the right of religious persons to practice their faiths without government interference. The ACLU believes the government should neither prefer religion over non-religion, nor favor particular faiths over others. The ACLU is opposed to school-led prayer, but protects students' right to pray in school. It opposes the use of religious beliefs to discriminate, such as refusing to provide abortion coverage or providing services to LGBT people.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 532793, 66936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 461, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sex education – The ACLU opposes abstinence-only sex education curricula, and supports comprehensive sex education curricula that encourage effective contraceptive usage and sexually-transmitted disease prevention alongside waiting to have sex.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 25217327, 6117366, 7694809, 18978770, 19019270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 34, 63 ], [ 88, 115 ], [ 151, 164 ], [ 175, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Single-sex education - The ACLU opposes segregation in sex education classes, because it can lead to increased class size and perpetuate antiquated gender stereotypes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 1515358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vaccination policy - The ACLU supports vaccine mandates for people using public facilities and businesses on the grounds that there is no right to harm others by spreading infectious diseases. Hence, the ACLU states, mandates are \"permissible in many settings where the unvaccinated pose a risk to others, including schools and universities, hospitals, restaurants and bars, workplaces and businesses open to the public\". The organization supports a public health-based approach to pandemic management and is opposed to criminalizing or jailing people with infectious diseases.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 13107678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Voting rights – The ACLU believes that impediments to voting should be eliminated, particularly if they disproportionately impact minority or poor citizens. The ACLU believes that misdemeanor convictions should not lead to a loss of voting rights. The ACLU's Voting Rights Project leads this effort.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 667785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Women's rights – The ACLU works to eliminate discrimination against women in all realms. The ACLU encourages government to be proactive in stopping violence against women. These efforts are led by the ACLU's Women's Rights project.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 22443992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU is supported by a variety of persons and organizations. There were over 1,000,000 members in 2017, and the ACLU annually receives thousands of grants from hundreds of charitable foundations. Allies of the ACLU in legal actions have included the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, the American Jewish Congress, People for the American Way, the National Rifle Association, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, Americans United for Separation of Church and State and the National Organization for Women.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 25624937, 2743845, 625680, 70101, 18949836, 1567081, 8536948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 312 ], [ 318, 342 ], [ 344, 371 ], [ 377, 403 ], [ 409, 439 ], [ 441, 492 ], [ 501, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU has been criticized by liberals such as when it excluded communists from its leadership ranks, when it defended Neo-Nazis, when it declined to defend Paul Robeson, or when it opposed the passage of the National Labor Relations Act. Conversely, it has been criticized by conservatives such as when it argued against official prayer in public schools, or when it opposed the Patriot Act. The ACLU has supported conservative figures such as Rush Limbaugh, George Wallace, Henry Ford and Oliver North as well as liberal figures such as Dick Gregory, Rockwell Kent and Benjamin Spock.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 5266241, 9209651, 54361, 23229, 55816, 2298740, 32191, 25427, 259897, 13371, 22507, 207593, 233683, 54522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 40 ], [ 66, 76 ], [ 121, 130 ], [ 159, 171 ], [ 211, 239 ], [ 281, 294 ], [ 384, 395 ], [ 449, 462 ], [ 464, 478 ], [ 480, 490 ], [ 495, 507 ], [ 543, 555 ], [ 557, 570 ], [ 575, 589 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A major source of criticism are legal cases in which the ACLU represents an individual or organization that promotes offensive or unpopular viewpoints such as the Ku Klux Klan, neo-Nazis, the Nation of Islam, the North American Man/Boy Love Association, the Westboro Baptist Church or the Unite the Right rally. As of 2000, the ACLU has historically responded to this criticism by stating \"[i]t is easy to defend freedom of speech when the message is something many people find at least reasonable. But the defense of freedom of speech is most critical when the message is one most people find repulsive.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Organization", "target_page_ids": [ 16779, 21709, 16365325, 376898, 54794956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 175 ], [ 192, 207 ], [ 213, 252 ], [ 258, 281 ], [ 289, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU developed from the National Civil Liberties Bureau (CLB), co-founded in 1917 during World War I by Crystal Eastman, an attorney activist, and Roger Nash Baldwin. The focus of the CLB was on freedom of speech, primarily anti-war speech, and on supporting conscientious objectors who did not want to serve in World War I.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 3405293, 4764461, 7611, 1318076, 21401843, 83003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 59 ], [ 93, 104 ], [ 108, 123 ], [ 151, 169 ], [ 199, 216 ], [ 263, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three United States Supreme Court decisions in 1919 each upheld convictions under laws against certain kinds of anti-war speech. In 1919, the Court upheld the conviction of Socialist Party leader Charles Schenck for publishing anti-war literature. In Debs v. United States, the court upheld the conviction of Eugene Debs. While the Court upheld a conviction a third time in Abrams v. United States, Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes wrote an important dissent which has gradually been absorbed as an American principle: he urged the court to treat freedom of speech as a fundamental right, which should rarely be restricted.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 31737, 168894, 248589, 168894, 1838591, 50538, 959652, 517136, 21401843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 33 ], [ 159, 169 ], [ 173, 188 ], [ 196, 211 ], [ 251, 272 ], [ 309, 320 ], [ 374, 397 ], [ 407, 428 ], [ 544, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1918, Crystal Eastman resigned from the organization due to health issues. After assuming sole leadership of the CLB, Baldwin insisted that the organization be reorganized. He wanted to change its focus from litigation to direct action and public education.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The CLB directors concurred, and on January 19, 1920, they formed an organization under a new name, the American Civil Liberties Union. Although a handful of other organizations in the United States at that time focused on civil rights, such as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and Anti-Defamation League (ADL), the ACLU was the first that did not represent a particular group of persons, or a single theme. Like the CLB, the NAACP pursued litigation to work on civil rights, including efforts to overturn the disfranchisement of African Americans in the South that had taken place since the turn of the century.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 25624937, 25624937, 27243620, 9704515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 307 ], [ 309, 314 ], [ 320, 342 ], [ 548, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the first decades of the ACLU, Baldwin continued as its leader. His charisma and energy attracted many supporters to the ACLU board and leadership ranks. Baldwin was ascetic, wearing hand-me-down clothes, pinching pennies, and living on a very small salary. The ACLU was directed by an executive committee, and it was not particularly democratic or egalitarian. The ACLU's base in New York resulted in its being dominated by people from the city and state. Most ACLU funding came from philanthropies, such as the Garland Fund.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 25989218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 520, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1920s, government censorship was commonplace. Magazines were routinely confiscated under the anti-obscenity Comstock laws; permits for labor rallies were often denied; and virtually all anti-war or anti-government literature was outlawed. Right-wing conservatives wielded vast amounts of power, and activists that promoted unionization, socialism, or government reform were often denounced as un-American or unpatriotic. In one typical instance in 1923, author Upton Sinclair was arrested for trying to read the First Amendment during an Industrial Workers of the World rally.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 191639, 95477, 31653, 37062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 128 ], [ 468, 482 ], [ 519, 534 ], [ 545, 576 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ACLU leadership was divided on how to challenge the civil rights violations. One faction, including Baldwin, Arthur Garfield Hays and Norman Thomas, believed that direct, militant action was the best path. Hays was the first of many successful attorneys that relinquished their private practices to work for the ACLU. Another group, including Walter Nelles and Walter Pollak felt that lawsuits taken to the Supreme Court were the best way to achieve change.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 1733882, 258776, 18401789, 55951213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 129 ], [ 134, 147 ], [ 343, 356 ], [ 361, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1920s, the ACLU's primary focus was on freedom of speech in general, and speech within the labor movement particularly. Because most of the ACLU's efforts were associated with the labor movement, the ACLU itself came under heavy attack from conservative groups, such as the American Legion, the National Civic Federation, and Industrial Defense Association and the Allied Patriotic Societies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 305976, 3310155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 285, 300 ], [ 306, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to labor, the ACLU also led efforts in non-labor arenas, for example, promoting free speech in public schools. The ACLU itself was banned from speaking in New York public schools in 1921. The ACLU, working with the NAACP, also supported racial discrimination cases. The ACLU defended free speech regardless of the opinions being espoused. For example, the reactionary, anti-Catholic, anti-black Ku Klux Klan (KKK) was a frequent target of ACLU efforts, but the ACLU defended the KKK's right to hold meetings in 1923. There were some civil rights that the ACLU did not make an effort to defend in the 1920s, including censorship of the arts, government search and seizure issues, right to privacy, or wiretapping.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 25624937, 16779, 31656, 1287559, 91221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 232 ], [ 407, 419 ], [ 653, 682 ], [ 691, 707 ], [ 712, 723 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Communist Party USA was routinely hounded by government officials, leading it to be the primary client of the ACLU. At the same time, the Communists were very aggressive in their tactics, often engaging in illegal conduct such as denying their party membership under oath. This led to frequent conflicts between the Communists and ACLU. Communist leaders sometimes attacked the ACLU, particularly when the ACLU defended the free speech rights of conservatives, whereas Communists tried to disrupt speeches by critics of the USSR. This uneasy relationship between the two groups continued for decades.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 452981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When 1925 arrived five years after the ACLU was formed the organization had virtually no success to show for its efforts. That changed in 1925, when the ACLU persuaded John T. Scopes to defy Tennessee's anti-evolution law in The State of Tennessee v. John Thomas Scopes. Clarence Darrow, a member of the ACLU National Committee, headed Scopes' legal team. The prosecution, led by William Jennings Bryan, contended that the Bible should be interpreted literally in teaching creationism in school. The ACLU lost the case and Scopes was fined $100. The Tennessee Supreme Court later upheld the law but overturned the conviction on a technicality.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 163519, 9236, 28406, 159917, 40608, 5326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 184 ], [ 210, 219 ], [ 227, 271 ], [ 273, 288 ], [ 382, 404 ], [ 475, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Scopes trial was a phenomenal public relations success for the ACLU. The ACLU became well known across America, and the case led to the first endorsement of the ACLU by a major US newspaper. The ACLU continued to fight for the separation of church and state in schoolrooms, decade after decade, including the 1982 case McLean v. Arkansas and the 2005 case Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 2281347, 2761506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 323, 341 ], [ 360, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Baldwin himself was involved in an important free speech victory of the 1920s, after he was arrested for attempting to speak at a rally of striking mill workers in New Jersey. Although the decision was limited to the state of New Jersey, the appeals court's judgement in 1928 declared that constitutional guarantees of free speech must be given \"liberal and comprehensive construction\", and it marked a major turning point in the civil rights movement, signaling the shift of judicial opinion in favor of civil rights.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 49001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 430, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most important ACLU case of the 1920s was Gitlow v. New York, in which Benjamin Gitlow was arrested for violating a state law against inciting anarchy and violence, when he distributed literature promoting communism. Although the Supreme Court did not overturn Gitlow's conviction, it adopted the ACLU's stance (later termed the incorporation doctrine) that the First Amendment freedom of speech applied to state laws, as well as federal laws.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 430040, 3599518, 1301909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 64 ], [ 75, 90 ], [ 333, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the First World War, many native-born Americans had a revival of concerns about assimilation of immigrants and worries about \"foreign\" values; they wanted public schools to teach children to be American. Numerous states drafted laws designed to use schools to promote a common American culture, and in 1922, the voters of Oregon passed the Oregon Compulsory Education Act. The law was primarily aimed at eliminating parochial schools, including Catholic schools. It was promoted by groups such as the Knights of Pythias, the Federation of Patriotic Societies, the Oregon Good Government League, the Orange Order, and the Ku Klux Klan.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 22209947, 490034, 396988, 4020685, 16779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 346, 377 ], [ 422, 438 ], [ 507, 525 ], [ 605, 617 ], [ 627, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Oregon Compulsory Education Act required almost all children in Oregon between eight and sixteen years of age to attend public school by 1926. Associate Director Roger Nash Baldwin, a personal friend of Luke E. Hart, the then–Supreme Advocate and future Supreme Knight of the Knights of Columbus, offered to join forces with the Knights to challenge the law. The Knights of Columbus pledged an immediate $10,000 to fight the law and any additional funds necessary to defeat it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 22209947, 471603, 1318076, 4232215, 5399031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 35 ], [ 124, 137 ], [ 166, 184 ], [ 207, 219 ], [ 258, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The case became known as Pierce v. Society of Sisters, a seminal United States Supreme Court decision that significantly expanded coverage of the Due Process Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment. In a unanimous decision, the court held that the act was unconstitutional and that parents, not the state, had the authority to educate children as they thought best. It upheld the religious freedom of parents to educate their children in religious schools.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 665034, 31737, 629693, 31666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 53 ], [ 65, 92 ], [ 146, 164 ], [ 172, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Leaders of the ACLU were divided on the best tactics to use to promote civil liberties. Felix Frankfurter felt that legislation was the best long-term solution because the Supreme Court could not (and in his opinion should not) mandate liberal interpretations of the Bill of Rights. But Walter Pollak, Morris Ernst, and other leaders felt that Supreme Court decisions were the best path to guarantee civil liberties. A series of Supreme Court decisions in the 1920s foretold a changing national atmosphere; anti-radical emotions were diminishing, and there was a growing willingness to protect freedom of speech and assembly via court decisions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 55951213, 3581463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 289, 302 ], [ 304, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Censorship was commonplace in the early 20th century. State laws and city ordinances routinely outlawed speech deemed to be obscene or offensive, and prohibited meetings or literature that promoted unions or labor organization. Starting in 1926, the ACLU began to expand its free speech activities to encompass censorship of art and literature. In that year, H. L. Mencken deliberately broke Boston law by distributing copies of his banned American Mercury magazine; the ACLU defended him and won an acquittal. The ACLU went on to win additional victories, including the landmark case United States v. One Book Called Ulysses in 1933, which reversed a ban by the Customs Department against the book Ulysses by James Joyce. The ACLU only achieved mixed results in the early years, and it was not until 1966 that the Supreme Court finally clarified the obscenity laws in the Roth v. United States and Memoirs v. Massachusetts cases.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 54219, 1788314, 9392224, 53930, 15600, 606159, 467690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 359, 372 ], [ 440, 456 ], [ 585, 625 ], [ 699, 706 ], [ 710, 721 ], [ 873, 894 ], [ 899, 923 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Comstock laws banned distribution of sex education information, based on the premise that it was obscene and led to promiscuous behavior. Mary Ware Dennett was fined $300 in 1928, for distributing a pamphlet containing sex education material. The ACLU, led by Morris Ernst, appealed her conviction and won a reversal, in which judge Learned Hand ruled that the pamphlet's main purpose was to \"promote understanding\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 191639, 1779553, 392191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 142, 159 ], [ 337, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The success prompted the ACLU to broaden their freedom of speech efforts beyond labor and political speech, to encompass movies, press, radio and literature. The ACLU formed the National Committee on Freedom from Censorship in 1931 to coordinate this effort. By the early 1930s, censorship in the United States was diminishing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 11062628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 279, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two major victories in the 1930s cemented the ACLUs campaign to promote free speech. In Stromberg v. California, decided in 1931, the Supreme Court sided with the ACLU and affirmed the right of a communist party member to salute a communist flag. The result was the first time the Supreme Court used the Due Process Clause of the 14th amendment to subject states to the requirements of the First Amendment. In Near v. Minnesota, also decided in 1931, the Supreme Court ruled that states may not exercise prior restraint and prevent a newspaper from publishing, simply because the newspaper had a reputation for being scandalous.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 2095142, 629693, 31666, 31653, 430059, 673796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 111 ], [ 304, 322 ], [ 330, 344 ], [ 390, 405 ], [ 410, 427 ], [ 504, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The late 1930s saw the emergence of a new era of tolerance in the United States. National leaders hailed the Bill of Rights, particularly as it protected minorities, as the essence of democracy. The 1939 Supreme Court decision in Hague v. Committee for Industrial Organization affirmed the right of communists to promote their cause. Even conservative elements, such as the American Bar Association began to campaign for civil liberties, which were long considered to be the domain of left-leaning organizations. By 1940, the ACLU had achieved many of the goals it set in the 1920s, and many of its policies were the law of the land.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 9119240, 1055955, 459596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 123 ], [ 230, 276 ], [ 374, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1929, after the Scopes and Dennett victories, Baldwin perceived that there was vast, untapped support for civil liberties in the United States. Baldwin proposed an expansion program for the ACLU, focusing on police brutality, Native American rights, African American rights, censorship in the arts, and international civil liberties. The board of directors approved Baldwin's expansion plan, except for the international efforts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 2154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 253, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU played a major role in passing the 1932 Norris–La Guardia Act, a federal law which prohibited employers from preventing employees from joining unions, and stopped the practice of outlawing strikes, unions, and labor organizing activities with the use of injunctions. The ACLU also played a key role in initiating a nationwide effort to reduce misconduct (such as extracting false confessions) within police departments, by publishing the report Lawlessness in Law Enforcement in 1931, under the auspices of Herbert Hoover's Wickersham Commission. In 1934, the ACLU lobbied for the passage of the Indian Reorganization Act, which restored some autonomy to Native American tribes, and established penalties for kidnapping Native American children.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 55766, 13682, 2884967, 55752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 70 ], [ 516, 530 ], [ 533, 554 ], [ 605, 630 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the ACLU deferred to the NAACP for litigation promoting civil liberties for African Americans, the ACLU did engage in educational efforts, and published Black Justice in 1931, a report which documented institutional racism throughout the South, including lack of voting rights, segregation, and discrimination in the justice system. Funded by the Garland Fund, the ACLU also participated in producing the influential Margold Report, which outlined a strategy to fight for civil rights for blacks. The ACLU's plan was to demonstrate that the \"separate but equal\" policies governing the Southern discrimination were illegal because blacks were never, in fact, treated equally.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 356785, 25989218, 56187645, 210031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 231 ], [ 356, 368 ], [ 426, 440 ], [ 551, 569 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1932twelve years after the ACLU was foundedit had achieved significant success; the Supreme Court had embraced the free speech principles espoused by the ACLU, and the general public was becoming more supportive of civil rights in general. But the Great Depression brought new assaults on civil liberties; the year 1930 saw a large increase in the number of free speech prosecutions, a doubling of the number of lynchings, and all meetings of unemployed persons were banned in Philadelphia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 19283335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Franklin D. Roosevelt administration proposed the New Deal to combat the depression. ACLU leaders were of mixed opinions about the New Deal, since many felt that it represented an increase in government intervention into personal affairs, and because the National Recovery Administration suspended antitrust legislation. Roosevelt was not personally interested in civil rights, but did appoint many civil libertarians to key positions, including Interior Secretary Harold Ickes, a member of the ACLU.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 10979, 19283361, 511665, 560813, 738356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 54, 62 ], [ 259, 291 ], [ 403, 421 ], [ 469, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The economic policies of the New Deal leaders were often aligned with ACLU goals, but social goals were not. In particular, movies were subject to a barrage of local ordinances banning screenings that were deemed immoral or obscene. Even public health films portraying pregnancy and birth were banned; as was Life magazine's April 11, 1938, issue which included photos of the birth process. The ACLU fought these bans, but did not prevail.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 187479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 309, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Catholic Church attained increasing political influence in the 1930s, and used its influence to promote censorship of movies, and to discourage publication of birth control information. This conflict between the ACLU and the Catholic Church led to the resignation of the last Catholic priest from ACLU leadership in 1934; a Catholic priest would not be represented there again until the 1970s.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU took no official position on president Franklin Delano Roosevelt's 1937 court-packing plan, which threatened to increase the number of Supreme Court justices, unless the Supreme Court reversed its course and began approving New Deal legislation. The Supreme Court responded by making a major shift in policy, and no longer applied strict constitutional limits to government programs, and also began to take a more active role in protecting civil liberties.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 1372648, 2675837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 99 ], [ 295, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first decision that marked the court's new direction was De Jonge v. Oregon, in which a communist labor organizer was arrested for calling a meeting to discuss unionization. The ACLU attorney Osmond Fraenkel, working with International Labor Defense, defended De Jonge in 1937, and won a major victory when the Supreme Court ruled that \"peaceable assembly for lawful discussion cannot be made a crime.\" The De Jonge case marked the start of an era lasting for a dozen years, during which Roosevelt appointees (led by Hugo Black, William O. Douglas, and Frank Murphy) established a body of civil liberties law. In 1938, Justice Harlan F. Stone wrote the famous \"footnote four\" in United States v. Carolene Products Co. in which he suggested that state laws which impede civil liberties wouldhenceforthrequire compelling justification.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 2624200, 39830471, 41339091, 150063, 365245, 507293, 550321, 1214243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 79 ], [ 196, 211 ], [ 226, 253 ], [ 521, 531 ], [ 533, 551 ], [ 557, 569 ], [ 631, 646 ], [ 683, 721 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Senator Robert F. Wagner proposed the National Labor Relations Act in 1935, which empowered workers to unionize. Ironically, the ACLU, after 15 years of fighting for workers' rights, initially opposed the act (it later took no stand on the legislation) because some ACLU leaders feared the increased power the bill gave to the government. The newly formed National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) posed a dilemma for the ACLU, because in 1937 it issued an order to Henry Ford, prohibiting Ford from disseminating anti-union literature. Part of the ACLU leadership habitually took the side of labor, and that faction supported the NLRB's action. But part of the ACLU supported Ford's right to free speech. ACLU leader Arthur Garfield Hays proposed a compromise (supporting the auto workers union, yet also endorsing Ford's right to express personal opinions), but the schism highlighted a deeper divide that would become more prominent in the years to come.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 671645, 55816, 223373, 13371, 1733882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 24 ], [ 38, 66 ], [ 356, 386 ], [ 462, 472 ], [ 714, 734 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU's support of the NLRB was a major development for the ACLU, because it marked the first time it accepted that a government agency could be responsible for upholding civil liberties. Until 1937, the ACLU felt that civil rights were best upheld by citizens and private organizations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some factions in the ACLU proposed new directions for the organization. In the late 1930s, some local affiliates proposed shifting their emphasis from civil liberties appellate actions, to becoming a legal aid society, centered on store front offices in low income neighborhoods. The ACLU directors rejected that proposal. Other ACLU members wanted the ACLU to shift focus into the political arena, and to be more willing to compromise their ideals in order to strike deals with politicians. This initiative was also rejected by the ACLU leadership.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU's support of defendants with unpopular, sometimes extreme, viewpoints have produced many landmark court cases and established new civil liberties. One such defendant was the Jehovah's Witnesses, who were involved in a large number of Supreme Court cases. Cases that the ACLU supported included Lovell v. City of Griffin (which struck down a city ordinance that required a permit before a person could distribute \"literature of any kind\"); Martin v. Struthers (which struck down an ordinance prohibiting door-to-door canvassing); and Cantwell v. Connecticut (which reversed the conviction of a Witness who was reciting offensive speech on a street corner).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 52547, 157971, 5691950, 7702416, 5100430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 202 ], [ 227, 262 ], [ 303, 328 ], [ 448, 467 ], [ 542, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most important cases involved statutes requiring flag salutes. The Jehovah's Witnesses felt that saluting a flag was contrary to their religious beliefs. Two children were convicted in 1938 of not saluting the flag. The ACLU supported their appeal to the Supreme Court, but the court affirmed the conviction, in 1940. But three years later, in West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette, the Supreme court reversed itself and wrote \"If there is any fixed star in our constitutional constellation, it is that no official, high or petty, can prescribe what shall be orthodox in politics, nationalism, religion, or other matters of opinion or force citizens to confess by word or act their faith therein.\" To underscore its decision, the Supreme Court announced it on Flag Day.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 157960, 317173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 348, 398 ], [ 777, 785 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rise of totalitarian regimes in Germany, Russia, and other countries who rejected freedom of speech and association had a large impact on the civil liberties movement in the US; anti-Communist sentiment rose and civil liberties were curtailed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 30439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU leadership was divided over whether or not to defend pro-Nazi speech in the United States; pro-labor elements within the ACLU were hostile towards Nazism and fascism, and objected when the ACLU defended Nazis. Several states passed laws outlawing the hate speech directed at ethnic groups. The first person arrested under New Jersey's 1935 hate speech law was a Jehovah's Witness who was charged with disseminating anti-Catholic literature. The ACLU defended the Jehovah's Witnesses, and the charges were dropped. The ACLU proceeded to defend numerous pro-Nazi groups, defending their rights to free speech and free association.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 31045316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1930s, the ACLU allied itself with the Popular Front, a coalition of liberal organizations coordinated by the United States Communist Party. The ACLU benefited because affiliates from the Popular Front could often fight local civil rights battles much more effectively than the New York-based ACLU. The association with the Communist Party led to accusations that the ACLU was a \"Communist front\", particularly because Harry F. Ward was both chairman of the ACLU and chairman of the American League Against War and Fascism, a Communist organization.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 40380606, 452981, 27472405, 1745289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 64 ], [ 122, 151 ], [ 431, 444 ], [ 495, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) was created in 1938 to uncover sedition and treason within the United States. When witnesses testified at its hearings, the ACLU was mentioned several times, leading the HUAC to mention the ACLU prominently in its 1939 report. This damaged the ACLU's reputation severely, even though the report said that it could not \"definitely state whether or not\" the ACLU was a Communist organization.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 23758960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the ACLU rushed to defend its image against allegations of being a Communist front, it also worked to protect witnesses who were being harassed by the HUAC. The ACLU was one of the few organizations to protest (unsuccessfully) against passage of the Smith Act in 1940, which would later be used to imprison many persons who supported Communism. The ACLU defended many persons who were prosecuted under the Smith Act, including labor leader Harry Bridges.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 23488970, 622835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 256, 265 ], [ 446, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ACLU leadership was split on whether to purge its leadership of Communists. Norman Thomas, John Haynes Holmes, and Morris Ernst were anti-Communists who wanted to distance the ACLU from Communism; opposing them were Harry F. Ward, Corliss Lamont, and Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, who rejected any political test for ACLU leadership. A bitter struggle ensued throughout 1939, and the anti-Communists prevailed in February 1940, when the board voted to prohibit anyone who supported totalitarianism from ACLU leadership roles. Ward immediately resigned, andfollowing a contentious six-hour debateFlynn was voted off the ACLU's board. The 1940 resolution was considered by many to be a betrayal of its fundamental principles. The resolution was rescinded in 1968, and Flynn was posthumously reinstated to the ACLU in 1970.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "1930s", "target_page_ids": [ 258776, 8899186, 3581463, 2074510, 2707335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 89 ], [ 91, 109 ], [ 115, 127 ], [ 231, 245 ], [ 251, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When World War II engulfed the United States, the Bill of Rights was enshrined as a hallowed document, and numerous organizations defended civil liberties. Chicago and New York proclaimed \"Civil Rights\" weeks, and President Franklin Delano Roosevelt announced a national Bill of Rights day. Eleanor Roosevelt was the keynote speaker at the 1939 ACLU convention. In spite of this newfound respect for civil rights, Americans were becoming adamantly anti-communist, and believed that excluding communists from American society was an essential step to preserve democracy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 19280644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 291, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Contrasted with World War I, there was relatively little violation of civil liberties during World War II. President Roosevelt was a strong supporter of civil liberties, butmore importantlythere were few anti-war activists during World War II. The most significant exception was the internment of Japanese Americans.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 46884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 283, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, Roosevelt authorized the creation of military \"exclusion zones\" with Executive Order 9066, paving the way for the detention of all West Coast Japanese Americans in inland camps. In addition to the non-citizen Issei (prohibited from naturalization as members of an \"unassimilable\" race), over two-thirds of those swept up were American-born citizens. The ACLU immediately protested to Roosevelt, comparing the evacuations to Nazi concentration camps. The ACLU was the only major organization to object to the internment plan, and their position was very unpopular, even within the organization. Not all ACLU leaders wanted to defend the Japanese Americans; Roosevelt loyalists such as Morris Ernst wanted to support Roosevelt's war effort, but pacifists such as Baldwin and Norman Thomas felt that Japanese Americans needed access to due process before they could be imprisoned. In a March 20, 1942, letter to Roosevelt, Baldwin called on the administration to allow Japanese Americans to prove their loyalty at individual hearings, describing the constitutionality of the planned removal \"open to grave question\". His suggestions went nowhere, and opinions within the organization became increasingly divided as the Army began the \"evacuation\" of the West Coast. In May, the two factions, one pushing to fight the exclusion orders then being issued, the other advocating support for the President's policy of removing citizens whose \"presence may endanger national security\", brought their opposing resolutions to a vote before the board and the ACLU's national leaders. They decided not to challenge the eviction of Japanese American citizens, and on June 22 instructions were sent to West Coast branches not to support cases that argued the government had no constitutional right to do so.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 60098, 9778, 19477504, 46892, 42314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 52 ], [ 123, 143 ], [ 196, 213 ], [ 263, 268 ], [ 286, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU offices on the West Coast had been more directly involved in addressing the tide of anti-Japanese prejudice from the start, as they were geographically closer to the issue, and were already working on cases challenging the exclusion by this time. The Seattle office, assisting in Gordon Hirabayashi's lawsuit, created an unaffiliated committee to continue the work the ACLU had started, while in Los Angeles, attorney A.L. Wirin continued to represent Ernest Kinzo Wakayama but without addressing the case's constitutional questions. Wirin would lose private clients because of his defense of Wakayama and other Japanese Americans; however, the San Francisco branch, led by Ernest Besig, refused to discontinue its support for Fred Korematsu, whose case had been taken on prior to the June 22 directive, and attorney Wayne Collins, with Besig's full support, centered his defense on the illegality of Korematsu's exclusion.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 1765764, 1562858, 22366721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 289, 307 ], [ 736, 750 ], [ 826, 839 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The West Coast offices had wanted a test case to take to court, but had a difficult time finding a Japanese American who was both willing to violate the internment orders and able to meet the ACLU's desired criteria of a sympathetic, Americanized plaintiff. Of the 120,000 Japanese Americans affected by the order, only 12 disobeyed, and Korematsu, Hirabayashi, and two others were the only resisters whose cases eventually made it to the Supreme Court. Hirabayashi v. United States came before the Court in May 1943, and the justices upheld the government's right to exclude Japanese Americans from the West Coast; although it had earlier forced its local office in L.A. to stop aiding Hirabayashi, the ACLU donated $1,000 to the case (over a third of the legal team's total budget) and submitted an amicus brief. Besig, dissatisfied with Osmond Fraenkel's tamer defense, filed an additional amicus brief that directly addressed Hirabayashi's constitutional rights. In the meantime, A.L. Wirin served as one of the attorneys in Yasui v. United States (decided the same day as the Hirabayashi case, and with the same results), but he kept his arguments within the perimeters established by the national office. The only case to receive a favorable ruling, ex parte Endo, was also aided by two amicus briefs from the ACLU, one from the more conservative Fraenkel and another from the more putative Wayne Collins.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 2513888, 236334, 39830471, 14321119, 717701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 454, 482 ], [ 801, 813 ], [ 840, 855 ], [ 1029, 1051 ], [ 1256, 1269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Korematsu v. United States proved to be the most controversial of these cases, as Besig and Collins refused to bow to the national ACLU office's pressure to pursue the case without challenging the government's right to remove citizens from their homes. The ACLU board threatened to revoke the San Francisco branch's national affiliation, while Baldwin tried unsuccessfully to convince Collins to step down so he could replace him as lead attorney in the case. Eventually Collins agreed to present the case alongside Charles Horsky, although their arguments before the Supreme Court remained based in the unconstitutionality of the exclusion order Korematsu had disobeyed. The case was decided in December 1944, when the Court once again upheld the government's right to relocate Japanese Americans, although Korematsu's, Hirabayashi's and Yasui's convictions were later overturned in coram nobis proceedings in the 1980s. Legal scholar Peter Irons later asserted that the national office of the ACLU's decision not to directly challenge the constitutionality of Executive Order 9066 had \"crippled the effective presentation of these appeals to the Supreme Court\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 244351, 28107158, 1043779, 642170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 26 ], [ 516, 530 ], [ 884, 895 ], [ 936, 947 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The national office of the ACLU was even more reluctant to defend anti-war protesters. A majority of the board passed a resolution in 1942 which declared the ACLU unwilling to defend anyone who interfered with the United States' war effort. Included in this group were the thousands of Nisei who renounced their US citizenship during the war but later regretted the decision and tried to revoke their applications for \"repatriation\". (A significant number of those slated to \"go back\" to Japan had never actually been to the country and were in fact being deported rather than repatriated.) Ernest Besig had in 1944 visited the Tule Lake Segregation Center, where the majority of these \"renunciants\" were concentrated, and subsequently enlisted Wayne Collins' help to file a lawsuit on their behalf, arguing the renunciations had been given under duress. The national organization prohibited local branches from representing the renunciants, forcing Collins to pursue the case on his own, although Besig and the Northern California office provided some support.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 39837580, 1561240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 326 ], [ 628, 656 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his 1944 visit to Tule Lake, Besig had also become aware of a hastily constructed stockade in which Japanese American internees were routinely being brutalized and held for months without due process. Besig was forbidden by the national ACLU office to intervene on behalf of the stockade prisoners or even to visit the Tule Lake camp without prior written approval from Baldwin. Unable to help directly, Besig turned to Wayne Collins for assistance. Collins, using the threat of habeas corpus suits managed to have the stockade closed down. A year later, after learning that the stockade had been reestablished, he returned to the camp and had it closed down for good.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When the war ended in 1945, the ACLU was 25 years old, and had accumulated an impressive set of legal victories. President Harry S. Truman sent a congratulatory telegram to the ACLU on the occasion of their 25th anniversary. American attitudes had changed since World War I, and dissent by minorities was tolerated with more willingness. The Bill of Rights was more respected, and minority rights were becoming more commonly championed. During their 1945 annual conference, the ACLU leaders composed a list of important civil rights issues to focus on in the future, and the list included racial discrimination and separation of church and state.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 3418303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU supported the African-American defendants in Shelley v. Kraemer, when they tried to occupy a house they had purchased in a neighborhood which had racially restrictive housing covenants. The African-American purchasers won the case in 1945.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 26220546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anti-Communist sentiment gripped the United States during the Cold War beginning in 1946. Federal investigations caused many persons with Communist or left-leaning affiliations to lose their jobs, become blacklisted, or be jailed. During the Cold War, although the United States collectively ignored the civil rights of Communists, other civil libertiessuch as due process in law and separation of church and statecontinued to be reinforced and even expanded.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 325329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU was internally divided when it purged Communists from its leadership in 1940, and that ambivalence continued as it decided whether to defend alleged Communists during the late 1940s. Some ACLU leaders were anti-Communist, and felt that the ACLU should not defend any victims. Some ACLU leaders felt that Communists were entitled to free speech protections, and the ACLU should defend them. Other ACLU leaders were uncertain about the threat posed by Communists, and tried to establish a compromise between the two extremes. This ambivalent state of affairs would last until 1954, when the civil liberties faction prevailed, leading to the resignation of most of the anti-Communist leaders.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1947, President Truman issued Executive Order 9835, which created the Federal Loyalty Program. This program authorized the Attorney General to create a list of organizations which were deemed to be subversive. Any association with these programs was ground for barring the person from employment. Listed organizations were not notified that they were being considered for the list, nor did they have an opportunity to present counterarguments; nor did the government divulge any factual basis for inclusion in the list. Although ACLU leadership was divided on whether to challenge the Federal Loyalty Program, some challenges were successfully made.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 7891289, 7891289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 53 ], [ 73, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in 1947, the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC) subpoenaed ten Hollywood directors and writers, the Hollywood Ten, intending to ask them to identify Communists, but the witnesses refused to testify. All were imprisoned for contempt of Congress. The ACLU supported the appeals of several of the artists, but lost on appeal. The Hollywood establishment panicked after the HUAC hearings, and created a blacklist which prohibited anyone with leftist associations from working. The ACLU supported legal challenges to the blacklist, but those challenges failed. The ACLU was more successful with an education effort; the 1952 report The Judges and the Judged, prepared at the ACLU's direction in response to the blacklisting of actress Jean Muir, described the unfair and unethical actions behind the blacklisting process, and it helped gradually turn public opinion against McCarthyism.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 21556126, 384810, 221697, 26020338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 129 ], [ 239, 259 ], [ 415, 424 ], [ 746, 755 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The federal government took direct aim at the US Communist Party in 1948 when it indicted its top twelve leaders in the Foley Square trial. The case hinged on whether or not mere membership in a totalitarian political party was sufficient to conclude that members advocated the overthrow of the United States government. The ACLU chose to not represent any of the defendants, and they were all found guilty and sentenced to three to five years in prison. Their defense attorneys were all cited for contempt, went to prison and were disbarred. When the government indicted additional party members, the defendants could not find attorneys to represent them. Communists protested outside the courthouse; a bill to outlaw picketing of courthouses was introduced in Congress, and the ACLU supported the anti-picketing law.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 34450387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU, in a change of heart, supported the party leaders during their appeal process. The Supreme Court upheld the convictions in the Dennis v. United States decision by softening the free speech requirements from a \"clear and present danger\" test, to a \"grave and probable\" test. The ACLU issued a public condemnation of the Dennis decision, and resolved to fight it. One reason for the Supreme Court's support of Cold War legislation was the 1949 deaths of Supreme Court justices Frank Murphy and Wiley Rutledge, leaving Hugo Black and William O. Douglas as the only remaining civil libertarians on the Court.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 168901, 507293, 747788, 150063, 365245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 160 ], [ 485, 497 ], [ 502, 516 ], [ 526, 536 ], [ 541, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Dennis decision paved the way for the prosecution of hundreds of other Communist party members. The ACLU supported many of the Communists during their appeals (although most of the initiative originated with local ACLU affiliates, not the national headquarters) but most convictions were upheld. The two California affiliates, in particular, felt the national ACLU headquarters was not supporting civil liberties strongly enough, and they initiated more cold war cases than the national headquarters did.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU also challenged many loyalty oath requirements across the country, but the courts upheld most of the loyalty oath laws. California ACLU affiliates successfully challenged the California state loyalty oath. The Supreme Court, until 1957, upheld nearly every law which restricted the liberties of Communists.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU, even though it scaled back its defense of Communists during the Cold War, still came under heavy criticism as a \"front\" for Communism. Critics included the American Legion, Senator Joseph McCarthy, the HUAC, and the FBI. Several ACLU leaders were sympathetic to the FBI, and as a consequence, the ACLU rarely investigated any of the many complaints alleging abuse of power by the FBI during the Cold War.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 305976, 16321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 181 ], [ 191, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1950, Raymond L. Wise, ACLU board member 1933–1951, defended William Perl, one of the other spies embroiled in the atomic espionage cases (made famous by the execution of Julius Rosenberg and Ethel Rosenberg).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 53662561, 1902828, 179273, 179273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 64, 76 ], [ 174, 190 ], [ 195, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1950, the ACLU board of directors asked executive director Baldwin to resign, feeling that he lacked the organizational skills to lead the 9,000 (and growing) member organization. Baldwin objected, but a majority of the board elected to remove him from the position, and he was replaced by Patrick Murphy Malin. Under Malin's guidance, membership tripled to 30,000 by 1955the start of a 24-year period of continual growth leading to 275,000 members in 1974. Malin also presided over an expansion of local ACLU affiliates.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 22524767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 293, 313 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU, which had been controlled by an elite of a few dozen New Yorkers, became more democratic in the 1950s. In 1951, the ACLU amended its bylaws to permit the local affiliates to participate directly in voting on ACLU policy decisions. A bi-annual conference, open to the entire membership, was instituted in the same year, and in later decades it became a pulpit for activist members, who suggested new directions for the ACLU, including abortion rights, death penalty, and rights of the poor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the early 1950s, the ACLU continued to steer a moderate course through the Cold War. When singer Paul Robeson was denied a passport in 1950, even though he was not accused of any illegal acts, the ACLU chose to not defend him. The ACLU later reversed their stance, and supported William Worthy and Rockwell Kent in their passport confiscation cases, which resulted in legal victories in the late 1950s.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 23229, 9682330, 233683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 116 ], [ 286, 300 ], [ 305, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In response to communist witch-hunts, many witnesses and employees chose to use the fifth amendment protection against self-incrimination to avoid divulging information about their political beliefs. Government agencies and private organizations, in response, established policies which inferred communist party membership for anyone who invoked the fifth amendment. The national ACLU was divided on whether to defend employees who had been fired merely for pleading the fifth amendment, but the New York affiliate successfully assisted teacher Harry Slochower in his Supreme Court case which reversed his termination.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 13575603, 1705242, 66634546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 99 ], [ 119, 137 ], [ 545, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fifth amendment issue became the catalyst for a watershed event in 1954, which finally resolved the ACLU's ambivalence by ousting the anti-communists from ACLU leadership. In 1953, the anti-communists, led by Norman Thomas and James Fly, proposed a set of resolutions that inferred guilt of persons that invoked the fifth amendment. These resolutions were the first that fell under the ACLU's new organizational rules permitting local affiliates to participate in the vote; the affiliates outvoted the national headquarters, and rejected the anti-communist resolutions. Anti-communist leaders refused to accept the results of the vote, and brought the issue up for discussion again at the 1954 bi-annual convention. ACLU member Frank Graham, president of the University of North Carolina, attacked the anti-communists with a counter-proposal, which stated that the ACLU \"stand[s] against guilt by association, judgment by accusation, the invasion of privacy of personal opinions and beliefs, and the confusion of dissent with disloyalty\". The anti-communists continued to battle Graham's proposal, but were outnumbered by the affiliates. The anti-communists finally gave up and departed the board of directors in late 1954 and 1955, ending an eight-year reign of ambivalence within the ACLU leadership ranks. Thereafter, the ACLU proceeded with firmer resolve against Cold War anti-communist legislation. The period from the 1940 resolution (and the purge of Elizabeth Flynn) to the 1954 resignation of the anti-communist leaders is considered by many to be an era in which the ACLU abandoned its core principles.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 258776, 22185577, 516594, 77940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 226 ], [ 231, 240 ], [ 732, 744 ], [ 763, 791 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "McCarthyism declined in late 1954 after television journalist Edward R. Murrow and others publicly chastised McCarthy. The controversies over the Bill of Rights that were generated by the Cold War ushered in a new era in American Civil liberties. In 1954, in Brown v. Board of Education, the Supreme Court unanimously overturned state-sanctioned school segregation, and thereafter a flood of civil rights victories dominated the legal landscape.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 154143, 66402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 78 ], [ 259, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Supreme Court handed the ACLU two key victories in 1957, in Watkins v. United States and Yates v. United States, both of which undermined the Smith Act and marked the beginning of the end of communist party membership inquiries. In 1965, the Supreme Court produced some decisions, including Lamont v. Postmaster General (in which the plaintiff was Corliss Lamont, a former ACLU board member), which upheld fifth amendment protections and brought an end to restrictions on political activity.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mid-century", "target_page_ids": [ 9442102, 1755592, 23488970, 22342967, 2074510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 88 ], [ 93, 115 ], [ 146, 155 ], [ 295, 323 ], [ 352, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The decade from 1954 to 1964 was the most successful period in the ACLU's history. Membership rose from 30,000 to 80,000, and by 1965 it had affiliates in seventeen states. During the ACLU's bi-annual conference in Colorado in 1964, the Supreme Court issued rulings on eight cases in which the ACLU was involved; the ACLU prevailed on seven of the eight. The ACLU played a role in Supreme Court decisions reducing censorship of literature and arts, protecting freedom of association, prohibiting racial segregation, excluding religion from public schools, and providing due process protection to criminal suspects. The ACLU's success arose from changing public attitudes; the American populace was more educated, more tolerant, and more willing to accept unorthodox behavior.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Legal battles concerning the separation of church and state originated in laws dating to 1938 which required religious instruction in school, or provided state funding for religious schools. The Catholic church was a leading proponent of such laws; and the primary opponents (the \"separationists\") were the ACLU, Americans United for Separation of Church and State, and the American Jewish Congress. The ACLU led the challenge in the 1947 Everson v. Board of Education case, in which Justice Hugo Black wrote \"[t]he First Amendment has erected a wall between church and state.... That wall must be kept high and impregnable.\" It was not clear that the Bill of Rights forbid state governments from supporting religious education, and strong legal arguments were made by religious proponents, arguing that the Supreme Court should not act as a \"national school board\", and that the Constitution did not govern social issues. However, the ACLU and other advocates of church/state separation persuaded the Court to declare such activities unconstitutional. Historian Samuel Walker writes that the ACLU's \"greatest impact on American life\" was its role in persuading the Supreme Court to \"constitutionalize\" so many public controversies.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 1567081, 2743845, 938626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 313, 364 ], [ 374, 398 ], [ 439, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1948, the ACLU prevailed in the McCollum v. Board of Education case, which challenged public school religious classes taught by clergy paid for from private funds. The ACLU also won cases challenging schools in New Mexico which were taught by clergy and had crucifixes hanging in the classrooms. In the 1960s, the ACLU, in response to member insistence, turned its attention to in-class promotion of religion. In 1960, 42 percent of American schools included Bible reading. In 1962, the ACLU published a policy statement condemning in-school prayers, observation of religious holidays, and Bible reading. The Supreme Court concurred with the ACLU's position, when it prohibited New York's in-school prayers in the 1962 Engel v. Vitale decision. Religious factions across the country rebelled against the anti-prayer decisions, leading them to propose the School Prayer Constitutional Amendment, which declared in-school prayer legal. The ACLU participated in a lobbying effort against the amendment, and the 1966 congressional vote on the amendment failed to obtain the required two-thirds majority.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 4475002, 308725, 21345902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 65 ], [ 722, 737 ], [ 858, 896 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, not all cases were victories; ACLU lost cases in 1949 and 1961 which challenged state laws requiring commercial businesses to close on Sunday, the Christian Sabbath. The Supreme Court has never overturned such laws, although some states subsequently revoked many of the laws under pressure from commercial interests.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1940s and 1950s, the ACLU continued its battle against censorship of art and literature. In 1948, the New York affiliate of the ACLU received mixed results from the Supreme Court, winning the appeal of Carl Jacob Kunz, who was convicted for speaking without a police permit, but losing the appeal of Irving Feiner who was arrested to prevent a breach of the peace, based on his oration denouncing president Truman and the American Legion. The ACLU lost the case of Joseph Beauharnais, who was arrested for group libel when he distributed literature impugning the character of African Americans.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 4077018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 311, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cities across America routinely banned movies because they were deemed to be \"harmful\", \"offensive\", or \"immoral\"censorship which was validated by the 1915 Mutual v. Ohio Supreme Court decision which held movies to be mere commerce, undeserving of first amendment protection. The film The Miracle was banned in New York in 1951, at the behest of the Catholic Church, but the ACLU supported the film's distributor in an appeal of the ban, and won a major victory in the 1952 decision Joseph Burstyn, Inc. v. Wilson. The Catholic Church led efforts throughout the 1950s attempting to persuade local prosecutors to ban various books and movies, leading to conflict with the ACLU when the ACLU published it statement condemning the church's tactics. Further legal actions by the ACLU successfully defended films such as M and la Ronde, leading the eventual dismantling of movie censorship. Hollywood continued employing self-censorship with its own Production Code, but in 1956 the ACLU called on Hollywood to abolish the Code.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 8052588, 20996147, 3983843, 1301789, 1923722, 167816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 170 ], [ 285, 296 ], [ 483, 513 ], [ 816, 817 ], [ 822, 830 ], [ 945, 960 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU defended beat generation artists, including Allen Ginsberg who was prosecuted for his poem \"Howl\"; andin an unorthodox case the ACLU helped a coffee house regain its restaurant license which was revoked because its Beat customers were allegedly disturbing the peace and quiet of the neighborhood.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 157208, 1017, 158051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 33 ], [ 53, 67 ], [ 101, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU lost an important press censorship case when, in 1957, the Supreme Court upheld the obscenity conviction of publisher Samuel Roth for distributing adult magazines. As late as 1953, books such as Tropic of Cancer and From Here to Eternity were still banned. But public standards rapidly became more liberal though the 1960s, and obscenity was notoriously difficult to define, so by 1971 prosecutions for obscenity had halted.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 606159, 1727710, 853813, 3979861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 48 ], [ 127, 138 ], [ 204, 220 ], [ 225, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A major aspect of civil liberties progress after World War II was the undoing centuries of racism in federal, state, and local governments an effort generally associated with the civil rights movement. Several civil liberties organizations worked together for progress, including the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), the ACLU, and the American Jewish Congress. The NAACP took primary responsibility for Supreme Court cases (often led by lead NAACP attorney Thurgood Marshall), with the ACLU focusing on police misconduct, and supporting the NAACP with amicus briefs. The NAACP achieved a key victory in 1950 with the Henderson v. United States decision that ended segregation in interstate bus and rail transportation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 49001, 25624937, 2743845, 57445, 236334, 7541269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 200 ], [ 284, 342 ], [ 370, 394 ], [ 492, 509 ], [ 587, 599 ], [ 652, 678 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1954, the ACLU filed an amicus brief in the case of Brown v. Board of Education, which led to the ban on racial segregation in US public schools. Southern states instituted a McCarthyism-style witch-hunt against the NAACP, attempting to force it to disclose membership lists. The ACLU's fight against racism was not limited to segregation; in 1964 the ACLU provided key support to plaintiffs, primarily lower-income urban residents, in Reynolds v. Sims, which required states to establish the voting districts in accordance with the \"one person, one vote\" principle.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 236334, 66402, 471603, 855488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 39 ], [ 55, 82 ], [ 133, 147 ], [ 439, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU regularly tackled police misconduct issues, starting with the 1932 case Powell v. Alabama (right to an attorney), and including 1942's Betts v. Brady (right to an attorney), and 1951's Rochin v. California (involuntary stomach pumping). In the late 1940s, several ACLU local affiliates established permanent committees to address policing issues. During the 1950s and 1960s, the ACLU was responsible for substantially advancing the legal protections against police misconduct. The Philadelphia affiliate was responsible for causing the City of Philadelphia, in 1958, to create the nation's first civilian police review board. In 1959, the Illinois affiliate published the first report in the nation, Secret Detention by the Chicago Police, which documented unlawful detention by police.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 1084880, 2207568, 622840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 98 ], [ 144, 158 ], [ 194, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the most well known ACLU successes came in the 1960s, when the ACLU prevailed in a string of cases limiting the power of police to gather evidence; in 1961's Mapp v. Ohio, the Supreme court required states to obtain a warrant before searching a person's home. The Gideon v. Wainwright decision in 1963 provided legal representation to indigents. In 1964, the ACLU persuaded the Court, in Escobedo v. Illinois, to permit suspects to have an attorney present during questioning. And, in 1966, Miranda v. Arizona federal decision required police to notify suspects of their constitutional rights, which was later extended to juveniles in the following year's in re Gault (1967) federal ruling. Although many law enforcement officials criticized the ACLU for expanding the rights of suspects, police officers also used the services of the ACLU. For example, when the ACLU represented New York City policemen in their lawsuit which objected to searches of their workplace lockers. In the late 1960s, civilian review boards in New York City and Philadelphia were abolished, over the ACLU's objection.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 352587, 146549, 1170034, 168892, 289505, 7087464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 178 ], [ 272, 292 ], [ 396, 416 ], [ 499, 517 ], [ 630, 639 ], [ 664, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1960s was a tumultuous era in the United States, and public interest in civil liberties underwent an explosive growth. Civil liberties actions in the 1960s were often led by young people, and often employed tactics such as sit ins and marches. Protests were often peaceful, but sometimes employed militant tactics. The ACLU played a central role in all major civil liberties debates of the 1960s, including new fields such as gay rights, prisoner's rights, abortion, rights of the poor, and the death penalty. Membership in the ACLU increased from 52,000 at the beginning of the decade, to 104,000 in 1970. In 1960, there were affiliates in seven states, and by 1974 there were affiliates in 46 states. During the 1960s, the ACLU underwent a major transformation tactics; it shifted emphasis from legal appeals (generally involving amicus briefs submitted to the Supreme Court) to direct representation of defendants when they were initially arrested. At the same time, the ACLU transformed its style from \"disengaged and elitist\" to \"emotionally engaged\". The ACLU published a breakthrough document in 1963, titled How Americans Protest, which was borne of frustration with the slow progress in battling racism, and which endorsed aggressive, even militant protest techniques.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 444051, 924166, 1600241, 765, 236334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 233 ], [ 430, 440 ], [ 442, 459 ], [ 461, 469 ], [ 836, 849 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "African-American protests in the South accelerated in the early 1960s, and the ACLU assisted at every step. After four African-American college students staged a sit-in in a segregated North Carolina department store, the sit-in movement gained momentum across the United States. During 1960–61, the ACLU defended black students arrested for demonstrating in North Carolina, Florida, and Louisiana. The ACLU also provided legal help for the Freedom Rides in 1961, the integration of the University of Mississippi, the Birmingham campaign in 1963, and the 1964 Freedom Summer.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 1992984, 54306103, 23814056, 49001, 4035351, 380106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 168 ], [ 222, 237 ], [ 441, 454 ], [ 468, 512 ], [ 518, 537 ], [ 560, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The NAACP was responsible for managing most sit-in related cases that made it to the Supreme Court, winning nearly every decision. But it fell to the ACLU and other legal volunteer efforts to provide legal representation to hundreds of protestorswhite and blackwho were arrested while protesting in the South. The ACLU joined with other civil liberties groups to form the Lawyers Constitutional Defense Committee (LCDC) which subsequently provided legal representation to many of the protesters. The ACLU provided the majority of the funding for the LCDC.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1964, the ACLU opened up a major office in Atlanta, Georgia, dedicated to serving Southern issues. Much of the ACLU's progress in the South was due to Charles Morgan Jr., the charismatic leader of the Atlanta office. Morgan was responsible for desegregating juries (Whitus v. Georgia), desegregating prisons (Lee v. Washington), and reforming election laws. In 1966 the southern office successfully represented African-American congressman Julian Bond in Bond v. Floyd, after the Georgia House of Representatives refused to admit Bond into the legislature on the basis that he was an admitted pacifist opposed to the ongoing Vietnam War. Another widely publicized case defended by Morgan was that of Army doctor Howard Levy, who was convicted of refusing to train Green Berets. Despite raising the defense that the Green Berets were committing war crimes in Vietnam, Levy lost on appeal in Parker v. Levy, 417 US 733 (1974).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 21059081, 9441005, 34446315, 9704515, 680355, 34445764, 964164, 320247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 172 ], [ 269, 286 ], [ 312, 329 ], [ 336, 359 ], [ 443, 454 ], [ 458, 471 ], [ 483, 515 ], [ 767, 779 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1969, the ACLU won a major victory for free speech, when it defended Dick Gregory after he was arrested for peacefully protesting against the mayor of Chicago. The court ruled in Gregory v. Chicago that a speaker cannot be arrested for disturbing the peace when the hostility is initiated by someone in the audience, as that would amount to a \"heckler's veto\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 207593, 34446522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 84 ], [ 182, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU was at the center of several legal aspects of the Vietnam war: defending draft resisters, challenging the constitutionality of the war, the potential impeachment of Richard Nixon, and the use of national security concerns to preemptively censor newspapers.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 472220, 52382, 17253537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 96 ], [ 149, 187 ], [ 247, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "David J. Miller was the first person prosecuted for burning his draft card. The New York affiliate of the ACLU appealed his 1965 conviction (367 F.2d 72: United States of America v. David J. Miller, 1966), but the Supreme Court refused to hear the appeal. Two years later, the Massachusetts affiliate took the card-burning case of David O'Brien to the Supreme Court, arguing that the act of burning was a form of symbolic speech, but the Supreme Court upheld the conviction in United States v. O'Brien, 391 US 367 (1968). Thirteen-year-old Junior High student Mary Tinker wore a black armband to school in 1965 to object to the war, and was suspended from school. The ACLU appealed her case to the Supreme Court and won a victory in Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District. This critical case established that the government may not establish \"enclaves\" such as schools or prisons where all rights are forfeit.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 5735, 1431414, 496723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 74 ], [ 477, 501 ], [ 733, 791 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU defended Sydney Street, who was arrested for burning an American flag to protest the reported assassination of civil rights leader James Meredith. In the Street v. New York decision, the court agreed with the ACLU that encouraging the country to abandon one of its national symbols was constitutionally protected form of expression. The ACLU successfully defended Paul Cohen, who was arrested for wearing a jacket with the words \"fuck the draft\" on its back, while he walked through the Los Angeles courthouse. The Supreme Court, in Cohen v. California, held that the vulgarity of the wording was essential to convey the intensity of the message.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 65538, 16612656, 421807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 154 ], [ 163, 181 ], [ 542, 561 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Non-war related free speech rights were also advanced during the Vietnam war era; in 1969, the ACLU defended a Ku Klux Klan member who advocated long-term violence against the government, and the Supreme Court concurred with the ACLU's argument in the landmark decision Brandenburg v. Ohio, which held that only speech which advocated imminent violence could be outlawed.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 16779, 219211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 123 ], [ 270, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A major crisis gripped the ACLU in 1968 when a debate erupted over whether to defend Benjamin Spock and the Boston Five against federal charges that they encouraged draftees to avoid the draft. The ACLU board was deeply split over whether to defend the activists; half the board harbored anti-war sentiments, and felt that the ACLU should lend its resources to the cause of the Boston Five. The other half of the board believed that civil liberties were not at stake, and the ACLU would be taking a political stance. Behind the debate was the longstanding ACLU tradition that it was politically impartial, and provided legal advice without regard to the political views of the defendants. The board finally agreed to a compromise solution that permitted the ACLU to defend the anti-war activists, without endorsing the activist's political views. Some critics of the ACLU suggest that the ACLU became a partisan political organization following the Spock case. After the Kent State shootings in 1970, ACLU leaders took another step towards politics by passing a resolution condemning the Vietnam War. The resolution was based in a variety of legal arguments, including civil liberties violations and a claim that the war was illegal.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [ 54522, 11134596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 99 ], [ 971, 991 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in 1968, the ACLU held an internal symposium to discuss its dual roles: providing \"direct\" legal support (defense for accused in their initial trial, benefiting only the individual defendant), and appellate support (providing amicus briefs during the appeal process, to establish widespread legal precedent). Historically, the ACLU was known for its appellate work which led to landmark Supreme Court decisions, but by 1968, 90% of the ACLU's legal activities involved direct representation. The symposium concluded that both roles were valid for the ACLU.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "1960s", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU supported The New York Times in its 1971 suit against the government, requesting permission to publish the Pentagon papers. The court upheld the Times and ACLU in the New York Times Co. v. United States ruling, which held that the government could not preemptively prohibit the publication of classified information and had to wait until after it was published to take action.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 30680, 230025, 212629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 37 ], [ 116, 131 ], [ 176, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On September 30, 1973, the ACLU became first national organization to publicly call for the impeachment and removal from office of President Richard Nixon. Six civil liberties violations were cited as grounds: \"specific proved violations of the rights of political dissent; usurpation of Congressional war‐making powers; establishment of a personal secret police which committed crimes; attempted interference in the trial of Daniel Ellsberg; distortion of the system of justice and perversion of other Federal agencies\". One month later, after the House of Representatives began an impeachment inquiry against him, the organization released a 56‐page handbook detailing \"17 things citizens could do to bring about the impeachment of President Nixon\". This resolution, when placed beside the earlier resolution opposing the Vietnam war, convinced many ACLU critics, particularly conservatives, that the organization had transformed into a liberal political organization.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 25473, 47279701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 154 ], [ 583, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The decade from 1965 to 1975 saw an expansion of the field of civil liberties. Administratively, the ACLU responded by appointing Aryeh Neier to take over from Pemberton as executive director in 1970. Neier embarked on an ambitious program to expand the ACLU; he created the ACLU Foundation to raise funds, and he created several new programs to focus the ACLU's legal efforts. By 1974, ACLU membership had reached 275,000.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 21075935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During those years, the ACLU worked to expand legal rights in three directions: new rights for persons within government-run \"enclaves\", new rights for members of what it called \"victim groups\", and privacy rights for citizens in general. At the same time, the organization grew substantially. The ACLU helped develop the field of constitutional law that governs \"enclaves\", which are groups of persons that live in conditions under government control. Enclaves include mental hospital patients, members of the military, and prisoners, and students (while at school). The term enclave originated with Supreme Court justice Abe Fortas's use of the phrase \"schools may not be enclaves of totalitarianism\" in the Tinker v. Des Moines decision.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 250550, 496723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 623, 633 ], [ 710, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU initiated the legal field of student's rights with the Tinker v. Des Moines case, and expanded it with cases such as Goss v. Lopez which required schools to provide students an opportunity to appeal suspensions.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 9780417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As early as 1945, the ACLU had taken a stand to protect the rights of the mentally ill, when it drafted a model statute governing mental commitments. In the 1960s, the ACLU opposed involuntary commitments, unless it could be demonstrated that the person was a danger to himself or the community. In the landmark 1975 O'Connor v. Donaldson decision the ACLU represented a non-violent mental health patient who had been confined against his will for 15 years, and persuaded the Supreme Court to rule such involuntary confinements illegal. The ACLU has also defended the rights of individuals with mental illness who are not dangerous, but who create disturbances. The New York chapter of the ACLU defended Billie Boggs, a woman with mental illness who exposed herself and defecated and urinated in public.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 9430824, 10921572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 317, 338 ], [ 704, 716 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to 1960, prisoners had virtually no recourse to the court system, because courts considered prisoners to have no civil rights. That changed in the late 1950s, when the ACLU began representing prisoners that were subject to police brutality, or deprived of religious reading material. In 1968, the ACLU successfully sued to desegregate the Alabama prison system; and in 1969, the New York affiliate adopted a project to represent prisoners in New York prisons. Private attorney Phil Hirschkop discovered degrading conditions in Virginia prisons following the Virginia State Penitentiary strike, and won an important victory in 1971's Landman v. Royster which prohibited Virginia from treating prisoners in inhumane ways. In 1972, the ACLU consolidated several prison rights efforts across the nation and created the National Prison Project. The ACLU's efforts led to landmark cases such as Ruiz v. Estelle (requiring reform of the Texas prison system) and in 1996 US Congress enacted the Prison Litigation Reform Act (PLRA) which codified prisoners' rights.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 24962515, 31756, 23545487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 895, 910 ], [ 969, 980 ], [ 993, 1021 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU, during the 1960s and 1970s, expanded its scope to include what it referred to as \"victim groups\", namely women, the poor, and homosexuals. Heeding the call of female members, the ACLU endorsed the Equal Rights Amendment in 1970 and created the Women's Rights Project in 1971. The Women's Rights Project dominated the legal field, handling more than twice as many cases as the National Organization for Women, including breakthrough cases such as Reed v. Reed, Frontiero v. Richardson, and Taylor v. Louisiana.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 5488304, 59635, 8536948, 1649774, 1329884, 21896629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 146 ], [ 207, 229 ], [ 386, 417 ], [ 456, 468 ], [ 470, 493 ], [ 500, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ACLU leader Harriet Pilpel raised the issue of the rights of homosexuals in 1964, and two years later the ACLU formally endorsed gay rights. In 1972, ACLU cooperating attorneys in Oregon filed the first federal civil rights case involving a claim of unconstitutional discrimination against a gay or lesbian public school teacher. The US District Court held that a state statute that authorized school districts to fire teachers for \"immorality\" was unconstitutionally vague, and awarded monetary damages to the teacher. The court refused to reinstate the teacher, and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals affirmed that refusal by a 2 to 1 vote. Burton v. Cascade School District, 353 F. Supp. 254 (D. Or. 1972), aff'd 512 F.2d 850 (1975). In 1973, the ACLU created the Sexual Privacy Project (later the Gay and Lesbian Rights Project) which combated discrimination against homosexuals. This support continued into the 2000s. For example, after then-Senator Larry Craig was arrested for soliciting sex in a public restroom in 2007, the ACLU wrote an amicus brief for Craig, saying that sex between consenting adults in public places was protected under privacy rights.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 38436267, 3510770, 381732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 26 ], [ 129, 139 ], [ 955, 966 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rights of the poor was another area that was expanded by the ACLU. In 1966 and again in 1968, activists within the ACLU encouraged the organization to adopt a policy overhauling the welfare system, and guaranteeing low-income families a baseline income; but the ACLU board did not approve the proposals. However, the ACLU played a key role in the 1968 King v. Smith decision, where the Supreme Court ruled that welfare benefits for children could not be denied by a state simply because the mother cohabited with a boyfriend.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 9431376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 352, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Reproductive Freedom Project was founded by the ACLU in 1974 to defend individuals who are obstructed by the government in cases involving access to abortions, birth control, or sexual education. According to its mission statement, the project works to provide access to any and all reproductive health care for individuals. The project also opposes abstinence-only sex education, arguing that it promotes an unwillingness to use contraceptives.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 6117366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 354, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1929 the ACLU defended Margaret Sanger's right to educate the general public about forms of birth control. In 1980, the Project filed Poe v. Lynchburg Training School & Hospital which attempted to overturn Buck v. Bell, the 1927 US Supreme Court decision which had allowed the Commonwealth of Virginia to legally sterilize persons it deemed to be mentally defective without their permission. Though the Court did not overturn Buck v.Bell, in 1985 the state agreed to provide counseling and medical treatment to the survivors among the 7,200 to 8,300 people sterilized between 1927 and 1979. In 1977, the ACLU took part in and litigated Walker v. Pierce, the federal circuit court case that led to federal regulations to prevent Medicaid patients from being sterilized without their knowledge or consent. In 1981–1990, the Project litigated Hodgson v. Minnesota, which resulted in the Supreme Court overturning a state law requiring both parents to be notified before a minor could legally have an abortion. In the 1990s, the Project provided legal assistance and resource kits to those who were being challenged for educating about sexuality and AIDS. In 1995, the Project filed an amicus brief in Curtis v. School Committee of Falmouth, which allowed for the distribution of condoms in a public school.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 20707, 5599534, 662195, 70228, 55794, 3347672, 31737, 5069516, 236334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 41 ], [ 137, 180 ], [ 209, 221 ], [ 661, 687 ], [ 731, 739 ], [ 843, 863 ], [ 887, 900 ], [ 1149, 1153 ], [ 1185, 1197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Reproductive Freedom Project focuses on three ideas: (1) to \"reverse the shortage of trained abortion providers throughout the country\" (2) to \"block state and federal welfare \"reform\" proposals that cut off benefits for children who are born to women already receiving welfare, unmarried women, or teenagers\" and (3) to \"stop the elimination of vital reproductive health services as a result of hospital mergers and health care networks\". The Project proposes to achieve these goals through legal action and litigation.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The right to privacy is not explicitly identified in the US Constitution, but the ACLU led the charge to establish such rights in the indecisive Poe v. Ullman (1961) case, which addressed a state statute outlawing contraception. The issue arose again in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), and this time the Supreme Court adopted the ACLU's position, and formally declared a right to privacy. The New York affiliate of the ACLU pushed to eliminate anti-abortion laws starting in 1964, a year before Griswold was decided, and in 1967 the ACLU itself formally adopted the right to abortion as a policy. The ACLU led the defense in United States v. Vuitch (1971) which expanded the right of physicians to determine when abortions were necessary. These efforts culminated in one of the most controversial Supreme Court decisions, Roe v. Wade (1973), which legalized abortion throughout the United States. The ACLU successfully argued against state bans on interracial marriage, in the case of Loving v. Virginia (1967).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 1287559, 31644, 1851879, 171813, 37600900, 37600898, 18733955, 765, 68493, 3872186, 347332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 57, 72 ], [ 145, 158 ], [ 254, 277 ], [ 444, 462 ], [ 566, 583 ], [ 625, 648 ], [ 713, 721 ], [ 822, 833 ], [ 948, 968 ], [ 985, 1003 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Related to privacy, the ACLU engaged in several battles to ensure that government records about individuals were kept private, and to give individuals the right to review their records. The ACLU supported several measures, including the 1970 Fair Credit Reporting Act, which required credit agencies to divulge credit information to individuals; the 1973 Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act, which provided students the right to access their records; and the 1974 Privacy Act, which prevented the federal government from disclosing personal information without good cause.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 787012, 10960, 564861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 242, 267 ], [ 355, 396 ], [ 465, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the early 1970s, conservatives and libertarians began to criticize the ACLU for being too political and too liberal. Legal scholar Joseph W. Bishop wrote that the ACLU's trend to partisanship started with its defense of Spock's anti-war protests. Critics also blamed the ACLU for encouraging the Supreme Court to embrace judicial activism. Critics claimed that the ACLU's support of controversial decisions like Roe v. Wade and Griswold v. Connecticut violated the intention of the authors of the Bill of Rights. The ACLU became an issue in the 1988 presidential campaign, when Republican candidate George H. W. Bush accused Democratic candidate Michael Dukakis (a member of the ACLU) of being a \"card carrying member of the ACLU\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 3225498, 1945845, 68493, 171813, 1966466, 39531, 74453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 324, 341 ], [ 415, 426 ], [ 431, 454 ], [ 468, 492 ], [ 548, 574 ], [ 649, 664 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is the policy of the ACLU to support the civil liberties of defendants regardless of their ideological stance. The ACLU takes pride in defending individuals with unpopular viewpoints, such as George Wallace, George Lincoln Rockwell, and KKK members. The ACLU has defended American Nazis many times, and their actions often brought protests, particularly from American Jews.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 259897, 268925, 16779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 209 ], [ 211, 234 ], [ 240, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1977, a small group of American Nazis, led by Frank Collin, applied to the town of Skokie, Illinois, for permission to hold a demonstration in the town park. Skokie at the time had a majority population of Jews, totaling 40,000 of 70,000 citizens, some of whom were survivors of Nazi concentration camps. Skokie refused to grant permission, and an Illinois judge supported Skokie and prohibited the demonstration. Skokie immediately passed three ordinances aimed at preventing the group from meeting in Skokie. The ACLU assisted Collin and appealed to federal court. The appeal dragged on for a year, and the ACLU eventually prevailed in Smith v. Collin, 447 F. Supp. 676.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 644144, 111053, 514725, 8214234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 61 ], [ 86, 102 ], [ 282, 305 ], [ 641, 656 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Skokie case was heavily publicized across America, partially because Jewish groups such as the Jewish Defense League and Anti Defamation League strenuously objected to the demonstration, leading many members of the ACLU to cancel their memberships. The Illinois affiliate of the ACLU lost about 25% of its membership and nearly one-third of its budget. The financial strain from the controversy led to layoffs at local chapters. After the membership crisis died down, the ACLU sent out a fund-raising appeal which explained their rationale for the Skokie case, and raised over $500,000 ($ in dollars).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 16457, 27243620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 120 ], [ 125, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The inauguration of Ronald Reagan as president in 1981, ushered in an eight-year period of conservative leadership in the US government. Under Reagan's leadership, the government pushed a conservative social agenda.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 21204000, 871552, 25433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 33 ], [ 70, 114 ], [ 143, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fifty years after the Scopes trial, the ACLU found itself fighting another classroom case, the Arkansas 1981 creationism statute, which required schools to teach the biblical account of creation as a scientific alternative to evolution. The ACLU won the case in the McLean v. Arkansas decision.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 28406, 1930, 2281347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 34 ], [ 95, 103 ], [ 266, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1982, the ACLU became involved in a case involving the distribution of child pornography (New York v. Ferber). In an amicus brief, the ACLU argued that child pornography that violates the three prong obscenity test should be outlawed, but that the law in question was overly restrictive because it outlawed artistic displays and otherwise non-obscene material. The court did not adopt the ACLU's position.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 25211885, 5972928, 29579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 91 ], [ 93, 111 ], [ 191, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1988 presidential election, Vice President George H. W. Bush noted that his opponent Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis had described himself as a \"card-carrying member of the ACLU\" and used that as evidence that Dukakis was \"a strong, passionate liberal\" and \"out of the mainstream\". The phrase subsequently was used by the organization in an advertising campaign.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "1970s and 1980s", "target_page_ids": [ 39531, 32759, 252510, 74453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 37 ], [ 39, 53 ], [ 96, 118 ], [ 119, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1990, the ACLU defended Lieutenant Colonel Oliver North, whose conviction was tainted by coerced testimonya violation of his fifth amendment rightsduring the Iran–Contra affair, where Oliver North was involved in illegal weapons sales to Iran in order to illegally fund the Contra guerillas.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "1990s", "target_page_ids": [ 22507, 13575603, 14787, 7548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 58 ], [ 128, 150 ], [ 161, 179 ], [ 277, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1997, ruling unanimously in the case of Reno v. American Civil Liberties Union, the Supreme Court voted down anti-indecency provisions of the Communications Decency Act (the CDA), finding they violated the freedom of speech provisions of the First Amendment. In their decision, the Supreme Court held that the CDA's \"use of the undefined terms 'indecent' and 'patently offensive' will provoke uncertainty among speakers about how the two standards relate to each other and just what they mean.\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "1990s", "target_page_ids": [ 308739, 48753248, 39296, 31653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 81 ], [ 117, 126 ], [ 145, 171 ], [ 245, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2000, Marvin Johnson, a legislative counsel for the ACLU, stated that proposed anti-spam legislation infringed on free speech by denying anonymity and by forcing spam to be labeled as such, \"Standardized labeling is compelled speech.\" He also stated, \"It's relatively simple to click and delete.\" The debate found the ACLU joining with the Direct Marketing Association and the Center for Democracy and Technology in 2000 in criticizing a bipartisan bill in the House of Representatives. As early as 1997, the ACLU had taken a strong position that nearly all spam legislation was improper, although it has supported \"opt-out\" requirements in some cases. The ACLU opposed the 2003 CAN-SPAM act suggesting that it could have a chilling effect on speech in cyberspace. It has been criticized for this position.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "1990s", "target_page_ids": [ 28368, 55249310, 10186838, 915528, 19468510, 1758935, 394063, 1007253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 91 ], [ 219, 235 ], [ 343, 371 ], [ 380, 415 ], [ 464, 488 ], [ 619, 626 ], [ 682, 690 ], [ 727, 742 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2000, 15 African-American residents of Hearne, Texas, were indicted on drug charges after being arrested in a series of \"drug sweeps\". The ACLU filed a class-action lawsuit, Kelly v. Paschall, on their behalf, alleging that the arrests were unlawful. The ACLU contended that 15 percent of Hearne's male African-American population aged 18 to 34 were arrested based only on the \"uncorroborated word of a single unreliable confidential informant coerced by police to make cases\". On May 11, 2005, the ACLU and Robertson County announced a confidential settlement of the lawsuit, an outcome which \"both sides stated that they were satisfied with\". The District Attorney dismissed the charges against the plaintiffs of the suit. The 2009 film American Violet depicts this case.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "1990s", "target_page_ids": [ 136529, 91465, 21705780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 64 ], [ 520, 536 ], [ 751, 766 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2000, the ACLU's Massachusetts affiliate represented the North American Man Boy Love Association (NAMBLA), on first amendment grounds, in the Curley v. NAMBLA wrongful death civil suit. The organization was sued because a man who raped and murdered a child had visited the NAMBLA website. Also in 2000, the ACLU lost the Boy Scouts of America v. Dale case, which had asked the Supreme Court to require the Boy Scouts of America to drop their policy of prohibiting homosexuals from becoming Boy Scout leaders.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "1990s", "target_page_ids": [ 16365325, 1732076, 154680, 76511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 99 ], [ 145, 161 ], [ 324, 353 ], [ 409, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2006, the ACLU of Washington State joined with a pro-gun rights organization, the Second Amendment Foundation, and prevailed in a lawsuit against the North Central Regional Library District (NCRL) in Washington for its policy of refusing to disable restrictions upon an adult patron's request. Library patrons attempting to access pro-gun web sites were blocked, and the library refused to remove the blocks. In 2012, the ACLU sued the same library system for refusing to disable temporarily, at the request of an adult patron, Internet filters which blocked access to Google Images.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 4268028, 5376827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 112 ], [ 572, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2006, the ACLU challenged a Missouri law that prohibited picketing outside of veterans' funerals. The suit was filed in support of the Westboro Baptist Church and Shirley Phelps-Roper, who were threatened with arrest. The Westboro Baptist Church is well known for their picket signs that contain messages such as, \"God Hates Fags\", \"Thank God for Dead Soldiers\", and \"Thank God for 9/11\". The ACLU issued a statement calling the legislation a \"law that infringes on Shirley Phelps-Roper's rights to religious liberty and free speech\". The ACLU prevailed in the lawsuit.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 376898, 10721157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 161 ], [ 166, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU argued in an amicus brief to the Supreme Court that a decision of the constitutionality of Massachusetts law required the consideration of additional evidence because lower courts have undervalued the right to engage in sidewalk counseling. The law prohibited sidewalk counselors from approaching women outside abortion facilities and offering them alternatives to abortion but allowed escorts to speak with them and accompany them into the building. In overturning the law in McCullen v. Coakley, the Supreme Court unanimously ruled that it violated the counselors' freedom of speech and that it was viewpoint discrimination.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 43153282, 37898710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 486, 505 ], [ 610, 634 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, the ACLU filed an amicus brief in Citizens United v. FEC, arguing that the Bipartisan Campaign Reform Act of 2002 violated the First Amendment right to free speech by curtailing political speech. This stance on the landmark Citizens United case caused considerable disagreement within the organization, resulting in a discussion about its future stance during a quarterly board meeting in 2010. On March 27, 2012, the ACLU reaffirmed its stance in support of the Supreme Court's Citizens United ruling, at the same time voicing support for expanded public financing of election campaigns and stating the organization would firmly oppose any future constitutional amendment limiting free speech.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 236334, 22097436, 396564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 39 ], [ 43, 65 ], [ 84, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, the ACLU filed suit on behalf of the Ku Klux Klan of Georgia, claiming that the KKK was unfairly rejected from the state's \"Adopt-a-Highway\" program. The ACLU prevailed in the lawsuit.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 16779, 5525760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 58 ], [ 133, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning in 2017, some individuals claimed the ACLU was reducing its support of unpopular free speech (specifically by declining to defend speech made by conservatives) in favor of identity politics, political correctness, and progressivism. Former ACLU director Ira Glasser stated that \"the ACLU might not take the Skokie case today.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 2298740, 313075, 23213, 26636309, 2558133, 8214234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 168 ], [ 182, 199 ], [ 201, 222 ], [ 228, 241 ], [ 264, 275 ], [ 317, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One basis of these allegations was 2017 statement made from the ACLU president to a reporter after the death of a counter-protester during the 2017 Unite the Right rally in Virginia, where Romero told a reporter that the ACLU would no longer support legal cases of activists that wish to carry guns at their protests.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 54794956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another basis for these claims was a leaked ACLU policy memo from June 2018, which stated that free speech can harm marginalized groups by undermining their civil rights. The memo discussed \"Conflicts Between Competing Values or Priorities\" and included the statement \"[s]peech that denigrates such groups can inflict serious harms and is intended to and often will impede progress toward equality\". Some analysts viewed this as a retreat from ACLU's historically strong support of first amendment rights, regardless of whether minorities were negatively impacted by the speech, citing the ACLU's past support for certain KKK and Nazi legal cases. The memo's authors stated that the memo did not define a change in official ACLU policy, but was simply intended as a guideline to assist ACLU affiliates in deciding which cases to take.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 21401843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2020, leading ACLU attorney Chase Strangio released a tweet calling for an effort to stop the circulation of Abigail Shrier's book Irreversible Damage.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 54353169, 65922638, 65922638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 45 ], [ 112, 126 ], [ 134, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2021, the ACLU filed a brief, siding against a group of teachers who refused, in defiance of school district policy, to use the preferred pronouns of transgender students. The teachers had attempted to use the student's names in all cases instead, citing both their religious views and interpretations of biology as their reasons for doing so.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2021, the ACLU released a statement denying that they are reducing their support for unpopular First Amendment causes, pointing to recent cases in which they challenged college restrictions on racist and homophobic speech, and defended antisemitic protesters who marched outside a synagogue in Michigan.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2022 Lara Bazelon, a professor at the University of San Francisco School of Law, stated that \"the ACLU has lost its way in recent years\" and had \"become in many respects a caricature of its former self\" having previously had, \"apolitical willingness to stand up for all speech, regardless of the speaker's identity\".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 70905969, 30876663, 3271581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 20 ], [ 41, 68 ], [ 69, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2004, the ACLU, along with Lambda Legal and the National Center for Lesbian Rights, sued the state of California on behalf of six same-sex couples who were denied marriage licenses. That case, Woo v. Lockyer, was eventually consolidated into In re Marriage Cases, the California Supreme Court case which led to same-sex marriage being available in that state from June 16, 2008, until Proposition 8 was passed on November 4, 2008. The ACLU, Lambda Legal and the National Center for Lesbian Rights then challenged Proposition 8 and won.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 265102, 10429073, 16173089, 532376, 17450998, 265102, 10429073, 17450998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 48 ], [ 57, 91 ], [ 251, 271 ], [ 277, 301 ], [ 394, 407 ], [ 450, 462 ], [ 471, 505 ], [ 522, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, the ACLU of Illinois was inducted into the Chicago Gay and Lesbian Hall of Fame as a Friend of the Community.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 20873177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011, the ACLU started its Don't Filter Me project, countering LGBT-related Internet censorship in public schools in the United States.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 44722621, 66936, 11056386, 471603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 45 ], [ 66, 70 ], [ 79, 98 ], [ 102, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 7, 2013, the ACLU reached a settlement with the federal government in Collins v. United States that provided for the payment of full separation pay to servicemembers discharged under \"don't ask, don't tell\" since November 10, 2004, who had previously been granted only half that. Some 181 were expected to receive about $13,000 each.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 30675601, 8690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 105 ], [ 195, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2021, the ACLU tweeted a modified quote by Ruth Bader Ginsburg on the subject of pregnancy, removing all references to \"Women\" and replacing them with \"Person\". They later apologized for the tweet.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 185232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In light of the Supreme Court's Heller decision recognizing that the Constitution protects an individual right to bear arms, ACLU of Nevada took a position of supporting \"the individual's right to bear arms subject to constitutionally permissible regulations\" and pledged to \"defend this right as it defends other constitutional rights\". In 2021, the ACLU supported the position that the Second Amendment was originally written to ensure that Southern states could use militias to suppress slave uprisings, and that anti-Blackness ensured its inclusion in the Bill of Rights:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 9964644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the September 11 attacks, the federal government instituted a broad range of new measures to combat terrorism, including the passage of the Patriot Act. The ACLU challenged many of the measures, claiming that they violated rights regarding due process, privacy, illegal searches, and cruel and unusual punishment. An ACLU policy statement states:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 5058690, 30636, 32191, 40359, 318416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ], [ 106, 115 ], [ 146, 157 ], [ 246, 257 ], [ 290, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the ensuing debate regarding the proper balance of civil liberties and security, the membership of the ACLU increased by 20%, bringing the group's total enrollment to 330,000. The growth continued, and by August 2008 ACLU membership was greater than 500,000. It remained at that level through 2011.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU has been a vocal opponent of the USA PATRIOT Act of 2001, the PATRIOT 2 Act of 2003, and associated legislation made in response to the threat of domestic terrorism. In response to a requirement of the USA PATRIOT Act, the ACLU withdrew from the Combined Federal Campaign charity drive. The campaign imposed a requirement that ACLU employees must be checked against a federal anti-terrorism watch list. The ACLU has stated that it would \"reject $500,000 in contributions from private individuals rather than submit to a government 'blacklist' policy\".", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 32191, 180558, 1435036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 57 ], [ 71, 80 ], [ 255, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2004, the ACLU sued the federal government in American Civil Liberties Union v. Ashcroft on behalf of Nicholas Merrill, owner of an Internet service provider. Under the provisions of the Patriot Act, the government had issued national security letters to Merrill to compel him to provide private Internet access information from some of his customers. In addition, the government placed a gag order on Merrill, forbidding him from discussing the matter with anyone.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 640649, 29484500, 100245, 3922180, 1197501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 91 ], [ 105, 121 ], [ 135, 160 ], [ 229, 253 ], [ 392, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2006, the ACLU filed a lawsuit, ACLU v. NSA, in a federal district court in Michigan, challenging government spying in the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy. On August 17, 2006, that court ruled that the warrantless wiretapping program is unconstitutional and ordered it ended immediately. However, the order was stayed pending an appeal. The Bush administration did suspend the program while the appeal was being heard. In February 2008, the US Supreme Court turned down an appeal from the ACLU to let it pursue a lawsuit against the program that began shortly after the September 11 terror attacks.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 3751613, 3460155, 3414021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ], [ 134, 174 ], [ 361, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU and other organizations also filed separate lawsuits around the country against telecommunications companies. The ACLU filed a lawsuit in Illinois (Terkel v. AT&T) which was dismissed because of the state secrets privilege and two others in California requesting injunctions against AT&T and Verizon. On August 10, 2006, the lawsuits against the telecommunications companies were transferred to a federal judge in San Francisco.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 1802213, 17555269, 18619278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 231 ], [ 292, 296 ], [ 301, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU represents a Muslim-American who was detained but never accused of a crime in Ashcroft v. al-Kidd, a civil suit against former Attorney General John Ashcroft. In January 2010, the American military released the names of 645 detainees held at the Bagram Theater Internment Facility in Afghanistan, modifying its long-held position against publicizing such information. This list was prompted by a Freedom of Information Act lawsuit filed in September 2009 by the ACLU, whose lawyers had also requested detailed information about conditions, rules and regulations.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 404829, 29262274, 16476, 32212, 11072099, 737, 590464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 37 ], [ 87, 106 ], [ 153, 166 ], [ 189, 206 ], [ 255, 289 ], [ 293, 304 ], [ 405, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACLU has also criticized targeted killings of American citizens who fight against the United States. In 2011, the ACLU criticized the killing of radical Muslim cleric Anwar al-Awlaki on the basis that it was a violation of his Fifth Amendment right to not be deprived of life, liberty, or property without due process of law.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 33928336, 6339494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 45 ], [ 171, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On August 10, 2020, in an opinion article for USA Today by Anthony D. Romero, the ACLU called for the dismantling of the United States Department of Homeland Security over the deployment of federal forces in July 2020 during the George Floyd protests. On August 26, 2020, the ACLU filed a lawsuit on behalf of seven protesters and three veterans following the protests in Portland, Oregon, which accused the Trump Administration of using excessive force and unlawful arrests with federal officers.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 208463, 58236, 64579513, 64104713, 64125291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 55 ], [ 121, 166 ], [ 176, 204 ], [ 229, 250 ], [ 360, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following Donald Trump's election as president on November 8, 2016, the ACLU responded on Twitter saying: \"Should President-elect Donald Trump attempt to implement his unconstitutional campaign promises, we'll see him in court.\" On January 27, 2017, President Trump signed an executive order indefinitely barring \"Syrian refugees from entering the United States, suspended all refugee admissions for 120 days and blocked citizens of seven Muslim-majority countries, refugees or otherwise, from entering the United States for 90 days: Iran, Iraq, Libya, Somalia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen\". The ACLU responded by filing a lawsuit against the ban on behalf of Hameed Khalid Darweesh and Haider Sameer Abdulkhaleq Alshawi, who had been detained at JFK International Airport. On January 28, 2017, District Court Judge Ann Donnelly granted a temporary injunction against the immigration order, saying it was difficult to see any harm from allowing the newly arrived immigrants to remain in the country.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 46979246, 53012768, 44472108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 276, 291 ], [ 811, 823 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In response to Trump's order, the ACLU raised more than $24 million from more than 350,000 individual online donations in a two-day period. This amounted to six times what the ACLU normally receives in online donations in a year. Celebrities donating included Chris Sacca (who offered to match other people's donations and ultimately gave $150,000), Rosie O'Donnell, Judd Apatow, Sia, John Legend, and Adele. The number of members of the ACLU doubled in the time from the election to end of January to 1 million.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 8600732, 44205, 1762460, 875477, 1575279, 13041163 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 260, 271 ], [ 350, 365 ], [ 367, 378 ], [ 380, 383 ], [ 385, 396 ], [ 402, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grants and contributions increased from $106,628,381 USD reported by the 2016 year-end income statement to $274,104,575 by the 2017 year-end statement. The primary source of revenue from the segment came from individual contributions in response to the Trump presidency's infringements on civil liberties. The surge in donations more than doubled the total support and revenue of the non-profit organization year over year from 2016 to 2017. Besides filing more lawsuits than during previous presidential administrations, the ACLU has spent more money on advertisements and messaging as well, weighing in on elections and pressing political concerns. This increased public profile has drawn some accusations that the organization has become more politically partisan than in previous decades.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 18717338, 312893, 37476, 72487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 56 ], [ 87, 103 ], [ 289, 304 ], [ 384, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 2004 trial regarding allegations of Rush Limbaugh's drug abuse, the ACLU argued that his privacy should not have been compromised by allowing law enforcement examination of his medical records.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 25427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2004, the school district in Dover, Pennsylvania, required that its high school biology students listen to a statement which asserted that the theory of evolution is not fact and mentioning intelligent design as an alternative theory. Several parents called the ACLU to complain, because they believed that the school was promoting a religious idea in the classroom and violating the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment. The ACLU, joined by Americans United for Separation of Church and State, represented the parents in a lawsuit against the school district. After a lengthy trial, Judge John E. Jones III ruled in favor of the parents in the Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District decision, finding that intelligent design is not science and permanently forbidding the Dover school system from teaching intelligent design in science classes.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 2798274, 134227, 9236, 15295, 1384931, 31653, 1567081, 2772368, 2761506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 33 ], [ 37, 56 ], [ 161, 170 ], [ 198, 216 ], [ 392, 412 ], [ 420, 435 ], [ 457, 508 ], [ 605, 622 ], [ 660, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2006, Edward Jones and the ACLU sued the City of Los Angeles, on behalf of Robert Lee Purrie and five other homeless people, for the city's violation of the 8th and 14th Amendments to the US Constitution, and Article I, sections 7 and 17 of the California Constitution (supporting due process and equal protection, and prohibiting cruel and unusual punishment). The Court ruled in favor of the ACLU, stating that, \"the LAPD cannot arrest people for sitting, lying, or sleeping on public sidewalks in Skid Row.\" Enforcement of section 41.18(d) 24 hours a day against persons who have nowhere else to sit, lie, or sleep, other than on public streets and sidewalks, is breaking these amendments. The Court said that the anti-camping ordinance is \"one of the most restrictive municipal laws regulating public spaces in the United States\". Jones and the ACLU wanted a compromise in which the LAPD is barred from enforcing section 41.18(d) (arrest, seizure, and imprisonment) in Skid Row between the hours of 9:00p.m. and 6:30am. The compromise plan permitted the homeless to sleep on the sidewalk, provided they are not \"within 10 feet of any business or residential entrance\" and only between these hours. One of the motivations for the compromise was the shortage of space in the prison system. Downtown development business interests and the Central City Association (CCA) were against the compromise. Police Chief William Bratton said the case had slowed the police effort to fight crime and clean up Skid Row, and that when he was allowed to clean up Skid Row, real estate profited. On September 20, 2006, the Los Angeles City Council voted to reject the compromise. On October 3, 2006, police arrested Skid Row's transients for sleeping on the streets for the first time in months.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 40359, 950939, 318416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 290, 301 ], [ 306, 322 ], [ 340, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, the Oregon ACLU opposed the repeal of a law in the state which prohibited teachers from wearing religious clothing in classrooms. The law had been passed in 1923 under the direction of state Speaker of the House Kaspar K. Kubli, a bigot and member of the Ku Klux Klan.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 46230384, 16779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 236 ], [ 264, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2020, the ACLU sued the federal government for denying Paycheck Protection Program loans to business owners with criminal backgrounds. At least two ACLU affiliates in Montana and Texas obtained PPP loans, according to the SBA.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 63549597, 19985712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 82 ], [ 230, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, the ACLU conceived and ghostwrote an op-ed in The Washington Post in which Amber Heard accused her ex-husband Johnny Depp of domestic abuse, leading Depp to sue Heard for defamation over the op-ed in the 2022 trial Depp v. Heard. The ACLU testified in the trial that they wrote the op-ed in exchange for a $3.5 million donation from Heard, and timed its release to capitalize on the press from Heard's newly released film Aquaman, though Heard was only able to pay the ACLU $1.3 million, citing financial difficulties. The ACLU requested $86,000 from Depp for the cost of producing documents for the case. At the end of the trial, the jury ruled that Heard had defamed Depp with actual malice in all three counts related to the Washington Post op-ed, awarding Depp $10 million in compensatory damages and $5 million (reduced by the Judge to $350,000) in punitive damages.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "21st century", "target_page_ids": [ 102226, 10784468, 71870, 28661, 70542685, 43549657, 331024, 8134, 47165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 74 ], [ 84, 95 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 180, 190 ], [ 224, 237 ], [ 431, 438 ], [ 688, 701 ], [ 789, 809 ], [ 863, 879 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American Civil Rights Union", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14094778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " British Columbia Civil Liberties Association", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8867563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Canadian Civil Liberties Association", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1414819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Foundation for Individual Rights and Expression (FIRE)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 378009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Institute for Justice", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 604273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Liberty, a British equivalent", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 539748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of court cases involving the American Civil Liberties Union", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3507969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Emergency Civil Liberties Committee", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11965739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " New York Civil Liberties Union", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9030114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Political freedom", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Southern Poverty Law Center", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bodenhamer, David, and Ely, James, Editors (2008). The Bill of Rights in Modern America, second edition. Indiana University Press. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "General references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Donohue, William (1985). The Politics of the American Civil Liberties Union. Transaction Books. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "General references", "target_page_ids": [ 1811852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kaminer, Wendy (2009). Worst Instincts: Cowardice, Conformity, and the ACLU. Beacon Press. . A dissident member of the ACLU criticizes its post-9/11 actions as betraying core principles of its founders.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "General references", "target_page_ids": [ 3585766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lamson, Peggy (1976). Roger Baldwin: Founder of the American Civil Liberties Union. Houghton Mifflin Company. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "General references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Walker, Samuel (1990). In Defense of American Liberties: A History of the ACLU. Oxford University Press. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "General references", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Klein Woody, and Baldwin, Roger Nash (2006). Liberties lost: the endangered legacy of the ACLU. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006. A collection of essays by Baldwin, each accompanied by commentary from a modern analyst.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Krannawitter, Thomas L. and Palm, Daniel C. (2005). A Nation Under God?: The ACLU and religion in American politics. Rowman & Littlefield.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sears, Alan, and Osten, Craig (2005). The ACLU vs America: Exposing the Agenda to Redefine Moral Values. B&H Publishing Group.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Smith, Frank LaGard (1996). ACLU: The Devil's Advocate: The Seduction of Civil Liberties in America. Marcon Publishers.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " American Civil Liberties Union of Southern California records. 754 boxes. UCLA Library Special Collections.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " American Civil Liberties Union of Washington. 1917-2019. 188.31 cubic feet (including 13 microfilm reels and 1 videocassette) plus 62 cartons and 2 rolled posters. Labor Archives of Washington. University of Washington Special Collections.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " American Civil Liberties Union of Michigan: Detroit Branch Records 1952–1966. This collection documents the early years of the Detroit ACLU branch. The collection contains documents related to academic freedom; censorship; church and state; civil liberties; police brutality; HUAC; and legal assistance to prisoners. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit, Michigan.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 44163677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 318, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American Civil Liberties Union of Oakland County, Michigan 1970–1984. This collection illustrates that the branch was formed to address issues such as Oakland County jail conditions, lie detector use, senior housing rights, and attempts to reinstate the death penalty. Walter P. Reuther Library, Detroit, Michigan.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 44163677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 270, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Annual Report – American Civil Liberties Union, American Civil Liberties Union, 1921.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Black Justice, ACLU, 1931.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " How Americans Protest, American Civil Liberties Union, 1963.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Secret detention by the Chicago police: a report, American Civil Liberties Union, 1959.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Report on lawlessness in law enforcement, Wickersham Commission, Patterson Smith, 1931. This report was written by the ACLU but published under the auspices of the Wickersham Commission.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Miller, Merle, (1952), The Judges and the Judged, Doubleday.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ACLU organization records, 1947–1995. Princeton University Library, Mudd Manuscript Library.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Dangers of Domestic Spying by Federal Law Enforcement, American Civil Liberties Union, 2002.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Engines of Liberty: The Power of Citizen Activists to Make Constitutional Law, David D. Cole, 2016", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " American Civil Liberties Union Records, Princeton University. Document archive 1917–1950, including the history of the ACLU.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Debs Pamphlet Collection, Indiana State University Library. An array of annual ACLU reports in PDF.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " List of 100 most important ACLU victories, New Hampshire Civil Liberties Union.", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " De-classified FBI records on the ACLU", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "American_Civil_Liberties_Union", "1920_establishments_in_the_United_States", "501(c)(4)_nonprofit_organizations", "Civil_liberties_advocacy_groups_in_the_United_States", "Drug_policy_reform", "Government_watchdog_groups_in_the_United_States", "Immigration_political_advocacy_groups_in_the_United_States", "Legal_advocacy_organizations_in_the_United_States", "LGBT_political_advocacy_groups_in_the_United_States", "Non-profit_organizations_based_in_New_York_City", "Nonpartisan_organizations_in_the_United_States", "Organizations_established_in_1920", "Privacy_in_the_United_States", "Privacy_organizations" ]

[ "ACLU" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Adobe Inc. ( ), originally called Adobe Systems Incorporated, is an American multinational computer software company incorporated in Delaware ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5309, 8933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 108 ], [ 117, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "and headquartered in San Jose, California. It has historically specialized in software for the creation and publication of a wide range of content, including graphics, photography, illustration, animation, multimedia/video, motion pictures, and print. Its flagship products include Adobe Photoshop image editing software; Adobe Illustrator vector-based illustration software; Adobe Acrobat Reader and the Portable Document Format (PDF); and a host of tools primarily for audio-visual content creation, editing and publishing. Adobe offered a bundled solution of its products named Adobe Creative Suite, which evolved into a subscription software as a service (SaaS) offering named Adobe Creative Cloud. The company also expanded into digital marketing software and in 2021 was considered one of the top global leaders in Customer Experience Management (CXM).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 53446, 24893, 153850, 203896, 24077, 363734, 2262333, 38474191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 41 ], [ 282, 297 ], [ 322, 339 ], [ 382, 396 ], [ 405, 429 ], [ 581, 601 ], [ 637, 658 ], [ 681, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adobe was founded in December 1982 by John Warnock and Charles Geschke, who established the company after leaving Xerox PARC to develop and sell the PostScript page description language. In 1985, Apple Computer licensed PostScript for use in its LaserWriter printers, which helped spark the desktop publishing revolution. Adobe later developed animation and multimedia through its acquisition of Macromedia, from which it acquired Adobe Flash; video editing and compositing software with Adobe Premiere, later known as Adobe Premiere Pro; low-code web development with Adobe Muse; and a suite of software for digital marketing management.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 208594, 208588, 34154, 24080, 24444, 856, 54172, 54257, 177110, 20947, 66228499, 1071123, 52977719, 34344957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 50 ], [ 55, 70 ], [ 114, 124 ], [ 149, 159 ], [ 160, 185 ], [ 196, 210 ], [ 246, 257 ], [ 291, 309 ], [ 396, 406 ], [ 431, 442 ], [ 488, 502 ], [ 519, 537 ], [ 539, 547 ], [ 569, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2022, Adobe has more than 26,000 employees worldwide. Adobe also has major development operations in the United States in Newton, New York City, Arden Hills, Lehi, Seattle, Austin and San Francisco. It also has major development operations in Noida and Bangalore in India.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 105945, 645042, 124575, 137159, 11388236, 1998, 49728, 986046, 44275267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 134 ], [ 136, 149 ], [ 151, 162 ], [ 164, 168 ], [ 170, 177 ], [ 179, 185 ], [ 190, 203 ], [ 249, 254 ], [ 259, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The company was started in John Warnock's garage. The name of the company, Adobe, comes from Adobe Creek in Los Altos, California, which ran behind Warnock's house. That creek is so named because of the type of clay found there (Adobe being a Spanish word for Mudbrick), which alludes to the creative nature of the company's software. Adobe's corporate logo features a stylized \"A\" and was designed by graphic designer Marva Warnock, John Warnock's wife. In 2020, the company updated its visual identity, including updating its logo to a single color, an all-red logo that is warmer and more contemporary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24745474, 18627, 682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 104 ], [ 108, 117 ], [ 199, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Steve Jobs attempted to buy the company for $5 million in 1982, but Warnock and Geschke refused. Their investors urged them to work something out with Jobs, so they agreed to sell him shares worth 19 percent of the company. Jobs paid a five-times multiple of their company's valuation at the time, plus a five-year license fee for PostScript, in advance. The purchase and advance made Adobe the first company in the history of Silicon Valley to become profitable in its first year.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7412236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Warnock and Geschke considered various business options including a copy-service business and a turnkey system for office printing. Then they chose to focus on developing specialized printing software and created the Adobe PostScript page description language.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "PostScript was the first truly international standard for computer printing as it included algorithms describing the letter-forms of many languages. Adobe added kanji printer products in 1988. Warnock and Geschke were also able to bolster the credibility of PostScript by connecting with a typesetting manufacturer. They weren't able to work with Compugraphic, but then worked with Linotype to license the Helvetica and Times Roman fonts (through the Linotron 100). By 1987, PostScript had become the industry-standard printer language with more than 400 third-party software programs and licensing agreements with 19 printer companies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Warnock described the language as \"extensible\", in its ability to apply graphic arts standards to office printing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Adobe's first products after PostScript were digital fonts, which they released in a proprietary format called Type 1, worked on by Bill Paxton after he left Stanford. Apple subsequently developed a competing standard, TrueType, which provided full scalability and precise control of the pixel pattern created by the font's outlines, and licensed it to Microsoft.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24080, 1094512, 9855609, 31187, 23665, 19001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 39 ], [ 45, 57 ], [ 111, 117 ], [ 219, 227 ], [ 288, 293 ], [ 353, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the mid-1980s, Adobe entered the consumer software market with Illustrator, a vector-based drawing program for the Apple Macintosh. Illustrator, which grew from the firm's in-house font-development software, helped popularize PostScript-enabled laser printers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 153850, 32499, 19006979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 77 ], [ 81, 87 ], [ 118, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adobe entered the NASDAQ Composite index in August 1986. Its revenue has grown from roughly $1 billion in 1999 to $4 billion in 2012. Adobe's fiscal years run from December to November. For example, the 2020 fiscal year ended on November 27, 2020.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9339194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1989, Adobe introduced what was to become its flagship product, a graphics editing program for the Macintosh called Photoshop. Stable and full-featured, Photoshop 1.0 was ably marketed by Adobe and soon dominated the market.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 188719, 24893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 57 ], [ 119, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1993, Adobe introduced PDF, the Portable Document Format, and its Adobe Acrobat and Reader software. PDF is now an International Standard: 2008.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 24077, 203896, 24077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 29 ], [ 69, 93 ], [ 142, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 1991, Adobe released Adobe Premiere, which Adobe rebranded as Adobe Premiere Pro in 2003. In 1992, Adobe acquired OCR Systems, Inc. In 1994, Adobe acquired the Aldus Corporation and added PageMaker and After Effects to its product line later in the year; it also controls the TIFF file format. In the same year, Adobe acquired LaserTools Corp and Compution Inc. In 1995, Adobe added FrameMaker, the long-document DTP application, to its product line after Adobe acquired Frame Technology Corp. In 1996, Adobe acquired Ares Software Corp. In 2002, Adobe acquired Canadian company Accelio (also known as JetForm).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 66228499, 1071123, 69627446, 145540, 204435, 813204, 145478, 73956, 3139122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 47 ], [ 74, 92 ], [ 126, 137 ], [ 172, 189 ], [ 200, 209 ], [ 214, 227 ], [ 288, 292 ], [ 395, 405 ], [ 614, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 2003, Adobe purchased audio editing and multitrack recording software Cool Edit Pro from Syntrillium Software for $16.5million, as well as a large loop library called \"Loopology\". Adobe then renamed Cool Edit Pro to \"Adobe Audition\" and included it in the Creative Suite.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 77775, 442805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 158 ], [ 224, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On December 3, 2005, Adobe acquired its main rival, Macromedia, in a stock swap valued at about $3.4billion, adding ColdFusion, Contribute, Captivate, Breeze (rebranded as Adobe Connect), Director, Dreamweaver, Fireworks, Flash, FlashPaper, Flex, FreeHand, HomeSite, JRun, Presenter, and Authorware to Adobe's product line.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 177110, 197321, 374636, 21864308, 1983995, 2317445, 11871641, 318918, 667188, 20947, 1712873, 1197941, 24095253, 752871, 4258481, 42466340, 286954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 62 ], [ 69, 79 ], [ 116, 126 ], [ 128, 138 ], [ 140, 149 ], [ 172, 185 ], [ 188, 196 ], [ 198, 209 ], [ 211, 220 ], [ 222, 227 ], [ 229, 239 ], [ 241, 245 ], [ 247, 255 ], [ 257, 265 ], [ 267, 271 ], [ 273, 282 ], [ 288, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adobe released Adobe Media Player in April 2008. On April 27, Adobe discontinued development and sales of its older HTML/web development software, GoLive, in favor of Dreamweaver. Adobe offered a discount on Dreamweaver for GoLive users and supports those who still use GoLive with online tutorials and migration assistance. On June 1, Adobe launched Acrobat.com, a series of web applications geared for collaborative work. Creative Suite 4, which includes Design, Web, Production Premium, and Master Collection came out in October 2008 in six configurations at prices from about US$1,700 to $2,500 or by individual application. The Windows version of Photoshop includes 64-bit processing. On December 3, 2008, Adobe laid off 600 of its employees (8% of the worldwide staff) citing the weak economic environment.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 13191, 204430, 318918, 18676543, 288311, 19337279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 120 ], [ 147, 153 ], [ 167, 178 ], [ 351, 362 ], [ 376, 391 ], [ 786, 811 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On September 15, 2009, Adobe Systems announced that it would acquire online marketing and web analytics company Omniture for $1.8billion. The deal was completed on October 23, 2009. Former Omniture products were integrated into the Adobe Marketing Cloud.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18047652, 41952259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 120 ], [ 232, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On November 10, 2009, the company laid off a further 680 employees.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Adobe's 2010 was marked by continuing front-and-back arguments with Apple over the latter's non-support for Adobe Flash on its iPhone, iPad and other products. Former Apple CEO Steve Jobs claimed that Flash was not reliable or secure enough, while Adobe executives have argued that Apple wish to maintain control over the iOS platform. In April 2010, Steve Jobs published a post titled \"Thoughts on Flash\" where he outlined his thoughts on Flash and the rise of HTML 5.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8841749, 25970423, 20947, 7966125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 133 ], [ 135, 139 ], [ 440, 445 ], [ 462, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2010, Adobe bought Day Software integrating their line of CQ Products: WCM, DAM, SOCO, and Mobile", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2011, Adobe acquired DemDex, Inc. with the intent of adding DemDex's audience-optimization software to its online marketing suite. At Photoshop World 2011, Adobe unveiled a new mobile photo service. Carousel is a new application for iPhone, iPad, and Mac that uses Photoshop Lightroom technology for users to adjust and fine-tune images on all platforms. Carousel will also allow users to automatically sync, share and browse photos. The service was later renamed to \"Adobe Revel\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19006979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2011, Adobe acquired Nitobi Software, the makers of the mobile application development framework PhoneGap. As part of the acquisition, the source code of PhoneGap was submitted to the Apache Foundation, where it became Apache Cordova.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 33496160, 1336, 23642794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 85 ], [ 195, 212 ], [ 230, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2011, Adobe announced that they would cease development of Flash for mobile devices following version 11.1. Instead, it would focus on HTML 5 for mobile devices. In December 2011, Adobe announced that it entered into a definitive agreement to acquire privately held Efficient Frontier.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2012, Adobe opened a new corporate campus in Lehi, Utah.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 137159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2013, Adobe endured a major security breach. Vast portions of the source code for the company's software were stolen and posted online and over 150 million records of Adobe's customers have been made readily available for download. In 2012, about 40 million sets of payment card information were compromised by a hack of Adobe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A class-action lawsuit alleging that the company suppressed employee compensation was filed against Adobe, and three other Silicon Valley-based companies in a California federal district court in 2013. In May 2014, it was revealed the four companies, Adobe, Apple, Google, and Intel had reached agreement with the plaintiffs, 64,000 employees of the four companies, to pay a sum of $324.5million to settle the suit.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7200, 40906934, 26976, 856, 14617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 22 ], [ 86, 105 ], [ 123, 137 ], [ 258, 263 ], [ 277, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2018, at Adobe Summit, the company and NVIDIA publicized a key association to quickly upgrade their industry-driving AI and profound learning innovations. Expanding on years of coordinated effort, the organizations will work to streamline the Adobe Sensei AI and machine learning structure for NVIDIA GPUs. The joint effort will speed time to showcase and enhance the execution of new Sensei-powered services for Adobe Creative Cloud and Experience Cloud clients and engineers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39120, 390214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ], [ 310, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adobe and NVIDIA have co-operated for over 10 years on empowering GPU quickening for a wide arrangement of Adobe's creative and computerized encounter items. This incorporates Sensei-powered features, for example, auto lip-sync in Adobe Character Animator CC and face-aware editing in Photoshop CC, and also cloud-based AI/ML items and features, for example, picture investigation for Adobe Stock and Lightroom CC and auto-labeling in Adobe Experience Supervisor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In May 2018, Adobe stated they would buy e-commerce services provider Magento Commerce from private equity firm Permira for $1.68billion. This deal will help bolster its Experience Cloud business, which provides services including analytics, advertising, and marketing. The deal is closed on June 19, 2018.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16788888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 2018, Adobe announced its acquisition of marketing automation software company Marketo.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 36154453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2018, Adobe officially changed its name from Adobe Systems Incorporated to Adobe Inc.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2019, Adobe announced its acquisition of 3D texturing company Allegorithmic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2020, the annual Adobe Summit was canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The event took place online and saw over 21 million total video views and over 2.2 million visits to the event website.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 62750956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The software giant has imposed a ban on the political ads features on its digital advert sales platform as the United States presidential elections approach.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On November 9, 2020, Adobe announced it will spend US$1.5 billion to acquire Workfront, a provider of marketing collaboration software. The acquisition was completed in early December 2020.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15206234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On August 19, 2021, Adobe announced it had entered into a definitive agreement to acquire Frame.io, a leading cloud-based video collaboration platform. The transaction is valued at $1.275 billion and closed during the fourth quarter of Adobe's 2021 fiscal year.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On September 15, 2021, Adobe Inc formally announced that it will add payment services to its e-commerce platform this year, allowing merchants on their platform a method to accept payments including credit cards and PayPal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Digital Marketing Management Software", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adobe Experience Cloud, Adobe Experience Manager (AEM 6.2), XML Documentation add-on (for AEM), Mixamo", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [ 41952259, 41952259, 40771259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 25, 49 ], [ 97, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Formats", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Portable Document Format (PDF), PDF's predecessor PostScript, ActionScript, Shockwave Flash (SWF), Flash Video (FLV), and Filmstrip (.flm)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [ 24077, 24080, 519691, 676915, 2472154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ], [ 51, 61 ], [ 63, 75 ], [ 94, 97 ], [ 100, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Web-hosted services", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adobe Color, Photoshop Express, Acrobat.com, Behance and Adobe Spark", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [ 16621067, 18676543, 25947499, 51481388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 31 ], [ 33, 44 ], [ 46, 53 ], [ 58, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 3D and AR", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Adobe Aero, Dimension, Mixamo, Substance 3D by Adobe", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [ 62377691, 57378521, 40771259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 12, 21 ], [ 23, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adobe Renderer", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adobe Media Encoder", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [ 38474191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adobe Stock", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A microstock agency that presently provides over 57 million high-resolution, royalty-free images and videos available to license (via subscription or credit purchase methods). In 2015, Adobe acquired Fotolia, a stock content marketplace founded in 2005 by Thibaud Elziere, Oleg Tscheltzoff, and Patrick Chassany which operated in 23 countries. It is run as a stand-alone website.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [ 3358792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adobe Experience Platform", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2019, Adobe released its Adobe Experience Platform, which consists family of content, development, and customer relationship management products, with what it calls the \"next generation\" of its Sensei artificial intelligence and machine learning framework.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Products", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2000, Fortune has recognized Adobe as one of the 100 Best Companies to Work For. In 2021, Adobe was ranked 16th . Glassdoor recognized Adobe as a Best Place to Work. In October 2021, Fast Company included Adobe on their Brands That Matter list. In October 2008, Adobe Systems Canada Inc. was named one of \"Canada's Top 100 Employers\" by Mediacorp Canada Inc. and was featured in Maclean's newsmagazine.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 11199726, 297282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 312, 338 ], [ 385, 394 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adobe received a five-star rating from the Electronic Frontier Foundation with regards to its handling of government data requests in 2017.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Reception", "target_page_ids": [ 18949836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adobe has been criticized for its pricing practices, with retail prices being up to twice as much in non-US countries. For example, it is significantly cheaper to pay for a return airfare ticket to the United States and purchase one particular collection of Adobe's software there than to buy it locally in Australia.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After Adobe revealed the pricing for the Creative Suite 3 Master Collection, which was £1,000 higher for European customers, a petition to protest over \"unfair pricing\" was published and signed by 10,000 users. In June 2009, Adobe further increased its prices in the UK by 10% in spite of weakening of the pound against the dollar, and UK users were not allowed to buy from the US store.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Adobe's Reader and Flash programs were listed on \"The 10 most hated programs of all time\" article by TechRadar.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 203896, 20947, 24015660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 14 ], [ 19, 24 ], [ 101, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hackers have exploited vulnerabilities in Adobe programs, such as Adobe Reader, to gain unauthorized access to computers. Adobe's Flash Player has also been criticized for, among other things, suffering from performance, memory usage and security problems (see criticism of Flash Player). A report by security researchers from Kaspersky Lab criticized Adobe for producing the products having top 10 security vulnerabilities.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 1713552, 22172878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 286 ], [ 327, 340 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Observers noted that Adobe was spying on its customers by including spyware in the Creative Suite 3 software and quietly sending user data to a firm named Omniture. When users became aware, Adobe explained what the suspicious software did and admitted that they: \"could and should do a better job taking security concerns into account\". When a security flaw was later discovered in Photoshop CS5, Adobe sparked outrage by saying it would leave the flaw unpatched, so anyone who wanted to use the software securely would have to pay for an upgrade. Following a fierce backlash Adobe decided to provide the software patch.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 28951, 18047652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 75 ], [ 155, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adobe has been criticized for pushing unwanted software including third-party browser toolbars and free virus scanners, usually as part of the Flash update process, and for pushing a third-party scareware program designed to scare users into paying for unneeded system repairs.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 20947, 926965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 148 ], [ 195, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On October 3, 2013, the company initially revealed that 2.9million customers' sensitive and personal data was stolen in a security breach which included encrypted credit card information. Adobe later admitted that 38 million active users have been affected and the attackers obtained access to their IDs and encrypted passwords, as well as to many inactive Adobe accounts. The company did not make it clear if all the personal information was encrypted, such as email addresses and physical addresses, though data privacy laws in 44 states require this information to be encrypted.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 237536, 5222720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 509, 513 ], [ 514, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 3.8 GB file stolen from Adobe and containing 152 million usernames, reversibly encrypted passwords and unencrypted password hints was posted on AnonNews.org. LastPass, a password security firm, said that Adobe failed to use best practices for securing the passwords and has not salted them. Another security firm, Sophos, showed that Adobe used a weak encryption method permitting the recovery of a lot of information with very little effort. According to IT expert Simon Bain, Adobe has failed its customers and 'should hang their heads in shame'.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 21807738, 701756, 713412, 36674345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 168 ], [ 280, 286 ], [ 316, 322 ], [ 458, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of the credit cards were tied to the Creative Cloud software-by-subscription service. Adobe offered its affected US customers a free membership in a credit monitoring service, but no similar arrangements have been made for non-US customers. When a data breach occurs in the US, penalties depend on the state where the victim resides, not where the company is based.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 38474191, 13307577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 56 ], [ 253, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After stealing the customers' data, cyber-thieves also accessed Adobe's source code repository, likely in mid-August 2013. Because hackers acquired copies of the source code of Adobe proprietary products, they could find and exploit any potential weaknesses in its security, computer experts warned. Security researcher Alex Holden, chief information security officer of Hold Security, characterized this Adobe breach, which affected Acrobat, ColdFusion and numerous other applications, as \"one of the worst in US history\". Adobe also announced that hackers stole parts of the source code of Photoshop, which according to commentators could allow programmers to copy its engineering techniques and would make it easier to pirate Adobe's expensive products.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 27661, 2471540, 18934886, 50461712, 203896, 374636, 24893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 83 ], [ 131, 138 ], [ 183, 194 ], [ 320, 331 ], [ 434, 441 ], [ 443, 453 ], [ 592, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Published on a server of a Russian-speaking hacker group, the \"disclosure of encryption algorithms, other security schemes, and software vulnerabilities can be used to bypass protections for individual and corporate data\" and may have opened the gateway to new generation zero-day attacks. Hackers already used ColdFusion exploits to make off with usernames and encrypted passwords of PR Newswire's customers, which has been tied to the Adobe security breach. They also used a ColdFusion exploit to breach Washington state court and expose up to 200,000 Social Security numbers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 9907648, 16001916, 708026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 56 ], [ 272, 287 ], [ 385, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1994, Adobe acquired Aldus Corp., a software vendor that sold FreeHand, a competing product. FreeHand was direct competition to Adobe Illustrator, Adobe's flagship vector-graphics editor. The Federal Trade Commission intervened and forced Adobe to sell FreeHand back to Altsys, and also banned Adobe from buying back FreeHand or any similar program for the next 10 years (1994–2004). Altsys was then bought by Macromedia, which released versions 5 to 11. When Adobe acquired Macromedia in December 2005, it stalled development of FreeHand in 2007, effectively rendering it obsolete. With FreeHand and Illustrator, Adobe controlled the only two products that compete in the professional illustration program market for Macintosh operating systems.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 24095253, 153850, 182215, 177110, 24095253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 104 ], [ 131, 148 ], [ 195, 219 ], [ 413, 423 ], [ 533, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011, a group of 5,000 FreeHand graphic designers convened under the banner Free FreeHand, and filed a civil antitrust complaint in the US District Court for the Northern District of California against Adobe. The suit alleged that Adobe has violated federal and state antitrust laws by abusing its dominant position in the professional vector graphic illustration software market and that Adobe has engaged in a series of exclusionary and anti-competitive acts and strategies designed to kill FreeHand, the dominant competitor to Adobe's Illustrator software product, instead of competing on the basis of product merit according to the principals of free market capitalism. Adobe had no response to the claims and the lawsuit was eventually settled. The FreeHand community believes Adobe should release the product to an open-source community if it cannot update it internally.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": ", on its FreeHand product page, Adobe stated, \"While we recognize FreeHand has a loyal customer base, we encourage users to migrate to the new Adobe Illustrator CS4 software which supports both PowerPC and Intel-based Macs and Microsoft Windows XP and Windows Vista.\" , the FreeHand page no longer exists; instead, it simply redirects to the Illustrator page. Adobe's software FTP server still contains a directory for FreeHand, but it is empty.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In April 2021, Adobe received heavy criticism for the company's cancellation fees after a customer shared a tweet showing they had been charged a $291.45 cancellation fee for their Adobe Creative Cloud subscription. Many also showed their cancellation fees for Adobe Creative Cloud, with this leading to many encouraging piracy of Adobe products and/or purchase of alternatives with lower prices or using FOSS software instead. Furthermore, there have been reports that with changing subscriptions it is possible to avoid paying this fee.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 18948365, 1721496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 321, 327 ], [ 405, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Warnock (1982-2000)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chief executive officers", "target_page_ids": [ 208594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bruce Chizen (2000-2007)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chief executive officers", "target_page_ids": [ 4913298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shantanu Narayen (2007–present)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Chief executive officers", "target_page_ids": [ 8595634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adobe MAX", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14443779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Digital rights management (DRM)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 18938226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of acquisitions by Adobe", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19595071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Adobe software", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3268440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " US v. ElcomSoft Sklyarov", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4555271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] } ]

[ "Adobe_Inc.", "1982_establishments_in_California", "Companies_based_in_San_Jose,_California", "Companies_listed_on_the_Nasdaq", "Multinational_companies_headquartered_in_the_United_States", "Software_companies_based_in_the_San_Francisco_Bay_Area", "Software_companies_established_in_1982", "Type_foundries", "American_companies_established_in_1982", "1980s_initial_public_offerings", "Software_companies_of_the_United_States" ]

[ "Adobe Systems", "Adobe Inc." ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Alexander Technique, named after its developer Frederick Matthias Alexander (1869–1955), is a popular type of alternative therapy based on the idea that poor posture gives rise to a range of health problems.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7615993, 1845, 16287339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 79 ], [ 114, 133 ], [ 157, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alexander began developing his technique's principles in the 1890s in an attempt to address his own voice loss during public speaking. He credited his method with allowing him to pursue his passion for performing Shakespearean recitations.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2726497, 32897, 1977313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 110 ], [ 213, 226 ], [ 227, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proponents and teachers of the Alexander Technique believe the technique can address a variety of health conditions, but there is a lack of research to support the claims. , the UK National Health Service cites evidence that the Alexander Technique may be helpful for long-term back pain and for long-term neck pain, and that it could help people cope with Parkinson's disease. Both the American health-insurance company Aetna and the Australian Department of Health have conducted reviews and concluded that there is insufficient evidence for the technique's health claims to warrant insurance coverage.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16462572, 153807, 11198392, 22228064, 78343, 5429081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 204 ], [ 278, 287 ], [ 306, 315 ], [ 357, 376 ], [ 421, 426 ], [ 435, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Alexander Technique is used and taught by classically trained vocal coaches and musicians in schools and private lessons. Its advocates state that it allows for a balanced use of all aspects of the vocal tract by consciously increasing air-flow, allowing improved vocal skill and tone. The method is said by actors to reduce stage fright and to increase spontaneity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 34545370, 600102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 248 ], [ 330, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Alexander Technique is a frequent component in acting training, because it can assist the actor in being more natural in performance.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Alexander Technique instructor Michael J. Gelb, people tend to study the Alexander Technique for reasons of personal development.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2295151, 8068094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 59 ], [ 121, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A review of evidence for the Alexander Technique for various health conditions provided by the UK National Health Service, last updated in 2021, said that advocates of the technique made claims for it that were not supported by evidence, but that there was evidence suggesting that it might help with:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Health effects", "target_page_ids": [ 16462572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " long-term back pain – lessons in the technique may lead to reduced back pain-associated disability and reduce how often you feel pain for up to a year or more", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Health effects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " long-term neck pain – lessons in the technique may lead to reduced neck pain and associated disability for up to a year or more", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Health effects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Parkinson's disease – lessons in the technique may help you carry out everyday tasks more easily and improve how you feel about your condition", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Health effects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The NHS further states: \"Some research has also suggested the Alexander Technique may improve general long-term pain, stammering, and balance skills in older people to help them avoid falls. But the evidence in these areas is limited and more studies are needed. There's currently little evidence to suggest the Alexander Technique can help improve other health conditions, including asthma, headaches, osteoarthritis, difficulty sleeping (insomnia) and stress.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Health effects", "target_page_ids": [ 44905, 69893, 504841, 50798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 385, 391 ], [ 393, 401 ], [ 404, 418 ], [ 441, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A review published in BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine in 2014 focused on \"the evidence for the effectiveness of AT sessions on musicians' performance, anxiety, respiratory function and posture\" concluded that: \"Evidence from RCTs and CTs suggests that AT sessions may improve performance anxiety in musicians. Effects on music performance, respiratory function and posture yet remain inconclusive.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Health effects", "target_page_ids": [ 423799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 2012 Cochrane systematic review found that there is no conclusive evidence that the Alexander Technique is effective for treating asthma, and randomized clinical trials are needed in order to assess the effectiveness of this type of treatment approach.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Health effects", "target_page_ids": [ 237721, 2994579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 15 ], [ 16, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A review by Aetna last updated in 2021 stated: \"Aetna considers the following alternative medicine interventions experimental and investigational, because there is inadequate evidence in the peer-reviewed published medical literature of their effectiveness.\" The Alexander Technique is included in that list.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Health effects", "target_page_ids": [ 78343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 2015 review, conducted for the Australia Department of Health in order to determine what services the Australian government should pay for, examined clinical trials published to date and found that: \"Overall, the evidence was limited by the small number of participants in the intervention arms, wide confidence intervals or a lack of replication of results.\" It concluded that: \"The Alexander Technique may improve short-term pain and disability in people with low back pain, but the longer-term effects remain uncertain. For all other clinical conditions, the effectiveness of Alexander Technique was deemed to be uncertain, due to insufficient evidence.\" It also noted that: \"Evidence for the safety of Alexander Technique was lacking, with most trials not reporting on this outcome. Subsequently in 2017, the Australian government named the Alexander Technique as a practice that would not qualify for insurance subsidy, saying this step would \"ensure taxpayer funds are expended appropriately and not directed to therapies lacking evidence\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Health effects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Alexander Technique is most commonly taught in a series of private lessons which may last from 30 minutes to an hour. The number of lessons varies widely, depending on the student's needs and level of interest. Students are often performers, such as actors, dancers, musicians, athletes and public speakers, people who work on computers, or those who are in frequent pain for other reasons. Instructors observe their students, and provide both verbal and gentle manual guidance to help students learn how to move with better poise and less strain. Sessions include chair work – often in front of a mirror – during which the instructor will guide the student while the student stands, sits and walks, learning to move efficiently while maintaining a comfortable relationship between the head, neck and spine, and table work or physical manipulation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [ 7790174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 831, 852 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To qualify as a teacher of the Alexander Technique, instructors are required to complete 1,600 hours of supervised teacher training, spanning three years. The result must be satisfactory to qualified peers to gain membership in professional societies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [ 377828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alexander's approach emphasizes awareness strategies applied to conducting oneself while in action (which could be now called \"mindful\" action, though in his four books he did not use that term).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [ 1165522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Actions such as sitting, squatting, lunging or walking are often selected by the teacher. Other actions may be selected by the student and tailored to their interests, work activities, or hobbies, and may include computer use, lifting, driving, artistic performance or practice, sports, speech, or horseback riding. Alexander teachers often use themselves as examples. They demonstrate, explain, and analyze a student's moment-to-moment responses as well as using mirrors, video feedback or classmate observations. Guided modelling with a highly skilled light hand contact is the primary tool for detecting and guiding the student into a more-coordinated state in movement and at rest during in-person lessons. Suggestions for improvements are often student-specific, as everyone starts out with slightly different habits.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [ 28032864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Exercise as a teaching tool is deliberately omitted because of a common mistaken assumption that there exists a \"correct\" position. There are only two specific procedures that are practiced by the student; the first is lying semi-supine. Resting in this way uses \"mechanical advantage\" as a means of redirecting long-term and short-term accumulated muscular tension into a more integrated and balanced state. This position is sometimes referred to as \"constructive rest\", or \"the balanced resting state\". It's also a specific time to practice Alexander's principle of conscious \"directing\" without \"doing\". The second exercise is the \"Whispered Ah\", which is used to co-ordinate freer breathing and vocal production.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [ 5157506, 5664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 236 ], [ 568, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Freedom, efficiency and patience are the prescribed values. Proscribed are unnecessary effort, self-limiting habits, as well as mistaken perceptual conclusions about the nature of training and experimentation. Students are led to change their largely automatic routines that are interpreted by the teacher to currently or cumulatively be physically limiting, inefficient, or not in keeping with best \"use\" of themselves as a whole. The Alexander teacher provides verbal coaching while monitoring, guiding and preventing unnecessary habits at their source with a specialized hands-on assistance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This specialized hands-on skill also allows Alexander teachers to bring about a balanced working of the student's supportive musculature as it relates to gravity's downward pull from moment to moment. Often, students require a great deal of hands-on work in order to first gain an experience of a fully poised relation to gravity and themselves. The hands-on skill requires Alexander teachers to maintain in themselves from moment-to-moment their own improved psycho-physical co-ordination that the teacher is communicating to the student.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [ 5177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 510, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alexander developed terminology to describe his methods, outlined in his four books that explain the experience of learning and substituting new improvements.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Constructive conscious control", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alexander insisted on the need for strategic reasoning because kinesthetic and proprioceptive sensory awareness are relative senses, not truthful indicators of a person's factual relationships within themselves or within the environment. A person's habitual neuro-muscular relation to gravity is habitually sensed internally as \"normal,\" despite being inefficient. Alexander's term, \"debauched sensory appreciation\" describes how the repetition of an action or response encourages the formation of habits as a person adapts to various circumstances or builds skills. Once trained and forgotten, completed habits may be used without feedback sensations that these habits are in effect, even when only thinking about the situations that elicit them. Short-sighted habits are capable of becoming harmfully exaggerated over time, such as restricted breathing or other habitually assumed adaptations to past circumstances. Even exaggerated habits will stop after learning to perceive and prevent them.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [ 21290714, 21290714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 74 ], [ 79, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "End-gaining", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another example is the term \"end-gaining\". This term means to focus on a goal so as to lose sight of the \"means-whereby\" the goal could be most appropriately achieved. According to Alexander teachers, \"end-gaining\" increases the likelihood of automatically selecting older or multiple conflicting coping strategies. End-gaining is usually carried out because an imperative priority of impatience or frustration justifies it. Excessive speed in thinking and acting often facilitates end-gaining. Going slowly is a strategy to undo \"end-gaining\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Inhibition", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the Alexander Technique lexicon, the principle of \"inhibition\" is considered by teachers to be the most important to gaining improved \"use\". F.M. Alexander's selection of this word predates the meaning of the word originated by Sigmund Freud. Inhibition, or \"intentional inhibition\", is the act of refraining from responding in one's habitual manner – in particular, imposed tension in neck muscles (see Primary Control). Inhibition describes a moment of conscious awareness of a choice to interrupt, stop or entirely prevent an unnecessary habitual \"misuse\". As unnecessary habits are prevented or interrupted, a freer capacity and range of motion resumes and a more spontaneous choice of action or behavior can be discovered, which is experienced by the student as a state of \"non-doing\" or \"allowing\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [ 26743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Primary control", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "How the eyes and head initiate movement governs the training of ourselves in relationship to gravity. Our responses are influenced for good or ill by the qualities of head and eye direction at the inception of any reaction. The qualities and direction of our \"primary control\" occur in every waking moment in response to the stimulus to \"do\" everything. A person can learn to influence their primary control, improving effortlessness. This influence involves the education of a particular quality of head, neck, torso, and limb relationship that works as we move and respond. A student learns to pay attention during action, without imposing expectations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Directions", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To continue to select and reinforce the often less-dominant new ways, it is recommended to repeatedly suggest, by thinking to oneself, a particular series of \"Orders\" or \"Directions\". \"Giving Directions\" is the expression used for thinking and projecting the positive aspect of how one's self might be used in the most unified psycho-physical way as conveyed by the teacher's hands during a lesson.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [ 438004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 327, 342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Directing\" serves to counteract the common backward and downward pull and shortening in stature that can be detected at the beginning of every movement – particularly addressing a startle pattern of \"fight, flight or freeze\". A mere thought, as a projection of intention, shapes preparatory movement below the level of sensing it. Alexander used these words for reshaping these subliminal preparations: \"The neck to be free, the head to go forward and up, the back to lengthen and widen\". Some teachers have shortened this to a suggestion of, \"Freer?\" Negative directions (that use Alexander's other preventive principle of \"inhibition\") have also been found to be effective, because negative directions leave the positive response open-ended.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Whichever is used, all \"Directing\" is suggestively thought, rather than willfully accomplished. This is because the neuro-muscular responses to \"Directing\" often occur underneath one's ability to perceive how they are actually carried out neuro-physiologically and neuro-cognitively. As freedom of expression or movement is the objective, the most-appropriate responses cannot be anticipated or expected, only observed and chosen in the moment. Teacher trainees gradually learn to include a constant attending to their lengthening in stature in every movement. It becomes a basis for initiating and continuing every action, every response to stimuli, or while remaining constructively at rest.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Psycho-physical unity", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Global concepts such as \"Psycho-physical Unity\" and \"Use\" describe how thinking strategies and attention work together during preparation for an action or for withholding one. They connote the general sequence of how intention joins together with execution to affect directly the perception of events and the outcome of intended results.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Method", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Frederick Matthias Alexander (1869–1955) was a Shakespearean orator from Tasmania, who developed voice loss during his unamplified performances. After doctors found no physical cause, Alexander reasoned that he was inadvertently damaging himself while speaking. He observed himself in multiple mirrors and saw that he was contracting his posture in preparation for any speech. He hypothesized that a habitual conditioned pattern (of pulling his head backwards and downwards) needlessly was disrupting the normal working of his total postural, breathing, and vocal processes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32897, 34920909, 29944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 60 ], [ 61, 67 ], [ 73, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With experimentation, Alexander developed the ability to stop the unnecessary and habitual contracting in his neck, displacement of his head, and shortening of his stature. As he became practiced at speaking without these interferences, he found that his problem with recurrent voice loss was resolved. While on a recital tour in New Zealand (1895), he came to believe in the wider significance of improved carriage for overall physical functioning, although evidence from his own publications appears to indicate it happened less systematically and over a long period of time.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4913064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alexander did not originally conceive of his technique as therapy, but it has become a form of alternative medicine.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American philosopher and educator John Dewey became impressed with the Alexander Technique after his headaches, neck pains, blurred vision, and stress symptoms largely improved during the time he used Alexander's advice to change his posture. In 1923, Dewey wrote the introduction to Alexander's Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23276, 205075, 16187, 69893, 11198392, 14861261, 31595228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 24 ], [ 29, 37 ], [ 38, 48 ], [ 105, 113 ], [ 116, 125 ], [ 128, 142 ], [ 148, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aldous Huxley had transformative lessons with Alexander, and continued doing so with other teachers after moving to the US. He rated Alexander's work highly enough to base the character of the doctor who saves the protagonist in Eyeless in Gaza (an experimental form of autobiographical work) on F.M. Alexander, putting many of his phrases into the character's mouth. Huxley's work The Art of Seeing also discusses his views on the technique.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 628, 1127009, 8220347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 229, 244 ], [ 382, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stafford Cripps, George Bernard Shaw, Henry Irving and other stage grandees, Lord Lytton and other eminent people of the era also wrote positive appreciations of Alexander's work after taking lessons with him.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 441856, 12855, 331075, 3069442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 17, 36 ], [ 38, 50 ], [ 77, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since Alexander's work in the field came at the start of the 20th century, his ideas influenced many originators in the field of mind-body improvement. Fritz Perls, who originated Gestalt therapy, credited Alexander as an inspiration for his psychological work. The Mitzvah Technique was influenced by the Alexander Technique, as was the Feldenkrais Method, which expanded on the one exercise in Alexander Technique called \"The Whispered Ah.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 154329, 6420680, 245089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 163 ], [ 266, 283 ], [ 338, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Psychomotor learning", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19115227 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Motor coordination", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3313340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Motor skill", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 232386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Motor skill consolidation", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31595494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Neutral spine", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15787684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poor posture", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16287339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kinesiology", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 545909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George E. Coghill", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2468293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nikolai Bernstein", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12218960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander, FM Man's Supreme Inheritance, Methuen (London, 1910), revised and enlarged 1918, later editions 1941, 1946, 1957, scholarly edition Mouritz (UK, 1996, reprinted 2002, )", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander, FM Conscious Control , Methuen (London, 1912), revised and incorporated into the 1918 (and later) editions of Man's Supreme Inheritance . Republished by Alexander Technique Centre Ireland (2015).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander, FM Constructive Conscious Control of the Individual, E. P. Dutton (USA,1923), Methuen (London, 1924), revised 1946, scholarly edition Mouritz (UK, 2004, )", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander, FM The Use of the Self, E. P. Dutton (New York, 1932), Methuen (London, 1932), republished by Orion Publishing, 2001, ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander, FM The Universal Constant in Living, E. P. Dutton (New York, 1941), Chaterson (London, 1942), later editions 1943, 1946, scholarly edition Mouritz (UK, 2000, )", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander, FM Articles and Lectures, Mouritz (UK, 1995 – A posthumous compilation of articles, published letters and lectures – )", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alexander, FM Aphorisms, Mouritz (UK, 2000 – a compilation of teaching aphorisms – )", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Mind–body_interventions", "Postural_awareness_techniques", "Somatics" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Andrea Alciato (8 May 149212 January 1550), commonly known as Alciati (Andreas Alciatus), was an Italian jurist and writer. He is regarded as the founder of the French school of legal humanists.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 51481, 5362810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 111 ], [ 179, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alciati was born in Alzate Brianza, near Milan, and settled in France in the early 16th century. He displayed great literary skill in his exposition of the laws, and was one of the first to interpret the civil law by the history, languages and literature of antiquity, and to substitute original research for the servile interpretations of the glossators. He published many legal works, and some annotations on Tacitus and accumulated a sylloge of Roman inscriptions from Milan and its territories, as part of his preparation for his history of Milan, written in 1504–05.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 6701074, 36511, 42359429, 1431051, 19594563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 34 ], [ 41, 46 ], [ 204, 213 ], [ 258, 267 ], [ 411, 418 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among his several appointments, Alciati taught Law at the University of Bourges between 1529 and 1535.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3911186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pierre Bayle, in his General Dictionary (article \"Alciat\"), relates that he greatly increased his salary there, by the \"stratagem\" of arranging to get a job offer from the University of Bologna and using it as a negotiation point .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 308126, 31640143, 263329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 21, 39 ], [ 172, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alciati is most famous for his Emblemata, published in dozens of editions from 1531 onward. This collection of short Latin verse texts and accompanying woodcuts created an entire European genre, the emblem book, which attained enormous popularity in continental Europe and Great Britain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 493040, 1546763, 405467, 9239, 13530298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 117, 128 ], [ 199, 210 ], [ 262, 268 ], [ 273, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alciati died at Pavia in 1550.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 44934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Annotationes in tres libros Codicis (1515)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Emblematum libellus (1531)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Opera omnia (Basel 1546–49)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rerum Patriae, seu Historiae Mediolanensis, Libri IV (Milan, 1625) a history of Milan, written in 1504–05.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " De formula Romani Imperii (Basilae: Ioannem Oporinum, 1559, editio princeps)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alciato at Glasgow – Reproductions of 22 editions of Alciato's emblems from 1531 to 1621", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Description, Reproduction and translation Memorial University of Newfoundland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Emblemata Latin text, Antwerp 1577, full digital facsimile, CAMENA Project", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1492_births", "1550_deaths", "16th-century_Italian_jurists", "16th-century_Latin-language_writers", "16th-century_Italian_historians", "Italian_Renaissance_humanists", "People_from_the_Province_of_Como" ]

[ "Andrea Alciati", "Giovanni Andrea Alciato", "Giovanni Andrea Alciati" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Apparent magnitude () is a measure of the brightness of a star or other astronomical object observed from Earth. An object's apparent magnitude depends on its intrinsic luminosity, its distance from Earth, and any extinction of the object's light caused by interstellar dust along the line of sight to the observer.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 556970, 26808, 206542, 9228, 44790, 1231797, 2178570, 22075349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 52 ], [ 58, 62 ], [ 72, 91 ], [ 106, 111 ], [ 169, 179 ], [ 214, 224 ], [ 257, 274 ], [ 285, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word magnitude in astronomy, unless stated otherwise, usually refers to a celestial object's apparent magnitude. The magnitude scale dates back to the ancient Roman astronomer Claudius Ptolemy, whose star catalog listed stars from 1st magnitude (brightest) to 6th magnitude (dimmest). The modern scale was mathematically defined in a way to closely match this historical system.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4385475, 23979, 28232, 42944845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 179 ], [ 180, 196 ], [ 204, 216 ], [ 235, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The scale is reverse logarithmic: the brighter an object is, the lower its magnitude number. A difference of 1.0 in magnitude corresponds to a brightness ratio of , or about 2.512. For example, a star of magnitude 2.0 is 2.512 times as bright as a star of magnitude 3.0, 6.31 times as bright as a star of magnitude 4.0, and 100 times as bright as one of magnitude 7.0.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 164055, 2500686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 75, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The brightest astronomical objects have negative apparent magnitudes: for example, Venus at −4.2 or Sirius at −1.46. The faintest stars visible with the naked eye on the darkest night have apparent magnitudes of about +6.5, though this varies depending on a person's eyesight and with altitude and atmospheric conditions. The apparent magnitudes of known objects range from the Sun at −26.7 to objects in deep Hubble Space Telescope images of magnitude +31.5.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32745, 28017, 293540, 648954, 48386, 40203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 88 ], [ 100, 106 ], [ 153, 162 ], [ 267, 275 ], [ 285, 293 ], [ 410, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The measurement of apparent magnitude is called photometry. Photometric measurements are made in the ultraviolet, visible, or infrared wavelength bands using standard passband filters belonging to photometric systems such as the UBV system or the Strömgren uvbyβ system.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 207560, 31990, 41464, 15022, 10134, 41488, 5622659, 5731588, 7093648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 58 ], [ 101, 112 ], [ 114, 121 ], [ 126, 134 ], [ 135, 151 ], [ 167, 175 ], [ 197, 215 ], [ 229, 239 ], [ 247, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absolute magnitude is a measure of the intrinsic luminosity of a celestial object, rather than its apparent brightness, and is expressed on the same reverse logarithmic scale. Absolute magnitude is defined as the apparent magnitude that a star or object would have if it were observed from a distance of . Therefore, it is of greater use in stellar astrophysics since it refers to a property of a star regardless of how close it is to Earth. But in observational astronomy and popular stargazing, unqualified references to \"magnitude\" are understood to mean apparent magnitude.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1963, 361897, 507266, 748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 341, 361 ], [ 449, 472 ], [ 485, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The scale used to indicate magnitude originates in the Hellenistic practice of dividing stars visible to the naked eye into six magnitudes. The brightest stars in the night sky were said to be of first magnitude ( = 1), whereas the faintest were of sixth magnitude ( = 6), which is the limit of human visual perception (without the aid of a telescope). Each grade of magnitude was considered twice the brightness of the following grade (a logarithmic scale), although that ratio was subjective as no photodetectors existed. This rather crude scale for the brightness of stars was popularized by Ptolemy in his Almagest and is generally believed to have originated with Hipparchus. This cannot be proved or disproved because Hipparchus's original star catalogue is lost. The only preserved text by Hipparchus himself (a commentary to Aratus) clearly documents that he did not have a system to describe brightness with numbers: He always uses terms like \"big\" or \"small\", \"bright\" or \"faint\" or even descriptions such as \"visible at full moon\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 565604, 28161, 42944845, 682482, 21280496, 7070301, 164055, 1353789, 23979, 148060, 13600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 66 ], [ 144, 159 ], [ 196, 211 ], [ 295, 300 ], [ 301, 318 ], [ 341, 350 ], [ 439, 456 ], [ 500, 513 ], [ 595, 602 ], [ 610, 618 ], [ 669, 679 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1856, Norman Robert Pogson formalized the system by defining a first magnitude star as a star that is 100 times as bright as a sixth-magnitude star, thereby establishing the logarithmic scale still in use today. This implies that a star of magnitude is about 2.512 times as bright as a star of magnitude . This figure, the fifth root of 100, became known as Pogson's Ratio. The zero point of Pogson's scale was originally defined by assigning Polaris a magnitude of exactly 2. Astronomers later discovered that Polaris is slightly variable, so they switched to Vega as the standard reference star, assigning the brightness of Vega as the definition of zero magnitude at any specified wavelength.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37247862, 739199, 23230, 32712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 29 ], [ 327, 344 ], [ 447, 454 ], [ 565, 569 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apart from small corrections, the brightness of Vega still serves as the definition of zero magnitude for visible and near infrared wavelengths, where its spectral energy distribution (SED) closely approximates that of a black body for a temperature of . However, with the advent of infrared astronomy it was revealed that Vega's radiation includes an infrared excess presumably due to a circumstellar disk consisting of dust at warm temperatures (but much cooler than the star's surface). At shorter (e.g. visible) wavelengths, there is negligible emission from dust at these temperatures. However, in order to properly extend the magnitude scale further into the infrared, this peculiarity of Vega should not affect the definition of the magnitude scale. Therefore, the magnitude scale was extrapolated to all wavelengths on the basis of the black-body radiation curve for an ideal stellar surface at uncontaminated by circumstellar radiation. On this basis the spectral irradiance (usually expressed in janskys) for the zero magnitude point, as a function of wavelength, can be computed. Small deviations are specified between systems using measurement apparatuses developed independently so that data obtained by different astronomers can be properly compared, but of greater practical importance is the definition of magnitude not at a single wavelength but applying to the response of standard spectral filters used in photometry over various wavelength bands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15022, 6244916, 44364, 56437, 11633005, 48609118, 2178570, 191123, 556970, 180090, 207560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 131 ], [ 155, 183 ], [ 221, 231 ], [ 283, 301 ], [ 352, 367 ], [ 388, 406 ], [ 421, 425 ], [ 844, 870 ], [ 965, 984 ], [ 1007, 1013 ], [ 1426, 1436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the modern magnitude systems, brightness over a very wide range is specified according to the logarithmic definition detailed below, using this zero reference. In practice such apparent magnitudes do not exceed 30 (for detectable measurements). The brightness of Vega is exceeded by four stars in the night sky at visible wavelengths (and more at infrared wavelengths) as well as the bright planets Venus, Mars, and Jupiter, and these must be described by negative magnitudes. For example, Sirius, the brightest star of the celestial sphere, has a magnitude of −1.4 in the visible. Negative magnitudes for other very bright astronomical objects can be found in the Table of notable celestial objects below.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 28017, 48239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 495, 501 ], [ 529, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Astronomers have developed other photometric zero point systems as alternatives to the Vega system. The most widely used is the AB magnitude system, in which photometric zero points are based on a hypothetical reference spectrum having constant flux per unit frequency interval, rather than using a stellar spectrum or blackbody curve as the reference. The AB magnitude zero point is defined such that an object's AB and Vega-based magnitudes will be approximately equal in the V filter band.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12550286, 15272957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 140 ], [ 245, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Precision measurement of magnitude (photometry) requires calibration of the photographic or (usually) electronic detection apparatus. This generally involves contemporaneous observation, under identical conditions, of standard stars whose magnitude using that spectral filter is accurately known. Moreover, as the amount of light actually received by a telescope is reduced due to transmission through the Earth's atmosphere, the airmasses of the target and calibration stars must be taken into account. Typically one would observe a few different stars of known magnitude which are sufficiently similar. Calibrator stars close in the sky to the target are favoured (to avoid large differences in the atmospheric paths). If those stars have somewhat different zenith angles (altitudes) then a correction factor as a function of airmass can be derived and applied to the airmass at the target's position. Such calibration obtains the brightness as would be observed from above the atmosphere, where apparent magnitude is defined.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Measurement", "target_page_ids": [ 202898, 705635, 48909, 48386, 207560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 406, 424 ], [ 430, 437 ], [ 760, 772 ], [ 775, 784 ], [ 855, 862 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For those new to astronomy, Apparent Magnitude scales with the received power (as opposed to amplitude), so for astrophotography you can use the relative brightness measure to scale the exposure times between stars. Apparent magnitude also adds up (integrates) over the entire object, so it is focus independent. This needs to be taken into account when scaling exposure times for objects with significant apparent size, like the Sun, Moon and planets. For example, directly scaling the exposure time from the Moon to the Sun works, because they are approximately the same size in the sky, but scaling the exposure from the Moon to Saturn would result in an overexposure, if the image of Saturn takes up a smaller area on your sensor than the Moon did (at the same magnification or more generally f/#).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Measurement", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The dimmer an object appears, the higher the numerical value given to its magnitude, with a difference of 5 magnitudes corresponding to a brightness factor of exactly 100. Therefore, the magnitude , in the spectral band , would be given by", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [ 5622659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "which is more commonly expressed in terms of common (base-10) logarithms as", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [ 174482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is the observed irradiance using spectral filter , and is the reference flux (zero-point) for that photometric filter. Since an increase of 5 magnitudes corresponds to a decrease in brightness by a factor of exactly 100, each magnitude increase implies a decrease in brightness by the factor (Pogson's ratio). Inverting the above formula, a magnitude difference implies a brightness factor of", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [ 556970, 5622659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 33 ], [ 107, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "What is the ratio in brightness between the Sun and the full Moon?", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [ 26751, 19331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 47 ], [ 61, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The apparent magnitude of the Sun is −26.74 (brighter), and the mean magnitude of the full moon is −12.74 (dimmer).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [ 11432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Difference in magnitude:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Brightness factor:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Sun appears about times as bright as the full Moon.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes one might wish to add brightness. For example, photometry on closely separated double stars may only be able to produce a measurement of their combined light output. To find the combined magnitude of that double star knowing only the magnitudes of the individual components, this can be done by adding the brightness (in linear units) corresponding to each magnitude.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [ 207560, 53603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 67 ], [ 89, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Solving for yields", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where is the resulting magnitude after adding the brightnesses referred to by and .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While magnitude generally refers to a measurement in a particular filter band corresponding to some range of wavelengths, the apparent or absolute bolometric magnitude (mbol) is a measure of an object's apparent or absolute brightness integrated over all wavelengths of the electromagnetic spectrum (also known as the object's irradiance or power, respectively). The zero point of the apparent bolometric magnitude scale is based on the definition that an apparent bolometric magnitude of 0 mag is equivalent to a received irradiance of 2.518×10−8 watts per square metre (W·m−2).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [ 556970, 21347693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 327, 337 ], [ 548, 552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While apparent magnitude is a measure of the brightness of an object as seen by a particular observer, absolute magnitude is a measure of the intrinsic brightness of an object. Flux decreases with distance according to an inverse-square law, so the apparent magnitude of a star depends on both its absolute brightness and its distance (and any extinction). For example, a star at one distance will have the same apparent magnitude as a star four times as bright at twice that distance. In contrast, the intrinsic brightness of an astronomical object, does not depend on the distance of the observer or any extinction.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [ 41288, 1231797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 241 ], [ 608, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The absolute magnitude , of a star or astronomical object is defined as the apparent magnitude it would have as seen from a distance of . The absolute magnitude of the Sun is 4.83 in the V band (visual), 4.68 in the Gaia satellite's G band (green) and 5.48 in the B band (blue).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [ 801330 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the case of a planet or asteroid, the absolute magnitude rather means the apparent magnitude it would have if it were from both the observer and the Sun, and fully illuminated at maximum opposition (a configuration that is only theoretically achievable, with the observer situated on the surface of the Sun).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Calculations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The magnitude scale is a reverse logarithmic scale. A common misconception is that the logarithmic nature of the scale is because the human eye itself has a logarithmic response. In Pogson's time this was thought to be true (see Weber–Fechner law), but it is now believed that the response is a power law .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Standard reference values", "target_page_ids": [ 1070221, 273831, 24522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 135, 144 ], [ 230, 247 ], [ 296, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Magnitude is complicated by the fact that light is not monochromatic. The sensitivity of a light detector varies according to the wavelength of the light, and the way it varies depends on the type of light detector. For this reason, it is necessary to specify how the magnitude is measured for the value to be meaningful. For this purpose the UBV system is widely used, in which the magnitude is measured in three different wavelength bands: U (centred at about 350nm, in the near ultraviolet), B (about 435nm, in the blue region) and V (about 555nm, in the middle of the human visual range in daylight). The V band was chosen for spectral purposes and gives magnitudes closely corresponding to those seen by the human eye. When an apparent magnitude is discussed without further qualification, the V magnitude is generally understood.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Standard reference values", "target_page_ids": [ 261993, 5731588, 31990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 68 ], [ 343, 353 ], [ 481, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because cooler stars, such as red giants and red dwarfs, emit little energy in the blue and UV regions of the spectrum, their power is often under-represented by the UBV scale. Indeed, some L and T class stars have an estimated magnitude of well over 100, because they emit extremely little visible light, but are strongest in infrared.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Standard reference values", "target_page_ids": [ 21245707, 56099, 28927, 15022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 39 ], [ 45, 54 ], [ 190, 203 ], [ 327, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Measures of magnitude need cautious treatment and it is extremely important to measure like with like. On early 20th century and older orthochromatic (blue-sensitive) photographic film, the relative brightnesses of the blue supergiant Rigel and the red supergiant Betelgeuse irregular variable star (at maximum) are reversed compared to what human eyes perceive, because this archaic film is more sensitive to blue light than it is to red light. Magnitudes obtained from this method are known as photographic magnitudes, and are now considered obsolete.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Standard reference values", "target_page_ids": [ 21556842, 170853, 26463, 53878, 2797809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 184 ], [ 224, 234 ], [ 235, 240 ], [ 264, 274 ], [ 496, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For objects within the Milky Way with a given absolute magnitude, 5 is added to the apparent magnitude for every tenfold increase in the distance to the object. For objects at very great distances (far beyond the Milky Way), this relationship must be adjusted for redshifts and for non-Euclidean distance measures due to general relativity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Standard reference values", "target_page_ids": [ 2589714, 7895070, 58610, 12024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 32 ], [ 251, 273 ], [ 282, 295 ], [ 321, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For planets and other Solar System bodies, the apparent magnitude is derived from its phase curve and the distances to the Sun and observer.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Standard reference values", "target_page_ids": [ 29486469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the listed magnitudes are approximate. Telescope sensitivity depends on observing time, optical bandpass, and interfering light from scattering and airglow.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "List of apparent magnitudes", "target_page_ids": [ 26176, 1231733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 151 ], [ 156, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Distance modulus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1395554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of nearest bright stars", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 902664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of nearest stars", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Luminosity in astronomy", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 44790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Surface brightness", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1358431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] } ]

[ "Observational_astronomy", "Logarithmic_scales_of_measurement" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Absolute magnitude () is a measure of the luminosity of a celestial object on an inverse logarithmic astronomical magnitude scale. An object's absolute magnitude is defined to be equal to the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were viewed from a distance of exactly , without extinction (or dimming) of its light due to absorption by interstellar matter and cosmic dust. By hypothetically placing all objects at a standard reference distance from the observer, their luminosities can be directly compared among each other on a magnitude scale.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 44790, 206542, 164055, 2500686, 1962, 1231797, 69453, 2178570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 52 ], [ 58, 74 ], [ 89, 100 ], [ 101, 123 ], [ 192, 210 ], [ 293, 303 ], [ 351, 370 ], [ 375, 386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with all astronomical magnitudes, the absolute magnitude can be specified for different wavelength ranges corresponding to specified filter bands or passbands; for stars a commonly quoted absolute magnitude is the absolute visual magnitude, which uses the visual (V) band of the spectrum (in the UBV photometric system). Absolute magnitudes are denoted by a capital M, with a subscript representing the filter band used for measurement, such as MV for absolute magnitude in the V band.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2500686, 33125, 741823, 41488, 5731588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 35 ], [ 91, 101 ], [ 136, 142 ], [ 152, 160 ], [ 299, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The more luminous an object, the smaller the numerical value of its absolute magnitude. A difference of 5 magnitudes between the absolute magnitudes of two objects corresponds to a ratio of 100 in their luminosities, and a difference of n magnitudes in absolute magnitude corresponds to a luminosity ratio of 100n/5. For example, a star of absolute magnitude MV = 3.0 would be 100 times as luminous as a star of absolute magnitude MV = 8.0 as measured in the V filter band. The Sun has absolute magnitude MV = +4.83. Highly luminous objects can have negative absolute magnitudes: for example, the Milky Way galaxy has an absolute B magnitude of about −20.8.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26751, 2589714, 5731588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 478, 481 ], [ 597, 606 ], [ 630, 641 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An object's absolute bolometric magnitude (Mbol) represents its total luminosity over all wavelengths, rather than in a single filter band, as expressed on a logarithmic magnitude scale. To convert from an absolute magnitude in a specific filter band to absolute bolometric magnitude, a bolometric correction (BC) is applied.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 44790, 33125, 16826370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 80 ], [ 90, 101 ], [ 287, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For Solar System bodies that shine in reflected light, a different definition of absolute magnitude (H) is used, based on a standard reference distance of one astronomical unit.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26903, 1210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 159, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In stellar and galactic astronomy, the standard distance is 10 parsecs (about 32.616 light-years, 308.57 petameters or 308.57 trillion kilometres). A star at 10 parsecs has a parallax of 0.1″ (100 milliarcseconds). Galaxies (and other extended objects) are much larger than 10 parsecs, their light is radiated over an extended patch of sky, and their overall brightness cannot be directly observed from relatively short distances, but the same convention is used. A galaxy's magnitude is defined by measuring all the light radiated over the entire object, treating that integrated brightness as the brightness of a single point-like or star-like source, and computing the magnitude of that point-like source as it would appear if observed at the standard 10 parsecs distance. Consequently, the absolute magnitude of any object equals the apparent magnitude it would have if it were 10 parsecs away.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 260914, 23253, 2431, 21664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 134 ], [ 175, 183 ], [ 202, 212 ], [ 235, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some stars visible to the naked eye have such a low absolute magnitude that they would appear bright enough to outshine the planets and cast shadows if they were at 10 parsecs from the Earth. Examples include Rigel (−7.0), Deneb (−7.2), Naos (−6.0), and Betelgeuse (−5.6). For comparison, Sirius has an absolute magnitude of only 1.4, which is still brighter than the Sun, whose absolute visual magnitude is 4.83. The Sun's absolute bolometric magnitude is set arbitrarily, usually at 4.75.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 22915, 26463, 393531, 393539, 53878, 28017, 26751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 130 ], [ 209, 214 ], [ 223, 228 ], [ 237, 241 ], [ 254, 264 ], [ 289, 295 ], [ 368, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absolute magnitudes of stars generally range from approximately −10 to +20. The absolute magnitudes of galaxies can be much lower (brighter). For example, the giant elliptical galaxy M87 has an absolute magnitude of −22 (i.e. as bright as about 60,000 stars of magnitude −10). Some active galactic nuclei (quasars like CTA-102) can reach absolute magnitudes in excess of −32, making them the most luminous persistent objects in the observable universe, although these objects can vary in brightness over astronomically short timescales. At the extreme end, the optical afterglow of the gamma ray burst GRB 080319B reached, according to one paper, an absolute r magnitude brighter than −38 for a few tens of seconds.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 214077, 177092, 25239, 20833517, 16458569, 5622659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 186 ], [ 282, 304 ], [ 306, 313 ], [ 319, 326 ], [ 602, 613 ], [ 659, 670 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Greek astronomer Hipparchus established a numerical scale to describe the brightness of each star appearing in the sky. The brightest stars in the sky were assigned an apparent magnitude , and the dimmest stars visible to the naked eye are assigned . The difference between them corresponds to a factor of 100 in brightness. For objects within the immediate neighborhood of the Sun, the absolute magnitude and apparent magnitude from any distance (in parsecs, with 1 pc = 3.2616 light-years) are related by", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 13600, 23335, 23473595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 458, 464 ], [ 486, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is the radiant flux measured at distance (in parsecs), the radiant flux measured at distance . Using the common logarithm, the equation can be written as", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 174482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where it is assumed that extinction from gas and dust is negligible. Typical extinction rates within the Milky Way galaxy are 1 to 2 magnitudes per kiloparsec, when dark clouds are taken into account.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 1231797, 2589714, 174823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 53 ], [ 105, 114 ], [ 165, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For objects at very large distances (outside the Milky Way) the luminosity distance (distance defined using luminosity measurements) must be used instead of , because the Euclidean approximation is invalid for distant objects. Instead, general relativity must be taken into account. Moreover, the cosmological redshift complicates the relationship between absolute and apparent magnitude, because the radiation observed was shifted into the red range of the spectrum. To compare the magnitudes of very distant objects with those of local objects, a K correction might have to be applied to the magnitudes of the distant objects.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 9697, 12024, 42975, 7895070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 181 ], [ 237, 255 ], [ 298, 319 ], [ 550, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The absolute magnitude can also be written in terms of the apparent magnitude and stellar parallax :", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 202661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "or using apparent magnitude and distance modulus :", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 1395554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rigel has a visual magnitude of 0.12 and distance of about 860 light-years:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 26463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vega has a parallax of 0.129″, and an apparent magnitude of 0.03:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 32712 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Black Eye Galaxy has a visual magnitude of 9.36 and a distance modulus of 31.06:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 456662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bolometric absolute magnitude , takes into account electromagnetic radiation at all wavelengths. It includes those unobserved due to instrumental passband, the Earth's atmospheric absorption, and extinction by interstellar dust. It is defined based on the luminosity of the stars. In the case of stars with few observations, it must be computed assuming an effective temperature.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 98918, 9426, 33125, 41488, 1231797, 44790, 1460629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 55, 80 ], [ 88, 99 ], [ 150, 158 ], [ 200, 231 ], [ 260, 270 ], [ 361, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Classically, the difference in bolometric magnitude is related to the luminosity ratio according to:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "which makes by inversion:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the Sun's luminosity (bolometric luminosity)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the star's luminosity (bolometric luminosity)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the bolometric magnitude of the Sun", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the bolometric magnitude of the star.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In August 2015, the International Astronomical Union passed Resolution B2 defining the zero points of the absolute and apparent bolometric magnitude scales in SI units for power (watts) and irradiance (W/m2), respectively. Although bolometric magnitudes had been used by astronomers for many decades, there had been systematic differences in the absolute magnitude-luminosity scales presented in various astronomical references, and no international standardization. This led to systematic differences in bolometric corrections scales. Combined with incorrect assumed absolute bolometric magnitudes for the Sun, this could lead to systematic errors in estimated stellar luminosities (and other stellar properties, such as radii or ages, which rely on stellar luminosity to be calculated).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 14878, 59497796, 1963, 21347693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 52 ], [ 87, 98 ], [ 128, 148 ], [ 179, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Resolution B2 defines an absolute bolometric magnitude scale where corresponds to luminosity , with the zero point luminosity set such that the Sun (with nominal luminosity ) corresponds to absolute bolometric magnitude . Placing a radiation source (e.g. star) at the standard distance of 10 parsecs, it follows that the zero point of the apparent bolometric magnitude scale corresponds to irradiance . Using the IAU 2015 scale, the nominal total solar irradiance (\"solar constant\") measured at 1 astronomical unit () corresponds to an apparent bolometric magnitude of the Sun of .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 44790, 1963, 25856, 23335, 556970, 1748563, 345758, 1210, 26751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 126 ], [ 201, 221 ], [ 234, 243 ], [ 294, 301 ], [ 393, 403 ], [ 450, 466 ], [ 469, 483 ], [ 500, 517 ], [ 576, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following Resolution B2, the relation between a star's absolute bolometric magnitude and its luminosity is no longer directly tied to the Sun's (variable) luminosity:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the star's luminosity (bolometric luminosity) in watts", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [ 21347693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " is the zero point luminosity ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the bolometric magnitude of the star", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The new IAU absolute magnitude scale permanently disconnects the scale from the variable Sun. However, on this SI power scale, the nominal solar luminosity corresponds closely to , a value that was commonly adopted by astronomers before the 2015 IAU resolution.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The luminosity of the star in watts can be calculated as a function of its absolute bolometric magnitude as:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "using the variables as defined previously.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Stars and galaxies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For planets and asteroids, a definition of absolute magnitude that is more meaningful for non-stellar objects is used. The absolute magnitude, commonly called , is defined as the apparent magnitude that the object would have if it were one astronomical unit (AU) from both the Sun and the observer, and in conditions of ideal solar opposition (an arrangement that is impossible in practice). Because Solar System bodies are illuminated by the Sun, their brightness varies as a function of illumination conditions, described by the phase angle. This relationship is referred to as the phase curve. The absolute magnitude is the brightness at phase angle zero, an arrangement known as opposition, from a distance of one AU.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 22915, 791, 1962, 1210, 26751, 3169278, 29486469, 39604433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 16, 24 ], [ 179, 197 ], [ 240, 257 ], [ 277, 280 ], [ 531, 542 ], [ 584, 595 ], [ 683, 693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The absolute magnitude can be used to calculate the apparent magnitude of a body. For an object reflecting sunlight, and are connected by the relation", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 521267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where is the phase angle, the angle between the body-Sun and body–observer lines. is the phase integral (the integration of reflected light; a number in the 0 to 1 range).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 3169278, 5777979, 15532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ], [ 91, 105 ], [ 111, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the law of cosines, we have:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 19480890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Distances:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the distance between the body and the observer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the distance between the body and the Sun", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " is the distance between the observer and the Sun", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , a unit conversion factor, is the constant 1AU, the average distance between the Earth and the Sun", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 5390, 1210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 20 ], [ 46, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The value of depends on the properties of the reflecting surface, in particular on its roughness. In practice, different approximations are used based on the known or assumed properties of the surface. The surfaces of terrestrial planets are generally more difficult to model than those of gaseous planets, the latter of which have smoother visible surfaces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 2260140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Planetary bodies can be approximated reasonably well as ideal diffuse reflecting spheres. Let be the phase angle in degrees, then", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 41306, 27859, 1195294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 80 ], [ 81, 87 ], [ 117, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A full-phase diffuse sphere reflects two-thirds as much light as a diffuse flat disk of the same diameter. A quarter phase () has as much light as full phase ().", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By contrast, a diffuse disk reflector model is simply , which isn't realistic, but it does represent the opposition surge for rough surfaces that reflect more uniform light back at low phase angles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 22858502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The definition of the geometric albedo , a measure for the reflectivity of planetary surfaces, is based on the diffuse disk reflector model. The absolute magnitude , diameter (in kilometers) and geometric albedo of a body are related by", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 5139283, 50510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 38 ], [ 180, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Example: The Moon's absolute magnitude can be calculated from its diameter and geometric albedo :", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 19331, 5139283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ], [ 81, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "We have , ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At quarter phase, (according to the diffuse reflector model), this yields an apparent magnitude of The actual value is somewhat lower than that, The phase curve of the Moon is too complicated for the diffuse reflector model.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 20424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because Solar System bodies are never perfect diffuse reflectors, astronomers use different models to predict apparent magnitudes based on known or assumed properties of the body. For planets, approximations for the correction term in the formula for have been derived empirically, to match observations at different phase angles. The approximations recommended by the Astronomical Almanac are (with in degrees):", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 29486469, 7082456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 293, 331 ], [ 371, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Here is the effective inclination of Saturn's rings (their tilt relative to the observer), which as seen from Earth varies between 0° and 27° over the course of one Saturn orbit, and is a small correction term depending on Uranus' sub-Earth and sub-solar latitudes. is the Common Era year. Neptune's absolute magnitude is changing slowly due to seasonal effects as the planet moves along its 165-year orbit around the Sun, and the approximation above is only valid after the year 2000. For some circumstances, like for Venus, no observations are available, and the phase curve is unknown in those cases.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 977592, 6088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 52 ], [ 276, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Example: On 1 January 2019, Venus was from the Sun, and from Earth, at a phase angle of (near quarter phase). Under full-phase conditions, Venus would have been visible at Accounting for the high phase angle, the correction term above yields an actual apparent magnitude of This is close to the value of predicted by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 32745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Earth's albedo varies by a factor of 6, from 0.12 in the cloud-free case to 0.76 in the case of altostratus cloud. The absolute magnitude here corresponds to an albedo of 0.434. Due to the variability of the weather, Earth's apparent magnitude cannot be predicted as accurately as that of most other planets.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 39, 166735, 33978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 14 ], [ 96, 113 ], [ 208, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If an object has an atmosphere, it reflects light more or less isotropically in all directions, and its brightness can be modelled as a diffuse reflector. Bodies with no atmosphere, like asteroids or moons, tend to reflect light more strongly to the direction of the incident light, and their brightness increases rapidly as the phase angle approaches . This rapid brightening near opposition is called the opposition effect. Its strength depends on the physical properties of the body's surface, and hence it differs from asteroid to asteroid.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 22858502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 407, 424 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1985, the IAU adopted the semi-empirical -system, based on two parameters and called absolute magnitude and slope, to model the opposition effect for the ephemerides published by the Minor Planet Center.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 14878, 307139, 160332, 578869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 16 ], [ 29, 43 ], [ 159, 170 ], [ 188, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the phase integral is and", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " for or , , , and .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This relation is valid for phase angles , and works best when .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The slope parameter relates to the surge in brightness, typically , when the object is near opposition. It is known accurately only for a small number of asteroids, hence for most asteroids a value of is assumed. In rare cases, can be negative. An example is 101955 Bennu, with .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 21476821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 262, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, the -system was officially replaced by an improved system with three parameters , and , which produces more satisfactory results if the opposition effect is very small or restricted to very small phase angles. However, as of 2021, this -system has not been adopted by either the Minor Planet Center nor Jet Propulsion Laboratory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 16459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 313, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The apparent magnitude of asteroids varies as they rotate, on time scales of seconds to weeks depending on their rotation period, by up to or more. In addition, their absolute magnitude can vary with the viewing direction, depending on their axial tilt. In many cases, neither the rotation period nor the axial tilt are known, limiting the predictability. The models presented here do not capture those effects.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 66675, 743909, 91173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 57 ], [ 113, 128 ], [ 243, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The brightness of comets is given separately as total magnitude (, the brightness integrated over the entire visible extend of the coma) and nuclear magnitude (, the brightness of the core region alone). Both are different scales than the magnitude scale used for planets and asteroids, and can not be used for a size comparison with an asteroid's absolute magnitude .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 5962, 583392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 23 ], [ 131, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The activity of comets varies with their distance from the Sun. Their brightness can be approximated as", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "where are the total and nuclear apparent magnitudes of the comet, respectively, are its \"absolute\" total and nuclear magnitudes, and are the body-sun and body-observer distances, is the Astronomical Unit, and are the slope parameters characterising the comet's activity. For , this reduces to the formula for a purely reflecting body (showing no cometary activity).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 1210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, the lightcurve of comet C/2011 L4 (PANSTARRS) can be approximated by On the day of its perihelion passage, 10 March 2013, comet PANSTARRS was from the Sun and from Earth. The total apparent magnitude is predicted to have been at that time. The Minor Planet Center gives a value close to that, .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 32952475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The absolute magnitude of any given comet can vary dramatically. It can change as the comet becomes more or less active over time or if it undergoes an outburst. This makes it difficult to use the absolute magnitude for a size estimate. When comet 289P/Blanpain was discovered in 1819, its absolute magnitude was estimated as . It was subsequently lost and was only rediscovered in 2003. At that time, its absolute magnitude had decreased to , and it was realised that the 1819 apparition coincided with an outburst. 289P/Blanpain reached naked eye brightness (5–8 mag) in 1819, even though it is the comet with the smallest nucleus that has ever been physically characterised, and usually doesn't become brighter than 18 mag.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [ 25182928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For some comets that have been observed at heliocentric distances large enough to distinguish between light reflected from the coma, and light from the nucleus itself, an absolute magnitude analogous to that used for asteroids has been calculated, allowing to estimate the sizes of their nuclei.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Solar System bodies ()", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For a meteor, the standard distance for measurement of magnitudes is at an altitude of at the observer's zenith.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Meteors", "target_page_ids": [ 63793, 48909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 12 ], [ 106, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Araucaria Project", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 43033075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hertzsprung–Russell diagram – relates absolute magnitude or luminosity versus spectral color or surface temperature.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23364086, 44790, 20647050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 61, 71 ], [ 105, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jansky radio astronomer's preferred unit – linear in power/unit area", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 180090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of most luminous stars", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5825136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Photographic magnitude", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2797809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Surface brightness – the magnitude for extended objects", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1358431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zero point (photometry) – the typical calibration point for star flux", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 59497796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Reference zero-magnitude fluxes ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " International Astronomical Union", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Absolute Magnitude of a Star calculator", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Magnitude system", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " About stellar magnitudes", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Obtain the magnitude of any star – SIMBAD", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2307295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Converting magnitude of minor planets to diameter", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Another table for converting asteroid magnitude to estimated diameter", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Observational_astronomy" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Apollo 1, initially designated AS-204, was the first crewed mission of the Apollo program, the American undertaking to land the first man on the Moon. It was planned to launch on February 21, 1967, as the first low Earth orbital test of the Apollo command and service module. The mission never flew; a cabin fire during a launch rehearsal test at Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34 on January 27 killed all three crew members—Command Pilot Gus Grissom, Senior Pilot Ed White, and Pilot Roger B. Chaffee—and destroyed the command module (CM). The name Apollo 1, chosen by the crew, was made official by NASA in their honor after the fire.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1461, 47568, 718111, 5518088, 36592, 36594, 36595, 18426568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 89 ], [ 211, 226 ], [ 241, 274 ], [ 347, 395 ], [ 454, 465 ], [ 480, 488 ], [ 500, 516 ], [ 616, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Immediately after the fire, NASA convened an Accident Review Board to determine the cause of the fire, and both chambers of the United States Congress conducted their own committee inquiries to oversee NASA's investigation. The ignition source of the fire was determined to be electrical, and the fire spread rapidly due to combustible nylon material and the high-pressure pure oxygen cabin atmosphere. Rescue was prevented by the plug door hatch, which could not be opened against the internal pressure of the cabin. Because the rocket was unfueled, the test had not been considered hazardous, and emergency preparedness for it was poor.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31756, 8107490, 4340549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 150 ], [ 171, 190 ], [ 431, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Congressional investigation, Senator Walter Mondale publicly revealed a NASA internal document citing problems with prime Apollo contractor North American Aviation, which became known as the Phillips Report. This disclosure embarrassed NASA Administrator James E. Webb, who was unaware of the document's existence, and attracted controversy to the Apollo program. Despite congressional displeasure at NASA's lack of openness, both congressional committees ruled that the issues raised in the report had no bearing on the accident.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 42172, 221761, 32541155, 525237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 62 ], [ 151, 174 ], [ 202, 217 ], [ 266, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crewed Apollo flights were suspended for twenty months while the command module's hazards were addressed. However, the development and uncrewed testing of the lunar module (LM) and Saturn V rocket continued. The Saturn IB launch vehicle for Apollo1, SA-204, was used for the first LM test flight, Apollo 5. The first successful crewed Apollo mission was flown by Apollo1's backup crew on Apollo 7 in October 1968.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 191647, 20584918, 551435, 231435, 1773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 171 ], [ 181, 189 ], [ 212, 221 ], [ 297, 305 ], [ 388, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AS-204 was to be the first crewed test flight of the Apollo command and service module (CSM) to Earth orbit, launched on a Saturn IB rocket. AS-204 was to test launch operations, ground tracking and control facilities and the performance of the Apollo-Saturn launch assembly and would have lasted up to two weeks, depending on how the spacecraft performed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Apollo crewed test flight plans", "target_page_ids": [ 718111, 37910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 86 ], [ 335, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The CSM for this flight, number 012 built by North American Aviation (NAA), was a Block I version designed before the lunar orbit rendezvous landing strategy was chosen; therefore it lacked capability of docking with the lunar module. This was incorporated into the Block II CSM design, along with lessons learned in Block I. Block II would be test-flown with the LM when the latter was ready, and would be used on the Moon landing flights.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Apollo crewed test flight plans", "target_page_ids": [ 221761, 718111, 1274313, 1558077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 68 ], [ 82, 89 ], [ 118, 140 ], [ 419, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton selected the first Apollo crew in January 1966, with Grissom as Command Pilot, White as Senior Pilot, and rookie Donn F. Eisele as Pilot. But Eisele dislocated his shoulder twice aboard the KC135 weightlessness training aircraft, and had to undergo surgery on January 27. Slayton replaced him with Chaffee, and NASA announced the crew selection on March 21, 1966. James McDivitt, David Scott and Russell Schweickart were named as the backup crew.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Apollo crewed test flight plans", "target_page_ids": [ 331454, 598416, 517095, 622247, 327575, 333608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 47 ], [ 161, 175 ], [ 238, 276 ], [ 412, 426 ], [ 428, 439 ], [ 444, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On September 29, Walter Schirra, Eisele, and Walter Cunningham were named as the prime crew for a second Block I CSM flight, AS-205. NASA planned to follow this with an uncrewed test flight of the LM (AS-206), then the third crewed mission would be a dual flight designated AS-278 (or AS-207/208), in which AS-207 would launch the first crewed Block II CSM, which would then rendezvous and dock with the LM launched uncrewed on AS-208.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Apollo crewed test flight plans", "target_page_ids": [ 331463, 597336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 31 ], [ 45, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March, NASA was studying the possibility of flying the first Apollo mission as a joint space rendezvous with the final Project Gemini mission, Gemini 12 in November 1966. But by May, delays in making Apollo ready for flight just by itself, and the extra time needed to incorporate compatibility with the Gemini, made that impractical. This became moot when slippage in readiness of the AS-204 spacecraft caused the last-quarter 1966 target date to be missed, and the mission was rescheduled for February 21, 1967.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Apollo crewed test flight plans", "target_page_ids": [ 984081, 882736, 411616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 106 ], [ 122, 136 ], [ 146, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 1966, NASA announced the flight would carry a small television camera to broadcast live from the command module. The camera would also be used to allow flight controllers to monitor the spacecraft's instrument panel in flight. Television cameras were carried aboard all crewed Apollo missions.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Grissom's crew received approval in June 1966 to design a mission patch with the name Apollo1 (though the approval was subsequently withdrawn pending a final decision on the mission designation, which was not resolved until after the fire). The design's center depicts a command and service module flying over the southeastern United States with Florida (the launch point) prominent. The Moon is seen in the distance, symbolic of the eventual program goal. A yellow border carries the mission and astronaut names with another border set with stars and stripes, trimmed in gold. The insignia was designed by the crew, with the artwork done by North American Aviation employee Allen Stevens.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission background", "target_page_ids": [ 19331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 388, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo command and service module was much bigger and far more complex than any previously implemented spacecraft design. In October 1963, Joseph F. Shea was named Apollo Spacecraft Program Office (ASPO) manager, responsible for managing the design and construction of both the CSM and the LM.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission background", "target_page_ids": [ 6665850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a spacecraft review meeting held with Shea on August 19, 1966 (a week before delivery), the crew expressed concern about the amount of flammable material (mainly nylon netting and Velcro) in the cabin, which both astronauts and technicians found convenient for holding tools and equipment in place. Although Shea gave the spacecraft a passing grade, after the meeting they gave him a crew portrait they had posed with heads bowed and hands clasped in prayer, with the inscription:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission background", "target_page_ids": [ 42910885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shea gave his staff orders to tell North American to remove the flammables from the cabin, but did not supervise the issue personally.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "North American shipped spacecraft CM-012 to Kennedy Space Center on August 26, 1966, under a conditional Certificate of Flight Worthiness: 113 significant incomplete planned engineering changes had to be completed at KSC. But that was not all; an additional 623 engineering change orders were made and completed after delivery. Grissom became so frustrated with the inability of the training simulator engineers to keep up with the spacecraft changes, that he took a lemon from a tree by his house and hung it on the simulator.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The command and service modules were mated in the KSC altitude chamber in September, and combined system testing was performed. Altitude testing was performed first uncrewed, then with both the prime and backup crews, from October 10 through December 30. During this testing, the environmental control unit in the command module was found to have a design flaw, and was sent back to the manufacturer for design changes and rework. The returned ECU then leaked water/glycol coolant, and had to be returned a second time. Also during this time, a propellant tank in service module 017 had ruptured during testing at NAA, prompting the separation of the modules and removal from the chamber so the service module could be tested for signs of the tank problem. These tests were negative.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In December, the second Block I flight AS-205 was canceled as unnecessary; and Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham were reassigned as the backup crew for Apollo1. McDivitt's crew was now promoted to prime crew of the Block II / LM mission, re-designated AS-258 because the AS-205 launch vehicle would be used in place of AS-207. A third crewed mission was planned to launch the CSM and LM together on a SaturnV (AS-503) to an elliptical medium Earth orbit (MEO), to be crewed by Frank Borman, Michael Collins and William Anders. McDivitt, Scott and Schweickart had started their training for AS-258 in CM-101 at the NAA plant in Downey, California, when the Apollo1 accident occurred.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission background", "target_page_ids": [ 6696241, 80897, 97666, 82925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 432, 450 ], [ 474, 486 ], [ 488, 503 ], [ 508, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once all outstanding CSM-012 hardware problems were fixed, the reassembled spacecraft finally completed a successful altitude chamber test with Schirra's backup crew on December 30. According to the final report of the accident investigation board, \"At the post-test debriefing the backup flight crew expressed their satisfaction with the condition and performance of the spacecraft.\" This would appear to contradict the account given in the 1994 book The Perilous Voyage of Apollo13 by Jeffrey Kluger and astronaut James Lovell, that \"When the trio climbed out of the ship,... Schirra made it clear that he was not pleased with what he had seen,\" and that he later warned Grissom and Shea that \"there's nothing wrong with this ship that I can point to, but it just makes me uncomfortable. Something about it just doesn't ring right,\" and that Grissom should get out at the first sign of trouble.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission background", "target_page_ids": [ 3204489, 6160550, 344336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 452, 484 ], [ 488, 502 ], [ 517, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the successful altitude tests, the spacecraft was removed from the altitude chamber on January 3, 1967, and mated to its Saturn IB launch vehicle on pad 34 on January 6.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission background", "target_page_ids": [ 5518088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grissom said in a February 1963 interview that NASA could not eliminate risk despite precautions:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"I suppose that someday we are going to have a failure. In every other business there are failures, and they are bound to happen sooner or later\", he added. Grissom was asked about the fear of potential catastrophe in a December 1966 interview:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission background", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The launch simulation on January 27, 1967, on pad 34, was a \"plugs-out\" test to determine whether the spacecraft would operate nominally on (simulated) internal power while detached from all cables and umbilicals. Passing this test was essential to making the February 21 launch date. The test was considered non-hazardous because neither the launch vehicle nor the spacecraft was loaded with fuel or cryogenics, and all pyrotechnic systems (explosive bolts) were disabled.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [ 7176, 3881557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 401, 411 ], [ 421, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At 1:00pm EST (1800 GMT) on January 27, first Grissom, then Chaffee, and White entered the command module fully pressure-suited, and were strapped into their seats and hooked up to the spacecraft's oxygen and communication systems. Grissom immediately noticed a strange odor in the air circulating through his suit which he compared to \"sour buttermilk\", and the simulated countdown was put on hold at 1:20pm, while air samples were taken. No cause of the odor could be found, and the countdown was resumed at 2:42pm. The accident investigation found this odor not to be related to the fire.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [ 496028, 12701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 13 ], [ 20, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three minutes after the count was resumed, the hatch installation was started. The hatch consisted of three parts: a removable inner hatch, which stayed inside the cabin; a hinged outer hatch, which was part of the spacecraft's heat shield; and an outer hatch cover, which was part of the boost protective cover enveloping the entire command module to protect it from aerodynamic heating during launch, and from launch escape rocket exhaust in the event of a launch abort. The boost hatch cover was partially, but not fully, latched in place because the flexible boost protective cover was slightly distorted by some cabling run under it to provide the simulated internal power. (The spacecraft's fuel cell reactants were not loaded for this test.) After the hatches were sealed, the air in the cabin was replaced with pure oxygen at , higher than atmospheric pressure.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Movement by the astronauts was detected by the spacecraft's inertial measurement unit and the astronauts' biomedical sensors, and also indicated by increases in oxygen spacesuit flow, and sounds from Grissom's stuck-open microphone. There was no evidence to identify the movement, or whether it was related to the fire. The stuck microphone was part of a problem with the communications loop connecting the crew, the Operations and Checkout Building, and the Complex 34 blockhouse control room. The poor communications led Grissom to remark: \"How are we going to get to the Moon if we can't talk between two or three buildings?\" The simulated countdown was put on hold again at 5:40pm while attempts were made to troubleshoot the communications problem. All countdown functions up to the simulated internal power transfer had been successfully completed by 6:20pm, but at 6:30 the count remained on hold at T minus 10 minutes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [ 30873515, 7243567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 85 ], [ 417, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The crew members were using the time to run through their checklist again, when a momentary increase in AC Bus2 voltage occurred. Nine seconds later (at 6:31:04.7), one of the astronauts (some listeners and laboratory analysis indicate Grissom) exclaimed \"Hey!\", \"Fire!\", or \"Flame!\"; this was followed by two seconds of scuffling sounds through Grissom's open microphone. This was immediately followed at 6:31:06.2 (23:31:06.2 GMT) by someone (believed by most listeners, and supported by laboratory analysis, to be Chaffee) saying, \"[I've, or We've] got a fire in the cockpit.\" After 6.8 seconds of silence, a second, badly garbled transmission was heard by various listeners as:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"They're fighting a bad fire—Let's get out... Open 'er up\",", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"We've got a bad fire—Let's get out... We're burning up\", or", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"I'm reporting a bad fire... I'm getting out...\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The transmission lasted 5.0 seconds and ended with a cry of pain.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some blockhouse witnesses said that they saw White on the television monitors, reaching for the inner hatch release handle as flames in the cabin spread from left to right.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The intensity of the fire fed by pure oxygen caused the pressure to rise to , which ruptured the command module's inner wall at 6:31:19 (23:31:19 GMT, initial phase of the fire). Flames and gases then rushed outside the command module through open access panels to two levels of the pad service structure. Intense heat, dense smoke, and ineffective gas masks designed for toxic fumes rather than heavy smoke hampered the ground crew's attempts to rescue the men. There were fears the command module had exploded, or soon would, and that the fire might ignite the solid fuel rocket in the launch escape tower above the command module, which would have likely killed nearby ground personnel, and possibly have destroyed the pad.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As the pressure was released by the cabin rupture, the convective rush of air caused the flames to spread across the cabin, beginning the second phase. The third phase began when most of the oxygen was consumed and was replaced with atmospheric air, essentially quenching the fire, but causing high concentrations of carbon monoxide and heavy smoke to fill the cabin, and large amounts of soot to be deposited on surfaces as they cooled.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It took five minutes for the pad workers to open all three hatch layers, and they could not drop the inner hatch to the cabin floor as intended, so they pushed it out of the way to one side. Although the cabin lights remained lit, they were at first unable to find the astronauts through the dense smoke. As the smoke cleared, they found the bodies, but were not able to remove them. The fire had partly melted Grissom's and White's nylon space suits and the hoses connecting them to the life support system. Grissom had removed his restraints and was lying on the floor of the spacecraft. White's restraints were burned through, and he was found lying sideways just below the hatch. It was determined that he had tried to open the hatch per the emergency procedure, but was not able to do so against the internal pressure. Chaffee was found strapped into his right-hand seat, as procedure called for him to maintain communication until White opened the hatch. Because of the large strands of melted nylon fusing the astronauts to the cabin interior, removing the bodies took nearly 90 minutes.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Deke Slayton was possibly the first NASA official to examine the spacecraft interior. His testimony contradicted the official report concerning the position of Grissom's body. Slayton said of Grissom and White's bodies, \"It is very difficult for me to determine the exact relationships of these two bodies. They were sort of jumbled together, and I couldn't really tell which head even belonged to which body at that point. I guess the only thing that was real obvious is that both bodies were at the lower edge of the hatch. They were not in the seats. They were almost completely clear of the seat areas.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Accident", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As a result of the in-flight failure of the Gemini 8 mission on March 17, 1966, NASA Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans wrote and implemented Management Instruction 8621.1 on April 14, 1966, defining Mission Failure Investigation Policy And Procedures. This modified NASA's existing accident procedures, based on military aircraft accident investigation, by giving the Deputy Administrator the option of performing independent investigations of major failures, beyond those for which the various Program Office officials were normally responsible. It declared, \"It is NASA policy to investigate and document the causes of all major mission failures which occur in the conduct of its space and aeronautical activities and to take appropriate corrective actions as a result of the findings and recommendations.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [ 364888, 8643117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 52 ], [ 106, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Immediately after the Apollo1 fire, to avoid appearance of a conflict of interest, NASA Administrator James E. Webb asked President Lyndon B. Johnson to allow NASA to handle the investigation according to its established procedure, promising to be truthful in assessing blame, and to keep the appropriate leaders of Congress informed. Seamans then directed establishment of the Apollo 204 Review Board chaired by Langley Research Center director Floyd L. Thompson, which included astronaut Frank Borman, spacecraft designer Maxime Faget, and six others. On February 1, Cornell University professor Frank A. Long left the board, and was replaced by Robert W. Van Dolah, of the U.S. Bureau of Mines. The next day, North American's chief engineer for Apollo, George Jeffs, also left.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [ 525237, 24113, 54533, 337034, 80897, 1057884, 1704104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 115 ], [ 122, 131 ], [ 132, 149 ], [ 413, 436 ], [ 490, 502 ], [ 524, 536 ], [ 676, 696 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Seamans immediately ordered all Apollo1 hardware and software impounded, to be released only under control of the board. After thorough stereo photographic documentation of the CM-012 interior, the board ordered its disassembly using procedures tested by disassembling the identical CM-014 and conducted a thorough investigation of every part. The board also reviewed the astronauts' autopsy results and interviewed witnesses. Seamans sent Webb weekly status reports of the investigation's progress, and the board issued its final report on April 5, 1967.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [ 201460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Board, Grissom suffered severe third-degree burns on over one-third of his body and his spacesuit was mostly destroyed. White suffered third-degree burns on almost half of his body and a quarter of his spacesuit had melted away. Chaffee suffered third-degree burns over almost a quarter of his body and a small portion of his spacesuit was damaged. The autopsy report determined that the primary cause of death for all three astronauts was cardiac arrest caused by high concentrations of carbon monoxide. Burns suffered by the crew were not believed to be major factors, and it was concluded that most of them had occurred postmortem. Asphyxiation occurred after the fire melted the astronauts' suits and oxygen tubes, exposing them to the lethal atmosphere of the cabin.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [ 233082, 60575, 6136, 98534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 66 ], [ 457, 471 ], [ 505, 520 ], [ 652, 664 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The review board identified several major factors which combined to cause the fire and the astronauts' deaths:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An ignition source most probably related to \"vulnerable wiring carrying spacecraft power\" and \"vulnerable plumbing carrying a combustible and corrosive coolant\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A pure oxygen atmosphere at higher than atmospheric pressure", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A cabin sealed with a hatch cover which could not be quickly removed at high pressure", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " An extensive distribution of combustible materials in the cabin", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Inadequate emergency preparedness (rescue or medical assistance, and crew escape)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The review board determined that the electrical power momentarily failed at 23:30:55 GMT, and found evidence of several electric arcs in the interior equipment. They were unable to conclusively identify a single ignition source. They determined that the fire most likely started near the floor in the lower left section of the cabin, close to the Environmental Control Unit. It spread from the left wall of the cabin to the right, with the floor being affected only briefly.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [ 1239265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The board noted that a silver-plated copper wire, running through an environmental control unit near the center couch, had become stripped of its Teflon insulation and abraded by repeated opening and closing of a small access door.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [ 30791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 146, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This weak point in the wiring also ran near a junction in an ethylene glycol/water cooling line that had been prone to leaks. The electrolysis of ethylene glycol solution with the silver anode was discovered at the Manned Spacecraft Center on May 29, 1967, to be a hazard capable of causing a violent exothermic reaction, igniting the ethylene glycol mixture in the Command Module's pure oxygen atmosphere. Experiments at the Illinois Institute of Technology confirmed the hazard existed for silver-plated wires, but not for copper-only or nickel-plated copper. In July, ASPO directed both North American and Grumman to ensure no silver or silver-coated electrical contacts existed in the vicinity of possible glycol spills in the Apollo spacecraft.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [ 143129, 38257, 2392, 177571, 536063, 73299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 76 ], [ 130, 142 ], [ 187, 192 ], [ 215, 239 ], [ 301, 320 ], [ 426, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The plugs-out test had been run to simulate the launch procedure, with the cabin pressurized with pure oxygen at the nominal launch level of , above standard sea level atmospheric pressure. This is more than five times the partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere, and provides an environment in which materials not normally considered flammable will be highly flammable and burst into flame.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The high-pressure oxygen atmosphere was similar to that which had been used successfully in the Mercury and Gemini programs. The pressure before launch was deliberately greater than ambient in order to drive out the nitrogen-containing air and replace it with pure oxygen, and also to seal the plug door hatch cover. During the launch, the pressure would have been gradually reduced to the in-flight level of , providing sufficient oxygen for the astronauts to breathe while reducing the fire risk. The Apollo1 crew had successfully tested this procedure with their spacecraft in the Operations and Checkout Building altitude (vacuum) chamber on October 18 and 19, 1966, and the backup crew of Schirra, Eisele and Cunningham had repeated it on December 30. The investigation board noted that, during these tests, the command module had been fully pressurized with pure oxygen four times, for a total of six hours and fifteen minutes, two and a half hours longer than it had been during the plugs-out test.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [ 19812, 4340549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 103 ], [ 294, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The review board cited \"many types and classes of combustible material\" close to ignition sources. The NASA crew systems department had installed of Velcro throughout the spacecraft, almost like carpeting. This Velcro was found to be flammable in a high-pressure 100% oxygen environment. Astronaut Buzz Aldrin states in his book Men From Earth that the flammable material had been removed per the crew's August 19 complaints and Joseph Shea's order, but was replaced before the August 26 delivery to Cape Kennedy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [ 42910885, 65777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 156 ], [ 299, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The inner hatch cover used a plug door design, sealed by higher pressure inside the cabin than outside. The normal pressure level used for launch ( above ambient) created sufficient force to prevent removing the cover until the excess pressure was vented. Emergency procedure called for Grissom to open the cabin vent valve first, allowing White to remove the cover, but Grissom was prevented from doing this because the valve was located to the left, behind the initial wall of flames. Also, while the system could easily vent the normal pressure, its flow capacity was utterly incapable of handling the rapid increase to caused by the intense heat of the fire.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [ 4340549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "North American had originally suggested the hatch open outward and use explosive bolts to blow the hatch in case of emergency, as had been done in Project Mercury. NASA did not agree, arguing the hatch could accidentally open, as it had on Grissom's Liberty Bell 7 flight, so the Manned Spacecraft Center designers rejected the explosive design in favor of a mechanically operated one for the Gemini and Apollo programs. Before the fire, the Apollo astronauts had recommended changing the design to an outward-opening hatch, and this was already slated for inclusion in the Block II command module design. According to Donald K. Slayton's testimony before the House investigation of the accident, this was based on ease of exit for spacewalks and at the end of flight, rather than for emergency exit.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [ 3881557, 19812, 213236, 177571, 331454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 85 ], [ 147, 162 ], [ 250, 264 ], [ 280, 304 ], [ 619, 636 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The board noted that the test planners had failed to identify the test as hazardous; the emergency equipment (such as gas masks) were inadequate to handle this type of fire; that fire, rescue, and medical teams were not in attendance; and that the spacecraft work and access areas contained many hindrances to emergency response such as steps, sliding doors, and sharp turns.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Investigation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When designing the Mercury spacecraft, NASA had considered using a nitrogen/oxygen mixture to reduce the fire risk near launch, but rejected it based on a number of considerations. First, a pure oxygen atmosphere is comfortably breathable by humans at , greatly reducing the pressure load on the spacecraft in the vacuum of space. Second, nitrogen used with the in-flight pressure reduction carried the risk of decompression sickness (known as \"the bends\"). But the decision to eliminate the use of any gas but oxygen was crystalized when a serious accident occurred on April 21, 1960, in which McDonnell Aircraft test pilot G. B. North passed out and was seriously injured when testing a Mercury cabin / spacesuit atmosphere system in a vacuum chamber. The problem was found to be nitrogen-rich (oxygen-poor) air leaking from the cabin into his spacesuit feed. North American Aviation had suggested using an oxygen/nitrogen mixture for Apollo, but NASA overruled this. The pure oxygen design was judged to be safer, less complicated, and lighter in weight. In his monograph Project Apollo: The Tough Decisions, Deputy Administrator Seamans wrote that NASA's worst mistake in engineering judgment was not running a fire test on the command module before the plugs-out test. In the first episode of the 2009 BBC documentary series NASA: Triumph and Tragedy, Jim McDivitt said that NASA had no idea how a 100% oxygen atmosphere would influence burning. Similar remarks by other astronauts were expressed in the 2007 documentary film In the Shadow of the Moon.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Choice of pure oxygen atmosphere", "target_page_ids": [ 61048, 307173, 19344654, 622247, 10543866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 411, 433 ], [ 595, 613 ], [ 1307, 1310 ], [ 1357, 1369 ], [ 1531, 1556 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several fires in high-oxygen test environments had occurred before the Apollo fire. In 1962, USAF Colonel B. Dean Smith was conducting a test of the Gemini space suit with a colleague in a pure oxygen chamber at Brooks Air Force Base in San Antonio, Texas, when a fire broke out, destroying the chamber. Smith and his partner narrowly escaped. On November 17, 1962, a fire broke out in a chamber at the Navy's Air Crew Equipment Laboratory during a pure oxygen test. The fire was started because a faulty ground wire arced onto nearby insulation. After attempts to extinguish the fire by smothering it, the crew escaped the chamber with minor burns across large parts of their bodies. On February 16, 1965, United States Navy Divers Fred Jackson and John Youmans were killed in a decompression chamber fire at the Experimental Diving Unit in Washington, D.C., shortly after additional oxygen was added to the chamber's atmospheric mix.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Choice of pure oxygen atmosphere", "target_page_ids": [ 32090, 3929095, 1875937, 53848, 3254204, 2388344, 19267843, 108956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 97 ], [ 149, 166 ], [ 212, 233 ], [ 237, 248 ], [ 707, 732 ], [ 780, 801 ], [ 814, 838 ], [ 842, 858 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to fires with personnel present, the Apollo Environmental Control System experienced several accidents from 1964 to 1966 due to various hardware malfunctions. Notable is the April 28, 1966 fire, as the subsequent investigation found that several new measures should be taken to avoid fires, including improved selection of materials and that ESC and Command Module circuits have a potential for arcing or short circuits.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Choice of pure oxygen atmosphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other oxygen fire occurrences are documented in reports archived in the National Air and Space Museum, such as:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Choice of pure oxygen atmosphere", "target_page_ids": [ 221550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Selection of Space Cabin Atmospheres. Part II: Fire and Blast Hazaards in Space Cabins. (Emanuel M. Roth; Dept of Aeronautics Medicine and Bioastronautics, Lovelace Foundation for Medical Education and Research. c. 1964–1966)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Choice of pure oxygen atmosphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Fire Prevention in Manned Spacecraft and Test Chamber Oxygen Atmospheres\". (Manned Spacecraft Center. NASA General Working Paper 10 063. October 10, 1966)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Choice of pure oxygen atmosphere", "target_page_ids": [ 177571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Incidents had also occurred in the Soviet space program, but due to the Soviet government's policy of secrecy, these were not disclosed until well after the Apollo1 fire. Cosmonaut Valentin Bondarenko died on March 23, 1961, from burns sustained in a fire while participating in a 15-day endurance experiment in a high-oxygen isolation chamber, less than three weeks before the first Vostok crewed space flight; this was disclosed on January 28, 1986.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Choice of pure oxygen atmosphere", "target_page_ids": [ 723059, 664, 1365748, 393892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 55 ], [ 171, 180 ], [ 181, 200 ], [ 384, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Voskhod 2 mission in March 1965, cosmonauts Pavel Belyayev and Alexei Leonov could not completely seal the spacecraft hatch after Leonov's historic first walk in space. The spacecraft's environmental control system responded to the leaking air by adding more oxygen to the cabin, causing the concentration level to rise as high as 45%. The crew and ground controllers worried about the possibility of fire, remembering Bondarenko's death four years earlier.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Choice of pure oxygen atmosphere", "target_page_ids": [ 195223, 195605, 195645, 9792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ], [ 55, 69 ], [ 74, 87 ], [ 165, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 31, 1967, four days after the Apollo1 fire, United States Air Force airmen William F. Bartley Jr. and Richard G. Harmon were killed in a flash fire while tending laboratory rabbits in the Two Man Space Environment Simulator, a pure oxygen chamber at the School of Aerospace Medicine at Brooks Air Force Base. Like the Apollo1 fire, the School fire was caused by an electrical spark in a pure oxygen environment. The widows of the Apollo1 crew sent condolence letters to Bartley and Harmon's families.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Choice of pure oxygen atmosphere", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Committees in both houses of the United States Congress with oversight of the space program soon launched investigations, including the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences, chaired by Senator Clinton P. Anderson. Seamans, Webb, Manned Space Flight Administrator Dr. George E. Mueller, and Apollo Program Director Maj Gen Samuel C. Phillips were called to testify before Anderson's committee.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Political fallout", "target_page_ids": [ 31756, 854745, 555450, 8617105, 11080919, 11090485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 55 ], [ 136, 187 ], [ 208, 227 ], [ 282, 299 ], [ 329, 336 ], [ 337, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the February 27 hearing, Senator Walter F. Mondale asked Webb if he knew of a report of extraordinary problems with the performance of North American Aviation on the Apollo contract. Webb replied he did not, and deferred to his subordinates on the witness panel. Mueller and Phillips responded they too were unaware of any such \"report\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Political fallout", "target_page_ids": [ 24909346, 42172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 35 ], [ 36, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, in late 1965, just over a year before the accident, Phillips had headed a \"tiger team\" investigating the causes of inadequate quality, schedule delays, and cost overruns in both the Apollo CSM and the Saturn V second stage (for which North American was also prime contractor). He gave an oral presentation (with transparencies) of his team's findings to Mueller and Seamans, and also presented them in a memo to North American president John L. Atwood, to which Mueller appended his own strongly worded memo to Atwood.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Political fallout", "target_page_ids": [ 347113, 2237465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 94 ], [ 446, 460 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During Mondale's 1967 questioning about what was to become known as the \"Phillips Report\", Seamans was afraid Mondale might actually have seen a hard copy of Phillips' presentation, and responded that contractors have occasionally been subjected to on-site progress reviews; perhaps this was what Mondale's information referred to. Mondale continued to refer to \"the Report\" despite Phillips' refusal to characterize it as such, and, angered by what he perceived as Webb's deception and concealment of important program problems from Congress, he questioned NASA's selection of North American as prime contractor. Seamans later wrote that Webb roundly chastised him in the cab ride leaving the hearing, for volunteering information which led to the disclosure of Phillips' memo.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Political fallout", "target_page_ids": [ 32541155 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On May 11, Webb issued a statement defending NASA's November 1961 selection of North American as the prime contractor for Apollo. This was followed on June9 by Seamans filing a seven-page memorandum documenting the selection process. Webb eventually provided a controlled copy of Phillips' memo to Congress. The Senate committee noted in its final report NASA's testimony that \"the findings of the [Phillips] task force had no effect on the accident, did not lead to the accident, and were not related to the accident\", but stated in its recommendations:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Political fallout", "target_page_ids": [ 71608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Freshman Senators Edward W. Brooke III and Charles H. Percy jointly wrote an Additional Views section appended to the committee report, chastising NASA more strongly than Anderson for not having disclosed the Phillips review to Congress. Mondale wrote his own, even more strongly worded Additional View, accusing NASA of \"evasiveness,... lack of candor,... patronizing attitude toward Congress... refusal to respond fully and forthrightly to legitimate Congressional inquiries, and... solicitous concern for corporate sensitivities at a time of national tragedy\".", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Political fallout", "target_page_ids": [ 251608, 495489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 38 ], [ 43, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The potential political threat to Apollo blew over, due in large part to the support of President Lyndon B. Johnson, who at the time still wielded a measure of influence with the Congress from his own Senatorial experience. He was a staunch supporter of NASA since its inception, had even recommended the Moon program to President John F. Kennedy in 1961, and was skilled at portraying it as part of Kennedy's legacy.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Political fallout", "target_page_ids": [ 5119376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 331, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Relations between NASA and North American deteriorated over assignment of blame. North American argued unsuccessfully it was not responsible for the fatal error in spacecraft atmosphere design. Finally, Webb contacted Atwood, and demanded either he or Chief Engineer Harrison A. Storms resign. Atwood elected to fire Storms.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Political fallout", "target_page_ids": [ 10963981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 267, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the NASA side, Joseph Shea resorted to barbiturates and alcohol in order to help him cope. NASA administrator James Webb became increasingly worried about Shea's mental state. Shea was asked to take an extended voluntary leave of absence, but Shea refused, threatening to resign rather than take leave. As a compromise, he agreed to meet with a psychiatrist and to abide by an independent assessment of his psychological fitness. This approach to remove Shea from his position was also unsuccessful. Finally, six months after the fire, Shea's superiors reassigned him to NASA headquarters in Washington, D.C. Shea felt that his new post was a \"non-job,\" and left after only two months.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Political fallout", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gene Kranz called a meeting of his staff in Mission Control three days after the accident, delivering a speech which has subsequently become one of NASA's principles. Speaking of the errors and overall attitude surrounding the Apollo program before the accident, he said: \"We were too 'gung-ho' about the schedule and we blocked out all of the problems we saw each day in our work. Every element of the program was in trouble and so were we.\" He reminded the team of the perils and mercilessness of their endeavor, and stated the new requirement that every member of every team in mission control be \"tough and competent\", requiring nothing less than perfection throughout NASA's programs. In 2003, following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster, NASA administrator Sean O'Keefe quoted Kranz's speech, applying it to the Columbia crew.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Program recovery", "target_page_ids": [ 407054, 1461, 370656, 177541, 489179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 227, 241 ], [ 286, 293 ], [ 713, 744 ], [ 765, 777 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the fire, the Apollo program was grounded for review and redesign. The command module was found to be extremely hazardous and, in some instances, carelessly assembled (for example, a misplaced wrench socket was found in the cabin).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Program recovery", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It was decided that remaining Block I spacecraft would be used only for uncrewed Saturn V test flights. All crewed missions would use the Block II spacecraft, to which many command module design changes were made:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Program recovery", "target_page_ids": [ 718111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The cabin atmosphere at launch was adjusted to 60% oxygen and 40% nitrogen at sea-level pressure: . During ascent the cabin rapidly vented down to , releasing approximately 2/3 of the gas originally present at launch. The vent then closed and the environmental control system maintained a nominal cabin pressure of as the spacecraft continued into vacuum. The cabin was then very slowly purged (vented to space and simultaneously replaced with 100% oxygen), so the nitrogen concentration gradually fell off to zero over the next day. Although the new cabin launch atmosphere was significantly safer than 100% oxygen, it still contained almost three times the amount of oxygen present in ordinary sea level air (20.9% oxygen). This was necessary to ensure a sufficient partial pressure of oxygen when the astronauts removed their helmets after reaching orbit. (60% of five psi is three psi, compared to 60% of which is at launch, and 20.9% of which is in sea-level air.)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Program recovery", "target_page_ids": [ 43972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 770, 786 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The environment within the astronauts' pressure suits was not changed. Because of the rapid drop in cabin (and suit) pressures during ascent, decompression sickness was likely unless the nitrogen had been purged from the astronauts' tissues before launch. They would still breathe pure oxygen, starting several hours before launch, until they removed their helmets on orbit. Avoiding the \"bends\" was considered worth the residual risk of an oxygen-accelerated fire within a suit.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Program recovery", "target_page_ids": [ 61048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nylon used in the Block I suits was replaced in the Block II suits with Beta cloth, a non-flammable, highly melt-resistant fabric woven from fiberglass and coated with Teflon.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Program recovery", "target_page_ids": [ 3929095, 2439384, 6939459, 157606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 32 ], [ 53, 67 ], [ 73, 83 ], [ 142, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Block II had already been planned to use a completely redesigned hatch which opened outward, and could be opened in less than five seconds. Concerns of accidental opening were addressed by using a cartridge of pressurized nitrogen to drive the release mechanism in an emergency, instead of the explosive bolts used on Project Mercury.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Program recovery", "target_page_ids": [ 3881557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 295, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flammable materials in the cabin were replaced with self-extinguishing versions.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Program recovery", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Plumbing and wiring were covered with protective insulation. Aluminum tubing was replaced with stainless steel tubing that used brazed joints when possible.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Program recovery", "target_page_ids": [ 67043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thorough protocols were implemented for documenting spacecraft construction and maintenance.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Program recovery", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The astronauts' widows asked that Apollo 1 be reserved for the flight their husbands never made, and on April 24, 1967, Mueller, as Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, announced this change officially: AS-204 would be recorded as Apollo1, \"first manned Apollo Saturn flight – failed on ground test\". Even though three uncrewed Apollo missions (AS-201, AS-202, and AS-203) had previously occurred, only AS-201 and AS-202 carried spacecraft. Therefore, the next mission, the first uncrewed Saturn V test flight (AS-501) would be designated Apollo4, with all subsequent flights numbered sequentially in the order flown. The first three flights would not be renumbered, and the names Apollo2 and Apollo3 would officially go unused. Mueller considered AS-201 and AS-202, the first and second flights of the Apollo Block I CSM, as Apollo2 and3 respectively.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Program recovery", "target_page_ids": [ 379368, 384070, 380502, 231432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 357, 363 ], [ 365, 371 ], [ 377, 383 ], [ 551, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The crewed flight hiatus allowed work to catch up on the Saturn V and lunar module, which were encountering their own delays. Apollo4 flew in November 1967. Apollo1's (AS-204) Saturn IB rocket was taken down from Launch Complex 34, later reassembled at Launch complex 37B and used to launch Apollo5, an uncrewed Earth orbital test flight of the first lunar module, LM-1, in January 1968. A second uncrewed Saturn V AS-502 flew as Apollo6 in April 1968, and Grissom's backup crew of Wally Schirra, Don Eisele, and Walter Cunningham, finally flew the orbital test mission as Apollo7 (AS-205), in a Block II CSM in October 1968.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Program recovery", "target_page_ids": [ 5548975, 231435, 231436, 331463, 598416, 597336, 1773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 253, 271 ], [ 291, 298 ], [ 430, 437 ], [ 482, 495 ], [ 497, 507 ], [ 513, 530 ], [ 573, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gus Grissom and Roger Chaffee were buried at Arlington National Cemetery. Ed White was buried at West Point Cemetery on the grounds of the United States Military Academy in West Point, New York. NASA officials attempted to pressure Pat White, Ed White's widow, into allowing her husband also to be buried at Arlington, against what she knew to be his wishes; their efforts were foiled by astronaut Frank Borman. The names of the Apollo 1 crew are among those of multiple astronauts who have died in the line of duty, listed on the Space Mirror Memorial at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Merritt Island, Florida. President Jimmy Carter awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor posthumously to Grissom on October 1, 1978. President Bill Clinton awarded it to White and Chaffee on December 17, 1997.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 83390, 3159888, 32173, 126966, 80897, 1517935, 2497224, 108999, 15992, 501468, 3356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 72 ], [ 97, 116 ], [ 139, 169 ], [ 173, 193 ], [ 398, 410 ], [ 531, 552 ], [ 560, 596 ], [ 600, 623 ], [ 635, 647 ], [ 660, 694 ], [ 749, 761 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An Apollo 1 mission patch was left on the Moon's surface after the first crewed lunar landing by Apollo11 crew members Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin. The Apollo15 mission left on the surface of the Moon a tiny memorial statue, Fallen Astronaut, along with a plaque containing the names of the Apollo1 astronauts, among others including Soviet cosmonauts, who perished in the pursuit of human space flight.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 662, 21247, 1969, 3931064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 105 ], [ 119, 133 ], [ 155, 163 ], [ 228, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Apollo 1 fire, Launch Complex 34 was subsequently used only for the launch of Apollo7 and later dismantled down to the concrete launch pedestal, which remains at the site () along with a few other concrete and steel-reinforced structures. The pedestal bears two plaques commemorating the crew. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 5518088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"Ad Astra per aspera\" plaque for \"the crew of Apollo 1\" is seen in Armageddon (1998 film). ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 14347104, 52390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 24 ], [ 71, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The \"Dedicated to the living memory of the crew of the Apollo 1\" plaque is quoted at the end of Wayne Hale's Requiem for the NASA Space Shuttle program. Each year the families of the Apollo1 crew are invited to the site for a memorial, and the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex includes the site during the tour of the historic Cape Canaveral launch sites.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 11895478, 59826, 38458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 106 ], [ 109, 116 ], [ 130, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2005, three granite benches, built by a college classmate of one of the astronauts, were installed at the site on the southern edge of the launch pad. Each bears the name of one of the astronauts and his military service insignia.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo astronauts frequently aligned their spacecraft inertial navigation platforms and determined their positions relative to the Earth and Moon by sighting sets of stars with optical instruments. As a practical joke, the Apollo1 crew named three of the stars in the Apollo catalog after themselves and introduced them into NASA documentation. Gamma Cassiopeiae became Navi – Ivan (Gus Grissom's middle name) spelled backwards. Iota Ursae Majoris became Dnoces – \"Second\" spelled backwards, for Edward H. White II. And Gamma Velorum became Regor – Roger (Chaffee) spelled backwards. These names quickly stuck after the Apollo1 accident and were regularly used by later Apollo crews.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 24050869, 3117240, 2710431, 1522333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 74 ], [ 346, 363 ], [ 430, 448 ], [ 521, 534 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Craters on the Moon and hills on Mars are named after the three Apollo1 astronauts.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 4390861, 1401635, 14640471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 25, 30 ], [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Three public schools in Huntsville, Alabama (home of George C. Marshall Space Flight Center and the U.S. Space & Rocket Center): Virgil I. Grissom High School, Ed White Middle School, and the Chaffee Elementary School.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 104854, 113053, 988975, 3659458, 23311862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 44 ], [ 54, 92 ], [ 101, 127 ], [ 130, 159 ], [ 161, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ed White II Elementary e-STEM (Elementary-Science, Technology, Engineering and Math) Magnet school in El Lago, Texas, near the Johnson Space Center. White lived in El Lago (next door to Neil Armstrong).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 136003, 177571, 21247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 117 ], [ 128, 148 ], [ 187, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " There are Grissom or Virgil I. Grissom middle schools in Mishawaka, Indiana, Sterling Heights, Michigan, and Tinley Park, Illinois.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 112601, 118026, 111063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 76 ], [ 78, 104 ], [ 110, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Virgil Grissom Elementary School in Princeton, Iowa, and the Edward White Elementary School in Eldridge, Iowa, are both part of the North Scott Community School District also naming the other three elementary schools after astronauts Neil Armstrong, John Glenn, and Alan Shepard.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 114214, 114206, 3088602, 58702, 63727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 96, 110 ], [ 133, 170 ], [ 251, 261 ], [ 267, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " School #7 in Rochester, New York, is also known as the Virgil I. Grissom School.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 126641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the early 1970s, three streets in Amherst, New York, were named for Chaffee, White and Grissom. By 1991, when no homes had been built on Grissom Drive, the area was repurposed as commercial property; the Grissom street sign was removed and the street renamed Classics V Drive for the banquet hall that occupied the land.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 126395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The THUMS Islands, four man-made oil drilling islands in the harbor off Long Beach, California, are named Grissom, White, Chaffee and Theodore Freeman.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 30695471, 94240, 2150591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ], [ 73, 95 ], [ 135, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Roger B. Chaffee Planetarium is located at the Grand Rapids Public Museum.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Roger B. Chaffee Memorial Boulevard in Wyoming, Michigan, the largest suburb of Grand Rapids, Michigan, which is today an industrial park, but exists on the site of the former Grand Rapids Airport. A large portion of the north-south runway is used today as the roadway of the Roger B. Chaffee Memorial Boulevard.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 117865, 24109126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 57 ], [ 81, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Roger B. Chaffee Scholarship Fund in Grand Rapids, Michigan, each year in memory of Chaffee honors one student who intends to pursue a career in engineering or the sciences", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 24109126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Three adjacent parks in Fullerton, California, are each named for Grissom, Chaffee and White. The parks are located near a former Hughes Aircraft research and development facility. A Hughes subsidiary, Hughes Space and Communications Company, built components for the Apollo program.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 107812, 335475, 335475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 46 ], [ 131, 146 ], [ 203, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Two buildings on the campus of Purdue University in West Lafayette, Indiana, are named for Grissom and Chaffee (both Purdue alumni). Grissom Hall houses the School of Industrial Engineering (and was home to the School of Aeronautics and Astronautics before it moved into the new Neil Armstrong Hall of Engineering). Chaffee Hall, constructed in 1965, is the administration complex of Maurice J. Zucrow Laboratories where combustion, propulsion, gas dynamics, and related fields are studied. The Chaffee Hall contains a 72-seat auditorium, offices, and administrative staff.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 23757, 112633, 59131716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 49 ], [ 53, 76 ], [ 385, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A tree for each astronaut was planted in NASA's Astronaut Memorial Grove at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas, not far from the Saturn V building, along with trees for each astronaut from the Challenger and Columbia disasters. Tours of the space center pause briefly near the grove for a moment of silence, and the trees can be seen from nearby NASA Road 1.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 177571, 13774, 2361556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 101 ], [ 105, 112 ], [ 355, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 1 command module has never been on public display. After the accident, the spacecraft was removed and taken to Kennedy Space Center to facilitate the review board's disassembly in order to investigate the cause of the fire. When the investigation was complete, it was moved to the NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia, and placed in a secured storage warehouse.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Remains of CM-012", "target_page_ids": [ 337034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 297, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On February 17, 2007, the parts of CM-012 were moved approximately to a newer, environmentally controlled warehouse. Only a few weeks earlier, Gus Grissom's brother Lowell publicly suggested CM-012 be permanently entombed in the concrete remains of Launch Complex 34.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Remains of CM-012", "target_page_ids": [ 5518088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 250, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 27, 2017, the 50th anniversary of the fire, NASA put the hatch from Apollo1 on display at the Saturn V Rocket Center at Kennedy Space Center Visitors Complex. KSC's Visitor Complex also houses memorials that include parts of Challenger and Columbia, which is located in the Space Shuttle Atlantis exhibit. \"This is way, way, way long overdue. But we're excited about it,\" said Scott Grissom, Gus Grissom's older son.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Remains of CM-012", "target_page_ids": [ 2497224, 28235, 28237, 36592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 168 ], [ 236, 246 ], [ 251, 260 ], [ 403, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The accident and its aftermath are the subject of episode2, \"Apollo One\", of the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 4765530, 516432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 90 ], [ 102, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The mission and accident are covered in the 2015 ABC television series The Astronaut Wives Club, episodes8 \"Rendezvous\" and9 \"Abort\".", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 62027, 41929676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 53 ], [ 72, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The incident is the subject of the Public Service Broadcasting track \"Fire in the Cockpit\" from their 2015 album The Race for Space.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 35818551, 45464662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 63 ], [ 114, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The incident is featured in the 2018 movie First Man.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 39462005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A short dramatization of the accident is featured at the beginning of the 1995 film Apollo 13.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 142417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The accident and a subsequent emphasis on safety within NASA are the subject of investigation in the first two episodes of the Apple TV+ series For All Mankind.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 60328532, 56617819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 137 ], [ 145, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 201912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " STS-1 – First Space Shuttle flight, three technicians asphyxiated on launch pad after a countdown test", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 177543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " STS-51-L – Space Shuttle Challenger, America's first in-flight fatality", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3407579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " STS-107 – Space Shuttle Columbia, America's first return-flight fatality", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 177533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Valentin Bondarenko – a Soviet cosmonaut-in-training, died in a high-oxygen fire in an experimental chamber", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1365748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Soyuz 1 – First Soviet spaceflight death", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 98350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Soyuz 11 – Loss of an entire Soviet spacecraft crew", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 198961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notes", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Citations", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Baron testimony at investigation before Olin Teague, 21. April 1967", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo 204 Review Board Final Report, NASA's final report on its investigation, April 5, 1967", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Final report of the U.S. Senate investigation, January 30, 1968", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo Operations Handbook, Command and Service Module, Spacecraft 012 (The flight manual for CSM 012)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Apollo_1", "Apollo_program_missions", "Fires_in_Florida", "1967_fires", "1967_in_Florida", "Spacecraft_launched_by_Saturn_rockets", "Gus_Grissom", "Ed_White_(astronaut)" ]

[ "AS-204" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Apollo 10 (May 1826, 1969) was a human spaceflight, the fourth crewed mission in the United States Apollo program, and the second (after Apollo8) to orbit the Moon. NASA described it as a \"dress rehearsal\" for the first Moon landing, and designated it an \"F\"mission, intended to test all spacecraft components and procedures short of actual descent and landing. While astronaut John Young remained in the Command and Service Module (CSM) orbiting the Moon, astronauts Thomas Stafford and Gene Cernan flew the Apollo Lunar Module (LM) to within of the lunar surface, the point at which powered descent for landing would begin on a landing mission, before rejoining Young in the CSM. After orbiting the Moon 31 times, Apollo 10 returned safely to Earth; its success enabled the first crewed landing during Apollo 11 two months later.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18896, 1461, 663, 18426568, 1558077, 9481400, 303563, 718111, 638571, 300531, 151932, 2096232, 662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 50 ], [ 99, 113 ], [ 137, 144 ], [ 165, 169 ], [ 220, 232 ], [ 255, 265 ], [ 378, 388 ], [ 405, 431 ], [ 468, 483 ], [ 488, 499 ], [ 509, 528 ], [ 552, 565 ], [ 805, 814 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While NASA had considered attempting the first crewed lunar landing on Apollo 10, mission planners ultimately decided that it would be prudent to have a practice flight to hone the procedures and techniques. The crew encountered some issues during the course of the flight, namely pogo oscillations during the launch phase and a brief, uncontrolled tumble of the LM ascent stage in lunar orbit during its solo flight; however, the major mission objectives were accomplished. Stafford and Cernan observed and photographed Apollo 11's planned landing site in the Sea of Tranquility. Apollo 10 spent approximately 61 hours orbiting the Moon, for about eight of which Stafford and Cernan flew the LM apart from Young in the CSM, and about 8 days total in space. Additionally, Apollo 10 set the record for the highest speed attained by a crewed vehicle: 39,897km/h (11.08km/s or 24,791mph) on May 26, 1969, during the return from the Moon.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 624098, 201573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 281, 298 ], [ 561, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mission's call signs were the names of the Peanuts characters Charlie Brown for the CSM and Snoopy for the LM, who became Apollo 10's semi-official mascots. Peanuts creator Charles Schulz also drew mission-related artwork for NASA.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2797722, 42200, 140471, 18956204, 42198, 18426568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 47, 54 ], [ 66, 79 ], [ 96, 102 ], [ 177, 191 ], [ 230, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1967, NASA had planned the steps that needed to be taken prior to an attempt to land on the Moon. It approved a ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "list of mission types, designated by letters, that needed to be flown prior to a landing attempt, which would be the \"G\" mission. The early uncrewed flights were considered \"A\" or \"B\" missions, while Apollo 7, the crewed-flight test of the Command and Service Module (CSM), was the \"C\" mission. The first crewed orbital test of the Lunar Module (LM) was accomplished on Apollo 9, the \"D\" mission. Apollo 8, flown to the Moon's orbit without an LM, was considered a \"C-prime\" mission, but its success gave NASA the confidence to skip the \"E\" mission, which was planned to be testing of the full Apollo spacecraft in medium or high Earth orbit. Apollo 10, the dress rehearsal for the lunar landing, was to be the \"F\" mission.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 9481400, 1773, 718111, 151932, 1774, 663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 200, 208 ], [ 240, 266 ], [ 332, 344 ], [ 370, 378 ], [ 397, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NASA considered skipping the \"F\" mission as well and attempting the first lunar landing on Apollo 10. Some with the agency advocated this, feeling it senseless to bring astronauts so close to the lunar surface, only to turn away. Although the lunar module intended for Apollo 10 was too heavy to perform the lunar mission, the one intended for Apollo 11 could be substituted by delaying Apollo 10 a month from its May 1969 planned launch. NASA official George Mueller favored a landing attempt on Apollo 10; he was known for his aggressive approach to moving the Apollo program forward. However, Director of Flight Operations Christopher C. Kraft and others opposed this, feeling that new procedures would have to be developed for a rendezvous in lunar orbit, and that NASA had incomplete information regarding the Moon's mass concentrations, which might throw off the spacecrafts' trajectory. Lieutenant General Sam Phillips, the Apollo Program Manager, listened to the arguments on both sides and decided that having a dress rehearsal was crucial.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 662, 8617105, 1461, 969608, 577296, 11090485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 344, 353 ], [ 453, 467 ], [ 563, 577 ], [ 626, 646 ], [ 822, 840 ], [ 913, 925 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On November 13, 1968, NASA announced who the crew of Apollo 10 would be. Thomas P. Stafford, the commander, was 38 years old at the time of the mission. A 1952 graduate of the Naval Academy, he was commissioned in the Air Force. Selected as one of the second group of astronauts in 1962, he flew as pilot of Gemini 6A (1965) and command pilot of Gemini 9A (1966). John Young, the command module pilot, was 38 years old and a commander in the Navy at the time of Apollo 10. A 1952 graduate of Georgia Tech who entered the Navy after graduation and became a test pilot in 1959, he was selected as a Group 2 astronaut alongside Stafford. He flew in Gemini 3 with Gus Grissom in 1965, becoming the first American not of the Mercury Seven to fly in space. Young thereafter commanded Gemini 10 (1966), flying with Michael Collins. Eugene Cernan, the lunar module pilot, was a 35-year-old commander in the Navy at the time of Apollo 10. A 1952 graduate of Purdue University, he entered the Navy after graduation. Selected as one of the third group of astronauts in 1963, Cernan flew with Stafford on Gemini 9A before his assignment to Apollo 10. With five prior flights among them, Apollo 10 had the most experienced American crew to reach space prior to the Space Shuttle era, and the first American space mission to have a crew consisting entirely of spaceflight veterans.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 59766, 32090, 1636015, 364099, 369302, 14157109, 20518076, 28486339, 212918, 36592, 725945, 11982, 97666, 23757, 2296945, 28189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 189 ], [ 218, 227 ], [ 252, 278 ], [ 308, 317 ], [ 346, 355 ], [ 425, 434 ], [ 442, 446 ], [ 492, 504 ], [ 646, 654 ], [ 660, 671 ], [ 720, 733 ], [ 778, 787 ], [ 808, 823 ], [ 949, 966 ], [ 1029, 1054 ], [ 1252, 1265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Apollo flights were planned in 1966, Stafford was announced as backup CMP for the second crewed Apollo flight, planned as an extended test of the command module, and dubbed Apollo 2, with Frank Borman as backup commander and Collins as backup LMP. After the prime crew of Apollo 2, led by Wally Schirra, went to NASA management with a list of demands concerning their mission, Apollo 2 was cancelled in November 1966, and Stafford was assigned as backup commander for the second Apollo mission under a new schedule, planned to involve the first crewed flight of the lunar module, to be commanded by James McDivitt,with Young as backup CMP and Cernan as backup LMP. The Apollo 1 fire in January 1967 led to a rescheduling of Apollo flights, and Stafford's crew was assigned as backups for the first crewed fight. which became Apollo 7, flown by Schirra's crew. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 80897, 331463, 622247, 1965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 203 ], [ 292, 305 ], [ 602, 616 ], [ 672, 685 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The backup crew for Apollo 10 was L. Gordon Cooper as commander, Donn F. Eisele as command module pilot and Edgar Mitchell as lunar module pilot. By the normal rotation of crews during Apollo, Cooper, Eisele and Mitchell would have flown on Apollo 13, but Cooper and Eisele never flew again: Deke Slayton, Director of Flight Crew Operations, felt that Cooper did not train as hard as he could have, while taking risks such as auto racing. Eisele was blackballed because of incidents during Apollo 7, which he had flown as CMP and which had seen conflict between the crew and ground controllers; he had also been involved in a messy divorce. Slayton only assigned the two as backups because he had few veteran astronauts available. Mitchell escaped the fate of his crewmates, was assigned to the crew slated to fly Apollo 13, and when that crew was switched to Apollo 14 to give the mission commander, Alan Shepard more time to train, flew that mission as LMP, and walked on the Moon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 331785, 598416, 303600, 1770, 331454, 1968, 63727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 50 ], [ 65, 79 ], [ 108, 122 ], [ 241, 250 ], [ 292, 304 ], [ 860, 869 ], [ 901, 913 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For projects Mercury and Gemini, a prime and a backup crew had been designated, but for Apollo, a third group of astronauts, known as the support crew, was also designated. Slayton created the support crews early in the Apollo program on the advice of McDivitt, who would lead Apollo 9. McDivitt believed that, with preparation going on in facilities across the U.S., meetings that needed a member of the flight crew would be missed. Support crew members were to assist as directed by the mission commander. Usually low in seniority, they assembled the mission's rules, flight plan, and checklists, and kept them updated. For Apollo 10, they were: Joe Engle, James Irwin and Charles Duke.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 19812, 882736, 1289256, 503116, 321993, 328014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 25, 31 ], [ 570, 581 ], [ 648, 657 ], [ 659, 670 ], [ 675, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flight directors were Gerry Griffin, Glynn Lunney, Milt Windler and Pete Frank. Flight directors during Apollo had a one-sentence job description: \"The flight director may take any actions necessary for crew safety and mission success.\" CAPCOMs were Duke, Engle, Jack Lousma and Bruce McCandless II.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 4052227, 13275040, 6393260, 55119065, 64591021, 503575, 502753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 22, 35 ], [ 37, 49 ], [ 51, 63 ], [ 68, 78 ], [ 263, 274 ], [ 279, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The command module was given the call sign \"Charlie Brown\" and the lunar module the call sign \"Snoopy\". These were taken from the characters in the comic strip, Peanuts, Charlie Brown and Snoopy. These names were chosen by the astronauts with the approval of Charles Schulz, the strip's creator, who was uncertain it was a good idea, since Charlie Brown was always a failure. The choice of names was deemed undignified by some at NASA, as was the choice for Apollo 9's CM and LM (\"Gumdrop\" and \"Spider\"). Public relations chief Julian Scheer urged a change for the lunar landing mission. But for Apollo 10, according to Cernan, \"The P.R.-types lost this one big-time, for everybody on the planet knew the klutzy kid and his adventuresome beagle, and the names were embraced in a public relations bonanza.\" Apollo 11's call signs were \"Columbia\" for the command module and \"Eagle\" for the lunar module.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 42200, 140471, 18956204, 42198, 59093525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 168 ], [ 170, 183 ], [ 188, 194 ], [ 259, 273 ], [ 528, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Snoopy, Charlie Brown's dog, was chosen for the call sign of the lunar module since it was to \"snoop\" around the landing site, with Charlie Brown given to the command module as Snoopy's companion. Snoopy had been associated for some time with the space program, with workers who performed in an outstanding manner awarded silver \"Snoopy pins\", and Snoopy posters were seen at NASA facilities, with the cartoon dog having traded in his World War I aviator's headgear for a space helmet. Stafford stated that, given the pins, \"the choice of Snoopy [as call sign] was a way of acknowledging the contributions of the hundreds of thousands of people who got us there\". The use of the dog was also appropriate since in the comic strip, Snoopy had journeyed to the Moon the year before, thus defeating, according to Schulz, \"the Americans, the Russians, and that stupid cat next door\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 17289852, 4764461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 341 ], [ 435, 446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The shield-shaped mission insignia shows a large, three-dimensional Roman numeral X sitting on the Moon's surface, in Stafford's words, \"to show that we had left our mark\". Although it did not land on the Moon, the prominence of the number represents the significant contributions the mission made to the Apollo program. A CSM circles the Moon as an LM ascent stage flies up from its low pass over the lunar surface with its engine firing. The Earth is visible in the background. On the mission patch, a wide, light blue border carries the word APOLLO at the top and the crew names around the bottom. The patch is trimmed in gold. The insignia was designed by Allen Stevens of Rockwell International.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 25657, 26367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 81 ], [ 677, 699 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 10, the \"F\" mission or dress rehearsal for the lunar landing, had as its primary objectives to demonstrate crew, space vehicle and mission support facilities performance during a crewed mission to lunar orbit, and to evaluate the performance of the lunar module there. In addition, it was to attempt photography of Apollo Landing Site 2 (ALS-2) in the Sea of Tranquillity, the contemplated landing site for Apollo 11. According to Stafford, \"Our flight was to take the first lunar module to the moon. We would take the lunar module, go down to within about ten miles above the moon, nine miles above the mountains, radar map, photo map, pick out the first landing site, do the first rendezvous around the moon, pick out some future landing sites, and come home.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 201573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 359, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 10 was to adhere as closely as possible to the plans for Apollo 11, including its trajectory to and from lunar orbit, the time line of events during the mission, and even the angle of the Sun at ALS-2. However, no landing was to be attempted. ALS-1, given that number because it was the furthest to the east of the candidate sites, and also located in the Sea of Tranquility, had been extensively photographed by Apollo 8 astronauts; at the suggestion of scientist-astronaut Harrison Schmitt, the launch of Apollo 10 had been postponed a day so ALS-2 could be photographed under proper conditions. ALS-2 was chosen as the lunar landing site since it was relatively smooth, of scientific interest, and ALS-1 was deemed too far to the east. Thus, when Apollo 10's launch date was announced on January 10, 1969, it was shifted from its placeholder date of May 1 to May 17, rather than to May 16. On March 17, 1969, the launch was slipped one day to May 18, to allow for a better view of ALS-3, to the west of ALS-2. Another deviation from the plans for Apollo 11 was that Apollo 10 was to spend an additional day in lunar orbit once the CSM and LM rendezvoused; this was to allow time for additional testing of the LM's systems, as well as for photography of possible future Apollo landing sites.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 13793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 482, 498 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 10 astronauts undertook five hours of formal training for each hour of the mission's eight-day duration. This was in addition to the normal mission preparations such as technical briefings, pilot meetings and study. They took part in the testing of the CSM at the Downey, California facility of its manufacturer, North American Rockwell, and of the LM at Grumman in Bethpage, New York. They visited Cambridge, Massachusetts for briefings on the Apollo Guidance Computer at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Instrumentation Laboratory. They each spent more than 300 hours in simulators of the CM or LM at the Manned Spacecraft Center (MSC) in Houston and at Kennedy Space Center (KSC) in Florida. To train for the high-acceleration conditions they would experience in returning to Earth's atmosphere, they endured MSC's centrifuge.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 107622, 221761, 216799, 126681, 5685, 188887, 445258, 177571, 16421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 275, 281 ], [ 324, 347 ], [ 366, 373 ], [ 377, 385 ], [ 410, 419 ], [ 456, 480 ], [ 488, 552 ], [ 627, 651 ], [ 676, 696 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Apollo 10 was meant to follow the procedures of a lunar landing mission to the point of powered descent, Apollo 10's LM was not capable of a landing and return to lunar orbit. The ascent stage was loaded with the amount of fuel and oxidizer it would have had remaining if it had lifted off from the surface and reached the altitude at which the Apollo 10 ascent stage fired; this was only about half the total amount required for lift off and rendezvous with the CSM. The mission-loaded LM weighed , compared to for the Apollo 11 LM which made the first landing. Additionally, the software necessary to guide the LM to a landing was not available at the time of Apollo 10. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 653941, 186259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 233 ], [ 238, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Craig Nelson wrote in his book Rocket Men that NASA took special precaution to ensure Stafford and Cernan would not attempt to make the first landing. Nelson quoted Cernan as saying \"A lot of people thought about the kind of people we were: 'Don't give those guys an opportunity to land, 'cause they might!' So the ascent module, the part we lifted off the lunar surface with, was short-fueled. The fuel tanks weren't full. So had we literally tried to land on the Moon, we couldn't have gotten off.\" Mueller, NASA's Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight, stated, \"There had been some speculation about whether or not the crew might have landed, having gotten so close. They might have wanted to, but it was impossible for that lunar module to land. It was an early design that was too heavy for a lunar landing, or, to be more precise, too heavy to be able to complete the ascent back to the command module. It was a test module, for the dress rehearsal only, and that was the way it was used.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The descent stage of the LM was delivered to KSC on October 11, 1968, with the ascent stage arriving five days later. They were mated on November 2. The Service Module (SM) and Command Module (CM) arrived on November 24 and were mated two days later. Portions of the Saturn V launch vehicle arrived during November and December 1968, and the complete launch vehicle was erected in the Vehicle Assembly Building (VAB) on December 30. After being tested in an altitude chamber, the CSM was placed atop the launch vehicle on February 6, 1969. The completed space vehicle was rolled out to Launch Complex 39B on March 11, 1969—the fact that it had been assembled in the VAB's High Bay 2 (the first time it had been used) required the crawler to exit the rear of the VAB before looping around the building and joining the main crawlerway, proceeding to the launch pad. This rollout, using Mobile Launch Platform 3 (MLP-3), happened eight days after the launch of Apollo 9, while that mission was still in orbit.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 718111, 718111, 20584918, 268462, 8441131, 1263431, 3652107, 2415632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 167 ], [ 177, 191 ], [ 267, 275 ], [ 385, 410 ], [ 586, 604 ], [ 730, 737 ], [ 822, 832 ], [ 884, 906 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The launch vehicle for Apollo 10 was a Saturn V, designated AS-505, the fifth flight-ready Saturn V to be launched and the third to take astronauts to orbit. The Saturn V differed from that used on Apollo 9 in having a lower dry weight (without propellant) in its first two stages, with a significant reduction to the interstage joining them. Although the S-IVB third stage was slightly heavier, all three stages could carry a greater weight of propellant, and the S-II second stage generated more thrust than that of Apollo 9.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 1306157, 572843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 465, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo spacecraft for the Apollo 10 mission was composed of Command Module 106 (CM-106), Service Module 106 (SM-106, together with the CM known as CSM-106), Lunar Module 4 (LM-4), a spacecraft-lunar module adapter (SLA), numbered as SLA-13A, and a launch escape system. The SLA was a mating structure joining the Instrument Unit on the S-IVB stage of the Saturn V launch vehicle and the CSM, and acted as a housing for the LM, while the Launch Escape System (LES) contained rockets to propel the CM to safety if there was an aborted launch. At about 133.8 metric tons, Apollo 10 would be the heaviest spacecraft to reach orbit to that point.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Framework", "target_page_ids": [ 1143181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 441, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 10 launched from KSC on May 18, 1969, at 12:49:00 EDT (16:49:00 UT), at the very start of a 4.5 hour launch window. The launch window was timed to secure optimal lighting conditions at Apollo Landing Site 2 at the time of the LM's closest approach to the site days later. The launch followed a countdown that had begun at 21:00:00 EDT on May 16 (01:00:00 UT on May 17). Apollo 10 launched from Pad 39B and was the only flight to launch from that pad during the Apollo program, and it was also the only flight to be controlled from Firing Room 3 there. Pad 39B was used because preparations for Apollo 11 had already begun at Pad 39A.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 155759, 41835 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 121 ], [ 362, 364 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Issues that arose during the countdown were dealt with during the built-in holds, and did not delay the mission. On the day prior to launch, however, Cernan had been stopped for speeding while returning from a final visit with his wife and child. Lacking identification and under orders to tell no one who he was, Cernan later attested in his autobiography that he had feared being arrested. Launch pad leader Gunther Wendt, who had pulled over nearby after recognizing Cernan, explained the situation to the police officer, who then released Cernan despite the officer's skepticism that Cernan was an astronaut.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 1430646, 3840701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 186 ], [ 410, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The crew experienced a somewhat rough ride on the way to orbit due to pogo oscillations; however, approximately twelve minutes after liftoff, the spacecraft successfully entered a low Earth orbit with a high point of and a low point of . All appeared to be normal during the systems review period in Earth orbit, and the crew restarted the S-IVB third stage to achieve trans-lunar injection (TLI) and send them towards the Moon. The vehicle shook again while executing the TLI burn, causing Cernan to be concerned that they might have to abort. However, the TLI burn was completed without incident. Young then performed the transposition, docking, and extraction maneuver, separating the CSM from the S-IVB stage, turning around, and docking its nose to the top of the lunar module (LM), before separating from the S-IVB. Apollo 10 was the first mission to carry a color television camera inside the spacecraft, and mission controllers in Houston watched as Young performed the maneuver. Soon thereafter, the large television audience was treated to color views of the Earth. One problem that was encountered was that the mylar cover of the CM's hatch had pulled loose, spilling quantities of fiberglass insulation into the tunnel, and then into both the CM and LM. The S-IVB was fired by ground command and sent into solar orbit with a period of 344.88 days.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 624098, 47568, 272021, 85757, 17671986, 162843, 172928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 86 ], [ 180, 195 ], [ 341, 346 ], [ 370, 391 ], [ 625, 663 ], [ 866, 882 ], [ 1123, 1128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The crew settled in for the voyage to the Moon. They had a light workload, and spent much of their time studying the flight plan or sleeping. They made five more television broadcasts back to Earth, and were informed that more than a billion people had watched some part of their activities. In June 1969, the crew would accept a special Emmy Award on behalf of the first four Apollo crews for their television broadcasts from space. One slight course correction was necessary; this occurred at 26:32:56.8 into the mission and lasted 7.1 seconds. This aligned Apollo 10 with the trajectory Apollo 11 was expected to take. One issue the crew encountered was bad-tasting food, as Stafford apparently used a double dose of chlorine in their drinking water, which had to be placed in their dehydrated food to reconstitute it.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 151921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 338, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At 75:55:54 into the mission, above the far side of the Moon, the CSM's service propulsion system (SPS) engine was fired for 356.1 seconds to slow the spacecraft into a lunar orbit of . This was followed, after two orbits of the Moon, with a 13.9 second firing of the SPS to circularize the orbit to at 80:25:08.1. Within the first couple of hours after the initial lunar orbit insertion burn and following the circularization burn, the crew turned to tracking planned landmarks on the surface below to record observations and take photographs. In addition to ALS-1, ALS-2, and ALS-3, the crew of Apollo 10 observed and photographed a number of features on both the near and far sides of the Moon, including the craters Coriolis, King and Papaleksi. Shortly after the circularization burn, the crew partook in a scheduled half-hour color television broadcast with descriptions and video transmissions of views of the lunar surface below.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 718111, 1382066, 1074060, 2661080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 98 ], [ 722, 730 ], [ 732, 736 ], [ 741, 750 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The LM crew, consisting of Stafford and Cernan, then prepared to enter the LM to check out its systems, which they did about an hour after the second burn. When they entered Snoopy, they were met with a blizzard of fiberglass particles from the earlier problem, which they cleaned up with a vacuum as best they could. Stafford had to assist Cernan in removing smaller bits that had become caught in the latter's hair and eyebrows. Stafford remembered that Cernan looked like he just came out of a chicken coop, and that the particles made them itch and got into the air conditioning system, and they were scraping it off the filter screens for the rest of the mission. This was merely an annoyance, but the particles may have gotten into the docking ring joining the two craft and caused it to misalign slightly. Nevertheless, Mission Control determined that this was still within safe limits.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 12116844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 497, 509 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Snoopy was checked out by Stafford and Cernan, they returned to Charlie Brown for a rest period. Then, Young remained in Charlie Brown while Stafford and Cernan re-entered Snoopy and undocked it from the CSM at 98:29:20. Accordingly, Young became the first person to fly solo in lunar orbit. Following the undocking, Stafford and Cernan deployed the LM's landing gear and inspected the LM's systems. The CSM performed an 8.3 second burn with its RCS thrusters to separate itself from the LM by about 30 feet, after which Young visually inspected the LM from the CSM. The CSM performed another separation burn, this time separating the two spacecraft by about . The LM crew thereafter performed the descent orbit insertion maneuver by firing their descent engine for 27.4 seconds at 99:46:01.6, and tested their craft's landing radar as they approached the altitude where the subsequent Apollo 11 mission would begin powered descent to actually land on the Moon. Previously, the LM's landing radar had only been tested under terrestrial conditions. While the LM executed these maneuvers, Young monitored the location and status of the LM from the CSM, standing by to mount a rescue of the LM crew should it become necessary. Cernan and Stafford surveyed ALS-2, coming within of the lunar surface at a point 15 degrees to its east, then performed a phasing burn at 100:58:25.93, thrusting for just under 40 seconds to allow a second pass at ALS-2. Reporting on his observations of the site from the LM's low passes, Stafford indicated that ALS-2 seemed smoother than he had expected and described its appearance as similar to the desert surrounding Blythe, California, but that Apollo 11 could face rougher terrain downrange if it approached off-target. Based upon Apollo 10's observations from relatively low altitude, NASA mission planners became comfortable enough with ALS-2 to confirm it as the target site for Apollo 11.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 107905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1655, 1661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next action was to prepare to separate the LM ascent stage from the descent stage, to jettison the descent stage and fire the Ascent Propulsion System to return the ascent stage towards the CSM. As Stafford and Cernan prepared to do so, the LM began to gyrate out of control. Alarmed, Cernan exclaimed into the hot mic being broadcast live, \"Son of a bitch!\", which, combined with other language used by the crew during the mission, generated some complaints back on Earth. Stafford discarded the descent stage about five seconds after the tumbling began and fought to regain control manually, suspecting that there might have been an \"open thruster\", or a thruster stuck firing, and did so in time to be able to orient the spacecraft properly to send Snoopy to rejoin Charlie Brown. The problem was traced to a switch controlling the mode of the abort guidance system; it was to be moved as part of the procedure, but each of the crew members switched it, thus returning it to the original position. Had they fired Snoopy in the wrong direction, they might have missed the rendezvous with Charlie Brown or crashed into the Moon at high speed. Once Stafford had regained control of the LM ascent stage, which took about eight seconds, the pair fired the ascent engine at the lowest point of the LM's orbit, mimicking the orbital insertion maneuver after launch from the lunar surface in a later landing mission. Snoopy coasted on that trajectory for about an hour before firing the engine once more to further fine-tune its approach to Charlie Brown.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 36063779, 6764624, 2437436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 154 ], [ 315, 322 ], [ 1325, 1342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Snoopy successfully rendezvoused with and re-docked with Charlie Brown at 106:22:02, just under eight hours after undocking. The docking was telecast live in color from the CSM. After docking and once Cernan and Stafford had re-entered Charlie Brown, Snoopy was sealed-off and separated from Charlie Brown and Snoopys ascent stage engine was fired to fuel depletion to send the ascent stage on a trajectory past the Moon and into a heliocentric orbit. This maneuver was unlike the fate of the subsequent Apollo 11 ascent stage, which was left in lunar orbit to eventually crash (post-Apollo 11 ascent stages were steered into the Moon to obtain readings from seismometers placed on the surface, except for Apollo 13's ascent stage, which the crew used as a \"life boat\" to get safely back to Earth before releasing it to burn up in Earth's atmosphere, and Apollo 16's, which NASA lost control of after jettison).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 2145009, 231826, 1970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 432, 450 ], [ 659, 671 ], [ 855, 864 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following ejection of the LM ascent stage, the crew slept and performed additional photography and observation of the lunar surface from orbit. Though the crew was able to locate 18 landmarks on the surface and take a number of additional photographs of various surface features, crew fatigue necessitated the cancellation of two scheduled television broadcasts. Thereafter, the main Service Propulsion System engine of the CSM re-ignited for about 2.5 minutes to set Apollo 10 on a trajectory towards Earth, achieving such a trajectory at 137:39:13.7. At the time of its departure from lunar orbit, Apollo 10 had orbited the Moon 31 times over the span of about 61 hours and 37 minutes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the travel phase back to Earth, the crew performed some observational activities which included star-Earth horizon sightings for navigation. The crew also performed a scheduled test to gauge the reflectivity of the CSM's high gain antenna and broadcast six television transmissions of varying durations to show views inside the spacecraft and of the Earth and Moon from the crew's vantage point. Cernan reported later that he and his crewmates became the first to \"successfully shave in space\" during the return trip, using a safety razor and thick shaving gel, as such items had been deemed a safety hazard and prohibited on earlier flights. The crew fired the engine of the CSM for the only mid-course correction burn required during the return trip at 188:49:58, a few hours before separation of the CM from the SM. The burn lasted about 6.7 seconds.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 342371, 583832, 1324749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 245 ], [ 533, 545 ], [ 556, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the spacecraft rapidly approached Earth on the final day of the mission, Apollo 10 set the record for the fastest human spaceflight, traveling 39,897km/h (11.08km/s or 24,791mph) relative to Earth, which is the fastest speed at which any humans have ever traveled. This is because the return trajectory was designed to take only 42 hours rather than the normal 56. In addition to that record, the Apollo 10 crew are the humans who have traveled the farthest away from their (Houston) homes, at a distance of (though the Apollo 13 crew was 200km farther away from Earth as a whole). While most Apollo missions orbited the Moon at the same from the lunar surface, the distance between the Earth and Moon varies by about , between perigee and apogee, throughout each lunar month, and the Earth's rotation makes the distance to Houston vary by at most another each day. The Apollo 10 crew reached the farthest point in their orbit around the far side of the Moon at about the same time Earth's rotation put Houston nearly a full Earth diameter farther away.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 88213, 88213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 734, 741 ], [ 746, 752 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At 191:33:26, the CM (which contained the crew) separated from the SM in preparation for reentry, which occurred about fifteen minutes later at 191:48:54.5. Splashdown of the CM occurred, approximately fifteen minutes after reentry, in the Pacific Ocean about east of American Samoa on May 26, 1969, at 16:52:23 UTC and mission elapsed time 192:03:23. The astronauts were recovered by , onboard which they spent about four hours and took a congratulatory phone call from President Richard Nixon. As they had not made contact with the lunar surface, Apollo 10's crew were not required to quarantine like the first landing crews would be. They were flown to Pago Pago International Airport in Tafuna for a greeting reception, before boarding a C-141 cargo plane to Ellington Air Force Base near Houston.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 45294, 88259, 20611195, 25473, 23736776, 4921220, 11238110, 2537540, 14480070, 13774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 96 ], [ 157, 167 ], [ 269, 283 ], [ 482, 495 ], [ 588, 598 ], [ 657, 688 ], [ 692, 698 ], [ 743, 748 ], [ 764, 788 ], [ 794, 801 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Orbital operations and the solo maneuvering of the LM in partial descent to the lunar surface paved the way for the successful Apollo 11 lunar landing by demonstrating the capabilities of the requisite mission hardware and systems. Among other items, the crew demonstrated that the tasks required to execute the checkout procedures of the LM and initial descent and rendezvous were feasible to accomplish within the allotted time, that the communication systems of the LM were sufficient, that the rendezvous and landing radars of the LM were operational in lunar orbit, and that the two spacecraft could be adequately monitored by personnel on Earth. Additionally, the precision of lunar orbital navigation improved with Apollo 10 and, combined with data from Apollo 8, NASA expected that it had achieved a level of precision sufficient to execute the first crewed lunar landing. After about two weeks of Apollo 10 data analysis, a NASA flight readiness team cleared Apollo 11 to proceed with its scheduled July 1969 flight. On July 16, 1969, the next Saturn V to launch carried the astronauts of Apollo 11, Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins. On July 20, Armstrong and Aldrin landed on the Moon, and four days later the three astronauts returned to Earth, fulfilling John F. Kennedy's challenge to Americans to land astronauts on the Moon and return them safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 21247, 65777, 5119376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1109, 1123 ], [ 1125, 1136 ], [ 1282, 1297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1969, Stafford replaced Alan Shepard as Chief Astronaut, and then became Deputy Director of Flight Crew Operations, under Deke Slayton. In his memoirs, Stafford wrote that he could have put his name back in the flight rotation, but wanted managerial experience. In 1972, Stafford was promoted to brigadier general and assigned as commander of the American portion of the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, which flew in July 1975. He commanded the Air Force Flight Test Center at Edwards Air Force Base in California, retiring in November 1979 as a lieutenant general. Young commanded the Apollo 16 lunar landing mission flown in April 1972. From 1974 to 1987, Young served as Chief Astronaut, commanding the STS-1 (1981) and STS-9 (1983) Space Shuttle missions in April 1981 and November 1983, respectively, and retired from NASA's Astronaut Corps in 2004. Gene Cernan commanded the final Apollo lunar mission, Apollo 17, flown in December 1972. Cernan retired from NASA and the Navy as a captain in 1976.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 63727, 10173283, 206220, 331959, 1956498, 107530, 201916, 1970, 177543, 180795, 38410533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 44 ], [ 48, 63 ], [ 304, 321 ], [ 379, 404 ], [ 448, 476 ], [ 480, 502 ], [ 549, 567 ], [ 589, 598 ], [ 709, 714 ], [ 726, 731 ], [ 990, 997 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Smithsonian has been accountable for the command module Charlie Brown since 1970. The spacecraft was on display in several countries until it was placed on loan to the London Science Museum in 1978. Charlie Brown'''s SM was jettisoned just before re-entry and burned up in the Earth's atmosphere, its remnants scattering in the Pacific Ocean.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware disposition", "target_page_ids": [ 152951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After translunar injection, the Saturn V's S-IVB third stage was accelerated past Earth escape velocity to become space debris; , it remains in a heliocentric orbit.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware disposition", "target_page_ids": [ 85757, 37913, 266344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 26 ], [ 88, 103 ], [ 114, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ascent stage of the Lunar Module Snoopy was jettisoned into a heliocentric orbit. Snoopys ascent stage orbit was not tracked after 1969, and its whereabouts were unknown. In 2011, a group of amateur astronomers in the UK started a project to search for it. In June 2019, the Royal Astronomical Society announced a possible rediscovery of Snoopy, determining that small Earth-crossing asteroid 2018AV2 is likely to be the spacecraft with \"98%\" certainty. It is the only once-crewed spacecraft known to still be in outer space without a crew.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware disposition", "target_page_ids": [ 357512 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 279, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Snoopy's descent stage was jettisoned in lunar orbit; its current location is unknown, though it may have eventually crashed into the Moon as a result of orbital decay. Phil Stooke, a planetary scientist who studied the lunar crash sites of the LM's ascent stages, wrote that the descent stage \"crashed at an unknown location\", and another source stated that the descent stage \"eventually impact(ed) within a few degrees of the equator on the near side\". Richard Orloff and David M. Harland, in their sourcebook on Apollo, stated that \"the descent stage was left in the low orbit, but perturbations by 'mascons' would have caused this to decay, sending the stage to crash onto the lunar surface\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware disposition", "target_page_ids": [ 36224143, 14039620, 577296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 204 ], [ 475, 491 ], [ 604, 611 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of artificial objects on the Moon", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 537458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of vehicle speed records", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16343705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 10\" at Encyclopedia Astronautica", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " NSSDC Master Catalog at NASA", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo 10 Flight Journal", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "NASA reports", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology NASA, NASA SP-4009", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo Program Summary Report\" (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Table 2-38. Apollo 10 Characteristics\" from NASA Historical Data Book: Volume III: Programs and Projects 1969–1978 by Linda Neuman Ezell, NASA History Series (1988)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Multimedia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo 10: \"To Sort Out the Unknowns\"'' Official NASA/JSC documentary film, JSC-519 (1969)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo 10 16mm onboard film part 1, part 2 raw footage taken from Apollo 10 at the Internet Archive", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mission Transcripts: Apollo 10 at NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 177571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Images from Apollo 10 at NASA's Kennedy Space Center", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 16421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo launch and mission videos at ApolloTV.net", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Apollo_10", "Spacecraft_launched_in_1969", "1969_in_the_United_States", "Apollo_program_missions", "Crewed_missions_to_the_Moon", "Peanuts_(comic_strip)", "Spacecraft_which_reentered_in_1969", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "May_1969_events", "Spacecraft_launched_by_Saturn_rockets", "John_Young_(astronaut)", "Gene_Cernan", "Thomas_P._Stafford" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Apollo 12 (November 1424, 1969) was the sixth crewed flight in the United States Apollo program and the second to land on the Moon. It was launched on November 14, 1969, from the Kennedy Space Center, Florida. Commander Charles \"Pete\" Conrad and Lunar Module Pilot Alan L. Bean performed just over one day and seven hours of lunar surface activity while Command Module Pilot Richard F. Gordon remained in lunar orbit.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1461, 19331, 16421, 18933066, 185062, 13959901, 102595, 13959901, 598945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 95 ], [ 126, 130 ], [ 179, 199 ], [ 201, 208 ], [ 220, 241 ], [ 246, 264 ], [ 265, 277 ], [ 354, 374 ], [ 375, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 12 would have attempted the first lunar landing had Apollo 11 failed, but after the success of Neil Armstrong's mission, Apollo 12 was postponed by two months, and other Apollo missions also put on a more relaxed schedule. More time was allotted for geologic training in preparation for Apollo 12 than for Apollo 11, Conrad and Bean making several geology field trips in preparation for their mission. Apollo 12's spacecraft and launch vehicle were almost identical to Apollo 11's. One addition was hammocks to allow Conrad and Bean to rest more comfortably on the Moon.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly after being launched on a rainy day at Kennedy Space Center, Apollo 12 was twice struck by lightning, causing instrumentation problems but little damage. Switching to the auxiliary power supply resolved the data relay problem, saving the mission. The outward journey to the Moon otherwise saw few problems. On November 19, Conrad and Bean achieved a precise landing at their expected location within walking distance of the Surveyor 3 robotic probe, which had landed on April 20, 1967. In making a pinpoint landing, they showed that NASA could plan future missions in the expectation that astronauts could land close to sites of scientific interest. Conrad and Bean carried the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package, a group of nuclear-powered scientific instruments, as well as the first color television camera taken by an Apollo mission to the lunar surface, but transmission was lost after Bean accidentally pointed the camera at the Sun and its sensor was destroyed. On the second of two moonwalks, they visited Surveyor 3 and removed parts for return to Earth.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 61344, 80048, 30874175, 80048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 108 ], [ 432, 442 ], [ 686, 726 ], [ 1043, 1056 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lunar Module Intrepid lifted off from the Moon on November 20 and docked with the command module, which subsequently traveled back to Earth. The Apollo 12 mission ended on November 24 with a successful splashdown.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 88259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The commander of the all-Navy Apollo 12 crew was Charles \"Pete\" Conrad, who was 39 years old at the time of the mission. After receiving a bachelor's degree in aeronautical engineering from Princeton University in 1953, he became a naval aviator, and completed United States Naval Test Pilot School at Patuxent River Naval Air Station. He was selected in the second group of astronauts in 1962, and flew on Gemini 5 in 1965, and as command pilot of Gemini 11 in 1966. Command Module Pilot Richard \"Dick\" Gordon, 40 years old at the time of Apollo 12, also became a naval aviator in 1953, following graduation from the University of Washington with a degree in chemistry, and completed test pilot school at Patuxent River. Selected as a Group 3 astronaut in 1963, he flew with Conrad on Gemini 11.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 20518076, 185062, 23922, 3558734, 1813667, 1636015, 362160, 411596, 598945, 31776, 2296945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 29 ], [ 49, 70 ], [ 190, 210 ], [ 261, 298 ], [ 302, 334 ], [ 359, 385 ], [ 407, 415 ], [ 449, 458 ], [ 489, 510 ], [ 618, 642 ], [ 736, 743 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The original Lunar Module pilot assigned to work with Conrad was Clifton C. Williams Jr., who was killed in October 1967 when the T-38 he was flying crashed near Tallahassee. When forming his crew, Conrad had wanted Alan L. Bean, a former student of his at the test pilot school, but had been told by Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton that Bean was unavailable due to an assignment to the Apollo Applications Program. After Williams's death, Conrad asked for Bean again, and this time Slayton yielded. Bean, 37 years old when the mission flew, had graduated from the University of Texas in 1955 with a degree in aeronautical engineering. Also a naval aviator, he was selected alongside Gordon in 1963, and first flew in space on Apollo 12. The three Apollo 12 crew members had backed up Apollo 9 earlier in 1969.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 425143, 357874, 57700, 102595, 331454, 1126794, 32031, 1774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 88 ], [ 130, 134 ], [ 162, 173 ], [ 216, 228 ], [ 336, 348 ], [ 403, 430 ], [ 581, 600 ], [ 802, 810 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 12 backup crew was David R. Scott as commander, Alfred M. Worden as Command Module pilot, and James B. Irwin as Lunar Module pilot. They became the crew of Apollo 15. For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts, known as the support crew, was designated in addition to the prime and backup crews used on projects Mercury and Gemini. Slayton created the support crews because James McDivitt, who would command Apollo 9, believed that, with preparation going on in facilities across the US, meetings that needed a member of the flight crew would be missed. Support crew members were to assist as directed by the mission commander. Usually low in seniority, they assembled the mission's rules, flight plan, and checklists, and kept them updated; For Apollo 12, they were Gerald P. Carr, Edward G. Gibson and Paul J. Weitz. Flight directors were Gerry Griffin, first shift, Pete Frank, second shift, Clifford E. Charlesworth, third shift, and Milton Windler, fourth shift. Flight directors during Apollo had a one-sentence job description, \"The flight director may take any actions necessary for crew safety and mission success.\" Capsule communicators (CAPCOMs) were Scott, Worden, Irwin, Carr, Gibson, Weitz and Don Lind.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 327575, 677187, 321993, 1969, 622247, 1289256, 597271, 598936, 514305, 4052227, 13275040, 64591021, 56779002, 55119065, 4052227, 614959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 45 ], [ 60, 76 ], [ 106, 120 ], [ 168, 177 ], [ 382, 396 ], [ 698, 709 ], [ 775, 789 ], [ 791, 807 ], [ 812, 825 ], [ 827, 843 ], [ 850, 863 ], [ 879, 889 ], [ 906, 930 ], [ 949, 963 ], [ 1136, 1157 ], [ 1219, 1227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The landing site selection process for Apollo 12 was greatly informed by the site selection for Apollo 11. There were rigid standards for the possible Apollo 11 landing sites, in which scientific interest was not a major factor: they had to be close to the lunar equator and not on the periphery of the portion of the lunar surface visible from Earth; they had to be relatively flat and without major obstructions along the path the Lunar Module (LM) would fly to reach them, their suitability confirmed by photographs from Lunar Orbiter probes. Also desirable was the presence of another suitable site further west in case the mission was delayed and the sun would have risen too high in the sky at the original site for desired lighting conditions. The need for three days to recycle if a launch had to be scrubbed meant that only three of the five suitable sites found were designated as potential landing sites for Apollo 11, of which the Apollo 11 landing site in the Sea of Tranquillity was the easternmost. Since Apollo 12 was to attempt the first lunar landing if Apollo 11 failed, both sets of astronauts trained for the same sites.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation", "target_page_ids": [ 151932, 99492, 201573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 433, 445 ], [ 524, 537 ], [ 973, 992 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the success of Apollo 11, it was initially contemplated that Apollo 12 would land at the site next further west from the Sea of Tranquility, in Sinus Medii. However, NASA planning coordinator Jack Sevier and engineers at the Manned Spaceflight Center at Houston argued for a landing close enough to the crater in which the Surveyor 3 probe had landed in 1967 to allow the astronauts to cut parts from it for return to Earth. The site was otherwise suitable, and had scientific interest. Given that Apollo 11 had landed several miles off-target, though, some NASA administrators feared Apollo 12 would land far enough away that the astronauts could not reach the probe, and the agency would be embarrassed. Nevertheless, the ability to perform pinpoint landings was essential if Apollo's exploration program was to be carried out, and on July 25, 1969, Apollo Program Manager Samuel Phillips designated what became known as Surveyor crater as the landing site, despite the unanimous opposition of members of two site selection boards.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation", "target_page_ids": [ 1225465, 177571, 80048, 11090485, 62560026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 160 ], [ 230, 255 ], [ 328, 338 ], [ 880, 895 ], [ 928, 943 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 12 astronauts spent five hours in mission-specific training for every hour they expected to spend in flight on the mission, a total exceeding 1,000 hours per crew member. Conrad and Bean received more mission-specific training than Apollo 11's Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin had. This was in addition to the 1,500 hours of training they received as backup crew members for Apollo 9. The Apollo 12 training included over 400 hours per crew member in simulators of the Command Module (CM) and of the LM. Some of the simulations were linked in real time to flight controllers in Mission Control. To practice landing on the Moon, Conrad flew the Lunar Landing Training Vehicle (LLTV), training in which continued to be authorized even though Armstrong had been forced to bail out of a similar vehicle in 1968, just before it crashed. Had Apollo 11 not succeeded, Apollo 12 would have flown in September 1969, but with the successful landing on the Moon, Apollo 12 was moved back to November and later Apollo missions were also put on a more relaxed schedule.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation", "target_page_ids": [ 21247, 65777, 718111, 847349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 269 ], [ 274, 285 ], [ 478, 492 ], [ 653, 683 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soon after being assigned as Apollo 12 crew commander, Conrad met with NASA geologists and told them that the training for lunar surface activities would be conducted much as Apollo 11's, but there was to be no publicity or involvement by the media. Conrad felt he had been abused by the press during Gemini, and the sole Apollo 11 geology field trip had turned into a near-fiasco, with a large media contingent present, some getting in the way—the astronauts had trouble hearing each other due to a hovering press helicopter. After the successful return of Apollo 11 in July 1969, more time was allotted for geology, but the astronauts' focus was in getting time in the simulators without being pre-empted by the Apollo 11 crew. On the six Apollo 12 geology field trips, the astronauts would practice as if on the Moon, collecting samples and documenting them with photographs, while communicating with a CAPCOM and geologists who were out of sight in a nearby tent. Afterwards, the astronauts' performance in choosing samples and taking photographs would be critiqued. To the frustration of the astronauts, the scientists kept changing the photo documentation procedures; after the fourth or fifth such change, Conrad required that there be no more. After the return of Apollo 11, the Apollo 12 crew was able to view the lunar samples, and be briefed on them by scientists.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As Apollo 11 was targeted for an ellipse-shaped landing zone, rather than at a specific point, there was no planning for geology traverses, the designated tasks to be done at sites of the crew's choosing. For Apollo 12, before the mission, some of NASA's geology team met with the crew and Conrad suggested they lay out possible routes for him and Bean. The result was four traverses, based on four potential landing points for the LM. This was the start of geology traverse planning that on later missions became a considerable effort involving several organizations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The stages of the lunar module, LM–6, were delivered to Kennedy Space Center (KSC) on March 24, 1969, and were mated to each other on April 28. Command module CM–108 and service module SM–108 were delivered to KSC on March 28, and were mated to each other on April 21. Following installation of gear and testing, the launch vehicle, with the spacecraft atop it, was rolled out to Launch Complex 39A on September 8, 1969. The training schedule was complete, as planned, by November 1, 1969; activities after that date were intended as refreshers. The crew members felt that the training, for the most part, was adequate preparation for the Moon mission.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation", "target_page_ids": [ 16421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There were no significant changes to the Saturn V launch vehicle used on Apollo 12, SA–507, from that used on Apollo 11. There were another 17 instrumentation measurements in the Apollo 12 launch vehicle, bringing the number to 1,365. The entire vehicle, including the spacecraft, weighed at launch, an increase from Apollo 11's . Of this figure, the spacecraft weighed , up from on Apollo 11.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 20584918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After LM separation, the third stage of the Saturn V, the S-IVB, was intended to fly into solar orbit. The S-IVB auxiliary propulsion system was fired, with the intent that the Moon's gravity slingshot the stage into solar orbit. Due to an error, the S-IVB flew past the Moon at too high an altitude to achieve Earth escape velocity. It remained in a semi-stable Earth orbit until it finally escaped Earth orbit in 1971, but briefly returned to Earth orbit 31 years later. It was discovered by amateur astronomer Bill Yeung who gave it the temporary designation J002E3 before it was determined to be an artificial object. Again in solar orbit as of 2021, it may again be captured by Earth's gravity, but not at least until the 2040s. The S-IVBs used on later lunar missions were deliberately crashed into the Moon to create seismic events that would register on the seismometers left on the Moon and provide data about the Moon's structure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 272021, 155758, 760368, 1300322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 63 ], [ 192, 201 ], [ 513, 523 ], [ 562, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 12 spacecraft consisted of Command Module 108 and Service Module 108 (together Command and Service Modules 108, or CSM–108), Lunar Module 6 (LM–6), a Launch Escape System (LES), and Spacecraft-Lunar Module Adapter 15 (SLA–15). The LES contained three rocket motors to propel the CM to safety in the event of an abort shortly after launch, while the SLA housed the LM and provided a structural connection between the Saturn V and the LM. The SLA was identical to Apollo 11's, while the LES differed only in the installation of a more reliable motor igniter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The CSM was given the call sign Yankee Clipper, while the LM had the call sign Intrepid. These sea-related names were selected by the all-Navy crew from several thousand proposed names submitted by employees of the prime contractors of the respective modules. George Glacken, a flight test engineer at North American Aviation, builder of the CSM, proposed Yankee Clipper as such ships had \"majestically sailed the high seas with pride and prestige for a new America\". Intrepid was from a suggestion by Robert Lambert, a planner at Grumman, builder of the LM, as evocative of \"this nation's resolute determination for continued exploration of space, stressing our astronauts' fortitude and endurance of hardship\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 2797722, 221761, 216799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ], [ 302, 325 ], [ 531, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The differences between the CSM and LM of Apollo 11, and those of Apollo 12, were few and minor. A hydrogen separator was added to the CSM to stop the gas from entering the potable water tank—Apollo 11 had had one, though mounted on the water dispenser in the CM's cabin. Gaseous hydrogen in the water had given the Apollo 11 crew severe flatulence. Other changes included the strengthening of the recovery loop attached following splashdown, meaning that the swimmers recovering the CM would not have to attach an auxiliary loop. LM changes included a structural modification so that scientific experiment packages could be carried for deployment on the lunar surface. Two hammocks were added for greater comfort of the astronauts while resting on the Moon, and a color television camera substituted for the black and white one used on the lunar surface during Apollo 11.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 6336535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 763, 788 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package, or ALSEP, was a suite of scientific instruments designed to be emplaced on the lunar surface by the Apollo astronauts, and thereafter operate autonomously, sending data to Earth. Development of the ALSEP was part of NASA's response to some scientists who opposed the crewed lunar landing program (they felt that robotic craft could explore the Moon more cheaply) by demonstrating that some tasks, such as deployment of the ALSEP, required humans. In 1966, a contract to design and build the ALSEPs was awarded to the Bendix Corporation Due to the limited time the Apollo 11 crew would have on the lunar surface, a smaller suite of experiments was flown, known as the Early Apollo Surface Experiment Package (EASEP). Apollo 12 was the first mission to carry an ALSEP; one would be flown on each of the subsequent lunar landing missions, though the components that were included would vary. Apollo 12's ALSEP was to be deployed at least away from the LM to protect the instruments from the debris that would be generated when the ascent stage of the LM took off to return the astronauts to lunar orbit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 30874175, 1363506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 44 ], [ 563, 581 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 12's ALSEP included a Lunar Surface Magnetometer (LSM), to measure the magnetic field at the Moon's surface, a Lunar Atmosphere Detector (LAD, also known as the Cold Cathode Ion Gauge Experiment), intended to measure the density and temperature of the thin lunar atmosphere and how it varies, a Lunar Ionosphere Detector (LID, also known as the Charged Particle Lunar Environment Experiment, or CPLEE), intended to study the charged particles in the lunar atmosphere, and the Solar Wind Spectrometer, to measure the strength and direction of the solar wind at the Moon's surface—the free-standing Solar Wind Composition Experiment, to measure what makes up the solar wind, would be deployed and then brought back to Earth by the astronauts. A Dust Detector was used to measure the accumulation of lunar dust on the equipment. Apollo 12's Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE), a seismometer, would measure moonquakes and other movements in the Moon's crust, and would be calibrated by the nearby planned impact of the ascent stage of Apollo 12's LM, an object of known mass and velocity hitting the Moon at a known location, and projected to be equivalent to the explosive force of one ton of TNT.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 28538, 7682366, 49383463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 553, 563 ], [ 804, 814 ], [ 833, 871 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ALSEP experiments left on the Moon by Apollo 12 were connected to a Central Station, which contained a transmitter, receiver, timer, data processor, and equipment for power distribution and control of the experiments. The equipment was powered by SNAP-27, a radioisotope thermoelectric generator (RTG) developed by the Atomic Energy Commission. Containing plutonium, the RTG flown on Apollo 12 was the first use of atomic energy on a crewed NASA spacecraft—some NASA and military satellites had previously used similar systems. The plutonium core was brought from Earth in a cask attached to an LM landing leg, a container designed to survive re-entry in the event of an aborted mission, something NASA considered unlikely. The cask would survive re-entry on Apollo 13, sinking in the Tonga Trench of the Pacific Ocean, apparently without radioactive leakage.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 5230467, 211485, 51718, 7987684, 1770, 354507 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 258 ], [ 262, 299 ], [ 323, 347 ], [ 360, 369 ], [ 763, 772 ], [ 789, 801 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 12 ALSEP experiments were activated from Earth on November 19, 1969. The LAD returned only a small amount of useful data due to the failure of its power supply soon after activation. The LSM was deactivated on June 14, 1974, as was the other LSM deployed on the Moon, from Apollo 15. All powered ALSEP experiments that remained active were deactivated on September 30, 1977, principally because of budgetary constraints.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With President Richard Nixon in attendance, the first time a current U.S. president had witnessed a crewed space launch, as well as Vice President Spiro Agnew, Apollo 12 launched as planned at 11:22:00 on November 14, 1969 (16:22:00 UT) from Kennedy Space Center. This was at the start of a launch window of three hours and four minutes to reach the Moon with optimal lighting conditions at the planned landing point. There were completely overcast rainy skies, and the vehicle encountered winds of during ascent, the strongest of any Apollo mission. There was a NASA rule against launching into a cumulonimbus cloud; this had been waived and it was later determined that the launch vehicle never entered such a cloud. Had the mission been postponed, it could have been launched on November 16 with landing at a backup site where there would be no Surveyor, but since time pressure to achieve a lunar landing had been removed by Apollo 11's success, NASA might have waited until December for the next opportunity to go to the Surveyor crater.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 25473, 39075, 47530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 28 ], [ 147, 158 ], [ 599, 617 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lightning struck the Saturn V 36.5 seconds after lift-off, triggered by the vehicle itself. The static discharge caused a voltage transient that knocked all three fuel cells offline, meaning the spacecraft was being powered entirely from its batteries, which could not supply enough current to meet demand. A second strike at 52 seconds knocked out the \"8-ball\" attitude indicator. The telemetry stream at Mission Control was garbled, but the Saturn V continued to fly normally; the strikes had not affected the Saturn V instrument unit guidance system, which functioned independently from the CSM. The astronauts unexpectedly had a board red with caution and warning lights, but could not tell exactly what was wrong.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 315968, 46256, 19578379, 712662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 362, 380 ], [ 386, 395 ], [ 406, 421 ], [ 512, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Electrical, Environmental and Consumables Manager (EECOM) in Mission Control, John Aaron, remembered the telemetry failure pattern from an earlier test when a power loss caused a malfunction in the CSM signal conditioning electronics (SCE), which converted raw signals from instrumentation to data that could be displayed on Mission Control's consoles, and knew how to fix it. Aaron made a call, \"Flight, EECOM. Try SCE to Aux\", to switch the SCE to a backup power supply. The switch was fairly obscure, and neither Flight Director Gerald Griffin, CAPCOM Gerald P. Carr, nor Conrad knew what it was; Bean, who as LMP was the spacecraft's engineer, knew where to find it and threw the switch, after which the telemetry came back online, revealing no significant malfunctions. Bean put the fuel cells back online, and the mission continued. Once in Earth parking orbit, the crew carefully checked out their spacecraft before re-igniting the S-IVB third stage for trans-lunar injection. The lightning strikes caused no serious permanent damage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 4052227, 2584747, 11962478, 85757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 61 ], [ 82, 92 ], [ 857, 870 ], [ 965, 986 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Initially, it was feared that the lightning strike could have damaged the explosive bolts that opened the Command Module's parachute compartment. The decision was made not to share this with the astronauts and to continue with the flight plan, since they would die if the parachutes failed to deploy, whether following an Earth-orbit abort or upon a return from the Moon, so nothing was to be gained by aborting. The parachutes deployed and functioned normally at the end of the mission.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After systems checks in Earth orbit, performed with great care because of the lightning strikes, the trans-lunar injection burn, made with the S-IVB, took place at 02:47:22.80 into the mission, setting Apollo 12 on course for the Moon. An hour and twenty minutes later, the CSM separated from the S-IVB, after which Gordon performed the transposition, docking and extracting maneuver to dock with the LM and separate the combined craft from the S-IVB, which was then sent on an attempt to reach solar orbit. The stage fired its engines to leave the vicinity of the spacecraft, a change from Apollo 11, where the SM's Service Propulsion System (SPS) engine was used to distance it from the S-IVB.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As there were concerns the LM might have been damaged by the lightning strikes, Conrad and Bean entered it on the first day of flight to check its status, earlier than planned. They found no issues. At 30:52.44.36, the only necessary midcourse correction during the translunar coast was made, placing the craft on a hybrid, non-free-return trajectory. Previous crewed missions to lunar orbit had taken a free-return trajectory, allowing an easy return to Earth if the craft's engines did not fire to enter lunar orbit. Apollo 12 was the first crewed spacecraft to take a hybrid free-return trajectory, that would require another burn to return to Earth, but one that could be executed by the LM's Descent Propulsion System (DPS) if the SPS failed. The use of a hybrid trajectory allowed more flexibility in mission planning. It for example allowed Apollo 12 to launch in daylight and reach the planned landing spot on schedule. Use of a hybrid trajectory meant that Apollo 12 took 8 hours longer to go from trans-lunar injection to lunar orbit.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 4435025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 404, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 12 entered a lunar orbit of with an SPS burn of 352.25 seconds at mission time 83:25:26.36. On the first lunar orbit, there was a television transmission that resulted in good-quality video of the lunar surface. On the third lunar orbit, there was another burn to circularize the craft's orbit to , and on the next revolution, preparations began for the lunar landing. The CSM and LM undocked at 107:54:02.3; a half hour later there was a burn by the CSM to separate them. The 14.4 second burn by some of the CSM's thrusters meant that the two craft would be apart when the LM began the burn to move to a lower orbit in preparation for landing on the Moon.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The LM's Descent Propulsion System began a 29-second burn at 109:23:39.9 to move the craft to the lower orbit, from which the 717-second powered descent to the lunar surface began at 110:20:38.1. Conrad had trained to expect a pattern of craters known as \"the Snowman\" to be visible when the craft underwent \"pitchover\", with the Surveyor crater in its center, but had feared he would see nothing recognizable. He was astonished to see the Snowman right where it should be, meaning they were directly on course. He took over manual control, planning to land the LM, as he had in simulations, in an area near the Surveyor crater that had been dubbed \"Pete's Parking Lot\", but found it rougher than expected. He had to maneuver, and landed the LM ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "at 110:32:36.2 (06:54:36 UT on November 19, 1969), just from the Surveyor probe. This achieved one objective of the mission, to perform a precision landing near the Surveyor craft.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The lunar coordinates of the landing site were 3.01239° S latitude, 23.42157° W longitude. The landing caused high velocity sandblasting of the Surveyor probe. It was later determined that the sandblasting removed more dust than it delivered onto the Surveyor, because the probe was covered by a thin layer that gave it a tan hue as observed by the astronauts, and every portion of the surface exposed to the direct sandblasting was lightened back toward the original white color through the removal of lunar dust.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 875367 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Conrad, the shortest man of the initial groups of astronauts, stepped onto the lunar surface his first words were \"Whoopie! Man, that may have been a small one for Neil, but that's a long one for me.\" This was not an off-the-cuff remark: Conrad had made a bet with reporter Oriana Fallaci he would say these words, after she had queried whether NASA had instructed Neil Armstrong what to say as he stepped onto the Moon. Conrad later said he was never able to collect the money.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 141030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 280, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To improve the quality of television pictures from the Moon, a color camera was carried on Apollo 12 (unlike the monochrome camera on Apollo 11). When Bean carried the camera to the place near the LM where it was to be set up, he inadvertently pointed it directly into the Sun, destroying the Secondary Electron Conduction (SEC) tube. Television coverage of this mission was thus terminated almost immediately.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 6336535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 293, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After raising a U.S. flag on the Moon, Conrad and Bean devoted much of the remainder of the first EVA to deploying the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP). There were minor difficulties with the deployment. Bean had trouble extracting the RTG's plutonium fuel element from its protective cask, and the astronauts had to resort to the use of a hammer to hit the cask and dislodge the fuel element. Some of the ALSEP packages proved hard to deploy, though the astronauts were successful in all cases. With the PSE able to detect their footprints as they headed back to the LM, the astronauts secured a core tube full of lunar material, and collected other samples. The first EVA lasted 3 hours, 56 minutes and 3 seconds.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 32744030, 3086453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 37 ], [ 613, 622 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four possible geologic traverses had been planned, the variable being where the LM might set down. Conrad had landed it between two of these potential landing points, and during the first EVA and the rest break that followed, scientists in Houston combined two of the traverses into one that Conrad and Bean could follow from their landing point. The resultant traverse resembled a rough circle, and when the astronauts emerged from the LM some 13 hours after ending the first EVA, the first stop was Head crater, some from the LM. There, Bean noticed that Conrad's footprints showed lighter material underneath, indicating the presence of ejecta from Copernicus crater, to the north, something that scientists examining overhead photographs of the site had hoped to find. After the mission, samples from Head allowed geologists to date the impact that formed Copernicus—according to initial dating, some 810,000,000 years ago.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 62560119, 349235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 501, 512 ], [ 653, 670 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The astronauts proceeded to Bench crater and Sharp crater and past Halo crater before arriving at Surveyor crater, where the Surveyor 3 probe had landed. Fearing treacherous footing or that the probe might topple on them, they approached Surveyor cautiously, descending into the shallow crater some distance away and then following a contour to reach the craft, but found the footing solid and the probe stable. They collected several pieces of Surveyor, including the television camera, as well as taking rocks that had been studied by television. Conrad and Bean had procured an automatic timer for their Hasselblad cameras, and had brought it with them without telling Mission Control, hoping to take a selfie of the two of them with the probe, but when the time came to use it, could not locate it among the lunar samples they had already placed in their Hand Tool Carrier. Before returning to the LM's vicinity, Conrad and Bean went to Block crater, within Surveyor crater. The second EVA lasted 3 hours, 49 minutes, 15 seconds, during which they traveled . During the EVAs, Conrad and Bean went as far as from the LM, and collected of samples.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 62560164, 62560201, 62560224, 62560026, 153832, 38956275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 40 ], [ 45, 57 ], [ 67, 78 ], [ 98, 113 ], [ 607, 617 ], [ 706, 712 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the LM's departure, Gordon had little to say as Mission Control focused on the lunar landing. Once that was accomplished, Gordon sent his congratulations and, on the next orbit, was able to spot both the LM and the Surveyor on the ground and convey their locations to Houston. During the first EVA, Gordon prepared for a plane change maneuver, a burn to alter the CSM's orbit to compensate for the rotation of the Moon, though at times he had difficulty communicating with Houston since Conrad and Bean were using the same communications circuit. Once the two moonwalkers had returned to the LM, Gordon executed the burn, which ensured he would be in the proper position to rendezvous with the LM when it launched from the Moon.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 979374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 327, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While alone in orbit, Gordon performed the Lunar Multispectral Photography Experiment, using four Hasselblad cameras arranged in a ring and aimed through one of the CM's windows. With each camera having a different color filter, simultaneous photos would be taken by each, showing the appearance of lunar features at different points on the spectrum. Analysis of the images might reveal colors not visible to the naked eye or detectable with ordinary color film, and information could be obtained about the composition of sites that would not soon be visited by humans. Among the sites studied were contemplated landing points for future Apollo missions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 29329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 341, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "LM Intrepid lifted off from the Moon at mission time 143:03:47.78, or 14:25:47 UT on November 20, 1969; after several maneuvers, CSM and LM docked three and a half hours later. At 147:59:31.6, the LM ascent stage was jettisoned, and shortly thereafter the CSM maneuvered away. Under control from Earth, the LM's remaining propellent was depleted in a burn that caused it to impact the Moon from the Apollo 12 landing point. The seismometer the astronauts had left on the lunar surface registered the resulting vibrations for more than an hour.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The crew stayed another day in lunar orbit taking photographs of the surface, including of candidate sites for future Apollo landings. A second plane change maneuver was made at 159:04:45.47, lasting 19.25 seconds.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The trans-Earth injection burn, to send the CSM Yankee Clipper towards home, was conducted at 172:27:16.81 and lasted 130.32 seconds. Two short midcourse correction burns were made en route. A final television broadcast was made, the astronauts answering questions submitted by the media. There was ample time for rest on the way back to Earth, One event was the photography of a solar eclipse that occurred when the Earth came between the spacecraft and the Sun; Bean described it as the most spectacular sight of the mission.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Yankee Clipper returned to Earth on November 24, 1969, at 20:58 UT (3:58pm Eastern Time, 10:58am HST), in the Pacific Ocean. The landing was hard, and a camera was dislodged and struck Bean in the forehead. After recovery by , they entered the Mobile Quarantine Facility (MQF), while lunar samples and Surveyor parts were sent ahead by air to the Lunar Receiving Laboratory (LRL) in Houston. Once the Hornet docked in Hawaii, the MQF was offloaded and flown to Ellington Air Force Base near Houston on November 29, from where it was taken to the LRL, where the astronauts remained until released from quarantine on December 10.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 524045, 23736776, 1769486, 14480070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 100 ], [ 244, 270 ], [ 347, 373 ], [ 461, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 12 mission patch shows the crew's naval background; all three astronauts at the time of the mission were U.S. Navy commanders. It features a clipper ship arriving at the Moon, representing the CM Yankee Clipper. The ship trails fire, and flies the flag of the United States. The mission name APOLLO XII and the crew names are on a wide gold border, with a small blue trim. Blue and gold are traditional U.S. Navy colors. The patch has four stars on it – one each for the three astronauts who flew the mission and one for Clifton Williams, the original LMP on Conrad's crew who was killed in 1967 and would have flown the mission. The star was placed there at the suggestion of his replacement, Bean.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 14157109, 7461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 136 ], [ 152, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The insignia was designed by the crew with the aid of several employees of NASA contractors. The Apollo 12 landing area on the Moon is within the portion of the lunar surface shown on the insignia, based on a photograph of a globe of the Moon, taken by engineers. The clipper ship was based on photographs of such a ship obtained by Bean.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission insignia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the mission, Conrad urged his crewmates to join him in the Skylab program, seeing in it the best chance of flying in space again. Bean did so—Conrad commanded Skylab 2, the first crewed mission to the space station, while Bean commanded Skylab 3. Gordon, though, still hoped to walk on the Moon and remained with the Apollo program, serving as backup commander of Apollo 15. He was the likely commander of Apollo 18, but that mission was canceled and he did not fly in space again.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aftermath and spacecraft location", "target_page_ids": [ 29441, 355040, 563385, 2651480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 71 ], [ 165, 173 ], [ 243, 251 ], [ 412, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 12 command module Yankee Clipper, was displayed at the Paris Air Show and was then placed at NASA's Langley Research Center in Hampton, Virginia; ownership was transferred to the Smithsonian in July 1971. It is on display at the Virginia Air and Space Center in Hampton. ", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aftermath and spacecraft location", "target_page_ids": [ 606432, 337034, 91310, 65828, 28151460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 80 ], [ 111, 134 ], [ 138, 155 ], [ 190, 201 ], [ 240, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mission Control had remotely fired the service module's thrusters after jettison, hoping to have it skip off the atmosphere and enter a high-apogee orbit, but the lack of tracking data confirming this caused it to conclude it most likely burned up in the atmosphere at the time of CM re-entry. The S-IVB is in a solar orbit that is sometimes affected by the Earth.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aftermath and spacecraft location", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The ascent stage of LM Intrepid impacted the Moon November 20, 1969, at 22:17:17.7 UT (5:17pm EST). In 2009, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) photographed the Apollo 12 landing site, where the descent stage, ALSEP, Surveyor3 spacecraft, and astronaut footpaths remain. In 2011, the LRO returned to the landing site at a lower altitude to take higher resolution photographs.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aftermath and spacecraft location", "target_page_ids": [ 15970718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Google Moon", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2126501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of artificial objects on the Moon", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 537458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 923416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 12\" at Encyclopedia Astronautica", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 12\" at NASA's National Space Science Data Center", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 5296529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 12 Traverse Map\" at the USGS Astrogeology Science Center", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 5782370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lunar Orbiter 3 Image 154 H2, used for planning the mission (landing site is left of center).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 12 Preliminary Science Report\" (PDF), NASA, NASA SP-235, 1970", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Analysis of Apollo 12 Lightning Incident\", (PDF) February 1970", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Analysis of Surveyor 3 material and photographs returned by Apollo 12\" (PDF) 1972", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Examination of Surveyor 3 surface sampler scoop\"(PDF) 1971", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Table 2-40. Apollo 12 Characteristics\" from NASA Historical Data Book: Volume III: Programs and Projects 1969–1978 by Linda Neuman Ezell, NASA History Series (1988) ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology NASA, NASA SP-4009", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo Program Summary Report\" (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 12: Pinpoint For Science\" on YouTube", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 12: The Bernie Scrivener Audio Tapes\" – Apollo 12 audio recordings at the Apollo 12 Flight Journal", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 12: There and Back Again\" – Image slideshow by Life magazine", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 187479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo12: Comic Book\" (50th Anniversary - November 20, 1969-2019)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 12: Patch\" – Image of Apollo 12 mission patch", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Apollo_12", "Alan_Bean", "Pete_Conrad", "Richard_F._Gordon_Jr.", "Apollo_program_missions", "Extravehicular_activity", "Crewed_missions_to_the_Moon", "Sample_return_missions", "Soft_landings_on_the_Moon", "Spacecraft_launched_in_1969", "Spacecraft_which_reentered_in_1969", "Spacecraft_launched_by_Saturn_rockets", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "1969_on_the_Moon", "1969_in_the_United_States", "November_1969_events" ]

[ "Apollo XII" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Apollo 14 (January 31, 1971February 9, 1971) was the eighth crewed mission in the United States Apollo program, the third to land on the Moon, and the first to land in the lunar highlands. It was the last of the \"H missions\", landings at specific sites of scientific interest on the Moon for two-day stays with two lunar extravehicular activities (EVAs or moonwalks).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1461, 1558077, 2096232, 9481400, 9792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 110 ], [ 125, 141 ], [ 172, 187 ], [ 213, 223 ], [ 321, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mission was originally scheduled for 1970, but was postponed because of the investigation following the failure of Apollo 13 to reach the Moon's surface, and the need for modifications to the spacecraft as a result. Commander Alan Shepard, Command Module Pilot Stuart Roosa, and Lunar Module Pilot Edgar Mitchell launched on their nine-day mission on Sunday, January 31, 1971, at 4:03:02p.m. EST. En route to the lunar landing, the crew overcame malfunctions that might have resulted in a second consecutive aborted mission, and possibly, the premature end of the Apollo program.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1770, 63727, 13959901, 338113, 13959901, 303600, 496028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 128 ], [ 230, 242 ], [ 244, 264 ], [ 265, 277 ], [ 283, 301 ], [ 302, 316 ], [ 396, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shepard and Mitchell made their lunar landing on February5 in the Fra Mauro formation– originally the target of Apollo 13. During the two walks on the surface, they collected of Moon rocks and deployed several scientific experiments. To the dismay of some geologists, Shepard and Mitchell did not reach the rim of Cone crater as had been planned, though they came close. In Apollo 14's most famous event, Shepard hit two golf balls he had brought with him with a makeshift club.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 206582, 2240081, 30874175, 63032719, 1085894 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 85 ], [ 179, 188 ], [ 211, 233 ], [ 315, 326 ], [ 422, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Shepard and Mitchell were on the surface, Roosa remained in lunar orbit aboard the Command and Service Module, performing scientific experiments and photographing the Moon, including the landing site of the future Apollo 16 mission. He took several hundred seeds on the mission, many of which were germinated on return, resulting in the so-called Moon trees, that were widely distributed in the following years. After liftoff from the lunar surface and a successful docking, the spacecraft was flown back to Earth where the three astronauts splashed down safely in the Pacific Ocean on February 9.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5908941, 718111, 1970, 227478, 1260584, 23070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 77 ], [ 89, 115 ], [ 220, 229 ], [ 304, 314 ], [ 353, 362 ], [ 575, 588 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mission commander of Apollo 14, Alan Shepard, one of the original Mercury Seven astronauts, became the first American to enter space with a suborbital flight on May 5, 1961. Thereafter, he was grounded by Ménière's disease, a disorder of the ear, and served as Chief Astronaut, the administrative head of the Astronaut Office. He had experimental surgery in 1968 which was successful and allowed his return to flight status. Shepard, at age 47, was the oldest U.S. astronaut to fly when he made his trip aboard Apollo 14, and he is the oldest person to walk on the Moon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Astronauts and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 63727, 725945, 455295, 55994, 10173283, 30156261, 664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 48 ], [ 70, 83 ], [ 144, 161 ], [ 209, 226 ], [ 265, 280 ], [ 313, 329 ], [ 469, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 14's Command Module Pilot (CMP), Stuart Roosa, aged 37 when the mission flew, had been a smoke jumper before joining the Air Force in 1953. He became a fighter pilot and then in 1965 successfully completed Aerospace Research Pilot School (ARPS) at Edwards Air Force Base in California prior to his selection as a Group 5 astronaut the following year. He served as a capsule communicator (CAPCOM) for Apollo 9. The Lunar Module Pilot (LMP), Edgar Mitchell, aged 40 at the time of Apollo 14, joined the Navy in 1952 and served as a fighter pilot, beginning in 1954. He was assigned to squadrons aboard aircraft carriers before returning to the United States to further his education while in the Navy, also completing the ARPS prior to his selection as a Group 5 astronaut. He served on the support crew for Apollo 9 and was the LMP of the backup crew for Apollo 10.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Astronauts and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 338113, 311748, 610257, 107530, 3144431, 4052227, 1774, 303600, 1966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 52 ], [ 96, 108 ], [ 213, 244 ], [ 255, 277 ], [ 320, 327 ], [ 373, 393 ], [ 407, 415 ], [ 447, 461 ], [ 861, 870 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shepard and his crew had originally been designated by Deke Slayton, Director of Flight Crew Operations and one of the Mercury Seven, as the crew for Apollo 13. NASA's management felt that Shepard needed more time for training given he had not flown in space since 1961, and chose him and his crew for Apollo 14 instead. The crew originally designated for Apollo 14, Jim Lovell as the commander, Ken Mattingly as CMP and Fred Haise as LMP, all of whom had backed up Apollo 11, was made the prime crew for Apollo 13 instead.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Astronauts and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 331454, 344336, 593844, 366161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 67 ], [ 367, 377 ], [ 396, 409 ], [ 421, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mitchell's commander on the Apollo 10 backup crew had been another of the original seven, Gordon Cooper, who had tentatively been scheduled to command Apollo 13, but according to author Andrew Chaikin, his casual attitude toward training resulted in him being not selected . Also on that crew, but excluded from further flights, was Donn Eisele, likely because of problems aboard Apollo 7, which he had flown, and because he had been involved in a messy divorce.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Astronauts and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 331785, 4171597, 598416, 1773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 103 ], [ 186, 200 ], [ 333, 344 ], [ 380, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 14's backup crew was Eugene A. Cernan as commander, Ronald E. Evans Jr. as CMP and Joe H. Engle as LMP. The backup crew, with Harrison Schmitt replacing Engle, would become the prime crew of Apollo 17. Schmitt flew instead of Engle because there was intense pressure on NASA to fly a scientist to the Moon (Schmitt was a geologist) and Apollo 17 was the last lunar flight. Engle, who had flown the X-15 to the edge of outer space, flew into space for NASA in 1981 on STS-2, the second Space Shuttle flight.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Astronauts and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 300531, 598426, 503116, 13793, 1971, 221315, 181022, 28189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 44 ], [ 59, 78 ], [ 90, 102 ], [ 133, 149 ], [ 198, 207 ], [ 405, 409 ], [ 474, 479 ], [ 492, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During projects Mercury and Gemini, each mission had a prime and a backup crew. Apollo 9 commander James McDivitt believed meetings that required a member of the flight crew were being missed, so for Apollo a third crew of astronauts was added, known as the support crew. Usually low in seniority, support crew members assembled the mission's rules, flight plan, and checklists, and kept them updated; for Apollo 14, they were Philip K. Chapman, Bruce McCandless II, William R. Pogue and C. Gordon Fullerton. CAPCOMs, the individuals in Mission Control responsible for communications with the astronauts were Evans, McCandless, Fullerton and Haise. A veteran of Apollo 13, which had aborted before reaching the Moon, Haise put his training for that mission to use, especially during the EVAs, since both missions were targeted at the same place on the Moon. Had Haise walked on the Moon, he would have been the first Group 5 astronaut to do so, an honor that went to Mitchell.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Astronauts and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 19812, 882736, 622247, 1289256, 337199, 502753, 635277, 503592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 23 ], [ 28, 34 ], [ 99, 113 ], [ 350, 361 ], [ 427, 444 ], [ 446, 465 ], [ 467, 483 ], [ 488, 507 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The flight directors during Apollo had a one-sentence job description, \"The flight director may take any actions necessary for crew safety and mission success.\" For Apollo 14, they were: Pete Frank, Orange team; Glynn Lunney, Black team; Milt Windler, Maroon team and Gerry Griffin, Gold team.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Astronauts and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 64591021, 6393260, 55119065, 13275040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 197 ], [ 212, 224 ], [ 238, 250 ], [ 268, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prime and backup crews for both Apollo 13 and 14 were announced on August 6, 1969. Apollo 14 was scheduled for July 1970, but in January of that year, due to budget cuts that saw the cancellation of Apollo 20, NASA decided there would be two Apollo missions per year with 1970 to see Apollo 13 in April and Apollo 14 likely in October or November.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation and training", "target_page_ids": [ 2651480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The investigation into the accident which caused an abort of Apollo 13 delayed Apollo 14. On May 7, 1970, NASA Administrator Thomas O. Paine announced that Apollo 14 would launch no earlier than December 3, and the landing would be close to the site targeted by Apollo 13. The Apollo 14 astronauts continued their training. On June 30, 1970, following the release of the accident report and a NASA review of what changes to the spacecraft would be necessary, NASA announced that the launch would slip to no earlier than January 31, 1971.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation and training", "target_page_ids": [ 525195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The crew of Apollo 14 trained together for 19 months after assignment to the mission, longer than any other Apollo crew to that point. In addition to the normal training workload, they had to supervise the changes to the command and service module (CSM) made as a result of the Apollo 13 investigation, much of which was delegated by Shepard to Roosa. Mitchell later stated, \"We realized that if our mission failed—if we had to turn back—that was probably the end of the Apollo program. There was no way NASA could stand two failures in a row. We figured there was a heavy mantle on our shoulders to make sure we got it right.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation and training", "target_page_ids": [ 718111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the abort of the Apollo 13 mission, the plan was to have Apollo 14 land near Littrow crater, in Mare Serenitatis, where there are features that were thought to be volcanic. After Apollo 13 returned, it was decided that its landing site, near Cone crater in the Fra Mauro formation, was scientifically more important than Littrow. The Fra Mauro formation is composed of ejecta from the impact event that formed Mare Imbrium, and scientists hoped for samples that originated deep under the Moon's surface. Cone crater was the result of a young, deep impact, and large enough to have torn through whatever debris was deposited since the Imbrium Event, which geologists hoped to be able to date. Landing at Fra Mauro would also allow orbital photography of another candidate landing site, the Descartes Highlands, which became the landing site for Apollo 16. Although Littrow went unvisited, a nearby area, Taurus-Littrow, was the landing site for Apollo 17. Apollo 14's landing site was located slightly closer to Cone crater than the point designated for Apollo 13.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation and training", "target_page_ids": [ 999820, 206292, 63032719, 206582, 99044, 28848455, 1970, 28623094, 1971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 98 ], [ 103, 119 ], [ 249, 260 ], [ 268, 287 ], [ 417, 429 ], [ 796, 815 ], [ 851, 860 ], [ 910, 924 ], [ 951, 960 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The change in landing site from Littrow to Fra Mauro affected the geological training for Apollo 14. Before the switch, the astronauts had been taken to volcanic sites on Earth; afterwards, they visited crater sites, such as the Ries Crater in West Germany and an artificial crater field created for astronaut training in Arizona's Verde Valley. The effectiveness of the training was limited by a lack of enthusiasm shown by Shepard, which set the tone for Mitchell. Harrison Schmitt suggested that the commander had other things on his mind, such as overcoming a ten-year absence from spaceflight and ensuring a successful mission after the near-disaster of Apollo 13.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation and training", "target_page_ids": [ 253280, 242575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 240 ], [ 332, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roosa undertook training for his period alone in lunar orbit, when he would make observations of the Moon and take photographs. He had been impressed by the training given to Apollo 13 prime crew CMP Mattingly by geologist Farouk El-Baz and got El-Baz to agree to undertake his training. The two men pored over lunar maps depicting the areas the CSM would pass over. When Shepard and Mitchell were on their geology field trips, Roosa would be overhead in an airplane taking photographs of the site and making observations. El-Baz had Roosa make observations while flying his T-38 jet at a speed and altitude simulating the speed at which the lunar surface would pass below the CSM.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation and training", "target_page_ids": [ 2242569, 357874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 236 ], [ 575, 579 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another issue that had marked Apollo 13 was the last-minute change of crew due to exposure to communicable disease. To prevent another such occurrence, for Apollo 14 NASA instituted what was called the Flight Crew Health Stabilization Program. Beginning 21 days before launch, the crew lived in quarters at the launch site, Florida's Kennedy Space Center (KSC), with their contacts limited to their spouses, the backup crew, mission technicians, and others directly involved in training. Those individuals were given physical examinations and immunizations, and crew movements were limited as much as possible at KSC and nearby areas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation and training", "target_page_ids": [ 16421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 334, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Command and Service Modules were delivered to KSC on November 19, 1969; the ascent stage of the LM arrived on November 21 with the descent stage three days later. Thereafter, checkout, testing and equipment installation proceeded. The launch vehicle stack, with the spacecraft on top, was rolled out from the Vehicle Assembly Building to Pad 39A on November 9, 1970.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Preparation and training", "target_page_ids": [ 268462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 313, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 14 spacecraft consisted of Command Module (CM) 110 and Service Module (SM) 110 (together CSM-110), called Kitty Hawk, and Lunar Module 8 (LM-8), called Antares. Roosa had chosen the CSM's call sign after the town in North Carolina where, in 1903, the Wright Brothers first flew their Wright Flyer airplane (also known as Kitty Hawk). Antares was named by Mitchell after the star in the constellation Scorpius that the astronauts in the LM would use to orient the craft for its lunar landing. Also considered part of the spacecraft were a Launch Escape System and a Spacecraft/Launch Vehicle Adapter, numbered SLA-17.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 151932, 58420, 58410, 1045608, 3076, 26933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 145 ], [ 215, 223 ], [ 262, 277 ], [ 295, 307 ], [ 345, 352 ], [ 411, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The changes to the Apollo spacecraft between Apollo 13 and 14 were more numerous than with earlier missions, not only because of the problems with Apollo 13, but because of the more extensive lunar activities planned for Apollo 14. The Apollo 13 accident had been caused by the explosive failure of an oxygen tank, after the insulation of the internal wiring had been damaged by heating of the tank contents pre-launch—that the oxygen had gotten hot enough to damage the insulation had not been realized, since the protective thermostatic switches had failed because they were, through an error, not designed to handle the voltage applied during ground testing. The explosion damaged the other tank or its tubing, causing its contents to leak away.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The changes in response included a redesign of the oxygen tanks, with the thermostats being upgraded to handle the proper voltage. A third tank was also added, placed in Bay1 of the SM, on the side opposite the other two, and was given a valve that could isolate it in an emergency, and allow it to feed the CM's environmental system only. The quantity probe in each tank was upgraded from aluminum to stainless steel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Also in response to the Apollo 13 accident, the electrical wiring in Bay4 (where the explosion had happened) was sheathed in stainless steel. The fuel cell oxygen supply valves were redesigned to isolate the Teflon-coated wiring from the oxygen. The spacecraft and Mission Control monitoring systems were modified to give more immediate and visible warnings of anomalies. The Apollo 13 astronauts had suffered shortages of water and of power after the accident. Accordingly, an emergency supply of of water was stored in Apollo 14's CM, and an emergency battery, identical to those that powered the LM's descent stage, was placed in the SM. The LM was modified to make the transfer of power from LM to CM easier.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other changes included the installation of anti-slosh baffles in the LM descent stage's propellant tanks. This would prevent the low fuel light from coming on prematurely, as had happened on Apollo 11 and 12. Structural changes were made to accommodate the equipment to be used on the lunar surface, including the Modular Equipment Transporter.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 33037862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 314, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Saturn V used for Apollo 14 was designated SA-509, and was similar to those used on Apollo 8 through 13. At , it was the heaviest vehicle yet flown by NASA, heavier than the launch vehicle for Apollo 13.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 20584918, 663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 88, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of changes were made to avoid pogo oscillations, that had caused an early shutdown of the center J-2 engine on Apollo 13's S-II second stage. These included a helium gas accumulator installed in the liquid oxygen (LOX) line of the center engine, a backup cutoff device for that engine, and a simplified 2-position propellant utilization valve on each of the five J-2 engines.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 624098, 712786, 572843, 18506279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 55 ], [ 106, 109 ], [ 132, 136 ], [ 264, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) array of scientific instruments carried by Apollo 14 consisted of the Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE), Active Seismic Experiment (ASE), Suprathermal Ion Detector (SIDE), Cold Cathode Ion Gauge (CCIG), and Charged Particle Lunar Environmental Experiment (CPLEE). Two additional lunar surface experiments not part of the ALSEP were also flown, the Laser Ranging Retro-Reflector (LRRR or LR3), to be deployed in the ALSEP's vicinity, and the Lunar Portable Magnetometer (LPM), to be used by the astronauts during their second EVA. The PSE had been flown on Apollo 12 and 13, the ASE on Apollo 13, the SIDE on Apollo 12, the CCIG on Apollo 12 and 13, and the LRRR on Apollo 11. The LPM was new, but resembled equipment flown on Apollo 12. The ALSEP components flown on Apollo 13 were destroyed when its LM burned up in Earth's atmosphere.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 30874175, 59853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 44 ], [ 415, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Deployment of the ALSEP, and of the other instruments, each formed one of Apollo 14's mission objectives.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The PSE was a seismometer, similar to one left on the Moon by Apollo 12, and was to measure seismic activity in the Moon. The Apollo 14 instrument would be calibrated by the impact, after being jettisoned, of the LM's ascent stage, since an object of known mass and velocity would be impacting at a known location on the Moon. The Apollo 12 instrument would also be activated by the spent Apollo 14 S-IVB booster, which would impact the Moon after the mission entered lunar orbit. The two seismometers would, in combination with those left by later Apollo missions, constitute a network of such instruments at different locations on the Moon.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 1967, 272021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 71 ], [ 399, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ASE would also measure seismic waves. It consisted of two parts. In the first, one of the crew members would deploy three geophones at distances up to from the ALSEP's Central Station, and on his way back from the furthest, fire thumpers every . The second consisted of four mortars (with their launch tubes), of different properties and set to impact at different distances from the experiment. It was hoped that the waves generated from the impacts would provide data about seismic wave transmission in the Moon's regolith. The mortar shells were not to be fired until the astronauts had returned to Earth, and in the event were never fired for fear they would damage other experiments. A similar experiment was successfully deployed, and the mortars launched, on Apollo 16.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 1278430, 324499, 1970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 134 ], [ 280, 286 ], [ 771, 780 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The LPM was to be carried during the second EVA and used to measure the Moon's magnetic field at various points.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The SIDE measured ions on the lunar surface, including from the solar wind. It was combined with the CCIG, which was to measure the lunar atmosphere and detect if it varied over time. The CPLEE measured the particle energies of protons and electrons generated by the Sun that reached the lunar surface. The LRRR acts as a passive target for laser beams, allowing the measurement of the Earth/Moon distance and how it changes over time. The LRRRs from Apollo 11, 14 and 15 are the only experiments left on the Moon by the Apollo astronauts that are still returning data.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 28538, 8955882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 74 ], [ 132, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flown for the first time on Apollo 14 was the Buddy Secondary Life Support System (BSLSS), a set of flexible hoses that would enable Shepard and Mitchell to share cooling water should one of their Primary Life Support System (PLSS) backpacks fail. In such an emergency, the astronaut with the failed equipment would get oxygen from his Oxygen Purge System (OPS) backup cylinder, but the BSLSS would ensure he did not have to use oxygen for cooling, extending the life of the OPS. The OPSs used on Apollo 14 were modified from those used on previous missions in that the internal heaters were removed as unnecessary.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 7768768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Water bags were also taken to the lunar surface, dubbed \"Gunga Dins\", for insertion in the astronauts' helmets, allowing them sips of water during the EVAs. These had been flown on Apollo 13, but Shepard and Mitchell were the first to use them on the Moon. Similarly, Shepard was the first on the lunar surface to wear a spacesuit with commander's stripes: red stripes on arms, legs, and on the helmet, though one had been worn by Lovell on Apollo 13. These were instituted because of the difficulty in telling one spacesuited astronaut from the other in photographs.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Modular Equipment Transporter (MET) was a two-wheeled handcart, used only on Apollo 14, intended to allow the astronauts to take tools and equipment with them, and store lunar samples, without needing to carry them. On later Apollo program missions, the self-propelled Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) was flown instead.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 33037862, 18238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 33 ], [ 273, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The MET, when deployed for use on the lunar surface, was about long, wide and high. It had pressurized rubber tires wide and in diameter, containing nitrogen and inflated to about . The first use of tires on the Moon, these were developed by Goodyear and were dubbed their XLT (Experimental Lunar Tire) model. Fully loaded, the MET weighed about . Two legs combined with the wheels to provide four-point stability when at rest.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 677590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 14 launched from Launch Complex 39-A at KSC at 4:03:02pm (21:03:02 UTC), January 31, 1971. This followed a launch delay due to weather of 40 minutes and 2 seconds; the first such delay in the Apollo program. The original planned time, 3:23pm, was at the very start of the launch window of just under four hours; had Apollo 14 not launched during it, it could not have departed until March. Apollo 12 had launched during poor weather and twice been struck by lightning, as a result of which the rules had been tightened. Among those present to watch the launch were U.S. Vice President Spiro T. Agnew and the Prince of Spain, the future King Juan Carlos I. The mission would take a faster trajectory to the Moon than planned, and thus make up the time in flight. Because it had, just over two days after launch, the mission timers would be put ahead by 40 minutes and 3 seconds so that later events would take place at the times scheduled in the flight plan.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 39075, 37434416, 75795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 592, 606 ], [ 615, 630 ], [ 648, 661 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the vehicle reached orbit, the S-IVB third stage shut down, and the astronauts performed checks of the spacecraft before restarting the stage for translunar injection (TLI), the burn that placed the vehicle on course for the Moon. After TLI, the CSM separated from the S-IVB, and Roosa performed the transposition maneuver, turning it around in order to dock with the LM before the entire spacecraft separated from the stage. Roosa, who had practiced the maneuver many times, hoped to break the record for the least amount of propellant used in docking. But when he gently brought the modules together, the docking mechanism would not activate. He made several attempts over the next two hours, as mission controllers huddled and sent advice. If the LM could not be extracted from its place on the S-IVB, no lunar landing could take place, and with consecutive failures, the Apollo program might end. Mission Control proposed that they try it again with the docking probe retracted, hoping the contact would trigger the latches. This worked, and within an hour the joined spacecraft had separated from the S-IVB. The stage was set on a course to impact the Moon, which it did just over three days later, causing the Apollo 12 seismometer to register vibrations for over three hours.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 272021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The crew settled in for its voyage to Fra Mauro. At 60:30 Ground Elapsed Time, Shepard and Mitchell entered the LM to check its systems; while there they photographed a wastewater dump from the CSM, part of a particle contamination study in preparation for Skylab. Two midcourse corrections were performed on the translunar coast, with one burn lasting 10.19 seconds and one lasting 0.65 seconds.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 29441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 257, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At 81:56:40.70 into the mission (February 4 at 1:59:43am EST; 06:59:43 UTC), the Service Propulsion System engine in the SM was fired for 370.84 seconds to send the craft into a lunar orbit with apocynthion of and pericynthion of . A second burn, at 86:10:52 mission time, sent the spacecraft into an orbit of by . This was done in preparation for the release of the LM Antares. Apollo 14 was the first mission on which the CSM propelled the LM to the lower orbit—though Apollo 13 would have done so had the abort not already occurred. This was done to increase the amount of hover time available to the astronauts, a safety factor since Apollo 14 was to land in rough terrain.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 88213, 5908941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 206 ], [ 215, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After separating from the command module in lunar orbit, the LM Antares had two serious problems. First, the LM computer began getting an ABORT signal from a faulty switch. NASA believed the computer might be getting erroneous readings like this if a tiny ball of solder had shaken loose and was floating between the switch and the contact, closing the circuit. The immediate solution– tapping on the panel next to the switch– did work briefly, but the circuit soon closed again. If the problem recurred after the descent engine fired, the computer would think the signal was real and would initiate an auto-abort, causing the ascent stage to separate from the descent stage and climb back into orbit. NASA and the software teams at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology scrambled to find a solution. The software was hard-wired, preventing it from being updated from the ground. The fix made it appear to the system that an abort had already happened, and it would ignore incoming automated signals to abort. This would not prevent the astronauts from piloting the ship, though if an abort became necessary, they might have to initiate it manually. Mitchell entered the changes with minutes to go until planned ignition.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 151932, 151932, 18879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 627, 639 ], [ 661, 674 ], [ 737, 774 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A second problem occurred during the powered descent, when the LM landing radar failed to lock automatically onto the Moon's surface, depriving the navigation computer of vital information on the vehicle's altitude and vertical descent speed. After the astronauts cycled the landing radar breaker, the unit successfully acquired a signal near . Mission rules required an abort if the landing radar was out at , though Shepard might have tried to land without it. With the landing radar, Shepard steered the LM to a landing which was the closest to the intended target of the six missions that landed on the Moon.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 78446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shepard stated, after stepping onto the lunar surface, \"And it's been a long way, but we're here.\" The first EVA began at 9:42am EST (14:42 UTC) on February 5, 1971, having been delayed by a problem with the communications system which set back the start of the first EVA to five hours after landing. The astronauts devoted much of the first EVA to equipment offloading, deployment of the ALSEP and the US flag, as well as setting up and loading the MET. These activities were televised back to Earth, though the picture tended to degenerate during the latter portion of the EVA. Mitchell deployed the ASE's geophone lines, unreeling and emplacing the two lines leading out from the ALSEP's Central Station. He then fired the thumper explosives, vibrations from which would give scientists back on Earth information about the depth and composition of the lunar regolith. Of the 21 thumpers, five failed to fire. On the way back to the LM, the astronauts collected and documented lunar samples, and took photographs of the area. The first EVA lasted 4 hours, 47 minutes, 50 seconds.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 32744030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 399, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The astronauts had been surprised by the undulating ground, expecting flatter terrain in the area of the landing, and this became an issue on the second EVA, as they set out, MET in tow, for the rim of Cone crater. The craters that Shepard and Mitchell planned to use for navigational landmarks looked very different on the ground than on the maps they had, based on overhead shots taken from lunar orbit. Additionally, they consistently overestimated the distance they travelled. Mission Control and the CAPCOM, Fred Haise, could see nothing of this, as the television camera remained near the LM, but they worried as the clock ticked on the EVA, and monitored the heavy breathing and rapid heartbeats of the astronauts. They topped one ridge that they expected was the crater rim, only to view more such terrain beyond. Although Mitchell strongly suspected the rim was nearby, they had become physically exhausted from the effort. They were then instructed by Haise to sample where they were and then start moving back towards the LM. Later analysis using the pictures they took determined that they had come within about of the crater's rim. Images from the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) show the tracks of the astronauts and the MET come to within 30m of the rim. The difficulties faced by Shepard and Mitchell would emphasize the need for a means of transportation on the lunar surface with a navigation system, which was met by the Lunar Roving Vehicle, already planned to fly on Apollo 15.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 15970718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1162, 1190 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once the astronauts returned to the vicinity of the LM and were again within view of the television camera, Shepard performed a stunt he had been planning for years in the event he reached the Moon, and which is probably what Apollo 14 is best remembered for. Shepard brought along a Wilson six iron golf club head, which he had modified to attach to the handle of the contingency sample tool, and two golf balls. Shepard took several one-handed swings (due to the limited flexibility of the EVA suit) and exuberantly exclaimed that the second ball went \"miles and miles and miles\" in the low lunar gravity. Mitchell then threw a lunar scoop handle as if it were a javelin. The \"javelin\" and one of the golf balls wound up in a crater together, with Mitchell's projectile a bit further. In an interview with Ottawa Golf, Shepard stated the other landed near the ALSEP. The second EVA lasted 4 hours, 34 minutes, 41 seconds. Shepard brought back the club, gave it to the USGA Museum in New Jersey, and had a replica made which he gave to the National Air and Space Museum. In February 2021, to commemorate Apollo 14's 50th anniversary, imaging specialist Andy Saunders, who had previously worked to produce the clearest image of Neil Armstrong on the Moon, produced new, digitally enhanced images that were used to estimate the final resting places of the two balls that Shepard hit - the first landed approximately 24 yards from the \"tee\", while the second managed 40 yards.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 6720331, 13857068, 16078, 22134952, 221550, 21247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 284, 290 ], [ 291, 314 ], [ 665, 672 ], [ 970, 981 ], [ 1041, 1070 ], [ 1228, 1242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some geologists were pleased enough with the close approach to Cone crater to send a case of scotch to the astronauts while they were in post-mission quarantine, though their enthusiasm was tempered by the fact that Shepard and Mitchell had documented few of the samples they brought back, making it hard and sometimes impossible to discern where they came from. Others were less happy; Don Wilhelms wrote in his book on the geological aspects of Apollo, \"the golf game did not set well with most geologists in light of the results at Cone crater. The total haul from the rim-flank of Cone... was 16 Hasselblad photographs (out of a mission total of 417), six rock-size samples heavier than 50 g, and a grand total of 10kg of samples, 9kg of which are in one rock (sample 14321 [i.e., Big Bertha]). That is to say, apart from 14321 we have less than 1 kg of rock—962 g to be exact—from what in my opinion is the most important single point reached by astronauts on the Moon.\" Geologist Lee Silver stated, \"The Apollo 14 crews did not have the right attitude, did not learn enough about their mission, had the burden of not having the best possible preflight photography, and they weren't ready.\" In their sourcebook on Apollo, Richard W. Orloff and David M. Harland doubted that if Apollo 13 had reached the Moon, Lovell, and Haise, given a more distant landing point, could have got as close to Cone crater as Shepard and Mitchell did.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 39410792, 60329983, 60329983, 23489750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 387, 399 ], [ 765, 777 ], [ 785, 795 ], [ 986, 996 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A total of of Moon rocks, or lunar samples, were brought back from Apollo 14. Most are breccias, which are rocks composed of fragments of other, older rocks. Breccias form when the heat and pressure of meteorite impacts fuse small rock fragments together. There were a few basalts that were collected in this mission in the form of clasts (fragments) in breccia. The Apollo 14 basalts are generally richer in aluminum and sometimes richer in potassium than other lunar basalts. Most lunar mare basalts collected during the Apollo program were formed from 3.0 to 3.8billion years ago. The Apollo 14 basalts were formed 4.0 to 4.3billion years ago, older than the volcanism known to have occurred at any of the mare locations reached during the Apollo program.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 54125, 817677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 95 ], [ 484, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2019 research showed that Big Bertha, which weighs , has characteristics that make it likely to be a terrestrial (Earth) meteorite. Granite and quartz, which are commonly found on Earth but very rarely found on the Moon, were confirmed to exist on Big Bertha. To find the sample's age, the research team from Curtin University looked at bits of the mineral zircon embedded in its structure. \"By determining the age of zircon found in the sample, we were able to pinpoint the age of the host rock at about four billion years old, making it similar to the oldest rocks on Earth,\" researcher Alexander Nemchin said, adding that \"the chemistry of the zircon in this sample is very different from that of every other zircon grain ever analyzed in lunar samples, and remarkably similar to that of zircons found on Earth.\" This would mean Big Bertha is both the first discovered terrestrial meteorite and the oldest known Earth rock.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 370725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 320, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roosa spent almost two days alone aboard Kitty Hawk, performing the first intensive program of scientific observation from lunar orbit, much of which was intended to have been done by Apollo 13. After Antares separated and its crew began preparations to land, Roosa in Kitty Hawk performed an SPS burn to send the CSM to an orbit of approximately , and later a plane change maneuver to compensate for the rotation of the Moon.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 979374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 361, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roosa took pictures from lunar orbit. The Lunar Topographic Camera, also known as the Hycon camera, was supposed to be used to image the surface, including the Descartes Highlands site being considered for Apollo 16, but it quickly developed a fault with the shutter that Roosa could not fix despite considerable help from Houston. Although about half of the photographic targets had to be scrubbed, Roosa was able to obtain photographs of Descartes with a Hasselblad camera and confirm that it was a suitable landing point. Roosa also used the Hasselblad to take photographs of the impact point of Apollo 13's S-IVB near Lansburg B crater. After the mission, troubleshooting found a tiny piece of aluminum contaminating the shutter control circuit, which caused the shutter to operate continuously.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 999777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 622, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roosa was able to see sunlight glinting off Antares and view its lengthy shadow on the lunar surface on Orbit 17; on Orbit 29 he could see the sun reflecting off the ALSEP. He also took astronomical photographs, of the Gegenschein, and of the Lagrangian point of the Sun-Earth system that lies beyond the Earth (L), testing the theory that the Gegenschein is generated by reflections off particles at L. Performing the bistatic radar experiment, he also focused Kitty Hawk VHF and S-band transmitters at the Moon so that they would bounce off and be detected on Earth in an effort to learn more about the depth of the lunar regolith.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 12903, 18285, 7254186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 230 ], [ 243, 259 ], [ 419, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antares lifted off from the Moon at 1:48:42pm EST (18:48:42 UTC) on February 6, 1971. Following the first direct (first orbit) rendezvous on a lunar landing mission, docking took place an hour and 47 minutes later. Despite concerns based on the docking problems early in the mission, the docking was successful on the first attempt, though the LM's Abort Guidance System, used for navigation, failed just before the two craft docked. After crew, equipment, and lunar samples were transferred to Kitty Hawk, the ascent stage was jettisoned, and impacted the Moon, setting off waves registered by the seismometers from Apollo 12 and 14.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A trans-earth injection burn took place on February 6 at 8:39:04pm (February 7 at 01:39:04 UTC) taking 350.8 seconds, during Kitty Hawk 34th lunar revolution. During the trans-earth coast, two tests of the oxygen system were performed, one to ensure the system would operate properly with low densities of oxygen in the tanks, the second to operate the system at a high flow rate, as would be necessary for the in-flight EVAs scheduled for Apollo 15 and later. Additionally, a navigation exercise was done to simulate a return to Earth following a loss of communications. All were successful. During his rest periods on the voyage, Mitchell conducted ESP experiments without NASA's knowledge or sanction, attempting by prearrangement to send images of cards he had brought with him to four people on Earth. He stated after the mission that two of the four had gotten 51 out of 200 correct (the others were less successful), whereas random chance would have dictated 40.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 9555814, 10515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 23 ], [ 651, 654 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the final evening in space, the crew conducted a press conference, with the questions submitted to NASA in advance and read to the astronauts by the CAPCOM.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The command module Kitty Hawk splashed down in the South Pacific Ocean on February 9, 1971, at 21:05 [UTC], approximately south of American Samoa. After recovery by the ship USS New Orleans, the crew was flown to Pago Pago International Airport in Tafuna, then to Honolulu, then to Ellington Air Force Base near Houston in a plane containing a Mobile Quarantine Facility trailer before they continued their quarantine in the Lunar Receiving Laboratory. They remained there until their release from quarantine on February 27, 1971. The Apollo 14 astronauts were the last lunar explorers to be quarantined on their return from the Moon. They were the only Apollo crew to be quarantined both before and after the flight.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 20611195, 588165, 4921220, 11238110, 14480070, 23736776, 1769486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 146 ], [ 175, 190 ], [ 214, 245 ], [ 249, 255 ], [ 283, 307 ], [ 345, 371 ], [ 426, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Roosa, who worked in forestry in his youth, took several hundred tree seeds on the flight. These were germinated after the return to Earth, and were widely distributed around the world as commemorative Moon trees. Some seedlings were given to state forestry associations in 1975 and 1976 to mark the United States Bicentennial.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 1260584, 374909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 211 ], [ 300, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mission insignia is an oval depicting the Earth and the Moon, and an astronaut pin drawn with a comet trail. The pin is leaving Earth and is approaching the Moon. A gold band around the edge includes the mission and astronaut names. The designer was Jean Beaulieu, who based it on a sketch by Shepard, who had been head of the Astronaut Office and meant the pin to symbolize that through him, the entire corps was in spirit flying to the Moon.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission insignia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The backup crew spoofed the patch with its own version, with revised artwork showing a Wile E. Coyote cartoon character depicted as gray-bearded (for Shepard, who was 47 at the time of the mission and the oldest man on the Moon), pot-bellied (for Mitchell, who had a pudgy appearance) and red-furred (for Roosa's red hair), still on the way to the Moon, while Road Runner (for the backup crew) is already on the Moon, holding a U.S. flag and a flag labelled \"1st Team\". The flight name is replaced by \"BEEP BEEP\" and the backup crew's names are given. Several of these patches were hidden by the backup crew and found during the flight by the crew in notebooks and storage lockers in both the CSM Kitty Hawk and the LM Antares, and one patch was stored in the MET lunar handcart. One patch, attached to Shepard's PLSS, was worn on the lunar surface, and, mounted on a plaque, was presented by him to Cernan after the mission.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 99799, 99799, 180735 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 101 ], [ 360, 371 ], [ 770, 778 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 14 command module Kitty Hawk is on display at the Apollo/Saturn V Center at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex after being on display at the United States Astronaut Hall of Fame near Titusville, Florida, for several years. At the time of its transfer of ownership from NASA to the Smithsonian in July 1977, it was on display at the facilities of North American Rockwell (the company that had constructed it) in Downey, California. The SM reentered Earth's atmosphere and was destroyed, though there was no tracking or sightings of it.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Spacecraft locations", "target_page_ids": [ 2497224, 11058528, 109009, 65828, 221761, 107622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 83 ], [ 158, 194 ], [ 200, 219 ], [ 298, 309 ], [ 363, 386 ], [ 428, 446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The S-IVB booster impacted the Moon on February4 at . The ascent stage of lunar module Antares impacted the Moon on February7, 1971, at 00:45:25.7 UT (February 6, 7:45pm EST), at . Antares descent stage and the mission's other equipment remain at Fra Mauro at .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Spacecraft locations", "target_page_ids": [ 272021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Photographs taken in 2009 by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter were released on July 17, and the Fra Mauro equipment was the most visible Apollo hardware at that time, owing to particularly good lighting conditions. In 2011, the LRO returned to the landing site at a lower altitude to take higher resolution photographs.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Spacecraft locations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Google Moon", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2126501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of artificial objects on the Moon", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 537458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 923416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 14\" at Encyclopedia Astronautica", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo 14 Traverse Map – United States Geological Survey (USGS)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 23814944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo Mission Traverse Maps – Several maps showing routes of moonwalks", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo 14 Science Experiments at the Lunar and Planetary Institute", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2319140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NASA reports", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology NASA, NASA SP-4009", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Table 2-42. Apollo 14 Characteristics\" from NASA Historical Data Book: Volume III: Programs and Projects 1969–1978 by Linda Neuman Ezell, NASA History Series (1988)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Masking the Abort Discrete\" – by Paul Fjeld at the Apollo 14 Lunar Surface Journal. NASA. Detailed technical article describing the ABORT signal problem and its solution", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 14 Technical Air-to-Ground Voice Transcription\" (PDF) Manned Spacecraft Center, NASA, February 1971", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 177571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Multimedia'", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " – slideshow by Life magazine", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 187479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Apollo Astronauts\" – Interview with the Apollo 14 astronauts, March 31, 1971, from the Commonwealth Club of California Records at the Hoover Institution Archives", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 14 Lunar Liftoff – Video\" at Maniac World", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " , with Cone crater", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Apollo_14", "1971_in_spaceflight", "1971_in_the_United_States", "Edgar_Mitchell", "Stuart_Roosa", "Alan_Shepard", "Apollo_program_missions", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "Extravehicular_activity", "Crewed_missions_to_the_Moon", "Sample_return_missions", "Soft_landings_on_the_Moon", "Spacecraft_which_reentered_in_1971", "Spacecraft_launched_in_1971", "January_1971_events", "February_1971_events", "Spacecraft_launched_by_Saturn_rockets", "1971_on_the_Moon" ]

[ "Apollo XIV" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Apollo 15 (July 26August 7, 1971) was the ninth crewed mission in the United States' Apollo program and the fourth to land on the Moon. It was the first J mission, with a longer stay on the Moon and a greater focus on science than earlier landings. Apollo 15 saw the first use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1461, 1558077, 9481400, 19331, 18238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 99 ], [ 118, 134 ], [ 153, 162 ], [ 190, 194 ], [ 284, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mission began on July 26 and ended on August 7, with the lunar surface exploration taking place between July 30 and August 2. Commander David Scott and Lunar Module Pilot James Irwin landed near Hadley Rille and explored the local area using the rover, allowing them to travel further from the lunar module than had been possible on previous missions. They spent 18 hours on the Moon's surface on four extravehicular activitys (EVA), and collected of surface material.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13959901, 327575, 13959901, 321993, 32788620, 151932, 9792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 139 ], [ 140, 151 ], [ 156, 174 ], [ 175, 186 ], [ 199, 211 ], [ 298, 310 ], [ 406, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the same time, Command Module Pilot Alfred Worden orbited the Moon, operating the sensors in the scientific instrument module (SIM) bay of the service module. This suite of instruments collected data on the Moon and its environment using a panoramic camera, a gamma-ray spectrometer, a mapping camera, a laser altimeter, a mass spectrometer, and a lunar subsatellite deployed at the end of the moonwalks. The lunar module returned safely to the command module and, at the end of Apollo 15's 74th lunar orbit, the engine was fired for the journey home. During the return trip, Worden performed the first spacewalk in deep space. The Apollo 15 mission splashed down safely on August7 despite the loss of one of its three parachutes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13959901, 677187, 718111, 718111, 883560, 47476, 283810, 5908941, 9792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 38 ], [ 39, 52 ], [ 100, 128 ], [ 146, 160 ], [ 263, 285 ], [ 313, 322 ], [ 326, 343 ], [ 499, 510 ], [ 606, 615 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mission accomplished its goals but was marred by negative publicity the following year when it emerged that the crew had carried unauthorized postal covers to the lunar surface, some of which were sold by a West German stamp dealer. The members of the crew were reprimanded for poor judgment, and did not fly in space again. The mission also saw the collection of the Genesis Rock, thought to be part of the Moon's early crust, and Scott's use of a hammer and a feather to validate Galileo's theory that when there is no air resistance, objects fall at the same rate due to gravity regardless of their mass.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5319068, 1511495, 145700, 8738092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 159 ], [ 372, 384 ], [ 425, 430 ], [ 486, 502 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1962, NASA contracted for the construction of fifteen Saturn V rockets to achieve the Apollo program's goal of a crewed landing on the Moon by 1970; at the time no one knew how many missions this would require. Since success was obtained in 1969 with the sixth SaturnV on Apollo 11, nine rockets remained available for a hoped-for total of ten landings. These plans included a heavier, extended version of the Apollo spacecraft to be used in the last five missions (Apollo 16 through 20). The revamped lunar module would be capable of up to a 75-hour stay, and would carry a Lunar Roving Vehicle to the Moon's surface. The service module would house a package of orbital experiments to gather data on the Moon. In the original plan Apollo 15 was to be the last of the non-extended missions to land in Censorinus crater. But in anticipation of budget cuts, NASA cancelled three landing missions by September 1970. Apollo 15 became the first of three extended missions, known as J missions, and the landing site was moved to Hadley Rille, originally planned for Apollo 19.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 18426568, 20584918, 662, 2651480, 497916, 18238, 952018, 32788620, 2651480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 13 ], [ 57, 65 ], [ 275, 284 ], [ 334, 355 ], [ 413, 430 ], [ 578, 598 ], [ 804, 821 ], [ 1026, 1038 ], [ 1063, 1072 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scott was born in 1932 in San Antonio, Texas, and, after spending his freshman year at the University of Michigan on a swimming scholarship, transferred to the United States Military Academy, from which he graduated in 1954. Serving in the Air Force, Scott had received two advanced degrees from MIT in 1962 before being selected as one of the third group of astronauts the following year. He flew in Gemini 8 in 1966 alongside Neil Armstrong and as command module pilot of Apollo 9 in 1969. Worden was born in 1932 in Jackson, Michigan, and like his commander, had attended West Point (class of 1955) and served in the Air Force. Worden earned two master's degrees in engineering from Michigan in 1963. Irwin had been born in 1930 in Pittsburgh, and had attended the United States Naval Academy, graduating in 1951 and serving in the Air Force, receiving a master's degree from Michigan in 1957. Both Worden and Irwin were selected in the fifth group of astronauts (1966), and Apollo 15 would be their only spaceflight. All three future astronauts had attended Michigan, and two had taken degrees from there; it had been the first university to offer an aeronautical engineering program.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 53848, 31740, 32173, 32090, 18879, 199297, 364888, 21247, 1774, 16020, 25101, 59766, 199297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 44 ], [ 91, 113 ], [ 160, 190 ], [ 240, 249 ], [ 296, 299 ], [ 344, 369 ], [ 401, 409 ], [ 428, 442 ], [ 474, 482 ], [ 519, 536 ], [ 735, 745 ], [ 768, 795 ], [ 940, 965 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The backup crew was Richard F. Gordon Jr. as commander, Vance D. Brand as command module pilot and Harrison H. Schmitt as lunar module pilot. By the usual rotation of crews, the three would most likely have flown Apollo 18, which was canceled. Brand flew later on the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project and on STS-5, the first operational Space Shuttle mission. With NASA under intense pressure to send a professional scientist to the Moon, Schmitt, a geologist, was selected as LMP of Apollo 17 instead of Joe Engle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 598945, 503617, 13793, 2651480, 331959, 181049, 28189, 1971, 503116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 41 ], [ 56, 70 ], [ 99, 118 ], [ 213, 222 ], [ 268, 293 ], [ 301, 306 ], [ 330, 343 ], [ 477, 486 ], [ 498, 507 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 15's support crew consisted of astronauts Joseph P. Allen, Robert A. Parker and Karl G. Henize. All three were scientist-astronauts, selected in 1967, as the prime crew felt they needed more assistance with the science than with the piloting. None of the support crew would fly during the Apollo program, waiting until the Space Shuttle program to go into space.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 502179, 529639, 677373, 199297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 64 ], [ 66, 82 ], [ 87, 101 ], [ 140, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The flight directors for Apollo 15 were as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gerry Griffin, Gold team", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 13275040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Milton Windler, Maroon team", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 55119065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Glynn Lunney, Black team", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 6393260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gene Kranz, White team", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 407054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During a mission the capsule communicators (CAPCOMs), always fellow astronauts, were the only people who normally would speak to the crew. For Apollo 15, the CAPCOMs were Allen, Brand, C. Gordon Fullerton, Gordon, Henize, Edgar D. Mitchell, Parker, Schmitt and Alan B. Shepard.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 4052227, 503592, 303600, 63727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 42 ], [ 185, 204 ], [ 222, 239 ], [ 261, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Schmitt and other scientist-astronauts advocated for a greater place for science on the early Apollo missions. They were often met with disinterest from other astronauts, or found science displaced by higher priorities. Schmitt realized that what was needed was an expert teacher who could fire the astronauts' enthusiasm, and contacted Caltech geologist Lee Silver, whom Schmitt introduced to Apollo 13's commander, Jim Lovell, and to its lunar module pilot, Fred Haise, then in training for their mission. Lovell and Haise were willing to go on a field expedition with Silver, and geology became a significant part of their training. Geologist Farouk El-Baz trained the prime crew's command module pilot, Ken Mattingly to inform his planned observations from lunar orbit. The crew's newly acquired skills mostly went unused, due to the explosion that damaged the Apollo 13 spacecraft, and caused an abort of the mission. Apollo 14's CMP, Stuart Roosa, was enthusiastic about geology, but the mission commander, Shepard, less so.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 5786, 23489750, 1770, 344336, 366161, 2242569, 593844, 338113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 344 ], [ 355, 365 ], [ 394, 403 ], [ 417, 427 ], [ 460, 470 ], [ 646, 659 ], [ 707, 720 ], [ 940, 952 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Already familiar with the spacecraft as the backup crew for Apollo 12, Scott, Worden and Irwin could devote more of their training time as prime crew for Apollo 15 to geology and sampling techniques. Scott was determined that his crew bring back the maximum amount of scientific data possible, and met with Silver in April 1970 to begin planning the geological training. Schmitt's assignment as Apollo 15's backup LMP made him an insider, and allowed him to spark competition between the prime and backup crews. The cancellation of two Apollo missions in September 1970 transformed Apollo 15 into a J mission, with a longer stay on the lunar surface, and the first Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV). This change was welcomed by Scott, who according to David West Reynolds in his account of the Apollo program, was \"something more than a hotshot pilot. Scott had the spirit of a true explorer\", one determined to get the most from the J mission. The additional need for communications, including from planned experiments and the rover, required the near-rebuilding of the Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station in Australia.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 18238, 2277072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 665, 685 ], [ 1064, 1098 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Geology field trips took place about once a month throughout the crew's 20 months of training. At first, Silver would take the commanders and LMPs from the prime and backup crews to geological sites in Arizona and New Mexico as if for a normal field geology lesson, but closer to launch, these trips became more realistic. Crews began to wear mock-ups of the backpacks they would carry, and communicate using walkie-talkies to a CAPCOM in a tent. The CAPCOM was accompanied by a geologist unfamiliar with the area who would rely on the astronauts' descriptions to interpret the findings, and familiarized the crew members with describing landscapes to people who could not see them. Considering himself a serious amateur, Scott came to enjoy field geology.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 369685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 409, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The decision to land at Hadley came in September 1970. The Site Selection Committee had narrowed the field down to two sites—Hadley Rille, a deep channel on the edge of Mare Imbrium close to the Apennine mountains or the crater Marius, near which were a group of low, possibly volcanic, domes. Although not ultimately his decision, the commander of a mission always held great sway. To David Scott the choice was clear, as Hadley \"had more variety. There is a certain intangible quality which drives the spirit of exploration and I felt that Hadley had it. Besides it looked beautiful and usually when things look good they are good.\" The selection of Hadley was made although NASA lacked high resolution images of the landing site; none had been made as the site was considered too rough to risk one of the earlier Apollo missions. The proximity of the Apennine mountains to the Hadley site required a landing approach trajectory of 26 degrees, far steeper than the 15 degrees in earlier Apollo landings.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 99044, 30874064, 993535, 27240570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 181 ], [ 195, 213 ], [ 228, 234 ], [ 254, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The expanded mission meant that Worden spent much of his time at North American Rockwell's facilities at Downey, California, where the command and service module (CSM) was being built. He undertook a different kind of geology training. Working with El-Baz, he studied maps and photographs of the craters he would pass over while orbiting alone in the CSM. As El-Baz listened and gave feedback, Worden learned how to describe lunar features in a way that would be useful to the scientists who would listen to his transmissions back on Earth. Worden found El-Baz to be an enjoyable and inspiring teacher. Worden usually accompanied his crewmates on their geology field trips, though he was often in an airplane overhead, describing features of the landscape as the plane simulated the speed at which the lunar landscape would pass below the CSM.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 26367, 107622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 88 ], [ 105, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The demands of the training strained both Worden's and Irwin's marriages; each sought Scott's advice, fearing a divorce might endanger their places on the mission as not projecting the image NASA wanted for the astronauts. Scott consulted Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton, their boss, who stated what was important was that the astronauts do their jobs. Although the Irwins overcame their marital difficulties, the Wordens divorced before the mission.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 331454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 274, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 15 used command and service module CSM-112, which was given the call sign Endeavour, named after HMS Endeavour, and lunar module LM-10, call sign Falcon, named after the United States Air Force Academy mascot. Scott explained the choice of the name Endeavour on the grounds that its captain, James Cook had commanded the first purely scientific sea voyage, and Apollo 15 was the first lunar landing mission on which there was a heavy emphasis on science. Apollo 15 took with it a small piece of wood from Cook's ship, while Falcon carried two falcon feathers to the Moon in recognition of the crew's service in the Air Force. Also part of the spacecraft were a Launch Escape System and a Spacecraft-Lunar Module Adapter, numbered SLA-19.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 2797722, 183655, 77587, 15630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 80 ], [ 104, 117 ], [ 177, 208 ], [ 299, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Technicians at the Kennedy Space Center had some problems with the instruments in the service module's scientific instrument module (SIM) bay. Some instruments were late in arriving, and principal investigators or representatives of NASA contractors sought further testing or to make small changes. Mechanical problems came from the fact the instruments were designed to operate in space, but had to be tested on the surface of the Earth. As such, things like the 7.5m (24ft) booms for the mass and gamma ray spectrometers could be tested only using equipment that tried to mimic the space environment, and, in space, the mass spectrometer boom several times did not fully retract.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 16421, 718111, 283810, 883560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 39 ], [ 133, 136 ], [ 490, 494 ], [ 499, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the lunar module, the fuel and oxidizer tanks were enlarged on both the descent and ascent stages, and the engine bell on the descent stage was extended. Batteries and solar cells were added for increased electrical power. In all this increased the weight of the lunar module to , heavier than previous models.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 21188370, 184882, 4759545, 2352910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 29 ], [ 34, 42 ], [ 110, 121 ], [ 171, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If Apollo 15 had flown as an H mission, it would have been with CSM-111 and LM-9. That CSM was used by the Apollo–Soyuz Test Project in 1975, but the lunar module went unused and is now at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex. Endeavour is on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio, following its transfer of ownership from NASA to the Smithsonian in December 1974.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 331959, 2497224, 571462, 150911, 8253, 65828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 132 ], [ 193, 229 ], [ 262, 308 ], [ 312, 343 ], [ 347, 359 ], [ 414, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Saturn V that launched Apollo 15 was designated SA-510, the tenth flight-ready model of the rocket. As the payload of the rocket was greater, changes were made to the rocket and to its launch trajectory. It was launched in a more southerly direction (80–100 degrees azimuth) than previous missions, and the Earth parking orbit was lowered to . These two changes meant more could be launched. The propellant reserves were reduced and the number of retrorockets on the S-IC first stage (used to separate the spent first stage from the S-II second stage) reduced from eight to four. The four outboard engines of the S-IC would be burned longer and the center engine would also burn longer. Changes were also made to the S-II to dampen pogo oscillations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 20584918, 47487, 11962478, 265044, 572830, 572843, 624098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 270, 277 ], [ 317, 330 ], [ 401, 411 ], [ 472, 476 ], [ 538, 542 ], [ 737, 753 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once all major systems were installed in the SaturnV, it was moved from the Vehicle Assembly Building to the launch site, Launch Complex 39A. During late June and early July 1971, the rocket and Launch Umbilical Tower (LUT) were struck by lightning at least four times. There was no damage to the vehicle, and only minor damage to ground support equipment.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 268462, 1874251, 61344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 101 ], [ 122, 139 ], [ 239, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 15 astronauts wore redesigned space suits. On all previous Apollo flights, including the non-lunar flights, the commander and lunar module pilot had worn suits with the life support, liquid cooling, and communications connections in two parallel rows of three. On Apollo 15, the new suits, dubbed the \"A7LB\", had the connectors situated in triangular pairs. This new arrangement, along with the relocation of the entry zipper (which went in an up-down motion on the old suits), to run diagonally from the right shoulder to the left hip, aided in suiting and unsuiting in the cramped confines of the spacecraft. It also allowed for a new waist joint, letting the astronauts bend completely over, and sit on the rover. Upgraded backpacks allowed for longer-duration moonwalks. As in all missions from and after Apollo 13, the commander's suit bore a red stripe on the helmet, arms and legs.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 39375, 2439384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 51 ], [ 313, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Worden wore a suit similar to those worn by the Apollo 14 astronauts, but modified to interface with Apollo 15's equipment. Gear needed only for lunar surface EVAs, such as the liquid cooling garment, was not included with Worden's suit, as the only EVA he was expected to do was one to retrieve film cartridges from the SIM bay on the flight home.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A vehicle that could operate on the surface of the Moon had been considered by NASA since the early 1960s. An early version was called MOLAB, which had a closed cabin and would have massed about ; some scaled-down prototypes were tested in Arizona. As it became clear NASA would not soon establish a lunar base, such a large vehicle seemed unnecessary. Still, a rover would enhance the J missions, which were to concentrate on science, though its mass was limited to about and it was not then clear that so light a vehicle could be useful. NASA did not decide to proceed with a rover until May 1969, as Apollo 10, the dress rehearsal for the Moon landing, made its way home from lunar orbit. Boeing received the contract for three rovers on a cost-plus basis; overruns (especially in the navigation system) meant the three vehicles eventually cost a total of $40million. These cost overruns gained considerable media attention at a time of greater public weariness with the space program, when NASA's budget was being cut.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 1966, 18933266, 3810644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 604, 613 ], [ 693, 699 ], [ 744, 759 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Lunar Roving Vehicle could be folded into a space 5ft by 20 in (1.5 m by 0.5 m). Unloaded, it weighed 460lb (209kg) and when carrying two astronauts and their equipment, 1500lb (700kg). Each wheel was independently driven by a ¼ horsepower (200 W) electric motor. Although it could be driven by either astronaut, the commander always drove. Travelling at speeds up to 6to 8mph (10to 12km/h), it meant that for the first time the astronauts could travel far afield from their lander and still have enough time to do some scientific experiments. The Apollo 15 rover bore a plaque, reading: \"Man's First Wheels on the Moon, Delivered by Falcon, July 30, 1971\". During pre-launch testing, the LRV was given additional bracing, lest it collapse if someone sat on it under Earth conditions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 14019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 15 Particles and Fields Subsatellite (PFS-1) was a small satellite released into lunar orbit from the SIM bay just before the mission left orbit to return to Earth. Its main objectives were to study the plasma, particle, and magnetic field environment of the Moon and map the lunar gravity field. Specifically, it measured plasma and energetic particle intensities and vector magnetic fields, and facilitated tracking of the satellite velocity to high precision. A basic requirement was that the satellite acquire fields and particle data everywhere on the orbit around the Moon. As well as measuring magnetic fields, the satellite contained sensors to study the Moon's mass concentrations, or mascons. The satellite orbited the Moon and returned data from August 4, 1971, until January 1973, when, following multiple failures of the subsatellite's electronics, ground support was terminated. It is believed to have crashed into the Moon sometime thereafter.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 577296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 681, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 15 was launched on July 26, 1971, at 9:34am EDT from the Kennedy Space Center at Merritt Island, Florida. The time of launch was at the very start of the two-hour, 37-minute launch window, which would allow Apollo 15 to arrive at the Moon with the proper lighting conditions at Hadley Rille; had the mission been postponed beyond another window on July 27, it could not have been rescheduled until late August. The astronauts had been awakened five and a quarter hours before launch by Slayton, and after breakfast and suiting up, had been taken to Pad 39A, launch site of all seven attempts at crewed lunar landing, and entered the spacecraft about three hours before launch. There were no unplanned delays in the countdown.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 496028, 16421, 108999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 54 ], [ 64, 84 ], [ 88, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At 000:11:36 into the mission, the S-IVB engine shut down, leaving Apollo 15 in its planned parking orbit in low Earth orbit. The mission remained there for 2hours and 40 minutes, allowing the crew (and Houston, via telemetry) to check the spacecraft's systems. At 002:50.02.6 into the mission, the S-IVB was restarted for trans-lunar injection (TLI), placing the craft on a path to the Moon. Before TLI, the craft had completed 1.5 orbits around the Earth.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 272021, 47568, 85757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 40 ], [ 109, 124 ], [ 323, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The command and service module (CSM) and the lunar module remained attached to the nearly-exhausted S-IVB booster. Once trans-lunar injection had been achieved, placing the spacecraft on a trajectory towards the Moon, explosive cords separated the CSM from the booster as Worden operated the CSM's thrusters to push it away. Worden then maneuvered the CSM to dock with the LM (mounted on the end of the S-IVB), and the combined craft was then separated from the S-IVB by explosives. After Apollo 15 separated from the booster, the S-IVB maneuvered away, and, as planned, impacted the Moon about an hour after the crewed spacecraft entered lunar orbit, though due to an error the impact was away from the intended target. The booster's impact was detected by the seismometers left on the Moon by Apollo 12 and Apollo 14, providing useful scientific data.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 610149, 231826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 233 ], [ 763, 774 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There was a malfunctioning light on the craft's service propulsion system (SPS); after considerable troubleshooting, the astronauts did a test burn of the system that also served as a midcourse correction. This occurred about 028:40:00 into the mission. Fearing that the light meant the SPS might unexpectedly fire, the astronauts avoided using the control bank with the faulty light, bringing it online only for major burns, and controlling it manually. After the mission returned, the malfunction proved to be caused by a tiny bit of wire trapped within the switch.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 718111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After purging and renewing the LM's atmosphere to eliminate any contamination, the astronauts entered the LM about 34 hours into the mission, needing to check the condition of its equipment and move in items that would be required on the Moon. Much of this work was televised back to Earth, the camera operated by Worden. The crew discovered a broken outer cover on the Range/Range Rate tapemeter. This was a concern not only because an important piece of equipment, providing information on distance and rate of approach, might not work properly, but because bits of the glass cover were floating around Falcon'''s interior. The tapemeter was supposed to be in a helium atmosphere, but due to the breakage, it was in the LM's oxygen atmosphere. Testing on the ground verified the tapemeter would still work properly, and the crew removed most of the glass using a vacuum cleaner and adhesive tape.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As yet, there had been only minor problems, but at about 61:15:00 mission time (the evening of July 28 in Houston), Scott discovered a leak in the water system while preparing to chlorinate the water supply. The crew could not tell where it was coming from, and the issue had the potential to become serious. The experts in Houston found a solution, which was successfully implemented by the crew. The water was mopped up with towels, which were then put out to dry in the tunnel between the command module (CM) and lunar module—Scott stated it looked like someone's laundry.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At 073:31:14 into the mission, a second midcourse correction, with less than a second of burn, was made. Although there were four opportunities to make midcourse corrections following TLI, only two were needed. Apollo 15 approached the Moon on July 29, and the lunar orbit insertion (LOI) burn had to be made using the SPS, on the far side of the Moon, out of radio contact with Earth. If no burn occurred, Apollo 15 would emerge from the lunar shadow and come back in radio contact faster than expected; the continued lack of communication allowed Mission Control to conclude that the burn had taken place. When contact resumed, Scott did not immediately give the particulars of the burn, but spoke admiringly of the beauty of the Moon, causing Alan Shepard, the Apollo 14 commander, who was awaiting a television interview, to grumble, \"To hell with that shit, give us details of the burn.\" The 398.36-second burn took place at 078:31:46.7 into the mission at an altitude of above the Moon, and placed Apollo 15 in an elliptical lunar orbit of .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 988372, 19578379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 331, 351 ], [ 549, 564 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On Apollo 11 and 12, the lunar module decoupled from the CSM and descended to a much lower orbit from which the lunar landing attempt commenced; to save fuel in an increasingly heavy lander, beginning with Apollo 14, the SPS in the service module made that burn, known as descent orbit insertion (DOI), with the lunar module still attached to the CSM. The initial orbit Apollo 15 was in had its apocynthion, or high point, over the landing site at Hadley; a burn at the opposite point in the orbit was performed, with the result that Hadley would now be under the craft's pericynthion, or low point. The DOI burn was performed at 082:39:49.09 and took 24.53 seconds; the result was an orbit with apocynthion of and pericynthion of . Overnight between July 29 and 30, as the crew rested, it became apparent to Mission Control that mass concentrations in the Moon were making Apollo 15's orbit increasingly elliptical—pericynthion was by the time the crew was awakened on July 30. This, and uncertainty as to the exact altitude of the landing site, made it desirable that the orbit be modified, or trimmed. Using the craft's RCS thrusters, this took place at 095:56:44.70, lasting 30.40 seconds, and raised the pericynthion to and the apocynthion to .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 88213, 5908941, 577296, 1027467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 395, 406 ], [ 572, 584 ], [ 831, 850 ], [ 1125, 1128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As well as preparing the lunar module for its descent, the crew continued observations of the Moon (including of the landing site at Hadley) and provided television footage of the surface. Then, Scott and Irwin entered the lunar module in preparation for the landing attempt. Undocking was planned for 100:13:56, over the far side of the Moon, but nothing happened when separation was attempted. After analyzing the problem, the crew and Houston decided the probe instrumentation umbilical was likely loose or disconnected; Worden went into the tunnel connecting the command and lunar modules and determined this was so, seating it more firmly. With the problem resolved, Falcon separated from Endeavour at 100:39:16.2, about 25 minutes late, at an altitude of . Worden in Endeavour executed a SPS burn at 101:38:58.98 to send Endeavour to an orbit of by in preparation for his scientific work.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aboard Falcon, Scott and Irwin prepared for powered descent initiation (PDI), the burn that was to place them on the lunar surface, and, after Mission Control gave them permission, they initiated PDI at 104:30:09.4 at an altitude of , slightly higher than planned. During the first part of the descent, Falcon was aligned so the astronauts were on their backs and thus could not see the lunar surface below them, but after the craft made a pitchover maneuver, they were upright and could see the surface in front of them. Scott, who as commander performed the landing, was confronted with a landscape that did not at first seem to resemble what he had seen during simulations. Part of this was due to an error in the landing path of some , of which CAPCOM Ed Mitchell informed the crew prior to pitchover; part because the craters Scott had relied on in the simulator were difficult to make out under lunar conditions, and he initially could not see Hadley Rille. He concluded that they were likely to overshoot the planned landing site, and, once he could see the rille, started maneuvering the vehicle to move the computer's landing target back towards the planned spot, and looked for a relatively smooth place to land.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 303600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 756, 767 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Below about , Scott could see nothing of the surface because of the quantities of lunar dust being displaced by Falcons exhaust. Falcon had a larger engine bell than previous LMs, in part to accommodate a heavier load, and the importance of shutting down the engine at initial contact rather than risk \"blowback\", the exhaust reflecting off the lunar surface and going back into the engine (possibly causing an explosion) had been impressed on the astronauts by mission planners. Thus, when Irwin called \"Contact\", indicating that one of the probes on the landing leg extensions had touched the surface, Scott immediately shut off the engine, letting the lander fall the remaining distance to the surface. Already moving downward at about per second, Falcon dropped from a height of . Scott's speed resulted in what was likely the hardest lunar landing of any of the crewed missions, at about per second, causing a startled Irwin to yell \"Bam!\" Scott had landed Falcon on the rim of a small crater he could not see, and the lander settled back at an angle of 6.9 degrees and to the left of 8.6 degrees. Irwin described it in his autobiography as the hardest landing he had ever been in, and he feared that the craft would keep tipping over, forcing an immediate abort.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 4759545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Falcon landed at 104:42:29.3 (22:16:29 GMT on July 30), with approximately 103 seconds of fuel remaining, about from the planned landing site. After Irwin's exclamation, Scott reported, \"Okay, Houston. The Falcon is on the Plain at Hadley.\" Once within the planned landing zone, the increased mobility provided by the Lunar Roving Vehicle made unnecessary any further maneuvering.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With Falcon due to remain on the lunar surface for almost three days, Scott deemed it important to maintain the circadian rhythm they were used to, and as they had landed in the late afternoon, Houston time, the two astronauts were to sleep before going onto the surface. But the time schedule allowed Scott to open the lander's top hatch (usually used for docking) and spend a half hour looking at their surroundings, describing them, and taking photographs. Lee Silver had taught him the importance of going to a high place to survey a new field site, and the top hatch served that purpose. Deke Slayton and other managers were initially opposed due to the oxygen that would be lost, but Scott got his way. During the only stand-up extravehicular activity (EVA) ever performed through the LM's top hatch on the lunar surface, Scott was able to make plans for the following day's EVA. He offered Irwin a chance to look out as well, but this would have required rearranging the umbilicals connecting Irwin to Falcon'''s life support system, and he declined. After repressurizing the spacecraft, Scott and Irwin removed their space suits for sleep, becoming the first astronauts to doff their suits while on the Moon.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 56565, 9792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 128 ], [ 734, 757 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout the sleep period Mission Control in Houston monitored a slow but steady oxygen loss. Scott and Irwin eventually were awakened an hour early, and the source of the problem was found to be an open valve on the urine transfer device. In post-mission debriefing, Scott recommended that future crews be woken at once under similar circumstances. After the problem was solved, the crew began preparation for the first Moon walk.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After donning their suits and depressurizing the cabin, Scott and Irwin began their first full EVA, becoming the seventh and eighth humans, respectively, to walk on the Moon. They began deploying the lunar rover, stored folded up in a compartment of Falcons descent stage, but this proved troublesome due to the slant of the lander. The experts in Houston suggested lifting the front end of the rover as the astronauts pulled it out, and this worked. Scott began a system checkout. One of the batteries gave a zero voltage reading, but this was only an instrumentation problem. A greater concern was that the front wheel steering would not work. However, the rear wheel steering was sufficient to maneuver the vehicle. Completing his checkout, Scott said \"Okay. Out of detent; we're moving\", maneuvering the rover away from Falcon in mid-sentence. These were the first words uttered by a human while driving a vehicle on the Moon. The rover carried a television camera, controlled remotely from Houston by NASA's Ed Fendell. The resolution was not high compared to the still photographs that would be taken, but the camera allowed the geologists on Earth to indirectly participate in Scott and Irwin's activities.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 4723118, 6336535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 769, 775 ], [ 951, 968 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rille was not visible from the landing site, but as Scott and Irwin drove over the rolling terrain, it came into view. They were able to see Elbow crater, and they began to drive in that direction. Reaching Elbow, a known location, allowed Mission Control to backtrack and get closer to pinpointing the location of the lander. The astronauts took samples there, and then drove to another crater on the flank of Mons Hadley Delta, where they took more. After concluding this stop, they returned to the lander to drop off their samples and prepare to set up the Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP), the scientific instruments that would remain when they left. Scott had difficulty drilling the holes required for the heat flow experiment, and the work was not completed when they had to return to the lander. The first EVA lasted 6hours and 32 minutes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 49554247, 1986163, 30874175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 150 ], [ 415, 432 ], [ 564, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The rover's front steering, inoperative during the first EVA, worked during the second and third ones. The target of the second EVA, on August 1, was the slope of Mons Hadley Delta, where the pair sampled boulders and craters along the Apennine Front. They spent an hour at Spur crater, during which the astronauts collected a sample dubbed the Genesis Rock. This rock, an anorthosite, is believed to be part of the early lunar crust—the hope of finding such a specimen had been one reason the Hadley area had been chosen. Once back at the landing site, Scott continued to try to drill holes for experiments at the ALSEP site, with which he had struggled the day before. After conducting soil-mechanics experiments and raising the U.S. flag, Scott and Irwin returned to the LM. EVA2 lasted 7hours and 12 minutes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 30874064, 47206142, 1511495, 314036, 32744030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 236, 250 ], [ 274, 278 ], [ 345, 357 ], [ 373, 384 ], [ 731, 740 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Scott had eventually been successful at drilling the holes, he and Irwin had been unable to retrieve a core sample, and this was an early order of business during EVA 3, their third and final moonwalk. Time that could have been devoted to geology ticked away as Scott and Irwin attempted to pull it out. Once it had been retrieved, more time passed as they attempted to break the core into pieces for transport to Earth. Hampered by an incorrectly-mounted vise on the rover, they eventually gave up on this—the core would be transported home with one segment longer than planned. Scott wondered if the core was worth the amount of time and effort invested, and the CAPCOM, Joe Allen, assured him it was. The core proved one of the most important items brought back from the Moon, revealing much about its history, but the expended time meant the planned visit to a group of hills known as the North Complex had to be scrubbed. Instead, the crew again ventured to the edge of Hadley Rille, this time to the northwest of the immediate landing site.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 49581990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 902, 915 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once the astronauts were beside the LM, Scott used a kit provided by the Postal Service to cancel a first day cover of two stamps being issued on August 2, the current date. Scott then performed an experiment in view of the television camera, using a falcon feather and hammer to demonstrate Galileo's theory that all objects in a given gravity field fall at the same rate, regardless of mass, in the absence of aerodynamic drag. He dropped the hammer and feather at the same time; because of the negligible lunar atmosphere, there was no drag on the feather, which hit the ground at the same time as the hammer. This was Joe Allen's idea (he also served as CAPCOM during it) and was part of an effort to find a memorable popular science experiment to do on the Moon along the lines of Shepard's hitting of golf balls. The feather was most likely from a female gyrfalcon (a type of falcon), a mascot at the United States Air Force Academy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 50591, 55317, 29688374, 2137292, 27394479, 77587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 87 ], [ 100, 115 ], [ 292, 299 ], [ 412, 428 ], [ 861, 870 ], [ 907, 938 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scott then drove the rover to a position away from the LM, where the television camera could be used to observe the lunar liftoff. Near the rover, he left a small aluminum statuette called Fallen Astronaut, along with a plaque bearing the names of 14 known American astronauts and Soviet cosmonauts who had died in the furtherance of space exploration. The memorial was left while the television camera was turned away; he told Mission Control he was doing some cleanup activities around the rover. Scott disclosed the memorial in a post-flight news conference. He also placed a Bible on the control panel of the rover before leaving it for the last time to enter the LM.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 3931064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The EVA lasted 4 hours, 49 minutes and 50 seconds. In total, the two astronauts spent 18 hours outside the LM and collected approximately of lunar samples.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After the departure of Falcon, Worden in Endeavour executed a burn to take the CSM to a higher orbit. While Falcon was on the Moon, the mission effectively split, Worden and the CSM being assigned their own CAPCOM and flight support team.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "[[File:Apollo 15 CSM (14412950693).jpg|thumb|left|alt=A spacecraft seen with the Moon in background|Endeavour, with the SIM bay exposed, as seen from the Lunar Module Falcon]]", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Worden got busy with the tasks that were to occupy him for much of the time he spent in space alone: photography and operating the instruments in the SIM bay. The door to the SIM bay had been explosively jettisoned during the translunar coast. Filling previously-unused space in the service module, the SIM bay contained a gamma-ray spectrometer, mounted on the end of a boom, an X-ray spectrometer and a laser altimeter, which failed part way through the mission. Two cameras, a stellar camera and a metric camera, together comprised the mapping camera, which was complemented by a panoramic camera, derived from spy technology. The altimeter and cameras permitted the exact time and location from which pictures were taken to be determined. Also present were an alpha particle spectrometer, which could be used to detect evidence of lunar volcanism, and a mass spectrometer, also on a boom in the hope it would be unaffected by contamination from the ship. The boom would prove troublesome, as Worden would not always be able to get it to retract.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 191323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 614, 628 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Endeavour was slated to pass over the landing site at the moment of planned landing, but Worden could not see Falcon and did not spot it until a subsequent orbit. He also exercised to avoid muscle atrophy, and Houston kept him up to date on Scott and Irwin's activities on the lunar surface. The panoramic camera did not operate perfectly, but provided enough images that no special adjustment was made. Worden took many photographs through the command module's windows, often with shots taken at regular intervals. His task was complicated by the lack of a working mission timer in the Lower Equipment Bay of the command module, as its circuit breaker had popped en route to the Moon. Worden's observations and photographs would inform the decision to send Apollo 17 to Taurus-Littrow to search for evidence of volcanic activity. There was a communications blackout when the CSM passed over the far side of the Moon from Earth; Worden greeted each resumption of contact with the words, \"Hello, Earth. Greetings from Endeavour\", expressed in different languages. Worden and El-Baz had come up with the idea, and the geology instructor had aided the astronaut in accumulating translations.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 1971, 28623094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 758, 767 ], [ 771, 785 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Results from the SIM bay experiments would include the conclusion, from data gathered by the X-ray spectrometer, that there was greater fluorescent X-ray flux than anticipated, and that the lunar highlands were richer in aluminum than were the mares. Endeavour was in a more inclined orbit than previous crewed missions, and Worden saw features that were not known previously, supplementing photographs with thorough descriptions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the time Scott and Irwin were ready to take off from the lunar surface and return to Endeavour, the CSM's orbit had drifted due to the rotation of the Moon, and a plane change burn was required to ensure that the CSM's orbit would be in the same plane as that of the LM once it took off from the Moon. Worden accomplished the 18-second burn with the SPS.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Falcon lifted off the Moon at 17:11:22 GMT on August2 after 66 hours and 55 minutes on the lunar surface. Docking with the CSM took place just under two hours later. After the astronauts transferred samples and other items from the LM to the CSM, the LM was sealed off, jettisoned, and intentionally crashed into the lunar surface, an impact registered by the seismometers left by Apollo 12, 14 and 15. The jettison proved difficult because of problems getting airtight seals, requiring a delay in discarding the LM. After the jettison, Slayton came on the loop to recommend the astronauts take sleeping pills, or at least that Scott and Irwin do so. Scott as mission commander refused to allow it, feeling there was no need. During the EVAs, the doctors had noticed irregularities in both Scott's and Irwin's heartbeats, but the crew were not informed during the flight. Irwin had heart problems after retiring as an astronaut and died in 1991 of a heart attack; Scott felt that he as commander should have been informed of the biomedical readings. NASA doctors at the time theorized the heart readings were due to potassium deficiency, due to their hard work on the surface and inadequate resupply through liquids.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 972656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1116, 1136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The crew spent the next two days working on orbital science experiments, including more observations of the Moon from orbit and releasing the subsatellite. Endeavour departed lunar orbit with another burn of the SPS engine of 2minutes 21 seconds at 21:22:45 GMT on August4. The next day, during the return to Earth, Worden performed a 39-minute EVA to retrieve film cassettes from the service module's scientific instrument module (SIM) bay, with assistance from Irwin who remained at the command module's hatch. At approximately 171,000 nautical miles (197,000mi; 317,000km) from Earth, it was the first \"deep space\" EVA in history, performed at great distance from any planetary body. As of , it remains one of only three such EVAs, all performed during Apollo's J missions under similar circumstances. Later that day, the crew set a record for the longest Apollo flight to that point.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On approach to Earth on August7, the service module was jettisoned, and the command module reentered the Earth's atmosphere. Although one of the three parachutes on the CM failed after deploying, likely due to damage as the spacecraft vented fuel, only two were required for a safe landing (one extra for redundancy). Upon landing in the North Pacific Ocean, the CM and crew were recovered and taken aboard the recovery ship, , after a mission lasting 12 days, 7hours, 11 minutes and 53 seconds.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission highlights", "target_page_ids": [ 45294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mission objectives for Apollo 15 were to \"perform selenological inspection, survey, and sampling of materials and surface features in a pre-selected area of the Hadley–Apennine region. Emplace and activate surface experiments. Evaluate the capability of the Apollo equipment to provide extended lunar surface stay time, increased extravehicular operations, and surface mobility. [and] Conduct inflight experiments and photographic tasks from lunar orbit.\" It achieved all those objectives. The mission also completed a long list of other tasks, including experiments. One of the photographic objectives, to obtain images of the gegenschein from lunar orbit, was not completed, as the camera was not pointed at the proper spot in the sky. According to the conclusions in the Apollo 15 Mission Report, the journey \"was the fourth lunar landing and resulted in the collection of a wealth of scientific information. The Apollo system, in addition to providing a means of transportation, excelled as an operational scientific facility.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Assessment", "target_page_ids": [ 32788620, 12903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 180 ], [ 632, 643 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 15 saw an increase in public interest in the Apollo program, in part due to fascination with the LRV, as well as the attractiveness of the Hadley Rille site and the increased television coverage.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Assessment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to David Woods in the Apollo Lunar Flight Journal,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Assessment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the successful mission, the careers of the crew were tarnished by a deal they had made before the flight to carry postal covers to the Moon in exchange for about $7,000 each, which they planned to set aside for their children. Walter Eiermann, who had many professional and social contacts with NASA employees and the astronaut corps, served as intermediary between the astronauts and a West German stamp dealer, Hermann Sieger, and Scott carried about 400 covers onto the spacecraft; they were subsequently transferred into Falcon and remained inside the lander during the astronauts' activities on the surface of the Moon. After the return to Earth, 100 of the covers were given to Eiermann, who passed them on to Sieger, receiving a commission. No permission had been received from Slayton to carry the covers, as required.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 100 covers were put on sale to Sieger's customers in late 1971 at a price of about $1,500 each. After receiving the agreed payments, the astronauts returned them, and accepted no compensation. In April 1972, Slayton learned that unauthorized covers had been carried, and removed the three as the backup crew for Apollo 17. The matter became public in June 1972 and the three astronauts were reprimanded for poor judgment; none ever flew in space again. During the investigation, the astronauts had surrendered those covers still in their possession; after Worden filed suit, they were returned in 1983, something Slate magazine deemed an exoneration.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 1971, 423731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 316, 325 ], [ 617, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another controversy surrounding the Fallen Astronaut statuette that Scott had left on the Moon, arose later. Before the mission, Scott had made a verbal agreement with Belgian artist Paul Van Hoeydonck to sculpt the statuette. Scott's intent, in keeping with NASA's strict policy against commercial exploitation of the US government's space program, was for a simple memorial with a minimum of publicity, keeping the artist anonymous, no commercial replicas being made except for a single copy for public exhibit at the National Air and Space Museum commissioned after the sculpture's public disclosure during the post-flight press conference. Van Hoeydonck claims to have had a different understanding of the agreement, by which he would have received recognition as the creator of a tribute to human space exploration, with rights to sell replicas to the public. Under pressure from NASA, Van Hoeydonck canceled a plan to publicly sell 950 signed copies.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 3931064, 26714, 221550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 52 ], [ 205, 211 ], [ 520, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the congressional hearings into the postal covers and Fallen Astronaut matters, two Bulova timepieces taken on the mission by Scott were also matters of controversy. Before the mission, Scott had been introduced to Bulova's representative, General James McCormack by Apollo 8 commander Frank Borman. Bulova had been seeking to have its timepieces taken on Apollo missions, but after evaluation, NASA had selected Omega watches instead. Scott brought the Bulova timepieces on the mission, without disclosing them to Slayton. During Scott's second EVA, the crystal on his NASA standard issue Omega Speedmaster watch popped off, and, during the third EVA, he used a Bulova watch. The Bulova Chronograph Model #88510/01 that Scott wore on the lunar surface was a prototype, given to him by the Bulova Company, and it is the only privately owned watch to have been worn while walking on the lunar surface. There are images of him wearing this watch, when he saluted the American flag on the Moon, with the Hadley Delta expanse in the background. In 2015, the watch sold for $1.625 million, which makes it the one of most expensive astronaut-owned artifact ever sold at auction and one of the most expensive watches sold at auction.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Controversies", "target_page_ids": [ 770202, 32781989, 663, 80897, 1590574, 59135381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 97 ], [ 255, 270 ], [ 274, 282 ], [ 293, 305 ], [ 1008, 1020 ], [ 1183, 1232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 15 mission patch carries Air Force motifs, a nod to the crew's service there, just as the Apollo 12 all-Navy crew's patch had featured a sailing ship. The circular patch features stylized red, white and blue birds flying over Hadley Rille. Immediately behind the birds, a line of craters forms the Roman numeral XV. The Roman numerals were hidden in emphasized outlines of some craters after NASA insisted that the mission number be displayed in Arabic numerals. The artwork is circled in red, with a white band giving the mission and crew names and a blue border. Scott contacted fashion designer Emilio Pucci to design the patch, who came up with the basic idea of the three-bird motif on a square patch.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Mission insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 6939593, 25657, 1786, 1197287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 27 ], [ 309, 322 ], [ 457, 472 ], [ 609, 621 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The crew changed the shape to round and the colors from blues and greens to a patriotic red, white and blue. Worden stated that each bird also represented an astronaut, white being his own color (and as Command Module Pilot, uppermost), Scott being the blue bird and Irwin the red. The colors matched Chevrolet Corvettes leased by the astronauts at KSC; a Florida car dealer had, since the time of Project Mercury, been leasing Chevrolets to astronauts for $1 and later selling them to the public. The astronauts were photographed with the cars and the training LRV for the June 11, 1971, edition of Life magazine.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Mission insignia", "target_page_ids": [ 221005, 187479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 319 ], [ 600, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The halo area of the Apollo 15 landing site, created by the LM's exhaust plume, was observed by a camera aboard the Japanese lunar orbiter SELENE and confirmed by comparative analysis of photographs in May 2008. This corresponds well to photographs taken from the Apollo 15 command module showing a change in surface reflectivity due to the plume, and was the first visible trace of crewed landings on the Moon seen from space since the close of the Apollo program.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Visibility from space", "target_page_ids": [ 851410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of artificial objects on the Moon", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 537458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 923416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 preliminary report by the Manned Spacecraft Center", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 177571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1975 summary report by NASA", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 18426568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 NASA press releases at collectSPACE", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 7367566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations, a 1978 book published by NASA", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Part 1 and part 2 of Apollo 15: In the Mountains of the Moon'', a NASA documentary film on the Apollo 15 mission, at the Internet Archive", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 8088, 176931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 88 ], [ 122, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2011 podcast interview with AstrotalkUK", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2016 interview with Worden at Medium", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 40507270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 37 ] ] } ]

[ "Apollo_15", "James_Irwin", "David_Scott", "Alfred_Worden", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "Apollo_program_missions", "Extravehicular_activity", "Lunar_rovers", "Crewed_missions_to_the_Moon", "Sample_return_missions", "Soft_landings_on_the_Moon", "Spacecraft_which_reentered_in_1971", "Spacecraft_launched_in_1971", "June_1971_events", "Spacecraft_launched_by_Saturn_rockets", "1971_on_the_Moon" ]

[ "Apollo XV" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Apollo 16 (April 1627, 1972) was the tenth crewed mission in the United States Apollo space program, administered by NASA, and the fifth and penultimate to land on the Moon. It was the second of Apollo's \"J missions\", with an extended stay on the lunar surface, a focus on science, and the use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV). The landing and exploration were in the Descartes Highlands, a site chosen because some scientists expected it to be an area formed by volcanic action, though this proved to not be the case.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18896, 1461, 18426568, 1558077, 9481400, 2096232, 18238, 4453559, 28848455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 49 ], [ 79, 99 ], [ 117, 121 ], [ 156, 172 ], [ 205, 215 ], [ 247, 260 ], [ 301, 321 ], [ 345, 356 ], [ 369, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mission was crewed by Commander John Young, Lunar Module Pilot Charles Duke and Command Module Pilot Ken Mattingly. Launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida on April 16, 1972, Apollo 16 experienced a number of minor glitches en route to the Moon. These culminated with a problem with the spaceship's main engine that resulted in a six-hour delay in the Moon landing as NASA managers contemplated having the astronauts abort the mission and return to Earth, before deciding the problem could be overcome. Although they permitted the lunar landing, NASA had the astronauts return from the mission one day earlier than planned.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13959901, 303563, 13959901, 328014, 13959901, 593844, 16421, 18933066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ], [ 36, 46 ], [ 48, 66 ], [ 67, 79 ], [ 84, 104 ], [ 105, 118 ], [ 138, 158 ], [ 162, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After flying the lunar module to the Moon's surface on April 21, Young and Duke spent 71 hours—just under three days—on the lunar surface, during which they conducted three extravehicular activities or moonwalks, totaling 20 hours and 14 minutes. The pair drove the lunar rover, the second used on the Moon, for . On the surface, Young and Duke collected of lunar samples for return to Earth, including Big Muley, the largest Moon rock collected during the Apollo missions. During this time Mattingly orbited the Moon in the command and service module (CSM), taking photos and operating scientific instruments. Mattingly, in the command module, spent 126 hours and 64 revolutions in lunar orbit. After Young and Duke rejoined Mattingly in lunar orbit, the crew released a subsatellite from the service module (SM). During the return trip to Earth, Mattingly performed a one-hour spacewalk to retrieve several film cassettes from the exterior of the service module. Apollo 16 returned safely to Earth on April 27, 1972.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 151932, 9792, 32978942, 2240081, 718111, 5908941, 1970, 718111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 29 ], [ 173, 198 ], [ 404, 413 ], [ 427, 436 ], [ 526, 552 ], [ 684, 695 ], [ 773, 785 ], [ 795, 809 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Young, the mission commander, was 41 years old and a captain in the Navy at the time of Apollo 16. Becoming an astronaut in 1962 as part of the second group to be selected by NASA, he flew in Gemini 3 with Gus Grissom in 1965, becoming the first American not of the Mercury Seven to fly in space. He thereafter flew in Gemini 10 (1966) with Michael Collins and as command module pilot of Apollo 10 (1969). With Apollo 16, he became the second American, after Jim Lovell, to fly in space four times.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 38410533, 20518076, 1636015, 18426568, 212918, 36592, 725945, 11982, 97666, 1966, 344336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 65 ], [ 73, 77 ], [ 145, 161 ], [ 180, 184 ], [ 197, 205 ], [ 211, 222 ], [ 271, 284 ], [ 324, 333 ], [ 346, 361 ], [ 393, 402 ], [ 464, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas Kenneth \"Ken\" Mattingly, the command module pilot, was 36 years old and a lieutenant commander in the Navy at the time of Apollo 16. Mattingly had been selected in NASA's fifth group of astronauts in 1966. He was a member of the support crew for Apollo 8 and Apollo 9. Mattingly then undertook parallel training with Apollo 11's backup CMP, William Anders, who had announced his resignation from NASA effective at the end of July 1969 and would thus be unavailable if the first lunar landing mission was postponed. Had Anders left NASA before Apollo 11 flew, Mattingly would have taken his place on the backup crew.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 14157162, 3144431, 663, 1774, 662, 82925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 101 ], [ 178, 203 ], [ 253, 261 ], [ 266, 274 ], [ 324, 333 ], [ 348, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mattingly had originally been assigned to the prime crew of Apollo 13, but was exposed to rubella through Charles Duke, at that time with Young on Apollo 13's backup crew; Duke had caught it from one of his children. Mattingly never contracted the illness, but three days before launch was removed from the crew and replaced by his backup, Jack Swigert. Duke, also a Group 5 astronaut and a space rookie, had served on the support crew of Apollo 10 and was a capsule communicator (CAPCOM) for Apollo 11. A lieutenant colonel in the Air Force, Duke was 36 years old at the time of Apollo 16, which made him the youngest of the twelve astronauts who walked on the Moon during Apollo as of the time of the mission. All three men were announced as the prime crew of Apollo 16 on March 3, 1971.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 1770, 172323, 366009, 4052227, 3412836, 32090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 69 ], [ 90, 97 ], [ 340, 352 ], [ 459, 479 ], [ 506, 524 ], [ 532, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 16's backup crew consisted of Fred W. Haise Jr. (commander, who had flown on Apollo 13), Stuart A. Roosa (CMP, who had flown on Apollo 14) and Edgar D. Mitchell (LMP, also Apollo 14). Although not officially announced, Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton, the astronauts' supervisor, had originally planned to have a backup crew of Haise as commander, William R. Pogue (CMP) and Gerald P. Carr (LMP), who were targeted for the prime crew assignment on Apollo 19. However, after the cancellations of Apollos 18 and 19 were announced in September 1970, it made more sense to use astronauts who had already flown lunar missions as backups, rather than training others on what would likely be a dead-end assignment. Subsequently, Roosa and Mitchell were assigned to the backup crew, while Pogue and Carr were reassigned to the Skylab program where they flew on Skylab 4.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 366161, 338113, 1968, 303600, 331454, 635277, 597271, 2651480, 29441, 710034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 54 ], [ 96, 111 ], [ 135, 144 ], [ 150, 167 ], [ 261, 273 ], [ 371, 387 ], [ 398, 412 ], [ 501, 535 ], [ 842, 848 ], [ 876, 884 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For projects Mercury and Gemini, a prime and a backup crew had been designated, but for Apollo, a third group of astronauts, known as the support crew, was also designated. Slayton created the support crews early in the Apollo Program on the advice of Apollo crew commander James McDivitt, who would lead Apollo 9. McDivitt believed that, with preparation going on in facilities across the U.S., meetings that needed a member of the flight crew would be missed. Support crew members were to assist as directed by the mission commander. Usually low in seniority, they assembled the mission's rules, flight plan, and checklists, and kept them updated. For Apollo 16, they were: Anthony W. England, Karl G. Henize, Henry W. Hartsfield Jr., Robert F. Overmyer and Donald H. Peterson.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 19812, 882736, 622247, 1289256, 598421, 677373, 499520, 503631, 514318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 25, 31 ], [ 274, 288 ], [ 598, 609 ], [ 676, 694 ], [ 696, 710 ], [ 712, 735 ], [ 737, 755 ], [ 760, 778 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flight directors were Pete Frank and Philip Shaffer, first shift, Gene Kranz and Donald R. Puddy, second shift, and Gerry Griffin, Neil B. Hutchinson and Charles R. Lewis, third shift. Flight directors during Apollo had a one-sentence job description: \"The flight director may take any actions necessary for crew safety and mission success.\" CAPCOMs were Haise, Roosa, Mitchell, James B. Irwin, England, Peterson, Hartsfield, and C. Gordon Fullerton.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 4052227, 64591021, 407054, 13275040, 5422, 321993, 503592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 22, 32 ], [ 66, 76 ], [ 116, 129 ], [ 342, 348 ], [ 379, 393 ], [ 430, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The insignia of Apollo 16 is dominated by a rendering of an American eagle and a red, white and blue shield, representing the people of the United States, over a gray background representing the lunar surface. Overlaying the shield is a gold NASA vector, orbiting the Moon. On its gold-outlined blue border, there are 16 stars, representing the mission number, and the names of the crew members: Young, Mattingly, Duke. The insignia was designed from ideas originally submitted by the crew of the mission, by Barbara Matelski of the graphics shop at the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission insignia and call signs", "target_page_ids": [ 4401, 177571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 74 ], [ 554, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Young and Duke chose \"Orion\" for the lunar module's call sign, while Mattingly chose \"Casper\" for the command and service module. According to Duke, he and Young chose \"Orion\" for the LM because they wanted something connected with the stars. Orion is one of the brightest constellations as seen from Earth, and one visible to the astronauts throughout their journey. Duke also stated, \"it is a prominent constellation and easy to pronounce and transmit to Mission Control\". Mattingly said he chose \"Casper\", evoking Casper the Friendly Ghost, because \"there are enough serious things in this flight, so I picked a non-serious name.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission insignia and call signs", "target_page_ids": [ 153797, 21132349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 243, 248 ], [ 517, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 16 was the second of Apollo's J missions, featuring the use of the Lunar Roving Vehicle, increased scientific capability, and three-day lunar surface stays. As Apollo 16 was the penultimate mission in the Apollo program and there was no major new hardware or procedures to test on the lunar surface, the last two missions (the other being Apollo 17) presented opportunities for astronauts to clear up some of the uncertainties in understanding the Moon's characteristics. Scientists sought information on the Moon's early history, which might be obtained from its ancient surface features, the lunar highlands. Previous Apollo expeditions, including Apollo 14 and Apollo 15, had obtained samples of pre-mare lunar material, likely thrown from the highlands by meteorite impacts. These were dated from before lava began to upwell from the Moon's interior and flood the low areas and basins. Nevertheless, no Apollo mission had actually visited the lunar highlands.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 9481400, 18238, 1971, 2096232, 1969, 817677, 19937, 21438242, 8955397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 47 ], [ 74, 94 ], [ 346, 355 ], [ 601, 616 ], [ 671, 680 ], [ 710, 714 ], [ 767, 776 ], [ 815, 819 ], [ 845, 860 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 14 had visited and sampled a ridge of material ejected by the impact that created the Mare Imbrium impact basin. Likewise, Apollo 15 had also sampled material in the region of Imbrium, visiting the basin's edge. Because the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 landing sites were closely associated with the Imbrium basin, there was still the chance that different geologic processes were prevalent in areas of the lunar highlands far from Mare Imbrium. Scientist Dan Milton, studying photographs of the highlands from Lunar Orbiter photographs, saw an area in the Descartes region of the Moon with unusually high albedo that he theorized might be due to volcanic rock; his theory quickly gained wide support. Several members of the scientific community noted that the central lunar highlands resembled regions on Earth that were created by volcanism processes and hypothesized the same might be true on the Moon. They hoped scientific output from the Apollo 16 mission would provide an answer. Some scientists advocated for a landing near the large crater, Tycho, but its distance from the lunar equator and the fact that the lunar module would have to approach over very rough terrain ruled it out.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 99044, 99492, 316414, 80045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 118 ], [ 513, 526 ], [ 649, 662 ], [ 1052, 1057 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ad Hoc Apollo Site Evaluation Committee met in April and May 1971 to decide the Apollo 16 and 17 landing sites; it was chaired by Noel Hinners of Bellcomm. There was consensus the final landing sites should be in the lunar highlands, and among the sites considered for Apollo 16 were the Descartes Highlands region west of Mare Nectaris and the crater Alphonsus. The considerable distance between the Descartes site and previous Apollo landing sites would also be beneficial for the network of seismometers, deployed on each landing mission beginning with Apollo 12.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 43761512, 3712, 28848455, 206289, 349228, 231826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 146 ], [ 150, 158 ], [ 292, 311 ], [ 327, 340 ], [ 356, 365 ], [ 498, 509 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At Alphonsus, three scientific objectives were determined to be of primary interest and paramount importance: the possibility of old, pre-Imbrium impact material from within the crater's wall, the composition of the crater's interior and the possibility of past volcanic activity on the floor of the crater at several smaller \"dark halo\" craters. Geologists feared, however, that samples obtained from the crater might have been contaminated by the Imbrium impact, thus preventing Apollo 16 from obtaining samples of pre-Imbrium material. There also remained the distinct possibility that this objective would have already been satisfied by the Apollo 14 and Apollo 15 missions, as the Apollo 14 samples had not yet been completely analyzed and samples from Apollo 15 had not yet been obtained.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On June 3, 1971, the site selection committee decided to target the Apollo 16 mission for the Descartes site. Following the decision, the Alphonsus site was considered the most likely candidate for Apollo 17, but was eventually rejected. With the assistance of orbital photography obtained on the Apollo 14 mission, the Descartes site was determined to be safe enough for a crewed landing. The specific landing site was between two young impact craters, North Ray and South Ray craters – in diameter, respectively – which provided \"natural drill holes\" which penetrated through the lunar regolith at the site, thus leaving exposed bedrock that could be sampled by the crew.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 41681120, 41765732, 204967, 657224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 454, 463 ], [ 468, 477 ], [ 589, 597 ], [ 632, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the selection, mission planners made the Descartes and Cayley formations, two geologic units of the lunar highlands, the primary sampling interest of the mission. It was these formations that the scientific community widely suspected were formed by lunar volcanism, but this hypothesis was proven incorrect by the composition of lunar samples from the mission.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the usual Apollo spacecraft training, Young and Duke, along with backup commander Fred Haise, underwent an extensive geological training program that included several field trips to introduce them to concepts and techniques they would use in analyzing features and collecting samples on the lunar surface. During these trips, they visited and provided scientific descriptions of geologic features they were likely to encounter. The backup LMP, Mitchell, was unavailable during the early part of the training, occupied with tasks relating to Apollo 14, but by September 1971 had joined the geology field trips. Before that, Tony England (a member of the support crew and the lunar EVA CAPCOM) or one of the geologist trainers would train alongside Haise on geology field trips.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 12207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since Descartes was believed to be volcanic, a good deal of this training was geared towards volcanic rocks and features, but field trips were made to sites featuring other sorts of rock. As Young later commented, the non-volcanic training proved more useful, given that Descartes did not prove to be volcanic. In July 1971, they visited Sudbury, Ontario, Canada, for geology training exercises, the first time U.S. astronauts trained in Canada. The Apollo 14 landing crew had visited a site in West Germany; geologist Don Wilhelms related that unspecified incidents there had caused Slayton to rule out further European training trips. Geologists chose Sudbury because of a wide crater created about 1.8billion years ago by a large meteorite. The Sudbury Basin shows evidence of shatter cone geology, familiarizing the Apollo crew with geologic evidence of a meteorite impact. During the training exercises the astronauts did not wear space suits, but carried radio equipment to converse with each other and England, practicing procedures they would use on the lunar surface. By the end of the training, the field trips had become major exercises, involving up to eight astronauts and dozens of support personnel, attracting coverage from the media. For the exercise at the Nevada Test Site, where the massive craters left by nuclear explosions simulated the large craters to be found on the Moon, all participants had to have security clearance and a listed next-of-kin, and an overflight by CMP Mattingly required special permission.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 332961, 33166, 39410792, 708597, 1168056, 2439384, 162759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 338, 345 ], [ 495, 507 ], [ 519, 531 ], [ 749, 762 ], [ 781, 793 ], [ 937, 948 ], [ 1276, 1292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to the field geology training, Young and Duke also trained to use their EVA space suits, adapt to the reduced lunar gravity, collect samples, and drive the Lunar Roving Vehicle. The fact that they had been backups for Apollo 13, planned to be a landing mission, meant that they could spend about 40 percent of their time training for their surface operations. They also received survival training and prepared for technical aspects of the mission. The astronauts spent much time studying the lunar samples brought back by earlier missions, learning about the instruments to be carried on the mission, and hearing what the principal investigators in charge of those instruments expected to learn from Apollo 16. This training helped Young and Duke, while on the Moon, quickly realize that the expected volcanic rocks were not there, even though the geologists in Mission Control initially did not believe them. Much of the training—according to Young, 350 hours—was conducted with the crew wearing space suits, something that Young deemed vital, allowing the astronauts to know the limitations of the equipment in doing their assigned tasks. Mattingly also received training in recognizing geological features from orbit by flying over the field areas in an airplane, and trained to operate the Scientific Instrument Module from lunar orbit.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 8955537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The launch vehicle which took Apollo 16 to the Moon was a Saturn V, designated as AS-511. This was the eleventh Saturn V to be flown and the ninth used on crewed missions. Apollo 16's Saturn V was almost identical to Apollo 15's. One change that was made was the restoration of four retrorockets to the S-IC first stage, meaning there would be a total of eight, as on Apollo 14 and earlier. The retrorockets were used to minimize the risk of collision between the jettisoned first stage and the Saturn V. These four retrorockets had been omitted from Apollo 15's Saturn V to save weight, but analysis of Apollo 15's flight showed that the S-IC came closer than expected after jettison, and it was feared that if there were only four rockets and one failed, there might be a collision.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 20584918, 1248390, 572830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 66 ], [ 283, 294 ], [ 303, 307 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As on all lunar landing missions after Apollo 11, an Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package (ALSEP) was flown on Apollo 16. This was a suite of nuclear-powered experiments designed to keep functioning after the astronauts who set them up returned to Earth. Apollo 16's ALSEP consisted of a Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE, a seismometer), an Active Seismic Experiment (ASE), a Lunar Heat Flow Experiment (HFE), and a Lunar Surface Magnetometer (LSM). The ALSEP was powered by a SNAP-27 radioisotope thermoelectric generator, developed by the Atomic Energy Commission.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 30874175, 5230467, 211485, 51718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 93 ], [ 480, 487 ], [ 488, 525 ], [ 544, 568 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The PSE added to the network of seismometers left by Apollo 12, 14 and 15. NASA intended to calibrate the Apollo 16 PSE by crashing the LM's ascent stage near it after the astronauts were done with it, an object of known mass and velocity impacting at a known location. However, NASA lost control of the ascent stage after jettison, and this did not occur. The ASE, designed to return data about the Moon's geologic structure, consisted of two groups of explosives: one, a line of \"thumpers\" were to be deployed attached to three geophones. The thumpers would be exploded during the ALSEP deployment. A second group was four mortars of different sizes, to be set off remotely once the astronauts had returned to Earth. Apollo 14 had also carried an ASE, though its mortars were never set off for fear of affecting other experiments.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 1278430, 324499 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 530, 538 ], [ 625, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The HFE involved the drilling of two holes into the lunar surface and emplacement of thermometers which would measure how much heat was flowing from the lunar interior. This was the third attempt to emplace a HFE: the first flew on Apollo 13 and never reached the lunar surface, while on Apollo 15, problems with the drill meant the probes did not go as deep as planned. The Apollo 16 attempt would fail after Duke had successfully emplaced the first probe; Young, unable to see his feet in the bulky spacesuit, pulled out and severed the cable after it wrapped around his leg. NASA managers vetoed a repair attempt due to the amount of time it would take. A HFE flew, and was successfully deployed, on Apollo 17.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The LSM was designed to measure the strength of the Moon's magnetic field, which is only a small fraction of Earth's. Additional data would be returned by the use of the Lunar Portable Magnetometer (LPM), to be carried on the lunar rover and activated at several geology stops. Scientists also hoped to learn from an Apollo 12 sample, to be briefly returned to the Moon on Apollo 16, from which \"soft\" magnetism had been removed, to see if it had been restored on its journey. Measurements after the mission found that \"soft\" magnetism had returned to the sample, although at a lower intensity than before.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 8955821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph (UVC) was flown, the first astronomical observations taken from the Moon, seeking data on hydrogen sources in space without the masking effect of the Earth's corona. The instrument was placed in the LM's shadow and pointed at nebulae, other astronomical objects, the Earth itself, and any suspected volcanic vents seen on the lunar surface. The film was returned to Earth. When asked to summarize the results for a general audience, Dr. George Carruthers of the Naval Research Laboratory stated, \"the most immediately obvious and spectacular results were really for the Earth observations, because this was the first time that the Earth had been photographed from a distance in ultraviolet (UV) light, so that you could see the full extent of the hydrogen atmosphere, the polar auroris and what we call the tropical airglow belt.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 39271235, 21664, 2385684, 411893, 31990, 49658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 37 ], [ 264, 270 ], [ 475, 492 ], [ 500, 525 ], [ 716, 727 ], [ 816, 823 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four panels mounted on the LM's descent stage comprised the Cosmic Ray Detector, designed to record cosmic ray and solar wind particles. Three of the panels were left uncovered during the voyage to the Moon, with the fourth uncovered by the crew early in the EVA. The panels would be bagged for return to Earth. The free-standing Solar Wind Composition Experiment flew on Apollo 16, as it had on each of the lunar landings, for deployment on the lunar surface and return to Earth. Platinum foil was added to the aluminum of the previous experiments, to minimize contamination.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 47687, 28538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 110 ], [ 115, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 16 Particles and Fields Subsatellite (PFS-2) was a small satellite released into lunar orbit from the service module. Its principal objective was to measure charged particles and magnetic fields all around the Moon as the Moon orbited Earth, similar to its sister spacecraft, PFS-1, released eight months earlier by Apollo 15. The two probes were intended to have similar orbits, ranging from above the lunar surface.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 1969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 287, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like the Apollo 15 subsatellite, PFS-2 was expected to have a lifetime of at least a year before its orbit decayed and it crashed onto the lunar surface. The decision to bring Apollo 16 home early after there were difficulties with the main engine meant that the spacecraft did not go to the orbit which had been planned for PFS-2. Instead, it was ejected into a lower-than-planned orbit and crashed into the Moon a month later on May 29, 1972, after circling the Moon 424 times. This brief lifetime was because lunar mascons were near to its orbital ground track and helped pull PFS-2 into the Moon.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 577296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 518, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elements of the spacecraft and launch vehicle began arriving at Kennedy Space Center in July 1970, and all had arrived by September 1971. Apollo 16 was originally scheduled to launch on March 17, 1972. One of the bladders for the CM's reaction control system burst during testing. This issue, in combination with concerns that one of the explosive cords that would jettison the LM from the CSM after the astronauts returned from the lunar surface would not work properly, and a problem with Duke's spacesuit, made it desirable to slip the launch to the next launch window. Thus, Apollo 16 was postponed to April 16. The launch vehicle stack, which had been rolled out from the Vehicle Assembly Building on December 13, 1971, was returned thereto on January 27, 1972. It was rolled out again to Launch Complex 39A on February 9.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 16421, 1027467, 155759, 268462, 1098230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 84 ], [ 235, 258 ], [ 558, 571 ], [ 677, 702 ], [ 794, 812 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The official mission countdown began on Monday, April 10, 1972, at 8:30am, six days before the launch. At this point the SaturnV rocket's three stages were powered up, and drinking water was pumped into the spacecraft. As the countdown began, the crew of Apollo 16 was participating in final training exercises in anticipation of a launch on April 16. The astronauts underwent their final preflight physical examination on April 11. The only holds in the countdown were the ones pre-planned in the schedule, and the weather was fair as the time for launch approached.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 16 mission launched from the Kennedy Space Center in Florida at 12:54pm EST on April 16, 1972. The launch was nominal; the crew experienced vibration similar to that on previous missions. The first and second stages of the SaturnV (the S-IC and S-II) performed nominally; the spacecraft entered orbit around Earth just under 12 minutes after lift-off.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 572843, 47568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 256, 260 ], [ 306, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After reaching orbit, the crew spent time adapting to the zero-gravity environment and preparing the spacecraft for trans-lunar injection (TLI), the burn of the third-stage rocket that would propel them to the Moon. In Earth orbit, the crew faced minor technical issues, including a potential problem with the environmental control system and the S-IVB third stage's attitude control system, but eventually resolved or compensated for them as they prepared to depart towards the Moon.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 18603506, 85757, 272021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 70 ], [ 116, 137 ], [ 347, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After two orbits, the rocket's third stage reignited for just over five minutes, propelling the craft towards the Moon at about . Six minutes after the burn of the S-IVB, the command and service modules (CSM), containing the crew, separated from the rocket and traveled away from it before turning around and retrieving the lunar module from inside the expended rocket stage. The maneuver, performed by Mattingly and known as transposition, docking, and extraction, went smoothly.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 17671986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 427, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following transposition and docking, the crew noticed the exterior surface of the lunar module was giving off particles from a spot where the LM's skin appeared torn or shredded; at one point, Duke estimated they were seeing about five to ten particles per second. Young and Duke entered the lunar module through the docking tunnel connecting it with the command module to inspect its systems, at which time they did not spot any major issues.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Once on course towards the Moon, the crew put the spacecraft into a rotisserie \"barbecue\" mode in which the craft rotated along its long axis three times per hour to ensure even heat distribution about the spacecraft from the Sun. After further preparing the craft for the voyage, the crew began the first sleep period of the mission just under 15 hours after launch.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the time Mission Control issued the wake-up call to the crew for flight day two, the spacecraft was about away from the Earth, traveling at about . As it was not due to arrive in lunar orbit until flight day four, flight days two and three were largely preparatory, consisting of spacecraft maintenance and scientific research. On day two, the crew performed an electrophoresis experiment, also performed on Apollo 14, in which they attempted to demonstrate that electrophoretic separation in their near-weightless environment could be used to produce substances of greater purity than would be possible on Earth. Using two different sizes of polystyrene particles, one size colored red and one blue, separation of the two types via electrophoresis was achieved, though electro-osmosis in the experiment equipment prevented the clear separation of two particle bands.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 19578379, 349676, 168393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 27 ], [ 366, 381 ], [ 647, 658 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The remainder of day two included a two-second mid-course correction burn performed by the CSM's service propulsion system (SPS) engine to tweak the spacecraft's trajectory. Later in the day, the astronauts entered the lunar module for the second time to further inspect the landing craft's systems. The crew reported they had observed additional paint peeling from a portion of the LM's outer aluminum skin. Despite this, the crew discovered that the spacecraft's systems were performing nominally. Following the LM inspection, the crew reviewed checklists and procedures for the following days in anticipation of their arrival and the Lunar Orbit Insertion (LOI) burn. Command Module Pilot Mattingly reported \"gimbal lock\", meaning that the system to keep track of the craft's attitude was no longer accurate. Mattingly had to realign the guidance system using the Sun and Moon. At the end of day two, Apollo 16 was about away from Earth.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 718111, 5908941, 342058, 411492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 122 ], [ 637, 658 ], [ 712, 723 ], [ 779, 787 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the astronauts were awakened for flight day three, the spacecraft was about away from the Earth. The velocity of the craft steadily decreased, as it had not yet reached the lunar sphere of gravitational influence. The early part of day three was largely housekeeping, spacecraft maintenance and exchanging status reports with Mission Control in Houston. The crew performed the Apollo light flash experiment, or ALFMED, to investigate \"light flashes\" that were seen by Apollo lunar astronauts when the spacecraft was dark, regardless of whether their eyes were open. This was thought to be caused by the penetration of the eye by cosmic ray particles. During the second half of the day, Young and Duke again entered the lunar module to power it up and check its systems, and perform housekeeping tasks in preparation for the lunar landing. The systems were found to be functioning as expected. Following this, the crew donned their space suits and rehearsed procedures that would be used on landing day. Just before the end of flight day three at 59 hours, 19 minutes, 45 seconds after liftoff, while from the Earth and from the Moon, the spacecraft's velocity began increasing as it accelerated towards the Moon after entering the lunar sphere of influence.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 1070221, 47687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 628, 631 ], [ 635, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After waking up on flight day four, the crew began preparations for the LOI maneuver that would brake them into orbit. At an altitude of the scientific instrument module (SIM) bay cover was jettisoned. At just over 74 hours into the mission, the spacecraft passed behind the Moon, temporarily losing contact with Mission Control. While over the far side, the SPS burned for 6minutes and 15 seconds, braking the spacecraft into an orbit with a low point (pericynthion) of 58.3 and a high point (apocynthion) of 170.4 nautical miles (108.0 and 315.6km, respectively). After entering lunar orbit, the crew began preparations for the Descent Orbit Insertion (DOI) maneuver to further modify the spacecraft's orbital trajectory. The maneuver was successful, decreasing the craft's pericynthion to . The remainder of flight day four was spent making observations and preparing for activation of the lunar module, undocking, and landing the following day.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 718111, 988372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 170 ], [ 346, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The crew continued preparing for lunar module activation and undocking shortly after waking up to begin flight day five. The boom that extended the mass spectrometer in the SIM bay was stuck, semi-deployed. It was decided that Young and Duke would visually inspect the boom after undocking the LM from the CSM. They entered the LM for activation and checkout of the spacecraft's systems. Despite entering the LM 40 minutes ahead of schedule, they completed preparations only 10 minutes early due to numerous delays in the process. With the preparations finished, they undocked 96 hours, 13 minutes, 31 seconds into the mission.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 283810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For the rest of the two crafts' passes over the near side of the Moon, Mattingly prepared to shift Casper to a higher, near-circular orbit, while Young and Duke prepared Orion for the descent to the lunar surface. At this point, during tests of the CSM's steerable rocket engine in preparation for the burn to modify the craft's orbit, Mattingly detected oscillations in the SPS engine's backup gimbal system. According to mission rules, under such circumstances, Orion was to re-dock with Casper, in case Mission Control decided to abort the landing and use the lunar module's engines for the return trip to Earth. Instead, the two craft kept station, maintaining positions close to each other. After several hours of analysis, mission controllers determined that the malfunction could be worked around, and Young and Duke could proceed with the landing.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 5473867, 979306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 69 ], [ 639, 651 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Powered descent to the lunar surface began about six hours behind schedule. Because of the delay, Young and Duke began their descent to the surface at an altitude higher than that of any previous mission, at . After descending to an altitude of about , Young was able to view the landing site in its entirety. Throttle-down of the LM's landing engine occurred on time, and the spacecraft tilted forward to its landing orientation at an altitude of . The LM landed north and west of the planned landing site at 104 hours, 29 minutes, and 35 seconds into the mission, at 2:23:35 UTC on April 21 (8:23:35pm on April 20 in Houston). The availability of the Lunar Roving Vehicle rendered their distance from the targeted point trivial.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 18238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 655, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After landing, Young and Duke began powering down some of the LM's systems to conserve battery power. Upon completing their initial procedures, the pair configured Orion for their three-day stay on the lunar surface, removed their space suits and took initial geological observations of the immediate landing site. They then settled down for their first meal on the surface. After eating, they configured the cabin for sleep. The landing delay caused by the malfunction in the CSM's main engine necessitated significant modifications to the mission schedule. Apollo 16 would spend one less day in lunar orbit after surface exploration had been completed to afford the crew ample margins in the event of further problems. In order to improve Young's and Duke's sleep schedule, the third and final moonwalk of the mission was trimmed from seven hours to five.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After waking up on April 21, Young and Duke ate breakfast and began preparations for the first extravehicular activity (EVA), or moonwalk. After the pair donned and pressurized their space suits and depressurized the lunar module cabin, Young climbed out onto the \"porch\" of the LM, a small platform above the ladder. Duke handed Young a jettison bag full of trash to dispose of on the surface. Young then lowered the equipment transfer bag (ETB), containing equipment for use during the EVA, to the surface. Young descended the ladder and, upon setting foot on the lunar surface, became the ninth human to walk on the Moon. Upon stepping onto the surface, Young expressed his sentiments about being there: \"There you are: Mysterious and unknown Descartes. Highland plains. Apollo 16 is gonna change your image. I'm sure glad they got ol' Brer Rabbit, here, back in the briar patch where he belongs.\" Duke soon descended the ladder and joined Young on the surface, becoming the tenth person to walk on the Moon. Duke was then aged 36; no younger human has ever walked on the lunar surface (as of 2021). Duke expressed his excitement, stating to CAPCOM Anthony England: \"Fantastic! Oh, that first foot on the lunar surface is super, Tony!\" The pair's first task of the moonwalk was to offload the Lunar Roving Vehicle, the Far Ultraviolet Camera/Spectrograph, and other equipment. This was done without problems. On first driving the lunar rover, Young discovered that the rear steering was not working. He alerted Mission Control to the problem before setting up the television camera, after which Duke erected the United States flag. During lunar surface operations, Commander Young always drove the rover, while Lunar Module Pilot Duke assisted with navigation; this was a division of responsibilities used consistently throughout Apollo's J missions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 17230238, 32744030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 839, 850 ], [ 1629, 1633 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The day's next task was to deploy the ALSEP; while they were parking the lunar rover, on which the TV camera was mounted, to observe the deployment, the rear steering began functioning. After ALSEP deployment, they collected samples in the vicinity. About four hours after the beginning of EVA-1, they mounted the lunar rover and drove to the first geologic stop, Plum Crater, a crater on the rim of Flag Crater, about across. There, at a distance of from the LM, they sampled material in the vicinity, which scientists believed had penetrated through the upper regolith layer to the underlying Cayley Formation. It was there that Duke retrieved, at the request of Mission Control, the largest rock returned by an Apollo mission, a breccia nicknamed Big Muley after mission geology principal investigator William R. Muehlberger. The next stop of the day was Buster Crater, a small crater located north of the larger Spook Crater, about from the LM. There, Duke took pictures of Stone Mountain and South Ray Crater, while Young deployed the LPM. By this point, scientists were beginning to reconsider their pre-mission hypothesis that Descartes had been the setting of ancient volcanic activity, as the two astronauts had yet to find any volcanic material. Following their stop at Buster, Young did a \"Grand Prix\" demonstration drive of the lunar rover, which Duke filmed with a 16 mm movie camera. This had been attempted on Apollo 15, but the camera had malfunctioned. After completing more tasks at the ALSEP, they returned to the LM to close out the moonwalk. They reentered the LM 7hours, 6minutes, and 56 seconds after the start of the EVA. Once inside, they pressurized the LM cabin, went through a half-hour debriefing with scientists in Mission Control, and configured the cabin for the sleep period.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 48013570, 1207794, 54125, 32978942, 41652018, 48051223, 46224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 401, 412 ], [ 598, 614 ], [ 735, 742 ], [ 753, 762 ], [ 808, 830 ], [ 919, 931 ], [ 1382, 1387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Waking up three and a half minutes earlier than planned, they discussed the day's timeline of events with Houston. The second lunar excursion's primary objective was to visit Stone Mountain to climb up the slope of about 20 degrees to reach a cluster of five craters known as \"Cinco craters\". They drove there in the LRV, traveling from the LM. At above the valley floor, the pair were at the highest elevation above the LM of any Apollo mission. They marveled at the view (including South Ray) from the side of Stone Mountain, which Duke described as \"spectacular\", then gathered samples in the vicinity. After spending 54 minutes on the slope, they climbed aboard the lunar rover en route to the day's second stop, dubbed Station 5, a crater across. There, they hoped to find Descartes material that had not been contaminated by ejecta from South Ray Crater, a large crater south of the landing site. The samples they collected there, although their origin is still not certain, are, according to geologist Wilhelms, \"a reasonable bet to be Descartes\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 52194820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next stop, Station 6, was a blocky crater, where the astronauts believed they could sample the Cayley Formation as evidenced by the firmer soil found there. Bypassing station seven to save time, they arrived at Station 8 on the lower flank of Stone Mountain, where they sampled material on a ray from South Ray crater for about an hour. There, they collected black and white breccias and smaller, crystalline rocks rich in plagioclase. At Station 9, an area known as the \"Vacant Lot\", which was believed to be free of ejecta from South Ray, they spent about 40 minutes gathering samples. Twenty-five minutes after departing the Vacant Lot, they arrived at the final stop of the day, halfway between the ALSEP site and the LM. There, they dug a double core and conducted several penetrometer tests along a line stretching east of the ALSEP. At the request of Young and Duke, the moonwalk was extended by ten minutes. After returning to the LM to wrap up the second lunar excursion, they climbed back inside the landing craft's cabin, sealing and pressurizing the interior after 7hours, 23 minutes, and 26 seconds of EVA time, breaking a record that had been set on Apollo 15. After eating a meal and proceeding with a debriefing on the day's activities with Mission Control, they reconfigured the LM cabin and prepared for the sleep period.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 6015, 45168, 30930790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 402, 409 ], [ 428, 439 ], [ 783, 795 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flight day seven was their third and final day on the lunar surface, returning to orbit to rejoin Mattingly in the CSM following the day's moonwalk. During the third and final lunar excursion, they were to explore North Ray crater, the largest of any of the craters any Apollo expedition had visited. After exiting Orion, the pair drove to North Ray crater. The drive was smoother than that of the previous day, as the craters were shallower and boulders were less abundant north of the immediate landing site. After passing Palmetto crater, boulders gradually became larger and more abundant as they approached North Ray in the lunar rover. Upon arriving at the rim of North Ray crater, they were away from the LM. After their arrival, the duo took photographs of the wide and deep crater. They visited a large boulder, taller than a four-story building, which became known as 'House Rock'. Samples obtained from this boulder delivered the final blow to the pre-mission volcanic hypothesis, proving it incorrect. House Rock had numerous bullet hole-like marks where micrometeoroids from space had impacted the rock.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 44197406, 186821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 525, 533 ], [ 1070, 1084 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "About 1hour and 22 minutes after arriving at the North Ray crater, they departed for Station 13, a large boulder field about from North Ray. On the way, they set a lunar speed record, traveling at an estimated downhill. They arrived at a high boulder, which they called \"Shadow Rock\". Here, they sampled permanently shadowed soil. During this time, Mattingly was preparing the CSM in anticipation of their return approximately six hours later. After three hours and six minutes, they returned to the LM, where they completed several experiments and unloaded the rover. A short distance from the LM, Duke placed a photograph of his family and an Air Force commemorative medallion on the surface. Young drove the rover to a point about east of the LM, known as the 'VIP site,' so its television camera, controlled remotely by Mission Control, could observe Apollo 16's liftoff from the Moon. They then reentered the LM after a 5-hour and 40-minute final excursion. After pressurizing the LM cabin, the crew began preparing to return to lunar orbit.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After Orion was cleared for the landing attempt, Casper maneuvered away, and Mattingly performed a burn that took his spacecraft to an orbit of by in preparation for his scientific work. The SM carried a suite of scientific instruments in its SIM bay, similar to those carried on Apollo 15. Mattingly had compiled a busy schedule operating the various SIM bay instruments, one that became even busier once Houston decided to bring Apollo 16 home a day early, as the flight directors sought to make up for lost time.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His work was hampered by various malfunctions: when the Panoramic Camera was turned on, it appeared to take so much power from one of the CSM's electrical systems, that it initiated the spacecraft Master Alarm. It was immediately shut off, though later analysis indicated that the drain might have been from the spacecraft's heaters, which came on at the same time. Its work was also hampered by the delay in the beginning of Casper'''s orbital scientific work and the early return to Earth, and by a malfunction resulting in the overexposure of many of the photographs. Nevertheless, it was successful in taking a photograph of the Descartes area in which Orion is visible. The Mass Spectrometer boom did not fully retract following its initial extension, as had happened on Apollo 15, though it retracted far enough to allow the SPS engine to be fired safely when Casper maneuvered away from Orion before the LM began its Moon landing attempt. Although the Mass Spectrometer was able to operate effectively, it stuck near its fully deployed position prior to the burn that preceded rendezvous, and had to be jettisoned. Scientists had hoped to supplement the lunar data gained with more on the trans-earth coast, but Apollo 15 data could be used instead. The Mapping Camera also did not function perfectly; later analysis found it to have problems with its glare shield. The changes to the flight plan meant that some areas of the lunar surface that were supposed to be photographed could not be; also, a number of images were overexposed. The Laser Altimeter, designed to accurately measure the spacecraft altitude, slowly lost accuracy due to reduced power, and finally failed just before it was due to be used for the last time.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 166868 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 530, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eight minutes before the planned departure from the lunar surface, CAPCOM James Irwin notified Young and Duke from Mission Control that they were go for liftoff. Two minutes before launch, they activated the \"Master Arm\" switch and then the \"Abort Stage\" button, causing small explosive charges to sever the ascent stage from the descent stage, with cables connecting the two severed by a guillotine-like mechanism. At the pre-programmed moment, there was liftoff and the ascent stage blasted away from the Moon, as the camera aboard the LRV followed the first moments of the flight. Six minutes after liftoff, at a speed of about , Young and Duke reached lunar orbit. Young and Duke successfully rendezvoused and re-docked with Mattingly in the CSM. To minimize the transfer of lunar dust from the LM cabin into the CSM, Young and Duke cleaned the cabin before opening the hatch separating the two spacecraft. After opening the hatch and reuniting with Mattingly, the crew transferred the samples Young and Duke had collected on the surface into the CSM for transfer to Earth. After transfers were completed, the crew would sleep before jettisoning the empty lunar module ascent stage the next day, when it was to be crashed intentionally into the lunar surface in order to calibrate the seismometer Young and Duke had left on the surface.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 321993, 151932, 51272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 85 ], [ 330, 343 ], [ 389, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next day, after final checks were completed, the expended LM ascent stage was jettisoned. Likely because of a failure by the crew to activate a certain switch in the LM before sealing it off, it tumbled after separation. NASA could not control it, and it did not execute the rocket burn necessary for the craft's intentional de-orbit. The ascent stage eventually crashed into the lunar surface nearly a year after the mission. The crew's next task, after jettisoning the lunar module ascent stage, was to release a subsatellite into lunar orbit from the CSM's scientific instrument bay. The burn to alter the CSM's orbit to that desired for the subsatellite had been cancelled; as a result, the subsatellite lasted just over a month in orbit, far less than its anticipated one year. Just under five hours after the subsatellite release, on the CSM's 65th orbit around the Moon, its service propulsion system main engine was reignited to propel the craft on a trajectory that would return it to Earth. The SPS engine performed the burn flawlessly despite the malfunction that had delayed their landing several days previously.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the return to Earth, Mattingly performed an 83-minute EVA to retrieve film cassettes from the cameras in the SIM bay, with assistance from Duke who remained at the command module's hatch. At approximately 173,000 nautical miles (199,000mi; 320,000km) from Earth, it was the second \"deep space\" EVA in history, performed at great distance from any planetary body. , it remains one of only three such EVAs, all performed during Apollo's J-missions under similar circumstances. During the EVA, Mattingly set up a biological experiment, the Microbial Ecology Evaluation Device (MEED), an experiment unique to Apollo 16, to evaluate the response of microbes to the space environment. The crew carried out various housekeeping and maintenance tasks aboard the spacecraft and ate a meal before concluding the day.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The penultimate day of the flight was largely spent performing experiments, aside from a twenty-minute press conference during the second half of the day. During the press conference, the astronauts answered questions pertaining to several technical and non-technical aspects of the mission prepared and listed by priority at the Manned Spacecraft Center in Houston by journalists covering the flight. In addition to numerous housekeeping tasks, the astronauts prepared the spacecraft for its atmospheric reentry the next day. At the end of the crew's final full day in space, the spacecraft was approximately from Earth and closing at a rate of about .", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 177571, 45294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 354 ], [ 493, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When the wake-up call was issued to the crew for their final day in space by CAPCOM England, the CSM was about from Earth, traveling just over . Just over three hours before splashdown in the Pacific Ocean, the crew performed a final course correction burn, using the spacecraft's thrusters to change their velocity by . Approximately ten minutes before reentry into Earth's atmosphere, the cone-shaped command module containing the three crewmembers separated from the service module, which would burn up during reentry. At 265 hours and 37 minutes into the mission, at a velocity of about , Apollo 16 began atmospheric reentry. At its maximum, the temperature of the heat shield was between . After successful parachute deployment and less than 14 minutes after reentry began, the command module splashed down in the Pacific Ocean southeast of the island of Kiritimati 265 hours, 51 minutes, 5seconds after liftoff. The spacecraft and its crew was retrieved by the aircraft carrier . The astronauts were safely aboard the Ticonderoga 37 minutes after splashdown.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 88259, 17250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 185 ], [ 862, 872 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scientific analysis of the rocks brought back to Earth confirmed that the Cayley Formation was not volcanic in nature. There was less certainty regarding the Descartes Formation, as it was not clear which if any of the rocks came from there. There was no evidence that showed that Stone Mountain was volcanic. One reason why Descartes had been selected was that it was visually different from previous Apollo landing sites, but rocks from there proved to be closely related to those from the Fra Mauro Formation, Apollo 14's landing site. Geologists realized that they had been so certain that Cayley was volcanic, they had not been open to dissenting views, and that they had been over-reliant on analogues from Earth, a flawed model because the Moon does not share much of the Earth's geologic history. They concluded that there are few if any volcanic mountains on the Moon. These conclusions were informed by observations from Mattingly, the first CMP to use binoculars in his observations, who had seen that from the perspective of lunar orbit, there was nothing distinctive about the Descartes Formation—it fit right in with the Mare Imbrium structure. Other results gained from Apollo 16 included the discovery of two new auroral belts around Earth.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Scientific results and aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 206582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 492, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the mission, Young and Duke served as backups for Apollo 17, and Duke retired from NASA in December 1975. Young and Mattingly both flew the Space Shuttle: Young, who served as Chief Astronaut from 1974 to 1987, commanded the first Space Shuttle mission, STS-1 in 1981, as well as STS-9 in 1983, on the latter mission becoming the first person to journey into space six times. He retired from NASA in 2004. Mattingly also twice commanded Shuttle missions, STS-4 (1982) and STS-51-C (1985), before retiring from NASA in 1985.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Scientific results and aftermath", "target_page_ids": [ 1971, 28189, 10173283, 177543, 180795, 181038, 497593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 65 ], [ 146, 159 ], [ 182, 197 ], [ 260, 265 ], [ 286, 291 ], [ 461, 466 ], [ 478, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ticonderoga delivered the Apollo 16 command module to the North Island Naval Air Station, near San Diego, California, on Friday, May 5, 1972. On Monday, May 8, ground service equipment being used to empty the residual toxic reaction control system fuel in the command module tanks exploded in a Naval Air Station hangar. Forty-six people were sent to the hospital for 24 to 48 hours' observation, most suffering from inhalation of toxic fumes. Most seriously injured was a technician who suffered a fractured kneecap when a cart overturned on him. A hole was blown in the hangar roof 250 feet above; about 40 windows in the hangar were shattered. The command module suffered a three-inch gash in one panel.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Locations of spacecraft and other equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 2410271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 16 command module Casper'' is on display at the U.S. Space & Rocket Center in Huntsville, Alabama, following a transfer of ownership from NASA to the Smithsonian in November 1973. The lunar module ascent stage separated from the CSM on April 24, 1972 but NASA lost control of it. It orbited the Moon for about a year. Its impact site remains unknown. The S-IVB was deliberately crashed into the Moon. However, due to a communication failure before impact the exact location was unknown until January 2016, when it was discovered within Mare Insularum by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, approximately southwest of Copernicus Crater.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Locations of spacecraft and other equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 988975, 104854, 65828, 206284, 15970718, 349235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 85 ], [ 89, 108 ], [ 161, 172 ], [ 547, 561 ], [ 569, 597 ], [ 627, 644 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Duke left two items on the Moon, both of which he photographed while there. One is a plastic-encased photo portrait of his family. The reverse of the photo is signed by Duke's family and bears this message: \"This is the family of Astronaut Duke from Planet Earth. Landed on the Moon, April 1972.\" The other item was a commemorative medal issued by the United States Air Force, which was celebrating its 25th anniversary in 1972. He took two medals, leaving one on the Moon and donating the other to the National Museum of the United States Air Force at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Ohio.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Locations of spacecraft and other equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 571462, 150911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 503, 549 ], [ 553, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2006, shortly after Hurricane Ernesto affected Bath, North Carolina, eleven-year-old Kevin Schanze discovered a piece of metal debris on the ground near his beach home. Schanze and a friend discovered a \"stamp\" on the flat metal sheet, which upon further inspection turned out to be a faded copy of the Apollo 16 mission insignia. NASA later confirmed the object to be a piece of the first stage of the SaturnV that had launched Apollo 16 into space. In July 2011, after returning the piece of debris at NASA's request, 16-year-old Schanze was given an all-access tour of the Kennedy Space Center and VIP seating for the launch of STS-135, the final mission of the Space Shuttle program.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Locations of spacecraft and other equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 6690727, 127656, 20517541, 38458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 40 ], [ 50, 70 ], [ 635, 642 ], [ 669, 690 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of artificial objects on the Moon", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 537458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 923416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo 16 Traverses, Lunar Photomap 78D2S2(25)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " On the Moon with Apollo 16: A guidebook to the Descartes Region by Gene Simmons, NASA, EP-95, 1972", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo 16: \"Nothing so hidden...\" (Part 1) – NASA film on the Apollo 16 mission at the Internet Archive", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 176931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo 16: \"Nothing so hidden...\" (Part 2) – NASA film on the Apollo 16 mission at the Internet Archive", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo Lunar Surface VR Panoramas – QTVR panoramas at moonpans.com", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo 16 Science Experiments at the Lunar and Planetary Institute", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2319140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Audio recording of Apollo 16 landing as recorded at the Honeysuckle Creek Tracking Station", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2277072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interview with the Apollo 16 Astronauts (28 June 1972) from the Commonwealth Club of California Records at the Hoover Institution Archives", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 16: Driving on the Moon\" – Apollo 16 film footage of lunar rover at the Astronomy Picture of the Day, 29 January 2013", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 844920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Astronaut's Eye View of Apollo 16 Site, from LROC", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 15970718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 50 ] ] } ]

[ "Apollo_16", "Apollo_program_missions", "Crewed_missions_to_the_Moon", "Charles_Duke", "Ken_Mattingly", "John_Young_(astronaut)", "1972_on_the_Moon", "1972_in_the_United_States", "April_1972_events", "Extravehicular_activity", "Lunar_rovers", "Sample_return_missions", "Soft_landings_on_the_Moon", "Spacecraft_launched_in_1972", "Spacecraft_which_reentered_in_1972", "Spacecraft_launched_by_Saturn_rockets" ]

[ "Apollo XVI" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Apollo 17 (December 7–19, 1972) was the final mission of NASA's Apollo program, the most recent time humans have set foot on the Moon or traveled beyond low Earth orbit. Commander Gene Cernan and Lunar Module Pilot Harrison Schmitt walked on the Moon, while Command Module Pilot Ronald Evans orbited above. Schmitt was the only professional geologist to land on the Moon, selected in place of Joe Engle with NASA under pressure to send a scientist to the Moon. The mission's heavy emphasis on science meant the inclusion of a number of new experiments, including a biological experiment containing five mice carried in the command module.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18426568, 1461, 19331, 47568, 300531, 13793, 598426, 503116, 59641664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 61 ], [ 64, 78 ], [ 129, 133 ], [ 153, 168 ], [ 180, 191 ], [ 215, 231 ], [ 279, 291 ], [ 393, 402 ], [ 565, 607 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mission planners considered two primary goals in selecting the landing site: to sample lunar highland material older than Mare Imbrium and to investigate the possibility of relatively recent volcanic activity. They thus selected Taurus–Littrow, where formations that had been viewed and pictured from orbit were thought to be volcanic in nature. Since all three crew members had backed up previous Apollo lunar missions, they were familiar with the Apollo spacecraft and had more time for geology training.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2096232, 99044, 32571, 28623094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 101 ], [ 122, 134 ], [ 191, 208 ], [ 229, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Launched at 12:33a.m. Eastern Standard Time (EST) on December 7, 1972, after the only launch-pad delay in the Apollo program caused by a hardware problem, Apollo 17 was a \"J-type\" mission that included three days on the lunar surface, extended scientific capability, and the use of the third Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV). Cernan and Schmitt landed in the Taurus–Littrow valley and completed three moonwalks, taking lunar samples and deploying scientific instruments. Orange soil was discovered at Shorty crater, and proved to be volcanic in origin, although from early in the Moon's history. Evans remained in lunar orbit in the command and service module (CSM), taking scientific measurements and photographs. The spacecraft returned to Earth on December 19.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9481400, 18238, 9792, 2240081, 30874175, 38384525, 5908941, 718111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 187 ], [ 292, 312 ], [ 395, 404 ], [ 413, 426 ], [ 441, 463 ], [ 496, 509 ], [ 609, 620 ], [ 628, 654 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mission broke several records for crewed spaceflight, including the longest crewed lunar landing mission (12 days 14 hours), greatest distance from a spacecraft during an extravehicular activity of any type (, longest total lunar surface extravehicular activities (22 hours 4 minutes), largest lunar sample return (approximately 115kg or 254lb), longest time in lunar orbit (6 days 4 hours), and most lunar orbits (75).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 899424, 77178, 9792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 33 ], [ 45, 56 ], [ 175, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1969, NASA announced that the backup crew of Apollo 14 would be Gene Cernan, Ronald Evans, and former X-15 pilot Joe Engle. This put them in line to be prime crew of Apollo 17, as the Apollo program's crew rotation generally meant that a backup crew would fly as prime crew three missions later. Harrison Schmitt, a professional geologist in addition to an astronaut, served on the backup crew of Apollo 15 and would be due to fly as Lunar Module Pilot on Apollo 18 as a result of the rotation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 1968, 221315, 503116, 1969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 57 ], [ 105, 109 ], [ 116, 125 ], [ 400, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1970, Apollo 18 was cancelled. The scientific community pressed NASA to assign a geologist, rather than a pilot with non-professional geological training, to an Apollo landing. NASA subsequently assigned Schmitt to Apollo 17 as the Lunar Module Pilot. Schmitt's selection to the Apollo 17 crew left NASA Director of Flight Crew Operations Deke Slayton with the question of who would fill the two other Apollo 17 slots: the rest of the Apollo 15 backup crew (Dick Gordon and Vance Brand) or the Apollo 14 backup crew (except for Engle). Slayton ultimately chose Cernan and Evans, though support for assigning Cernan to Apollo 17 was not unanimous within NASA. Cernan crashed a Bell 47G helicopter into the Indian River near Cape Kennedy during a training exercise in January 1971; the accident was later attributed to pilot error, as Cernan had misjudged his altitude before crashing into the water. Jim McDivitt, who was manager of the Apollo Spacecraft Program Office at the time, objected to Cernan's selection, citing the accident, though Slayton dismissed the concern. After being offered command of the mission, Cernan argued that Engle should fly with him on the mission, but agreed to Schmitt's selection when it became clear that Schmitt would fly on Apollo 17 with or without Cernan. The prime crew of Apollo 17 was publicly announced on August 13, 1971.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 2651480, 331454, 598945, 503617, 1712686, 2045698, 54488, 622247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 42 ], [ 352, 364 ], [ 471, 482 ], [ 487, 498 ], [ 689, 708 ], [ 718, 730 ], [ 736, 748 ], [ 912, 924 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cernan, a 38-year-old captain in the United States Navy at the time of Apollo 17, had been selected in the third group of astronauts in 1963. He flew as Pilot of Gemini 9A in 1966 and as Lunar Module Pilot of Apollo 10 in 1969 before his service on Apollo 14's backup crew. Evans, selected as part of the fifth group of astronauts in 1966, was 39 years old at the time of Apollo 17 and a lieutenant commander in the United States Navy. Schmitt, a civilian, was 37 years old at the time of Apollo 17. With a doctorate in geology from Harvard University, he had been selected in the fourth group of astronauts in 1965. Both Evans and Schmitt were making their first spaceflights.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 20518076, 2296945, 369302, 1966, 3144431, 18426501, 3144242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 55 ], [ 107, 132 ], [ 162, 171 ], [ 209, 218 ], [ 305, 330 ], [ 533, 551 ], [ 581, 607 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For Apollo 16 and 17, the final Apollo lunar missions, NASA selected backup crews consisting of astronauts who had already flown Apollo lunar missions to take advantage of their experience, and to save the time and money that would be involved in training rookies who were unlikely to fly an Apollo mission. The original backup crew for Apollo 17, announced at the same time as the prime crew, was the crew of Apollo 15, David Scott as commander, Alfred Worden as CMP and James Irwin as LMP; they were removed in May 1972 because of their roles in the Apollo 15 postal covers incident. They were replaced with the landing crew of Apollo 16, John W. Young as backup crew commander and Charles Duke as LMP, and Apollo 14's CMP, Stuart Roosa. Originally, Apollo 16's CMP, Ken Mattingly, was to be assigned along with his crewmates, but he declined so he could spend more time with his family, his son having just been born, and instead took an assignment to the Space Shuttle program. Roosa had also served as backup CMP for Apollo 16.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 327575, 677187, 321993, 5319068, 303563, 328014, 338113, 593844, 28189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 421, 432 ], [ 447, 460 ], [ 472, 483 ], [ 552, 584 ], [ 641, 654 ], [ 684, 696 ], [ 726, 738 ], [ 769, 782 ], [ 959, 972 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For Apollo, a third crew of astronauts, known as the support crew, was designated in addition to the prime and backup crews used on projects Mercury and Gemini. Support crew members were to assist as directed by the mission commander; Slayton created the support crews because Apollo 9 commander Jim McDivitt believed that, with preparation going on in facilities across the US, meetings that needed a member of the flight crew would be missed without someone to attend in their stead. Usually low in seniority, they assembled the mission's rules, flight plan, and checklists, and kept them updated; For Apollo 17, they were Robert F. Overmyer, Robert A. Parker and C. Gordon Fullerton.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 1774, 1289256, 503631, 529639, 503592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 285 ], [ 548, 559 ], [ 625, 643 ], [ 645, 661 ], [ 666, 685 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flight directors were Gerry Griffin, first shift, Gene Kranz and Neil B. Hutchinson, second shift, and Pete Frank and Charles R. Lewis, third shift. According to Kranz, flight directors during Apollo had a one-sentence job description, \"The flight director may take any actions necessary for crew safety and mission success.\" Capsule communicators (CAPCOMs) were Fullerton, Parker, Young, Duke, Mattingly, Roosa, Alan Shepard and Joseph P. Allen.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Crew and key Mission Control personnel", "target_page_ids": [ 4052227, 13275040, 407054, 64591021, 4052227, 63727, 502179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 22, 35 ], [ 50, 60 ], [ 103, 113 ], [ 326, 347 ], [ 413, 425 ], [ 430, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The insignia's most prominent feature is an image of the Greek sun god Apollo backdropped by a rendering of an American eagle, the red bars on the eagle mirroring those on the U.S. flag. Three white stars above the red bars represent the three crewmembers of the mission. The background includes the Moon, the planet Saturn, and a galaxy or nebula. The wing of the eagle partially overlays the Moon, suggesting humanity's established presence there.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission insignia and call signs", "target_page_ids": [ 594, 4401, 11447, 44474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 77 ], [ 111, 125 ], [ 176, 185 ], [ 317, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The insignia includes, along with the colors of the U.S. flag (red, white, and blue), the color gold, representative of a \"golden age\" of spaceflight that was to begin with Apollo 17. The image of Apollo in the mission insignia is a rendering of the Apollo Belvedere sculpture in the Vatican Museums. It looks forward into the future, towards the celestial objects shown in the insignia beyond the Moon. These represent humanity's goals, and the image symbolizes human intelligence, wisdom and ambition. The insignia was designed by artist Robert McCall, based on ideas from the crew.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission insignia and call signs", "target_page_ids": [ 2000175, 229765, 26428430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 250, 266 ], [ 284, 299 ], [ 540, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In deciding the call signs for the command module (CM) and lunar module (LM), the crew wished to pay tribute to the American public for their support of the Apollo program, and to the mission, and wanted names with a tradition within American history. The CM was given the call sign \"America\". According to Cernan, this evoked the 19th century sailing ships which were given that name, and was a thank-you to the people of the United States. The crew selected the name \"Challenger\" for the LM in lieu of an alternative, \"Heritage\". Cernan stated that the selected name \"just seemed to describe more of what the future for America really held, and that was a challenge\". After Schmitt stepped onto the Moon from Challenger, he stated, \"I think the next generation ought to accept this as a challenge. Let's see them leave footprints like these.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mission insignia and call signs", "target_page_ids": [ 151932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the cancellation of Apollo 18 through 20, Apollo 17 was slated to launch in September 1971 as part of NASA's tentative launch schedule set forth in 1969. The in-flight abort of Apollo 13 and the resulting modifications to the Apollo spacecraft delayed subsequent missions. Following the cancellation of Apollo 20 in early 1970, NASA decided there would be no more than two Apollo missions per year. Part of the reason Apollo 17 was scheduled for December 1972 was to make it fall after the presidential election in November, ensuring that if there was a disaster, it would have no effect on President Richard Nixon's re-election campaign. Nixon had been deeply concerned about the Apollo 13 astronauts, and, fearing another mission in crisis as he ran for re-election, initially decided to omit the funds for Apollo 17 from the budget; he was persuaded to accept a December 1972 date for the mission.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 1770, 40568, 25473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 195 ], [ 495, 520 ], [ 610, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like Apollo 15 and 16, Apollo 17 was slated to be a \"J-mission\", an Apollo mission type that featured lunar surface stays of three days, higher scientific capability, and the usage of the Lunar Roving Vehicle. Since Apollo 17 was to be the final lunar landing of the Apollo program, high-priority landing sites that had not been visited previously were given consideration for potential exploration. Some sites were rejected at earlier stages. For instance, a landing in the crater Copernicus was rejected because Apollo 12 had already obtained samples from that impact, and three other Apollo expeditions had already visited the vicinity of Mare Imbrium, near the rim of which Copernicus is located. The lunar highlands near the crater Tycho were rejected because of the rough terrain that the astronauts would encounter there. A site on the lunar far side in the crater Tsiolkovskiy was rejected due to technical considerations and the operational costs of maintaining communication with Earth during surface operations. Lastly, a landing in a region southwest of Mare Crisium was rejected on the grounds that a Soviet spacecraft could easily access the site and retrieve samples; Luna 20 ultimately did so shortly after the Apollo 17 site selection was made. Schmitt advocated for a landing on the far side of the Moon until told by Director of Flight Operations Christopher C. Kraft that it would not happen as NASA lacked the funds for the necessary communications satellites.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 9481400, 349235, 1967, 99044, 80045, 988372, 1000165, 201570, 26779, 99170, 969608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 62 ], [ 482, 492 ], [ 514, 523 ], [ 642, 654 ], [ 737, 742 ], [ 843, 857 ], [ 872, 884 ], [ 1066, 1078 ], [ 1114, 1120 ], [ 1183, 1190 ], [ 1366, 1386 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The three sites that made the final consideration for Apollo 17 were Alphonsus crater, Gassendi crater, and the Taurus–Littrow valley. In making the final landing site decision, mission planners considered the primary objectives for Apollo 17: obtaining old highlands material a substantial distance from Mare Imbrium, sampling material from young volcanic activity (i.e., less than three billion years), and having minimal ground overlap with the orbital ground tracks of Apollo 15 and Apollo 16 to maximize the amount of new data obtained. A significant reason for the selection of Taurus–Littrow was that Apollo 15's CMP, Al Worden, had overflown the site and observed features he described as likely volcanic in nature.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 349228, 990940, 28623094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 85 ], [ 87, 102 ], [ 112, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gassendi was eliminated because NASA felt that its central peak would be difficult to reach due to the roughness of the local terrain, and, though Alphonsus might be easier operationally than Taurus–Littrow, it was of lesser scientific interest. At Taurus–Littrow, it was believed that the crew would be able to obtain samples of old highland material from the remnants of a landslide event that occurred on the south wall of the valley and the possibility of relatively young, explosive volcanic activity in the area. Although the valley is similar to the landing site of Apollo 15 in that it is on the border of a lunar mare, the advantages of Taurus–Littrow were believed to outweigh the drawbacks. The Apollo Site Selection Board, a committee of NASA personnel and scientists charged with setting out scientific objectives of the Apollo landing missions and selecting landing sites for them, unanimously recommended Taurus–Littrow at its final meeting in February 1972. Upon that recommendation, NASA selected Taurus–Littrow as the landing site for Apollo 17.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 24009876, 32788620, 817677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 63 ], [ 557, 582 ], [ 616, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with previous lunar landings, the Apollo 17 astronauts underwent an extensive training program that included learning to collect samples on the surface, usage of the spacesuits, navigation in the Lunar Roving Vehicle, field geology training, survival training, splashdown and recovery training, and equipment training. The geology field trips were conducted as much as possible as if the astronauts were on the Moon: they would be provided with aerial images and maps, and briefed on features of the site and a suggested routing. The following day, they would follow the route, and have tasks and observations to be done at each of the stops.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 2439384, 88259 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 179 ], [ 264, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The geology field trips began with one to Big Bend National Park in Texas in October 1971. The early ones were not specifically tailored to prepare the astronauts for Taurus–Littrow, which was not selected until February 1972, but by June, the astronauts were going on field trips to sites specifically selected to prepare for Apollo 17's landing site. Both Cernan and Schmitt had served on backup crews for Apollo landing missions, and were familiar with many of the procedures. Their trainers, such as Gordon Swann, feared that Cernan would defer to Schmitt as a professional geologist on matters within his field. Cernan also had to adjust for the loss of Engle, with whom he had trained for Apollo 14. In spite of these issues, Cernan and Schmitt worked well together as a team, and Cernan became adept at describing what he was seeing on geology field trips, and working independently of Schmitt when necessary.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 306829, 65246264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 64 ], [ 504, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The landing crew aimed for a division of labor so that, when they arrived in a new area, Cernan would perform tasks such as adjusting the antenna on the Lunar Roving Vehicle so as to transmit to Earth while Schmitt gave a report on the geological aspects of the site. The scientists in the geology \"backroom\" relied on Schmitt's reports to adjust the tasks planned for that site, which would be transmitted to the CapCom and then to Cernan and Schmitt. According to William R. Muehlberger, one of the scientists who trained the astronauts, \"In effect [Schmitt] was running the mission from the Moon. But we set it up this way. All of those within the geological world certainly knew it, and I had a sneaking hunch that the top brass knew it too, but this is a practical way out, and they didn't object.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 41652018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 466, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also participating in some of the geology field trips were the commander and lunar module pilot of the backup crew. The initial field trips took place before the Apollo 15 astronauts were assigned as the backup crew for Apollo 17 in February 1972. Either one or both of Scott and Irwin of Apollo 15 took part in four field trips, though both were present together for only two of them. After they were removed from the backup crew, the new backup commander and LMP, Young and Duke, took part in the final four field trips. On field trips, the backup crew would follow half an hour after the prime crew, performing identical tasks, and have their own simulated CapCom and Mission Control guiding them. The Apollo 17 astronauts had fourteen field trips—the Apollo 11 crew had only one.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 755, 764 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Evans did not go on the geology field trips, having his own set of trainers—by this time, geology training for the CMP was well-established. He would fly with a NASA geologist/pilot, Dick Laidley, over geologic features, with part of the exercise conducted at , and part at to . The higher altitude was equivalent to what could be seen from the planned lunar orbit of about 60 nmi with binoculars. Evans would be briefed for several hours before each exercise, and given study guides; afterwards, there would be debriefing and evaluation. Evans was trained in lunar geology by Farouk El-Baz late in the training cycle; this continued until close to launch. The CMP was given information regarding the lunar features he would overfly in the CSM and which he was expected to photograph.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Planning and training", "target_page_ids": [ 2242569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 578, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 17 spacecraft comprised CSM-114 (consisting of Command Module 114 (CM-114) and Service Module 114 (SM-114)); Lunar Module 12 (LM-12); a Spacecraft-Lunar Module Adapter (SLA) numbered SLA-21; and a Launch Escape System (LES). The LES contained a rocket motor that would propel the CM to safety in the event of an aborted mission in the moments after launch, while the SLA housed the LM during the launch and early part of the flight. The LES was jettisoned after the launch vehicle ascended to the point that it was not needed, while the SLA was left atop the S-IVB third stage of the rocket after the CSM and LM separated from it.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 272021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 570, 575 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The launch vehicle, SA-512, was one of fifteen Saturn V rockets built, and was the twelfth to fly. With a weight at launch of ( of which was attributable to the spacecraft), Apollo 17's vehicle was slightly lighter than Apollo 16, but heavier than every other crewed Apollo mission.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 20584918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first piece of the launch vehicle to arrive at Kennedy Space Center was the S-II second stage, on October 27, 1970; it was followed by the S-IVB on December 21; the S-IC first stage did not arrive until May 11, 1972, followed by the Instrument Unit on June 7. By then, LM-12 had arrived, the ascent stage on June 16, 1971, and the descent stage the following day; they were not mated until May 18, 1972. CM-114, SM-114 and SLA-21 all arrived on March 24, 1972. The rover reached Kennedy Space Center on June 2, 1972.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 16421, 572843, 572830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 71 ], [ 80, 84 ], [ 169, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The CM and the service module (SM) were mated on March 28, 1972, and the testing of the spacecraft began that month. The CSM was placed in a vacuum chamber at Kennedy Space Center, and the testing was conducted under those conditions. The LM was also placed in a vacuum chamber; both the prime and the backup crews participated in testing the CSM and LM. During the testing, it was discovered that the LM's rendezvous radar assembly had received too much voltage during earlier tests; it was replaced by the manufacturer, Grumman. The LM's landing radar also malfunctioned intermittently and was also replaced. The front and rear steering motors of the Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV) also had to be replaced, and it required several modifications. Following the July 1972 removal from the vacuum chamber, the LM's landing gear was installed, and it, the CSM and the SLA were mated to each other. The combined craft was moved into the Vehicle Assembly Building in August for further testing, after which it was mounted on the launch vehicle. After completing testing, including a simulated mission, the LRV was placed in the LM on August 13.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 216799, 18238, 268462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 522, 529 ], [ 653, 673 ], [ 930, 955 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Erection of the stages of the launch vehicle began on May 15, 1972, in High Bay 3 of the Vehicle Assembly Building, and was completed on June 27. Since the launch vehicles for Skylab 1 and Skylab 2 were being processed in that building at the same time, this marked the first time NASA had three launch vehicles there since the height of the Apollo program in 1969. After the spacecraft was mounted on the launch vehicle on August 24, it was rolled out to Pad 39-A on August 28. Although this was not the final time a Saturn V would fly (another would lift Skylab to orbit), area residents reacted as though it was, and 5,000 of them watched the rollout, during which the prime crew joined the operating crew from Bendix atop the crawler.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 29441, 355040, 29441, 1363506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 184 ], [ 189, 197 ], [ 557, 563 ], [ 714, 720 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At Pad 39-A, testing continued, and the CSM was electrically mated to the launch vehicle on October 11, 1972. Testing concluded with the countdown demonstration tests, accomplished on November 20 and 21. The countdown to launch began at 7:53a.m. (12:53 UTC) on December 5, 1972.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo Lunar Surface Experiments Package was a suite of nuclear-powered experiments, flown on each landing mission after Apollo 11. This equipment was to be emplaced by the astronauts to continue functioning after the astronauts returned to Earth. For Apollo 17, the ALSEP experiments were a Heat Flow Experiment (HFE), to measure the rate of heat flow from the interior of the Moon, a Lunar Surface Gravimeter (LSG), to measure alterations in the lunar gravity field at the site, a Lunar Atmospheric Composition Experiment (LACE), to investigate what the lunar atmosphere is made up of, a Lunar Seismic Profiling Experiment (LSPE), to detect nearby seismic activity, and a Lunar Ejecta and Meteorites Experiment (LEME), to measure the velocity and energy of dust particles. Of these, only the HFE had been flown before; the others were new.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 30874175, 70242527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 44 ], [ 487, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The HFE had been flown on the aborted Apollo 13 mission, as well as on Apollo 15 and 16, but placed successfully only on Apollo 15, and unexpected results from that device made scientists anxious for a second successful emplacement. It was successfully deployed on Apollo 17. The lunar gravimeter was intended to detect wavers in gravity, which would provide support for Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity; it ultimately failed to function as intended. The LACE was a surface-deployed module that used a mass spectrometer to analyze the Moon's atmosphere. On previous missions, the Code Cathode Gauge experiment had measured the quantity of atmospheric particles, but the LACE determined which gases were present: principally neon, helium and hydrogen. The LSPE was a seismic-detecting device that used geophones, which would detect explosives to be set off by ground command once the astronauts left the Moon. When operating, it could only send useful data to Earth in high bit rate, meaning that no other ALSEP experiment could send data then, and limiting its operating time. It was turned on to detect the liftoff of the ascent stage, as well as use of the explosives packages, and the ascent stage's impact, and thereafter about once a week, as well as for some 100 hour periods. The LEME had a set of detectors to measure the characteristics of the dust particles it sought. It was hoped that the LEME would detect dust impacting the Moon from elsewhere, such as from comets or interstellar space, but analysis showed that it primarily detected dust moving at slow speeds across the lunar surface.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 736, 12024, 283810, 1278430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 371, 386 ], [ 389, 417 ], [ 516, 533 ], [ 815, 823 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All powered ALSEP experiments that remained active were deactivated on September 30, 1977, principally because of budgetary constraints.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Like Apollo 15 and 16, Apollo 17 carried a Lunar Roving Vehicle. In addition to being used by the astronauts for transport from station to station on the mission's three moonwalks, the LRV was used to transport the astronauts' tools, communications equipment, and the lunar samples they gathered. The Apollo 17 LRV was also used to carry some of the scientific instruments, such as the Traverse Gravimeter Experiment (TGE) and Surface Electrical Properties (SEP) experiment. The Apollo 17 LRV traveled a cumulative distance of approximately in a total drive time of about four hours and twenty-six minutes; the greatest distance Cernan and Schmitt traveled from the lunar module was about .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This was the only mission to carry the TGE, which was built by Draper Laboratory at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. As gravimeters had been useful in studying the Earth's internal structure, the objective of this experiment was to do the same on the Moon. The gravimeter was used to obtain relative gravity measurements at the landing site in the immediate vicinity of the lunar module, as well as various locations on the mission's traverse routes. Scientists would then use this data to help determine the geological substructure of the landing site and the surrounding vicinity. Measurements were taken while the TGE was mounted on the LRV, and also while the device was placed on the lunar surface. A total of 26 measurements were taken with the TGE during the mission's three moonwalks, with productive results.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 445258, 18879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 80 ], [ 88, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The SEP was also unique to Apollo 17, and included two major components: a transmitting antenna deployed near the lunar module and a receiver mounted on the LRV. At different stops during the mission's traverses, electrical signals traveled from the transmitting device, through the ground, and were received at the LRV. The electrical properties of the lunar regolith could be determined by comparison of the transmitted and received electrical signals. The results of this experiment, which are consistent with lunar rock composition, show that there is almost no water in the area of the Moon in which Apollo 17 landed, to a depth of .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 7682366, 2240081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 354, 368 ], [ 513, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A long, diameter device, the Lunar Neutron Probe was inserted into one of the holes drilled into the surface to collect core samples. It was designed to measure the quantity of neutrons which penetrated to the detectors it bore along its length. This was intended to measure the rate of the \"gardening\" process on the lunar surface, whereby the regolith on the surface is slowly mixed or buried due to micrometeorites and other events. Placed during the first EVA, it was retrieved during the third and final EVA. The astronauts brought it with them back to Earth, and the measurements from it were compared with the evidence of neutron flux in the core that had been removed from the hole it had been placed in. Results from the probe and from the cores were instrumental in current theories that the top centimeter of lunar regolith turns over every million years, whereas \"gardening\" to a depth of one meter takes about a billion years.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 17's CM carried a biological cosmic ray experiment (BIOCORE), containing five mice that had been implanted with radiation monitors under their scalps to see whether they suffered damage from cosmic rays. These animals were placed in individual metal tubes inside a sealed container that had its own oxygen supply, and flown on the mission. All five were pocket mice (Perognathus longimembris); this species was chosen because it was well-documented, small, easy to maintain in an isolated state (not requiring drinking water during the mission and with highly concentrated waste), and for its ability to withstand environmental stress. Officially, the mice—four male and one female—were assigned the identification numbers A3326, A3400, A3305, A3356 and A3352. Unofficially, according to Cernan, the Apollo 17 crew dubbed them Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 12527680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 374, 398 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four of the five mice survived the flight, though only two of them appeared healthy and active; the cause of death of the fifth mouse was not determined. Of those that survived, the study found lesions in the scalp itself and, in one case, the liver. The scalp lesions and liver lesions appeared to be unrelated to one another; nothing was found that could be attributed to cosmic rays.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 324927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Biostack experiment was similar was one carried on Apollo 16, and was designed to test the effects of the cosmic rays encountered in space travel on microorganisms that were included, on seeds, and on the eggs of simple animals (brine shrimp and beetles), which were carried in a sealed container. After the mission, the microorganisms and seeds showed little effect, but many of the eggs of all species failed to hatch, or to mature normally; many died or displayed abnormalities.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 411174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 233, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 17 SM contained the scientific instrument module (SIM) bay. The SIM bay housed three new experiments for use in lunar orbit: a lunar sounder, an infrared scanning radiometer, and a far-ultraviolet spectrometer. A mapping camera, panoramic camera, and a laser altimeter, which had been carried previously, were also included in the SIM bay.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 15022, 839718, 31990, 41958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 164 ], [ 174, 184 ], [ 192, 207 ], [ 264, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lunar sounder was to beam electromagnetic impulses toward the lunar surface, which were designed with the objective of obtaining data to assist in developing a geological model of the interior of the Moon to an approximate depth of . The infrared scanning radiometer was designed with the objective of generating a temperature map of the lunar surface to aid in locating surface features such as rock fields, structural differences in the lunar crust, and volcanic activity. The far-ultraviolet spectrometer was to be used to obtain information on the composition, density, and constituency of the lunar atmosphere. The spectrometer was also designed to detect far-UV radiation emitted by the Sun that had been reflected off the lunar surface. The laser altimeter was designed to measure the altitude of the spacecraft above the lunar surface within approximately , providing altitude information to the panoramic and mapping cameras, which were also in the SIM bay.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 9426, 8955397, 8955882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 45 ], [ 443, 454 ], [ 602, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning with Apollo 11, crew members observed light flashes that penetrated their closed eyelids. These flashes, described by the astronauts as \"streaks\" or \"specks\" of light, were usually observed while the spacecraft was darkened during a sleep period. These flashes, while not observed on the lunar surface, would average about two per minute and were observed by the crew members during the trip out to the Moon, back to Earth, and in lunar orbit.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Apollo 17 crew repeated an experiment, also conducted on Apollo 16, with the objective of linking these light flashes with cosmic rays. Evans wore a device over his eyes that recorded the time, strength, and path of high-energy atomic particles that penetrated the device, while the other two wore blindfolds to keep out light. Investigators concluded that the available evidence supports the hypothesis that these flashes occur when charged particles travel through the retina in the eye.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 47687, 48334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 137 ], [ 475, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apollo 17 carried a sodium-iodide crystal identical to the ones in the gamma-ray spectrometer flown on Apollo 15 and 16. Data from this, once it was examined on Earth, was to be used to help form a baseline, allowing for subtraction of rays from the CM or from cosmic radiation to gain better data from the earlier results. In addition, the S-band transponders in the CSM and LM were pointed at the Moon to gain data on its gravitational field. Results from the Lunar Orbiter probes had revealed that lunar gravity varies slightly due to the presence of mass concentrations, or \"mascons\". Data from the missions, and from the lunar subsatellites left by Apollo 15 and 16, were used to map such variations in lunar gravity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Mission hardware and experiments", "target_page_ids": [ 47687, 99492, 577296, 1969, 1970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 277 ], [ 462, 475 ], [ 554, 573 ], [ 646, 663 ], [ 668, 670 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Originally planned to launch on December 6, 1972, at 9:53p.m. EST (2:53a.m. on December 7 UTC), Apollo 17 was the final crewed SaturnV launch, and the only one to occur at night. The launch was delayed by two hours and forty minutes due to an automatic cutoff in the launch sequencer at the T-30 second mark in the countdown. The cause of the issue was quickly determined to be the launch sequencer's failure to automatically pressurize the liquid oxygen tank in the third stage of the rocket; though launch control noticed this and manually caused the tank to pressurize, the sequencer did not recognize the fix and therefore paused the countdown. The clock was reset and held at the T-22 minute mark while technicians worked around the malfunction in order to continue with the launch. This pause was the only launch delay in the Apollo program caused by a hardware issue. The countdown then resumed, and the liftoff occurred at 12:33a.m. EST on December 7, 1972. The launch window, which had begun at the originally planned launch time of 9:53p.m. on December 6, remained open until 1:31a.m., the latest time at which a launch could have occurred during the December 6–7 window.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 496028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Approximately 500,000 people observed the launch in the immediate vicinity of Kennedy Space Center, despite the early-morning hour. The launch was visible as far away as , and observers in Miami, Florida, reported a \"red streak\" crossing the northern sky. Among those in attendance at the program's final launch were astronauts Neil Armstrong and Dick Gordon, as well as centenarian Charlie Smith, who alleged he was 130 years old at the time of Apollo 17.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 53846, 21247, 9939398 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 203 ], [ 328, 342 ], [ 383, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ascent resulted in an orbit with an altitude and velocity almost exactly that which had been planned. In the hours following the launch, Apollo 17 orbited the Earth while the crew spent time monitoring and checking the spacecraft to ensure its readiness to depart Earth orbit. At 3:46a.m. EST, the S-IVB third stage was reignited for the 351-second trans-lunar injection burn to propel the spacecraft towards the Moon. Ground controllers chose a faster trajectory for Apollo 17 than originally planned to allow the vehicle to reach lunar orbit at the planned time, despite the launch delay The Command and Service Module separated from the S-IVB approximately half an hour following the S-IVB trans-lunar injection burn, after which Evans turned the spacecraft to face the LM, still attached to the S-IVB. The CSM then docked with the LM and extracted it from the S-IVB. Following the LM extraction, Mission Control programmed the S-IVB, no longer needed to propel the spacecraft, to impact the Moon and trip the seismometers left by prior Apollo crews. It struck the Moon just under 87 hours into the mission, triggering the seismometers from Apollo 12, 14, 15 and 16. Approximately nine hours after launch, the crew concluded the mission's first day with a sleep period, until waking up to begin the second day.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 85757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 353, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mission Control and the crew decided to shorten the mission's second day, the first full day in space, in order to adjust the crew's wake-up times for the subsequent days in preparation for an early morning (EST) wake-up time on the day of the lunar landing, then scheduled for early afternoon (EST). This was done since the first day of the mission had been extended because of the launch delay. Following the second rest period, and on the third day of the mission, the crew executed the first mid-course correction, a two-second burn of the CSM's service propulsion engine to adjust the spacecraft's Moon-bound trajectory. Following the burn, the crew opened the hatch separating the CSM and LM in order to check the LM's systems and concluded that they were nominal. So that events would take place at the time indicated in the flight plan, the mission clocks were moved ahead by 2 hours and 40 minutes, the amount of the launch delay, with one hour of it at 45:00:00 into the mission and the remainder at 65:00:00.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Among their other activities during the outbound trip, the crew photographed the Earth from the spacecraft as it travelled towards the Moon. One of these photographs is now known as The Blue Marble. The crew found that one of the latches holding the CSM and LM together was unlatched. While Schmitt and Cernan were engaged in a second period of LM housekeeping beginning just before sixty hours into the Mission, Evans worked on the balky latch. He was successful, and left it in the position it would need to be in for the CSM-LM docking that would occur upon return from the lunar surface.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 449531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also during the outward journey, the crew performed a heat flow and convection demonstration, as well as the Apollo light-flash experiment. A few hours before entry into lunar orbit, the SIM door on the SM was jettisoned. At approximately 2:47p.m. EST on December 10, the service propulsion system engine on the CSM ignited to slow down the CSM/LM stack into lunar orbit. Following orbit insertion and orbital stabilization, the crew began preparations for the landing at Taurus–Littrow.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 718111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The day of the landing began with a checkout of the Lunar Module's systems, which revealed no issues preventing continuation of the mission. Cernan, Evans, and Schmitt each donned their spacesuits, and Cernan and Schmitt entered the LM in preparation for separating from the CSM and landing. The LM undocked from the CSM, and the two spacecraft orbited close together for about an hour and a half while the astronauts made visual inspections and conducted their final pre-landing checks. After finally separating from the CSM, the LM Challenger and its crew of two adjusted their orbit, such that its lowest point would pass about above the landing site, and began preparations for the descent to Taurus–Littrow. While Cernan and Schmitt prepared for landing, Evans remained in orbit to take observations, perform experiments and await the return of his crewmates a few days later.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Soon after completing their preparations for landing and just over two hours following the LM's undocking from the CSM, Cernan and Schmitt began their descent to the Taurus–Littrow valley on the lunar surface with the ignition of the Lunar Module's descent propulsion system (DPS) engine. Approximately ten minutes later, as planned, the LM pitched over, giving Cernan and Schmitt their first look at the landing site during the descent phase and allowing Cernan to guide the spacecraft to a desirable landing target while Schmitt provided data from the flight computer essential for landing. The LM touched down on the lunar surface at 2:55p.m. EST on December 11, just over twelve minutes after DPS ignition. Challenger landed about east of the planned landing point. Shortly thereafter, the two astronauts began re-configuring the LM for their stay on the surface and began preparations for the first moonwalk of the mission, or EVA-1.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During their approximately 75-hour stay on the lunar surface, Cernan and Schmitt performed three moonwalks (EVAs). The astronauts deployed the LRV, then emplaced the ALSEP and the seismic explosive charges. They drove the rover to nine planned geological-survey stations to collect samples and make observations. Additionally, twelve short sampling stops were made at Schmitt's discretion while riding the rover, during which the astronauts used a handled scoop to get a sample, without dismounting. During lunar-surface operations, Commander Cernan always drove the rover, while Lunar Module Pilot Schmitt was a passenger who assisted with navigation. This division of responsibilities between the two crew positions was used consistently throughout Apollo's J-missions.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 9792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first lunar excursion began four hours after landing, at 6:54p.m. EST on December 11. After exiting through the hatch of the LM and descending the ladder to the footpad, Cernan took the first step on the lunar surface of the mission. Just before doing so, Cernan remarked, \"I'm on the footpad. And, Houston, as I step off at the surface at Taurus–Littrow, we'd like to dedicate the first step of Apollo 17 to all those who made it possible.\" After Cernan surveyed the exterior of the LM and commented on the immediate landing site, Schmitt joined Cernan on the surface. The first task was to offload the rover and other equipment from the LM. While working near the rover, Cernan caught his hammer under the right-rear fender extension, accidentally breaking it off. A similar incident occurred on Apollo 16 as John Young maneuvered around the rover. Although this was not a mission-critical issue, the loss of the part caused Cernan and Schmitt to be covered with dust stirred up when the rover was in motion. The crew made a short-lived fix using duct tape at the beginning of the second EVA, attaching a paper map to the damaged fender. Lunar dust stuck to the tape's surface, however, preventing it from adhering properly. Following deployment and testing the maneuverability of the rover, the crew deployed the ALSEP just west of the landing site. The ALSEP deployment took longer than had been planned, with the drilling of core holes presenting some difficulty, meaning the geological portion of the first EVA would need to be shortened, cancelling a planned visit to Emory crater. Instead, following the deployment of the ALSEP, Cernan and Schmitt drove to Steno crater, to the south of the landing site. The objective at Steno was to sample the subsurface material excavated by the impact that formed the crater. The astronauts gathered of samples, took seven gravimeter measurements, and deployed two explosive packages. The explosive packages were later detonated remotely; the resulting explosions detected by geophones placed by the astronauts and also by seismometers left during previous missions. The first EVA ended after seven hours and twelve minutes. and the astronauts remained in the pressurized LM for the next 17 hours.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 43707, 44335267, 44335145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1053, 1062 ], [ 1579, 1591 ], [ 1669, 1681 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On December 12, awakened by a recording of \"Ride of the Valkyries\" played from Mission Control, Cernan and Schmitt began their second lunar excursion. The first order of business was to provide the rover's fender a better fix. Overnight, the flight controllers devised a procedure communicated by John Young: taping together four stiff paper maps to form a \"replacement fender extension\" and then clamping it onto the fender. The astronauts carried out the new fix which did its job without failing until near the end of the third excursion. Cernan and Schmitt then departed for station 2—Nansen Crater, at the foot of the South Massif. When they arrived, their range from the Challenger was 7.6 kilometers (4.7 miles, 25,029 feet). This remains the furthest distance any spacefarers have ever traveled away from the safety of a pressurizable spacecraft while on a planetary body, and also during an EVA of any type. The astronauts were at the extremity of their \"walkback limit\", a safety constraint meant to ensure that they could walk back to the LM if the rover failed. They began a return trip, traveling northeast in the rover.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 623968, 4052227, 44335207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 65 ], [ 242, 259 ], [ 589, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At station 3, Schmitt fell to the ground while working, looking so awkward that Parker jokingly told him that NASA's switchboard had lit up seeking Schmitt's services for Houston's ballet group, and the site of station 3 was in 2019 renamed Ballet Crater. Cernan took a sample at Station 3 that was to be maintained in vacuum until better analytical techniques became available, joking with the CAPCOM, Parker, about placing a note inside. The container remained unopened until 2022.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stopping at station 4—Shorty crater—the astronauts discovered orange soil, which proved to be very small beads of volcanic glass formed over 3.5 billion years ago. This discovery caused great excitement among the scientists at Mission Control, who felt that the astronauts may have discovered a volcanic vent. However, post-mission sample analysis revealed that Shorty is not a volcanic vent, but rather an impact crater. Analysis also found the orange soil to be a remnant of a fire fountain. This fire fountain sprayed molten lava high into the lunar sky in the Moon's early days, some 3.5 billion years ago and long before Shorty's creation. The orange volcanic beads were droplets of molten lava from the fountain that solidified and were buried by lava deposits until exposed by the impact that formed Shorty, less than 20 million years ago.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 38384525, 21438242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 35 ], [ 479, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The final stop before returning to the LM was Camelot crater; throughout the sojourn, the astronauts collected of samples, took another seven gravimeter measurements, and deployed three more explosive packages. Concluding the EVA at seven hours and thirty-seven minutes, Cernan and Schmitt had completed the longest-duration EVA in history to-date, traveling further away from a spacecraft and covering more ground on a planetary body during a single EVA than any other spacefarers. The improvised fender had remained intact throughout, causing the president of the \"Auto Body Association of America\" to award them honorary lifetime membership.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 44334801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The third moonwalk, the last of the Apollo program, began at 5:25p.m. EST on December 13. Cernan and Schmitt rode the rover northeast of the landing site, exploring the base of the North Massif and the Sculptured Hills. Stopping at station 6, they examined a house-sized split boulder dubbed Tracy's Rock (or Split Rock), after Cernan's daughter. The ninth and final planned station was conducted at Van Serg crater. The crew collected of lunar samples and took another nine gravimeter measurements. Schmitt had seen a fine-grained rock, unusual for that vicinity, earlier in the mission and had stood it on its edge; before closing out the EVA, he went and got it. Subsequently, designated Sample 70215, it was, at , the largest rock brought back by Apollo 17. A small piece of it is on exhibit at the Smithsonian Institution, one of the few rocks from the Moon that the public may touch. Schmitt also collected a sample, designated as Sample 76535, at geology station 6 near the base of the North Massif; the sample, a troctolite, was later identified as the oldest known \"unshocked\" lunar rock, meaning it has not been damaged by high-impact geological events. Scientists have therefore used Sample 76535 in thermochronological studies to determine if the Moon formed a metallic core or, as study results suggest, a core dynamo.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 4372328, 44335114, 65828, 29364837, 3622239, 21866506, 864017, 255217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 304 ], [ 400, 415 ], [ 804, 827 ], [ 938, 950 ], [ 1022, 1032 ], [ 1212, 1231 ], [ 1283, 1287 ], [ 1320, 1331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before concluding the moonwalk, the crew collected a breccia rock, dedicating it to the nations of Earth, 70 of which were represented by students touring the U.S. and present in Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas, at the time. Portions of this sample, known as the Friendship Rock, were subsequently distributed to the nations represented by the students. A plaque located on the LM, commemorating the achievements made during the Apollo program, was then unveiled. Before reentering the LM for the final time, Cernan remarked,", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 54125, 19578379, 13774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 60 ], [ 179, 201 ], [ 205, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cernan then followed Schmitt into the LM; the final lunar excursion had a duration of seven hours and fifteen minutes. Following closing of the LM hatch and repressurization of the LM cabin, Cernan and Schmitt removed their spacesuits and reconfigured the cabin for a final rest period on the lunar surface. As they did following each of the previous two EVAs, Cernan and Schmitt discussed their geological observations from the day's excursion with mission control while preparing to rest.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While Cernan and Schmitt were on the lunar surface, Evans remained alone in the CSM in lunar orbit and was assigned a number of observational and scientific tasks to perform while awaiting the return of his crewmates. In addition to the operation of the various orbital science equipment contained in the CSM's SIM bay, Evans conducted both visual and photographic observation of surface features from his aerial vantage point. The orbit of the CSM having been modified to an elliptical orbit in preparation for the LM's departure and eventual descent, one of Evans' solo tasks in the CSM was to circularize its orbit such that the CSM would remain at approximately the same distance above the surface throughout its orbit. Evans observed geological features visible to him and used handheld cameras to record certain visual targets. Evans also observed and sketched the solar corona at \"sunrise,\" or the period of time during which the CSM would pass from the darkened portion of the Moon to the illuminated portion when the Moon itself mostly obscured the sun. To photograph portions of the surface that were not illuminated by the sun while Evans passed over them, Evans relied in conjunction on exposure and Earthlight. Evans photographed such features as the craters Eratosthenes and Copernicus, as well as the vicinity of Mare Orientale, using this technique. According to the Apollo 17 Mission Report, Evans was able to capture all scientific photographic targets, as well as some other targets of interest.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 7839, 166868, 21756816, 898589, 200711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 871, 883 ], [ 1199, 1207 ], [ 1212, 1222 ], [ 1272, 1284 ], [ 1328, 1342 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly to the crew of Apollo 16, Evans (as well as Schmitt, while in lunar orbit) reported seeing light \"flashes\" apparently originating from the lunar surface, known as transient lunar phenomena (TLP); Evans reported seeing these \"flashes\" in the vicinity of Grimaldi crater and Mare Orientale. The causes of TLP are not well-understood and, though inconclusive as an explanation, both of the sites in which Evans reported seeing TLP are the general locations of outgassing from the Moon's interior. Meteorite impacts are another possible explanation.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 231249, 960004, 774575, 19937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 198 ], [ 263, 278 ], [ 467, 477 ], [ 504, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The flight plan kept Evans busy, making him so tired he overslept one morning by an hour, despite the efforts of Mission Control to awaken him. Before the LM departed for the lunar surface, Evans had discovered that he had misplaced his pair of scissors, necessary to open food packets. Cernan and Schmitt lent him one of theirs. The instruments in the SIM bay functioned without significant hindrance during the orbital portion of the mission, though the lunar sounder and the mapping camera encountered minor issues. Evans spent approximately 148 total hours in lunar orbit, including solo time and time spent together with Cernan and Schmitt, which is more time than any other individual has spent orbiting the Moon.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Evans was also responsible for piloting the CSM during the orbital phase of the mission, maneuvering the spacecraft to alter and maintain its orbital trajectory. In addition to the initial orbital recircularization maneuver shortly after the LM's departure, one of the solo activities Evans performed in the CSM in preparation for the return of his crewmates from the lunar surface was the plane change maneuver. This maneuver was meant to align the CSM's trajectory to the eventual trajectory of the LM to facilitate rendezvous in orbit. Evans fired the SPS engine of the CSM for about 20 seconds in successfully adjusting the CSM's orbital plane.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 3074135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 390, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cernan and Schmitt successfully lifted off from the lunar surface in the ascent stage of the LM on December14, at 5:54p.m. EST. The return to lunar orbit took just over seven minutes. The LM, piloted by Cernan, and the CSM, piloted by Evans, maneuvered, and redocked about two hours after liftoff from the surface. Once the docking had taken place, the crew transferred equipment and lunar samples from the LM to the CSM for return to Earth. The crew sealed the hatches between the CSM and the LM ascent stage following completion of the transfer and the LM was jettisoned at 11:51p.m. EST on December14. The unoccupied ascent stage was then remotely deorbited, crashing it into the Moon with an impact recorded by the seismometers left by Apollo 17 and previous missions. At 6:35p.m. EST on December16, the CSM's SPS engine was ignited once more to propel the spacecraft away from the Moon on a trajectory back towards Earth. The successful trans-Earth injection SPS burn lasted just over two minutes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 9555814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 942, 963 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the return to Earth, Evans performed a 65-minute EVA to retrieve film cassettes from the service module's SIM bay, with assistance from Schmitt who remained at the command module's hatch. At approximately 160,000 nautical miles (184,000mi; 296,000km) from Earth, it was the third \"deep space\" EVA in history, performed at great distance from any planetary body. As of , it remains one of only three such EVAs, all performed during Apollo's J-missions under similar circumstances. It was the last EVA of the Apollo program.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the trip back to Earth, the crew operated the infrared radiometer in the SM, as well as the ultraviolet spectrometer. One midcourse correction was performed, lasting 9 seconds. On December 19, the crew jettisoned the no-longer-needed SM, leaving only the CM for return to Earth. The Apollo 17 spacecraft reentered Earth's atmosphere and splashed down safely in the Pacific Ocean at 2:25p.m. EST, from the recovery ship, . Cernan, Evans, and Schmitt were then retrieved by a recovery helicopter piloted by Commander Edward E. Dahill, III and were safely aboard the recovery ship 52 minutes after splashdown. As the final Apollo mission concluded successfully, Mission Control in Houston was filled with many former flight controllers and astronauts, who applauded as America returned to Earth.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mission events", "target_page_ids": [ 45294, 23070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 311, 339 ], [ 372, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "None of the Apollo 17 astronauts flew in space again. Cernan retired from NASA and the Navy in 1976. He died in 2017. Evans retired from the Navy in 1976 and from NASA in 1977, entering the private sector. He died in 1990. Schmitt resigned from NASA in 1975 prior to his successful run for a United States Senate seat from New Mexico in 1976. There, he served one six-year term.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aftermath and spacecraft locations", "target_page_ids": [ 28972799, 24909346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 267, 285 ], [ 292, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Command Module America is currently on display at Space Center Houston at the Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas. The ascent stage of Lunar Module Challenger impacted the Moon on December 15, 1972, at 06:50:20.8 UTC (1:50a.m. EST), at . The descent stage remains on the Moon at the landing site, . Eugene Cernan's flown Apollo 17 spacesuit is in the collection of the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum (NASM), where it was transferred in 1974, and Harrison Schmitt's is in storage at NASM's Paul E. Garber Facility. Amanda Young of NASM indicated in 2004 that Schmitt's suit is in the best condition of the flown Apollo lunar spacesuits, and therefore is not on public display. Ron Evans' spacesuit was also transferred from NASA in 1974 to the collection of the NASM; it remains in storage.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aftermath and spacecraft locations", "target_page_ids": [ 6234939, 177571, 221550 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 74 ], [ 82, 112 ], [ 400, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since Apollo 17's return, there have been attempts to photograph the landing site, where the LM's descent stage, LRV and some other mission hardware, remain. In 2009 and again in 2011, the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter photographed the landing site from increasingly low orbits. At least one group has indicated an intention to visit the site as well; in 2018, the German space company PTScientists said that it planned to land two lunar rovers nearby.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Aftermath and spacecraft locations", "target_page_ids": [ 15970718, 28129447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 217 ], [ 385, 397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Apollo missions", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9481400 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of astronauts by year of selection", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 199297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of human spaceflights", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 435836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of human spaceflight programs", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 198078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of landings on extraterrestrial bodies", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1399966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of crewed spacecraft", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1935077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of NASA missions", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7316655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of spacewalks and moonwalks 1965–1999", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 923416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Moon landing", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1558077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Case of the Missing Moon Rocks", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36966166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo in Real Time", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63630418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 17\" – Detailed mission information by Dr. David R. Williams, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 337031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Table 2-45. Apollo 17 Characteristics\" from NASA Historical Data Book: Volume III: Programs and Projects 1969–1978 by Linda Neuman Ezell, NASA SP-4012, NASA History Series (1988)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo 17 Lunar Surface Journal", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo 17 Real-Time Mission Experience\" – All mission audio, film, video and photography presented in real-time.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo 17 Mission Experiments Overview at the Lunar and Planetary Institute", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 2319140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apollo 17 Voice Transcript Pertaining to the Geology of the Landing Site (PDF) by N. G. Bailey and G. E. Ulrich, United States Geological Survey, 1975", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 23814944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Apollo Program Summary Report\" (PDF), NASA, JSC-09423, April 1975", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology NASA, NASA SP-4009", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Final Flight\" – Excerpt from the September 1973 issue of National Geographic magazine", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 229466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 82 ] ] } ]

[ "Apollo_17", "Gene_Cernan", "Ronald_Evans_(astronaut)", "Harrison_Schmitt", "1972_in_the_United_States", "Apollo_program_missions", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "Extravehicular_activity", "Lunar_rovers", "Crewed_missions_to_the_Moon", "Sample_return_missions", "Soft_landings_on_the_Moon", "Spacecraft_launched_in_1972", "Spacecraft_which_reentered_in_1972", "Last_events", "December_1972_events", "Spacecraft_launched_by_Saturn_rockets", "1972_on_the_Moon" ]

[ "Apollo XVII" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The American Revolution was an ideological and political revolution that occurred in British America between 1765 and 1791. The Americans in the Thirteen Colonies formed independent states that defeated the British in the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783), gaining independence from the British Crown, establishing the constitution that created the United States of America, the first modern constitutional liberal democracy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25964, 4544202, 34681, 771, 357357, 31644, 3434750, 9282116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 67 ], [ 85, 100 ], [ 145, 162 ], [ 222, 248 ], [ 292, 305 ], [ 324, 336 ], [ 354, 378 ], [ 397, 411 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American colonists objected to being taxed by the British Parliament, a body in which they had no direct representation. Before the 1760s, Britain's American colonies had enjoyed a high level of autonomy in their internal affairs, which were locally governed by colonial legislatures. During the 1760s, however, the British Parliament passed a number of acts that were intended to bring the American colonies under more direct rule from the British metropole and increasingly intertwine the economies of the colonies with those of Britain. The passage of the Stamp Act of 1765 imposed internal taxes on official documents, newspapers and most things printed in the colonies, which led to colonial protest and the meeting of representatives from several colonies at the Stamp Act Congress. Tensions relaxed with the British repeal of the Stamp Act, but flared again with the passage of the Townshend Acts in 1767. The British government deployed troops to Boston in 1768 to quell unrest, leading to the Boston Massacre in 1770. The British government repealed most of the Townshend duties in 1770, but retained the tax on tea in order to symbolically assert Parliament's right to tax the colonies. The burning of the Gaspee in Rhode Island in 1772, the passage of the Tea Act of 1773 and the resulting Boston Tea Party in December 1773 led to a new escalation in tensions. The British responded by closing Boston Harbor and enacting a series of punitive laws which effectively rescinded Massachusetts Bay Colony's privileges of self-government. The other colonies rallied behind Massachusetts, and twelve of the thirteen colonies sent delegates in late 1774 to form a Continental Congress for the coordination of their resistance to Britain. Opponents of Britain were known as \"Patriots\" or \"Whigs\", while colonists who retained their allegiance to the Crown were known as \"Loyalists\" or \"Tories.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 282220, 773546, 1222812, 159114, 68793880, 646170, 623558, 24437894, 82254, 489001, 762346, 4608353, 1066561, 284689, 197490, 1730443, 1146973, 1146288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 95, 119 ], [ 449, 458 ], [ 559, 576 ], [ 650, 673 ], [ 769, 787 ], [ 889, 903 ], [ 955, 961 ], [ 1002, 1017 ], [ 1226, 1238 ], [ 1267, 1282 ], [ 1301, 1317 ], [ 1405, 1418 ], [ 1434, 1457 ], [ 1486, 1510 ], [ 1667, 1687 ], [ 1776, 1786 ], [ 1872, 1883 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Open warfare erupted when British regulars sent to capture a cache of military supplies were confronted by local Patriot militia at Lexington and Concord on April 19, 1775. Patriot militia, joined by the newly formed Continental Army, then put British forces in Boston under siege by land and their forces withdrew by sea. Each colony formed a Provincial Congress, which assumed power from the former colonial governments, suppressed Loyalism, and contributed to the Continental Army led by Commander in Chief General George Washington. The Patriots unsuccessfully attempted to invade Quebec and rally sympathetic colonists there during the winter of 1775–76.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 40615452, 27677647, 4321886, 168210, 14964704, 254428, 11968, 291174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 42 ], [ 113, 128 ], [ 132, 153 ], [ 217, 233 ], [ 344, 363 ], [ 491, 509 ], [ 518, 535 ], [ 565, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Continental Congress declared British King George III a tyrant who trampled the colonists' rights as Englishmen, and they pronounced the colonies free and independent states on July 4, 1776. The Patriot leadership professed the political philosophies of liberalism and republicanism to reject rule by monarchy and aristocracy. The Declaration of Independence proclaimed that all men are created equal, though it was not until later centuries that constitutional amendments and federal laws would incrementally grant equal rights to African Americans, Native Americans, poor white men, and women.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 42029, 6875096, 31874, 1791939, 8939450, 1764584, 19013, 37671, 331170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 57 ], [ 95, 115 ], [ 126, 149 ], [ 150, 177 ], [ 258, 268 ], [ 273, 286 ], [ 305, 313 ], [ 318, 329 ], [ 379, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The British captured New York City and its strategic harbor in the summer of 1776. The Continental Army captured a British army at the Battle of Saratoga in October 1777, and France then entered the war as an ally of the United States, expanding the war into a global conflict. The British Royal Navy blockaded ports and held New York City for the duration of the war, and other cities for brief periods, but they failed to destroy Washington's forces. Britain's priorities shifted southward, attempting to hold the Southern states with the anticipated aid of Loyalists that never materialized. British general Charles Cornwallis captured an American army at Charleston, South Carolina in early 1780, but he failed to enlist enough volunteers from Loyalist civilians to take effective control of the territory. Finally, a combined American and French force captured Cornwallis' army at Yorktown in the fall of 1781, effectively ending the war. The Treaty of Paris was signed on September 3, 1783, formally ending the conflict and confirming the new nation's complete separation from the British Empire. The United States took possession of nearly all the territory east of the Mississippi River and south of the Great Lakes, with the British retaining control of northern Canada, and French ally Spain taking back Florida.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 480615, 67425, 2973792, 26061, 4418859, 23362908, 61024, 157770, 191926, 219386, 179184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ], [ 135, 153 ], [ 175, 202 ], [ 282, 300 ], [ 494, 532 ], [ 612, 630 ], [ 660, 686 ], [ 884, 895 ], [ 949, 964 ], [ 1264, 1279 ], [ 1315, 1322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among the significant results of the revolution were American independence and the end of British mercantilism in America, opening up worldwide trade for the United States—including resumption with Britain. Around 60,000 Loyalists migrated to other British territories, particularly to Canada, but the great majority remained in the United States. The Americans soon adopted the United States Constitution, replacing the weak wartime Confederation and establishing a comparatively strong national government structured as a federal republic, which included an elected executive, a national judiciary, and an elected bicameral Congress representing states in the Senate and the population in the House of Representatives. It is the world's first federal democratic republic founded on the consent of the governed. Shortly after a Bill of Rights was ratified as the first ten amendments, guaranteeing a number of fundamental rights used as justification for the revolution.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1172181, 19708, 219416, 31644, 691, 70201, 24113, 31737, 31756, 24909346, 19468510, 1096446, 9119240, 261586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 74 ], [ 98, 110 ], [ 221, 268 ], [ 379, 405 ], [ 434, 447 ], [ 524, 540 ], [ 568, 577 ], [ 581, 599 ], [ 626, 634 ], [ 662, 668 ], [ 695, 719 ], [ 788, 811 ], [ 829, 843 ], [ 874, 884 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the start of English colonization of the Americas, the English government pursued a policy of mercantilism, consistent with the economic policies of other European colonial powers of the time. Under this system, they hoped to grow England's economic and political power by restricting imports, promoting exports, regulating commerce, gaining access to new natural resources, and accumulating new precious metals as monetary reserves. Mercantilist policies were a defining feature of several English American colonies from their inception. The original 1606 charter of the Virginia Company regulated trade in what would become the Colony of Virginia. In general, the export of raw materials to foreign lands was banned, imports of foreign goods were discouraged, and cabotage was restricted to English vessels. These regulations were enforced by the Royal Navy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 19708, 52447, 573156, 4544202, 1687670, 318524, 188900, 1624953, 26061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 111 ], [ 154, 184 ], [ 384, 437 ], [ 504, 521 ], [ 548, 569 ], [ 577, 593 ], [ 635, 653 ], [ 771, 779 ], [ 854, 864 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the parliamentarian victory in the English Civil War, the first mercantilist legislation was passed. In 1651, the Rump Parliament passed the first of the Navigation Acts, intended to both improve England's trade ties with its colonies and to address Dutch domination of the trans-Atlantic trade at the time. This led to the outbreak of war with the Netherlands the following year. After the Restoration, the 1651 Act was repealed, but the Cavalier Parliament passed a series of even more restrictive Navigation Acts. Colonial reactions to these policies were mixed. The Acts prohibited exports of tobacco and other raw materials to non-English territories, which prevented many planters from receiving higher prices for their goods. Additionally, merchants were restricted from importing certain goods and materials from other nations, harming profits. These factors led to smuggling among colonial merchants, especially following passage of the Molasses Act. On the other hand, certain merchants and local industries benefitted from the restrictions on foreign competition. The restrictions on foreign-built ships also greatly benefitted the colonial shipbuilding industry, particularly of the New England colonies. Some argue that the economic impact was minimal on the colonists, but the political friction which the acts triggered was more serious, as the merchants most directly affected were also the most politically active.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 69093, 9709, 209553, 168767, 8769, 62713, 41664, 223016, 168767, 4205990, 20047771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 29 ], [ 45, 62 ], [ 124, 139 ], [ 147, 179 ], [ 260, 304 ], [ 346, 370 ], [ 401, 412 ], [ 449, 468 ], [ 510, 525 ], [ 956, 968 ], [ 1205, 1225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "King Philip's War was fought from 1675 to 1678 between the New England colonies and a handful of indigenous tribes. It was fought without military assistance from England, thereby contributing to the development of a unique American identity separate from that of the English people. The Restoration of King Charles II to the English throne also accelerated this development. New England had strong Puritan heritage and had supported the parliamentarian Commonwealth government that was responsible for the execution of his father, Charles I. Massachusetts did not recognize the legitimacy of Charles II's reign for more than a year after its onset. Charles II thus became determined to bring the New England colonies under a more centralized administration and direct English control in the 1680s. The New England colonists fiercely opposed his efforts, and the Crown nullified their colonial charters in response. Charles' successor James II finalized these efforts in 1686, establishing the consolidated Dominion of New England, which also included the formerly separate colonies of New York and New Jersey. Edmund Andros was appointed royal governor, and tasked with governing the new Dominion under his direct rule. Colonial assemblies and town meetings were restricted, new taxes were levied, and rights were abridged. Dominion rule triggered bitter resentment throughout New England; the enforcement of the unpopular Navigation Acts and the curtailing of local democracy greatly angered the colonists. New Englanders were encouraged, however, by a change of government in England which saw James II effectively abdicate, and a populist uprising in New England overthrew Dominion rule on April 18, 1689. Colonial governments reasserted their control after the revolt. The new monarchs, William and Mary, granted new charters to the individual New England colonies, and democratic self government was restored. Successive Crown governments made no attempts to restore the Dominion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 313013, 70804, 46688, 27705397, 7129, 4414124, 7426, 197490, 5243711, 578129, 250831, 55648078, 366312, 12466, 28643611, 47387, 20709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 288, 299 ], [ 303, 318 ], [ 376, 415 ], [ 454, 466 ], [ 503, 516 ], [ 532, 541 ], [ 543, 556 ], [ 935, 943 ], [ 1007, 1030 ], [ 1111, 1124 ], [ 1208, 1219 ], [ 1245, 1258 ], [ 1555, 1586 ], [ 1634, 1666 ], [ 1792, 1803 ], [ 1804, 1808 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Subsequent British governments continued in their efforts to tax certain goods however, passing acts regulating the trade of wool, hats, and molasses. The Molasses Act of 1733 was particularly egregious to the colonists, as a significant part of colonial trade relied on molasses. The taxes severely damaged the New England economy and resulted in a surge of smuggling, bribery, and intimidation of customs officials. Colonial wars fought in America were also a source of considerable tension. For example, New England colonial forces captured the fortress of Louisbourg in Acadia during King George's War in 1745, but the British government then ceded it back to France in 1748 in exchange for Chennai, which the British had lost in 1746. New England colonists resented their losses of lives, as well as the effort and expenditure involved in subduing the fortress, only to have it returned to their erstwhile enemy, who would remain a threat to them after the war.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 2644259, 2435018, 4205990, 58794, 233516, 128607, 120223, 1525391, 45139, 21706976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 129 ], [ 131, 135 ], [ 141, 149 ], [ 271, 279 ], [ 560, 570 ], [ 574, 580 ], [ 588, 605 ], [ 647, 660 ], [ 695, 702 ], [ 722, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some writers begin their histories of the American Revolution with the British coalition victory in the Seven Years' War in 1763, viewing the French and Indian War as though it were the American theater of the Seven Years' War. Lawrence Henry Gipson writes:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 19039354, 39062, 3392374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 120 ], [ 142, 163 ], [ 228, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Royal Proclamation of 1763 redrew boundaries of the lands west of newly-British Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny Mountains, making them indigenous territory and barred to colonial settlement for two years. The colonists protested, and the boundary line was adjusted in a series of treaties with indigenous tribes. In 1768, the Iroquois agreed to the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, and the Cherokee agreed to the Treaty of Hard Labour followed in 1770 by the Treaty of Lochaber. The treaties opened most of what is present-day Kentucky and West Virginia to colonial settlement. The new map was drawn up at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768, which moved the line much farther to the west, from the green line to the red line on the map at right.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 132989, 391225, 516752, 21217, 19195965, 986849, 50490, 34776215, 9228606, 986849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 30 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 141, 160 ], [ 333, 350 ], [ 365, 373 ], [ 388, 410 ], [ 420, 428 ], [ 443, 464 ], [ 489, 507 ], [ 640, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1764 Parliament passed the Sugar Act, decreasing the existing customs duties on sugar and molasses but providing stricter measures of enforcement and collection. That same year, Prime Minister George Grenville proposed direct taxes on the colonies to raise revenue, but he delayed action to see whether the colonies would propose some way to raise the revenue themselves.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 738432, 174926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 39 ], [ 196, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grenville had asserted in 1762 that the whole revenue of the custom houses in America amounted to one or two thousand pounds sterling a year, and that the English exchequer was paying between seven and eight thousand pounds a year to collect. Adam Smith wrote in The Wealth of Nations that Parliament \"has never hitherto demanded of [the American colonies] anything which even approached to a just proportion to what was paid by their fellow subjects at home.\" Benjamin Franklin would later testify in Parliament in 1766 to the contrary, reporting that Americans already contributed heavily to the defense of the Empire. He argued that local colonial governments had raised, outfitted, and paid 25,000 soldiers to fight France in just the French and Indian War alone—as many as Britain itself sent—and spent many millions from American treasuries doing so.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 270673, 3986, 39062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 133 ], [ 461, 478 ], [ 739, 760 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Parliament finally passed the Stamp Act in March 1765, which imposed direct taxes on the colonies for the first time. All official documents, newspapers, almanacs, and pamphlets were required to have the stamps—even decks of playing cards. The colonists did not object that the taxes were high; they were actually low. They objected to their lack of representation in the Parliament, which gave them no voice concerning legislation that affected them. The British were, however, reacting to an entirely different issue: at the conclusion of the recent war the Crown had to deal with approximately 1,500 politically well-connected British Army officers. The decision was made to keep them on active duty with full pay, but they—and their commands—also had to be stationed somewhere. Stationing a standing army in Great Britain during peacetime was politically unacceptable, so they determined to station them in America and have the Americans pay them through the new tax. The soldiers had no military mission however; they were not there to defend the colonies because there was no current threat to the colonies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 159114, 1302678, 4311268, 13530298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 39 ], [ 69, 81 ], [ 737, 745 ], [ 812, 825 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Sons of Liberty formed shortly after the Act in 1765, and they used public demonstrations, boycotts, and threats of violence to ensure that the British tax laws were unenforceable. In Boston, the Sons of Liberty burned the records of the vice admiralty court and looted the home of chief justice Thomas Hutchinson. Several legislatures called for united action, and nine colonies sent delegates to the Stamp Act Congress in New York City in October. Moderates led by John Dickinson drew up a Declaration of Rights and Grievances stating that taxes passed without representation violated their rights as Englishmen, and colonists emphasized their determination by boycotting imports of British merchandise.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 505178, 223391, 646170, 519482, 1207951, 6875096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ], [ 300, 317 ], [ 406, 424 ], [ 471, 485 ], [ 496, 532 ], [ 597, 617 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Parliament at Westminster saw itself as the supreme lawmaking authority throughout the Empire and thus entitled to levy any tax without colonial approval or even consultation. They argued that the colonies were legally British corporations subordinate to the British Parliament, and they pointed to numerous instances where Parliament had made laws in the past that were binding on the colonies. Parliament insisted that the colonists, as most British people did, effectively enjoyed a \"virtual representation\" since only a small minority of the British population elected representatives to Parliament. However, Americans such as James Otis maintained that there was no one in Parliament responsible specifically for any colonial constituency, so they were not \"virtually represented\" by anyone in Parliament at all.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 4721, 3431555, 2047107, 24637333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 97 ], [ 223, 243 ], [ 491, 513 ], [ 635, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Royal Proclamation of 1763 redrew boundaries of the lands west of newly-British Quebec and west of a line running along the crest of the Allegheny Mountains, making them indigenous territory and barred to colonial settlement for two years. The colonists protested, and the boundary line was adjusted in a series of treaties with indigenous tribes. In 1768, the Iroquois agreed to the Treaty of Fort Stanwix, and the Cherokee agreed to the Treaty of Hard Labour followed in 1770 by the Treaty of Lochaber. The treaties opened most of what is present-day Kentucky and West Virginia to colonial settlement. The new map was drawn up at the Treaty of Fort Stanwix in 1768, which moved the line much farther to the west, from the green line to the red line on the map at right.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 132989, 391225, 516752, 21217, 19195965, 986849, 50490, 34776215, 9228606, 986849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 30 ], [ 84, 90 ], [ 141, 160 ], [ 333, 350 ], [ 365, 373 ], [ 388, 410 ], [ 420, 428 ], [ 443, 464 ], [ 489, 507 ], [ 640, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Rockingham government came to power in July 1765, and Parliament debated whether to repeal the stamp tax or to send an army to enforce it. Benjamin Franklin made the case for repeal, explaining that the colonies had spent heavily in manpower, money, and blood defending the empire in a series of wars against the French and indigenous people, and that further taxes to pay for those wars were unjust and might bring about a rebellion. Parliament agreed and repealed the tax on February 21, 1766, but they insisted in the Declaratory Act of March 1766 that they retained full power to make laws for the colonies \"in all cases whatsoever\". The repeal nonetheless caused widespread celebrations in the colonies.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 169183, 340404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 525, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1767, the Parliament passed the Townshend Acts which placed duties on a number of staple goods, including paper, glass, and tea, and established a Board of Customs in Boston to more rigorously execute trade regulations. The new taxes were enacted on the belief that Americans only objected to internal taxes and not to external taxes such as custom duties. However, in his widely read pamphlet, Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, John Dickinson argued against the constitutionality of the acts because their purpose was to raise revenue and not to regulate trade. Colonists responded to the taxes by organizing new boycotts of British goods. These boycotts were less effective, however, as the goods taxed by the Townshend Acts were widely used.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 623558, 8338084 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ], [ 398, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 1768, the Assembly of Massachusetts Bay issued a circular letter to the other colonies urging them to coordinate resistance. The governor dissolved the assembly when it refused to rescind the letter. Meanwhile, a riot broke out in Boston in June 1768 over the seizure of the sloop Liberty, owned by John Hancock, for alleged smuggling. Customs officials were forced to flee, prompting the British to deploy troops to Boston. A Boston town meeting declared that no obedience was due to parliamentary laws and called for the convening of a convention. A convention assembled but only issued a mild protest before dissolving itself. In January 1769, Parliament responded to the unrest by reactivating the Treason Act 1543 which called for subjects outside the realm to face trials for treason in England. The governor of Massachusetts was instructed to collect evidence of said treason, and the threat caused widespread outrage, though it was not carried out.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 1893851, 16324, 20471611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 76 ], [ 311, 323 ], [ 714, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On March 5, 1770, a large crowd gathered around a group of British soldiers on a Boston street. The crowd grew threatening, throwing snowballs, rocks, and debris at them. One soldier was clubbed and fell. There was no order to fire, but the soldiers panicked and fired into the crowd. They hit 11 people; three civilians died of wounds at the scene of the shooting, and two died shortly after the incident. The event quickly came to be called the Boston Massacre. The soldiers were tried and acquitted (defended by John Adams), but the widespread descriptions soon began to turn colonial sentiment against the British. This accelerated e downward spiral in the relationship between Britain and the Province of Massachusetts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 82254, 10410626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 447, 462 ], [ 515, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A new ministry under Lord North came to power in 1770, and Parliament withdrew all taxes except the tax on tea, giving up its efforts to raise revenue while maintaining the right to tax. This temporarily resolved the crisis, and the boycott of British goods largely ceased, with only the more radical patriots such as Samuel Adams continuing to agitate.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 221325, 15124855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 318, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 1772, American patriots, including John Brown, burned a British warship that had been vigorously enforcing unpopular trade regulations, in what became known as the Gaspee Affair. The affair was investigated for possible treason, but no action was taken.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 698559, 1167596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 53 ], [ 172, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1772, it became known that the Crown intended to pay fixed salaries to the governors and judges in Massachusetts, which had been paid by local authorities. This would reduce the influence of colonial representatives over their government. Samuel Adams in Boston set about creating new Committees of Correspondence, which linked Patriots in all 13 colonies and eventually provided the framework for a rebel government. Virginia, the largest colony, set up its Committee of Correspondence in early 1773, on which Patrick Henry and Thomas Jefferson served.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A total of about 7,000 to 8,000 Patriots served on Committees of Correspondence at the colonial and local levels, comprising most of the leadership in their communities. Loyalists were excluded. The committees became the leaders of the American resistance to British actions, and later largely determined the war effort at the state and local level. When the First Continental Congress decided to boycott British products, the colonial and local Committees took charge, examining merchant records and publishing the names of merchants who attempted to defy the boycott by importing British goods.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1773, private letters were published in which Massachusetts Governor Thomas Hutchinson claimed that the colonists could not enjoy all English liberties, and in which Lieutenant Governor Andrew Oliver called for the direct payment of colonial officials. The letters' contents were used as evidence of a systematic plot against American rights, and discredited Hutchinson in the eyes of the people; the colonial Assembly petitioned for his recall. Benjamin Franklin, postmaster general for the colonies, acknowledged that he leaked the letters, which led to him being berated by British officials and removed from his position.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 13410111, 1158569, 22993 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 39 ], [ 189, 202 ], [ 468, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Meanwhile, Parliament passed the Tea Act to lower the price of taxed tea exported to the colonies to help the British East India Company undersell smuggled untaxed Dutch tea. Special consignees were appointed to sell the tea to bypass colonial merchants. The act was opposed by those who resisted the taxes and also by smugglers who stood to lose business. In most instances, the consignees were forced by the Americans to resign and the tea was turned back, but Massachusetts governor Hutchinson refused to allow Boston merchants to give in to pressure. A town meeting in Boston determined that the tea would not be landed, and ignored a demand from the governor to disperse. On December 16, 1773, a group of men, led by Samuel Adams and dressed to evoke the appearance of indigenous people, boarded the ships of the East India Company and dumped £10,000 worth of tea from their holds (approximately £636,000 in 2008) into Boston Harbor. Decades later, this event became known as the Boston Tea Party and remains a significant part of American patriotic lore.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 762346, 43281, 4608353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 40 ], [ 110, 136 ], [ 985, 1001 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The British government responded by passing several measures that came to be known as the Intolerable Acts, further darkening colonial opinion towards England. They consisted of four laws enacted by the British parliament. The first was the Massachusetts Government Act which altered the Massachusetts charter and restricted town meetings. The second act was the Administration of Justice Act which ordered that all British soldiers to be tried were to be arraigned in Britain, not in the colonies. The third Act was the Boston Port Act, which closed the port of Boston until the British had been compensated for the tea lost in the Boston Tea Party. The fourth Act was the Quartering Act of 1774, which allowed royal governors to house British troops in the homes of citizens without requiring permission of the owner.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 284689, 332829, 332834, 332800, 332794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 106 ], [ 241, 269 ], [ 363, 392 ], [ 521, 536 ], [ 674, 696 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In response, Massachusetts patriots issued the Suffolk Resolves and formed an alternative shadow government known as the Provincial Congress which began training militia outside British-occupied Boston. In September 1774, the First Continental Congress convened, consisting of representatives from each colony, to serve as a vehicle for deliberation and collective action. During secret debates, conservative Joseph Galloway proposed the creation of a colonial Parliament that would be able to approve or disapprove acts of the British Parliament, but his idea was tabled in a vote of 6 to 5 and was subsequently removed from the record. Congress called for a boycott beginning on 1 December 1774 of all British goods; it was enforced by new local committees authorized by the Congress.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origin", "target_page_ids": [ 1140172, 1730443, 648068, 909298 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 63 ], [ 226, 252 ], [ 409, 424 ], [ 638, 667 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "[[File:Benjamin_Franklin_-_Join_or_Die.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Join, or Die, a political cartoon attributed to Benjamin Franklin was used to encourage the Thirteen Colonies to unite against British rule]]", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Military hostilities begin", "target_page_ids": [ 5604355, 3986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 73 ], [ 109, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Massachusetts was declared in a state of rebellion in February 1775 and the British garrison received orders to disarm the rebels and arrest their leaders, leading to the Battles of Lexington and Concord on 19 April 1775. The Patriots laid siege to Boston, expelled royal officials from all the colonies, and took control through the establishment of Provincial Congresses. The Battle of Bunker Hill followed on June 17, 1775. It was a British victory—but at a great cost: about 1,000 British casualties from a garrison of about 6,000, as compared to 500 American casualties from a much larger force. The Second Continental Congress was divided on the best course of action, but eventually produced the Olive Branch Petition, in which they attempted to come to an accord with King George. The king, however, issued a Proclamation of Rebellion which declared that the states were \"in rebellion\" and the members of Congress were traitors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Military hostilities begin", "target_page_ids": [ 4321886, 14964704, 163162, 365561, 337080, 42029, 1792914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 203 ], [ 351, 370 ], [ 378, 399 ], [ 605, 632 ], [ 703, 724 ], [ 776, 787 ], [ 817, 842 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The war that arose was in some ways a classic insurgency. As Benjamin Franklin wrote to Joseph Priestley in October 1775: ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Military hostilities begin", "target_page_ids": [ 589841, 3986, 40176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 56 ], [ 61, 78 ], [ 88, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the winter of 1775, the Americans invaded newly-British Quebec under generals Benedict Arnold and Richard Montgomery, expecting to rally sympathetic colonists there. The attack was a failure; many Americans who weren't killed were either captured or died of smallpox.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Military hostilities begin", "target_page_ids": [ 291174, 417858, 47836725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 65 ], [ 81, 96 ], [ 101, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March 1776, the Continental Army forced the British to evacuate Boston, with George Washington as the commander of the new army. The revolutionaries now fully controlled all thirteen colonies and were ready to declare independence. There still were many Loyalists, but they were no longer in control anywhere by July 1776, and all of the Royal officials had fled.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Military hostilities begin", "target_page_ids": [ 197776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the Battle of Bunker Hill in June 1775, the Patriots had control of Massachusetts outside the Boston city limits, and the Loyalists suddenly found themselves on the defensive with no protection from the British army. In all 13 colonies, Patriots had overthrown their existing governments, closing courts and driving away British officials. They held elected conventions and \"legislatures\" that existed outside any legal framework; new constitutions were drawn up in each state to supersede royal charters. They proclaimed that they were now states, no longer colonies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [ 163162, 28151, 6916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 35 ], [ 551, 557 ], [ 569, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On January 5, 1776, New Hampshire ratified the first state constitution. In May 1776, Congress voted to suppress all forms of crown authority, to be replaced by locally created authority. Virginia, South Carolina, and New Jersey created their constitutions before July 4. Rhode Island and Connecticut simply took their existing royal charters and deleted all references to the crown. The new states were all committed to republicanism, with no inherited offices. They decided what form of government to create, and also how to select those who would craft the constitutions and how the resulting document would be ratified. On 26 May 1776, John Adams wrote James Sullivan from Philadelphia warning against extending the franchise too far:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [ 483269, 489586, 489001, 478841, 100943, 10410626, 70322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 33 ], [ 198, 212 ], [ 272, 284 ], [ 289, 300 ], [ 328, 341 ], [ 640, 650 ], [ 716, 729 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The resulting constitutions in states such as Maryland, Virginia, Delaware, New York, and Massachusetts featured:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [ 487553, 487592, 203889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 54 ], [ 66, 74 ], [ 90, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Property qualifications for voting and even more substantial requirements for elected positions (though New York and Maryland lowered property qualifications)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bicameral legislatures, with the upper house as a check on the lower", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [ 204299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Strong governors with veto power over the legislature and substantial appointment authority", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [ 56231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Few or no restraints on individuals holding multiple positions in government", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The continuation of state-established religion", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [ 292285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New Hampshire, the resulting constitutions embodied:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " universal manhood suffrage, or minimal property requirements for voting or holding office (New Jersey enfranchised some property-owning widows, a step that it retracted 25 years later)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " strong, unicameral legislatures", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [ 204304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " relatively weak governors without veto powers, and with little appointing authority", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " prohibition against individuals holding multiple government posts", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The radical provisions of Pennsylvania's constitution lasted only 14 years. In 1790, conservatives gained power in the state legislature, called a new constitutional convention, and rewrote the constitution. The new constitution substantially reduced universal male suffrage, gave the governor veto power and patronage appointment authority, and added an upper house with substantial wealth qualifications to the unicameral legislature. Thomas Paine called it a constitution unworthy of America.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Creating new state constitutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In April 1776, the North Carolina Provincial Congress issued the Halifax Resolves explicitly authorizing its delegates to vote for independence. By June, nine Provincial Congresses were ready for independence; one by one, the last four fell into line: Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, and New York. Richard Henry Lee was instructed by the Virginia legislature to propose independence, and he did so on June 7, 1776. On June 11, a committee was created by the Second Continental Congress to draft a document explaining the justifications for separation from Britain. After securing enough votes for passage, independence was voted for on July 2.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Independence and Union", "target_page_ids": [ 9174028, 313213, 26289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 53 ], [ 65, 81 ], [ 300, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Declaration of Independence was drafted largely by Thomas Jefferson and presented by the committee; it was unanimously adopted by the entire Congress on July 4, and each colony became an independent and autonomous state. The next step was to form a union to facilitate international relations and alliances.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Independence and Union", "target_page_ids": [ 31874, 29922, 23604120, 2622058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 55, 71 ], [ 218, 223 ], [ 253, 258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union for ratification by the states on November 15, 1777; the Congress immediately began operating under the Articles' terms, providing a structure of shared sovereignty during prosecution of the war and facilitating international relations and alliances with France and Spain. The Articles were fully ratified on March 1, 1781. At that point, the Continental Congress was dissolved and a new government of the United States in Congress Assembled took its place on the following day, with Samuel Huntington as presiding officer.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Independence and Union", "target_page_ids": [ 691, 227091, 3470589, 105892 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 90 ], [ 237, 255 ], [ 497, 532 ], [ 575, 592 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to British historian Jeremy Black, the British had significant advantages, including a highly trained army, the world's largest navy, and an efficient system of public finance that could easily fund the war. However, they seriously misunderstood the depth of support for the American Patriot position and ignored the advice of General Gage, misinterpreting the situation as merely a large-scale riot. The British government believed that they could overawe the Americans by sending a large military and naval force, forcing them to be loyal again:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 4722970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Washington forced the British out of Boston in the spring of 1776, and neither the British nor the Loyalists controlled any significant areas. The British, however, were massing forces at their naval base at Halifax, Nova Scotia. They returned in force in July 1776, landing in New York and defeating Washington's Continental Army in August at the Battle of Brooklyn. Following that victory, they requested a meeting with representatives from Congress to negotiate an end to hostilities.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 731832, 218877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 228 ], [ 348, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A delegation including John Adams and Benjamin Franklin met British admiral Richard Howe on Staten Island in New York Harbor on September 11 in what became known as the Staten Island Peace Conference. Howe demanded that the Americans retract the Declaration of Independence, which they refused to do, and negotiations ended. The British then seized New York City and nearly captured Washington's army. They made the city and its strategic harbor their main political and military base of operations, holding it until November 1783. The city became the destination for Loyalist refugees and a focal point of Washington's intelligence network.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 224086, 127062, 18437301, 484555, 2659727, 1075422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 88 ], [ 92, 105 ], [ 169, 199 ], [ 342, 362 ], [ 517, 530 ], [ 620, 640 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The British also took New Jersey, pushing the Continental Army into Pennsylvania. Washington crossed the Delaware River back into New Jersey in a surprise attack in late December 1776 and defeated the Hessian and British armies at Trenton and Princeton, thereby regaining control of most of New Jersey. The victories gave an important boost to Patriots at a time when morale was flagging, and they have become iconic events of the war.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 1847605, 336315, 230033, 218910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 119 ], [ 201, 208 ], [ 231, 238 ], [ 243, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1777, the British sent Burgoyne's invasion force from Canada south to New York to seal off New England. Their aim was to isolate New England, which the British perceived as the primary source of agitation. Rather than move north to support Burgoyne, the British army in New York City went to Philadelphia in a major case of mis-coordination, capturing it from Washington. The invasion army under Burgoyne was much too slow and became trapped in northern New York state. It surrendered after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777. From early October 1777 until November 15, a siege distracted British troops at Fort Mifflin, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and allowed Washington time to preserve the Continental Army by safely leading his troops to harsh winter quarters at Valley Forge.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 163208, 67425, 1095135, 10778278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 399, 407 ], [ 498, 517 ], [ 615, 627 ], [ 775, 787 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On August 23, 1775, George III declared Americans to be traitors to the Crown if they took up arms against royal authority. There were thousands of British and Hessian soldiers in American hands following their surrender at the Battles of Saratoga. Lord Germain took a hard line, but the British generals on American soil never held treason trials, and instead treated captured American soldiers as prisoners of war. The dilemma was that tens of thousands of Loyalists were under American control and American retaliation would have been easy. The British built much of their strategy around using these Loyalists. The British maltreated the prisoners whom they held, resulting in more deaths to American prisoners of war than from combat operations. At the end of the war, both sides released their surviving prisoners.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The capture of a British army at Saratoga encouraged the French to formally enter the war in support of Congress, and Benjamin Franklin negotiated a permanent military alliance in early 1778; France thus became the first foreign nation to officially recognize the Declaration of Independence. On February 6, 1778, the United States and France signed the Treaty of Amity and Commerce and the Treaty of Alliance. William Pitt spoke out in Parliament urging Britain to make peace in America and to unite with America against France, while British politicians who had sympathized with colonial grievances now turned against the Americans for allying with Britain's rival and enemy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 7420045, 193597, 33632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 354, 382 ], [ 391, 409 ], [ 411, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Spanish and the Dutch became allies of the French in 1779 and 1780 respectively, forcing the British to fight a global war without major allies, and requiring it to slip through a combined blockade of the Atlantic. Britain began to view the American war for independence as merely one front in a wider war, and the British chose to withdraw troops from America to reinforce the British colonies in the Caribbean, which were under threat of Spanish or French invasion. British commander Sir Henry Clinton evacuated Philadelphia and returned to New York City. General Washington intercepted him in the Battle of Monmouth Court House, the last major battle fought in the north. After an inconclusive engagement, the British retreated to New York City. The northern war subsequently became a stalemate, as the focus of attention shifted to the smaller southern theater.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 218888, 241429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 494, 507 ], [ 604, 634 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The British strategy in America now concentrated on a campaign in the southern states. With fewer regular troops at their disposal, the British commanders saw the \"southern strategy\" as a more viable plan, as they perceived the south as strongly Loyalist with a large population of recent immigrants and large numbers of slaves who might be tempted to run away from their masters to join the British and gain their freedom.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning in late December 1778, the British captured Savannah and controlled the Georgia coastline. In 1780, they launched a fresh invasion and took Charleston, as well. A significant victory at the Battle of Camden meant that royal forces soon controlled most of Georgia and South Carolina. The British set up a network of forts inland, hoping that the Loyalists would rally to the flag. Not enough Loyalists turned out, however, and the British had to fight their way north into North Carolina and Virginia with a severely weakened army. Behind them, much of the territory that they had already captured dissolved into a chaotic guerrilla war, fought predominantly between bands of Loyalists and American militia, and which negated many of the gains that the British had previously made.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 84493, 487081, 598072, 241321, 12720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 62 ], [ 82, 89 ], [ 145, 160 ], [ 200, 216 ], [ 632, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The British army under Cornwallis marched to Yorktown, Virginia, where they expected to be rescued by a British fleet. The fleet did arrive, but so did a larger French fleet. The French were victorious in the Battle of the Chesapeake, and the British fleet returned to New York for reinforcements, leaving Cornwallis trapped. In October 1781, the British surrendered their second invading army of the war under a siege by the combined French and Continental armies commanded by Washington.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 137817, 36771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 63 ], [ 209, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Washington did not know if or when the British might reopen hostilities after Yorktown. They still had 26,000 troops occupying New York City, Charleston, and Savannah, together with a powerful fleet. The French army and navy departed, so the Americans were on their own in 1782–83. The American treasury was empty, and the unpaid soldiers were growing restive, almost to the point of mutiny or possible coup d'etat. Washington dispelled the unrest among officers of the Newburgh Conspiracy in 1783, and Congress subsequently created the promise of a five years bonus for all officers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 25914154, 625793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 403, 414 ], [ 470, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historians continue to debate whether the odds were long or short for American victory. John E. Ferling says that the odds were so long that the American victory was \"almost a miracle\". On the other hand, Joseph Ellis says that the odds favored the Americans, and asks whether there ever was any realistic chance for the British to win. He argues that this opportunity came only once, in the summer of 1776, and the British failed that test. Admiral Howe and his brother General Howe \"missed several opportunities to destroy the Continental Army.... Chance, luck, and even the vagaries of the weather played crucial roles.\" Ellis's point is that the strategic and tactical decisions of the Howes were fatally flawed because they underestimated the challenges posed by the Patriots. Ellis concludes that, once the Howe brothers failed, the opportunity \"would never come again\" for a British victory.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 23501054, 102283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 103 ], [ 205, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Support for the conflict had never been strong in Britain, where many sympathized with the Americans, but now it reached a new low. King George wanted to fight on, but his supporters lost control of Parliament and they launched no further offensives in America on the eastern seaboard. However, the British continued formal and informal assistance to Indian tribes making war on US citizens over the next three decades, which contributed to a \"Second American Revolution\" at the 1812–1815 War of 1812. In that war against Britain, the US permanently established its territory and its citizenship independent of the British Empire.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Defending the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 34059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 489, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During negotiations in Paris, the American delegation discovered that France supported American independence but no territorial gains, hoping to confine the new nation to the area east of the Appalachian Mountains. The Americans opened direct secret negotiations with London, cutting out the French. British Prime Minister Lord Shelburne was in charge of the British negotiations, and he saw a chance to make the United States a valuable economic partner. The US obtained all the land east of the Mississippi River, including southern Canada, but Spain took control of Florida from the British. It gained fishing rights off Canadian coasts, and agreed to allow British merchants and Loyalists to recover their property. Prime Minister Shelburne foresaw highly profitable two-way trade between Britain and the rapidly growing United States, which did come to pass. The blockade was lifted and all British interference had been driven out, and American merchants were free to trade with any nation anywhere in the world.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Paris peace treaty", "target_page_ids": [ 309008, 234989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 323, 337 ], [ 526, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The British largely abandoned their indigenous allies, who were not a party to this treaty and did not recognize it until they were defeated militarily by the United States. However, the British did sell them munitions and maintain forts in American territory until the Jay Treaty of 1795.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Paris peace treaty", "target_page_ids": [ 193600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 270, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Losing the war and the Thirteen Colonies was a shock to Britain. The war revealed the limitations of Britain's fiscal-military state when they discovered that they suddenly faced powerful enemies with no allies, and they were dependent on extended and vulnerable transatlantic lines of communication. The defeat heightened dissension and escalated political antagonism to the King's ministers. The King went so far as to draft letters of abdication, although they were never delivered. Inside Parliament, the primary concern changed from fears of an over-mighty monarch to the issues of representation, parliamentary reform, and government retrenchment. Reformers sought to destroy what they saw as widespread institutional corruption, and the result was a crisis from 1776 to 1783. The crisis ended after 1784 confidence in the British constitution was restored during the administration of Prime Minister William Pitt.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Paris peace treaty", "target_page_ids": [ 11400390, 79451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 132 ], [ 909, 921 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Britain's war against the Americans, the French, and the Spanish cost about £100million, and the Treasury borrowed 40 percent of the money that it needed. Heavy spending brought France to the verge of bankruptcy and revolution, while the British had relatively little difficulty financing their war, keeping their suppliers and soldiers paid, and hiring tens of thousands of German soldiers. Britain had a sophisticated financial system based on the wealth of thousands of landowners who supported the government, together with banks and financiers in London. The British tax system collected about 12 percent of the GDP in taxes during the 1770s.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Finance", "target_page_ids": [ 415418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In sharp contrast, Congress and the American states had no end of difficulty financing the war. In 1775, there was at most 12million dollars in gold in the colonies, not nearly enough to cover current transactions, let alone finance a major war. The British made the situation much worse by imposing a tight blockade on every American port, which cut off almost all imports and exports. One partial solution was to rely on volunteer support from militiamen and donations from patriotic citizens. Another was to delay actual payments, pay soldiers and suppliers in depreciated currency, and promise that it would be made good after the war. Indeed, the soldiers and officers were given land grants in 1783 to cover the wages that they had earned but had not been paid during the war. The national government did not have a strong leader in financial matters until 1781, when Robert Morris was named Superintendent of Finance of the United States. Morris used a French loan in 1782 to set up the private Bank of North America to finance the war. He reduced the civil list, saved money by using competitive bidding for contracts, tightened accounting procedures, and demanded the national government's full share of money and supplies from the individual states.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Finance", "target_page_ids": [ 230337, 19974772, 55570, 237663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 874, 887 ], [ 898, 944 ], [ 1002, 1023 ], [ 1059, 1069 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Congress used four main methods to cover the cost of the war, which cost about 66million dollars in specie (gold and silver). Congress made issues of paper money, known colloquially as \"Continental Dollars\", in 1775–1780 and in 1780–1781. The first issue amounted to 242million dollars. This paper money would supposedly be redeemed for state taxes, but the holders were eventually paid off in 1791 at the rate of one cent on the dollar. By 1780, the paper money was so devalued that the phrase \"not worth a Continental\" became synonymous with worthlessness. The skyrocketing inflation was a hardship on the few people who had fixed incomes, but 90 percent of the people were farmers and were not directly affected by it. Debtors benefited by paying off their debts with depreciated paper. The greatest burden was borne by the soldiers of the Continental Army whose wages were usually paid late and declined in value every month, weakening their morale and adding to the hardships of their families.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Finance", "target_page_ids": [ 61824857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning in 1777, Congress repeatedly asked the states to provide money, but the states had no system of taxation and were of little help. By 1780, Congress was making requisitions for specific supplies of corn, beef, pork, and other necessities, an inefficient system which barely kept the army alive. Starting in 1776, the Congress sought to raise money by loans from wealthy individuals, promising to redeem the bonds after the war. The bonds were redeemed in 1791 at face value, but the scheme raised little money because Americans had little specie, and many of the rich merchants were supporters of the Crown. The French secretly supplied the Americans with money, gunpowder, and munitions to weaken Great Britain; the subsidies continued when France entered the war in 1778, and the French government and Paris bankers lent large sums to the American war effort. The Americans struggled to pay off the loans; they ceased making interest payments to France in 1785 and defaulted on installments due in 1787. In 1790, however, they resumed regular payments on their debts to the French, and settled their accounts with the French government in 1795 when James Swan, an American banker, assumed responsibility for the balance of the debt in exchange for the right to refinance it at a profit.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Finance", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The war ended in 1783 and was followed by a period of prosperity. The national government was still operating under the Articles of Confederation and settled the issue of the western territories, which the states ceded to Congress. American settlers moved rapidly into those areas, with Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee becoming states in the 1790s.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Concluding the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 140997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 150, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, the national government had no money either to pay the war debts owed to European nations and the private banks, or to pay Americans who had been given millions of dollars of promissory notes for supplies during the war. Nationalists led by Washington, Alexander Hamilton, and other veterans feared that the new nation was too fragile to withstand an international war, or even the repetition of internal revolts such as the Shays' Rebellion of 1786 in Massachusetts. They convinced Congress to call the Philadelphia Convention in 1787. The Convention adopted a new Constitution which provided for a republic with a much stronger national government in a federal framework, including an effective executive in a check-and-balance system with the judiciary and legislature. The Constitution was ratified in 1788, after a fierce debate in the states over the proposed new government. The new administration under President George Washington took office in New York in March 1789. James Madison spearheaded Congressional amendments to the Constitution as assurances to those cautious about federal power, guaranteeing many of the inalienable rights that formed a foundation for the revolution. Rhode Island was the final state to ratify the Constitution in 1790, the first ten amendments were ratified in 1791 and became known as the United States Bill of Rights.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Concluding the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 123433, 1743283, 31644, 25536, 11542, 28561, 8702096, 15950, 327672, 9119240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 434, 450 ], [ 513, 536 ], [ 575, 587 ], [ 609, 617 ], [ 664, 671 ], [ 721, 738 ], [ 895, 913 ], [ 987, 1000 ], [ 1136, 1154 ], [ 1340, 1368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The national debt fell into three categories after the American Revolution. The first was the $12million owed to foreigners, mostly money borrowed from France. There was general agreement to pay the foreign debts at full value. The national government owed $40million and state governments owed $25million to Americans who had sold food, horses, and supplies to the Patriot forces. There were also other debts which consisted of promissory notes issued during the war to soldiers, merchants, and farmers who accepted these payments on the premise that the new Constitution would create a government that would pay these debts eventually.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Concluding the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 1006501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 429, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The war expenses of the individual states added up to $114million, compared to $37million by the central government. In 1790, Congress combined the remaining state debts with the foreign and domestic debts into one national debt totaling $80million at the recommendation of first Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton. Everyone received face value for wartime certificates, so that the national honor would be sustained and the national credit established.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Concluding the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 40597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 306, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The population of the Thirteen States was not homogeneous in political views and attitudes. Loyalties and allegiances varied widely within regions and communities and even within families, and sometimes shifted during the Revolution.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The American Enlightenment was a critical precursor of the American Revolution. Chief among the ideas of the American Enlightenment were the concepts of natural law, natural rights, consent of the governed, individualism, property rights, self-ownership, self-determination, liberalism, republicanism, and defense against corruption. A growing number of American colonists embraced these views and fostered an intellectual environment which led to a new sense of political and social identity.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "John Locke (1632–1704) is often referred to as \"the philosopher of the American Revolution\" due to his work in the Social Contract and Natural Rights theories that underpinned the Revolution's political ideology. Locke's Two Treatises of Government published in 1689 was especially influential. He argued that all humans were created equally free, and governments therefore needed the \"consent of the governed\". In late eighteenth-century America, belief was still widespread in \"equality by creation\" and \"rights by creation\". Locke's ideas on liberty influenced the political thinking of English writers such as John Trenchard, Thomas Gordon, and Benjamin Hoadly, whose political ideas in turn also had a strong influence on the American Patriots.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 16143, 39704, 327672, 910810, 1096446, 1789750, 3761681, 1045861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 115, 130 ], [ 135, 149 ], [ 221, 248 ], [ 386, 409 ], [ 614, 628 ], [ 630, 643 ], [ 649, 664 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The theory of the social contract influenced the belief among many of the Founders that the right of the people to overthrow their leaders was one of the \"natural rights\" of man, should those leaders betray the historic rights of Englishmen. The Americans heavily relied on Montesquieu's analysis of the wisdom of the \"balanced\" British Constitution (mixed government) in writing the state and national constitutions.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 3438593, 6875096, 54956, 1477019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 138 ], [ 220, 240 ], [ 274, 285 ], [ 351, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most basic features of republicanism anywhere are a representational government in which citizens elect leaders from among themselves for a predefined term, as opposed to a permanent ruling class or aristocracy, and laws are passed by these leaders for the benefit of the entire republic. In addition, unlike a direct or \"pure\" democracy in which the majority vote rules, a republic codifies in a charter or constitution a certain set of basic civil rights that is guaranteed to every citizen and cannot be overridden by majority rule.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 25755, 95816, 658906, 336179, 5253, 37071, 348853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 40 ], [ 315, 341 ], [ 355, 374 ], [ 401, 408 ], [ 412, 424 ], [ 448, 460 ], [ 511, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American interpretation of \"republicanism\" was inspired by the Whig party in Great Britain which openly criticized the corruption within the British government. Americans were increasingly embracing republican values, seeing Britain as corrupt and hostile to American interests. The colonists associated political corruption with ostentatious luxury and inherited aristocracy, which they condemned.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 43729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Founding Fathers were strong advocates of republican values, particularly Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, George Washington, James Madison, and Alexander Hamilton, which required men to put civic duty ahead of their personal desires. Men were honor bound by civic obligation to be prepared and willing to fight for the rights and liberties of their countrymen. John Adams wrote to Mercy Otis Warren in 1776, agreeing with some classical Greek and Roman thinkers: \"Public Virtue cannot exist without private, and public Virtue is the only Foundation of Republics.\" He continued:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 15124855, 76747, 10410626, 3986, 29922, 30795, 11968, 15950, 40597, 174158, 342957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 90 ], [ 92, 105 ], [ 107, 117 ], [ 119, 136 ], [ 138, 154 ], [ 156, 168 ], [ 170, 187 ], [ 189, 202 ], [ 208, 226 ], [ 307, 318 ], [ 445, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Republican motherhood\" became the ideal for American women, exemplified by Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis Warren; the first duty of the republican woman was to instill republican values in her children and to avoid luxury and ostentation.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 2375644, 102745, 342957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 76, 89 ], [ 94, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Protestant churches that had separated from the Church of England (called \"dissenters\") were the \"school of democracy\", in the words of historian Patricia Bonomi. Before the Revolution, the Southern Colonies and three of the New England Colonies had official established churches: Congregational in Massachusetts Bay, Connecticut, and New Hampshire, and the Church of England in Maryland, Virginia, North-Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia. The New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations had no officially established churches. Church membership statistics from the period are unreliable and scarce, but what little data exists indicates that the Church of England was not in the majority, not even in the colonies where the it was the established church, and they probably did not comprise even 30 percent of the population in most localities (with the possible exception of Virginia).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 5955, 487146, 20047771, 292285, 251986, 502904, 478841, 483269, 487553, 188900, 491056, 489586, 487081, 486947, 486979, 487629, 487592, 489001 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 65 ], [ 190, 207 ], [ 225, 245 ], [ 259, 277 ], [ 281, 295 ], [ 299, 316 ], [ 318, 329 ], [ 335, 348 ], [ 379, 387 ], [ 389, 397 ], [ 399, 413 ], [ 415, 429 ], [ 435, 442 ], [ 448, 456 ], [ 458, 468 ], [ 470, 482 ], [ 484, 492 ], [ 502, 551 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "President John Witherspoon of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University), a \"new light\" Presbyterian, wrote widely circulated sermons linking the American Revolution to the teachings of the Bible. Throughout the colonies, dissenting Protestant ministers (Congregational, Baptist, and Presbyterian) preached Revolutionary themes in their sermons, while most Church of England clergymen preached loyalty to the king, the titular head of the English state church. Religious motivation for fighting tyranny transcended socioeconomic lines to encompass rich and poor, men and women, frontierspeople and townspeople, farmers and merchants. The Declaration of Independence also referred to the \"Laws of Nature and of Nature's God\" as justification for the Americans' separation from the British monarchy. Most eighteenth-century Americans believed that the entire universe (\"nature\") was God's creation and he was \"Nature's God\". Everything was part of the \"universal order of things\" which began with God and was directed by his providence. Accordingly, the signers of the Declaration professed their \"firm reliance on the Protection of divine Providence\", and they appealed to \"the Supreme Judge for the rectitude of our intentions\". George Washington was firmly convinced that he was an instrument of providence, to the benefit of the American people and of all humanity.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 260898, 23922, 9852773, 611306, 292285, 11968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 61, 81 ], [ 87, 96 ], [ 429, 441 ], [ 457, 469 ], [ 1239, 1256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historian Bernard Bailyn argues that the evangelicalism of the era challenged traditional notions of natural hierarchy by preaching that the Bible teaches that all men are equal, so that the true value of a man lies in his moral behavior, not in his class. Kidd argues that religious disestablishment, belief in God as the source of human rights, and shared convictions about sin, virtue, and divine providence worked together to unite rationalists and evangelicals and thus encouraged a large proportion of Americans to fight for independence from the Empire. Bailyn, on the other hand, denies that religion played such a critical role. Alan Heimert argues that New Light anti-authoritarianism was essential to furthering democracy in colonial American society, and set the stage for a confrontation with British monarchical and aristocratic rule.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 450779, 541591, 9852773 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 284, 300 ], [ 663, 672 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Adams concluded in 1818:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the mid-20th century, historian Leonard Woods Labaree identified eight characteristics of the Loyalists that made them essentially conservative, opposite to the characteristics of the Patriots. Loyalists tended to feel that resistance to the Crown was morally wrong, while the Patriots thought that morality was on their side. Loyalists were alienated when the Patriots resorted to violence, such as burning houses and tarring and feathering. Loyalists wanted to take a centrist position and resisted the Patriots' demand to declare their opposition to the Crown. Many Loyalists had maintained strong and long-standing relations with Britain, especially merchants in port cities such as New York and Boston. Many Loyalists felt that independence was bound to come eventually, but they were fearful that revolution might lead to anarchy, tyranny, or mob rule. In contrast, the prevailing attitude among Patriots was a desire to seize the initiative. Labaree also wrote that Loyalists were pessimists who lacked the confidence in the future displayed by the Patriots.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 8622353, 238346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 56 ], [ 422, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historians in the early 20th century such as J. Franklin Jameson examined the class composition of the Patriot cause, looking for evidence of a class war inside the revolution. More recent historians have largely abandoned that interpretation, emphasizing instead the high level of ideological unity. Both Loyalists and Patriots were a \"mixed lot\", but ideological demands always came first. The Patriots viewed independence as a means to gain freedom from British oppression and to reassert their basic rights. Most yeomen farmers, craftsmen, and small merchants joined the Patriot cause to demand more political equality. They were especially successful in Pennsylvania but less so in New England, where John Adams attacked Thomas Paine's Common Sense for the \"absurd democratical notions\" that it proposed.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 6356359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The revolution became a personal issue for the king, fueled by his growing belief that British leniency would be taken as weakness by the Americans. He also sincerely believed that he was defending Britain's constitution against usurpers, rather than opposing patriots fighting for their natural rights.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 42029, 23987465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 51 ], [ 198, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Prime Minister Lord North was not an ideal war leader, George III managed to give Parliament a sense of purpose to fight, and Lord North was able to keep his cabinet together. Lord North's cabinet ministers, the Earl of Sandwich, First Lord of the Admiralty, and Lord George Germain, Secretary of State for the Colonies, however, proved to lack leadership skills suited for their positions, which in turn, aided the American revolutionaries.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 221325, 1118581, 244840, 244245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 34 ], [ 163, 174 ], [ 217, 237 ], [ 272, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "George III is often accused of obstinately trying to keep Great Britain at war with the revolutionaries in America, despite the opinions of his own ministers. In the words of the British historian George Otto Trevelyan, the King was determined \"never to acknowledge the independence of the Americans, and to punish their contumacy by the indefinite prolongation of a war which promised to be eternal.\" The King wanted to \"keep the rebels harassed, anxious, and poor, until the day when, by a natural and inevitable process, discontent and disappointment were converted into penitence and remorse\". Later historians defend George by saying in the context of the times no king would willingly surrender such a large territory, and his conduct was far less ruthless than contemporary monarchs in Europe. After the surrender of a British army at Saratoga, both Parliament and the British people were largely in favor of the war; recruitment ran at high levels and although political opponents were vocal, they remained a small minority.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 462344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 197, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the setbacks in America, Lord North asked to transfer power to Lord Chatham, whom he thought more capable, but George refused to do so; he suggested instead that Chatham serve as a subordinate minister in North's administration, but Chatham refused. He died later in the same year. Lord North was allied to the \"King's Friends\" in Parliament and believed George III had the right to exercise powers. In early 1778, Britain's chief rival France signed a treaty of alliance with the United States, and the confrontation soon escalated from a \"rebellion\" to something that has been characterized as \"world war\". The French fleet was able to outrun the British naval blockade of the Mediterranean and sailed to North America. The conflict now affected North America, Europe and India. The United States and France were joined by Spain in 1779 and the Dutch Republic, while Britain had no major allies of its own, except for the Loyalist minority in America and German auxiliaries (i.e. Hessians). Lord Gower and Lord Weymouth both resigned from the government. Lord North again requested that he also be allowed to resign, but he stayed in office at George III's insistence. Opposition to the costly war was increasing, and in June 1780 contributed to disturbances in London known as the Gordon riots.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 33632, 1069393, 193597, 848489, 1703255, 52626, 1545574, 310519, 87557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 80 ], [ 420, 448 ], [ 458, 476 ], [ 779, 784 ], [ 830, 835 ], [ 852, 866 ], [ 998, 1008 ], [ 1013, 1026 ], [ 1289, 1301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As late as the Siege of Charleston in 1780, Loyalists could still believe in their eventual victory, as British troops inflicted defeats on the Continental forces at the Battle of Camden and the Battle of Guilford Court House. In late 1781, the news of Cornwallis's surrender at the siege of Yorktown reached London; Lord North's parliamentary support ebbed away and he resigned the following year. The King drafted an abdication notice, which was never delivered, finally accepted the defeat in North America, and authorized peace negotiations. The Treaties of Paris, by which Britain recognized the independence of the United States and returned Florida to Spain, were signed in 1782 and 1783 respectively. In early 1783, George III privately conceded \"America is lost!\" He reflected that the Northern colonies had developed into Britain's \"successful rivals\" in commercial trade and fishing.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 598072, 241321, 197567, 15032869, 2716954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 34 ], [ 170, 186 ], [ 195, 225 ], [ 550, 567 ], [ 639, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When John Adams was appointed American Minister to London in 1785, George had become resigned to the new relationship between his country and the former colonies. He told Adams, \"I was the last to consent to the separation; but the separation having been made and having become inevitable, I have always said, as I say now, that I would be the first to meet the friendship of the United States as an independent power.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 10410626, 857149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 15 ], [ 30, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Those who fought for independence were called \"Revolutionaries\" \"Continentals\", \"Rebels\", \"Patriots\", \"Whigs\", \"Congress-men\", or \"Americans\" during and after the war. They included a full range of social and economic classes but were unanimous regarding the need to defend the rights of Americans and uphold the principles of republicanism in rejecting monarchy and aristocracy, while emphasizing civic virtue by citizens. The signers of the Declaration of Independence were mostly—with definite exceptions—well-educated, of British stock, and of the Protestant faith. Newspapers were strongholds of patriotism (although there were a few Loyalist papers) and printed many pamphlets, announcements, patriotic letters, and pronouncements.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 68793880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 570, 611 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to historian Robert Calhoon, 40 to 45 percent of the white population in the Thirteen Colonies supported the Patriots' cause, 15 to 20 percent supported the Loyalists, and the remainder were neutral or kept a low profile. Mark Lender analyzes why ordinary people became insurgents against the British, even if they were unfamiliar with the ideological reasons behind the war. He concludes that such people held a sense of rights which the British were violating, rights that stressed local autonomy, fair dealing, and government by consent. They were highly sensitive to the issue of tyranny, which they saw manifested in the British response to the Boston Tea Party. The arrival in Boston of the British Army heightened their sense of violated rights, leading to rage and demands for revenge. They had faith that God was on their side.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas Paine published his pamphlet Common Sense in January 1776, after the Revolution had started. It was widely distributed and often read aloud in taverns, contributing significantly to concurrently spreading the ideas of republicanism and liberalism, bolstering enthusiasm for separation from Great Britain and encouraging recruitment for the Continental Army. Paine presented the Revolution as the solution for Americans alarmed by the threat of tyranny.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 210471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The consensus of scholars is that about 15 to 20 percent of the white population remained loyal to the British Crown. Those who actively supported the king were known at the time as \"Loyalists\", \"Tories\", or \"King's men\". The Loyalists never controlled territory unless the British Army occupied it. They were typically older, less willing to break with old loyalties, and often connected to the Church of England; they included many established merchants with strong business connections throughout the Empire, as well as royal officials such as Thomas Hutchinson of Boston. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There were 500 to 1,000 Black Loyalists, enslaved African-Americans who escaped to British lines and supported Britain's cause via several means. Many of them died from various diseases, but the survivors were evacuated by the British to their remaining colonies in North America.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 3233181, 219386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 38 ], [ 238, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The revolution could divide families, such as William Franklin, son of Benjamin Franklin and royal governor of the Province of New Jersey who remained loyal to the Crown throughout the war. He and his father never spoke again. Recent immigrants who had not been fully Americanized were also inclined to support the King, such as Flora MacDonald, a Scottish settler in the backcountry.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 225990, 486979, 140780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 62 ], [ 115, 137 ], [ 329, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the war, the great majority of the half-million Loyalists remained in America and resumed normal lives. Some became prominent American leaders, such as Samuel Seabury. Approximately 46,000 Loyalists relocated to Canada; others moved to Britain (7,000), Florida, or the West Indies (9,000). The exiles represented approximately two percent of the total population of the colonies. Nearly all black loyalists left for Nova Scotia, Florida, or England, where they could remain free. Loyalists who left the South in 1783 took thousands of their slaves with them as they fled to the British West Indies.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 1398675, 294567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 172 ], [ 584, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A minority of uncertain size tried to stay neutral in the war. Most kept a low profile, but the Quakers were the most important group to speak out for neutrality, especially in Pennsylvania. The Quakers continued to do business with the British even after the war began, and they were accused of supporting British rule, \"contrivers and authors of seditious publications\" critical of the revolutionary cause. Most Quakers remained neutral, although a sizeable number nevertheless participated to some degree.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 50280455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 449, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Women contributed to the American Revolution in many ways and were involved on both sides. Formal politics did not include women, but ordinary domestic behaviors became charged with political significance as Patriot women confronted a war which permeated all aspects of political, civil, and domestic life. They participated by boycotting British goods, spying on the British, following armies as they marched, washing, cooking, and mending for soldiers, delivering secret messages, and even fighting disguised as men in a few cases, such as Deborah Samson. Mercy Otis Warren held meetings in her house and cleverly attacked Loyalists with her creative plays and histories. Many women also acted as nurses and helpers, tending to the soldiers' wounds and buying and selling goods for them. Some of these camp followers even participated in combat, such as Madam John Turchin who led her husband's regiment into battle. Above all, women continued the agricultural work at home to feed their families and the armies. They maintained their families during their husbands' absences and sometimes after their deaths.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 336367, 342957, 5782518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 542, 556 ], [ 558, 575 ], [ 804, 818 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American women were integral to the success of the boycott of British goods, as the boycotted items were largely household articles such as tea and cloth. Women had to return to knitting goods and to spinning and weaving their own cloth—skills that had fallen into disuse. In 1769, the women of Boston produced 40,000 skeins of yarn, and 180 women in Middletown, Massachusetts wove of cloth. Many women gathered food, money, clothes, and other supplies during the war to help the soldiers. A woman's loyalty to her husband could become an open political act, especially for women in America committed to men who remained loyal to the King. Legal divorce, usually rare, was granted to Patriot women whose husbands supported the King.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 116753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 351, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early 1776, France set up a major program of aid to the Americans, and the Spanish secretly added funds. Each country spent one million \"livres tournaises\" to buy munitions. A dummy corporation run by Pierre Beaumarchais concealed their activities. American Patriots obtained some munitions from the Dutch Republic as well, through the French and Spanish ports in the West Indies. Heavy expenditures and a weak taxation system pushed France toward bankruptcy.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 5405926, 62017, 5574915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 196 ], [ 204, 223 ], [ 371, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1777, Charles François Adrien le Paulmier, Chevalier d'Annemours, acting as a secret agent for France, made sure General George Washington was privy to his mission. He followed Congress around for the next two years, reporting what he observed back to France. The Treaty of Alliance between the French and the Americans followed in 1778, which led to more French money, matériel and troops being sent to the United States.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 67770739, 10501, 11968, 193597, 693290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 44 ], [ 81, 93 ], [ 116, 141 ], [ 267, 285 ], [ 373, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Spain did not officially recognize the United States, but it was a French ally and it separately declared war on Britain on June 21, 1779. Bernardo de Gálvez y Madrid, general of the Spanish forces in New Spain, also served as governor of Louisiana. He led an expedition of colonial troops to capture Florida from the British and to keep open a vital conduit for supplies.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 869687, 64485 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 166 ], [ 201, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ethnic Germans served on both sides of the American Revolutionary War. As George III was also the Elector of Hanover, many supported the Loyalist cause and served as allies of the Kingdom of Great Britain; most notably rented auxiliary troops from German states such as the Landgraviate of Hessen-Kassel.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 14056, 2809117, 158019, 1568888, 258653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 105 ], [ 109, 116 ], [ 180, 204 ], [ 226, 242 ], [ 274, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American Patriots tended to represent such troops as mercenaries in propaganda against the British Crown. Even American historians followed suit, in spite of Colonial-era jurists drawing a distinction between auxiliaries and mercenaries, with auxiliaries serving their prince when sent to the aid of another prince, and mercenaries serving a foreign prince as individuals. By this distinction the troops which served in the American Revolution were auxiliaries.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 1146973, 73374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 53, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other German individuals came to assist the American revolutionaries, most notably Friedrich Wilhelm von Steuben, who served as a general in the Continental Army and is credited with professionalizing that force, but most Germans who served were already colonists. Von Steuben's native Prussia joined the League of Armed Neutrality, and King Frederick II of Prussia was well appreciated in the United States for his support early in the war. He expressed interest in opening trade with the United States and bypassing English ports, and allowed an American agent to buy arms in Prussia. Frederick predicted American success, and promised to recognize the United States and American diplomats once France did the same. Prussia also interfered in the recruiting efforts of Russia and neighboring German states when they raised armies to send to the Americas, and Frederick II forbade enlistment for the American war within Prussia. All Prussian roads were denied to troops from Anhalt-Zerbst, which delayed reinforcements that Howe had hoped to receive during the winter of 1777–1778.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 93561, 20094477, 99613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 112 ], [ 305, 331 ], [ 342, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, when the War of the Bavarian Succession erupted, Frederick II became much more cautious with Prussian/British relations. US ships were denied access to Prussian ports, and Frederick refused to officially recognize the United States until they had signed the Treaty of Paris. Even after the war, Frederick II predicted that the United States was too large to operate as a republic, and that it would soon rejoin the British Empire with representatives in Parliament.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 503189, 191926, 25536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 48 ], [ 267, 282 ], [ 380, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most indigenous people rejected pleas that they remain neutral and instead supported the British Crown. The great majority of the 200,000 indigenous people east of the Mississippi distrusted the colonists and supported the British cause, hoping to forestall continued expansion of settlement into their territories. Those tribes closely involved in trade tended to side with the Patriots, although political factors were important as well. Some indigenous people tried to remain neutral, seeing little value in joining what they perceived to be a \"white man's war\", and fearing reprisals from whichever side they opposed.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The great majority of indigenous people did not participate directly in the war, with the notable exceptions of warriors and bands associated with four of the Iroquois tribes in New York and Pennsylvania which allied with the British, and the Oneida and Tuscarora tribes among the Iroquois of central and western New York who supported the American cause. The British did have other allies, particularly in the regions of southwest Quebec on the Patriot's frontier. The British provided arms to indigenous people who were led by Loyalists in war parties to raid frontier settlements from the Carolinas to New York. These war parties managed to kill many settlers on the frontier, especially in Pennsylvania and New York's Mohawk Valley.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 19195965, 616254, 30881, 391225, 491064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 167 ], [ 243, 249 ], [ 254, 263 ], [ 411, 438 ], [ 592, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1776, Cherokee war parties attacked American Colonists all along the southern Quebec frontier of the uplands throughout the Washington District, North Carolina (now Tennessee) and the Kentucky wilderness area. The Chickamauga Cherokee under Dragging Canoe allied themselves closely with the British, and fought on for an additional decade after the Treaty of Paris was signed. They would launch raids with roughly 200 warriors, as seen in the Cherokee–American wars; they could not mobilize enough forces to invade settler areas without the help of allies, most often the Creek.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 50490, 28595465, 29238247, 877662, 7666345, 57190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 17 ], [ 127, 162 ], [ 217, 237 ], [ 244, 258 ], [ 446, 468 ], [ 575, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Joseph Brant (also Thayendanegea) of the powerful Mohawk tribe in New York was the most prominent indigenous leader against the Patriot forces. In 1778 and 1780, he led 300 Iroquois warriors and 100 white Loyalists in multiple attacks on small frontier settlements in New York and Pennsylvania, killing many settlers and destroying villages, crops, and stores.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 251370, 307384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 50, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1779, the Continental Army forced the hostile indigenous people out of upstate New York when Washington sent an army under John Sullivan which destroyed 40 evacuated Iroquois villages in central and western New York. Sullivan systematically burned the empty villages and destroyed about 160,000 bushels of corn that composed the winter food supply. The Battle of Newtown proved decisive, as the Patriots had an advantage of three-to-one, and it ended significant resistance; there was little combat otherwise. Facing starvation and homeless for the winter, the Iroquois fled to Canada. The British resettled them in Ontario, providing land grants as compensation for some of their losses.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 339137, 21833372, 444428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 90 ], [ 126, 139 ], [ 356, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the peace conference following the war, the British ceded lands which they did not really control, and which they did not consult about with their indigenous allies during the treaty negotiations. They transferred control to the United States of all the land south of the Great Lakes east of the Mississippi and north of Florida. Calloway concludes:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The British did not give up their forts until 1796 in the Ohio country and Illinois country; they kept alive the dream of forming an allied indigenous nation there, which they referred to an \"Indian barrier state\". That goal was one of the causes of the War of 1812.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 505873, 554924, 7603606, 48004121, 34059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 70 ], [ 75, 91 ], [ 130, 157 ], [ 192, 212 ], [ 254, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Free blacks in the New England Colonies and Middle Colonies in the North as well as Southern Colonies fought on both sides of the War, but the majority fought for the Patriots. Gary Nash reports that there were about 9,000 black veteran Patriots, counting the Continental Army and Navy, state militia units, privateers, wagoneers in the Army, servants to officers, and spies. Ray Raphael notes that thousands did join the Loyalist cause, but \"a far larger number, free as well as slave, tried to further their interests by siding with the patriots.\" Crispus Attucks was one of the five people killed in the Boston Massacre in 1770 and is considered the first American casualty for the cause of independence.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 20047771, 337100, 487146, 154016, 82254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 39 ], [ 44, 59 ], [ 84, 101 ], [ 550, 565 ], [ 607, 622 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The effects of the War were more dramatic in the South. Tens of thousands of slaves escaped to British lines throughout the South, causing dramatic losses to slaveholders and disrupting cultivation and harvesting of crops. For instance, South Carolina was estimated to have lost about 25,000 slaves to flight, migration, or death which amounted to a third of its slave population. From 1770 to 1790, the black proportion of the population (mostly slaves) in South Carolina dropped from 60.5 percent to 43.8 percent, and from 45.2 percent to 36.1 percent in Georgia.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 27956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 237, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the War, the British commanders attempted to weaken the Patriots by issuing proclamations of freedom to their slaves. In the November 1775 document known as Dunmore's Proclamation Virginia royal governor, Lord Dunmore recruited black men into the British forces with the promise of freedom, protection for their families, and land grants. Some men responded and briefly formed the British Ethiopian Regiment. Historian David Brion Davis explains the difficulties with a policy of wholesale arming of the slaves:", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 13198715, 59367, 18104048, 6483690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 164, 186 ], [ 212, 224 ], [ 396, 414 ], [ 426, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Davis underscores the British dilemma: \"Britain, when confronted by the rebellious American colonists, hoped to exploit their fear of slave revolts while also reassuring the large number of slave-holding Loyalists and wealthy Caribbean planters and merchants that their slave property would be secure\". The Americans, however, accused the British of encouraging slave revolts, with the issue becoming one of the 27 colonial grievances.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 59859223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 412, 434 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The existence of slavery in the American colonies had attracted criticism from both sides of the Atlantic as many could not reconcile the existence of the institution with the egalitarian ideals espoused by leaders of the Revolution. British writer Samuel Johnson wrote \"how is it we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of the Negroes?\" in a text opposing the grievances of the colonists. Referring to this contradiction, English abolitionist Thomas Day wrote in a 1776 letter that African-American writer Lemuel Haynes expressed similar viewpoints in his essay Liberty Further Extended where he wrote that \"Liberty is Equally as pre[c]ious to a Black man, as it is to a white one\". Thomas Jefferson unsuccessfully attempted to include a section in the Declaration of Independence which asserted that King George III had \"forced\" the slave trade onto the colonies. Despite the turmoil of the period, African-Americans contributed to the foundation of an American national identity during the Revolution. Phyllis Wheatley, an African-American poet, popularized the image of Columbia to represent America. She came to public attention when her Poems on Various Subjects, Religious and Moral appeared in 1773, and received praise from George Washington.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 249471, 48594, 938259, 1911623, 49005, 38932, 2165190, 27389713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 49 ], [ 249, 263 ], [ 460, 470 ], [ 524, 537 ], [ 852, 863 ], [ 1022, 1038 ], [ 1091, 1099 ], [ 1160, 1206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1779 Philipsburg Proclamation expanded the promise of freedom for black men who enlisted in the British military to all the colonies in rebellion. British forces gave transportation to 10,000 slaves when they evacuated Savannah and Charleston, carrying through on their promise. They evacuated and resettled more than 3,000 Black Loyalists from New York to Nova Scotia, Upper Canada, and Lower Canada. Others sailed with the British to England or were resettled as freedmen in the West Indies of the Caribbean. But slaves carried to the Caribbean under control of Loyalist masters generally remained slaves until British abolition of slavery in its colonies in 1833–38. More than 1,200 of the Black Loyalists of Nova Scotia later resettled in the British colony of Sierra Leone, where they became leaders of the Krio ethnic group of Freetown and the later national government. Many of their descendants still live in Sierra Leone, as well as other African countries.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Ideology and factions", "target_page_ids": [ 13621381, 84493, 61024, 3233181, 21184, 40389, 45945, 5574915, 27308, 44306164, 56661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 33 ], [ 223, 231 ], [ 236, 246 ], [ 328, 342 ], [ 361, 372 ], [ 374, 386 ], [ 392, 404 ], [ 485, 496 ], [ 769, 781 ], [ 816, 820 ], [ 837, 845 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Revolution, genuinely democratic politics became possible in the former American colonies. The rights of the people were incorporated into state constitutions. Concepts of liberty, individual rights, equality among men and hostility toward corruption became incorporated as core values of liberal republicanism. The greatest challenge to the old order in Europe was the challenge to inherited political power and the democratic idea that government rests on the consent of the governed. The example of the first successful revolution against a European empire, and the first successful establishment of a republican form of democratically elected government, provided a model for many other colonial peoples who realized that they too could break away and become self-governing nations with directly elected representative government.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 1096446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 472, 495 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interpretations vary concerning the effect of the Revolution. Historians such as Bernard Bailyn, Gordon Wood, and Edmund Morgan view it as a unique and radical event which produced deep changes and had a profound effect on world affairs, such as an increasing belief in the principles of the Enlightenment. These were demonstrated by a leadership and government that espoused protection of natural rights, and a system of laws chosen by the people. John Murrin, by contrast, argues that the definition of \"the people\" at that time was mostly restricted to free men who passed a property qualification. This view argues that any significant gain of the revolution was irrelevant in the short term to women, black Americans and slaves, poor white men, youth, and Native Americans.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 450779, 1512283, 1237123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 95 ], [ 97, 108 ], [ 114, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gordon Wood states:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The American Revolution was integral to the changes occurring in American society, politics and culture.... These changes were radical, and they were extensive.... The Revolution not only radically changed the personal and social relationships of people, including the position of women, but also destroyed aristocracy as it'd been understood in the Western world for at least two millennia.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Edmund Morgan has argued that, in terms of long-term impact on American society and values:", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Revolution did revolutionize social relations. It did displace the deference, the patronage, the social divisions that had determined the way people viewed one another for centuries and still view one another in much of the world. It did give to ordinary people a pride and power, not to say an arrogance, that have continued to shock visitors from less favored lands. It may have left standing a host of inequalities that have troubled us ever since. But it generated the egalitarian view of human society that makes them troubling and makes our world so different from the one in which the revolutionists had grown up.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first shot of the American Revolution at the Battle of Lexington and Concord is referred to as the \"shot heard 'round the world\" due to its historical and global significance. The ensuing Revolutionary War not only established the United States as the first modern constitutional republic, but marked the transition from an age of monarchy to a new age of freedom by inspiring similar movements worldwide. The American Revolution was the first of the \"Atlantic Revolutions\": the French Revolution, the Haitian Revolution, and the Latin American wars of independence. Aftershocks contributed to rebellions in Ireland, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, and the Netherlands.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 22761649, 1147337, 11188, 999895, 20954277, 877358, 343234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 132 ], [ 456, 476 ], [ 483, 500 ], [ 506, 524 ], [ 534, 569 ], [ 598, 619 ], [ 625, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The U.S. Constitution, drafted shortly after independence, remains the world's oldest written constitution, and has been emulated by other countries, in some cases verbatim. Some historians and scholars argue that the subsequent wave of independence and revolutionary movements has contributed to the continued expansion of democratic government; 144 countries, representing two-third of the world's population, are full or partially democracies of same form.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Dutch Republic, also at war with Britain, was the next country after France to sign a treaty with the United States, on October 8, 1782. On April 3, 1783, Ambassador Extraordinary Gustaf Philip Creutz, representing King Gustav III of Sweden, and Benjamin Franklin, signed a Treaty of Amity and Commerce with the U.S.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 618368, 23686385, 25180701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 184, 204 ], [ 224, 244 ], [ 278, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Revolution had a strong, immediate influence in Great Britain, Ireland, the Netherlands, and France. Many British and Irish Whigs in Parliament spoke glowingly in favor of the American cause. In Ireland, the Protestant minority who controlled Ireland demanded self-rule. Under the leadership of Henry Grattan, the Irish Patriot Party forced the reversal of mercantilist prohibitions against trade with other British colonies. The King and his cabinet in London could not risk another rebellion on the American model, and so made a series of concessions to the Patriot faction in Dublin. Armed volunteer units of the Protestant Ascendancy were set up ostensibly to protect against an invasion from France. As had been in colonial America, so too in Ireland now the King no longer had a monopoly of lethal force.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 43729, 1676049, 25223105, 148407, 18288311, 343375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 133 ], [ 232, 254 ], [ 264, 273 ], [ 299, 312 ], [ 318, 337 ], [ 789, 813 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Revolution, along with the Dutch Revolt (end of the 16th century) and the 17th century English Civil War, was among the examples of overthrowing an old regime for many Europeans who later were active during the era of the French Revolution, such as the Marquis de Lafayette. The American Declaration of Independence influenced the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen of 1789. The spirit of the Declaration of Independence led to laws ending slavery in all the Northern states and the Northwest Territory, with New Jersey the last in 1804. States such as New Jersey and New York adopted gradual emancipation, which kept some people as slaves for more than two decades longer.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 589019, 9709, 11188, 156068, 8217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 43 ], [ 91, 108 ], [ 226, 243 ], [ 257, 277 ], [ 342, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the revolution, the contradiction between the Patriots' professed ideals of liberty and the institution of slavery generated increased scrutiny of the latter. As early as 1764, the Boston Patriot leader James Otis, Jr. declared that all men, \"white or black\", were \"by the law of nature\" born free. Anti-slavery calls became more common in the early 1770s. In 1773, Benjamin Rush, the future signer of the Declaration of Independence, called on \"advocates for American liberty\" to oppose slavery, writing, \"The plant of liberty is of so tender a nature that it cannot thrive long in the neighborhood of slavery.\". The contradiction between calls for liberty and the continued existence of slavery also opened up the Patriots to charges of hypocrisy. In 1775, the English Tory writer Samuel Johnson asked, \"How is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of negroes?\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 24637333, 260899, 48594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 225 ], [ 373, 386 ], [ 790, 804 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1760s and early 1770s, a number of colonies, including Massachusetts and Virginia, attempted to restrict the slave trade, but were prevented from doing so by royally appointed governors. In 1774, as part of a broader non-importation movement aimed at Britain, the Continental Congress called on all the colonies to ban the importation of slaves, and the colonies passed acts doing so. In 1775, the Quakers founded first antislavery society in the Western world, the Pennsylvania Abolition Society.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 4812151, 1285973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 410, 417 ], [ 478, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the first two decades after the American Revolution, state legislatures and individuals took actions to free slaves, in part based on revolutionary ideals. Northern states passed new constitutions that contained language about equal rights or specifically abolished slavery; some states, such as New York and New Jersey, where slavery was more widespread, passed laws by the end of the 18th century to abolish slavery by a gradual method. By 1804, all the northern states had passed laws outlawing slavery, either immediately or over time. In New York, the last slaves were freed in 1827. Indentured servitude (temporary slavery), which had been widespread in the colonies (half the population of Philadelphia had once been bonded servants) dropped dramatically, and disappeared by 1800.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "No southern state abolished slavery, but for a period individual owners could free their slaves by personal decision, often providing for manumission in wills but sometimes filing deeds or court papers to free individuals. Numerous slaveholders who freed their slaves cited revolutionary ideals in their documents; others freed slaves as a reward for service. Records also suggest that some slaveholders were freeing their own mixed-race children, born into slavery to slave mothers. The number of free blacks as a proportion of the black population in the upper South increased from less than 1 percent to nearly 10 percent between 1790 and 1810 as a result of these actions. Nevertheless, slavery continued in the South, where it became a \"peculiar institution\", setting the stage for future sectional conflict between North and South over the issue.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thousands of free Blacks in the northern states fought in the state militias and Continental Army. In the south, both sides offered freedom to slaves who would perform military service. Roughly 20,000 slaves fought in the American Revolution.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The democratic ideals of the Revolution inspired changes in the roles of women.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The concept of republican motherhood was inspired by this period and reflects the importance of revolutionary republicanism as the dominant American ideology. It assumed that a successful republic rested upon the virtue of its citizens. Women were considered to have the essential role of instilling their children with values conducive to a healthy republic. During this period, the wife's relationship with her husband also became more liberal, as love and affection instead of obedience and subservience began to characterize the ideal marital relationship. In addition, many women contributed to the war effort through fundraising and running family businesses without their husbands.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 2375644, 42308607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 36 ], [ 96, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The traditional constraints gave way to more liberal conditions for women. Patriarchy faded as an ideal; young people had more freedom to choose their spouses and more often used birth control to regulate the size of their families. Society emphasized the role of mothers in child rearing, especially the patriotic goal of raising republican children rather than those locked into aristocratic value systems. There was more permissiveness in child-rearing. Patriot women married to Loyalists who left the state could get a divorce and obtain control of the ex-husband's property.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Whatever gains they had made, however, women still found themselves subordinated, legally and socially, to their husbands, disfranchised and usually with only the role of mother open to them. But, some women earned livelihoods as midwives and in other roles in the community not originally recognized as significant by men.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Abigail Adams expressed to her husband, the president, the desire of women to have a place in the new republic: ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 102745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Revolution sparked a discussion on the rights of woman and an environment favorable to women's participation in politics. Briefly the possibilities for women's rights were highly favorable, but a backlash led to a greater rigidity that excluded women from politics.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For more than thirty years, however, the 1776 New Jersey State Constitution gave the vote to \"all inhabitants\" who had a certain level of wealth, including unmarried women and blacks (not married women because they could not own property separately from their husbands), until in 1807, when that state legislature passed a bill interpreting the constitution to mean universal white male suffrage, excluding paupers.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 2427510, 70322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 75 ], [ 387, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tens of thousands of Loyalists left the United States following the war, and Maya Jasanoff estimates as many as 70,000. Some migrated to Britain, but the great majority received land and subsidies for resettlement in British colonies in North America, especially Quebec (concentrating in the Eastern Townships), Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia. Britain created the colonies of Upper Canada (Ontario) and New Brunswick expressly for their benefit, and the Crown awarded land to Loyalists as compensation for losses in the United States. Nevertheless, approximately eighty-five percent of the Loyalists stayed in the United States as American citizens, and some of the exiles later returned to the U.S. Patrick Henry spoke of the issue of allowing Loyalists to return as such: \"Shall we, who have laid the proud British lion at our feet, be frightened of its whelps?\" His actions helped secure return of the Loyalists to American soil.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 771, 391225, 195143, 23071, 21184, 22218, 21182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 71 ], [ 263, 269 ], [ 292, 309 ], [ 312, 332 ], [ 338, 349 ], [ 397, 404 ], [ 410, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American Revolution has a central place in the American memory as the story of the nation's founding. It is covered in the schools, memorialized by a national holiday, and commemorated in innumerable monuments. George Washington's estate at Mount Vernon was one of the first national pilgrimages for tourists and attracted 10,000 visitors a year by the 1850s.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 781729, 152271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 170 ], [ 245, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Revolution became a matter of contention in the 1850s in the debates leading to the American Civil War (1861–1865), as spokesmen of both the Northern United States and the Southern United States claimed that their region was the true custodian of the legacy of 1776. The United States Bicentennial in 1976 came a year after the American withdrawal from the Vietnam War, and speakers stressed the themes of renewal and rebirth based on a restoration of traditional values.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 863, 509638, 179553, 374909, 32611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 106 ], [ 145, 167 ], [ 176, 198 ], [ 275, 301 ], [ 361, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Today, more than 100 battlefields and historic sites of the American Revolution are protected and maintained by the government. The National Park Service alone owns and maintains more than 50 battlefield parks and many other sites such as Independence Hall that are related to the Revolution, as well as the residences, workplaces and meeting places of many Founders and other important figures. The private American Battlefield Trust uses government grants and other funds to preserve almost 700 acres of battlefield land in six states, and the ambitious private recreation/restoration/preservation/interpretation of over 300 acres of pre-1790 Colonial Williamsburg was created in the first half of the 20th century for public visitation.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Effects of the Revolution", "target_page_ids": [ 161535, 365560, 20982080, 2280263, 361946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 153 ], [ 239, 256 ], [ 358, 366 ], [ 408, 434 ], [ 645, 666 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Founding Fathers of the United States", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 540802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of George Washington articles", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 58949250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of plays and films about the American Revolution", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6520497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of television series and miniseries about the American Revolution", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45495379 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Museum of the American Revolution", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29568194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of the American Revolution", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 225219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Barnes, Ian, and Charles Royster. The Historical Atlas of the American Revolution (2000), maps and commentary excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 25604161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cappon, Lester J. Atlas of Early American History: The Revolutionary Era, 1760–1790 (1976)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fremont-Barnes, Gregory, and Richard A. Ryerson, eds. The Encyclopedia of the American Revolutionary War: A Political, Social, and Military History (5 vol. 2006) 1000 entries by 150 experts, covering all topics", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gray, Edward G., and Jane Kamensky, eds. The Oxford Handbook of the American Revolution (2013) 672 pp; 33 essays by scholars", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Greene, Jack P. and J. R. Pole, eds. A Companion to the American Revolution (2004), 777 pp – an expanded edition of Greene and Pole, eds. The Blackwell Encyclopedia of the American Revolution (1994); comprehensive coverage of political and social themes and international dimension; thin on military", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Herrera, Ricardo A. \"American War of Independence\" Oxford Bibliographies (2017) annotated guide to major scholarly books and articles online", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kennedy, Frances H. The American Revolution: A Historical Guidebook (2014) A guide to 150 famous historical sites.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Purcell, L. Edward. Who Was Who in the American Revolution (1993); 1500 short biographies", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Resch, John P., ed. Americans at War: Society, Culture and the Homefront vol 1 (2005), articles by scholars", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Selesky, Harold E. ed., Encyclopedia of the American Revolution (3 vol. Gale, 2006)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Symonds, Craig L. and William J. Clipson. A Battlefield Atlas of the American Revolution (1986) new diagrams of each battle", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alden, John R. A history of the American Revolution (1966) 644 pp online free to borrow, A scholarly general survey", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 63370020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allison, Robert. The American Revolution: A Concise History (2011) 128 pp excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Atkinson, Rick. The British Are Coming: The War for America, Lexington to Princeton, 1775–1777 (2019) (vol 1 of his 'The Revolution Trilogy'); called, \"one of the best books written on the American War for Independence,\" [Journal of Military History Jan 2020 p.268]; the maps are online here", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Axelrod, Alan. The Real History of the American Revolution: A New Look at the Past (2009), well-illustrated popular history", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bancroft, George. History of the United States of America, from the discovery of the American continent. (1854–78), vol 4–10 online edition, classic 19th century narrative; highly detailed", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 142785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Black, Jeremy. War for America: The Fight for Independence 1775–1783 (2001) 266 pp; by leading British scholar", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brown, Richard D., and Thomas Paterson, eds. Major Problems in the Era of the American Revolution, 1760–1791: Documents and Essays (2nd ed. 1999)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Christie, Ian R. and Benjamin W. Labaree. Empire or Independence: 1760–1776 (1976)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Cogliano, Francis D. Revolutionary America, 1763–1815; A Political History (2nd ed. 2008), British textbook", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ellis, Joseph J. American Creation: Triumphs and Tragedies in the Founding of the Republic (2008) excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 102283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Higginbotham, Don. The War of American Independence: Military Attitudes, Policies, and Practice, 1763–1789 (1983) Online in ACLS Humanities E-book Project; comprehensive coverage of military and domestic aspects of the war.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 18158275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jensen, Merrill. The Founding of a Nation: A History of the American Revolution 1763–1776. (2004)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Knollenberg, Bernhard. Growth of the American Revolution: 1766–1775 (2003) ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lecky, William Edward Hartpole. The American Revolution, 1763–1783 (1898), older British perspective online edition", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mackesy, Piers. The War for America: 1775–1783 (1992), British military study online edition", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Middlekauff, Robert. The Glorious Cause: The American Revolution, 1763–1789 (Oxford History of the United States, 2005). online edition", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 6829898 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Miller, John C. Triumph of Freedom, 1775–1783 (1948) online edition", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Miller, John C. Origins of the American Revolution (1943) online edition, to 1775", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rakove, Jack N. Revolutionaries: A New History of the Invention of America (2010) interpretation by leading scholar excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1512254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Taylor, Alan. American Revolutions: A Continental History, 1750–1804 (2016) 704 pp; recent survey by leading scholar", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Weintraub, Stanley. Iron Tears: Rebellion in America 1775–83 (2005) excerpt and text search, popular", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 4890056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wood, Gordon S. Revolutionary Characters: What Made the Founders Different (2007)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1512283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wrong, George M. Washington and His Comrades in Arms: A Chronicle of the War of Independence (1921) online short survey by Canadian scholar online", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Baer, Friederike. Hessians: German Soldiers in the American Revolutionary War (Oxford University Press, 2022). Publisher's website.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bailyn, Bernard. The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. (Harvard University Press, 1967). ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Becker, Carl. The Declaration of Independence: A Study on the History of Political Ideas (1922)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Becker, Frank: The American Revolution as a European Media Event, European History Online, Mainz: Institute of European History, 2011, retrieved: October 25, 2011.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 31997884, 20623953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 90 ], [ 99, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Breen, T. H. The Marketplace of Revolution: How Consumer Politics Shaped American Independence (2005)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Breen, T. H. American Insurgents, American Patriots: The Revolution of the People (2010) 337 pages; examines rebellions in 1774–76 including loosely organized militants took control before elected safety committees emerged.", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brunsman, Denver, and David J Silverman, eds. The American Revolution Reader (Routledge Readers in History, 2013) 472 pp; essays by leading scholars ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chernow, Ron. A Life (2010) detailed biography; Pulitzer Prize ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2240593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crow, Jeffrey J. and Larry E. Tise, eds. The Southern Experience in the American Revolution (1978) ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fischer, David Hackett. Paul Revere's Ride (1995), Minutemen in 1775 ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 2403984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fischer, David Hackett. Washington's Crossing (2004). 1776 campaigns; Pulitzer prize. ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Freeman, Douglas Southall. Washington (1968) Pulitzer Prize; abridged version of 7 vol biography ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1327582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Horne, Gerald. The Counter-Revolution of 1776: Slave Resistance and the Origins of the United States of America. (New York University Press, 2014). 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(Yale University Press; 2019) ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McCullough, David. 1776 (2005). ; popular narrative of the year 1776", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 1186092, 3902313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 20, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maier, Pauline. American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence (1998) excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 8141503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nash, Gary B. The Unknown American Revolution: The Unruly Birth of Democracy and the Struggle to Create America. (2005). 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The Men Who Lost America: British Leadership, the American Revolution, and the Fate of the Empire (Yale University Press; 2013) 466 pages; on top British leaders ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Palmer, Robert R. The Age of the Democratic Revolution: A Political History of Europe and America, 1760–1800. vol 1 (1959) online edition", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Resch, John Phillips and Walter Sargent, eds. War and Society in the American Revolution: Mobilization and Home Fronts (2006) ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rothbard, Murray, Conceived in Liberty (2011), Volume III: Advance to Revolution, 1760–1775 and Volume IV: The Revolutionary War, 1775–1784. , libertarian perspective", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 20217, 6558132, 3225498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 19, 39 ], [ 145, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Van Tyne, Claude Halstead. American Loyalists: The Loyalists in the American Revolution (1902) online edition", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Volo, James M. and Dorothy Denneen Volo. Daily Life during the American Revolution (2003)", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wahlke, John C. ed. The Causes of the American Revolution (1967) primary and secondary readings online", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wood, Gordon S. American Revolution (2005) [excerpt and text search] 208 pp excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wood, Gordon S. The Radicalism of the American Revolution: How a Revolution Transformed a Monarchical Society into a Democratic One Unlike Any That Had Ever Existed. (1992), by a leading scholar ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Allison, David, and Larrie D. Ferreiro, eds. The American Revolution: A World War (Smithsonian, 2018) excerpt ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Breen, Timothy H. \"Ideology and nationalism on the eve of the American Revolution: Revisions once more in need of revising.\" Journal of American History (1997): 13–39. in JSTOR", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Countrymen, Edward. \"Historiography\" in Harold E. Selesky, ed., Encyclopedia of the American Revolution (Gale, 2006) pp.501–508. ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gibson, Alan. Interpreting the Founding: Guide to the Enduring Debates over the Origins and Foundations of the American Republic (2006).", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hattem, Michael D. \"The Historiography of the American Revolution\" Journal of the American Revolution (2013) online outlines ten different scholarly approaches", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Morgan, Gwenda. The Debate on the American Revolution (2007). Manchester University Press. ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Schocket, Andrew M. Fighting over the Founders: How We Remember the American Revolution (2014). . How politicians, screenwriters, activists, biographers, museum professionals, and re-enactors portray the American Revolution. excerpt", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sehat, David. The Jefferson Rule: How the Founding Fathers Became Infallible and Our Politics Inflexible (2015). excerpt", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shalhope, Robert E. \"Toward a republican synthesis: the emergence of an understanding of republicanism in American historiography.\" William and Mary Quarterly (1972): 49–80. in JSTOR", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Waldstreicher, David. \"The Revolutions of Revolution Historiography: Cold War Contradance, Neo-Imperial Waltz, or Jazz Standard?\" Reviews in American History 42.1 (2014): 23–35. online", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wood, Gordon S. \"Rhetoric and Reality in the American Revolution.\" William and Mary Quarterly (1966): 4–32. in JSTOR", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Young, Alfred F. and Gregory H. Nobles. Whose American Revolution Was It? Historians Interpret the Founding (2011). NYU Press. ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The American Revolution: Writings from the War of Independence (2001), Library of America ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dann, John C., ed. The Revolution Remembered: Eyewitness Accounts of the War for Independence (1999). . excerpt and text search, recollections by ordinary soldiers", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Humphrey, Carol Sue, ed. The Revolutionary Era: Primary Documents on Events from 1776 to 1800 (2003), Greenwood Press. , Newspaper accounts excerpt and text search", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jensen, Merill, ed. Tracts of the American Revolution, 1763–1776 (1967). American pamphlets ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jensen, Merill, ed. English Historical Documents: American Colonial Documents to 1776: Volume 9 (1955), 890pp; major collection of important documents ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Morison, Samuel E. ed. Sources and Documents Illustrating the American Revolution, 1764–1788, and the Formation of the Federal Constitution (1923). . online version", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [ 324385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tansill, Charles C. ed.; Documents Illustrative of the Formation of the Union of the American States. (1927). Government Printing Office. . online version", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Martin Kallich and Andrew MacLeish, eds. The American Revolution through British eyes (1962) primary documents", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Murdoch, David H. ed. Rebellion in America: A Contemporary British Viewpoint, 1769–1783 (1979), 900+ pp of annotated excerpts from Annual Register'' ", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annual Register 1773, British compendium of speeches and reports", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annual Register 1774", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annual Register 1775", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annual Register 1776", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annual Register 1777", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annual Register 1778", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annual Register 1779", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annual Register 1780", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annual Register 1781", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annual Register 1782", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Annual Register 1783", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "Bibliography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " American Revolution, US National Park Service website portal", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " American Independence (Teaching with Historic Places) Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) uses historic places in National Parks and in the National Park Service's National Register of Historic Places to enliven history, social studies, geography, civics, and other subjects. TwHP has created a variety of products and activities that help teachers bring historic places into the classroom.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Library of Congress Guide to the American Revolution", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Hessians:\" German Soldiers in the American Revolutionary War. Academic blog with original German sources, English translations, and commentary.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Museum of the American Revolution", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Revolution! The Atlantic World Reborn, Revolution! explores the enormous transformations in the world's politics that took place from 1763 to 1815, with particular attention to three globally influential revolutions in America, France, and Haiti. Linking the attack on monarchism and aristocracy to the struggle against slavery, Revolution!shows how freedom, equality, and the sovereignty of the people became universal goals.New-York Historical Society", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 607241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 427, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 132 historic photographs dealing with the personalities, monuments, weapons and locations of the American Revolution; these are pre-1923 and out of copyright.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pictures of the Revolutionary War: Select Audiovisual Records, National Archives and Records Administration selection of images, including a number of non-military events and portraits", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Democratic Revolution of the Enlightenment. Legacy of the struggle for independence and democracy.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " PBS Television Series Liberty", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chickasaws Conflicted by the American Revolution – Chickasaw.TV", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Smithsonian study unit on Revolutionary Money", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The American Revolution, the History Channel (US cable television) website", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Black Loyalist Heritage Society", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Spanish and Latin American contribution to the American Revolution", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " American Archives: Documents of the American Revolution at Northern Illinois University Libraries", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gayle Olson-Ramer, \"Half a Revolution\", 16-page teaching guide for high school students, Zinn Education Project/Rethinking Schools", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Counter-Revolution of 1776\": Was U.S. Independence War a Conservative Revolt in Favor of Slavery? Democracy Now! June 27, 2014.", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 373805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 114 ] ] } ]

[ "American_Revolution", "1770s_conflicts", "1780s_conflicts", "1770s_in_the_United_States", "1780s_in_the_United_States", "18th-century_rebellions", "18th-century_revolutions", "Legal_history_of_the_United_States", "Age_of_Enlightenment", "1760s_conflicts" ]

[ "Revolución estadounidense" ]

[ { "plaintext": "1080 Harald III of Denmark dies and is succeeded by Canute IV, who would later be the first Dane to be canonized.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36039, 2399584, 272723, 6097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 53, 62 ], [ 104, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1349 The rule of the Bavand dynasty in Mazandaran is brought to an end by the murder of Hasan II.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39511, 10637665, 176851, 41696322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 22, 36 ], [ 40, 50 ], [ 89, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1362 Kaunas Castle falls to the Teutonic Order after a month-long siege.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39527, 6094138, 30776, 50919146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 33, 47 ], [ 56, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1492 Spain and Christopher Columbus sign the Capitulations of Santa Fe for his voyage to Asia to acquire spices.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34599, 5635, 23179157, 26897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 16, 36 ], [ 46, 71 ], [ 106, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1521 Trial of Martin Luther over his teachings begins during the assembly of the Diet of Worms. Initially intimidated, he asks for time to reflect before answering and is given a stay of one day.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35225, 7567080, 23371382, 195290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 15, 28 ], [ 38, 47 ], [ 82, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1524 Giovanni da Verrazzano reaches New York harbor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38688, 76934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1797 Sir Ralph Abercromby attacks San Juan, Puerto Rico, in what would be one of the largest invasions of the Spanish territories in the Americas. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34747, 26296, 12789217, 57872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 27, 34 ], [ 35, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1797 Citizens of Verona begin an unsuccessful eight-day rebellion against the French occupying forces.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 263991, 17095598, 62243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ], [ 51, 70 ], [ 83, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1861 The state of Virginia's secession convention votes to secede from the United States, later becoming the eighth state to join the Confederate States of America.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34680, 32432, 6732922, 7023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 19, 27 ], [ 30, 50 ], [ 135, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1863 American Civil War: Grierson's Raid begins: Troops under Union Army Colonel Benjamin Grierson attack central Mississippi.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34641, 863, 689868, 360126, 690466, 16949861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 26, 41 ], [ 63, 73 ], [ 82, 99 ], [ 115, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1864 American Civil War: The Battle of Plymouth begins: Confederate forces attack Plymouth, North Carolina.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38275276, 7966088, 7023, 128338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 30, 48 ], [ 57, 68 ], [ 83, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1869 Morelos is admitted as the 27th state of Mexico.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34789, 195827, 3966054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ], [ 47, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1876 Catalpa rescue: The rescue of six Fenian prisoners from Fremantle Prison in Western Australia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34725, 317581, 1783947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 62, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1895 The Treaty of Shimonoseki between China and Japan is signed. 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[ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1910 Helenio Herrera, French footballer and manager (d. 1997)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2868086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1911 Hervé Bazin, French author and poet (d. 1996)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34605, 1400421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1911 Lester Rodney, American soldier and journalist (d. 2009)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2656987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1912 Marta Eggerth, Hungarian-American actress and singer (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34616, 12364386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1914 George Davis, American art director (d. 1984)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283920, 5245009 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1914 Mac Raboy, American illustrator (d. 1967)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1285955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1915 Martin Clemens, Scottish soldier (d. 2009)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34689, 3134872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1915 Joe Foss, American general and politician, 20th Governor of South Dakota (d. 2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 164213, 253090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ], [ 58, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1915 Regina Ghazaryan, Armenian painter (d. 1999)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 32742181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1916 Win Maung, 3rd President of Union of Myanmar (d. 1989)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34677, 11859966, 11195083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 21, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1916 A. 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2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27682143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1928 Fabien Roy, Canadian accountant and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 711966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1929 James Last, German-American bassist, composer, and bandleader (d. 2015)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34656, 1869860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1930 Chris Barber, English trombonist and bandleader (d. 2021)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34911, 1363223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1931 John Barrett, English tennis player and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34608, 21082182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1931 Malcolm Browne, American journalist and photographer (d. 2012)", 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(d. 2021)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27907519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1934 Don Kirshner, American songwriter and producer (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34981, 1313479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1934 Peter Morris, Australian-English surgeon and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 30470763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1935 Bud Paxson, American broadcaster, founded Home Shopping Network and Pax TV (d. 2015)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34980, 1495704, 533649, 77887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 48, 69 ], [ 74, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1936 Urs Wild, Swiss chemist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34673, 70156426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1937 Ronald Hamowy, Canadian historian and academic (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34684, 34979694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1937 Ferdinand Piëch, Austrian-German engineer and businessman (d. 2019)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1438807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1938 Ben Barnes, American businessman and politician, 36th Lieutenant Governor of Texas", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283852, 962307, 893871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 60, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1938 Doug Lewis, Canadian lawyer and politician, 41st Canadian Minister of Justice", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1682848, 621301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ], [ 59, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1938 Ronald H. 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Scott Caldwell, American actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283873, 2642158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1951 Olivia Hussey, Argentinian-English actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34602, 227335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1951 Börje Salming, Swedish ice hockey player and businessman", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2006119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1952 Joe Alaskey, American voice actor (d. 2016)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34575, 1241652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1952 Pierre Guité, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11458842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1952 John McColl, English general and politician, Lieutenant Governor of Jersey", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10389911, 3100590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ], [ 55, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1952 Željko Ražnatović, Serbian commander \"Arkan\" (d. 2000)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 57719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1952 John Robertson, Scottish businessman and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 676650 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1954 Riccardo Patrese, Italian race car driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34982, 38875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1954 Roddy Piper, Canadian professional wrestler and actor (d. 2015)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 405184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1954 Michael Sembello, American singer-songwriter and guitarist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1145920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1955 Todd Lickliter, American basketball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34851, 10430190 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1955 Pete Shelley, English singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2018)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 849454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1955 Mike Stroud, English physician and explorer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3809306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1956 Colin Tyre, Lord Tyre, Scottish lawyer and judge", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34672, 28024008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 Teri Austin, Canadian actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 4241721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 Afrika Bambaataa, American disc jockey", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18949387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 Nick Hornby, English novelist, essayist, lyricist, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 169873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 Julia Macur, English lawyer and judge", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 37561790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 Frank McDonough, British historian", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 22520911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1958 Laslo Babits, Canadian javelin thrower (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34953, 26726408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1959 Sean Bean, English actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34662, 491357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1959 Jimmy Mann, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 10834568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1959 Li Meisu, Chinese shot putter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4583611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1960 Vladimir Polyakov, Russian pole vaulter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34664, 3874876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1961 Frank J. 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], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 Gary Bennett, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34671, 1989352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Tony Boselli, American football player and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 486590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Jennifer Garner, American actress ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20949091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Muttiah Muralitharan, Sri Lankan cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 20905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Yuichi Nishimura, Japanese footballer and referee", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15496478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Terran Sandwith, Canadian 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"anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Monika Bergmann-Schmuderer, German skier", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 14650336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Lindsay Hartley, American actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 30874890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Jason White, Scottish rugby player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1210196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 Eric Brewer, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 850604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1979 Marija Šestak, Serbian-Slovenian triple jumper", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9470984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Fabián Vargas, Colombian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 7166753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 Curtis Woodhouse, English footballer, boxer, and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4447495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 Jenny Meadows, English runner", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 12749431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Hanna Pakarinen, Finnish singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1530108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Ryan Raburn, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1570916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Chris Thompson, English runner", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28173118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Zhang Yaokun, Chinese footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9646292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1982 Brad Boyes, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34756, 3201212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1982 Chuck Kobasew, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2658747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Stanislav Chistov, Russian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 5918642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Roberto Jiménez, Peruvian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 11486291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Andrea Marcato, Italian rugby player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15545932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Pablo Sebastián Álvarez, Argentinian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 8459323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 Jed Lowrie, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 13944215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 Raffaele Palladino, Italian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5903684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Rooney Mara, American actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34846, 17780945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985 Luke Mitchell, Australian actor and model", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24307219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985 Jo-Wilfried Tsonga, French tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8929079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Romain Grosjean, French race car driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 12764987 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Takahiro Moriuchi, Japanese singer-songwriter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 30639944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Paraskevi Papachristou, Greek triple jumper", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 26111740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Avi Kaplan, singer and songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38574561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Jonathan Brown, Welsh footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 15735990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Lachlan Maranta, Australian rugby league footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 36045114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Alanna Goldie, Canadian fencer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 59567452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Lorna Fitzgerald, British actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 5229027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1996 Caitlin Parker, Australian boxer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 65692305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Suppapong Udomkaewkanjana, Thai actor and singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 62293857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 485 Proclus, Greek mathematician and philosopher (b. 412)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35727, 24797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 617 Donnán of Eigg, Irish priest and saint", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36319, 10096936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 648 Xiao, empress of the Sui Dynasty", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36312, 9661371, 43456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 10 ], [ 27, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 744 Al-Walid II, Umayyad caliph (b. 706)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35406, 437399, 49855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 19, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 818 Bernard of Italy, Frankish king (b. 797)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35477, 1988280 ], 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"anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1321 Infanta Branca of Portugal, daughter of King Afonso III of Portugal (b. 1259)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39964, 2533021, 1659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 32 ], [ 51, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1331 Robert de Vere, 6th Earl of Oxford, English nobleman (b. 1257)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36358, 14336071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1344 Constantine II, King of Armenia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39514, 403242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1355 Marin Falier, Doge of Venice (b. 1285)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39522, 296988, 63340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 20, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1427 John IV, Duke of Brabant (b. 1403)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39910, 2616784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1539 George, Duke of Saxony (b. 1471)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38680, 13168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1574 Joachim Camerarius, German scholar and translator (b. 1500)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34759, 190920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1669 Antonio Bertali, Italian violinist and composer (b. 1605)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38625, 3675348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1680 Kateri Tekakwitha, Mohawk-born Native American saint (b. 1656)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34927, 354671, 307384, 21217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 25, 31 ], [ 37, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1695 Juana Inés de la Cruz, Mexican poet and scholar (b. 1651)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34896, 363533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1696 Marie de Rabutin-Chantal, marquise de Sévigné, French author (b. 1626)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38645, 292702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1711 Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1678)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35542, 148318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1713 David Hollatz, Polish pastor and theologian (b. 1648)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38632, 8661173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1764 Johann Mattheson, German lexicographer and composer (b. 1681)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34720, 809175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1790 Benjamin Franklin, American inventor, publisher, and politician, 6th President of Pennsylvania (b. 1706)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34916, 3986, 252781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ], [ 75, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1799 Richard Jupp, English surveyor and architect (b. 1728)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35496, 662885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1840 Hannah Webster Foster, American journalist and author (b. 1758)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34699, 957998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1843 Samuel Morey, American engineer (b. 1762)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34951, 204569 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1882 George Jennings, English engineer and plumber, invented the Flush toilet (b. 1810)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34772, 13397144, 239932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 66, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1888 E. G. Squier, American archaeologist and journalist (b. 1821)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34712, 2508043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1892 Alexander Mackenzie, Scottish-Canadian politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1822)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34793, 1235, 24135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 61, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1921 Manwel Dimech, Maltese journalist, author, and philosopher (b. 1860)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34724, 2296653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1923 Laurence Ginnell, Irish lawyer and politician (b. 1852)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34863, 9878506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1930 Alexander Golovin, Russian painter and stage designer (b. 1863)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34911, 2480233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1933 Kote Marjanishvili, Georgian director and playwright (b. 1872)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34864, 11221465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1936 Charles Ruijs de Beerenbrouck, Dutch lawyer and politician, 28th Prime Minister of the Netherlands (b. 1873)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34673, 1801380, 273726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 35 ], [ 71, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 Jean Baptiste Perrin, French-American physicist and chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1870)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34629, 573998, 52497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 67, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1944 J. T. Hearne, English cricketer and coach (b. 1867)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34622, 1608800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1944 Dimitrios Psarros, Greek lieutenant, founded the National and Social Liberation (b. 1893)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 9062272, 2148156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 59, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1946 Juan Bautista Sacasa, Nicaraguan medical doctor, politician and 20th President of Nicaragua (b. 1874)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 2230824, 302862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 75, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1948 Kantarō Suzuki, Japanese admiral and politician, 42nd Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1868)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34612, 174167, 24833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 60, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1954 Lucrețiu Pătrășcanu, Romanian lawyer and politician, Romanian Minister of Justice (b. 1900)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34982, 1090337, 6046282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 59, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1960 Eddie Cochran, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34664, 164363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1961 Elda Anderson, American physicist and health researcher (b. 1899)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 31631211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Red Allen, American singer and trumpet player (b. 1908)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 181985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1975 Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Indian philosopher and politician, 2nd President of India (b. 1888)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34752, 45651, 141896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 30 ], [ 71, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 Henrik Dam, Danish biochemist and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1895)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34661, 69914, 52502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 54, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 William Conway, Irish cardinal (b. 1913)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34549, 2938317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Felix Pappalardi, American singer-songwriter, bass player, and producer (b. 1939)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 299412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Claude Provost, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b. 1933)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 1822526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Cecil Harmsworth King, English publisher (b. 1901)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 6315174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987 Dick Shawn, American actor (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1867949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Louise Nevelson, Ukrainian-American sculptor and educator (b. 1900)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 764030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1990 Ralph Abernathy, American minister and activist (b. 1936)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34635, 179501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1993 Turgut Özal, Turkish engineer and politician, 8th president of Turkey (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34598, 649579, 158560 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 56, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Roger Wolcott Sperry, American psychologist and biologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1913)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 102958, 52502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 65, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Frank E. Resnik, American sergeant and businessman (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 1941023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Piet Hein, Danish poet and mathematician (b. 1905)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 63091 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1997 Chaim Herzog, Israeli general, lawyer, and politician, 6th President of Israel (b. 1918)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34601, 364916, 153049 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 65, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Linda McCartney, American photographer, activist, and musician (b. 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 172104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 Robert Atkins, American physician and cardiologist, created the Atkins diet (b. 1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 209433, 84121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 70, 81 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 H. B. Bailey, American race car driver (b. 1936)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2811347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 John Paul Getty, Jr., American-English philanthropist (b. 1932)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 212031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 Earl King, American blues singer, guitarist and songwriter (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 232629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2003 Yiannis Latsis, Greek businessman (b. 1910)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 562354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Edmond Pidoux, Swiss author and poet (b. 1908)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 698664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2006 Jean Bernard, French physician and haematologist (b. 1907)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36164, 3704833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2006 Scott Brazil, American director and producer (b. 1955)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4811890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2006 Henderson Forsythe, American actor (b. 1917)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 884153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Kitty Carlisle, American actress, singer, socialite and game show panelist (b. 1910)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36165, 701743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2008 Aimé Césaire, Caribbean-French poet and politician (b. 1913)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35825, 318336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2008 Danny Federici, American organist and accordion player (b. 1950)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 540661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 Eric Gross, Austrian-Australian pianist and composer (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 13078165 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2011 Michael Sarrazin, Canadian actor (b. 1940)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2522778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2011 Robert Vickrey, American artist and author (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11472492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Leila Berg, English journalist and author (b. 1917)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 2926121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 J. 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S. Ramadevi, Indian politician, 13th Governor of Karnataka (b. 1934)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 20991961, 2383162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 50, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 Gabriel García Márquez, Colombian journalist and author, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 27827075, 23385442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ], [ 63, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Bernat Klein, Serbian-Scottish fashion designer and painter (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 27731372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Wojciech Leśnikowski, Polish–American architect and academic (b. 1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 42538996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Karpal Singh, Malaysian lawyer and politician (b. 1940)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 963024 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 Robert P. Griffin, American soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1923)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 882680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Scotty Probasco, American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38480287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Jeremiah J. Rodell, American general (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43881051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 A. 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[ "Days_of_the_year", "April" ]

[ "17 April", "April 17th", "17th of April", "Apr 17" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Sir Alan Ayckbourn (born 12 April 1939) is a prolific British playwright and director. He has written and produced as of 2021, more than eighty full-length plays in Scarborough and London and was, between 1972 and 2009, the artistic director of the Stephen Joseph Theatre in Scarborough, where all but four of his plays have received their first performance. More than 40 have subsequently been produced in the West End, at the Royal National Theatre or by the Royal Shakespeare Company since his first hit Relatively Speaking opened at the Duke of York's Theatre in 1967.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 381565, 1669644, 1154952, 167775, 167785, 5937676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 177 ], [ 250, 272 ], [ 412, 420 ], [ 429, 451 ], [ 462, 487 ], [ 508, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Major successes include Absurd Person Singular (1975), The Norman Conquests trilogy (1973), Bedroom Farce (1975), Just Between Ourselves (1976), A Chorus of Disapproval (1984), Woman in Mind (1985), A Small Family Business (1987), Man of the Moment (1988), House & Garden (1999) and Private Fears in Public Places (2004). His plays have won numerous awards, including seven London Evening Standard Awards. They have been translated into over 35 languages and are performed on stage and television throughout the world. Ten of his plays have been staged on Broadway, attracting two Tony nominations, and one Tony award.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2875716, 2925294, 5937848, 21347368, 3207099, 22451817, 22451417, 4993586, 12933153, 58959, 725252, 54741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 46 ], [ 55, 75 ], [ 92, 105 ], [ 145, 168 ], [ 177, 190 ], [ 199, 222 ], [ 231, 248 ], [ 257, 271 ], [ 283, 313 ], [ 381, 397 ], [ 556, 564 ], [ 581, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayckbourn was born in Hampstead, London. His mother Irene Worley (\"Lolly\") (1906–1998) was a writer of short stories who published under the name \"Mary James\". His father, Horace Ayckbourn (1904–1965), was an orchestral violinist and was the lead violinist at the London Symphony Orchestra. His parents, who separated shortly after World War II, never married, and Ayckbourn's mother divorced her first husband to marry again in 1948.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 94033, 156257, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 31 ], [ 264, 289 ], [ 332, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayckbourn wrote his first play at Wisborough Lodge (a preparatory school in the village of Wisborough Green) when he was about 10. Whilst at prep school as a boarder, his mother wrote to tell him she was marrying Cecil Pye, a bank manager. When he went home for the holidays, his new family consisted of his mother, his stepfather and Christopher, his stepfather's son by an earlier marriage. This relationship too, reportedly ran into difficulties early on.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 10813291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayckbourn attended Haileybury and Imperial Service College, in the village of Hertford Heath, and whilst there toured Europe and America with the school's Shakespeare company.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 242825, 8265670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 58 ], [ 78, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After leaving school at 17, Ayckbourn's career took several temporary jobs in various places before starting a temporary job at the Scarborough Library Theatre, where he was introduced to the artistic director, Stephen Joseph. It is said that Joseph became both a mentor and father figure for Ayckbourn until his untimely death in 1967, and Ayckbourn has consistently spoken highly of him.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1669644, 34559536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 159 ], [ 211, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayckbourn's career was briefly interrupted when he was called for National Service. He was swiftly discharged, officially on medical grounds, but it is suggested that a doctor who noticed his reluctance to join the Armed Forces deliberately failed the medical as a favour. Although Ayckbourn continued to move where his career took him, he settled in Scarborough, eventually buying Longwestgate House, which had previously been owned by his mentor Joseph.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 211022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1957, Ayckbourn married Christine Roland, another member of the Library Theatre company, and indeed Ayckbourn's first two plays were written jointly with her under the pseudonym of \"Roland Allen\". They had two sons, Steven and Philip. However, the marriage had difficulties which eventually led to their separation in 1971. Ayckbourn said that his relationship with Roland became easy once they agreed their marriage was over. Around this time, he started to share a home with Heather Stoney, an actress he had first met ten years earlier. Like his mother, neither he nor Roland sought a divorce for the next thirty years and it was only in 1997 that they formally divorced; Ayckbourn married Stoney. One side-effect of the timing is that, as Ayckbourn was awarded a knighthood a few months before the divorce, both his first and second wife were entitled to take the title of Lady Ayckbourn.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 390067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 770, 780 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2006, he suffered a stroke in Scarborough, and stated: \"I hope to be back on my feet, or should I say my left leg, as soon as possible, but I know it is going to take some time. In the meantime I am in excellent hands and so is the Stephen Joseph Theatre.\" He left hospital after eight weeks and returned to directing after six months, but the following year he announced he would step down as artistic director of the Stephen Joseph Theatre. Ayckbourn, however, continues to write and direct his own work at the theatre.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since Ayckbourn's plays started becoming established in the West End, interviewers have raised the question of whether his work is autobiographical. There is no clear answer to this question. There has only been one biography, written by Paul Allen, and this primarily covers his career in the theatre. Ayckbourn has frequently said he sees aspects of himself in all his characters. For example, in Bedroom Farce (1975), he admitted to being, in some respects, all four of the men in the play. It has been suggested that, after Ayckbourn himself, the person who is used the most in his plays is his mother, particularly as Susan in Woman in Mind (1985).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 5937848, 3207099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 399, 412 ], [ 632, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "What is less clear is how much influence events in Ayckbourn's life have had on his writing. It is true that the theme of marriages in various difficulties was heavily present throughout his plays in the early seventies, around the time his own marriage was coming to an end. However, by this time, he had also witnessed the failures of his parents' relationships as well as those of some of his friends. Which relationships, if any, he drew on for his plays, is unclear. In Paul Allen's biography, Ayckbourn is briefly compared to Dafydd and Guy in A Chorus of Disapproval (1984). Both characters feel themselves in trouble, and there was speculation that Ayckbourn himself may have felt himself to be in trouble. At the time, he had reportedly become seriously involved with another actress, which threatened his relationship with Stoney. But again, it is unclear whether this had any effect on the writing, and Paul Allen's view is that it is not current experience that Ayckbourn uses for his plays.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 21347368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 550, 573 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It could be that Ayckbourn had written plays with himself and his own issues in mind, but as Ayckbourn is portrayed as a guarded and private man, it is hard to imagine him exposing his own life in his plays to any great degree. In the biography, Paul Allen wrote, regarding a suggestion in Cosmopolitan that his plays were becoming autobiographical: \"If we take that to mean that his plays tell his own life story, he still hasn't started.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On leaving school his theatrical career began immediately, with an introduction to Sir Donald Wolfit by his French master. Ayckbourn joined Wolfit on tour to the Edinburgh Festival Fringe as an acting assistant stage manager (meaning a role that involved both acting and stage management) for three weeks, with his first role on the professional stage being various parts in The Strong are Lonely by Fritz Hochwälder. In the following year, Ayckbourn appeared in six other plays at the Connaught Theatre, Worthing, and the Thorndyke theatre, Leatherhead.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 177264, 391974, 847931, 350224, 173837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 100 ], [ 162, 187 ], [ 400, 416 ], [ 505, 513 ], [ 542, 553 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1957, Ayckbourn was employed by the director Stephen Joseph at the Library Theatre, Scarborough, the predecessor to the modern Stephen Joseph Theatre. His role, again, was initially as acting stage manager. This employment led to Ayckbourn's first professional script commission, in 1958. When he complained about the quality of a script he was performing, Joseph challenged him to write a better one. The result was The Square Cat, written under the pseudonym Roland Allen and first performed in 1959. In this play, Ayckbourn himself played the character Jerry Watiss.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 34559536, 381565, 1669644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 62 ], [ 87, 98 ], [ 130, 152 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After thirty-four appearances in plays at the Library Theatre, including four of his own, in 1962 Ayckbourn moved to Stoke-on-Trent to help set up the Victoria Theatre, (now the New Vic), where he appeared in a further eighteen plays. His final appearance in one of his own plays was as the Crimson Gollywog in the disastrous children's play Christmas v Mastermind. He left the Stoke company in 1964, officially to commit his time to the London production of Mr. Whatnot, but reportedly because was having trouble working with the artistic director, Peter Cheeseman. By now, his career as a writer was coming to fruition, and his acting career was sidelined.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 173333, 4280660, 26798295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 131 ], [ 178, 185 ], [ 550, 565 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His final role on stage was as Jerry in Two for the Seesaw by William Gibson, at the Civic Theatre in Rotherham. He was left stranded on stage because Heather Stoney (his future wife) was unable to re-appear due to her props not prepared to be used. This led him to decide acting was more trouble than it was worth. The assistant stage manager on the production, Bill Kenwright, would become one of the UK's most successful producers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1239627, 893642, 5813852, 16258945, 732396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 58 ], [ 62, 76 ], [ 85, 98 ], [ 102, 111 ], [ 363, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayckbourn's earliest plays were written and produced at a time when the Scarborough Library theatre, like most regional theatres, regularly commissioned work from their own actors to keep costs down (another actor whose work was being commissioned being David Campton). His first play, The Square Cat, was sufficiently popular locally to secure further commissions although not this or the following three plays had much impact beyond Scarborough. But, after his transfer to Victoria Theatre in Stoke-on-Trent, there came Christmas v Mastermind, which flopped and is now universally regarded as Ayckbourn's greatest disaster.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 13607287, 4280660, 173333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 267 ], [ 475, 491 ], [ 495, 509 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His fortunes began to revive in 1963 with Mr. Whatnot, again premiering at the Victoria Theatre. This was the first play that Ayckbourn was sufficiently happy with to allow performances today, and the first play to receive a West End performance. However, the West End production flopped, in part down to misguided casting. After this, Ayckbourn experimented by collaborating with comedians, first writing a monologue for Tommy Cooper, and later with Ronnie Barker, who played Lord Slingsby-Craddock in the London production of Mr Whatnot in 1964, for the scripts of for LWT's Hark at Barker. Ayckbourn used the pseudonym Peter Caulfield because he was under exclusive contract to the BBC at the time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1154952, 55992, 75619, 226939, 7925862, 19344654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 225, 233 ], [ 422, 434 ], [ 451, 464 ], [ 571, 574 ], [ 577, 591 ], [ 685, 688 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Then, in 1965, back at the Scarborough Library Theatre, Meet my Father was produced, later retitled Relatively Speaking. This time, the play was a massive success, both in Scarborough and the West End, earning Alan Ayckbourn a congratulatory telegram from Noël Coward. This was not quite the end of Ayckbourn's hit-and-miss record, because his next play, The Sparrow only ran for three weeks at Scarborough. However, the following play, How the Other Half Loves, secured his runaway success as a playwright.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 5937676, 16764285, 5937750, 31476867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 119 ], [ 256, 267 ], [ 355, 366 ], [ 437, 461 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The height of Ayckbourn's commercial success included Absurd Person Singular (1975), The Norman Conquests trilogy (1973), Bedroom Farce (1975) and Just Between Ourselves (1976), all plays that focused heavily on marriage in the British middle classes. The only failure during this period was a 1975 musical with Andrew Lloyd Webber, Jeeves, and even this did little to dent Ayckbourn's career.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2875716, 2925294, 5937848, 54764, 1337229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 76 ], [ 85, 105 ], [ 122, 135 ], [ 312, 331 ], [ 333, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 1980s, Ayckbourn began to move away from the recurring themes of marriage and explore other contemporary themes, one example being Woman in Mind, a play performed entirely from the perspective of a woman going through a nervous breakdown. He also experimented with several more unconventional ways of writing plays, such as Intimate Exchanges, which has one beginning and sixteen possible endings, and House & Garden, where two plays take place simultaneously on two separate stages, as well as diversifying into children's theatre (such as Mr A's Amazing Maze Plays and musical plays, such as By Jeeves (a more successful rewrite of the original Jeeves).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 3207099, 4993586, 8127703, 1337229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 153 ], [ 411, 425 ], [ 550, 575 ], [ 603, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With a résumé of over seventy plays, of which more than forty have played at the National Theatre or in the West End, Alan Ayckbourn is one of England's most successful living playwrights. Despite his success, honours and awards (which include a prestigious Laurence Olivier Award), Alan Ayckbourn remains a relatively anonymous figure dedicated to regional theatre. Throughout his writing career, all but four of his plays were premiered at the Stephen Joseph Theatre in Scarborough in its three different locations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 16432264, 1669644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 258, 280 ], [ 446, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayckbourn received the CBE in 1987 and was knighted in the 1997 New Year Honours. It is frequently claimed (but not proven) that Alan Ayckbourn is the most performed living English playwright, and the second most performed of all time after Shakespeare.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 3640834, 32897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 80 ], [ 241, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Ayckbourn's plays no longer dominate the theatrical scene on the scale of his earlier works, he continues to write, his most recent major success being Private Fears in Public Places that had a hugely successful Off-Broadway run at 59E59 Theaters, and in 2006 was made into a film Cœurs, directed by Alain Resnais. After suffering a stroke, there was uncertainty as to whether he could continue to write (the Ayckbourn play premiered immediately after the stroke, If I Were You, was written before his illness), but his first play written afterwards, Life and Beth, was premiered in the summer of 2008. Ayckbourn continues to write for the Stephen Joseph Theatre on invitation of his successor as artistic director, Chris Monks, with the first new play under this arrangement, My Wonderful Day, performed in October 2009. His play Roundelay opened in September 2014; the order in which each of the five acts is played in each performance is to be left to chance (allowing 120 possible permutations), with members of the audience being invited to extract five coloured ping pong balls from a bag beforehand.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 12933153, 89127, 28894958, 14865130, 89753, 18555370, 23851747, 28632373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 191 ], [ 221, 233 ], [ 241, 255 ], [ 290, 295 ], [ 309, 322 ], [ 473, 486 ], [ 560, 573 ], [ 786, 802 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of Ayckbourn's plays have had their New York premiere at 59E59 Theaters as part of their annual Brits Off Broadway Festitval including Private Fears in Public Places, Intimate Exchanges, My Wonderful Day and Neighbourhood Watch among others.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 28894958, 12933153, 27177274, 28632373, 34985269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 76 ], [ 140, 170 ], [ 172, 190 ], [ 192, 208 ], [ 213, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Ayckbourn is best known as a writer, it is said that he only spends 10% of his time writing plays. Most of the rest of his time is spent directing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ayckbourn began directing at the Scarborough Library Theatre in 1961, with a production of Gaslight by Patrick Hamilton. He directed five other plays that year and the following year in Scarborough, and after transferring to the Victoria Theatre, directed a further six plays in 1963. Between 1964 and 1967 (when much of his time was taken up by various productions of his early successes Mr. Whatnot and Relatively Speaking) he only directed one play (The Sparrow, written by himself, later withdrawn), but in 1968 he resumed regularly directing plays, mostly at Scarborough. At this time he also worked as a radio drama producer for the BBC, based in Leeds.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 1669644, 891285, 1283532, 4280660, 5937676, 5937750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 60 ], [ 91, 99 ], [ 103, 119 ], [ 229, 245 ], [ 405, 424 ], [ 453, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At first, his directing career was separate from his writing career. It was not until 1963 that Ayckbourn directed a play of his own (a revival of Standing Room Only), 1967 that Ayckbourn directed a premiere of his own (The Sparrow). The London premieres remained in the hands of other directors for longer, with the first play of his both written and directed by him in London (Bedroom Farce) waiting until 1977.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 5937848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 379, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the death of Stephen Joseph in 1967, the position of Director of Productions was appointed on an annual basis. Ayckbourn was offered this position in 1969 and 1970, succeeding Rodney Wood, but he handed the position over to Caroline Smith in 1971 (having spent most of his time that year in the US with How the Other Half Loves). He became Director of Productions again in 1972, and this time, on 12 November that same year, he was made the permanent artistic director of the theatre.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 34559536, 31476867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 33 ], [ 309, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In mid-1986, Ayckbourn accepted an invitation to work as a visiting director for two years at the National Theatre in London, form his own company, and perform a play in each of the three auditoria provided at least one was a new play of his own. Using a stock company that included performers such as Michael Gambon, Polly Adams and Simon Cadell. The three plays became four, and were: Tons of Money by Will Evans and Valentine, with adaptations by Ayckbourn (Lyttelton), Arthur Miller's A View From the Bridge (Cottesloe), his own A Small Family Business (Olivier) and John Ford's 'Tis Pity She's a Whore (Olivier again). During this time, Ayckbourn shared his role of artistic director of the Stephen Joseph Theatre with Robin Herford and returned in 1987 to direct the premiere of Henceforward....", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 167775, 163618, 20025024, 2576338, 65459347, 7027838, 2310, 1281035, 22451817, 280735, 4140289, 5696968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 114 ], [ 302, 316 ], [ 318, 329 ], [ 334, 346 ], [ 404, 414 ], [ 419, 428 ], [ 473, 486 ], [ 489, 511 ], [ 533, 556 ], [ 571, 580 ], [ 583, 606 ], [ 785, 800 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He announced in 1999 that he would step back from directing the work of other playwrights, to concentrate on his own plays, the last one being Rob Shearman's Knights in Plastic Armour in 1999; the exception being in 2002 when he directed the world premiere of Tim Firth's The Safari Party.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 9930761, 11884212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 155 ], [ 260, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2002, following a dispute over the Duchess Theatre's handling of Damsels in Distress, Ayckbourn sharply criticised both this and the West End's treatment of theatre in general, in particular their casting of celebrities. Although he did not explicitly say he would boycott the West End, he did not return to direct in the West End again until 2009 with a revival of Woman in Mind (although he did allow other West End producers to revive Absurd Person Singular in 2007 and The Norman Conquests in 2008).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 2444401, 17827271, 1154952, 3207099, 2875716, 2925294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 53 ], [ 68, 87 ], [ 136, 144 ], [ 369, 382 ], [ 441, 463 ], [ 476, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Ayckbourn suffered a stroke in February 2006, he returned to work in September and premiered his 70th play If I Were You at the Stephen Joseph Theatre the following month.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 18555370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He announced in June 2007 that he would retire as artistic director of the Stephen Joseph Theatre after the 2008 season. His successor, Chris Monks, took over at the start of the 2009–2010 season, but Ayckbourn remained to direct premieres and revivals of his work at the theatre, beginning with How the Other Half Loves in June 2009.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In March 2010 he directed an in-the-round revival of his play Taking Steps at the Orange Tree Theatre, winning universal press acclaim.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [ 9497332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 2014, Ayckbourn directed a musical adaptation of The Boy Who Fell into A Book, with musical adaptation and lyrics by Paul James and music by Eric Angus and Cathy Shostak. The show ran in The Stephen Joseph Theatre and received critical acclaim.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1973: Evening Standard Award, Best Comedy, for Absurd Person Singular", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 1315667, 2875716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 29 ], [ 48, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1974: Evening Standard Award, Best Play, for The Norman Conquests", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 2925294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977: Evening Standard Award, Best Play, for Just Between Ourselves", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1981: Honorary Doctor of Letters degree (Litt.D.) from University of Hull", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 3237728, 556979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 33 ], [ 56, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985: Evening Standard Award, Best Comedy, for A Chorus of Disapproval", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 21347368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985: Laurence Olivier Award, Best Comedy, for A Chorus of Disapproval", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 16432264, 21347368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 29 ], [ 48, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986: Freedom of the Borough of Scarborough.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 348775, 513504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 29 ], [ 33, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987: Evening Standard Award, Best Play, for A Small Family Business", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 22451817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987: Plays and Players Award", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1987: Honorary Doctor of Letters degree (Litt.D.) from Keele University", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 228606 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987: Honorary Doctor of Letters degree (Litt.D.) from University of Leeds", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 196911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1987: Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 212182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989: Evening Standard Award, Best Comedy, for Henceforward...", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 5696968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1990: Evening Standard Award, Best Comedy, for Man of the Moment", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 22451417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1997: Knight Bachelor", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 390067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1998: Honorary Doctor of the University degree (D.Univ.) from Open University", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 464751, 158464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 40 ], [ 63, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2008: Induction into the American Theater Hall of Fame", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 4390143 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2009: Laurence Olivier Special Award", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2009: The Critics' Circle annual award for Distinguished Service to the Arts", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 10774372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2011: Honorary Doctor of Letters degree (Litt.D.) from York St. John University", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 696947 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayckbourn also sits on the Council of the Society of Authors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Honours and awards", "target_page_ids": [ 1666781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are eight one-act plays written by Alan Ayckbourn. Five of them (Mother Figure, Drinking Companion, Between Mouthfuls, Gosforth's Fete and Widows Might) were written for Confusions, first performed in 1974.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 3168902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The other three one-act plays were:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Countdown, first performed in 1962, most well known as part of Mixed Doubles, a set of short one-act plays and monologues contributed by nine different authors.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 2952715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ernie's Incredible Illucinations, written in 1969 for a collection of short plays and intended for performance by schools.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Cut in the Rates, performed at the Stephen Joseph Theatre in 1984, and filmed for a BBC documentary.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Plays adapted as films include:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Chorus of Disapproval (play) filmed as A Chorus of Disapproval (1988 film), directed by Michael Winner;", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 21347368, 10092710, 463243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ], [ 42, 65 ], [ 91, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Intimate Exchanges (play) filmed as Smoking/No Smoking (1993 film), directed by Alain Resnais;", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 27177274, 7210351, 89753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ], [ 37, 55 ], [ 81, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Revengers' Comedies (play) filmed as The Revengers' Comedies (also known as Sweet Revenge), directed by Malcolm Mowbray;", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 14569253, 20029415, 20030206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 42, 65 ], [ 109, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Private Fears in Public Places (play) filmed as Cœurs (2006 film) directed by Alain Resnais.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 12933153, 14865130, 89753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ], [ 49, 54 ], [ 79, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Life of Riley (play) filmed as Life of Riley (2014 film) directed by Alain Resnais.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 34973121, 41512817, 89753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 32, 45 ], [ 70, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Archival material at ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1939_births", "Living_people", "English_dramatists_and_playwrights", "Knights_Bachelor", "Commanders_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire", "People_educated_at_Haileybury_and_Imperial_Service_College", "Laurence_Olivier_Award_winners", "People_from_Scarborough,_North_Yorkshire", "People_from_Hampstead", "Fellows_of_St_Catherine's_College,_Oxford", "Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Literature", "20th-century_British_dramatists_and_playwrights", "21st-century_British_dramatists_and_playwrights", "English_male_dramatists_and_playwrights", "Special_Tony_Award_recipients" ]

[ "Sir Alan Ayckbourn" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri is a gravitationally bound system of the closest stars and planets to the Solar System at 4.37 light-years (1.34 parsecs) from the Sun. The name is Latinized from α Centauri, and abbreviated Alpha Cen or α Cen. It is a triple star system consisting of α Centauri A (officially Rigil Kentaurus), α Centauri B (officially Toliman), and the closest star α Centauri C (officially Proxima Centauri).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38579, 28162, 42174074, 26903, 23473595, 23335, 26751, 14763066, 240963, 81887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ], [ 56, 69 ], [ 74, 81 ], [ 89, 101 ], [ 110, 120 ], [ 128, 134 ], [ 146, 149 ], [ 163, 172 ], [ 241, 252 ], [ 391, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri A and B are Sun-like stars (Class G and K, respectively), and together they form the binary star Alpha Centauri AB. To the naked eye, the two main components appear to be a single star with an apparent magnitude of −0.27, the brightest star in the southern constellation of Centaurus and the third-brightest in the night sky, outshone only by Sirius and Canopus.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2014936, 528144, 1575725, 52713, 293540, 1962, 5267, 6371, 28161, 997476, 28017, 1283638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 35 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 55, 56 ], [ 100, 111 ], [ 138, 147 ], [ 208, 226 ], [ 272, 285 ], [ 289, 298 ], [ 307, 322 ], [ 330, 339 ], [ 358, 364 ], [ 369, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri A has 1.1 times the mass and 1.5 times the luminosity of the Sun, while Alpha Centauri B is smaller and cooler, at 0.9 times the Sun's mass and less than 0.5 times its luminosity. The pair orbit around a common centre with an orbital period of 79 years. Their elliptical orbit is eccentric, so that the distance between A and B varies from 35.6 astronomical units (AU), or about the distance between Pluto and the Sun, to 11.2 AU, or about the distance between Saturn and the Sun.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30552217, 210900, 172987, 200716, 1099413, 1210, 44469, 44474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 39 ], [ 58, 79 ], [ 144, 154 ], [ 219, 232 ], [ 295, 304 ], [ 360, 377 ], [ 415, 420 ], [ 476, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri C, or Proxima Centauri, is a small faint red dwarf (Class M). Though not visible to the naked eye, Proxima Centauri is the closest star to the Sun at a distance of , slightly closer than Alpha Centauri AB. Currently, the distance between Proxima Centauri and Alpha Centauri AB is about , equivalent to about 430 times the radius of Neptune's orbit.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 56099, 28927, 19003265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 65 ], [ 67, 74 ], [ 347, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proxima Centauri has three known planets: Proxima b, an Earth-sized planet in the habitable zone discovered in 2016; Proxima c, a super-Earth 1.5 AU away, which is possibly surrounded by a huge ring system, discovered in 2019; and Proxima d, a candidate sub-Earth which orbits very closely to the star, announced in 2022. Alpha Centauri A may have a Neptune-sized habitable-zone planet, though it is not yet known to be planetary in nature and could be an artifact of the discovery mechanism. Alpha Centauri B has no known planets: planet Bb, purportedly discovered in 2012, was subsequently found to likely not exist, and a separate transiting planet has yet to be confirmed.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 51313762, 48510, 1072751, 60892216, 10883868, 24718, 66326625, 40691079, 66733440, 37354789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 51 ], [ 56, 67 ], [ 82, 96 ], [ 117, 126 ], [ 130, 141 ], [ 194, 205 ], [ 231, 240 ], [ 254, 263 ], [ 348, 385 ], [ 539, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "α Centauri (Latinised to Alpha Centauri) is the system's designation given by Johann Bayer in 1603. It bears the traditional name Rigil Kentaurus, which is a Latinisation of the Arabic name Rijl al-Qinṭūrus, meaning 'the Foot of the Centaur'. The name is frequently abbreviated to Rigil Kent or even Rigil, though the latter name is better known for Rigel (Beta Orionis).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 14763066, 4199, 16061, 6371, 26463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 21 ], [ 57, 68 ], [ 78, 90 ], [ 234, 241 ], [ 351, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An alternative name found in European sources, Toliman, is an approximation of the Arabic aẓ-Ẓalīmān (in older transcription, aṭ-Ṭhalīmān), meaning 'the (two male) Ostriches', an appellation Zakariya al-Qazwini had applied to Lambda and Mu Sagittarii, also in the southern hemisphere.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 2042347, 2013867, 2650280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 211 ], [ 227, 233 ], [ 238, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A third name that has been applied is Bungula (), of obscure origin. Allen can only surmise it may have been coined from the Greek letter beta (β) and Latin 'hoof'.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 166771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri C was discovered in 1915 by Robert T. A. Innes, who suggested that it be named Proxima Centaurus, . The name Proxima Centauri later became more widely used and is now listed by the International Astronomical Union (IAU) as the approved proper name.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 616906, 14878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 61 ], [ 196, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, the Working Group on Star Names of the IAU, having decided to attribute proper names to individual component stars rather than to multiple systems, approved the name Rigil Kentaurus () as being restricted to Alpha Centauri A and the name Proxima Centauri () for Alpha Centauri C. On 10 August 2018, the IAU approved the name Toliman () for Alpha Centauri B.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Etymology and nomenclature", "target_page_ids": [ 51300521, 240963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 40 ], [ 139, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To the naked eye, Alpha Centauri AB appears to be a single star, the brightest in the southern constellation of Centaurus. Their apparent angular separation varies over about 80 years between 2 and 22 arcsec (the naked eye has a resolution of 60 arcsec), but through much of the orbit, both are easily resolved in binoculars or small telescopes. At −0.27 apparent magnitude (combined for A and B magnitudes), Alpha Centauri is a first-magnitude star and is fainter only than Sirius and Canopus. It is the outer star of The Pointers or The Southern Pointers, so called because the line through Beta Centauri (Hadar/Agena), some 4.5° west, points to the constellation Crux — the Southern Cross. The Pointers easily distinguish the true Southern Cross from the fainter asterism known as the False Cross.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 8591419, 5267, 6371, 293540, 1962, 1962, 42944845, 28017, 1283638, 205719, 6359, 1028265, 1028265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 78 ], [ 95, 108 ], [ 112, 121 ], [ 213, 222 ], [ 355, 373 ], [ 375, 383 ], [ 429, 449 ], [ 475, 481 ], [ 486, 493 ], [ 593, 606 ], [ 666, 670 ], [ 766, 774 ], [ 788, 799 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "South of about 29° South latitude, Alpha Centauri is circumpolar and never sets below the horizon. North of about 29° N latitude, Alpha Centauri never rises. Alpha Centauri lies close to the southern horizon when viewed from the 29° North latitude to the equator (close to Hermosillo, Chihuahua City in Mexico, Galveston, Texas, Ocala, Florida and Lanzarote, the Canary Islands of Spain), but only for a short time around its culmination. The star culminates each year at local midnight on 24 April and at local 9 p.m. on 8 June.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 142352, 20611356, 147209, 217560, 3966054, 53840, 109393, 304185, 5717, 26667, 181503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 64 ], [ 255, 262 ], [ 273, 283 ], [ 285, 299 ], [ 303, 309 ], [ 311, 327 ], [ 329, 343 ], [ 348, 357 ], [ 363, 377 ], [ 381, 386 ], [ 426, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As seen from Earth, Proxima Centauri is 2.2° southwest from Alpha Centauri AB, about four times the angular diameter of the Moon. Proxima Centauri appears as a deep-red star of a typical apparent magnitude of 11.1 in a sparsely populated star field, requiring moderately sized telescopes to be seen. Listed as V645 Cen in the General Catalogue of Variable Stars Version 4.2, this UV Ceti-type flare star can unexpectedly brighten rapidly by as much as 0.6 magnitude at visual wavelengths, then fade after only a few minutes. Some amateur and professional astronomers regularly monitor for outbursts using either optical or radio telescopes. In August 2015, the largest recorded flares of the star occurred, with the star becoming 8.3 times brighter than normal on 13 August, in the B band (blue light region).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 826723, 19331, 13346402, 983022, 1589445, 2500686, 1962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 116 ], [ 124, 128 ], [ 326, 361 ], [ 380, 387 ], [ 393, 403 ], [ 456, 465 ], [ 782, 808 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri may be inside the G-cloud of the Local Bubble, and its nearest known system is the binary brown dwarf system Luhman 16 at .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 36672320, 616769, 44401, 38782269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 40 ], [ 48, 60 ], [ 105, 116 ], [ 124, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri is listed in the 2nd-century star catalog of Ptolemy. He gave its ecliptic coordinates, but texts differ as to whether the ecliptic latitude reads or . (Presently the ecliptic latitude is , but it has decreased by a fraction of a degree since Ptolemy's time due to proper motion.) In Ptolemy's time, Alpha Centauri was visible from Alexandria, Egypt, at but, due to precession, its declination is now , and it can no longer be seen at that latitude. English explorer Robert Hues brought Alpha Centauri to the attention of European observers in his 1592 work Tractatus de Globis, along with Canopus and Achernar, noting:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 148060, 48387, 23979, 52015, 3080, 72576, 19785484, 205710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 67 ], [ 81, 101 ], [ 259, 266 ], [ 281, 294 ], [ 348, 365 ], [ 383, 393 ], [ 484, 495 ], [ 619, 627 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The binary nature of Alpha Centauri AB was recognized in December 1689 by Jean Richaud, while observing a passing comet from his station in Puducherry. Alpha Centauri was only the second binary star to be discovered, preceded by Acrux.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 52713, 5962, 68143, 169197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 10 ], [ 114, 119 ], [ 140, 150 ], [ 229, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The large proper motion of Alpha Centauri AB was discovered by Manuel John Johnson, observing from Saint Helena, who informed Thomas Henderson at the Royal Observatory, Cape of Good Hope of it. The parallax of Alpha Centauri was subsequently determined by Henderson from many exacting positional observations of the AB system between April 1832 and May 1833. He withheld his results, however, because he suspected they were too large to be true, but eventually published them in 1839 after Friedrich Wilhelm Bessel released his own accurately determined parallax for 61 Cygni in 1838. For this reason, Alpha Centauri is sometimes considered as the second star to have its distance measured because Henderson's work was not fully acknowledged at first. (The distance of Alpha Centauri from the Earth is now reckoned at .)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 793432, 26945, 336323, 40628915, 11574, 36188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 82 ], [ 99, 111 ], [ 126, 142 ], [ 150, 186 ], [ 490, 514 ], [ 567, 575 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later, John Herschel made the first micrometrical observations in 1834. Since the early 20th century, measures have been made with photographic plates.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 43592, 43935, 206897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 20 ], [ 36, 49 ], [ 131, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1926, William Stephen Finsen calculated the approximate orbit elements close to those now accepted for this system. All future positions are now sufficiently accurate for visual observers to determine the relative places of the stars from a binary star ephemeris. Others, like D. Pourbaix (2002), have regularly refined the precision of new published orbital elements.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 807902, 98663, 160332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 31 ], [ 59, 73 ], [ 256, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Robert T. A. Innes discovered Proxima Centauri in 1915 by blinking photographic plates taken at different times during a proper motion survey. These showed large proper motion and parallax similar in both size and direction to those of Alpha Centauri AB, suggesting that Proxima Centauri is part of the Alpha Centauri system and slightly closer to Earth than Alpha Centauri AB. Lying away, Proxima Centauri is the nearest star to the Sun.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 616906, 81887, 52015, 28162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 30, 46 ], [ 121, 134 ], [ 415, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All components of Alpha Centauri display significant proper motion against the background sky. Over centuries, this causes their apparent positions to slowly change. Proper motion was unknown to ancient astronomers. Most assumed that the stars were permanently fixed on the celestial sphere, as stated in the works of the philosopher Aristotle. In 1718, Edmond Halley found that some stars had significantly moved from their ancient astrometric positions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 52015, 48239, 36858805, 1181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 66 ], [ 274, 290 ], [ 354, 367 ], [ 433, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1830s, Thomas Henderson discovered the true distance to Alpha Centauri by analysing his many astrometric mural circle observations. He then realised this system also likely had a high proper motion. In this case, the apparent stellar motion was found using Nicolas Louis de Lacaille's astrometric observations of 1751–1752, by the observed differences between the two measured positions in different epochs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 336323, 21628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 30 ], [ 264, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Calculated proper motion of the centre of mass for Alpha Centauri AB is about 3620 mas/y (milliarcseconds per year) toward the west and 694 mas/y toward the north, giving an overall motion of 3686 mas/y in a direction 11° north of west. The motion of the centre of mass is about 6.1arcmin each century, or 1.02° each millennium. The speed in the western direction is and in the northerly direction . Using spectroscopy the mean radial velocity has been determined to be around towards the Solar System. This gives a speed with respect to the Sun of , very close to the peak in the distribution of speeds of nearby stars.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 2431, 1195294, 27752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 282, 288 ], [ 310, 311 ], [ 407, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since Alpha Centauri AB is almost exactly in the plane of the Milky Way as viewed from Earth, many stars appear behind it. In early May 2028, Alpha Centauri A will pass between the Earth and a distant red star, when there is a 45% probability that an Einstein ring will be observed. Other conjunctions will also occur in the coming decades, allowing accurate measurement of proper motions and possibly giving information on planets.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 2589714, 598536, 49434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 71 ], [ 251, 264 ], [ 289, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on the system's common proper motion and radial velocities, Alpha Centauri will continue to change its position in the sky significantly and will gradually brighten. For example, in about 6,200 AD, α Centauri's true motion will cause an extremely rare first-magnitude stellar conjunction with Beta Centauri, forming a brilliant optical double star in the southern sky. It will then pass just north of the Southern Cross or Crux, before moving northwest and up towards the present celestial equator and away from the galactic plane. By about 26,700 AD, in the present-day constellation of Hydra, Alpha Centauri will reach perihelion at away, though later calculations suggest that this will occur in 27,000 AD. At nearest approach, Alpha Centauri will attain a maximum apparent magnitude of −0.86, comparable to present-day magnitude of Canopus, but it will still not surpass that of Sirius, which will brighten incrementally over the next 60,000 years, and will continue to be the brightest star as seen from Earth (other than the Sun) for the next 210,000 years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Observation", "target_page_ids": [ 42944845, 205719, 53603, 6359, 153681, 693623, 213468, 1962, 1283638, 28017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 258, 273 ], [ 299, 312 ], [ 342, 353 ], [ 429, 433 ], [ 486, 503 ], [ 522, 536 ], [ 594, 599 ], [ 775, 793 ], [ 843, 850 ], [ 890, 896 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri is a triple star system, with its two main stars, Alpha Centauri A and Alpha Centauri B, together comprising a binary component. The AB designation, or older A×B, denotes the mass centre of a main binary system relative to companion star(s) in a multiple star system. AB-C refers to the component of Proxima Centauri in relation to the central binary, being the distance between the centre of mass and the outlying companion. Because the distance between Proxima (C) and either of Alpha Centauri A or B is similar, the AB binary system is sometimes treated as a single gravitational object.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stellar system", "target_page_ids": [ 52713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The A and B components of Alpha Centauri have an orbital period of 79.762 years. Their orbit is moderately eccentric, as it has an eccentricity of almost 0.52; their closest approach or periastron is , or about the distance between the Sun and Saturn; and their furthest separation or apastron is , about the distance between the Sun and Pluto. The most recent periastron was in August 1955 and the next will occur in May 2035; the most recent apastron was in May 1995 and will next occur in 2075.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stellar system", "target_page_ids": [ 1099413, 88213, 88213, 88213, 88213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 116 ], [ 186, 196 ], [ 285, 293 ], [ 361, 371 ], [ 444, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Viewed from Earth, the apparent orbit of A and B means that their separation and position angle (PA) are in continuous change throughout their projected orbit. Observed stellar positions in 2019 are separated by 4.92 arcsec through the PA of 337.1°, increasing to 5.49 arcsec through 345.3° in 2020. The closest recent approach was in February 2016, at 4.0 arcsec through the PA of 300°. The observed maximum separation of these stars is about 22 arcsec, while the minimum distance is 1.7 arcsec. The widest separation occurred during February 1976, and the next will be in January 2056.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stellar system", "target_page_ids": [ 4206717, 2431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 95 ], [ 217, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri C is about from Alpha Centauri AB, equivalent to about 5% of the distance between Alpha Centauri AB and the Sun. Until 2017, measurements of its small speed and its trajectory were of too little accuracy and duration in years to determine whether it is bound to Alpha Centauri AB or unrelated.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stellar system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Radial velocity measurements made in 2017 were precise enough to show that Proxima Centauri and Alpha Centauri AB are gravitationally bound. The orbital period of Proxima Centauri is approximately years, with an eccentricity of 0.5, much more eccentric than Mercury's. Proxima Centauri comes within of AB at periastron, and its apastron occurs at .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stellar system", "target_page_ids": [ 19694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 259, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Asteroseismic studies, chromospheric activity, and stellar rotation (gyrochronology) are all consistent with the Alpha Centauri system being similar in age to, or slightly older than, the Sun. Asteroseismic analyses that incorporate tight observational constraints on the stellar parameters for the Alpha Centauri stars have yielded age estimates of Gyr, Gyr, 5.2 ± 1.9 Gyr, 6.4 Gyr, and Gyr. Age estimates for the stars based on chromospheric activity (Calcium H & K emission) yield 4.4 ± 2.1 Gyr, whereas gyrochronology yields Gyr. Stellar evolution theory implies both stars are slightly older than the Sun at 5 to 6 billion years, as derived by their mass and spectral characteristics.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stellar system", "target_page_ids": [ 401885, 54653, 11977518, 27980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 23, 45 ], [ 69, 83 ], [ 538, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the orbital elements, the total mass of Alpha Centauri AB is about – or twice that of the Sun. The average individual stellar masses are about and , respectively, though slightly different masses have also been quoted in recent years, such as and , totalling . Alpha Centauri A and B have absolute magnitudes of +4.38 and +5.71, respectively.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stellar system", "target_page_ids": [ 98663, 1963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ], [ 297, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri A, also known as Rigil Kentaurus, is the principal member, or primary, of the binary system. It is a solar-like main-sequence star with a similar yellowish colour, whose stellar classification is spectral type G2-V; it is about 10% more massive than the Sun, with a radius about 22% larger. When considered among the individual brightest stars in the night sky, it is the fourth-brightest at an apparent magnitude of +0.01, being slightly fainter than Arcturus at an apparent magnitude of −0.05.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stellar system", "target_page_ids": [ 19605, 28927, 28927, 28161, 3072, 1962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 140 ], [ 185, 207 ], [ 211, 224 ], [ 343, 358 ], [ 467, 475 ], [ 482, 500 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The type of magnetic activity on Alpha Centauri A is comparable to that of the Sun, showing coronal variability due to star spots, as modulated by the rotation of the star. However, since 2005 the activity level has fallen into a deep minimum that might be similar to the Sun's historical Maunder Minimum. Alternatively, it may have a very long stellar activity cycle and is slowly recovering from a minimum phase.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stellar system", "target_page_ids": [ 11887250, 7839, 183933, 37053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 29 ], [ 92, 99 ], [ 119, 128 ], [ 289, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri B, also known as Toliman, is the secondary star of the binary system. It is a main-sequence star of spectral type K1-V, making it more an orange colour than Alpha Centauri A; it has around 90% of the mass of the Sun and a 14% smaller diameter. Although it has a lower luminosity than A, Alpha Centauri B emits more energy in the X-ray band. Its light curve varies on a short time scale, and there has been at least one observed flare. It is more magnetically active than Alpha Centauri A, showing a cycle of compared to 11 years for the Sun, and about half the minimum-to-peak variation in coronal luminosity of the Sun. Alpha Centauri B has an apparent magnitude of +1.35, slightly dimmer than Mimosa.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stellar system", "target_page_ids": [ 34197, 66675, 1589445, 205718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 344, 349 ], [ 360, 371 ], [ 443, 448 ], [ 711, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri C, better known as Proxima Centauri, is a small main-sequence red dwarf of spectral class M6-Ve. It has an absolute magnitude of +15.60, over 20,000 times fainter than the Sun. Its mass is calculated to be . It is the closest star to the Sun but is too faint to be visible to the naked eye.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Stellar system", "target_page_ids": [ 56099, 1963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 86 ], [ 122, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Alpha Centauri system as a whole has three confirmed planets, all of them around Proxima Centauri. While other planets have been claimed to exist around all of the stars, none of the discoveries have been confirmed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Proxima Centauri b is a terrestrial planet discovered in 2016 by astronomers at the European Southern Observatory (ESO). It has an estimated minimum mass of 1.17 (Earth masses) and orbits approximately 0.049 AU from Proxima Centauri, placing it in the star's habitable zone.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 175184, 17596012, 9951602, 1210, 1072751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 113 ], [ 141, 153 ], [ 164, 174 ], [ 209, 211 ], [ 260, 274 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proxima Centauri c is a planet that was formally discovered in 2020 and could be a super-Earth or mini-Neptune. It has a mass of roughly 7 and orbits about 1.49 AU from Proxima Centauri with a period of . In June 2020, a large ring system encircling the planet was possibly detected. While not formally confirmed, its existence is undisputed.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 10883868, 36137785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 94 ], [ 98, 110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 2020 paper refining Proxima b's mass excludes the presence of extra companions with masses above at periods shorter than 50 days, but the authors detected a radial-velocity curve with a periodicity of 5.15 days. While the signal may be related to stellar activity or simply be noise from the detection algorithm, Proxima Centauri d is estimated to have a mass of about .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2021, a candidate planet named Candidate 1 (abbreviated as C1) was detected around Alpha Centauri A, thought to orbit at approximately 1.1 AU with a period of about one year, and to have a mass between that of Neptune and one-half that of Saturn, though it may be a dust disk or an artifact. The possibility of C1 being a background star has been ruled out. If this candidate is confirmed, the temporary name C1 will most likely be replaced with the scientific designation Alpha Centauri Ab in accordance with current naming conventions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 66733440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "GO Cycle 1 observations are planned for JWST to search for planets around Alpha Centauri A. The observations are planned to occur at a date between July and August 2023. Pre-launch estimates predicted that JWST will be able to find planets with a radius of 5 at 1-3 au. Multiple observations every 3-6 months could push the limit down to 3 . Post-processing techniques could push the limit down to 0.5 to 0.7 . Post-launch estimates based on observations of HIP 65426 b find that JWST will be able to find planets even closer to Alpha Centauri A and could find a 5 planet at 0.5 to 2.5 au. Candidate 1 has an estimated radius between 3.3 and 11 and orbits at 1.1 au. It is therefore likely within the reach of JWST observations.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 434221, 61428301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 44 ], [ 459, 470 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, a planet around Alpha Centauri B was reported, Alpha Centauri Bb, but in 2015 a new analysis concluded that that report was an artifact of the datum analysis.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A possible transit of a separate planet in 2013 has been observed. The transit event could correspond to a planetary body with a radius around . This planet would most likely orbit Alpha Centauri B with an orbital period of 20.4 days or less, with only a 5% chance of it having a longer orbit. The median of the likely orbits is 12.4 days. Its orbit would likely have an eccentricity of 0.24 or less. It likely has lakes of molten lava and would be far too close to Alpha Centauri B to harbour life.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 9588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 495, 499 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Additional planets may exist in the Alpha Centauri system, either orbiting Alpha Centauri A or Alpha Centauri B individually, or in large orbits around Alpha Centauri AB. Because both stars are fairly similar to the Sun (for example, in age and metallicity), astronomers have been especially interested in making detailed searches for planets in the Alpha Centauri system. Several established planet-hunting teams have used various radial velocity or star transit methods in their searches around these two bright stars. All the observational studies have so far failed to find evidence for brown dwarfs or gas giants.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 1129919, 207833, 243447, 44401, 44687845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 256 ], [ 432, 447 ], [ 456, 463 ], [ 591, 602 ], [ 607, 616 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, computer simulations showed that a planet might have been able to form near the inner edge of Alpha Centauri B's habitable zone, which extends from 0.5 to 0.9 AU from the star. Certain special assumptions, such as considering that the Alpha Centauri pair may have initially formed with a wider separation and later moved closer to each other (as might be possible if they formed in a dense star cluster), would permit an accretion-friendly environment farther from the star. Bodies around Alpha Centauri A would be able to orbit at slightly farther distances due to its stronger gravity. In addition, the lack of any brown dwarfs or gas giants in close orbits around Alpha Centauri make the likelihood of terrestrial planets greater than otherwise. A theoretical study indicates that a radial velocity analysis might detect a hypothetical planet of in Alpha Centauri B's habitable zone.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 22669, 1072751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 399, 411 ], [ 881, 895 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Radial velocity measurements of Alpha Centauri B made with the High Accuracy Radial Velocity Planet Searcher spectrograph were sufficiently sensitive to detect a planet within the habitable zone of the star (i.e. with an orbital period P = 200 days), but no planets were detected.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 1071088, 29293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 108 ], [ 109, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Current estimates place the probability of finding an Earth-like planet around Alpha Centauri at roughly 75%. The observational thresholds for planet detection in the habitable zones by the radial velocity method are currently (2017) estimated to be about for Alpha Centauri A, for Alpha Centauri B, and for Proxima Centauri.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 81887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 311, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early computer-generated models of planetary formation predicted the existence of terrestrial planets around both Alpha Centauri A and B, but most recent numerical investigations have shown that the gravitational pull of the companion star renders the accretion of planets difficult. Despite these difficulties, given the similarities to the Sun in spectral types, star type, age and probable stability of the orbits, it has been suggested that this stellar system could hold one of the best possibilities for harbouring extraterrestrial life on a potential planet.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 48510, 20732772, 28927, 9588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 100 ], [ 109, 136 ], [ 349, 362 ], [ 521, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Solar System, it was once thought that Jupiter and Saturn were probably crucial in perturbing comets into the inner Solar System, providing the inner planets with a source of water and various other ices. However, since isotope measurements of the deuterium to hydrogen (D/H) ratio in comets Halley, Hyakutake, Hale–Bopp, 2002T7, and Tuttle yield values approximately twice that of Earth's oceanic water, more recent models and research predict that less than 10% of Earth's water was supplied from comets. In the Alpha Centauri system, Proxima Centauri may have influenced the planetary disk as the Alpha Centauri system was forming, enriching the area around Alpha Centauri with volatile materials. This would be discounted if, for example, Alpha Centauri B happened to have gas giants orbiting Alpha Centauri A (or vice versa), or if Alpha Centauri A and B themselves were able to perturb comets into each other's inner systems as Jupiter and Saturn presumably have done in the Solar System. Such icy bodies probably also reside in Oort clouds of other planetary systems. When they are influenced gravitationally by either the gas giants or disruptions by passing nearby stars, many of these icy bodies then travel star-wards. Such ideas also apply to the close approach of Alpha Centauri or other stars to the Solar System, when, in the distant future, the Oort Cloud might be disrupted enough to increase the number of active comets.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 26903, 38930, 44474, 5962, 8524, 13255, 46083, 141738, 7227, 44687845, 22385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 46, 53 ], [ 58, 64 ], [ 101, 106 ], [ 255, 264 ], [ 268, 276 ], [ 299, 305 ], [ 307, 316 ], [ 318, 327 ], [ 784, 793 ], [ 1042, 1052 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To be in the habitable zone, a planet around Alpha Centauri A would have an orbital radius of between about 1.2 and so as to have similar planetary temperatures and conditions for liquid water to exist. For the slightly less luminous and cooler Alpha Centauri B, the habitable zone is between about 0.7 and .", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 1072751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the goal of finding evidence of such planets, both Proxima Centauri and Alpha Centauri-AB were among the listed \"Tier-1\" target stars for NASA's Space Interferometry Mission (S.I.M.). Detecting planets as small as three Earth-masses or smaller within two AU of a \"Tier-1\" target would have been possible with this new instrument. The S.I.M. mission, however, was cancelled due to financial issues in 2010.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 18426568, 570274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 147 ], [ 150, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on observations between 2007 and 2012, a study found a slight excess of emissions in the 24-µm (mid/far-infrared) band surrounding , which may be interpreted as evidence for a sparse circumstellar disc or dense interplanetary dust. The total mass was estimated to be between to the mass of the Moon, or 10–100 times the mass of the Solar System's zodiacal cloud. If such a disc existed around both stars, disc would likely be stable to 2.8 AU, and would likely be stable to 2.5 AU This would put A's disc entirely within the frost line, and a small part of B's outer disc just outside.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Planetary system", "target_page_ids": [ 48609118, 2472666, 19331, 2472666, 5235648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 207 ], [ 217, 236 ], [ 302, 306 ], [ 355, 369 ], [ 535, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sky from Alpha Centauri AB would appear much as it does from the Earth, except that Centaurus would be missing its brightest star. The Sun would appear as a yellow star of apparent magnitude +0.48, roughly the same as the average brightness of Betelgeuse from Earth. It would be at the antipodal point of Alpha Centauri AB's current right ascension and declination, at (2000), in eastern Cassiopeia, easily outshining all the rest of the stars in the constellation. With the placement of the Sun east of the magnitude 3.4 star Epsilon Cassiopeiae, nearly in front of the Heart Nebula, the \"W\" line of stars of Cassiopeia would have a \"/W\" shape.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "View from this system", "target_page_ids": [ 6371, 1962, 53878, 367577, 26073, 8612, 207685, 5267, 2859445, 13528996 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 97 ], [ 176, 194 ], [ 248, 258 ], [ 290, 305 ], [ 337, 352 ], [ 357, 368 ], [ 394, 404 ], [ 457, 470 ], [ 533, 552 ], [ 577, 589 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A planet around either α Centauri A or B would see the other star as a very bright secondary. For example, an Earth-like planet at 1.25 AU from α Cen A (with a revolution period of 1.34 years) would get Sun-like illumination from its primary, and α Cen B would appear 5.7 to 8.6 magnitudes dimmer (−21.0 to −18.2), 190 to 2,700 times dimmer than α Cen A but still 150 to 2,100 times brighter than the full Moon. Conversely, an Earth-like planet at 0.71 AU from α Cen B (with a revolution period of 0.63 years) would get nearly Sun-like illumination from its primary, and α Cen A would appear 4.6 to 7.3 magnitudes dimmer (−22.1 to −19.4), 70 to 840 times dimmer than α Cen B but still 470 to 5,700 times brighter than the full Moon.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "View from this system", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri's planetary system was the destination in the science fiction space travel television series Lost in Space airing from 1965-68 on CBS, produced by Irwin Allen. It remained so in the reboot with the same name in 2018-20, produced for Netflix. In the earlier series, the Robinson family is sent from Earth to colonize one of the planets; in the reboot, several families are sent.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Cultural references", "target_page_ids": [ 149124, 37653, 944084, 50961258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 121 ], [ 145, 148 ], [ 162, 173 ], [ 193, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In modern literature, colloquial alternative names of Alpha Centauri include Rigil Kent (also Rigel Kent and variants; ) and Toliman (the latter of which became the proper name of Alpha Centauri B on 10 August 2018 by approval of the International Astronomical Union).", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other names", "target_page_ids": [ 14878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 234, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rigil Kent is short for Rigil Kentaurus, which is sometimes further abbreviated to Rigil or Rigel, though that is ambiguous with Beta Orionis, which is also called Rigel.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other names", "target_page_ids": [ 26463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name Toliman originates with Jacobus Golius' 1669 edition of Al-Farghani's Compendium. Tolimân is Golius' latinisation of the Arabic name \"the ostriches\", the name of an asterism of which Alpha Centauri formed the main star.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other names", "target_page_ids": [ 3042034, 607963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 47 ], [ 65, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 19thcentury, the northern amateur popularist Elijah H. Burritt used the now-obscure name Bungula, possibly coined from \"β\" and the Latin ungula (\"hoof\").", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other names", "target_page_ids": [ 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Together, Alpha and Beta Centauri form the \"Southern Pointers\" or \"The Pointers\", as they point towards the Southern Cross, the asterism of the constellation of Crux.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other names", "target_page_ids": [ 1028265, 6359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 136 ], [ 161, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Chinese astronomy, Nán Mén, meaning Southern Gate, refers to an asterism consisting of AlphaCentauri and Epsilon Centauri. Consequently, the Chinese name for Alpha Centauri itself is Nán Mén Èr, the Second Star of the Southern Gate.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other names", "target_page_ids": [ 1524517, 3002478, 3117301, 3654207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 40, 53 ], [ 109, 125 ], [ 145, 157 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To the Australian aboriginal Boorong people of northwestern Victoria, Alpha Centauri and Beta Centauri are Bermbermgle, two brothers noted for their courage and destructiveness, who speared and killed Tchingal \"The Emu\" (the Coalsack Nebula). The form in Wotjobaluk is Bram-bram-bult.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Other names", "target_page_ids": [ 2912594, 33042564, 4689460, 205719, 209546, 33042564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 28 ], [ 29, 43 ], [ 60, 68 ], [ 89, 102 ], [ 225, 240 ], [ 255, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alpha Centauri is a likely first target for crewed or robotic interstellar exploration. Using current spacecraft technologies, crossing the distance between the Sun and Alpha Centauri would take several millennia, though the possibility of nuclear pulse propulsion or laser light sail technology, as considered in the Breakthrough Starshot program, could reduce the journey time to decades. An objective of such a mission would be to make a fly-by of, and possibly photograph, planets that might exist in the system. The existence of Proxima Centauri b, announced by the European Southern Observatory (ESO) in August 2016, would be a target for the Starshot program.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Future exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 14843, 69937, 29420, 50147624, 51313762, 175184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 86 ], [ 240, 264 ], [ 274, 284 ], [ 318, 339 ], [ 534, 552 ], [ 571, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "NASA announced in 2017 that it plans to send a spacecraft to Alpha Centauri in 2069, scheduled to coincide with the 100th anniversary of the first manned lunar landing in 1969. Even at a tenth of the speed of light, which NASA experts say may be possible, it would take a spacecraft 44 years to reach the constellation.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Future exploration", "target_page_ids": [ 18426568, 56098061, 28736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 40, 75 ], [ 200, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Proxima Centauri", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 81887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Candidate 1", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 66733440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alpha Centauri in fiction", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6754695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of nearest stars and brown dwarfs", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Project Longshot", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1007030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sagan Planet Walk", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37685680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SIMBAD observational data", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sixth Catalogue of Orbits of Visual Binary Stars U.S.N.O.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Imperial Star – Alpha Centauri", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alpha Centauri – A Voyage to Alpha Centauri", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Immediate History of Alpha Centauri", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " eSky: Alpha Centauri", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alpha Centauri System", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " O Sistema Alpha Centauri (Portuguese) ", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alpha Centauri – Associação de Astronomia (Portuguese)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Alpha_Centauri", "G-type_main-sequence_stars", "K-type_main-sequence_stars", "M-type_main-sequence_stars", "Solar_analogs", "Maunder_Minimum", "Triple_star_systems", "Multi-star_planetary_systems", "Planetary_systems_with_one_confirmed_planet", "Centaurus_(constellation)", "Stars_with_proper_names", "Bayer_objects", "Durchmusterung_objects", "Gliese_and_GJ_objects", "Henry_Draper_Catalogue_objects", "Hipparcos_objects", "Bright_Star_Catalogue_objects", "Articles_containing_video_clips", "Astronomical_objects_discovered_in_1689", "Astronomical_objects_known_since_antiquity" ]

[ "Rigel Kent", "Rigil Kentaurus", "Toliman", "Bungula" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Amiga is a family of personal computers introduced by Commodore in 1985. The original model is one of a number of mid-1980s computers with 16- or 32-bit processors, 256KB or more of RAM, mouse-based GUIs, and significantly improved graphics and audio compared to previous 8-bit systems. This includes the Atari ST—released earlier the same year—as well as the Macintosh and Acorn Archimedes. Based on the Motorola 68000 microprocessor, the Amiga differs from its contemporaries through the inclusion of custom hardware to accelerate graphics and sound, including sprites and a blitter, and a pre-emptive multitasking operating system called AmigaOS.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18457137, 7580, 2141, 19006979, 63145, 20270, 19553, 913509, 145474, 2204566, 18933304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 38 ], [ 54, 63 ], [ 305, 313 ], [ 360, 369 ], [ 374, 390 ], [ 405, 419 ], [ 420, 434 ], [ 563, 570 ], [ 577, 584 ], [ 592, 616 ], [ 641, 648 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Amiga 1000 was released in July 1985, but production problems kept it from becoming widely available until early 1986. The best-selling model, the Amiga 500, was introduced in 1987 along with the more expandable Amiga 2000. The Amiga 3000 was introduced in 1990, followed by the Amiga 500 Plus, and Amiga 600 in March 1992. Finally, the Amiga 1200 and Amiga 4000 were released in late 1992. The Amiga line sold an estimated 4.85 million units.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 3104, 3095, 79144, 3095, 64975, 18947922, 273917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 151, 160 ], [ 232, 242 ], [ 283, 297 ], [ 303, 312 ], [ 341, 351 ], [ 356, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although early advertisements cast the computer as an all-purpose business machine, especially when outfitted with the Sidecar IBM PC compatibility add-on, the Amiga was most commercially successful as a home computer, with a wide range of games and creative software. The Video Toaster hardware and software suite helped Amiga find a prominent role in desktop video and video production. The Amiga's audio hardware made it a popular platform for music tracker software. The processor and memory capacity enabled 3D rendering packages, including LightWave 3D, Imagine, and Traces, a predecessor to Blender.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5227931, 151588, 16025799, 1553972, 172428, 474652, 8826485, 81926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 126 ], [ 273, 286 ], [ 353, 366 ], [ 371, 387 ], [ 447, 460 ], [ 546, 558 ], [ 560, 567 ], [ 598, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poor marketing and the failure of later models to repeat the technological advances of the first systems resulted in Commodore quickly losing market share to the rapidly dropping prices of IBM PC compatibles, which gained 256 color graphics in 1987, as well as the fourth generation of video game consoles.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 49803, 437385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 189, 206 ], [ 265, 305 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commodore ultimately went bankrupt in April 1994 after a version of the Amiga packaged as a game console, the Amiga CD32, failed in the marketplace. Since the demise of Commodore, various groups have marketed successors to the original Amiga line, including Genesi, Eyetech, ACube Systems Srl and A-EON Technology. AmigaOS has influenced replacements, clones, and compatible systems such as MorphOS and AROS. Currently Belgian company Hyperion Entertainment maintains and develops AmigaOS 4, which is an official and direct descendant of AmigaOS 3.1 - the last system made by Commodore for the original Amiga Computers.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26584375, 8564378, 25519289, 21397748, 263521, 11193614, 713072, 7561720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 120 ], [ 258, 264 ], [ 266, 273 ], [ 275, 292 ], [ 391, 398 ], [ 403, 407 ], [ 435, 457 ], [ 481, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jay Miner joined Atari, Inc. in the 1970s to develop custom integrated circuits, and led development of the Atari 2600's TIA. Almost as soon as its development was complete, the team began developing a much more sophisticated set of chips, CTIA, ANTIC and POKEY, that formed the basis of the Atari 8-bit family.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 54351, 16462490, 15150, 2779, 719274, 931106, 870044, 466494, 63429 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 17, 28 ], [ 60, 78 ], [ 108, 118 ], [ 121, 124 ], [ 240, 244 ], [ 246, 251 ], [ 256, 261 ], [ 292, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the 8-bit line's launch in 1979, the team once again started looking at a next generation chipset. Nolan Bushnell had sold the company to Warner Communications in 1978, and the new management was much more interested in the existing lines than development of new products that might cut into their sales. Miner wanted to start work with the new Motorola 68000, but management was only interested in another 6502 based system. Miner left the company, and, for a time, the industry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 77245, 83045, 20270, 20297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 118 ], [ 143, 164 ], [ 350, 364 ], [ 412, 416 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1979, Larry Kaplan left Atari and founded Activision. In 1982, Kaplan was approached by a number of investors who wanted to develop a new game platform. Kaplan hired Miner to run the hardware side of the newly formed company, \"Hi-Toro\". The system was code-named \"Lorraine\" in keeping with Miner's policy of giving systems female names, in this case the company president's wife, Lorraine Morse. When Kaplan left the company late in 1982, Miner was promoted to head engineer and the company relaunched as Amiga Corporation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4109030, 38299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 21 ], [ 45, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A breadboard prototype for testing and development was largely completed by late 1983, and shown at the January 1984 Consumer Electronics Show (CES). At the time, the operating system was not ready, so the machine was demonstrated with the \"Boing Ball\" demo, a real-time animation showing a red-and-white spinning ball bouncing and casting a shadow; this bouncing ball became the official logo of the Amiga company. CES attendees had trouble believing the computer being demonstrated had the power to display such a demo and searched in vain for the \"real\" computer behind it.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 80799, 273555, 593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 12 ], [ 117, 142 ], [ 271, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A further developed version of the system was demonstrated at the June 1984 CES and shown to many companies in hopes of garnering further funding, but found little interest in a market that was in the final stages of the video game crash of 1983.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 64393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 221, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In March, Atari expressed a tepid interest in Lorraine for its potential use in a games console or home computer tentatively known as the . The talks were progressing slowly, and Amiga was running out of money. A temporary arrangement in June led to a $500,000 loan from Atari to Amiga to keep the company going. The terms required the loan to be repaid at the end of the month, otherwise Amiga would forfeit the Lorraine design to Atari.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During 1983, Atari lost over a week, due to the combined effects of the crash and the ongoing price war in the home computer market. By the end of the year, Warner was desperate to sell the company. In January 1984, Jack Tramiel resigned from Commodore due to internal battles over the future direction of the company. A number of Commodore employees followed him to his new company, Tramel Technology. This included a number of the senior technical staff, where they began development of a 68000-based machine of their own. In June, Tramiel arranged a no-cash deal to take over Atari, reforming Tramel Technology as Atari Corporation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 63438, 2937130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 229 ], [ 618, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As many Commodore technical staff had moved to Atari, Commodore was left with no workable path to design their own next-generation computer. The company approached Amiga offering to fund development as a home computer system. They quickly arranged to repay the Atari loan, ending that threat. The two companies were initially arranging a license agreement before Commodore offered to purchase Amiga outright.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By late 1984, the prototype breadboard chipset had successfully been turned into integrated circuits, and the system hardware was being readied for production. At this time the operating system (OS) was not as ready, and led to a deal to port an OS known as TRIPOS to the platform. TRIPOS was a multitasking system that had been written in BCPL during the 1970s for the PDP-11 minicomputer, but later experimentally ported to the 68000. This early version was known as AmigaDOS and the GUI as Workbench. The BCPL parts were later rewritten in the C language, and the entire system became AmigaOS.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22194, 82418, 6857, 4052, 24399, 20272, 6021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 193 ], [ 258, 264 ], [ 295, 307 ], [ 340, 344 ], [ 370, 376 ], [ 377, 389 ], [ 547, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The system was enclosed in a pizza box form factor case; a late change was the introduction of vertical supports on either side of the case to provide a \"garage\" under the main section of the system where the keyboard could be stored.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 450663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first model was announced in 1985 as simply \"The Amiga from Commodore\", later to be retroactively dubbed the Amiga 1000. They were first offered for sale in August, but by October only 50 had been built, all of which were used by Commodore. Machines only began to arrive in quantity in mid-November, meaning they missed the Christmas buying rush. By the end of the year, they had sold 35,000 machines, and severe cashflow problems made the company pull out of the January 1986 CES. Bad or entirely missing marketing, forcing the development team to move to the east coast, notorious stability problems and other blunders limited sales in early 1986 to between 10,000 and 15,000 units a month.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In late 1985, Thomas Rattigan was promoted to COO of Commodore, and then to CEO in February 1986. He immediately implemented an ambitious plan that covered almost all of the company's operations. Among these was the long-overdue cancellation of the now outdated PET and VIC-20 lines, as well as a variety of poorly selling Commodore 64 offshoots and the Commodore 900 workstation effort.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49453161, 343044, 52234, 87273, 72155, 7293, 1270664, 68181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 29 ], [ 46, 49 ], [ 76, 79 ], [ 262, 265 ], [ 270, 276 ], [ 323, 335 ], [ 354, 367 ], [ 368, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another one of the changes was to split the Amiga into two products, a new high-end version of the Amiga aimed at the creative market, and a cost-reduced version that would take over for the Commodore 64 in the low-end market. These new designs were released in 1987 as the Amiga 2000 and Amiga 500, the latter of which went on to widespread success and became their best selling model.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 79911, 3095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 274, 284 ], [ 289, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similar high-end/low-end models would make up the Amiga line for the rest of its history; follow-on designs included the Amiga 3000/Amiga 500 Plus/Amiga 600, and the Amiga 4000/Amiga 1200. These models incorporated a series of technical upgrades known as the ECS and AGA, which added higher resolution displays among many other improvements and simplifications.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 79144, 3095, 64975, 273917, 18947922, 10359, 101352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 131 ], [ 132, 146 ], [ 147, 156 ], [ 166, 176 ], [ 177, 187 ], [ 259, 262 ], [ 267, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Amiga line sold an estimated 4,850,000 machines over its lifetime. The machines were most popular in the UK and Germany, with about 1.5 million sold in each country, and sales in the high hundreds of thousands in other European nations. The machine was less popular in North America, where an estimated 700,000 were sold. In the United States, the Amiga found a niche with enthusiasts and in vertical markets for video processing and editing. In the United Kingdom, it was more broadly popular as a home computer and often used for video games. Beginning in 1988 it overlapped with the 16-bit Mega Drive, then the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in the early 1990s. Commodore UK's Kelly Sumner did not see Sega or Nintendo as competitors, but instead credited their marketing campaigns which spent over or for promoting video games as a whole and thus helping to boost Amiga sales.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1562536, 8484224, 5363, 437385, 2639573, 28314, 28222625, 21197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 396, 411 ], [ 417, 433 ], [ 536, 547 ], [ 590, 596 ], [ 597, 607 ], [ 618, 653 ], [ 714, 718 ], [ 722, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In spite of his successes in making the company profitable and bringing the Amiga line to market, Rattigan was soon forced out in a power struggle with majority shareholder, Irving Gould. This is widely regarded as the turning point, as further improvements to the Amiga were eroded by rapid improvements in other platforms.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 9105413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On April 29, 1994, Commodore filed for bankruptcy and its assets were purchased by Escom, a German PC manufacturer, who created the subsidiary company Amiga Technologies. They re-released the A1200 and A4000T, and introduced a new 68060 version of the A4000T. Amiga Technologies researched and developed the Amiga Walker prototype. They presented the machine publicly at CeBit. Escom, in turn, went bankrupt in 1997.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1089692, 20325, 20409825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 88 ], [ 231, 236 ], [ 308, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Amiga brand was then sold to a U.S. Wintel PC manufacturer, Gateway 2000, which had announced grand plans for it. In 2000, however, Gateway sold the Amiga brand to Amiga, Inc., without having released any products. Amiga, Inc. licensed the rights to sell hardware using the AmigaOne brand to Eyetech Group and Hyperion Entertainment. In 2019, Amiga, Inc. sold its intellectual property to Amiga Corporation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 142927, 570838, 3193877, 172601, 25519289, 713072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 46 ], [ 64, 76 ], [ 168, 179 ], [ 278, 286 ], [ 296, 309 ], [ 314, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At its core, the Amiga has a custom chipset consisting of several coprocessors, which handle audio, video and direct memory access independently of the Central Processing Unit (CPU). This architecture frees up the CPU for other tasks and gave the Amiga a performance edge over its competitors, particularly in terms of graphics-intensive applications and games.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 378193, 57717, 5218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 77 ], [ 110, 130 ], [ 152, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The general Amiga architecture uses two distinct bus subsystems: the chipset bus and the CPU bus. The chipset bus allows the custom coprocessors and CPU to address \"Chip RAM\". The CPU bus provides addressing to other subsystems, such as conventional RAM, ROM and the Zorro II or Zorro III expansion subsystems. This architecture enables independent operation of the subsystems; the CPU \"Fast\" bus can be much faster than the chipset bus. CPU expansion boards may provide additional custom buses. Additionally, \"busboards\" or \"bridgeboards\" may provide ISA or PCI buses.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 6631, 80793, 3684497, 3266942, 15029, 24075 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 52 ], [ 164, 174 ], [ 267, 275 ], [ 279, 288 ], [ 552, 555 ], [ 559, 562 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Motorola 68000 series of microprocessors was used in all Amiga models from Commodore. While all CPU in the 68000 family have a 32-bit ISA design (programmer uses and sees a 32-bit model), the MC68000 used in the most popular models is a 16-bit (or 16/32-bit) processor because its ALU operates in 16-bit (32-bit operations require additional clock cycles, consuming more time). The MC68000 has a 16-bit external data bus so 32-bits of data is transferred in two consecutive steps, a technique called multiplexing. This is transparent to the software, which was 32-bit from the beginning. The MC68000 can address 16MB of physical memory. Later Amiga models featured higher-speed, full 32-bit CPUs with a larger address space and instruction pipeline facilities.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 20319, 64826, 80733, 47772, 23592304, 27046146, 6631, 41389, 220314 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 12 ], [ 13, 18 ], [ 131, 137 ], [ 138, 141 ], [ 241, 247 ], [ 285, 288 ], [ 416, 424 ], [ 504, 516 ], [ 732, 752 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CPU upgrades were offered by both Commodore and third-party manufacturers. Most Amiga models can be upgraded either by direct CPU replacement or through expansion boards. Such boards often featured faster and higher capacity memory interfaces and hard disk controllers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 13777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 247, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Towards the end of Commodore's time in charge of Amiga development, there were suggestions that Commodore intended to move away from the 68000 series to higher performance RISC processors, such as the PA-RISC. Those ideas were never developed before Commodore filed for bankruptcy. Despite this, third-party manufacturers designed upgrades featuring a combination of 68000 series and PowerPC processors along with a PowerPC native microkernel and software. Later Amiga clones featured PowerPC processors only.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 26201, 24970, 20023, 24281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 176 ], [ 201, 208 ], [ 431, 442 ], [ 485, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The custom chipset at the core of the Amiga design appeared in three distinct generations, with a large degree of backward-compatibility. The Original Chip Set (OCS) appeared with the launch of the A1000 in 1985. OCS was eventually followed by the modestly improved Enhanced Chip Set (ECS) in 1990 and finally by the partly 32-bit Advanced Graphics Architecture (AGA) in 1992. Each chipset consists of several coprocessors that handle graphics acceleration, digital audio, direct memory access and communication between various peripherals (e.g., CPU, memory and floppy disks). In addition, some models featured auxiliary custom chips that performed tasks such as SCSI control and display de-interlacing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 22784, 10359, 101352, 145474, 57717, 26017259, 28313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 159 ], [ 266, 283 ], [ 331, 361 ], [ 435, 456 ], [ 473, 493 ], [ 622, 633 ], [ 664, 668 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All Amiga systems can display full-screen animated planar graphics with 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64 (EHB Mode), or 4096 colors (HAM Mode). Models with the AGA chipset (A1200 and A4000) also have non-EHB 64, 128, 256, and 262144 (HAM8 Mode) color modes and a palette expanded from 4096 to 16.8 million colors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 80814, 312371, 1430274, 1430274, 331448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 57 ], [ 93, 101 ], [ 120, 128 ], [ 221, 230 ], [ 280, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Amiga chipset can genlock, which is the ability to adjust its own screen refresh timing to match an incoming NTSC or PAL video signal. When combined with setting transparency, this allows an Amiga to overlay an external video source with graphics. This ability made the Amiga popular for many applications, and provides the ability to do character generation and CGI effects far more cheaply than earlier systems. This ability has been frequently utilized by wedding videographers, TV stations and their weather forecasting divisions (for weather graphics and radar), advertising channels, music video production, and desktop videographers. The NewTek Video Toaster was made possible by the genlock ability of the Amiga.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 163005, 1591228, 31626763, 151593, 151588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 29 ], [ 342, 362 ], [ 367, 370 ], [ 649, 655 ], [ 656, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1988, the release of the Amiga A2024 fixed-frequency monochrome monitor with built-in framebuffer and flicker fixer hardware provided the Amiga with a choice of high-resolution graphic modes (1024×800 for NTSC and 1024×1024 for PAL).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 13591771, 149963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 74 ], [ 89, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ReTargetable Graphics is an API for device drivers mainly used by 3rd party graphics hardware to interface with AmigaOS via a set of libraries. The software libraries may include software tools to adjust resolution, screen colors, pointers and screenmodes. The standard Intuition interface is limited to display depths of 8 bits, while RTG makes it possible to handle higher depths like 24-bits.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 27697009, 9101, 106421, 601399, 2104830, 7495139, 331448, 45148, 2507348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 31 ], [ 36, 49 ], [ 133, 142 ], [ 204, 214 ], [ 231, 239 ], [ 270, 289 ], [ 304, 318 ], [ 322, 328 ], [ 387, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sound chip, named Paula, supports four PCM-sample-based sound channels (two for the left speaker and two for the right) with 8-bit resolution for each channel and a 6-bit volume control per channel. The analog output is connected to a low-pass filter, which filters out high-frequency aliases when the Amiga is using a lower sampling rate (see Nyquist frequency). The brightness of the Amiga's power LED is used to indicate the status of the Amiga's low-pass filter. The filter is active when the LED is at normal brightness, and deactivated when dimmed (or off on older A500 Amigas). On Amiga 1000 (and first Amiga 500 and Amiga 2000 model), the power LED had no relation to the filter's status, and a wire needed to be manually soldered between pins on the sound chip to disable the filter. Paula can read directly from the system's RAM, using direct memory access (DMA), making sound playback without CPU intervention possible.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 25513330, 164685, 21306150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 46 ], [ 348, 365 ], [ 839, 842 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the hardware is limited to four separate sound channels, software such as OctaMED uses software mixing to allow eight or more virtual channels, and it was possible for software to mix two hardware channels to achieve a single 14-bit resolution channel by playing with the volumes of the channels in such a way that one of the source channels contributes the most significant bits and the other the least.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 460621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The quality of the Amiga's sound output, and the fact that the hardware is ubiquitous and easily addressed by software, were standout features of Amiga hardware unavailable on PC platforms for years. Third-party sound cards exist that provide DSP functions, multi-track direct-to-disk recording, multiple hardware sound channels and 16-bit and beyond resolutions. A retargetable sound API called AHI was developed allowing these cards to be used transparently by the OS and software.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 154505, 231704, 17051674, 22194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 243, 246 ], [ 270, 294 ], [ 396, 399 ], [ 467, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kickstart is the firmware upon which AmigaOS is bootstrapped. Its purpose is to initialize the Amiga hardware and core components of AmigaOS and then attempt to boot from a bootable volume, such as a floppy disk or hard disk drive. Most models (excluding the Amiga 1000) come equipped with Kickstart on an embedded ROM-chip.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 41155, 40909, 40909, 2346717, 18934934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 25 ], [ 48, 57 ], [ 173, 181 ], [ 182, 188 ], [ 315, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The keyboard on Amiga computers is similar to that found on a mid-80s IBM PC: Ten function keys, a numeric keypad, and four separate directional arrow keys. Caps Lock and Control share space to the left of A. Absent are Home, End, Page Up, and Page Down keys: These functions are accomplished on Amigas by pressing shift and the appropriate arrow key. The Amiga keyboard adds a Help key, which a function key usually acts as on PCs (usually F1). In addition to the Control and Alt modifier keys, the Amiga has 2 \"Amiga\" keys, rendered as \"Open Amiga\" and \"Closed Amiga\" similar to the Open/Closed Apple logo keys on Apple II keyboards. The left is used to manipulate the operating system (moving screens and the like) and the right delivers commands to the application. The absence of Num lock frees space for more mathematical symbols around the numeric pad.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 555364, 188035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 166 ], [ 171, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like IBM-compatible computers, the mouse has two buttons, but in AmigaOS, pressing and holding the right button replaces the system status line at the top of the screen with a Maclike menu bar. As with Apple's Mac OS prior to Mac OS 8, menu options are selected by releasing the button over that option, not by left clicking. Menu items that have a boolean toggle state can be left clicked whilst the menu is kept open with the right button, which allows the user – for example – to set some selected text to bold, underline and italics in one visit to the menus.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 1552836, 2399348, 46728817, 511730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 132, 143 ], [ 184, 192 ], [ 210, 216 ], [ 226, 234 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The mouse plugs into one of two Atari joystick ports used for joysticks, game paddles, and graphics tablets. Although compatible with analog joysticks, Atari-style digital joysticks became standard. Unusually, two independent mice can be connected to the joystick ports; some games, such as Lemmings, were designed to take advantage of this.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 48792100, 16229, 872367, 78109, 1329163, 69179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 51 ], [ 62, 70 ], [ 73, 85 ], [ 91, 106 ], [ 134, 149 ], [ 291, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Amiga was one of the first computers for which inexpensive sound sampling and video digitization accessories were available. As a result of this and the Amiga's audio and video capabilities, the Amiga became a popular system for editing and producing both music and video.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many expansion boards were produced for Amiga computers to improve the performance and capability of the hardware, such as memory expansions, SCSI controllers, CPU boards, and graphics boards. Other upgrades include genlocks, network cards for Ethernet, modems, sound cards and samplers, video digitizers, extra serial ports, and IDE controllers. Additions after the demise of Commodore company are USB cards. The most popular upgrades were memory, SCSI controllers and CPU accelerator cards. These were sometimes combined into one device.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 28313, 163005, 9499, 20647197, 28184, 6773078, 77359, 2778, 32073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 146 ], [ 216, 223 ], [ 244, 252 ], [ 254, 259 ], [ 262, 272 ], [ 288, 304 ], [ 312, 323 ], [ 330, 333 ], [ 399, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early CPU accelerator cards used the full 32-bit CPUs of the 68000 family such as the Motorola 68020 and Motorola 68030, almost always with 32-bit memory and usually with FPUs and MMUs or the facility to add them. Later designs feature the Motorola 68040 or Motorola 68060. Both CPUs feature integrated FPUs and MMUs. Many CPU accelerator cards also had integrated SCSI controllers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 20302, 20322, 37096, 177112, 20324, 20325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 100 ], [ 105, 119 ], [ 171, 175 ], [ 180, 184 ], [ 240, 254 ], [ 258, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phase5 designed the PowerUP boards (Blizzard PPC and CyberStorm PPC) featuring both a 68k (a 68040 or 68060) and a PowerPC (603 or 604) CPU, which are able to run the two CPUs at the same time and share the system memory. The PowerPC CPU on PowerUP boards is usually used as a coprocessor for heavy computations; a powerful CPU is needed to run MAME for example, but even decoding JPEG pictures and MP3 audio was considered heavy computation at the time. It is also possible to ignore the 68k CPU and run Linux on the PPC via project Linux APUS, but a PowerPC-native AmigaOS promised by Amiga Technologies GmbH was not available when the PowerUP boards first appeared.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 28356751, 28356751, 28356751, 102786, 16009, 19673, 6097297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ], [ 36, 48 ], [ 53, 67 ], [ 345, 349 ], [ 381, 385 ], [ 399, 402 ], [ 505, 510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "24-bit graphics cards and video cards were also available. Graphics cards were designed primarily for 2D artwork production, workstation use, and later, gaming. Video cards are designed for inputting and outputting video signals, and processing and manipulating video.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the North American market, the NewTek Video Toaster was a video effects board that turned the Amiga into an affordable video processing computer that found its way into many professional video environments. One well-known use was to create the special effects in early series of Babylon 5. Due to its NTSC-only design, it did not find a market in countries that used the PAL standard, such as in Europe. In those countries, the OpalVision card was popular, although less featured and supported than the Video Toaster. Low-cost time base correctors (TBC) specifically designed to work with the Toaster quickly came to market, most of which were designed as standard Amiga bus cards.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 151588, 4800, 21689, 24438, 3459777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 54 ], [ 282, 291 ], [ 304, 308 ], [ 374, 377 ], [ 530, 550 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Various manufacturers started producing PCI busboards for the A1200, A3000 and A4000, allowing standard Amiga computers to use PCI cards such as graphics cards, Sound Blaster sound cards, 10/100 Ethernet cards, USB cards, and television tuner cards. Other manufacturers produced hybrid boards that contained an Intel x86 series chip, allowing the Amiga to emulate a PC.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 187711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "PowerPC upgrades with Wide SCSI controllers, PCI busboards with Ethernet, sound and 3D graphics cards, and tower cases allowed the A1200 and A4000 to survive well into the late nineties.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Expansion boards were made by Richmond Sound Design that allow their show control and sound design software to communicate with their custom hardware frames either by ribbon cable or fiber optic cable for long distances, allowing the Amiga to control up to eight million digitally controlled external audio, lighting, automation, relay and voltage control channels spread around a large theme park, for example. See Amiga software for more information on these applications.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 2300446, 488401, 4334877 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 81 ], [ 86, 98 ], [ 416, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other devices included the following:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amiga 501 with 512KB RAM and real-time clock", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 3095, 535191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 30, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trumpcard 500 Zorro-II SCSI interface", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 3684497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " GVP A530 Turbo, accelerator, RAM expansion, PC emulator", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 2699852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A2091 / A590 SCSI hard disk controller + 2MB RAM expansion", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A3070 SCSI tape backup unit with a capacity of , OEM Archive Viper 1/4-inch", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 69922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A2065 Ethernet Zorro-II interface – the first Ethernet interface for Amiga; uses the AMD Am7990 chip The same interface chip is used in DECstation as well.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 22576371, 507910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 96 ], [ 137, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ariadne Zorro-II Ethernet interface using the AMD Am7990", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A4066 Zorro II Ethernet interface using the SMC 91C90QF", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " X-Surf from Individual Computers using the Realtek 8019AS", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A2060 Arcnet", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 99695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A1010 floppy disk drive consisting of a 3.5-inch double density (DD), , drive unit connected via DB-23 connector; track-to-track delay is on the order of . The default capacity is . Many clone drives were available, and products such as the Catweasel and KryoFlux make it possible to read and write Amiga and other special disc formats on standard x86 PCs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 2625749, 235955, 383705, 968213, 41340805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 13 ], [ 50, 64 ], [ 99, 104 ], [ 239, 252 ], [ 257, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NE2000-compatible PCMCIA Ethernet cards for Amiga 600 and Amiga 1200", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 10038978, 61692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 19, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Commodore A2232 board provides seven RS-232C serial ports in addition to the Amiga's built-in serial port. Each port can be driven independently at speeds of 50 to . There is, however, a driver available on Aminet that allows two of the serial ports to be driven at . The serial card used the 65CE02 CPU clocked at . This CPU was also part of the CSG 4510 CPU core that was used in the Commodore 65 computer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 77359, 1834951, 4567060, 4567060, 653836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 60 ], [ 211, 217 ], [ 297, 303 ], [ 351, 359 ], [ 390, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amiga has three networking interface APIs:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " AS225: the official Commodore TCP/IP stack API with hard-coded drivers in revision 1 (AS225r1) for the A2065 Ethernet and the A2060 Arcnet interfaces. In revision 2, (AS225r2) the SANA-II interface was used.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 27697009, 22576371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 47 ], [ 104, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " SANA-II: a standardized API for hardware of network interfaces. It uses an inefficient buffer handling scheme, and lacks proper support for promiscuous and multicast modes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [ 357817, 20407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 152 ], [ 157, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Miami Network Interface (MNI): an API that doesn't have the problems that SANA-II suffers from. It requires AmigaOS v2.04 or higher.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Different network media were used:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hardware", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The original Amiga models were produced from 1985 to 1996. They are, in order of production: 1000, 2000, 500, 1500, 2500, 3000, 3000UX, 3000T, CDTV, 500+, 600, 4000, 1200, CD32, and 4000T. The PowerPC based AmigaOne computers were later marketed beginning in 2002. Several companies and private persons have also released Amiga clones and still do so today.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 3104, 79911, 3095, 79911, 79911, 79144, 224033, 682858, 245393, 3095, 64975, 273917, 18947922, 26584375, 5846908, 172601, 874123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 97 ], [ 99, 103 ], [ 105, 108 ], [ 110, 114 ], [ 116, 120 ], [ 122, 126 ], [ 128, 134 ], [ 136, 141 ], [ 143, 147 ], [ 149, 153 ], [ 155, 158 ], [ 160, 164 ], [ 166, 170 ], [ 172, 176 ], [ 182, 187 ], [ 207, 215 ], [ 328, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first Amiga model, the Amiga 1000, was launched in 1985. In 2006, PC World rated the Amiga 1000 as the seventh greatest PC of all time, stating \"Years ahead of its time, the Amiga was the world's first multimedia, multitasking personal computer\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 893389 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commodore updated the desktop line of Amiga computers with the Amiga 2000 in 1987, the Amiga 3000 in 1990, and the Amiga 4000 in 1992, each offering improved capabilities and expansion options. The best selling models were the budget models, however, particularly the highly successful Amiga 500 (1987) and the Amiga 1200 (1992). The Amiga 500+ (1991) was the shortest lived model, replacing the Amiga 500 and lasting only six months until it was phased out and replaced with the Amiga 600 (1992), which in turn was also quickly replaced by the Amiga 1200.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 79911, 79144, 273917, 3095, 18947922, 3095, 64975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 73 ], [ 87, 97 ], [ 115, 125 ], [ 286, 295 ], [ 311, 321 ], [ 334, 344 ], [ 480, 489 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The CDTV, launched in 1991, was a CD-ROM-based game console and multimedia appliance several years before CD-ROM drives were common. The system never achieved any real success.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 245393, 18959902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 34, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commodore's last Amiga offering before filing for bankruptcy was the Amiga CD32 (1993), a 32-bit CD-ROM games console. Although discontinued after Commodore's demise it met with moderate commercial success in Europe. The CD32 was a next generation CDTV, and it was designed to save Commodore by entering the growing video game console market.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 26584375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following purchase of Commodore's assets by Escom in 1995, the A1200 and A4000T continued to be sold in small quantities until 1996, though the ground lost since the initial launch and the prohibitive expense of these units meant that the Amiga line never regained any real popularity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Several Amiga models contained references to songs by the rock band The B-52's. Early A500 units had the words \"B52/ROCK LOBSTER\" silk-screen printed onto their printed circuit board, a reference to the song \"Rock Lobster\" The Amiga 600 referenced \"JUNE BUG\" (after the song \"Junebug\") and the Amiga 1200 had \"CHANNEL Z\" (after \"Channel Z\")., and the CD-32 had \"Spellbound.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 25423, 176905, 65910, 65910, 1606420, 64975, 18947922, 11122586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 62 ], [ 68, 78 ], [ 130, 149 ], [ 161, 182 ], [ 209, 221 ], [ 227, 236 ], [ 294, 304 ], [ 329, 338 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AmigaOS 4 is designed for PowerPC Amiga systems. It is mainly based on AmigaOS 3.1 source code, with some parts of version 3.9. Currently runs on both Amigas equipped with CyberstormPPC or BlizzardPPC accelerator boards, on the Teron series based AmigaOne computers built by Eyetech under license by Amiga, Inc., on the Pegasos II from Genesi/bPlan GmbH, on the ACube Systems Srl Sam440ep / Sam460ex / AmigaOne 500 systems and on the A-EON AmigaOne X1000.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 7561720, 172601, 25519289, 3193877, 424851, 8564378, 8564378, 21397748, 20167563, 26803719, 25691324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 247, 255 ], [ 275, 282 ], [ 300, 311 ], [ 320, 330 ], [ 336, 342 ], [ 343, 353 ], [ 362, 379 ], [ 380, 388 ], [ 391, 399 ], [ 440, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AmigaOS 4.0 had been available only in developer pre-releases for numerous years until it was officially released in December 2006. Due to the nature of some provisions of the contract between Amiga Inc. and Hyperion Entertainment (the Belgian company that is developing the OS), the commercial AmigaOS 4 had been available only to licensed buyers of AmigaOne motherboards.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 713072 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AmigaOS 4.0 for Amigas equipped with PowerUP accelerator boards was released in November 2007. Version 4.1 was released in August 2008 for AmigaOne systems, and in May 2011 for Amigas equipped with PowerUP accelerator boards. The most recent release of AmigaOS for all supported platforms is 4.1 update 5. Starting with release 4.1 update 4 there is an Emulation drawer containing official AmigaOS 3.x ROMs (all classic Amiga models including CD32) and relative Workbench files.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Acube Systems entered an agreement with Hyperion under which it has ported AmigaOS 4 to its Sam440ep and Sam460ex line of PowerPC-based motherboards. In 2009 a version for Pegasos II was released in co-operation with Acube Systems. In 2012, A-EON Technology Ltd manufactured and released the AmigaOne X1000 to consumers through their partner, Amiga Kit who provided end-user support, assembly and worldwide distribution of the new system.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 21397748, 20167563, 26803719, 424851, 25691324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 92, 100 ], [ 105, 113 ], [ 172, 182 ], [ 292, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Long-time Amiga developer MacroSystem entered the Amiga-clone market with their DraCo non-linear video editing system. It appears in two versions, initially a tower model and later a cube. DraCo expanded upon and combined a number of earlier expansion cards developed for Amiga (VLabMotion, Toccata, WarpEngine, RetinaIII) into a true Amiga-clone powered by the Motorola 68060 processor. The DraCo can run AmigaOS 3.1 up through AmigaOS 3.9. It is the only Amiga-based system to support FireWire for video I/O. DraCo also offers an Amiga-compatible Zorro-II expansion bus and introduced a faster custom DraCoBus, capable of transfer rates (faster than Commodore's Zorro-III). The technology was later used in the Casablanca system, a set-top-box also designed for non-linear video editing.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 38304210, 20325, 26246088, 22393474, 3266942, 3266942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 85 ], [ 362, 376 ], [ 487, 495 ], [ 506, 509 ], [ 549, 557 ], [ 665, 674 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1998, Index Information released the Access, an Amiga-clone similar to the Amiga 1200, but on a motherboard that could fit into a standard -inch drive bay. It features either a 68020 or 68030 CPU, with a AGA chipset, and runs AmigaOS 3.1.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 1467755, 20302, 20322, 101352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 157 ], [ 180, 185 ], [ 189, 194 ], [ 207, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1998, former Amiga employees (John Smith, Peter Kittel, Dave Haynie and Andy Finkel to mention few) formed a new company called PIOS. Their hardware platform, PIOS One, was aimed at Amiga, Atari and Macintosh users. The company was renamed to Met@box in 1999 until it folded.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 2276788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The NatAmi (short for Native Amiga) hardware project began in 2005 with the aim of designing and building an Amiga clone motherboard that is enhanced with modern features. The NatAmi motherboard is a standard Mini-ITX-compatible form factor computer motherboard, powered by a Motorola/Freescale 68060 and its chipset. It is compatible with the original Amiga chipset, which has been inscribed on a programmable FPGA Altera chip on the board. The NatAmi is the second Amiga clone project after the Minimig motherboard, and its history is very similar to that of the C-One mainboard developed by Jeri Ellsworth and Jens Schönfeld. From a commercial point of view, Natami's circuitry and design are currently closed source. One goal of the NatAmi project is to design an Amiga-compatible motherboard that includes up-to-date features but that does not rely on emulation (as in WinUAE), modern PC Intel components, or a modern PowerPC mainboard. As such, NatAmi is not intended to become another evolutionary heir to classic Amigas, such as with AmigaOne or Pegasos computers. This \"purist\" philosophy essentially limits the resulting processor speed but puts the focus on bandwidth and low latencies. The developers also recreated the entire Amiga chipset, freeing it from legacy Amiga limitations such as two megabytes of audio and video graphics RAM as in the AGA chipset, and rebuilt this new chipset by programming a modern FPGA Altera Cyclone IV chip. Later, the developers decided to create from scratch a new software-form processor chip, codenamed \"N68050\" that resides in the physical Altera FPGA programmable chip.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 455914, 20325, 516545, 5213609, 1273253, 1303431, 18934886, 80312, 14617, 24281, 172601, 424851, 19918, 101352, 10969, 516545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 217 ], [ 295, 300 ], [ 416, 422 ], [ 497, 504 ], [ 565, 570 ], [ 594, 608 ], [ 706, 719 ], [ 874, 880 ], [ 893, 898 ], [ 923, 930 ], [ 1042, 1050 ], [ 1054, 1061 ], [ 1307, 1315 ], [ 1359, 1370 ], [ 1425, 1429 ], [ 1430, 1436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2006, two new Amiga clones were announced, both using FPGA based hardware synthesis to replace the Amiga OCS custom chipset. The first, the Minimig, is a personal project of Dutch engineer Dennis van Weeren. Referred to as \"new Amiga hardware\", the original model was built on a Xilinx Spartan-3 development board, but soon a dedicated board was developed. The minimig uses the FPGA to reproduce the custom Denise, Agnus, Paula and Gary chips as well as both 8520 CIAs and implements a simple version of Amber. The rest of the chips are an actual 68000 CPU, ram chips, and a PIC microcontroller for BIOS control. The design for Minimig was released as open-source on July 25, 2007. In February 2008, an Italian company Acube Systems began selling Minimig boards. A third party upgrade replaces the PIC microcontroller with a more powerful ARM processor, providing more functionality such as write access and support for hard disk images. The Minimig core has been ported to the FPGArcade \"Replay\" board. The Replay uses an FPGA with about three times more capacity and that does support the AGA chipset and a 68020 soft core with 68030 capabilities. The Replay board is designed to implement many older computers and classic arcade machines.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 10969, 22784, 5213609, 816732, 26017259, 3391484, 26017259, 4473, 277663, 21397748, 20302, 36755363, 20322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 61 ], [ 108, 111 ], [ 143, 150 ], [ 282, 288 ], [ 435, 439 ], [ 467, 471 ], [ 507, 512 ], [ 602, 606 ], [ 655, 666 ], [ 722, 735 ], [ 1112, 1117 ], [ 1118, 1127 ], [ 1133, 1138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second is the Clone-A system announced by Individual Computers. As of mid 2007 it has been shown in its development form, with FPGA-based boards replacing the Amiga chipset and mounted on an Amiga 500 motherboard.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Models and variants", "target_page_ids": [ 1459479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AmigaOS is a single-user multitasking operating system. It was one of the first commercially available consumer operating systems for personal computers to implement preemptive multitasking. It was developed first by Commodore International and initially introduced in 1985 with the Amiga 1000. John C. Dvorak wrote in PC Magazine in 1996: ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operating systems", "target_page_ids": [ 22194, 2204566, 256152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 54 ], [ 166, 176 ], [ 295, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AmigaOS combines a command-line interface and graphical user interface. AmigaDOS is the disk operating system and command line portion of the OS and Workbench the native graphical windowing, graphical environment for file management and launching applications. AmigaDOS allows long filenames (up to 107 characters) with whitespace and does not require filename extensions. The windowing system and user interface engine that handles all input events is called Intuition.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operating systems", "target_page_ids": [ 28338635, 12293, 88823, 7494699, 351542, 2956700, 147957, 151967, 7495139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 41 ], [ 46, 70 ], [ 72, 80 ], [ 149, 158 ], [ 282, 290 ], [ 320, 330 ], [ 352, 370 ], [ 377, 393 ], [ 460, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The multi-tasking kernel is called Exec. It acts as a scheduler for tasks running on the system, providing pre-emptive multitasking with prioritised round-robin scheduling. It enabled true pre-emptive multitasking in as little as 256KB of free memory.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operating systems", "target_page_ids": [ 16906611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AmigaOS does not implement memory protection; the 68000 CPU does not include a memory management unit. Although this speeds and eases inter-process communication because programs can communicate by simply passing a pointer back and forth, the lack of memory protection made the AmigaOS more vulnerable to crashes from badly behaving programs than other multitasking systems that did implement memory protection, and Amiga OS is fundamentally incapable of enforcing any form of security model since any program had full access to the system. A co-operational memory protection feature was implemented in AmigaOS 4 and could be retrofitted to old AmigaOS systems using Enforcer or CyberGuard tools.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operating systems", "target_page_ids": [ 515373, 20270, 5218, 177112, 152106, 459018, 279631, 5783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ], [ 50, 55 ], [ 56, 59 ], [ 79, 101 ], [ 134, 161 ], [ 215, 222 ], [ 305, 312 ], [ 333, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The problem was somewhat exacerbated by Commodore's initial decision to release documentation relating not only to the OS's underlying software routines, but also to the hardware itself, enabling intrepid programmers who had developed their skills on the Commodore 64 to POKE the hardware directly, as was done on the older platform. While the decision to release the documentation was a popular one and allowed the creation of fast, sophisticated sound and graphics routines in games and demos, it also contributed to system instabilityas some programmers lacked the expertise to program at this level. For this reason, when the new AGA chipset was released, Commodore declined to release low-level documentation in an attempt to force developers into using the approved software routines.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operating systems", "target_page_ids": [ 7293, 252279, 101352, 7580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 267 ], [ 271, 275 ], [ 634, 637 ], [ 660, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AmigaOS directly or indirectly inspired the development of various operating systems. MorphOS and AROS clearly inherit heavily from the structure of AmigaOS as explained directly in articles regarding these two operating systems. AmigaOS also influenced BeOS, which featured a centralized system of Datatypes, similar to that present in AmigaOS. Likewise, DragonFly BSD was also inspired by AmigaOS as stated by Dragonfly developer Matthew Dillon who is a former Amiga developer. WindowLab and amiwm are among several window managers for the X Window System seek to mimic the Workbench interface. IBM licensed the Amiga GUI from Commodore in exchange for the REXX language license. This allowed OS/2 to have the WPS (Workplace Shell) GUI shell for OS/2 2.0, a 32-bit operating system.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operating systems", "target_page_ids": [ 263521, 11193614, 4801, 14436015, 294229, 14659850, 10948816, 876217, 34147, 22409, 679630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 93 ], [ 98, 102 ], [ 254, 258 ], [ 299, 308 ], [ 356, 369 ], [ 480, 489 ], [ 494, 499 ], [ 518, 532 ], [ 542, 557 ], [ 695, 699 ], [ 717, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commodore-Amiga produced Amiga Unix, informally known as Amix, based on AT&T SVR4. It supports the Amiga 2500 and Amiga 3000 and is included with the Amiga 3000UX. Among other unusual features of Amix is a hardware-accelerated windowing system that can scroll windows without copying data. Amix is not supported on the later Amiga systems based on 68040 or 68060 processors.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operating systems", "target_page_ids": [ 227399, 598445, 79911, 224033, 20324, 20325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 35 ], [ 77, 81 ], [ 99, 109 ], [ 150, 162 ], [ 348, 353 ], [ 357, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other, still maintained, operating systems are available for the classic Amiga platform, including Linux and NetBSD. Both require a CPU with MMU such as the 68020 with 68851 or full versions of the 68030, 68040 or 68060. There is also a version of Linux for Amigas with PowerPC accelerator cards. Debian and Yellow Dog Linux can run on the AmigaOne.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operating systems", "target_page_ids": [ 28901365, 177112, 20302, 9850963, 20322, 20324, 20325, 8242, 246708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 115 ], [ 141, 144 ], [ 157, 162 ], [ 168, 173 ], [ 198, 203 ], [ 205, 210 ], [ 214, 219 ], [ 297, 303 ], [ 308, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is an official, older version of OpenBSD. The last Amiga release is 3.2. MINIX 1.5.10 also runs on Amiga.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operating systems", "target_page_ids": [ 18949571, 18977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 46 ], [ 79, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Amiga Sidecar is a complete IBM PC XT compatible computer contained in an expansion card. It was released by Commodore in 1986 and promoted as a way to run business software on the Amiga 1000.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Operating systems", "target_page_ids": [ 5227931, 33731003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ], [ 32, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1980s and early 1990s the platform became particularly popular for gaming, demoscene activities and creative software uses. During this time commercial developers marketed a wide range of games and creative software, often developing titles simultaneously for the Atari ST due to the similar hardware architecture. Popular creative software included 3D rendering (ray-tracing) packages, bitmap graphics editors, desktop video software, software development packages and \"tracker\" music editors.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Amiga software", "target_page_ids": [ 172959, 2141, 10175073, 44564, 16025799, 172428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 96 ], [ 276, 284 ], [ 362, 374 ], [ 399, 422 ], [ 424, 437 ], [ 483, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Until the late 1990s the Amiga remained a popular platform for non-commercial software, often developed by enthusiasts, and much of which was freely redistributable. An on-line archive, Aminet, was created in 1991 and until the late-1990s was the largest public archive of software, art and documents for any platform.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Amiga software", "target_page_ids": [ 1834951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name Amiga was chosen by the developers from the Spanish word for a female friend, because they knew Spanish, and because it occurred before Apple and Atari alphabetically. It also conveyed the message that the Amiga computer line was \"user friendly\" as a pun or play on words.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [ 26825, 856, 2234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 60 ], [ 145, 150 ], [ 155, 160 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first official Amiga logo was a rainbow-colored double check mark. In later marketing material Commodore largely dropped the checkmark and used logos styled with various typefaces. Although it was never adopted as a trademark by Commodore, the \"Boing Ball\" has been synonymous with Amiga since its launch. It became an unofficial and enduring theme after a visually impressive animated demonstration at the 1984 Winter Consumer Electronics Show in January 1984 showing a checkered ball bouncing and rotating. Following Escom's purchase of Commodore in 1996, the Boing Ball theme was incorporated into a new logo.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [ 1267541, 18935023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 69 ], [ 220, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early Commodore advertisements attempted to cast the computer as an all-purpose business machine, though the Amiga was most commercially successful as a home computer. Throughout the 1980s and early 1990s Commodore primarily placed advertising in computer magazines and occasionally in national newspapers and on television.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Marketing", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since the demise of Commodore, various groups have marketed successors to the original Amiga line:", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Genesi sold PowerPC based hardware under the Pegasos brand running AmigaOS and MorphOS;", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 8564378, 424851, 263521 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 46, 53 ], [ 80, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eyetech sold PowerPC based hardware under the AmigaOne brand from 2002 to 2005 running AmigaOS 4;", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 25519289, 172601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 47, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amiga Kit distributes and sells PowerPC based hardware under the AmigaOne brand from 2010 to present day running AmigaOS 4;", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 172601, 7561720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 74 ], [ 114, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ACube Systems sells the AmigaOS 3 compatible Minimig system with a Freescale MC68SEC000 CPU (Motorola 68000 compatible) and AmigaOS 4 compatible Sam440 / Sam460 / AmigaOne 500 systems with PowerPC processors;", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 21397748, 5213609, 20167563, 26803719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 46, 53 ], [ 146, 152 ], [ 155, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A-EON Technology Ltd sells the AmigaOS 4 compatible AmigaOne X1000 system with P.A. Semi PWRficient PA6T-1682M processor.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 25691324, 8098288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 67 ], [ 90, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amiga Kit Amiga Store, Vesalia Computer and AMIGAstore.eu sell numerous items from aftermarket components to refurbished classic systems.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AmigaOS and MorphOS are commercial proprietary operating systems. AmigaOS 4, based on AmigaOS 3.1 source code with some parts of version 3.9, is developed by Hyperion Entertainment and runs on PowerPC based hardware. MorphOS, based on some parts of AROS source code, is developed by MorphOS Team and is continued on Apple and other PowerPC based hardware.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 713072, 856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 180 ], [ 316, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is also AROS, a free and open source operating system (re-implementation of the AmigaOS 3.1 APIs), for Amiga 68k, x86 and ARM hardware (one version runs Linux-hosted on the Raspberry Pi). In particular, AROS for Amiga 68k hardware aims to create an open source Kickstart ROM replacement for emulation purpose and/or for use on real \"classic\" hardware.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 11193614, 31692117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 18 ], [ 179, 191 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amiga Format continued until 2000, some six years after Commodore filed for bankruptcy. Amiga Active was launched in 1999 and was published until 2001.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 3579426, 5697981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 88, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several magazines are in publication today: Amiga Future, which is available in both English and German; Bitplane.it, a bimonthly magazine in Italian; and AmigaPower, a long-running French magazine. Print magazine Amiga Addict started publication in 2020.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Amiga series of computers found a place in early computer graphic design and television presentation. Below are some examples of notable uses and users:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Season 1 and part of season 2 of the television series Babylon 5 were rendered in LightWave 3D on Amigas. Other television series using Amigas for special effects included SeaQuest DSV and Max Headroom.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 4800, 417987, 20421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 65 ], [ 173, 185 ], [ 190, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition, many other celebrities and notable individuals have made use of the Amiga:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Andy Warhol was an early user of the Amiga and appeared at the launch, where he made a computer artwork of Debbie Harry. Warhol used the Amiga to create a new style of art made with computers, and was the author of a multimedia opera called You Are the One, which consists of an animated sequence featuring images of actress Marilyn Monroe assembled in a short movie with a soundtrack. The video was discovered on two old Amiga floppies in a drawer in Warhol's studio and repaired in 2006 by the Detroit Museum of New Art. The pop artist has been quoted as saying: \"The thing I like most about doing this kind of work on the Amiga is that it looks like my work in other media\".", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 864, 15803791, 36979916, 19318, 36910437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 108, 120 ], [ 242, 257 ], [ 326, 340 ], [ 505, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Artist Jean \"Moebius\" Giraud credits the Amiga he bought for his son as a bridge to learning about \"using paint box programs\". He uploaded some of his early experiments to the file sharing forums on CompuServe.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 164087, 77664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 29 ], [ 200, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The \"Weird Al\" Yankovic film UHF contains a computer animated music video parody of the Dire Straits song \"Money for Nothing\", titled \"Money for Nothing/Beverly Hillbillies*\". According to the DVD commentary track, this spoof was created on an Amiga home computer.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 18938265, 390867, 172898, 1614455, 4109077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 24 ], [ 30, 33 ], [ 89, 101 ], [ 108, 125 ], [ 136, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rolf Harris used an Amiga to digitize his hand-drawn art work for animation on his television series Rolf's Cartoon Club.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 157461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Todd Rundgren's video \"Change Myself\" was produced with Toaster and Lightwave.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 36791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scottish pop artist Calvin Harris composed his 2007 debut album I Created Disco with an Amiga 1200.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 9424472, 11073630, 18947922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 34 ], [ 65, 80 ], [ 89, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Susumu Hirasawa, a Japanese progressive-electronic artist, is known for using Amigas to compose and perform music, aid his live shows and make his promotional videos. He has also been inspired by the Amiga, and has referenced it in his lyrics. His December 13, 1994 \"Adios Jay\" Interactive Live Show was dedicated to (then recently deceased) Jay Miner. He also used the Amiga to create the virtual drummer TAINACO, who was a CG rendered figure whose performance was made with Elan Performer and was projected with DCTV. He also composed and performed \"Eastern-boot\", the AmigaOS 4 boot jingle.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1339195, 15573, 51503, 9510, 1212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 20, 25 ], [ 29, 40 ], [ 41, 51 ], [ 52, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Electronic musician Max Tundra created his three albums with an Amiga 500.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2533790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bob Casale, keyboardist and guitarist of the new wave band Devo, used Amiga computer graphics on the album cover to Devo's album Total Devo.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1765795, 21151, 9130, 2077306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ], [ 46, 54 ], [ 60, 64 ], [ 130, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Most of Pokémon Gold and Silver's music was created on an Amiga computer, converted to MIDI, and then reconverted to the game's music format.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 490832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amigas were used in various NASA laboratories to keep track of low orbiting satellites until 2004. Amigas were used at Kennedy Space Center to run strip-chart recorders, to format and display data, and control stations of platforms for Delta rocket launches.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 18426568, 423056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 33 ], [ 237, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Palomar Observatory used Amigas to calibrate and control the charge-coupled devices in their telescopes, as well as to display and store the digitized images they collected.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 392143, 6804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ], [ 62, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " London Transport Museum developed their own interactive multi-media software for the CD32 including a virtual tour of the museum.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1179432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amiga 500 motherboards were used, in conjunction with a LaserDisc player and genlock device, in arcade games manufactured by American Laser Games.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 255849, 163005, 1329315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 66 ], [ 78, 85 ], [ 126, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A custom Amiga 4000T motherboard was used in the HDI 1000 medical ultrasound system built by Advanced Technology Labs.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5846908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", the Grand Rapids Public School district uses a Commodore Amiga 2000 with 1200 baud modem to automate its air conditioning and heating systems for the 19 schools covered by the GRPS district. The system has been operating day and night for decades.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Weather Network used Amigas to display the weather on TV.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Uses", "target_page_ids": [ 1179449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amiga Forever", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21849518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of Amiga games", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 252758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amiga emulation", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4328944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "SAGE Computer Technology", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3156125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Official AmigaOS website", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " History of the Amiga at Ars Technica", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 1765941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amiga, Inc. Website (Archive.org, October 2017)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amiga Software Database", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amiga Hardware Database", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Big Book of Amiga Hardware", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " RUN Magazine Issue 21, September 1985 article on the introduction of the Amiga", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Amiga.org: community forums and support", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " English Amiga Board: Amiga community forums and support", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Hall of Light: the database of Amiga games", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Amiga Museum", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Amiga", "68000-based_home_computers", "American_inventions", "Computer-related_introductions_in_1985", "Desktop_computers", "Home_computers" ]

[ "Amiga" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Absorption may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption (chemistry), diffusion of particles of gas or liquid into liquid or solid materials", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Chemistry and biology", "target_page_ids": [ 1383986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption (skin), a route by which substances enter the body through the skin", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Chemistry and biology", "target_page_ids": [ 8127859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption (pharmacology), absorption of drugs into the body", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Chemistry and biology", "target_page_ids": [ 6194872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption (biology), digestion", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Chemistry and biology", "target_page_ids": [ 165423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption (small intestine)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Chemistry and biology", "target_page_ids": [ 99610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CO2 scrubber, the absorbent (of carbon dioxide) in a rebreather", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Chemistry and biology", "target_page_ids": [ 12637359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption (electromagnetic radiation), absorption of light or other electromagnetic radiation by a material", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Physics and chemical engineering", "target_page_ids": [ 1384005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption (acoustics), absorption of sound waves by a material", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Physics and chemical engineering", "target_page_ids": [ 2951506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption refrigerator, a refrigerator that runs on surplus heat rather than electricity", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Physics and chemical engineering", "target_page_ids": [ 3485532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption air conditioning, a type of solar air conditioning", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Physics and chemical engineering", "target_page_ids": [ 5837003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dielectric absorption, the inability of a charged capacitor to completely discharge when briefly discharged", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Physics and chemical engineering", "target_page_ids": [ 34469840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption (logic), one of the rules of inference", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mathematics and economics", "target_page_ids": [ 34620850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorbing element, in mathematics, an element that does not change when it is combined in a binary operation with some other element", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mathematics and economics", "target_page_ids": [ 14206224 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption law, in mathematics, an identity linking a pair of binary operations", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mathematics and economics", "target_page_ids": [ 286172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption (economics), the total demand of an economy for goods and services both from within and without", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mathematics and economics", "target_page_ids": [ 15262498 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption costing, or total absorption costing, a method for appraising or valuing a firm's total inventory by including all the manufacturing costs incurred to produce those goods", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mathematics and economics", "target_page_ids": [ 11240188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Adsorption, the formation of a gas or liquid film on a solid surface", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 207601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Digestion, the uptake of substances by the gastrointestinal tract", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 165423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Absorption (psychology), a state of becoming absorbed by mental imagery or fantasy", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35836437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flow (psychology), a state of total mental \"absorption\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 564387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The actinophryids are an order of heliozoa, a polyphyletic array of stramenopiles, having a close relationship with pedinellids and Ciliophrys. They are common in fresh water and occasionally found in marine and soil habitats. Actinophryids are unicellular and roughly spherical in shape, with many axopodia that radiate outward from the cell body. Axopodia are a type of pseudopodia that are supported by hundreds of microtubules arranged in interlocking spirals and forming a needle-like internal structure or axoneme. Small granules, extrusomes, that lie under the membrane of the body and axopodia capture flagellates, ciliates and small metazoa that make contact with the arms.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 235338, 26832, 52859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 42 ], [ 68, 81 ], [ 372, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Actinophryids are largely aquatic protozoa with a spherical cell body and many needle-like axopodia. They resemble the shape of a sun due to this structure, which is the inspiration for their common name: heliozoa, or \"sun-animalcules\". Their bodies, without arms, range in size from a few tens of micrometers to slightly under a millimeter across.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 235338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The outer region of cell body is often vacuolated. The endoplasm of actinophryids is less vacuolated than the outer layer, and a sharp boundary layer may be seen by light microscopy. The organisms can be either mononucleate, with a single, well defined nucleus in the center of the cell body, or multinucleate, with 10 or more nuclei located under the outer vacuolated layer of cytoplasm. The cytoplasm of actinophryids is often granular, similar to that of Amoeba.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 13141637, 43815710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 296, 309 ], [ 458, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Actinoprhyid cells may fuse when feeding, creating larger aggregated organisms. Fine granules that occur just under the cell membrane are used up when food vacuoles form to enclose prey. Actinophryids may also form cysts when food is not readily available. A layer of siliceous plates is deposited under the cell membrane during the encystment process.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Contractile vacuoles are common in these organisms, which are presumed to use them to maintain body volume by expelling fluids to compensate for the entry of water by osmosis. Contractile vacuoles are visible as clear bulges from the surface of the cell body that slowly fill then rapidly deflate, expelling their contents into the environment.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The most distinctive characteristic of the actinophryids is their axopodia. These axopodia consist of a central, rigid rod which is coated in a thin layer of ectoplasm. In Actinophrys the axonemes end on the surface of the central nucleus, and in the multicellular Actinosphaerium they end at or near nuclei. The axonemes are composed microtubules arranged in a double spiral pattern characteristic of the order. Due to their long, parallel construction these microtubules demonstrate strong birefringence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These axopodia are used for prey capture, in movement, cell fusion and perhaps division. They are stiff but may flex especially near their tips, and are highly dynamic, undergoing frequent construction and destruction. When used to collect prey items, two methods of capture have been noted, termed axopodial flow and rapid axopodial contraction. Axopodial flow involves the slow movement of a prey item along the surface of the axopod as the ectoplasm itself moves, while rapid axopodial contraction involves the collapse of the axoneme's microtubule structure. This behavior has been documented in many species, including Actinosphaerium nucleofilum, Actinophrys sol, and Raphidiophrys contractilis. The rapid axopodial contraction occurs at high speed, often in excess of 5mm/s or tens of body lengths per second.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The axopodial contractions have been shown to be highly sensitive to environmental factors such as temperature and pressure as well as chemical signals like Ca2+ and colchicine.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Reproduction in actinophryids generally takes place via fission, where one parent cell divides into two or more daughter cells. For multinucleate heliozoa, this process is plasmotomic as the nuclei are not duplicated prior to division. It has been observed that reproduction appears to be a response to food scarcity, with an increased number of divisions following the removal of food and larger organisms during times of food excess.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 30064130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Actinophryids also undergo autogamy during times of food scarcity. This is better described as genetic reorganization than reproduction, as the number of individuals produced is the same as the initial number. Nonetheless, it serves as a way to increase genetic diversity within an individual which may improve the likelihood of expressing favorable genetic traits.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 52507691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Plastogamy has also been extensively documented in actinophryids, especially in multinucleate ones. Actinosphaerium were observed to combine freely without the combination of nuclei, and this process sometimes resulted in more or less individuals than originally combined. This process is not caused merely by contact between two individuals but can be caused by damage to the cell body.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Under unfavourable conditions, some species will form a cyst. This is often the product of autogamy, in which case the cysts produced are zygotes. Cells undergoing this process withdraw their axopodia, adhere to the substrate, and take on an opaque and grayish appearance. This cyst then divides until only uninucleate cells remain. The cyst wall is thickly layered 7–8 times and includes gelatinous layers, layers of silica plates, and iron.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 188222, 34441, 57635419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 60 ], [ 138, 144 ], [ 307, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Originally placed in Heliozoa (Sarcodina), the actinophryids are now understood to be part of the stramenopiles. They are unrelated to centrohelid and desmothoracid heliozoa with which they had been previously classified.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 235338, 43815710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 31, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several genera included within this classification. Actinophrys are smaller and have a single, central nucleus. Most have a cell body 40–50 micrometer in diameter with axopods around 100 μm in length, though this varies significantly. Actinosphaerium are several times larger, from 200 to 1000 μm in diameter, with many nuclei and are found exclusively in fresh water. A third genus, Camptonema, has a debated status. It has been observed once and was treated as a junior subjective synonym of Actinosphaerium by Mikrjukov & Patterson in 2001, but as a valid genus by Cavalier-Smith & Scoble (2013). Heliorapha is a further debated taxon, it being a new generic vehicle for the species azurina that was initially assigned to the genus Ciliophrys.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Taxonomy", "target_page_ids": [ 20627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Order Actinophryida [Actinophrydia ; Actinophrydea ]", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Family Actinophryidae ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Genus Actinosphaerium [Echinosphaerium ] ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Species Actinosphaerium eichhornii (Ehrenberg, 1840) Stein, 1857", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Species Actinosphaerium nucleofilum Barrett, 1958", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Species Actinosphaerium akamae (Shigenaka, Watanabe etSuzaki, 1980) Mikrjukov & Patterson, 2001", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Genus Actinophrys [Trichoda ; Peritricha ]", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Species Actinophrys sol (Müller, 1773) Ehrenberg, 1840", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Species Actinophrys pontica Valkanov, 1940 ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Species Actinophrys salsuginosa Patterson, 2001", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Species Actinophrys tauryanini (Mikrjukov, 1996) Mikrjukov & Patterson, 2001", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Classification", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Amoeboids", "Actinochrysophyceae" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Abel Janszoon Tasman (; 160310 October 1659) was a Dutch seafarer, explorer, and merchant, best known for his voyages of 1642 and 1644 in the service of the Dutch East India Company (VOC). He was the first known European explorer to reach New Zealand and the islands of Fiji and Van Diemen's Land (now Tasmania).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 29574, 219878, 20810, 42737, 4913064, 10707, 32581, 29944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 65 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 81, 89 ], [ 157, 181 ], [ 239, 250 ], [ 270, 274 ], [ 279, 296 ], [ 302, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abel Tasman was born around 1603 in Lutjegast, a small village in the province of Groningen, in the north of the Netherlands. The oldest available source mentioning him is dated 27 December 1631 when, as a seafarer living in Amsterdam, the 28-year-old became engaged to marry 21-year-old Jannetje Tjaers, of Palmstraat in the Jordaan district of the city.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins and early life", "target_page_ids": [ 354062, 50117, 2266832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 45 ], [ 70, 91 ], [ 326, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Employed by the Dutch East India Company (VOC), Tasman sailed from Texel (Netherland) to Batavia, now Jakarta, in 1633 taking the southern Brouwer Route. During this period, Tasman took part in a voyage to Seram Island; the locals had sold spices to other European nationalities than the Dutch. He had a narrow escape from death, when in an incautious landing several of his companions were killed by people of Seram.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relocation to the Dutch East Indies", "target_page_ids": [ 42737, 120180, 354064, 5918060, 512111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 40 ], [ 67, 72 ], [ 89, 96 ], [ 139, 152 ], [ 206, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 1637, Tasman was back in Amsterdam, and the following year he signed on for another ten years and took his wife with him to Batavia. On 25 March 1638 he tried to sell his property in the Jordaan, but the purchase was cancelled.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relocation to the Dutch East Indies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He was second-in-command of a 1639 exploration expedition in the north Pacific under Matthijs Quast. The fleet included the ships Engel and Gracht and reached Fort Zeelandia (Dutch Formosa) and Deshima.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Relocation to the Dutch East Indies", "target_page_ids": [ 789926, 680757, 1492352, 8185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 99 ], [ 159, 173 ], [ 175, 188 ], [ 194, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In August 1642, the Council of the Indies, consisting of Antonie van Diemen, Cornelis van der Lijn, Joan Maetsuycker, Justus Schouten, Salomon Sweers, Cornelis Witsen, and Pieter Boreel in Batavia dispatched Tasman and Franchoijs Jacobszoon Visscher on a voyage of exploration to little-charted areas east of the Cape of Good Hope, west of Staten Land (near the Cape Horn of South America) and south of the Solomon Islands.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 69632818, 318168, 20583614, 1713715, 29277965, 44252, 170569, 4460850, 265083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 41 ], [ 57, 75 ], [ 77, 98 ], [ 100, 116 ], [ 135, 149 ], [ 313, 330 ], [ 340, 351 ], [ 362, 371 ], [ 407, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the objectives was to obtain knowledge of \"all the totally unknown\" Provinces of Beach. This was a purported yet non-existent landmass said to have plentiful gold, which had appeared on European maps since the 15th century, as a result of an error in some editions of Marco Polo's works.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 46760, 24313, 19334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 93 ], [ 120, 141 ], [ 275, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The expedition was to use two small ships, Heemskerck and Zeehaen.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In accordance with Visscher's directions, Tasman sailed from Batavia on 14 August 1642 and arrived at Mauritius on 5 September 1642, according to the captain's journal. The reason for this was the crew could be fed well on the island; there was plenty of fresh water and timber to repair the ships. Tasman got the assistance of the governor Adriaan van der Stel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 19201, 5546472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 111 ], [ 341, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the prevailing winds, Mauritius was chosen as a turning point. After a four-week stay on the island, both ships left on 8 October using the Roaring Forties to sail east as fast as possible. (No one had gone as far as Pieter Nuyts in 1626/27.) On 7 November, snow and hail influenced the ship's council to alter course to a more north-easterly direction, expecting to arrive one day at the Solomon Islands.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 378374, 2665125, 265083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 166 ], [ 228, 240 ], [ 400, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 24 November 1642, Tasman reached and sighted the west coast of Tasmania, north of Macquarie Harbour. He named his discovery Van Diemen's Land, after Antonio van Diemen, Governor-General of the Dutch East Indies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 29944, 594137, 318168, 35281245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 74 ], [ 85, 102 ], [ 152, 170 ], [ 172, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Proceeding south, Tasman skirted the southern end of Tasmania and turned north-east. He then tried to work his two ships into Adventure Bay on the east coast of South Bruny Island, where he was blown out to sea by a storm. This area he named Storm Bay. Two days later, on 1 December, Tasman anchored to the north of Cape Frederick Hendrick just north of the Forestier Peninsula. On 2 December, two ship's boats under the command of the Pilot, Major Visscher, rowed through the Marion Narrows into Blackman Bay, and across the west to the outflow of Boomer Creek where they gathered some edible \"greens\". Tasman named Frederick Hendrik Bay, which included the present North Bay, Marion Bay and the inlet Blackman Bay (the name Frederick Henry Bay was mistakenly transferred to its present location by Marion Dufresne in 1772). The next day, an attempt was made to land in North Bay. However, because the sea was too rough, the carpenter swam through the surf and planted the Dutch flag. Tasman then claimed formal possession of the land, on 3 December 1642.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 8881719, 603616, 1568435, 1930547, 844088, 650126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 139 ], [ 161, 179 ], [ 242, 251 ], [ 358, 377 ], [ 678, 688 ], [ 800, 815 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For two more days, he continued to follow the east coast northward to see how far it went. When the land veered to the north-west at Eddystone Point, he tried to keep in with it but his ships were suddenly hit by the Roaring Forties howling through Bass Strait. Tasman was on a mission to find the Southern Continent, not more islands, so he abruptly turned away to the east and continued his continent-hunting.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 46523369, 378374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 148 ], [ 217, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After some exploration, Tasman had intended to proceed in a northerly direction but as the wind was unfavourable he steered east. The expedition endured an extremely rough voyage and in one of his diary entries Tasman credited his compass, claiming it was the only thing that had kept him alive.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 13 December 1642 they sighted land on the north-west coast of the South Island, New Zealand, becoming the first Europeans to sight New Zealand. Tasman named it Staten Landt \"in honour of the States General\" (Dutch parliament). He wrote, \"it is possible that this land joins to the Staten Landt but it is uncertain\", referring to Isla de los Estados, a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America, encountered by the Dutch navigator Jacob Le Maire in 1616. However, in 1643 Brouwer's expedition to Valdivia found out that Staaten Landt was separated by sea from the hypothetical Southern Land. Tasman continued: \"We believe that this is the mainland coast of the unknown Southland.\" Tasman thought he had found the western side of the long-imagined Terra Australis that stretched across the Pacific to near the southern tip of South America.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 62049, 208206, 170569, 170465, 378395, 44191902, 46760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 81 ], [ 194, 208 ], [ 332, 351 ], [ 454, 468 ], [ 495, 504 ], [ 505, 527 ], [ 770, 785 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After sailing north, then east for five days, the expedition anchored about from the coast off what is now believed to have been Golden Bay. Tasman sent ship's boats to gather water, but one of his boats was attacked by a war party sent by Ngāti Tūmatakōkiri (a Māori iwi (tribe) who settled in the northwest of the island) in a double-hulled waka (canoe) and four of his men were killed with mere (clubs). As Tasman sailed out of the bay he observed 22 waka near the shore, of which \"eleven swarming with people came off towards us.\" The waka approached the Zeehaen which fired and hit a man in the largest waka holding a small white flag. Canister shot also hit the side of a waka. Archaeological research has shown the Dutch had tried to land at a major agricultural area, which the Māori may have been trying to protect. Tasman named the area \"Murderers' Bay\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 34463994, 11130358, 68753400, 23202689, 219984, 577094, 1480004, 1708129, 1191481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 140 ], [ 223, 232 ], [ 241, 259 ], [ 263, 268 ], [ 269, 272 ], [ 300, 309 ], [ 344, 348 ], [ 394, 398 ], [ 642, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The expedition then sailed north, sighting Cook Strait, which it mistook for a bight and named \"Zeehaen's Bight\". Two names that the expedition gave to landmarks in the far north of New Zealand still endure: Cape Maria van Diemen and Three Kings Islands. (Kaap Pieter Boreels was renamed Cape Egmont by Captain James Cook 125 years later.)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 72164, 1763934, 1241449, 375968, 1192173, 15630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ], [ 79, 84 ], [ 208, 229 ], [ 234, 253 ], [ 288, 299 ], [ 311, 321 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "En route back to Batavia, Tasman came across the Tongan archipelago on 20 January 1643. While passing the Fiji Islands Tasman's ships came close to being wrecked on the dangerous reefs of the north-eastern part of the Fiji group. He charted the eastern tip of Vanua Levu and Cikobia-i-Lau before making his way back into the open sea.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 30158, 10707, 712634, 67398045 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 54 ], [ 106, 118 ], [ 260, 270 ], [ 275, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The expedition turned north-west towards New Guinea and arrived at Batavia on 15 June 1643.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "First major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 20611456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tasman left Batavia on 30 January 1644 on his second voyage with three ships (Limmen, Zeemeeuw and the tender Braek). He followed the south coast of New Guinea eastwards in an attempt to find a passage to the eastern side of New Holland. However, he missed the Torres Strait between New Guinea and Australia, probably due to the numerous reefs and islands obscuring potential routes, and continued his voyage by following the shore of the Gulf of Carpentaria westwards along the north Australian coast. He mapped the north coast of Australia, making observations on New Holland and its people. He arrived back in Batavia in August 1644.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Second major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 354064, 1937465, 317505, 608685, 1937465, 354064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 19 ], [ 225, 236 ], [ 261, 274 ], [ 439, 458 ], [ 566, 577 ], [ 613, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the point of view of the Dutch East India Company, Tasman's explorations were a disappointment: he had neither found a promising area for trade nor a useful new shipping route. Although received modestly, the company was upset to a degree that Tasman did not fully explore the lands he found, and decided that a more \"persistent explorer\" should be chosen for any future expeditions. For over a century, until the era of James Cook, Tasmania and New Zealand were not visited by Europeans – mainland Australia was visited, but usually only by accident.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Second major voyage", "target_page_ids": [ 42737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 2 November 1644, Abel Tasman was appointed a member of the Council of Justice at Batavia. He went to Sumatra in 1646, and in August 1647 to Siam (now Thailand) with letters from the company to the King. In May 1648, he was in charge of an expedition sent to Manila to try to intercept and loot the Spanish silver ships coming from America, but he had no success and returned to Batavia in January 1649. In November 1649, he was charged and found guilty of having in the previous year hanged one of his men without trial, was suspended from his office of commander, fined, and made to pay compensation to the relatives of the sailor. On 5 January 1651, he was formally reinstated in his rank and spent his remaining years at Batavia. He was in good circumstances, being one of the larger landowners in the town. He died at Batavia on 10 October 1659 and was survived by his second wife and a daughter by his first wife. His property was divided between his wife and his daughter by his first marriage. In his will (dating from 1657), he left 25 guilders to the poor of his village Lutjegast.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 30128, 184334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 161 ], [ 261, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Tasman's pilot, Frans Visscher, published Memoir concerning the discovery of the South land in 1642, Tasman's detailed journal was not published until 1898; however, some of his charts and maps were in general circulation and used by subsequent explorers. The journal signed by Abel Tasman of the 1642 voyage is held at the Dutch National Archives at The Hague.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Later life", "target_page_ids": [ 67250053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tasman's ten-month voyage in 1642–43 had significant consequences. By circumnavigating Australia (albeit at a distance) Tasman proved that the small fifth continent was not joined to any larger sixth continent, such as the long-imagined Southern Continent. Further, Tasman's suggestion that New Zealand was the western side of that Southern Continent was seized upon by many European cartographers who, for the next century, depicted New Zealand as the west coast of a Terra Australis rising gradually from the waters around Tierra del Fuego. This theory was eventually disproved when Captain Cook circumnavigated New Zealand in 1769.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 30482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 525, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Multiple places have been named after Tasman, including:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the Australian island and state of Tasmania, renamed after him, formerly Van Diemen's land. It includes features such as:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 29944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the Tasman Peninsula.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 390093 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the Tasman Bridge.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 390123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the Tasman Highway.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 796032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the Tasman Sea.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 66979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "in New Zealand:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "the Tasman Glacier.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1117304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tasman Lake.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 12616054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the Tasman River.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1148047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mount Tasman.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1106903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the Abel Tasman National Park.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 658241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tasman Bay / Te Tai-o-Aorere.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1131217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "the Tasman District.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 577094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abel Tasman Monument.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 69532133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also named after Tasman are:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Tasman Pulp and Paper company, A large pulp and paper producer in Kawerau, New Zealand.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 885302, 4913064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 73 ], [ 75, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Abel Tasman Drive, in Tākaka.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1128438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The former passenger/vehicle ferry Abel Tasman.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 809814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Able Tasmans – an indie band from Auckland, New Zealand.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 2410011, 1732421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 22, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tasman, a layout engine for Internet Explorer.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 981650, 46001, 15215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 10, 23 ], [ 28, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 6594 Tasman (1987 MM1), a main-belt asteroid.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 719923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tasman Drive in San Jose, California, and its Tasman light rail station.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 53446, 4325871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 37 ], [ 47, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tasman Road in Claremont, Cape Town, South Africa.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 6346242, 6653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 25 ], [ 27, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HMNZS Tasman, shore based training establishment of the Royal New Zealand Navy.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 459285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " HMAS Tasman is a Hunter-class frigate that is expected to enter service with the Royal Australian Navy in the late 2020s.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 54233794, 54233794, 26327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 18, 38 ], [ 82, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His portrait has been on four New Zealand postage stamp issues, on a 1992 5 NZD coin, and on 1963, 1966 and 1985 Australian postage stamps.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 161585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Netherlands, many streets are named after him. In Lutjegast, the village he was born, there is a museum dedicated to his life and travels.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Held within the collection of the State Library of New South Wales is the Tasman map, thought to have been drawn by Isaac Gilsemans, or completed under the supervision of Franz Jacobszoon Visscher. The map is also known as the Bonaparte map, as it was once owned by Prince Roland Bonaparte, the great-nephew of Napoleon. The map was completed sometime after 1644 and is based on the original charts drawn during Tasman's first and second voyages. As none of the journals or logs composed during Tasman's second voyage have survived, the Bonaparte map remains as an important contemporary artefact of Tasman's voyage to the northern coast of the Australian continent.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Tasman map", "target_page_ids": [ 1470520, 11575240, 69880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 66 ], [ 266, 289 ], [ 311, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Tasman map largely reveals the extent of understanding the Dutch had of the Australian continent at the time. The map includes the western and southern coasts of Australia, accidentally encountered by Dutch voyagers as they journeyed by way of the Cape of Good Hope to the VOC headquarters in Batavia. In addition, the map shows the tracks of Tasman's two voyages. Of his second voyage, the map shows the area of the Banda Islands, the southern coast of New Guinea and much of the northern coast of Australia. However, the area of the Torres Strait is shown unexamined; this is despite having been given orders by VOC Council at Batavia to explore the possibility of a channel between New Guinea and the Australian continent.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Tasman map", "target_page_ids": [ 42737, 354064, 5020, 20611456 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 277, 280 ], [ 297, 304 ], [ 421, 434 ], [ 458, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is debate as to the origin of the map. It is widely believed that the map was produced in Batavia; however, it has also been argued that the map was produced in Amsterdam. The authorship of the map has also been debated: while the map is commonly attributed to Tasman, it is now thought to have been the result of a collaboration, probably involving Franchoijs Visscher and Isaack Gilsemans, who took part in both of Tasman's voyages. Whether the map was produced in 1644 is also subject to debate, as a VOC company report in December 1644 suggests that at that time no maps showing Tasman's voyages were yet complete.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Tasman map", "target_page_ids": [ 36374876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 380, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1943, a mosaic version of the map, composed of coloured marble and brass, was inlaid into the vestibule floor of the Mitchell Library in Sydney. The work was commissioned by the PrincipalLibrarian William Ifould, and completed by the Melocco Brothers of Annandale, who also worked on ANZAC War Memorial in Hyde Park and the crypt at St Mary's Cathedral, Sydney.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Tasman map", "target_page_ids": [ 1470520, 43014675, 946423, 1431830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 136 ], [ 200, 214 ], [ 287, 305 ], [ 336, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dieppe maps", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2262519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Willem Janszoon", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 601774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Janszoon voyage of 1605–06", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8952150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Theory of Portuguese discovery of Australia", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2331488 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edward Duyker (ed.) The Discovery of Tasmania: Journal Extracts from the Expeditions of Abel Janszoon Tasman and Marc-Joseph Marion Dufresne 1642 & 1772, St David's Park Publishing/Tasmanian Government Printing Office, Hobart, 1992, pp.106, .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 18726540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] } ]

[ "17th-century_Dutch_explorers", "1603_births", "1659_deaths", "Dutch_explorers_of_the_Pacific", "European_exploration_of_Australia", "Explorers_of_Australia", "Explorers_of_New_Zealand", "Explorers_of_Tasmania", "Maritime_exploration_of_Australia", "Maritime_history_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company", "People_from_Grootegast", "Sailors_on_ships_of_the_Dutch_East_India_Company", "Tasman_Sea", "Early_modern_Netherlandish_cartography" ]

[ "Abel Janszoon Tasman" ]

[ { "plaintext": "AD 25 Guangwu claims the throne as Emperor of China, restoring the Han dynasty after the collapse of the short-lived Xin dynasty.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34862, 343279, 58669, 43460, 285552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 7, 14 ], [ 36, 52 ], [ 68, 79 ], [ 118, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "70 Fires resulting from the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem are extinguished. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34932, 69308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 2 ], [ 48, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "135 Roman armies enter Betar, slaughtering thousands and ending the Bar Kokhba revolt.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35434, 2374860, 871012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 3 ], [ 24, 29 ], [ 69, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 642 Battle of Maserfield: Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Northumbria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36306, 240565, 145326, 28672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 28, 43 ], [ 62, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 910 The last major Danish army to raid England for nearly a century is defeated at the Battle of Tettenhall by the allied forces of Mercia and Wessex, led by King Edward the Elder and Æthelred, Lord of the Mercians.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 50985, 407950, 2321225, 38769, 33658, 10209822, 422323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 41, 48 ], [ 89, 109 ], [ 134, 140 ], [ 145, 151 ], [ 165, 181 ], [ 186, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 939 The Battle of Alhandic is fought between Ramiro II of León and Abd-ar-Rahman III at Zamora in the context of the Spanish Reconquista. The battle resulted in a victory for the Emirate of Córdoba.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36206, 35847691, 2197466, 2678, 262306, 26550, 3603275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 10, 28 ], [ 47, 64 ], [ 69, 86 ], [ 90, 96 ], [ 119, 138 ], [ 181, 199 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1068 Byzantine–Norman wars: Italo-Normans begin a nearly-three-year siege of Bari.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36692, 13846188, 6278574, 12331172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 29, 41 ], [ 51, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1100 Henry I is crowned King of England in Westminster Abbey.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36300, 14179, 160904, 43245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ], [ 25, 40 ], [ 44, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1278 Spanish Reconquista: the forces of the Kingdom of Castile initiate the ultimately futile Siege of Algeciras against the Emirate of Granada.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 42505, 26550, 750274, 35958441, 19253132 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ], [ 45, 63 ], [ 95, 113 ], [ 126, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1305 First Scottish War of Independence: Sir John Stewart of Menteith, the pro-English Sheriff of Dumbarton, successfully manages to capture Sir William Wallace of Scotland, leading to Wallace's subsequent execution by hanging, evisceration, drawing and quartering, and beheading 18 days later.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 39952, 1659292, 30863448, 33832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 40 ], [ 42, 70 ], [ 142, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1388 The Battle of Otterburn, a border skirmish between the Scottish and the English in Northern England, is fought near Otterburn.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36124, 1968960, 2248419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 29 ], [ 122, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1506 The Grand Duchy of Lithuania defeats the Crimean Khanate in the Battle of Kletsk.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35499, 380252, 966167, 14537839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 34 ], [ 47, 62 ], [ 70, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert establishes the first English colony in North America, at what is now St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38595, 239157, 6916, 70581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 26 ], [ 57, 63 ], [ 97, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1600 The Gowrie Conspiracy against King James VI of Scotland (later to become King James I of England) takes place.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35017, 1313416, 269055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 27 ], [ 36, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1620 The Mayflower departs from Southampton, England, carrying would-be settlers, on its first attempt to reach North America; it is forced to dock in Dartmouth when its companion ship, the Speedwell, springs a leak.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35109, 18622102, 7920751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 19 ], [ 33, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1689 Beaver Wars: Fifteen hundred Iroquois attack Lachine in New France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 36185, 384160, 19195965, 14372370, 2389734, 159828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 35, 43 ], [ 44, 50 ], [ 51, 58 ], [ 62, 72 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1716 Austro-Turkish War (1716–1718): One-fifth of a Turkish army and the Grand Vizier are killed in the Battle of Petrovaradin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35059, 1920551, 364771, 2865157 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 36 ], [ 74, 86 ], [ 105, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1735 Freedom of the press: New York Weekly Journal writer John Peter Zenger is acquitted of seditious libel against the royal governor of New York, on the basis that what he had published was true.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34727, 105323, 356087, 2215399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 59, 76 ], [ 93, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1772 First Partition of Poland: The representatives of Austria, Prussia, and Russia sign three bilateral conventions condemning the ‘anarchy’ of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth and imputing to the three powers ‘ancient and legitimate rights’ to the territories of the Commonwealth. The conventions allow each of the three great powers to annex a part of the Commonwealth, which they proceed to do over the course of the following two months.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35818, 14666070, 1041515, 371248, 20611504, 343234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ], [ 56, 63 ], [ 65, 72 ], [ 78, 84 ], [ 150, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1763 Pontiac's War: Battle of Bushy Run: British forces led by Henry Bouquet defeat Chief Pontiac's Indians at Bushy Run.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35822, 437415, 2842873, 1115821, 183917, 21217, 2842873 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 21, 40 ], [ 64, 77 ], [ 85, 98 ], [ 101, 108 ], [ 112, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1781 The Battle of Dogger Bank takes place.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35490, 2921407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1796 The Battle of Castiglione in Napoleon's first Italian campaigns of the French Revolutionary Wars.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34764, 4718243, 69880, 2098888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 31 ], [ 35, 43 ], [ 52, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1816 The British Admiralty dismisses Francis Ronalds's new invention of the first working electric telegraph as \"wholly unnecessary\", preferring to continue using the semaphore.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35531, 10770735, 9450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 38, 53 ], [ 91, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1824 Greek War of Independence: Konstantinos Kanaris leads a Greek fleet to victory against Ottoman and Egyptian naval forces in the Battle of Samos.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 35521, 200987, 6823, 21006887 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ], [ 33, 53 ], [ 134, 149 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1858 Cyrus West Field and others complete the first transatlantic telegraph cable after several unsuccessful attempts. It will operate for less than a month.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34937, 204189, 221374 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 53, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1860 Charles XV of Sweden of Sweden-Norway is crowned king of Norway in Trondheim.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34784, 39946, 37472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 73, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1861 American Civil War: In order to help pay for the war effort, the United States government levies the first income tax as part of the Revenue Act of 1861 (3% of all incomes over US$800; rescinded in 1872).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34680, 863, 195149, 50845, 880135, 34768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 71, 95 ], [ 113, 123 ], [ 139, 158 ], [ 204, 208 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1861 The United States Army abolishes flogging.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 32087, 144247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 32 ], [ 43, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1862 American Civil War: Battle of Baton Rouge: Along the Mississippi River near Baton Rouge, Louisiana, Confederate troops attempt to take the city, but are driven back by fire from Union gunboats.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34785, 6666870, 19579, 57835, 7023 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 26, 47 ], [ 59, 76 ], [ 82, 104 ], [ 106, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1864 American Civil War: The Battle of Mobile Bay begins at Mobile Bay near Mobile, Alabama, Admiral David Farragut leads a Union flotilla through Confederate defenses and seals one of the last major Southern ports.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 38275276, 1075807, 36530, 20952, 102728 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 30, 50 ], [ 61, 71 ], [ 77, 92 ], [ 102, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1874 Japan launches its postal savings system, modeled after a similar system in the United Kingdom.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34770, 969113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 25, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1882 Standard Oil Company of New Jersey, today known as ExxonMobil, is established officially. The company would later grow to become the holder of all Standard Oil companies and the entity at the center of the breakup of Standard Oil.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34772, 28931, 18848197, 1854179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 57, 67 ], [ 212, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1884 The cornerstone for the Statue of Liberty is laid on Bedloe's Island (now Liberty Island) in New York Harbor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34844, 28617, 421950, 276608 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 30, 47 ], [ 59, 74 ], [ 99, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1888 Bertha Benz drives from Mannheim to Pforzheim and back in the first long distance automobile trip, commemorated as the Bertha Benz Memorial Route since 2008.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34712, 574185, 99627, 549161, 23310437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 30, 38 ], [ 42, 51 ], [ 125, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1901 Peter O'Connor sets the first IAAF recognised long jump world record of , a record that would stand for 20 years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34618, 4802474, 86444, 18084, 3443107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 36, 40 ], [ 52, 61 ], [ 62, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1906 Persian Constitutional Revolution: Mozaffar ad-Din Shah Qajar, King of Iran, agrees to convert the government to a constitutional monarchy.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34650, 21761998, 917123, 5649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 39 ], [ 41, 67 ], [ 121, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1914 World War I: The German minelayer lays a minefield about off the Thames Estuary (Lowestoft). She is intercepted and sunk by the British light-cruiser .", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 19283920, 4764461, 928282, 1077732, 99443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 30, 39 ], [ 73, 87 ], [ 89, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1914 World War I: The guns of Point Nepean fort at Port Phillip Heads in Victoria (Australia) fire across the bows of the Norddeutscher Lloyd steamer which is attempting to leave the Port of Melbourne in ignorance of the declaration of war and she is detained; this is said to be the first Allied shot of the War.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1914 In Cleveland, Ohio, the first electric traffic light is installed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 5951, 163395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ], [ 49, 62 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1916 World War I: Battle of Romani: Allied forces, under the command of Archibald Murray, defeat an attacking Ottoman army under the command of Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein, securing the Suez Canal and beginning the Ottoman retreat from the Sinai Peninsula.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34677, 401909, 4054372, 22278, 3668887, 29323, 27644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 19, 35 ], [ 73, 89 ], [ 111, 123 ], [ 145, 186 ], [ 201, 211 ], [ 255, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1925 Plaid Cymru is formed with the aim of disseminating knowledge of the Welsh language that is at the time in danger of dying out.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34867, 53343, 33545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 75, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1926 Harry Houdini performs his greatest feat, spending 91 minutes underwater in a sealed tank before escaping.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34609, 53395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1940 World War II: The Soviet Union formally annexes Latvia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34708, 32927, 26779, 13259477, 17514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 24, 36 ], [ 46, 53 ], [ 54, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1944 World War II: At least 1,104 Japanese POWs in Australia attempt to escape from a camp at Cowra, New South Wales; 545 temporarily succeed but are later either killed, commit suicide, or are recaptured.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34622, 186932, 25008, 2067973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 35, 43 ], [ 44, 61 ], [ 62, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1944 World War II: Polish insurgents liberate a German labor camp (Gęsiówka) in Warsaw, freeing 348 Jewish prisoners.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 422887, 927757, 32908, 25955086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 70 ], [ 72, 80 ], [ 85, 91 ], [ 105, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1944 World War II: The Nazis begin a week-long massacre of between 40,000 and 50,000 civilians and prisoners of war in Wola, Poland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 3563316, 1346464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 60 ], [ 124, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1949 In Ecuador, an earthquake destroys 50 towns and kills more than 6,000.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34604, 9334, 28270102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 9, 16 ], [ 18, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 American Bandstand, a show dedicated to the teenage \"baby-boomers\" by playing the songs and showing popular dances of the time, debuts on the ABC television network.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 188737, 62027 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 148, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1960 Burkina Faso, then known as Upper Volta, becomes independent from France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34664, 3470, 42545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 34, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962 Apartheid: Nelson Mandela is jailed. 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His political support vanishes completely.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 52382, 25473, 31737, 3188742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ], [ 39, 52 ], [ 74, 90 ], [ 105, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 In Afghanistan, Maoists undertake the Bala Hissar uprising against the Leninist government.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 55917160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 44, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 President Ronald Reagan fires 11,359 striking air-traffic controllers who ignored his order for them to return to work.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 25433, 762767, 155134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 16, 29 ], [ 30, 35 ], [ 43, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 A Biman Bangladesh Airlines Fokker F27 Friendship crashes on approach to Zia International Airport, in Dhaka, Bangladesh, killing all 49 people on board.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 285794, 383947, 43559332, 1576433, 56656, 3454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 8, 33 ], [ 34, 55 ], [ 56, 63 ], [ 79, 104 ], [ 109, 114 ], [ 116, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Yugoslav Wars: The city of Knin, Croatia, a significant Serb stronghold, is liberated by Croatian forces during Operation Storm. 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District of Badakhshan Province, Afghanistan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 27203007, 28289617, 8381902, 1282198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 57 ], [ 81, 91 ], [ 114, 138 ], [ 142, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 The Wisconsin Sikh temple shooting took place in Oak Creek, Wisconsin, killing six victims; the perpetrator committed suicide after being wounded by police.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 36641135, 139418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 40 ], [ 55, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 The Environmental Protection Agency at Gold King Mine waste water spill releases three million gallons of heavy metal toxin tailings and waste water into the Animas River in Colorado.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 47490920, 47671, 757309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 45, 77 ], [ 112, 138 ], [ 164, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2019 The revocation of the special status of Jammu and Kashmir (state) occurred and the state was bifurcated into two union territories (Jammu and Kashmir (union territory) and Ladakh).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 51391, 61462060, 51299, 61449812, 303611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 10, 42 ], [ 46, 71 ], [ 138, 173 ], [ 178, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2020 Prime Minister Narendra Modi attends the 'Bhoomi Pujan' or land worship ceremony and lays the foundation stone of Rama Mandir in Ayodhya after a Supreme Court verdict ruling in favour of building the temple on disputed land.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 51396, 24452, 444222, 63897432, 42098, 395852, 62293052, 7410339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 21, 34 ], [ 120, 131 ], [ 135, 142 ], [ 151, 164 ], [ 165, 172 ], [ 216, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2021 Australia's second most populous state Victoria enters its sixth COVID-19 lockdown, enacting stage four restrictions statewide in reaction to six new COVID-19 cases recorded that morning.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Events", "target_page_ids": [ 51397, 4689264, 4689460, 63030231, 2530301 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 45, 53 ], [ 71, 79 ], [ 80, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "79 BC Tullia, Roman daughter of Cicero (d. 45 BC)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 55363, 6090608, 6046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 7, 13 ], [ 33, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1262 Ladislaus IV of Hungary (d. 1290)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 42497, 161738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1301 Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent, English politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (d. 1330)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 39948, 986366, 717184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 43 ], [ 65, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1397 Guillaume Dufay, Belgian-Italian composer and theorist (d. 1474)", 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"section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34586, 41058015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1662 James Anderson, Scottish lawyer and historian (d. 1728)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34688, 1883308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1681 Vitus Bering, Danish explorer (d. 1741)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38653, 57931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1694 Leonardo Leo, Italian composer (d. 1744)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 38646, 214031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1749 Thomas Lynch Jr., American commander and politician (d. 1779)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35838, 261172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1797 Friedrich August Kummer, German cellist and composer (d. 1879)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34747, 23462617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1802 Niels Henrik Abel, Norwegian mathematician and theorist (d. 1829)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34964, 21573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1811 Ambroise Thomas, French composer (d. 1896)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35627, 356938 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1813 Ivar Aasen, Norwegian poet and linguist (d. 1896)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34965, 15225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1815 Edward John Eyre, English explorer and politician, Governor of Jamaica (d. 1901)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34931, 755354, 4205912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 57, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1827 Deodoro da Fonseca, Brazilian field marshal and politician, 1st President of Brazil (d. 1892)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35018, 367760, 273638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 70, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1828 Louise of the Netherlands (d. 1871)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34620, 1006129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1833 Carola of Vasa (d. 1907)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34706, 5263095 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1843 James Scott Skinner, Scottish violinist and composer (d. 1927)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34951, 935234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1844 Ilya Repin, Russian painter and sculptor (d. 1930)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34955, 658556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1850 Guy de Maupassant, French short story writer, novelist, and poet (d. 1893)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34983, 12274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1860 Louis Wain, English artist (d. 1939)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34784, 261917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1862 Joseph Merrick, English man with severe deformities (d. 1890)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34785, 157799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1866 Carl Harries, German chemist and academic (d. 1923)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34667, 2403077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1866 Harry Trott, Australian cricketer (d. 1917)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1866679 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1868 Oskar Merikanto, Finnish pianist and composer (d. 1924)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34788, 193359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1872 Oswaldo Cruz, Brazilian physician, bacteriologist, and epidemiologist, founded the Oswaldo Cruz Foundation (d. 1917)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34768, 1335333, 1557626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ], [ 89, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1874 Wesley Clair Mitchell, American economist and academic (d. 1948)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34770, 2024484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1874 Horace Rawlins, English golfer (d. 1935)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2023466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1876 Mary Ritter Beard, American historian and activist (d. 1958)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34725, 1200566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1877 Tom Thomson, Canadian painter (d. 1917)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34771, 288490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1880 Gertrude Rush, American lawyer and jurist (d. 1962)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34773, 22283600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1880 Ruth Sawyer, American author and educator (d. 1970)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 439329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1882 Anne Acheson, Irish sculptor (d. 1962)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34772, 23515612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1887 Reginald Owen, English-American actor and singer (d. 1972)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34777, 3870471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1889 Conrad Aiken, American novelist, short story writer, critic, and poet (d. 1973)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34711, 179138 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1890 Naum Gabo, Russian-American sculptor (d. 1977)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34707, 650605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1890 Erich Kleiber, Austrian conductor and director (d. 1956)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 161522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1897 Roberta Dodd Crawford, American soprano and educator (d. 1954)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34714, 38653431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1897 Aksel Larsen, Danish lawyer and politician (d. 1972)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2723642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1900 Rudolf Schottlaender, German philosopher, classical philologist and translator (d. 1988)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34653, 14708431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1901 Claude Autant-Lara, French director, screenwriter, and politician (d. 2000)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34618, 2978323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1904 Kenneth V. Thimann, English-American botanist and microbiologist (d. 1997)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34651, 21836621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1906 Joan Hickson, English actress (d. 1998)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34650, 596204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1906 John Huston, American actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 1987)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 44136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1906 Wassily Leontief, German-American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1999)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 408819, 23535306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ], [ 68, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1908 Harold Holt, Australian lawyer and politician, 17th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1967)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34600, 13867, 24117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ], [ 58, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1908 Jose Garcia Villa, Filipino short story writer and poet (d. 1997)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1755945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1910 Bruno Coquatrix, French songwriter and manager (d. 1979)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34690, 6573268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1910 Herminio Masantonio, Argentinian footballer (d. 1956)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 13607198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1911 Robert Taylor, American actor and singer (d. 1969)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34605, 317998 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1912 Abbé Pierre, French priest and humanitarian (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34616, 302102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1914 Parley Baer, American actor (d. 2002)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 19283920, 2169554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1916 Peter Viereck, American poet and academic (d. 2006)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34677, 2761595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1918 Tom Drake, American actor and singer (d. 1982)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34594, 1393380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1918 Betty Oliphant, English-Canadian ballerina, co-founded Canada's National Ballet School (d. 2004)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 815975, 17309558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 65, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1919 Rosalind Hicks, British literary guardian and the only child of author, Agatha Christie (d. 2004)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34665, 65675751, 984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 78, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1920 George Tooker, American painter and academic (d. 2011)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34676, 873492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1921 Terry Becker, American actor, director, and producer (d. 2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34724, 13013324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1922 L. Tom Perry, American businessman and religious leader (d. 2015)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34866, 1037860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1922 Frank Stranahan, American golfer (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3526339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1923 Devan Nair, Malaysian-Singaporean union leader and politician, 3rd President of Singapore (d. 2005)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34863, 917612, 350660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ], [ 73, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1926 Betsy Jolas, French composer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34609, 1996130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1926 Jeri Southern, American jazz singer and pianist (d. 1991)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6928542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1927 John H. Moore II, American lawyer and judge (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34939, 18166200 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1929 Don Matheson, American soldier, police officer, and actor (d. 2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34656, 5027101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1930 Neil Armstrong, American pilot, engineer, and astronaut (d. 2012)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34911, 21247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1930 Damita Jo DeBlanc, American comedian, actress, and singer (d. 1998) ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9368753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1930 Richie Ginther, American race car driver (d. 1989)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1226546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1930 Michal Kováč, Slovak lawyer and politician, 1st President of Slovakia (d.2016)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2728409, 692193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 58, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1931 Tom Hafey, Australian footballer and coach (d. 2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34608, 3232109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1932 Tera de Marez Oyens, Dutch pianist and composer (d. 1996)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34775, 11798988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1932 Vladimir Fedoseyev, Russian conductor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4585979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1934 Karl Johan Åström, Swedish engineer and theorist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34981, 14067673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1934 Wendell Berry, American novelist, short story writer, poet, and essayist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 680674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1934 Gay Byrne, Irish radio and television host (d. 2019)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 240089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1935 Michael Ballhaus, German director and cinematographer (d. 2017)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34980, 4225751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1935 Peter Inge, Baron Inge, English field marshal (d. 2022)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 691428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1935 Roy Benavidez, American Master Sergeant and Medal of Honor Winner (d. 1998)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3617325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1936 Nikolai Baturin, Estonian author and playwright (d. 2019)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34673, 5800313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1936 John Saxon, American actor (d. 2020)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 488940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1937 Herb Brooks, American ice hockey player and coach (d. 2003)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34684, 294306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1937 Brian G. Marsden, English-American astronomer and academic (d. 2010)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 586827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1939 Roger Clark, English race car driver (d. 1998)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34614, 6478955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1939 Carmen Salinas, Mexican actress and politician (d. 2021)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 43937724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1940 Bobby Braddock, American country music songwriter, musician, and producer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34708, 8118610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1940 Roman Gabriel, American football player, coach, and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3476272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1940 Rick Huxley, English bass player (d. 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 30829194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1941 Bob Clark, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34632, 1179746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1941 Leonid Kizim, Ukrainian general, pilot, and astronaut (d. 2010)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 873872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1941 Airto Moreira, Brazilian-American drummer and composer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2843289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1942 Joe Boyd, American record producer, founded Hannibal Records", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34629, 754446, 1469540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 14 ], [ 50, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1943 Nelson Briles, American baseball player (d. 2005)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34630, 1506476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1943 Sammi Smith, American country music singer-songwriter (d. 2005)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2418063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1944 Christopher Gunning, English composer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34622, 11628438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1945 Loni Anderson, American actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34624, 769659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1946 Bruce Coslet, American football player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34631, 2738266 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1946 Shirley Ann Jackson, American physicist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 170464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1946 Rick van der Linden, Dutch keyboard player and songwriter (d. 2006)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3873394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1946 Bob McCarthy, Australian rugby league player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6121107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1946 Erika Slezak, American actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 183813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1946 Xavier Trias, Spanish pediatrician and politician, 118th Mayor of Barcelona", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 9791655, 1056514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 67, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1947 Angry Anderson, Australian singer and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34584, 565372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Bernie Carbo, American baseball player ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1267694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 France A. Córdova, American astrophysicist and academic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1343593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Rick Derringer, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 611396 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947 Greg Leskiw, Canadian guitarist and songwriter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 30716778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1948 Ray Clemence, English footballer and manager (d. 2020)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34612, 1175010 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1948 Barbara Flynn, English actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1878661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1948 David Hungate, American bass guitarist, producer, and arranger", 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"target_page_ids": [ 34575, 16891734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1952 John Jarratt, Australian actor and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2811807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1952 Louis Walsh, Irish talent manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1075932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1953 Rick Mahler, American baseball player and coach (d. 2005)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34865, 1564261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1955 Eddie Ojeda, American guitarist and songwriter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34851, 3892161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1956 Christopher Chessun, English Anglican bishop", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34672, 17669841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1956 Jerry Ciccoritti, Canadian actor, director, producer, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5352681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 Larry Corowa, Australian rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 6247111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 David Gill, English businessman", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8757988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 Faith Prince, American actress and singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 657254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1959 Pete Burns, English singer-songwriter (d. 2016)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34662, 463535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1959 Pat Smear, American guitarist and songwriter ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 276936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1960 David Baldacci, American lawyer and author", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34664, 904063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1961 Janet McTeer, English actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34659, 895771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1961 Athula Samarasekera, Sri Lankan cricketer and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4969241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1961 Tim Wilson, American comedian, singer-songwriter, and guitarist (d. 2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1900252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1962 Patrick Ewing, Jamaican-American basketball player and coach", 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"target_page_ids": [ 1208469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1965 Jeff Coffin, American saxophonist and composer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34750, 1523206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965 Motoi Sakuraba, Japanese keyboard player and composer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 275743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1966 Jennifer Finch, American singer, bass player, and photographer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34691, 2496654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1966 Jonathan Silverman, American actor and producer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1770930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1967 Matthew Caws, American singer-songwriter and guitarist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34749, 9599862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1968 Terri Clark, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34655, 1745394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 Kendo Kashin, Japanese wrestler and mixed martial artist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3646477 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 Marine Le Pen, French lawyer and politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 572897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 Oleh Luzhnyi, Ukrainian footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2837856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 Colin McRae, Scottish race car driver (d. 2007)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1109927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1968 John Olerud, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 85819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1969 Jackie Doyle-Price, English politician", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34610, 27282217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 Vasbert Drakes, Barbadian cricketer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 897179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 Venkatesh Prasad, Indian cricketer and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3060336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1969 Rob Scott, Australian rower", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 30482168 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1970 James Gunn, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34726, 2144497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1971 Valdis Dombrovskis, Latvian academic and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Latvia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34748, 1484768, 481129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ], [ 64, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1972 Ikuto Hidaka, Japanese wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34671, 6826687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Aaqib Javed, Pakistani cricketer and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3224181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Darren Shahlavi, English-American actor and martial artist (d. 2015)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 17012794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Jon Sleightholme, English rugby player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3322968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Theodore Whitmore, Jamaican footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2955007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1972 Christian Olde Wolbers, Belgian-American guitarist, songwriter, and producer ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2159746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1973 Paul Carige, Australian rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34751, 54677274 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973 Justin Marshall, New Zealand rugby player and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1809625 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1974 Alvin Ceccoli, Australian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34654, 2859035 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"section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2781683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1976 Jeff Friesen, Canadian ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34661, 529080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Marians Pahars, Latvian footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 814609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1976 Eugen Trică, Romanian footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5998329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1977 Eric Hinske, American baseball player and coach", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34549, 430022 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Mark Mulder, American baseball player and sportscaster", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1224672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1977 Michael Walsh, English footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 6308814 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Cosmin Bărcăuan, Romanian footballer and manager", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 5932968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Kim Gevaert, Belgian sprinter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 873223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 Harel Levy, Israeli tennis player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 2515229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1979 David Healy, Irish footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34754, 1828812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Wayne Bridge, English footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 1235164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 Salvador Cabañas, Paraguayan footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1258399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 Jason Culina, Australian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3298619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1980 Jesse Williams, American actor, director, producer, and political activist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 15329914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1981 David Clarke, English ice hockey player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34776, 5274991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Carl Crawford, American baseball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 692922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Maik Franz, German footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 7615907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Erik Guay, Canadian skier", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4151925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Travie McCoy, American rapper, singer, and songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 28817595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Anna Rawson, Australian golfer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 4571213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1981 Rachel Scott, American murder victim, inspired the Rachel's Challenge (d. 1999)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 379342, 9639156 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ], [ 61, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1982 Jamie Houston, English-German rugby player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34756, 26612659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1982 Lolo Jones, American hurdler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 47506158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1982 Michele Pazienza, Italian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5692002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1982 Tobias Regner, German singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 3902244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1982 Jeff Robson, Australian rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 18490598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1982 Pete Sell, American mixed martial artist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 5903373 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Steve Matai, New Zealand rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 7446854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1984 Helene Fischer, German singer-songwriter", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 29366882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Laurent Ciman, Belgian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34846, 12749864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985 Salomon Kalou, Ivorian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 1567930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985 Gil Vermouth, Israeli footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8769815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1985 Erkan Zengin, Swedish footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8085230 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1986 Paula Creamer, American golfer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34761, 1940012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986 Kathrin Zettel, Austrian skier", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 8213681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Genelia D'Souza, Indian actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 5008614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1988 Michael Jamieson, Scottish-English swimmer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34670, 36570248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1988 Federica Pellegrini, Italian swimmer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 907340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1989 Ryan Bertrand, English footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34847, 6336359 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Mathieu Manset, French footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 24599322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1989 Jessica Nigri, American model and actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36206463 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Esteban Gutiérrez, Mexican race car driver", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 20005788 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Konrad Hurrell, Tongan rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34906032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Andreas Weimann, Austrian footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 27246252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1995 Pierre-Emile Højbjerg, Danish footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34658, 39100412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1996 Takakeishō Mitsunobu, Japanese sumo wrestler", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34636, 53124781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1996 Cho Seung-youn, South Korean singer-songwriter and rapper", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 60468381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1997 Jack Cogger, Australian rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34601, 50544571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1997 Olivia Holt, American actress and singer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34888068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1997 Wang Yibo, Chinese dancer, singer and actor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 55648020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Adam Doueihi, Australian-Lebanese rugby league player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 55603000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1998 Mimi Keene, English actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 40436115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1998 Kanon Suzuki, Japanese singer and actress", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 33255474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2001 Anthony Edwards, American basketball player", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34551, 59761312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2000 Tom Gilbert, Australian rugby league player ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 34548, 64151558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2003 Toni Shaw, British Paralympic swimmer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 36163, 63152282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2004 Gavi, Spanish Footballer", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Births", "target_page_ids": [ 35524, 68382945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 553 Xiao Ji, prince of the Liang dynasty (b. 508)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35782, 7579061, 432287 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 13 ], [ 29, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 642 Eowa, king of Mercia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36306, 1379045, 38769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 10 ], [ 20, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 642 Oswald, king of Northumbria (b. 604)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 28672, 36717 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 16 ], [ 26, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 824 Heizei, Japanese emperor (b. 773)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34942, 10434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 877 Ubayd Allah ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan, Abbasid vizier ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36427, 52125270, 242409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 38 ], [ 48, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 882 Louis III, Frankish king (b. 863)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 52446, 187765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 890 Ranulf II, duke of Aquitaine (b. 850)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 52130, 544535, 546092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 25, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 910 Eowils and Halfdan, joint kings of Northumbria", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 50985, 15387975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 910 Ingwær, king of Northumbria", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47751130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 917 Euthymius I of Constantinople (b. 834)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51091, 20353871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 940 Li Decheng, Chinese general (b. 863)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 52586, 42547310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1063 Gruffydd ap Llywelyn, King of Gwynedd", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 42454, 84083, 84078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ], [ 28, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1364 Kōgon, Japanese emperor (b. 1313)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36122, 23292496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1415 Richard of Conisburgh, 3rd Earl of Cambridge (b. 1375)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36126, 211068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1415 Henry Scrope, 3rd Baron Scrope of Masham (b. 1370)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1972933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1447 John Holland, 2nd Duke of Exeter (b. 1395)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 39931, 297470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1579 Stanislaus Hosius, Polish cardinal (b. 1504)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38598, 1597502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1600 John Ruthven, 3rd Earl of Gowrie, Scottish conspirator (b. 1577)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35017, 1313416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1610 Alonso García de Ramón, Spanish soldier and politician, Royal Governor of Chile (b. 1552)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35097, 5586939, 2811419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 28 ], [ 62, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1633 George Abbot, English archbishop and academic (b. 1562)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35162, 2613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1678 Juan García de Zéspedes, Mexican tenor and composer (b. 1619)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 38654, 410708 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1729 Thomas Newcomen, English engineer, invented the eponymous Newcomen atmospheric engine (b. 1664)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35853, 81834, 165062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ], [ 64, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1743 John Hervey, 2nd Baron Hervey, English courtier and politician, Vice-Chamberlain of the Household (b. 1696)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34596, 399856, 2303376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 35 ], [ 70, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1778 Charles Clémencet, French historian and author (b. 1703)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35814, 2734549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1778 Thomas Linley the younger, English composer (b. 1756)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 10726572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1792 Frederick North, Lord North, English politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1732)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34914, 221325, 24150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 33 ], [ 55, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1799 Richard Howe, 1st Earl Howe, English admiral and politician (b. 1726)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35496, 224086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1868 Jacques Boucher de Crèvecœur de Perthes, French archaeologist and historian (b. 1788)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34788, 642863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1877 Robert Williams (known as Trebor Mai), Welsh poet (b. 1830)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34771, 7447627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1880 Ferdinand Ritter von Hebra, Austrian physician and dermatologist (b. 1816)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34773, 2123420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1881 Spotted Tail, American tribal chief (b. 1823)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34716, 3242517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1895 Friedrich Engels, German philosopher (b. 1820)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": 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"plaintext": "1921 Dimitrios Rallis, Greek lawyer and politician, 78th Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1844)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34724, 7523673, 207787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ], [ 58, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1929 Millicent Fawcett, English trade union leader and activist (b. 1847)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34656, 55664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1933 Charles Harold Davis, American painter and academic (b. 1856)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34864, 1310975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1935 David Townsend, American art director and set designer (b. 1891)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34980, 33711358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1939 Béla Jankovich, Hungarian economist and politician, Minister of Education of 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"anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1955 Carmen Miranda, Portuguese-Brazilian actress and singer (b. 1909)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34851, 50758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1957 Heinrich Otto Wieland, German chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1877)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34606, 552299, 25416893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 27 ], [ 58, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1959 Edgar Guest, English-American journalist and poet (b. 1881)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34662, 560690 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1960 Arthur Meighen, Canadian lawyer and politician, 9th Prime Minister of Canada (b. 1874)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34664, 14684670, 24135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 58, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1963 Salvador Bacarisse, Spanish composer (b. 1898)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34648, 1352908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1964 Moa Martinson, Swedish author (b. 1890)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34550, 2484804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1964 Art Ross, Canadian-American ice hockey player and coach (b. 1886)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1352813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1968 Luther Perkins, American guitarist (b. 1928)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34655, 2940286 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1978 Jesse Haines, American baseball player and coach (b. 1893)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34753, 694837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1980 Harold L. Runnels, American soldier and politician (b. 1924)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34640, 11543402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1983 Judy Canova, American actress and comedian (b. 1913)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34755, 1566564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1983 Joan Robinson, English economist and author (b. 1903)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 752599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1984 Richard Burton, Welsh-Swiss actor and producer (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34578, 45967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1985 Arnold Horween, American football player and coach (b. 1898)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34846, 20057424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1987 Georg Gaßmann, German politician, Mayor of Marburg (b. 1910)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34760, 28126591, 27356749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 40, 56 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1991 Paul Brown, American football player and coach (b. 1908)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34703, 493703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1991 Soichiro Honda, Japanese engineer and businessman, founded Honda (b. 1906)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 67047, 13729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ], [ 69, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1992 Robert Muldoon, New Zealand politician, 31st Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34669, 308842, 106321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 51, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1994 Menachem Avidom, Israeli composer (b. 1908)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18948337, 14368982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1994 Alain de Changy, Belgian race car driver (b. 1922)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1353837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1998 Otto Kretschmer, German commander (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34647, 229963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1998 Todor Zhivkov, Bulgarian commander and politician, 36th Prime Minister of Bulgaria (b. 1911)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 276706, 335071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 66, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2000 Otto Buchsbaum, Austrian-Brazilian journalist and activist (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 34548, 5593166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2000 Tullio Crali, 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"2002 Josh Ryan Evans, American actor (b. 1982)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35502, 141883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2002 Chick Hearn, American sportscaster (b. 1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 68363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2002 Franco Lucentini, Italian journalist and author (b. 1920)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 8236651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2002 Darrell Porter, American baseball player (b. 1952)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 303125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2002 Matt Robinson, American actor, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1937)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 897417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2005 Polina Astakhova, Russian gymnast and coach (b. 1936)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35984, 1556226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2005 Jim O'Hora, American football player and coach (b. 1915)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3204172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2005 Raul Roco, Filipino lawyer and politician, 31st Filipino Secretary of Education (b. 1941)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 556682, 36165829 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ], [ 58, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2005 Eddie Jenkins, Welsh footballer (b. 1909)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 57894480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2007 Jean-Marie Lustiger, French cardinal (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36165, 433557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2007 Florian Pittiș, Romanian actor, singer, director, and producer (b. 1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2636786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2008 Neil Bartlett, English-American chemist and academic (b. 1932)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35825, 433101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2008 Reg Lindsay, Australian singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1929)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 18728050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2009 Budd Schulberg, American author, screenwriter, and producer (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 35983, 482960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2011 Andrzej Lepper, Polish farmer and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Poland (b. 1954)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 196200, 8034295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 20 ], [ 52, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2011 Aziz Shavershian, Russian-born Australian Bodybuilder and internet sensation (b. 1989)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 32776481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2012 Erwin Axer, Polish director and screenwriter (b. 1917)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 47374, 9085460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Michel Daerden, Belgian lawyer and politician (b. 1949)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 19067380 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Fred Matua, American football player (b. 1984)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3741551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Martin E. Segal, Russian-American businessman, co-founded Film Society of Lincoln Center (b. 1916)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 33278816, 8871906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 68, 98 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Chavela Vargas, Costa Rican-Mexican singer-songwriter and actress (b. 1919)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1543952 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2012 Roland Charles Wagner, French author and translator (b. 1960)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 897318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2013 Ruth Asawa, American sculptor and educator (b. 1926)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 46945, 17031923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Shawn Burr, Canadian-American ice hockey player (b. 1966)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 3016684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Willie Dunn, Canadian singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1942)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4231221 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Roy Rubin, American basketball player and coach (b. 1925)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 4208856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 May Song Vang, American activist (b. 1951)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40438497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2013 Rob Wyda, American commander and judge (b. 1959)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 11467484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2014 Harold J. Greene, American general (b. 1962)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 48630, 43483964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Vladimir Orlov, Russian author (b. 1936)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 43479794 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Chapman Pincher, Indian-English historian, journalist, and author (b. 1914)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 2557536 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2014 Jesse Leonard Steinfeld, American physician and academic, 11th Surgeon General of the United States (b. 1927)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 1097289, 219354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 33 ], [ 73, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2015 Arthur Walter James, English journalist and politician (b. 1912)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 49708, 41254534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2015 Tony Millington, Welsh footballer (b. 1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 33578464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2018 Alan Rabinowitz, American zoologist (b. 1953)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51390, 9689767 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2019 Toni Morrison, American author, Pulitzer Prize winner, and Nobel laureate (b. 1931).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51391, 43165, 48586, 23385442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ], [ 38, 59 ], [ 65, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2020 Hawa Abdi, Somali human rights activist and physician (b. 1947)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 51396, 31256309, 1571696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 15 ], [ 17, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "2022 Judith Durham, Australian singer-songwriter (b. 1943)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 52412, 65942 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ], [ 6, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2022 Cherie Gil, Filipino actress (b. 1963)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 23926769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2022 Ali Haydar, Syrian army officer (b. 1932)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 40102975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2022 Issey Miyake, Japanese fashion designer (b. 1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 322247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 2022 Dillon Quirke, Irish hurler (b. 1998)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Deaths", "target_page_ids": [ 62953836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Christian feast day:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 180283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abel of Reims", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 9153237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Addai", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 1675860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Afra", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 234799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albrecht Dürer, Matthias Grünewald, and Lucas Cranach the Elder (Episcopal Church (USA))", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2402, 306574, 79884, 19280748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 35 ], [ 41, 64 ], [ 66, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cassian of Autun", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 22550686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dedication of the Basilica of St Mary Major (Catholic Church)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 5560053, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ], [ 46, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Emygdius", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 12076960 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Memnius", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 21468332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oswald of Northumbria", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 28672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " August 5 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 2386643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Independence Day (Burkina Faso)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 501776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Victory and Homeland Thanksgiving Day and the Day of Croatian defenders (Croatia)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Holidays and observances", "target_page_ids": [ 5105842, 5573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 72 ], [ 74, 81 ] ] } ]

[ "Days_of_the_year", "August" ]

[ "August 5th", "5th of August", "5 August", "Aug 5" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The word Angula may refer to one of the following:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aṅgula, a measure equal to a finger's breadth", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 15506017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Eel, a biological order of fish", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20976473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nahas Angula, former Prime Minister of Namibia.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1632600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Helmut Angula", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 21724090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "ASP may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ASP pistol", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Combat", "target_page_ids": [ 1204170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ASP, Inc., law enforcement weapon manufacturer", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Combat", "target_page_ids": [ 13882523 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A type of extending baton", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Combat", "target_page_ids": [ 12841199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ammunition supply point or ammunition dump", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Combat", "target_page_ids": [ 1591636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Active Server Pages, a web-scripting interface by Microsoft", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computing", "target_page_ids": [ 2883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Advanced Simple Profile, an MPEG-4 video codec profile", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computing", "target_page_ids": [ 1674448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Answer set programming, a declarative programming paradigm", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computing", "target_page_ids": [ 2386211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Application service provider, to customers over a network", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computing", "target_page_ids": [ 309945 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AppleTalk Session Protocol", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computing", "target_page_ids": [ 2115 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Association of Shareware Professionals", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computing", "target_page_ids": [ 12161725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Attached Support Processor, of IBM OS/360 and SVS, renamed to Asymmetrical multiProcessor", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computing", "target_page_ids": [ 40829953, 14387737, 27500501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 36, 42 ], [ 47, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Auxiliary storage pool, a feature of the IBM i operating system.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Computing", "target_page_ids": [ 248005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American School of Paris", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 16978212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jan Matejko Academy of Fine Arts, Kraków, Poland", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 7938472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Audio Signal Processor, developed by James A. Moorer at Lucasfilm", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Electronics", "target_page_ids": [ 20860277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anti-skip protection or electronic skip protection in CD playback", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Electronics", "target_page_ids": [ 1339234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Angle–sensitive pixel, a light sensor", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Electronics", "target_page_ids": [ 35566863 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ASP (band), a German rock band", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 2477879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ASP (Japanese group)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 67612808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adult service provider in the Sex industry", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 20603860 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apparent Sensory Perception, or Simstim, a thought recording and reproduction device in William Gibson's fiction", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Entertainment", "target_page_ids": [ 30455493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aspartic acid", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Medicine and biology", "target_page_ids": [ 63540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Acylation stimulating protein", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Medicine and biology", "target_page_ids": [ 31805244 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American Society for Photobiology", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Medicine and biology", "target_page_ids": [ 30018846 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amnesic shellfish poisoning", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Medicine and biology", "target_page_ids": [ 5040533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Complement component 3, a protein in the Complement system", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Medicine and biology", "target_page_ids": [ 2579837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antimicrobial stewardship program", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Medicine and biology", "target_page_ids": [ 45624709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Act of the Scottish Parliament, asp", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 51025134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American Solidarity Party", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 42806136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Australian Sex Party", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 56482886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Afro-Shirazi Party", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 1199598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Assembly for the Sovereignty of the Peoples, a political party in Bolivia", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 28389924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Assembly of States Parties, the legislative body of the International Criminal Court", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Politics", "target_page_ids": [ 14880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Association of Surfing Professionals, now World Surf League", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 2893020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Airborne Surveillance Platform, early warning aircraft of India", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 15296370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Albany Student Press", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3080791 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alice Springs Airport (IATA airport code)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 5231986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Allegany State Park", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 303766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Appalachia Service Project, for housing improvement", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 860376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arkansas State Police, a law enforcement agency in the U.S. state of Arkansas", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 7945316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asociación de Scouts del Perú", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3333671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aspatria railway station, UK, National Rail code", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2594479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Assault system pod or A.S.P., for the G.I.Joe doll", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Assistant Superintendent of Police, a police rank", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 2026196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Astronomical Society of the Pacific", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 630922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Authorized service provider", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 12084659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avenal State Prison in California, USA", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 7447496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Average selling price of goods", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Other uses", "target_page_ids": [ 3203930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ASPS (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 231483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Asp (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 427891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] } ]

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[ { "plaintext": "Algebraic geometry is a branch of mathematics, classically studying zeros of multivariate polynomials. Modern algebraic geometry is based on the use of abstract algebraic techniques, mainly from commutative algebra, for solving geometrical problems about these sets of zeros.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18831, 264210, 23000, 19616384, 245990, 18973446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 45 ], [ 68, 73 ], [ 77, 100 ], [ 152, 168 ], [ 195, 214 ], [ 229, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fundamental objects of study in algebraic geometry are algebraic varieties, which are geometric manifestations of solutions of systems of polynomial equations. Examples of the most studied classes of algebraic varieties are: plane algebraic curves, which include lines, circles, parabolas, ellipses, hyperbolas, cubic curves like elliptic curves, and quartic curves like lemniscates and Cassini ovals. A point of the plane belongs to an algebraic curve if its coordinates satisfy a given polynomial equation. Basic questions involve the study of the points of special interest like the singular points, the inflection points and the points at infinity. More advanced questions involve the topology of the curve and relations between the curves given by different equations.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 248808, 567840, 27420015, 253260, 946975, 6220, 23231, 9277, 14052, 649721, 10225, 250908, 2040906, 404001, 4230456, 379845, 403139, 29954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 78 ], [ 118, 127 ], [ 131, 162 ], [ 229, 250 ], [ 267, 272 ], [ 274, 280 ], [ 283, 291 ], [ 294, 301 ], [ 304, 313 ], [ 316, 327 ], [ 334, 348 ], [ 375, 385 ], [ 391, 403 ], [ 492, 511 ], [ 590, 604 ], [ 611, 627 ], [ 637, 655 ], [ 693, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Algebraic geometry occupies a central place in modern mathematics and has multiple conceptual connections with such diverse fields as complex analysis, topology and number theory. Initially a study of systems of polynomial equations in several variables, the subject of algebraic geometry starts where equation solving leaves off, and it becomes even more important to understand the intrinsic properties of the totality of solutions of a system of equations, than to find a specific solution; this leads into some of the deepest areas in all of mathematics, both conceptually and in terms of technique.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5759, 29954, 21527, 27420015, 537048 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 150 ], [ 152, 160 ], [ 165, 178 ], [ 201, 232 ], [ 302, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 20th century, algebraic geometry split into several subareas.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The mainstream of algebraic geometry is devoted to the study of the complex points of the algebraic varieties and more generally to the points with coordinates in an algebraically closed field.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Real algebraic geometry is the study of the real points of an algebraic variety.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 7252198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Diophantine geometry and, more generally, arithmetic geometry is the study of the points of an algebraic variety with coordinates in fields that are not algebraically closed and occur in algebraic number theory, such as the field of rational numbers, number fields, finite fields, function fields, and p-adic fields.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 502205, 1973177, 10603, 1018, 174705, 19727024, 28730822, 11615, 447645, 51423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 43, 62 ], [ 134, 139 ], [ 154, 174 ], [ 188, 211 ], [ 234, 249 ], [ 252, 264 ], [ 267, 279 ], [ 282, 297 ], [ 303, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A large part of singularity theory is devoted to the singularities of algebraic varieties.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 581763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Computational algebraic geometry is an area that has emerged at the intersection of algebraic geometry and computer algebra, with the rise of computers. It consists mainly of algorithm design and software development for the study of properties of explicitly given algebraic varieties.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23659805, 775, 5309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 124 ], [ 176, 185 ], [ 197, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Much of the development of the mainstream of algebraic geometry in the 20th century occurred within an abstract algebraic framework, with increasing emphasis being placed on \"intrinsic\" properties of algebraic varieties not dependent on any particular way of embedding the variety in an ambient coordinate space; this parallels developments in topology, differential and complex geometry. One key achievement of this abstract algebraic geometry is Grothendieck's scheme theory which allows one to use sheaf theory to study algebraic varieties in a way which is very similar to its use in the study of differential and analytic manifolds. This is obtained by extending the notion of point: In classical algebraic geometry, a point of an affine variety may be identified, through Hilbert's Nullstellensatz, with a maximal ideal of the coordinate ring, while the points of the corresponding affine scheme are all prime ideals of this ring. This means that a point of such a scheme may be either a usual point or a subvariety. This approach also enables a unification of the language and the tools of classical algebraic geometry, mainly concerned with complex points, and of algebraic number theory. Wiles' proof of the longstanding conjecture called Fermat's Last Theorem is an example of the power of this approach.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 29954, 8625, 186101, 2042, 364754, 245466, 2119219, 509742, 149215, 48164, 320468, 21950759, 19021953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 344, 352 ], [ 354, 366 ], [ 371, 387 ], [ 448, 460 ], [ 463, 476 ], [ 501, 513 ], [ 601, 613 ], [ 618, 636 ], [ 778, 803 ], [ 812, 825 ], [ 833, 848 ], [ 1197, 1209 ], [ 1248, 1269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In classical algebraic geometry, the main objects of interest are the vanishing sets of collections of polynomials, meaning the set of all points that simultaneously satisfy one or more polynomial equations. For instance, the two-dimensional sphere of radius 1 in three-dimensional Euclidean space R3 could be defined as the set of all points (x,y,z) with", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 23000, 27420015, 39782, 27859, 9697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 113 ], [ 186, 206 ], [ 226, 241 ], [ 242, 248 ], [ 282, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A \"slanted\" circle in R3 can be defined as the set of all points (x,y,z) which satisfy the two polynomial equations", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "First we start with a field k. In classical algebraic geometry, this field was always the complex numbers C, but many of the same results are true if we assume only that k is algebraically closed. We consider the affine space of dimension n over k, denoted An(k) (or more simply An, when k is clear from the context). When one fixes a coordinate system, one may identify An(k) with kn. The purpose of not working with kn is to emphasize that one \"forgets\" the vector space structure that kn carries.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 10603, 1018, 298834 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 27 ], [ 175, 195 ], [ 213, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A function f : An → A1 is said to be polynomial (or regular) if it can be written as a polynomial, that is, if there is a polynomial p in k[x1,...,xn] such that f(M) = p(t1,...,tn) for every point M with coordinates (t1,...,tn) in An. The property of a function to be polynomial (or regular) does not depend on the choice of a coordinate system in An.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When a coordinate system is chosen, the regular functions on the affine n-space may be identified with the ring of polynomial functions in n variables over k. Therefore, the set of the regular functions on An is a ring, which is denoted k[An].", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 23000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "We say that a polynomial vanishes at a point if evaluating it at that point gives zero. Let S be a set of polynomials in k[An]. The vanishing set of S (or vanishing locus or zero set) is the set V(S) of all points in An where every polynomial in S vanishes. Symbolically,", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A subset of An which is V(S), for some S, is called an algebraic set. The V stands for variety (a specific type of algebraic set to be defined below).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Given a subset U of An, can one recover the set of polynomials which generate it? If U is any subset of An, define I(U) to be the set of all polynomials whose vanishing set contains U. The I stands for ideal: if two polynomials f and g both vanish on U, then f+g vanishes on U, and if h is any polynomial, then hf vanishes on U, so I(U) is always an ideal of the polynomial ring k[An].", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 25977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two natural questions to ask are:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Given a subset U of An, when is U = V(I(U))?", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Given a set S of polynomials, when is S = I(V(S))?", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The answer to the first question is provided by introducing the Zariski topology, a topology on An whose closed sets are the algebraic sets, and which directly reflects the algebraic structure of k[An]. Then U = V(I(U)) if and only if U is an algebraic set or equivalently a Zariski-closed set. The answer to the second question is given by Hilbert's Nullstellensatz. In one of its forms, it says that I(V(S)) is the radical of the ideal generated by S. In more abstract language, there is a Galois connection, giving rise to two closure operators; they can be identified, and naturally play a basic role in the theory; the example is elaborated at Galois connection.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 241744, 149215, 252009, 156411, 483120, 156411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 80 ], [ 341, 366 ], [ 417, 424 ], [ 492, 509 ], [ 530, 546 ], [ 624, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For various reasons we may not always want to work with the entire ideal corresponding to an algebraic set U. Hilbert's basis theorem implies that ideals in k[An] are always finitely generated.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 13733 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An algebraic set is called irreducible if it cannot be written as the union of two smaller algebraic sets. Any algebraic set is a finite union of irreducible algebraic sets and this decomposition is unique. Thus its elements are called the irreducible components of the algebraic set. An irreducible algebraic set is also called a variety. It turns out that an algebraic set is a variety if and only if it may be defined as the vanishing set of a prime ideal of the polynomial ring.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 2652476, 248808, 24928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 38 ], [ 331, 338 ], [ 447, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some authors do not make a clear distinction between algebraic sets and varieties and use irreducible variety to make the distinction when needed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Just as continuous functions are the natural maps on topological spaces and smooth functions are the natural maps on differentiable manifolds, there is a natural class of functions on an algebraic set, called regular functions or polynomial functions. A regular function on an algebraic set V contained in An is the restriction to V of a regular function on An. For an algebraic set defined on the field of the complex numbers, the regular functions are smooth and even analytic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 6122, 30450, 1408000, 2119219, 61478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 27 ], [ 53, 70 ], [ 76, 91 ], [ 117, 140 ], [ 470, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It may seem unnaturally restrictive to require that a regular function always extend to the ambient space, but it is very similar to the situation in a normal topological space, where the Tietze extension theorem guarantees that a continuous function on a closed subset always extends to the ambient topological space.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 48629, 30450, 31404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 158 ], [ 159, 176 ], [ 188, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Just as with the regular functions on affine space, the regular functions on V form a ring, which we denote by k[V]. This ring is called the coordinate ring of V.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 320468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since regular functions on V come from regular functions on An, there is a relationship between the coordinate rings. Specifically, if a regular function on V is the restriction of two functions f and g in k[An], then fg is a polynomial function which is null on V and thus belongs to I(V). Thus k[V] may be identified with k[An]/I(V).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Using regular functions from an affine variety to A1, we can define regular maps from one affine variety to another. First we will define a regular map from a variety into affine space: Let V be a variety contained in An. Choose m regular functions on V, and call them f1, ..., fm. We define a regular map f from V to Am by letting . In other words, each fi determines one coordinate of the range of f.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 24457573, 579311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 79 ], [ 391, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If V′ is a variety contained in Am, we say that f is a regular map from V to V′ if the range of f is contained in V′.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The definition of the regular maps apply also to algebraic sets.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The regular maps are also called morphisms, as they make the collection of all affine algebraic sets into a category, where the objects are the affine algebraic sets and the morphisms are the regular maps. The affine varieties is a subcategory of the category of the algebraic sets.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 5869, 27716891 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 116 ], [ 174, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Given a regular map g from V to V′ and a regular function f of k[V′], then . The map is a ring homomorphism from k[V′] to k[V]. Conversely, every ring homomorphism from k[V′] to k[V] defines a regular map from V to V′. This defines an equivalence of categories between the category of algebraic sets and the opposite category of the finitely generated reduced k-algebras. This equivalence is one of the starting points of scheme theory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 26411, 379051, 310885, 539749, 364754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 108 ], [ 236, 261 ], [ 309, 326 ], [ 353, 360 ], [ 423, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In contrast to the preceding sections, this section concerns only varieties and not algebraic sets. On the other hand, the definitions extend naturally to projective varieties (next section), as an affine variety and its projective completion have the same field of functions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If V is an affine variety, its coordinate ring is an integral domain and has thus a field of fractions which is denoted k(V) and called the field of the rational functions on V or, shortly, the function field of V. Its elements are the restrictions to V of the rational functions over the affine space containing V. The domain of a rational function f is not V but the complement of the subvariety (a hypersurface) where the denominator of f vanishes.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 15462, 25271, 2783843, 361210, 50263, 54347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 68 ], [ 84, 102 ], [ 194, 208 ], [ 261, 278 ], [ 320, 326 ], [ 369, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As with regular maps, one may define a rational map from a variety V to a variety V. As with the regular maps, the rational maps from V to V may be identified to the field homomorphisms from k(V) to k(V).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 26411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two affine varieties are birationally equivalent if there are two rational functions between them which are inverse one to the other in the regions where both are defined. Equivalently, they are birationally equivalent if their function fields are isomorphic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 14907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An affine variety is a rational variety if it is birationally equivalent to an affine space. This means that the variety admits a rational parameterization, that is a parametrization with rational functions. For example, the circle of equation is a rational curve, as it has the parametric equation", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 865939, 453198, 361210, 576108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 39 ], [ 167, 182 ], [ 188, 205 ], [ 280, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "which may also be viewed as a rational map from the line to the circle.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The problem of resolution of singularities is to know if every algebraic variety is birationally equivalent to a variety whose projective completion is nonsingular (see also smooth completion). It was solved in the affirmative in characteristic 0 by Heisuke Hironaka in 1964 and is yet unsolved in finite characteristic.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 9914115, 34289679, 13822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 42 ], [ 174, 191 ], [ 250, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Just as the formulas for the roots of second, third, and fourth degree polynomials suggest extending real numbers to the more algebraically complete setting of the complex numbers, many properties of algebraic varieties suggest extending affine space to a more geometrically complete projective space. Whereas the complex numbers are obtained by adding the number i, a root of the polynomial , projective space is obtained by adding in appropriate points \"at infinity\", points where parallel lines may meet.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To see how this might come about, consider the variety . If we draw it, we get a parabola. As x goes to positive infinity, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (x,x2) also goes to positive infinity. As x goes to negative infinity, the slope of the same line goes to negative infinity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 23231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compare this to the variety V(yx3). This is a cubic curve. As x goes to positive infinity, the slope of the line from the origin to the point (x,x3) goes to positive infinity just as before. But unlike before, as x goes to negative infinity, the slope of the same line goes to positive infinity as well; the exact opposite of the parabola. So the behavior \"at infinity\" of V(yx3) is different from the behavior \"at infinity\" of V(yx2).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 649721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The consideration of the projective completion of the two curves, which is their prolongation \"at infinity\" in the projective plane, allows us to quantify this difference: the point at infinity of the parabola is a regular point, whose tangent is the line at infinity, while the point at infinity of the cubic curve is a cusp. Also, both curves are rational, as they are parameterized by x, and the Riemann-Roch theorem implies that the cubic curve must have a singularity, which must be at infinity, as all its points in the affine space are regular.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 24350, 981915, 403142, 6851758, 247261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 115, 131 ], [ 215, 228 ], [ 251, 267 ], [ 321, 325 ], [ 399, 419 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thus many of the properties of algebraic varieties, including birational equivalence and all the topological properties, depend on the behavior \"at infinity\" and so it is natural to study the varieties in projective space. Furthermore, the introduction of projective techniques made many theorems in algebraic geometry simpler and sharper: For example, Bézout's theorem on the number of intersection points between two varieties can be stated in its sharpest form only in projective space. For these reasons, projective space plays a fundamental role in algebraic geometry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 149217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 353, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Nowadays, the projective space Pn of dimension n is usually defined as the set of the lines passing through a point, considered as the origin, in the affine space of dimension , or equivalently to the set of the vector lines in a vector space of dimension . When a coordinate system has been chosen in the space of dimension , all the points of a line have the same set of coordinates, up to the multiplication by an element of k. This defines the homogeneous coordinates of a point of Pn as a sequence of elements of the base field k, defined up to the multiplication by a nonzero element of k (the same for the whole sequence).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 242135, 243316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 30 ], [ 448, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A polynomial in variables vanishes at all points of a line passing through the origin if and only if it is homogeneous. In this case, one says that the polynomial vanishes at the corresponding point of Pn. This allows us to define a projective algebraic set in Pn as the set , where a finite set of homogeneous polynomials vanishes. Like for affine algebraic sets, there is a bijection between the projective algebraic sets and the reduced homogeneous ideals which define them. The projective varieties are the projective algebraic sets whose defining ideal is prime. In other words, a projective variety is a projective algebraic set, whose homogeneous coordinate ring is an integral domain, the projective coordinates ring being defined as the quotient of the graded ring or the polynomials in variables by the homogeneous (reduced) ideal defining the variety. Every projective algebraic set may be uniquely decomposed into a finite union of projective varieties.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [ 1698977, 103094, 23833909, 15462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 119 ], [ 442, 459 ], [ 644, 671 ], [ 678, 693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The only regular functions which may be defined properly on a projective variety are the constant functions. Thus this notion is not used in projective situations. On the other hand, the field of the rational functions or function field is a useful notion, which, similarly to the affine case, is defined as the set of the quotients of two homogeneous elements of the same degree in the homogeneous coordinate ring.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Basic notions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Real algebraic geometry is the study of the real points of algebraic varieties.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Real algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The fact that the field of the real numbers is an ordered field cannot be ignored in such a study. For example, the curve of equation is a circle if , but does not have any real point if . It follows that real algebraic geometry is not only the study of the real algebraic varieties, but has been generalized to the study of the semi-algebraic sets, which are the solutions of systems of polynomial equations and polynomial inequalities. For example, a branch of the hyperbola of equation is not an algebraic variety, but is a semi-algebraic set defined by and or by and .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Real algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 22430, 14052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 63 ], [ 468, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the challenging problems of real algebraic geometry is the unsolved Hilbert's sixteenth problem: Decide which respective positions are possible for the ovals of a nonsingular plane curve of degree 8.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Real algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 381750, 971691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 102 ], [ 182, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One may date the origin of computational algebraic geometry to meeting EUROSAM'79 (International Symposium on Symbolic and Algebraic Manipulation) held at Marseille, France, in June 1979. At this meeting,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 40888948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dennis S. Arnon showed that George E. Collins's Cylindrical algebraic decomposition (CAD) allows the computation of the topology of semi-algebraic sets,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 41768958, 12218154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 46 ], [ 49, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bruno Buchberger presented the Gröbner bases and his algorithm to compute them,", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 1924233, 357328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 32, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Daniel Lazard presented a new algorithm for solving systems of homogeneous polynomial equations with a computational complexity which is essentially polynomial in the expected number of solutions and thus simply exponential in the number of the unknowns. This algorithm is strongly related with Macaulay's multivariate resultant.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 34227839, 6511, 3592252, 2195020 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 104, 128 ], [ 296, 304 ], [ 307, 329 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since then, most results in this area are related to one or several of these items either by using or improving one of these algorithms, or by finding algorithms whose complexity is simply exponential in the number of the variables.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A body of mathematical theory complementary to symbolic methods called numerical algebraic geometry has been developed over the last several decades. The main computational method is homotopy continuation. This supports, for example, a model of floating point computation for solving problems of algebraic geometry.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 52802478, 52802478, 11376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 99 ], [ 184, 205 ], [ 247, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Gröbner basis is a system of generators of a polynomial ideal whose computation allows the deduction of many properties of the affine algebraic variety defined by the ideal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 357328, 25977, 25977 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 15 ], [ 31, 41 ], [ 58, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Given an ideal I defining an algebraic set V:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " V is empty (over an algebraically closed extension of the basis field), if and only if the Gröbner basis for any monomial ordering is reduced to {1}.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 696408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " By means of the Hilbert series one may compute the dimension and the degree of V from any Gröbner basis of I for a monomial ordering refining the total degree.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 6612596, 253251, 2776558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 31 ], [ 52, 61 ], [ 70, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " If the dimension of V is 0, one may compute the points (finite in number) of V from any Gröbner basis of I (see Systems of polynomial equations).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 27420015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Gröbner basis computation allows one to remove from V all irreducible components which are contained in a given hypersurface.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A Gröbner basis computation allows one to compute the Zariski closure of the image of V by the projection on the k first coordinates, and the subset of the image where the projection is not proper.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " More generally Gröbner basis computations allow one to compute the Zariski closure of the image and the critical points of a rational function of V into another affine variety.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 1951424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gröbner basis computations do not allow one to compute directly the primary decomposition of I nor the prime ideals defining the irreducible components of V, but most algorithms for this involve Gröbner basis computation. The algorithms which are not based on Gröbner bases use regular chains but may need Gröbner bases in some exceptional situations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 18814716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 291 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gröbner bases are deemed to be difficult to compute. In fact they may contain, in the worst case, polynomials whose degree is doubly exponential in the number of variables and a number of polynomials which is also doubly exponential. However, this is only a worst case complexity, and the complexity bound of Lazard's algorithm of 1979 may frequently apply. Faugère F5 algorithm realizes this complexity, as it may be viewed as an improvement of Lazard's 1979 algorithm. It follows that the best implementations allow one to compute almost routinely with algebraic sets of degree more than 100. This means that, presently, the difficulty of computing a Gröbner basis is strongly related to the intrinsic difficulty of the problem.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 6212640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 358, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "CAD is an algorithm which was introduced in 1973 by G. Collins to implement with an acceptable complexity the Tarski–Seidenberg theorem on quantifier elimination over the real numbers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 19389633, 2150441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 135 ], [ 139, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This theorem concerns the formulas of the first-order logic whose atomic formulas are polynomial equalities or inequalities between polynomials with real coefficients. These formulas are thus the formulas which may be constructed from the atomic formulas by the logical operators and (∧), or (∨), not (¬), for all (∀) and exists (∃). Tarski's theorem asserts that, from such a formula, one may compute an equivalent formula without quantifier (∀, ∃).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 10983, 4472066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 59 ], [ 66, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The complexity of CAD is doubly exponential in the number of variables. This means that CAD allows, in theory, to solve every problem of real algebraic geometry which may be expressed by such a formula, that is almost every problem concerning explicitly given varieties and semi-algebraic sets.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While Gröbner basis computation has doubly exponential complexity only in rare cases, CAD has almost always this high complexity. This implies that, unless if most polynomials appearing in the input are linear, it may not solve problems with more than four variables.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1973, most of the research on this subject is devoted either to improving CAD or finding alternative algorithms in special cases of general interest.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As an example of the state of art, there are efficient algorithms to find at least a point in every connected component of a semi-algebraic set, and thus to test if a semi-algebraic set is empty. On the other hand, CAD is yet, in practice, the best algorithm to count the number of connected components.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The basic general algorithms of computational geometry have a double exponential worst case complexity. More precisely, if d is the maximal degree of the input polynomials and n the number of variables, their complexity is at most for some constant c, and, for some inputs, the complexity is at least for another constant c′.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 7543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the last 20 years of the 20th century, various algorithms have been introduced to solve specific subproblems with a better complexity. Most of these algorithms have a complexity .", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Among these algorithms which solve a sub problem of the problems solved by Gröbner bases, one may cite testing if an affine variety is empty and solving nonhomogeneous polynomial systems which have a finite number of solutions. Such algorithms are rarely implemented because, on most entries Faugère's F4 and F5 algorithms have a better practical efficiency and probably a similar or better complexity (probably because the evaluation of the complexity of Gröbner basis algorithms on a particular class of entries is a difficult task which has been done only in a few special cases).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 6212640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 292, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The main algorithms of real algebraic geometry which solve a problem solved by CAD are related to the topology of semi-algebraic sets. One may cite counting the number of connected components, testing if two points are in the same components or computing a Whitney stratification of a real algebraic set. They have a complexity of", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 9322242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 257, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": ", but the constant involved by O notation is so high that using them to solve any nontrivial problem effectively solved by CAD, is impossible even if one could use all the existing computing power in the world. Therefore, these algorithms have never been implemented and this is an active research area to search for algorithms with have together a good asymptotic complexity and a good practical efficiency.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Computational algebraic geometry", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The modern approaches to algebraic geometry redefine and effectively extend the range of basic objects in various levels of generality to schemes, formal schemes, ind-schemes, algebraic spaces, algebraic stacks and so on. The need for this arises already from the useful ideas within theory of varieties, e.g. the formal functions of Zariski can be accommodated by introducing nilpotent elements in structure rings; considering spaces of loops and arcs, constructing quotients by group actions and developing formal grounds for natural intersection theory and deformation theory lead to some of the further extensions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Abstract modern viewpoint", "target_page_ids": [ 18829483, 44417413, 2394027, 717377, 3148602, 679351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 160 ], [ 163, 173 ], [ 176, 191 ], [ 194, 209 ], [ 536, 555 ], [ 560, 578 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most remarkably, in the late 1950s, algebraic varieties were subsumed into Alexander Grothendieck's concept of a scheme. Their local objects are affine schemes or prime spectra which are locally ringed spaces which form a category which is antiequivalent to the category of commutative unital rings, extending the duality between the category of affine algebraic varieties over a field k, and the category of finitely generated reduced k-algebras. The gluing is along Zariski topology; one can glue within the category of locally ringed spaces, but also, using the Yoneda embedding, within the more abstract category of presheaves of sets over the category of affine schemes. The Zariski topology in the set theoretic sense is then replaced by a Grothendieck topology. Grothendieck introduced Grothendieck topologies having in mind more exotic but geometrically finer and more sensitive examples than the crude Zariski topology, namely the étale topology, and the two flat Grothendieck topologies: fppf and fpqc; nowadays some other examples became prominent including Nisnevich topology. Sheaves can be furthermore generalized to stacks in the sense of Grothendieck, usually with some additional representability conditions leading to Artin stacks and, even finer, Deligne–Mumford stacks, both often called algebraic stacks.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Abstract modern viewpoint", "target_page_ids": [ 2042, 364754, 12910, 5707590, 14627005, 13185596, 40639179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 97 ], [ 113, 119 ], [ 746, 767 ], [ 940, 954 ], [ 1069, 1087 ], [ 1236, 1247 ], [ 1266, 1287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes other algebraic sites replace the category of affine schemes. For example, Nikolai Durov has introduced commutative algebraic monads as a generalization of local objects in a generalized algebraic geometry. Versions of a tropical geometry, of an absolute geometry over a field of one element and an algebraic analogue of Arakelov's geometry were realized in this setup.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Abstract modern viewpoint", "target_page_ids": [ 30349088, 867041, 699294, 16364229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 98 ], [ 231, 248 ], [ 256, 273 ], [ 331, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another formal generalization is possible to universal algebraic geometry in which every variety of algebras has its own algebraic geometry. The term variety of algebras should not be confused with algebraic variety.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Abstract modern viewpoint", "target_page_ids": [ 17736871, 1021753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 73 ], [ 89, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The language of schemes, stacks and generalizations has proved to be a valuable way of dealing with geometric concepts and became cornerstones of modern algebraic geometry.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Abstract modern viewpoint", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Algebraic stacks can be further generalized and for many practical questions like deformation theory and intersection theory, this is often the most natural approach. One can extend the Grothendieck site of affine schemes to a higher categorical site of derived affine schemes, by replacing the commutative rings with an infinity category of differential graded commutative algebras, or of simplicial commutative rings or a similar category with an appropriate variant of a Grothendieck topology. One can also replace presheaves of sets by presheaves of simplicial sets (or of infinity groupoids). Then, in presence of an appropriate homotopic machinery one can develop a notion of derived stack as such a presheaf on the infinity category of derived affine schemes, which is satisfying certain infinite categorical version of a sheaf axiom (and to be algebraic, inductively a sequence of representability conditions). Quillen model categories, Segal categories and quasicategories are some of the most often used tools to formalize this yielding the derived algebraic geometry, introduced by the school of Carlos Simpson, including Andre Hirschowitz, Bertrand Toën, Gabrielle Vezzosi, Michel Vaquié and others; and developed further by Jacob Lurie, Bertrand Toën, and Gabriele Vezzosi. Another (noncommutative) version of derived algebraic geometry, using A-infinity categories has been developed from the early 1990s by Maxim Kontsevich and followers.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Abstract modern viewpoint", "target_page_ids": [ 12910, 5274013, 40776948, 2415863, 2895304, 28662219, 40778281, 50065428, 53584890, 26663863, 53584890, 56323308, 104509 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 203 ], [ 227, 245 ], [ 254, 275 ], [ 342, 381 ], [ 919, 943 ], [ 966, 981 ], [ 1051, 1077 ], [ 1107, 1121 ], [ 1152, 1165 ], [ 1237, 1248 ], [ 1250, 1263 ], [ 1269, 1285 ], [ 1422, 1438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some of the roots of algebraic geometry date back to the work of the Hellenistic Greeks from the 5th century BC. The Delian problem, for instance, was to construct a length x so that the cube of side x contained the same volume as the rectangular box a2b for given sides a and b. Menaechmus () considered the problem geometrically by intersecting the pair of plane conics ay=x2 and xy=ab. In the 3rd century BC, Archimedes and Apollonius systematically studied additional problems on conic sections using coordinates. Medieval Muslim mathematicians, including Ibn al-Haytham in the 10th century AD, solved certain cubic equations by purely algebraic means and then interpreted the results geometrically. The Persian mathematician Omar Khayyám (born 1048 AD) discovered a method for solving cubic equations by intersecting a parabola with a circle and seems to have been the first to conceive a general theory of cubic equations. A few years after Omar Khayyám, Sharaf al-Din al-Tusi's Treatise on equations has been described by Roshdi Rashed as \"inaugurating the beginning of algebraic geometry\". This was criticized by Jeffrey Oaks, who claims that the study of curves by means of equations originated with Descartes in the seventeenth century.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 565604, 91110, 1944319, 1844, 257242, 19008673, 3304216, 1645, 24607, 92550, 180787, 1768580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 87 ], [ 117, 131 ], [ 280, 290 ], [ 412, 422 ], [ 427, 437 ], [ 484, 498 ], [ 518, 548 ], [ 560, 574 ], [ 708, 715 ], [ 730, 742 ], [ 790, 804 ], [ 961, 982 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Such techniques of applying geometrical constructions to algebraic problems were also adopted by a number of Renaissance mathematicians such as Gerolamo Cardano and Niccolò Fontana \"Tartaglia\" on their studies of the cubic equation. The geometrical approach to construction problems, rather than the algebraic one, was favored by most 16th and 17th century mathematicians, notably Blaise Pascal who argued against the use of algebraic and analytical methods in geometry. The French mathematicians Franciscus Vieta and later René Descartes and Pierre de Fermat revolutionized the conventional way of thinking about construction problems through the introduction of coordinate geometry. They were interested primarily in the properties of algebraic curves, such as those defined by Diophantine equations (in the case of Fermat), and the algebraic reformulation of the classical Greek works on conics and cubics (in the case of Descartes).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25532, 13145, 22148, 4068, 310238, 25525, 7576966, 2202, 9109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 120 ], [ 144, 160 ], [ 165, 192 ], [ 381, 394 ], [ 497, 513 ], [ 524, 538 ], [ 543, 559 ], [ 664, 683 ], [ 780, 801 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the same period, Blaise Pascal and Gérard Desargues approached geometry from a different perspective, developing the synthetic notions of projective geometry. Pascal and Desargues also studied curves, but from the purely geometrical point of view: the analog of the Greek ruler and compass construction. Ultimately, the analytic geometry of Descartes and Fermat won out, for it supplied the 18th century mathematicians with concrete quantitative tools needed to study physical problems using the new calculus of Newton and Leibniz. However, by the end of the 18th century, most of the algebraic character of coordinate geometry was subsumed by the calculus of infinitesimals of Lagrange and Euler.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 358484, 267484, 243849, 2202, 14627, 12281, 87793, 17902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 58 ], [ 124, 133 ], [ 145, 164 ], [ 327, 344 ], [ 519, 525 ], [ 530, 537 ], [ 685, 693 ], [ 698, 703 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It took the simultaneous 19th century developments of non-Euclidean geometry and Abelian integrals in order to bring the old algebraic ideas back into the geometrical fold. The first of these new developments was seized up by Edmond Laguerre and Arthur Cayley, who attempted to ascertain the generalized metric properties of projective space. Cayley introduced the idea of homogeneous polynomial forms, and more specifically quadratic forms, on projective space. Subsequently, Felix Klein studied projective geometry (along with other types of geometry) from the viewpoint that the geometry on a space is encoded in a certain class of transformations on the space. By the end of the 19th century, projective geometers were studying more general kinds of transformations on figures in projective space. Rather than the projective linear transformations which were normally regarded as giving the fundamental Kleinian geometry on projective space, they concerned themselves also with the higher degree birational transformations. This weaker notion of congruence would later lead members of the 20th century Italian school of algebraic geometry to classify algebraic surfaces up to birational isomorphism.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 58610, 1138853, 1011080, 311034, 251478, 41887, 56661772, 2908224, 382733, 383424, 648311, 2783119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 76 ], [ 81, 97 ], [ 226, 241 ], [ 246, 259 ], [ 425, 439 ], [ 477, 488 ], [ 635, 650 ], [ 907, 924 ], [ 1000, 1025 ], [ 1106, 1142 ], [ 1155, 1172 ], [ 1180, 1202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The second early 19th century development, that of Abelian integrals, would lead Bernhard Riemann to the development of Riemann surfaces.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 41980, 173181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 97 ], [ 120, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the same period began the algebraization of the algebraic geometry through commutative algebra. The prominent results in this direction are Hilbert's basis theorem and Hilbert's Nullstellensatz, which are the basis of the connexion between algebraic geometry and commutative algebra, and Macaulay's multivariate resultant, which is the basis of elimination theory. Probably because of the size of the computation which is implied by multivariate resultants, elimination theory was forgotten during the middle of the 20th century until it was renewed by singularity theory and computational algebraic geometry.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 245990, 13733, 149215, 3592252, 2195020, 245978, 581763 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 97 ], [ 143, 166 ], [ 171, 196 ], [ 291, 299 ], [ 302, 324 ], [ 348, 366 ], [ 556, 574 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "B. L. van der Waerden, Oscar Zariski and André Weil developed a foundation for algebraic geometry based on contemporary commutative algebra, including valuation theory and the theory of ideals. One of the goals was to give a rigorous framework for proving the results of Italian school of algebraic geometry. In particular, this school used systematically the notion of generic point without any precise definition, which was first given by these authors during the 1930s.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 91390, 359352, 2019, 245990, 347049, 25977, 383424, 3043978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ], [ 23, 36 ], [ 41, 51 ], [ 120, 139 ], [ 151, 167 ], [ 186, 192 ], [ 271, 307 ], [ 370, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1950s and 1960s, Jean-Pierre Serre and Alexander Grothendieck recast the foundations making use of sheaf theory. Later, from about 1960, and largely led by Grothendieck, the idea of schemes was worked out, in conjunction with a very refined apparatus of homological techniques. After a decade of rapid development the field stabilized in the 1970s, and new applications were made, both to number theory and to more classical geometric questions on algebraic varieties, singularities, moduli, and formal moduli.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 205483, 2042, 245466, 364754, 139410, 21527, 581763, 361609, 3018981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 41 ], [ 46, 68 ], [ 106, 118 ], [ 189, 196 ], [ 261, 283 ], [ 396, 409 ], [ 476, 489 ], [ 491, 497 ], [ 503, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An important class of varieties, not easily understood directly from their defining equations, are the abelian varieties, which are the projective varieties whose points form an abelian group. The prototypical examples are the elliptic curves, which have a rich theory. They were instrumental in the proof of Fermat's Last Theorem and are also used in elliptic-curve cryptography.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 247152, 19447, 10225, 19021953, 9966 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 120 ], [ 186, 191 ], [ 227, 241 ], [ 309, 330 ], [ 352, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In parallel with the abstract trend of the algebraic geometry, which is concerned with general statements about varieties, methods for effective computation with concretely-given varieties have also been developed, which lead to the new area of computational algebraic geometry. One of the founding methods of this area is the theory of Gröbner bases, introduced by Bruno Buchberger in 1965. Another founding method, more specially devoted to real algebraic geometry, is the cylindrical algebraic decomposition, introduced by George E. Collins in 1973.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 357328, 1924233, 12218154, 41768958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 350 ], [ 366, 382 ], [ 475, 510 ], [ 526, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "See also: derived algebraic geometry.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 40778281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An analytic variety is defined locally as the set of common solutions of several equations involving analytic functions. It is analogous to the included concept of real or complex algebraic variety. Any complex manifold is an analytic variety. Since analytic varieties may have singular points, not all analytic varieties are manifolds.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Analytic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 18748850, 61478, 248808, 509742, 54240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ], [ 101, 118 ], [ 180, 197 ], [ 203, 219 ], [ 278, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern analytic geometry is essentially equivalent to real and complex algebraic geometry, as has been shown by Jean-Pierre Serre in his paper GAGA, the name of which is French for Algebraic geometry and analytic geometry. Nevertheless, the two fields remain distinct, as the methods of proof are quite different and algebraic geometry includes also geometry in finite characteristic.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Analytic geometry", "target_page_ids": [ 205483, 630505, 1066621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 129 ], [ 143, 147 ], [ 369, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Algebraic geometry now finds applications in statistics, control theory, robotics, error-correcting codes, phylogenetics and geometric modelling. There are also connections to string theory, game theory, graph matchings, solitons and integer programming.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 17314682, 7039, 20903754, 1882683, 3986130, 4577462, 2164886, 11924, 581797, 51654, 411215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 55 ], [ 57, 71 ], [ 73, 81 ], [ 83, 105 ], [ 107, 120 ], [ 125, 144 ], [ 176, 189 ], [ 191, 202 ], [ 204, 218 ], [ 221, 228 ], [ 234, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Glossary of classical algebraic geometry", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 35326250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Important publications in algebraic geometry", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 708399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of algebraic surfaces", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3088901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Noncommutative algebraic geometry", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25493347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some classic textbooks that predate schemes", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Modern textbooks that do not use the language of schemes", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Textbooks in computational algebraic geometry", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Textbooks and references for schemes", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Foundations of Algebraic Geometry by Ravi Vakil, 808 pp.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Algebraic geometry entry on PlanetMath", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " English translation of the van der Waerden textbook", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Stacks Project, an open source textbook and reference work on algebraic stacks and algebraic geometry", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Algebraic_geometry", "Fields_of_mathematics" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Austin is the capital city of the U.S. state of Texas, as well as the seat and largest city of Travis County, with portions extending into Hays and Williamson counties. Incorporated on December 27, 1839, it is the 11th-most populous city in the United States, the fourth-most-populous city in Texas, the second-most-populous state capital city, one of two state capitals with a population of over one million people, after Phoenix, Arizona, and the most populous state capital that is not also the most populous city in its state. It has been one of the fastest growing large cities in the United States since 2010. Downtown Austin and Downtown San Antonio are approximately apart, and both fall along the Interstate 35 corridor. Some observers believe that the two regions may some day form a new \"metroplex\" similar to Dallas and Fort Worth. Austin is the southernmost state capital in the contiguous United States and is considered a \"Beta −\" global city as categorized by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 181337, 18618239, 29810, 51509, 91426, 91561, 91404, 1649321, 3434750, 42530789, 29810, 255627, 49121, 14620859, 12346315, 89535, 328591, 83759, 29141681, 784781, 29141681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 26 ], [ 34, 44 ], [ 48, 53 ], [ 70, 74 ], [ 95, 108 ], [ 139, 143 ], [ 148, 158 ], [ 214, 237 ], [ 245, 258 ], [ 264, 289 ], [ 293, 298 ], [ 304, 343 ], [ 423, 439 ], [ 617, 632 ], [ 637, 657 ], [ 708, 721 ], [ 823, 844 ], [ 894, 918 ], [ 940, 946 ], [ 948, 959 ], [ 982, 1029 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2022, Austin had an estimated population of 1,028,225, up from 961,855 at the 2020 census. The city is the cultural and economic center of the metropolitan statistical area, which had an estimated population of 2,295,303 , a roughly 84% increase from the year 2000. Located in within the greater Texas Hill Country, it is home to numerous lakes, rivers, and waterways, including Lady Bird Lake and Lake Travis on the Colorado River, Barton Springs, McKinney Falls, and Lake Walter E. Long.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23962196, 317638, 165936, 166312, 180969, 994682, 10395942, 5626864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 95 ], [ 304, 322 ], [ 387, 401 ], [ 406, 417 ], [ 425, 439 ], [ 441, 455 ], [ 457, 471 ], [ 477, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Residents of Austin are known as Austinites. They include a diverse mix of government employees, college students, musicians, high-tech workers, digital marketers, and blue-collar workers. The city's official slogan promotes Austin as \"The Live Music Capital of the World\", a reference to the city's many musicians and live music venues, as well as the long-running PBS TV concert series Austin City Limits. The city also adopted \"Silicon Hills\" as a nickname in the 1990s due to a rapid influx of technology and development companies. In recent years, some Austinites have adopted the unofficial slogan \"Keep Austin Weird\", which refers to the desire to protect small, unique, and local businesses from being overrun by large corporations. Since the late 19th century, Austin has also been known as the \"City of the Violet Crown\", because of the colorful glow of light across the hills just after sunset.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5540061, 246816, 29697498, 174839, 16906534, 2822353, 2586971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ], [ 168, 186 ], [ 366, 369 ], [ 388, 406 ], [ 431, 444 ], [ 605, 622 ], [ 805, 829 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1987, Austin originated and remains the site for South by Southwest (stylized as SXSW and colloquially referred to as South By), an annual conglomeration of parallel film, interactive media, and music festivals and conferences that take place in mid-March.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4130245, 10781, 1652134, 7504750, 3447769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 70 ], [ 169, 173 ], [ 175, 192 ], [ 198, 212 ], [ 218, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emerging from a strong economic focus on government and education, since the 1990s, Austin has become a center for technology and business. The technology roots in Austin can be traced back to the 1960s when Tracor (now BAE Systems), a major defense electronics contractor, began operation in the city in 1962. IBM followed in 1967, opening a facility to produce its Selectric typewriters. Texas Instruments setup in Austin two years later, Motorola (now NXP Semiconductors) started semiconductor chip manufacturing in 1974. BAE Systems, IBM, and NXP Semiconductors still have campuses and manufacturing operations in Austin as of 2022. A number of Fortune 500 companies have headquarters or regional offices in Austin, including 3M, Advanced Micro Devices (AMD), Amazon, Apple, Facebook (Meta), Google, IBM, Intel, NXP Semiconductors, Oracle, Tesla, Texas Instruments, and Whole Foods Market. Dell's worldwide headquarters is located in the nearby suburb of Round Rock. With regard to education, Austin is the home of the University of Texas at Austin, which is one of the largest universities in the U.S., with over 50,000 students. In 2021, Austin became home to the Austin FC, the first (and currently only) major professional sports league in the city.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 276447, 7664801, 2400, 90451, 856, 62420226, 1092923, 40379651, 14617, 6794062, 22591, 5533631, 47768, 620343, 102490, 151245, 32031, 58497200, 9314339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 651, 662 ], [ 732, 734 ], [ 736, 764 ], [ 766, 772 ], [ 774, 779 ], [ 781, 796 ], [ 798, 804 ], [ 806, 809 ], [ 811, 816 ], [ 818, 836 ], [ 838, 844 ], [ 846, 851 ], [ 853, 870 ], [ 876, 894 ], [ 896, 900 ], [ 961, 971 ], [ 1025, 1054 ], [ 1172, 1181 ], [ 1214, 1246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin, Travis County and Williamson County have been the site of human habitation since at least 9200 BC. The area's earliest known inhabitants lived during the late Pleistocene (Ice Age) and are linked to the Clovis culture around 9200 BC (over 11,200 years ago), based on evidence found throughout the area and documented at the much-studied Gault Site, midway between Georgetown and Fort Hood.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23310, 696591, 42361266, 136815, 151113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 178 ], [ 211, 225 ], [ 345, 355 ], [ 372, 382 ], [ 387, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When settlers arrived from Europe, the Tonkawa tribe inhabited the area. The Comanches and Lipan Apaches were also known to travel through the area. Spanish colonists, including the Espinosa-Olivares-Aguirre expedition, traveled through the area, though few permanent settlements were created for some time. In 1730, three Catholic missions from East Texas were combined and reestablished as one mission on the south side of the Colorado River, in what is now Zilker Park, in Austin. The mission was in this area for only about seven months, and then was moved to San Antonio de Béxar and split into three missions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1798835, 54001, 412738, 27757034, 27176569, 65646296, 11738868, 412645, 165971, 53848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 46 ], [ 77, 85 ], [ 91, 104 ], [ 182, 190 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 200, 207 ], [ 323, 340 ], [ 346, 356 ], [ 460, 471 ], [ 564, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1830s, pioneers began to settle the area in central Austin along the Colorado River. Spanish forts were established in what are now Bastrop and San Marcos. Following Mexico's independence, new settlements were established in Central Texas, but growth in the region was stagnant because of conflicts with the regional Native Americans.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 180969, 135460, 151124, 19222, 23618017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 94 ], [ 143, 150 ], [ 155, 165 ], [ 177, 198 ], [ 236, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1835–1836, Texans fought and won independence from Mexico. Texas thus became an independent country with its own president, congress, and monetary system. In 1839, the Texas Congress formed a commission to seek a site for a new capital of the Republic of Texas to replace Houston. When he was Vice President of Texas, Mirabeau B. Lamar had visited the area during a buffalo-hunting expedition between 1837 and 1838. He advised the commissioners to consider the area on the north bank of the Colorado River (near the present-day Congress Avenue Bridge), noting the area's hills, waterways, and pleasant surroundings. It was seen as a convenient crossroads for trade routes between Santa Fe and Galveston Bay, as well as routes between northern Mexico and the Red River. In 1839, the site was chosen, and was briefly incorporated under the name \"Waterloo\". Shortly afterward, the name was changed to Austin in honor of Stephen F. Austin, the \"Father of Texas\" and the republic's first secretary of state.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 38711, 25457, 13774, 207640, 49725, 180969, 11612238, 19284345, 593579, 194242, 66171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 60 ], [ 246, 263 ], [ 275, 282 ], [ 321, 338 ], [ 369, 376 ], [ 494, 508 ], [ 531, 553 ], [ 683, 691 ], [ 696, 709 ], [ 761, 770 ], [ 920, 937 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city grew throughout the 19th century and became a center for government and education with the construction of the Texas State Capitol and the University of Texas at Austin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 503403, 32031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 139 ], [ 148, 177 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Edwin Waller was picked by Lamar to survey the village and draft a plan laying out the new capital. The original site was narrowed to that fronted the Colorado River between two creeks, Shoal Creek and Waller Creek, which was later named in his honor. Waller and a team of surveyors developed Austin's first city plan, commonly known as the Waller Plan, dividing the site into a 14-block grid plan bisected by a broad north–south thoroughfare, Congress Avenue, running up from the river to Capital Square, where the new Texas State Capitol was to be constructed. A temporary one-story capitol was erected on the corner of Colorado and 8th Streets. On August 1, 1839, the first auction of 217 out of 306 lots total was held. The Waller Plan designed and surveyed now forms the basis of downtown Austin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 442762, 46212943, 66361896 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 309, 318 ], [ 342, 353 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1840, a series of conflicts between the Texas Rangers and the Comanches, known as the Council House Fight and the Battle of Plum Creek, pushed the Comanches westward, mostly ending conflicts in Central Texas. Settlement in the area began to expand quickly. Travis County was established in 1840, and the surrounding counties were mostly established within the next two decades.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 385000, 54001, 11772741, 11701276 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 56 ], [ 65, 73 ], [ 89, 108 ], [ 117, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Initially, the new capital thrived but Lamar's political enemy, Sam Houston, used two Mexican army incursions to San Antonio as an excuse to move the government. Sam Houston fought bitterly against Lamar's decision to establish the capital in such a remote wilderness. The men and women who traveled mainly from Houston to conduct government business were intensely disappointed as well. By 1840, the population had risen to 856, nearly half of whom fled Austin when Congress recessed. The resident African American population listed in January of this same year was 176. The fear of Austin's proximity to the Indians and Mexico, which still considered Texas a part of their land, created an immense motive for Sam Houston, the first and third President of the Republic of Texas, to relocate the capital once again in 1841. Upon threats of Mexican troops in Texas, Houston raided the Land Office to transfer all official documents to Houston for safe keeping in what was later known as the Archive War, but the people of Austin would not allow this unaccompanied decision to be executed. The documents stayed, but the capital would temporarily move from Austin to Houston to Washington-on-the-Brazos. Without the governmental body, Austin's population declined to a low of only a few hundred people throughout the early 1840s. The voting by the fourth President of the Republic, Anson Jones, and Congress, who reconvened in Austin in 1845, settled the issue to keep Austin the seat of government, as well as annex the Republic of Texas into the United States.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 60024, 53848, 2154, 1514371, 448611, 429026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 75 ], [ 113, 124 ], [ 499, 515 ], [ 990, 1001 ], [ 1175, 1199 ], [ 1379, 1390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1860, 38% of Travis County residents were slaves. In 1861, with the outbreak of the American Civil War, voters in Austin and other Central Texas communities voted against secession. However, as the war progressed and fears of attack by Union forces increased, Austin contributed hundreds of men to the Confederate forces. The African American population of Austin swelled dramatically after the enforcement of the Emancipation Proclamation in Texas by Union General Gordon Granger at Galveston, in an event commemorated as Juneteenth. Black communities such as Wheatville, Pleasant Hill, and Clarksville were established, with Clarksville being the oldest surviving freedomtown ‒ the original post-Civil War settlements founded by former African-American slaves ‒ west of the Mississippi River. In 1870, blacks made up 36.5% of Austin's population.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 253264, 863, 481130, 7023, 9515, 360126, 1440358, 61542, 59179369, 19579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 51 ], [ 87, 105 ], [ 239, 244 ], [ 305, 316 ], [ 417, 442 ], [ 455, 460 ], [ 469, 483 ], [ 526, 536 ], [ 564, 574 ], [ 779, 796 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The postwar period saw dramatic population and economic growth. The opening of the Houston and Texas Central Railway (H&TC) in 1871 turned Austin into the major trading center for the region, with the ability to transport both cotton and cattle. The Missouri, Kansas & Texas (MKT) line followed close behind. Austin was also the terminus of the southernmost leg of the Chisholm Trail, and \"drovers\" pushed cattle north to the railroad. Cotton was one of the few crops produced locally for export, and a cotton gin engine was located downtown near the trains for \"ginning\" cotton of its seeds and turning the product into bales for shipment. However, as other new railroads were built through the region in the 1870s, Austin began to lose its primacy in trade to the surrounding communities. In addition, the areas east of Austin took over cattle and cotton production from Austin, especially in towns like Hutto and Taylor that sit over the blackland prairie, with its deep, rich soils for producing cotton and hay.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 34311767, 524350, 993678, 47710, 136817, 136820, 2221747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 116 ], [ 250, 274 ], [ 369, 383 ], [ 503, 513 ], [ 906, 911 ], [ 916, 922 ], [ 941, 958 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In September 1881, Austin public schools held their first classes. The same year, Tillotson Collegiate and Normal Institute (now part of Huston–Tillotson University) opened its doors. The University of Texas held its first classes in 1883, although classes had been held in the original wooden state capitol for four years before.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2153818, 32031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 164 ], [ 188, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1880s, Austin gained new prominence as the state capitol building was completed in 1888 and claimed as the seventh largest building in the world. In the late 19th century, Austin expanded its city limits to more than three times its former area, and the first granite dam was built on the Colorado River to power a new street car line and the new \"moon towers\". The first dam washed away in a flood on April 7, 1900.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 503403, 2371324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 76 ], [ 359, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the late 1920s and 1930s, Austin implemented the 1928 Austin city plan through a series of civic development and beautification projects that created much of the city's infrastructure and many of its parks. In addition, the state legislature established the Lower Colorado River Authority (LCRA) that, along with the city of Austin, created the system of dams along the Colorado River to form the Highland Lakes. These projects were enabled in large part because the Public Works Administration provided Austin with greater funding for municipal construction projects than other Texas cities.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 67338349, 95880, 317631, 55769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 73 ], [ 261, 291 ], [ 400, 414 ], [ 470, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the early twentieth century, a three-way system of social segregation emerged in Austin, with Anglos, African Americans and Mexicans being separated by custom or law in most aspects of life, including housing, health care, and education. Many of the municipal improvement programs initiated during this period—such as the construction of new roads, schools, and hospitals—were deliberately designed to institutionalize this system of segregation. Deed restrictions also played an important role in residential segregation. After 1935 most housing deeds prohibited African Americans (and sometimes other nonwhite groups) from using land. Combined with the system of segregated public services, racial segregation increased in Austin during the first half of the twentieth century, with African Americans and Mexicans experiencing high levels of discrimination and social marginalization.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16974018 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 505, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1940, the destroyed granite dam on the Colorado River was finally replaced by a hollow concrete dam that formed Lake McDonald (now called Lake Austin) and which has withstood all floods since. In addition, the much larger Mansfield Dam was built by the LCRA upstream of Austin to form Lake Travis, a flood-control reservoir.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 166313, 166312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 152 ], [ 288, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In the early 20th century, the Texas Oil Boom took hold, creating tremendous economic opportunities in Southeast Texas and North Texas. The growth generated by this boom largely passed by Austin at first, with the city slipping from fourth largest to 10th largest in Texas between 1880 and 1920.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26143256 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a severe lull in economic growth from the Great Depression, Austin resumed its steady development. Following the mid-20th century, Austin became established as one of Texas' major metropolitan centers. In 1970, the U.S. Census Bureau reported Austin's population as 14.5% Hispanic, 11.9% black, and 73.4% non-Hispanic white. In the late 20th century, Austin emerged as an important high tech center for semiconductors and software. The University of Texas at Austin emerged as a major university.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2685269, 27709, 32031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 64 ], [ 409, 422 ], [ 442, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1970s saw Austin's emergence in the national music scene, with local artists such as Willie Nelson, Asleep at the Wheel, and Stevie Ray Vaughan and iconic music venues such as the Armadillo World Headquarters. Over time, the long-running television program Austin City Limits, its namesake Austin City Limits Festival, and the South by Southwest music festival solidified the city's place in the music industry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 149709, 844676, 166911, 2079037, 4130245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 102 ], [ 104, 123 ], [ 129, 147 ], [ 184, 212 ], [ 331, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin, the southernmost state capital of the contiguous 48 states, is located in Central Texas on the Colorado River. Austin is northwest of Houston, south of Dallas and northeast of San Antonio.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 23618017, 180969, 13774, 53838, 53848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 95 ], [ 103, 117 ], [ 143, 150 ], [ 162, 168 ], [ 187, 198 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin occupies a total area of . Approximately of this area is water. Austin is situated at the foot of the Balcones Escarpment, on the Colorado River, with three artificial lakes within the city limits: Lady Bird Lake (formerly known as Town Lake), Lake Austin (both created by dams along the Colorado River), and Lake Walter E. Long that is partly used for cooling water for the Decker Power Plant. Mansfield Dam and the foot of Lake Travis are located within the city's limits. Lady Bird Lake, Lake Austin, and Lake Travis are each on the Colorado River.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 317658, 180969, 165936, 166313, 5626864, 288069, 166312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 130 ], [ 139, 153 ], [ 207, 221 ], [ 253, 264 ], [ 318, 337 ], [ 404, 417 ], [ 434, 445 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The elevation of Austin varies from to approximately above sea level. Due to the fact it straddles the Balcones Fault, much of the eastern part of the city is flat, with heavy clay and loam soils, whereas the western part and western suburbs consist of rolling hills on the edge of the Texas Hill Country. Because the hills to the west are primarily limestone rock with a thin covering of topsoil, portions of the city are frequently subjected to flash floods from the runoff caused by thunderstorms. To help control this runoff and to generate hydroelectric power, the Lower Colorado River Authority operates a series of dams that form the Texas Highland Lakes. The lakes also provide venues for boating, swimming, and other forms of recreation within several parks on the lake shores.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 317658, 317638, 17748, 244391, 95880, 317631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 119 ], [ 288, 306 ], [ 352, 361 ], [ 449, 460 ], [ 572, 602 ], [ 643, 663 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is located at the intersection of four major ecological regions, and is consequently a temperate-to-hot green oasis with a highly variable climate having some characteristics of the desert, the tropics, and a wetter climate. The area is very diverse ecologically and biologically, and is home to a variety of animals and plants. Notably, the area is home to many types of wildflowers that blossom throughout the year but especially in the spring. This includes the popular bluebonnets, some planted by \"Lady Bird\" Johnson, wife of former President Lyndon B. Johnson.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 30876840, 216416, 54533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 480, 491 ], [ 509, 528 ], [ 555, 572 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The soils of Austin range from shallow, gravelly clay loams over limestone in the western outskirts to deep, fine sandy loams, silty clay loams, silty clays or clays in the city's eastern part. Some of the clays have pronounced shrink-swell properties and are difficult to work under most moisture conditions. Many of Austin's soils, especially the clay-rich types, are slightly to moderately alkaline and have free calcium carbonate.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 44731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 416, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin's skyline historically was modest, dominated by the Texas State Capitol and the University of Texas Main Building. However, since the 2000s, many new high-rise towers have been constructed. Austin is currently undergoing a skyscraper boom, which includes recent construction on new office, hotel and residential buildings. Downtown's buildings are somewhat spread out, partly due to a set of zoning restrictions that preserve the view of the Texas State Capitol from various locations around Austin, known as the Capitol View Corridors.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 3760295, 56313, 503403, 55796568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 120 ], [ 399, 405 ], [ 449, 468 ], [ 520, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At night, parts of Austin are lit by \"artificial moonlight\" from moonlight towers built to illuminate the central part of the city. The moonlight towers were built in the late 19th century and are now recognized as historic landmarks. Only 15 of the 31 original innovative towers remain standing in Austin, but none remain in any of the other cities where they were installed. The towers are featured in the 1993 film Dazed and Confused.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 2371324, 503573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 80 ], [ 419, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The central business district of Austin is home to the tallest condo towers in the state, with The Independent (58 stories and tall) and The Austonian (topping out at 56 floors and tall). The Independent became the tallest all-residential building in the U.S. west of Chicago when topped out in 2018. In 2005, then-Mayor Will Wynn set out a goal of having 25,000 people living downtown by 2015. Although downtown's growth did not meet this goal, downtown's residential population did surge from an estimated 5,000 in 2005 to 12,000 in 2015. The skyline has drastically changed in recent years, and the residential real estate market has remained relatively strong. , there were 31 high rise projects either under construction, approved or planned to be completed in Austin's downtown core between 2017 and 2020. Sixteen of those were set to rise above tall, including four above 600', and eight above 500'. An additional 15 towers were slated to stand between 300' and 399' tall.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 54789595, 15925250, 6886 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 110 ], [ 138, 151 ], [ 270, 277 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is located within the middle of a unique, narrow transitional zone between the dry deserts of the American Southwest and the lush, green, more humid regions of the American Southeast. Its climate, topography, and vegetation share characteristics of both. Officially, Austin has a humid subtropical climate under the Köppen climate classification. This climate is typified by very long and hot summers, short and mild winters, and pleasantly warm spring and fall seasons in-between. Austin averages of annual rainfall distributed mostly evenly throughout the year, though spring and fall are the wettest seasons. Sunshine is common during all seasons, with 2,650 hours, or 60.3% of the possible total, of bright sunshine per year.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 19792392, 484254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 287, 312 ], [ 323, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Summers in Austin are very hot, with average July and August highs frequently reaching the high-90s (34–36°C) or above. Highs reach on 123 days per year, of which 29 days reach ; all years in the 1991-2020 period recorded at least 1 day of the latter. The average daytime high is or warmer between March 1 and November 21, rising to or warmer between April 14 and October 24, and reaching or warmer between May 30 and September 18. The highest ever recorded temperature was occurring on September 5, 2000, and August 28, 2011. An uncommon characteristic of Austin's climate is its highly variable humidity, which fluctuates frequently depending on the shifting patterns of air flow and wind direction. It is common for a lengthy series of warm, dry, low-humidity days to be occasionally interrupted by very warm and humid days, and vice versa. Humidity rises with winds from the east or southeast, when the air drifts inland from the Gulf of Mexico, but decreases significantly with winds from the west or southwest, bringing air flowing from Chihuahuan Desert areas of West Texas or northern Mexico.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 21076367, 411723, 616362, 3966054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 939, 953 ], [ 1048, 1065 ], [ 1075, 1085 ], [ 1098, 1104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Winters in Austin are mild, although occasional short-lived bursts of cold weather known as \"Blue Northers\" can occur. January is the coolest month with an average daytime high of . The overnight low drops to or below freezing 12 times per year, and sinks below during 76 evenings per year, mostly between mid-December and mid-February. The average first and last dates for a freeze are December 1 and February 15, giving Austin an average growing season of 288 days, and the coldest temperature of the year is normally about under the 1991-2020 climate normals, putting Austin in USDA zone 9a. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 8195160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conversely, winter months also produce warm days on a regular basis. On average, 10 days in January reach or exceed and 1 day reaches ; during the 1991-2020 period, all Januarys had at least 1 day with a high of or more, and most (60%) had at least 1 day with a high of or more. The lowest ever recorded temperature in the city was on January 31, 1949. Roughly every two years Austin experiences an ice storm that freezes roads over and cripples travel in the city for 24 to 48 hours. When Austin received of ice on January 24, 2014, there were 278 vehicular collisions. Similarly, snowfall is rare in Austin. A snow event of on February 4, 2011, caused more than 300 car crashes. The most recent snow event occurred February 14–15, 2021, when of snow fell at Austin's Camp Mabry, the largest two-day snowfall since records began being kept in 1948.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 206940, 5859626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 403, 412 ], [ 776, 786 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Typical of Central Texas, severe weather in Austin is a threat that can strike during any season. However, it is most common during the spring. According to most classifications, Austin lies within the extreme southern periphery of Tornado Alley, although many sources place Austin outside of Tornado Alley altogether. Consequently, tornadoes strike Austin less frequently than areas farther to the north. However, severe weather and/or supercell thunderstorms can occur multiple times per year, bringing damaging winds, lightning, heavy rain, and occasional flash flooding to the city. The deadliest storm to ever strike city limits was the twin tornadoes storm of May 4, 1922, while the deadliest tornado outbreak to ever strike the metro area was the Central Texas tornado outbreak of May 27, 1997.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 23618017, 896811, 244362, 28842818, 2628682, 437317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 24 ], [ 232, 245 ], [ 437, 460 ], [ 642, 662 ], [ 699, 715 ], [ 754, 784 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From October 2010 through September 2011, both major reporting stations in Austin, Camp Mabry and Bergstrom Int'l, had the least rainfall of a water year on record, receiving less than a third of normal precipitation. This was a result of La Niña conditions in the eastern Pacific Ocean where water was significantly cooler than normal. David Brown, a regional official with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, explained that \"these kinds of droughts will have effects that are even more extreme in the future, given a warming and drying regional climate.\" The drought, coupled with exceedingly high temperatures throughout the summer of 2011, caused many wildfires throughout Texas, including notably the Bastrop County Complex Fire in neighboring Bastrop, Texas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 33365528, 78469, 32998069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 153 ], [ 239, 246 ], [ 723, 750 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the fall of 2018, Austin and surrounding areas received heavy rainfall and flash flooding following Hurricane Sergio. The Lower Colorado River Authority opened four floodgates of the Mansfield Dam after Lake Travis was recorded at 146% full at . From October 22 to October 29, 2018, the City of Austin issued a mandatory citywide boil-water advisory after the Highland Lakes, home to the city's main water supply, became overwhelmed by unprecedented amounts of silt, dirt, and debris that washed in from the Llano River. Austin Water, the city's water utility, has the capacity to process up to 300million gallons of water per day; however, the elevated level of turbidity reduced output to only 105million gallons per day. Since Austin residents consumed an average of 120million gallons of water per day, the infrastructure was not able to keep up with demand.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 244391, 58703073, 95880, 2516037, 288069, 4044047, 317631, 728684, 289710 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 89 ], [ 103, 119 ], [ 125, 155 ], [ 168, 178 ], [ 186, 199 ], [ 333, 352 ], [ 363, 377 ], [ 511, 522 ], [ 666, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In February 2021, Winter Storm Uri dropped prolific amounts of snow across Texas and Oklahoma, including Austin. The Austin area received a total of of snowfall between February 14 and 15, with snow cover persisting until February 20. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 66751284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This marked the longest time the area had had more than of snow, with the previous longest time being three days in January 1985.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 25475932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lack of winterization in natural gas power plants, which supply a large amount of power to the Texas grid, and increased energy demand caused ERCOT and Austin Energy to enact rolling blackouts in order to avoid total grid collapse between February 15 and February 18. Initial rolling blackouts were to last for a maximum of 40 minutes, however lack of energy production caused many blackouts to last for much longer, at the peak of the blackouts an estimated 40% of Austin Energy homes were without power.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 7895482, 12438990, 4908564, 2416398, 3354353, 911516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 21 ], [ 25, 49 ], [ 95, 105 ], [ 142, 147 ], [ 152, 165 ], [ 175, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Starting on February 15, Austin Water received reports of pipe breaks, hourly water demand increased from 150 million gallons per day (MGD) on February 15 to a peak hourly demand of 260 MGD on February 16. On the morning of February 17 demand increased to 330 MGD, the resulting drop of water pressure caused the Austin area to enter into a boil-water advisory which would last until water pressure was restored on February 23.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography", "target_page_ids": [ 4044047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 341, 360 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2020, there were 961,855 people, up from the 2000 United States census tabulation where there were people, households, and families residing in the city. In 2000, the population density was . There were dwelling units at an average density of . There were households, out of which 26.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 38.1% were married couples living together, 10.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 46.7% were non-families. 32.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 4.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.40 and the average family size was 3.14.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 432383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the city, 22.5% of the population was under the age of 18, 16.6% was from 18 to 24, 37.1% from 25 to 44, 17.1% from 45 to 64, and 6.7% were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 105.8 males.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The median income for a household in the city was , and the median income for a family was $. Males had a median income of $ compared to $ for females. The per capita income for the city was $. About 9.1% of families and 14.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 16.5% of those under age 18 and 8.7% of those age 65 or over. The median house price was $ in 2009, and it has increased every year since 2004. The median value of a house which the owner occupies was $318,400 in 2019—higher than the average American home value of $240,500.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to a survey completed in 2014 by Gallup, it is estimated that 5.3% of residents in the Austin metropolitan area identify as lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender. The Austin metropolitan area had the third-highest rate in the nation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 5367625, 11288301, 66936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 49 ], [ 97, 121 ], [ 134, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 2010 United States census, the racial composition of Austin was 68.3% White (48.7% non-Hispanic whites), 35.1% Hispanic or Latino (29.1% Mexican, 0.5% Puerto Rican, 0.4% Cuban, 5.1% Other), 8.1% African American, 6.3% Asian (1.9% Indian, 1.5% Chinese, 1.0% Vietnamese, 0.7% Korean, 0.3% Filipino, 0.2% Japanese, 0.8% Other), 0.9% American Indian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, and 3.4% two or more races.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 3448729, 2495537, 24849513, 1007667, 220841, 82536, 1172629, 2154, 148898, 18963843, 48999, 316736, 234579, 679654, 19477504, 21217, 5592475, 20134780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 42 ], [ 87, 92 ], [ 100, 119 ], [ 128, 146 ], [ 154, 161 ], [ 168, 180 ], [ 187, 192 ], [ 212, 228 ], [ 235, 240 ], [ 247, 253 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 274, 284 ], [ 291, 297 ], [ 304, 312 ], [ 319, 327 ], [ 347, 362 ], [ 369, 411 ], [ 422, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 2020 United States census, the racial composition of Austin was 72.6% White (48.3% non-Hispanic whites), 33.9% Hispanic or Latino, 7.8% African American, 7.6% Asian, 0.7% American Indian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander, and 3.4% two or more races.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 23962196, 2495537, 24849513, 1007667, 2154, 148898, 21217, 5592475, 20134780 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 42 ], [ 87, 92 ], [ 100, 119 ], [ 128, 146 ], [ 153, 169 ], [ 176, 181 ], [ 188, 203 ], [ 210, 252 ], [ 263, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 2014 University of Texas study stated that Austin was the only U.S. city with a fast growth rate between 2000 and 2010 with a net loss in African Americans. , Austin's African American and non-Hispanic white percentage share of the total population was declining despite the actual numbers of both ethnic groups increasing, as the rapid growth of the Latino or Hispanic and Asian populations has outpaced all other ethnic groups in the city. Austin's non-Hispanic white population first dropped below 50% in 2005.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Sperling's BestPlaces, 52.4% of Austin's population are religious. The majority of Austinites identified themselves as Christians, about 25.2% of whom claimed affiliation with the Catholic Church. The city's Catholic population is served by the Roman Catholic Diocese of Austin, headquartered at the Cathedral of Saint Mary. Nationwide, 23% of Americans identified as Catholic in 2016. Other significant Christian groups in Austin include Baptists (8.7%), followed by Methodists (4.3%), Latter-Day Saints (1.5%), Episcopalians or Anglicans (1.0%), Lutherans (0.8%), Presbyterians (0.6%), Pentecostals (0.3%), and other Christians such as the Disciples of Christ and Eastern Orthodox Church (7.1%). The second largest religion Austinites identify with is Islam (1.7%); roughly 0.8% of Americans nationwide claimed affiliation with the Islamic faith. The dominant branch of Islam is Sunni Islam. Established in 1977, the largest mosque in Austin is the Islamic Center of Greater Austin. The community is affiliated with the Islamic Society of North America. The same study says that eastern faiths including Buddhism, Sikhism, and Hinduism made up 0.9% of the city's religious population. Several Hindu temples exist in the Austin Metropolitan area with the most notable one being Radha Madhav Dham. Judaism forms less than 0.1% of the religious demographic in Austin. Orthodox, Reform, and Conservative congregations are present in the community. In addition to those religious groups, Austin is also home to an active secular humanist community, hosting nationwide television shows and charity work.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 34999450, 5211, 606848, 4354395, 6491258, 3979, 20119, 420883, 1214, 23371382, 24403, 23555, 8660, 10186, 6037917, 29402, 19894, 17678525, 1967989, 2062976, 3267529, 27964, 13543, 4363117, 15624, 22518, 26036, 6623 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 34 ], [ 132, 142 ], [ 193, 208 ], [ 258, 290 ], [ 313, 336 ], [ 452, 460 ], [ 481, 491 ], [ 500, 517 ], [ 526, 552 ], [ 561, 570 ], [ 579, 592 ], [ 601, 613 ], [ 655, 674 ], [ 679, 702 ], [ 767, 772 ], [ 894, 905 ], [ 940, 946 ], [ 964, 996 ], [ 1035, 1067 ], [ 1094, 1108 ], [ 1119, 1127 ], [ 1129, 1136 ], [ 1142, 1150 ], [ 1292, 1309 ], [ 1311, 1318 ], [ 1380, 1388 ], [ 1390, 1396 ], [ 1402, 1414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2019, there were 2,255 individuals experiencing homelessness in Travis County. Of those, 1,169 were sheltered and 1,086 were unsheltered. In September 2019, the Austin City Council approved $62.7million for programs aimed at homelessness, which includes housing displacement prevention, crisis mitigation, and affordable housing; the city council also earmarked $500,000 for crisis services and encampment cleanups.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 3531662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 316, 334 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 2019, following a federal court ruling on homelessness sleeping in public, the Austin City Council lifted a 25-year-old ban on camping, sitting, or lying down in public unless doing so causes an obstruction. The resolution also included the approval of a new housing-focused shelter in South Austin. In early October 2019, Texas Governor Greg Abbott sent a letter to Mayor Steve Adler threatening to deploy state resources to combat the camping ban repeal. On October 17, 2019, the City Council revised the camping ordinance, which imposed increased restrictions on sidewalk camping. In November 2019, the State of Texas opened a temporary homeless encampment on a former vehicle storage yard owned by the Texas Department of Transportation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 1492735, 4030255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 346, 357 ], [ 714, 748 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 2021, the camping ban was reinstated after a ballot proposition was approved by 57% of voters. The ban introduces penalties for camping, sitting, or lying down on a public sidewalk or sleeping outdoors in or near Downtown Austin or the area around the University of Texas campus. The ordinance would also prohibit solicitation at certain locations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 51582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Greater Austin metropolitan statistical area had a gross domestic product (GDP) of $86billion in 2010. Austin is considered to be a major center for high tech. Thousands of graduates each year from the engineering and computer science programs at the University of Texas at Austin provide a steady source of employees that help to fuel Austin's technology and defense industry sectors. The region's rapid growth has led Forbes to rank the Austin metropolitan area number one among all big cities for jobs for 2012 in their annual survey and WSJ Marketwatch to rank the area number one for growing businesses. By 2013, Austin was ranked No. 14 on Forbes list of the Best Places for Business and Careers (directly below Dallas, No. 13 on the list). As a result of the high concentration of high-tech companies in the region, Austin was strongly affected by the dot-com boom in the late 1990s and subsequent bust. Austin's largest employers include the Austin Independent School District, the City of Austin, Dell, the U.S. Federal Government, NXP Semiconductors, IBM, St. David's Healthcare Partnership, Seton Family of Hospitals, the State of Texas, the Texas State University, and the University of Texas at Austin.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 11288301, 75799, 525028, 32031, 294894, 9021, 3060563, 102490, 195149, 6794062, 40379651, 29810, 22291042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 19, 48 ], [ 153, 162 ], [ 255, 284 ], [ 424, 430 ], [ 863, 875 ], [ 954, 988 ], [ 1010, 1014 ], [ 1020, 1043 ], [ 1045, 1063 ], [ 1065, 1068 ], [ 1137, 1151 ], [ 1157, 1179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other high-tech companies with operations in Austin include 3M, Apple, Amazon, AMD, Apartment Ratings, Applied Materials, Arm Holdings, Bigcommerce, BioWare, Blizzard Entertainment, Buffalo Technology, Cirrus Logic, Cisco Systems, Dropbox, eBay, Electronic Arts, Flextronics, Facebook, Google, Hewlett-Packard, Hoover's, HomeAway, HostGator, Intel Corporation, National Instruments, Nintendo, Nvidia, Oracle, PayPal, Polycom, Qualcomm, Rackspace, RetailMeNot, Rooster Teeth, Samsung Group, Silicon Labs, Spansion, Tesla, United Devices, VMware, Xerox, and Zoho Corporation. In 2010, Facebook accepted a grant to build a downtown office that could bring as many as 200 jobs to the city. The proliferation of technology companies has led to the region's nickname, \"Silicon Hills\", and spurred development that greatly expanded the city.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 7664801, 856, 90451, 2400, 479719, 21896483, 47043963, 69400, 4876, 13722979, 1687828, 51746, 19477138, 130495, 262933, 869304, 7529378, 1092923, 21347024, 1524585, 28740580, 27746090, 14617, 554240, 21197, 39120, 22591, 195809, 4520208, 256913, 12757523, 39716433, 1382241, 46445121, 25254660, 12810122, 5533631, 1840328, 312018, 34164, 29334158 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 62 ], [ 64, 69 ], [ 71, 77 ], [ 79, 82 ], [ 103, 120 ], [ 122, 134 ], [ 136, 147 ], [ 149, 156 ], [ 158, 180 ], [ 182, 200 ], [ 202, 214 ], [ 216, 229 ], [ 231, 238 ], [ 240, 244 ], [ 246, 261 ], [ 263, 274 ], [ 276, 284 ], [ 286, 292 ], [ 294, 309 ], [ 311, 319 ], [ 321, 329 ], [ 331, 340 ], [ 342, 359 ], [ 361, 381 ], [ 383, 391 ], [ 393, 399 ], [ 401, 407 ], [ 409, 415 ], [ 417, 424 ], [ 426, 434 ], [ 436, 445 ], [ 447, 458 ], [ 460, 473 ], [ 475, 488 ], [ 490, 502 ], [ 504, 512 ], [ 514, 519 ], [ 521, 535 ], [ 537, 543 ], [ 545, 550 ], [ 556, 572 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is also emerging as a hub for pharmaceutical and biotechnology companies; the city is home to about 85 of them. In 2004, the city was ranked by the Milken Institute as the #12 biotech and life science center in the United States and in 2018, CBRE Group ranked Austin as #3 emerging life sciences cluster. Companies such as Hospira, Pharmaceutical Product Development, and ArthroCare Corporation are located there.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 560876, 4502, 3242186, 4074887, 23561689, 31358768 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 51 ], [ 56, 69 ], [ 249, 259 ], [ 330, 337 ], [ 339, 373 ], [ 379, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whole Foods Market, an international grocery store chain specializing in fresh and packaged food products, was founded and is headquartered in Austin.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 620343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other companies based in Austin include NXP Semiconductors, GoodPop, Temple-Inland, Sweet Leaf Tea Company, Keller Williams Realty, National Western Life, GSD&M, Dimensional Fund Advisors, Golfsmith, Forestar Group, EZCorp, Outdoor Voices, Tito's Vodka, Indeed, Speak Social, and YETI.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 6794062, 44181891, 300288, 18686390, 17340975, 36098565, 5009796, 10753780, 29057004, 21491693, 18893819, 56889427, 2435521, 3743305, 38800761, 46540060 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 58 ], [ 60, 67 ], [ 69, 82 ], [ 84, 106 ], [ 108, 130 ], [ 132, 153 ], [ 155, 160 ], [ 162, 187 ], [ 189, 198 ], [ 200, 214 ], [ 216, 222 ], [ 224, 238 ], [ 240, 252 ], [ 254, 260 ], [ 262, 274 ], [ 280, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, Austin metro-area companies saw a total of $1.33billion invested. Austin's VC numbers were so strong in 2018 that they accounted for more than 60 percent of Texas' total investments.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Keep Austin Weird\" has been a local motto for years, featured on bumper stickers and T-shirts. This motto has not only been used in promoting Austin's eccentricity and diversity, but is also meant to bolster support of local independent businesses. According to the 2010 book Weird City the phrase was begun by a local Austin Community College librarian, Red Wassenich, and his wife, Karen Pavelka, who were concerned about Austin's \"rapid descent into commercialism and overdevelopment.\" The slogan has been interpreted many ways since its inception, but remains an important symbol for many Austinites who wish to voice concerns over rapid growth and development. Austin has a long history of vocal citizen resistance to development projects perceived to degrade the environment, or to threaten the natural and cultural landscapes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 70210, 27683269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ], [ 277, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the Nielsen Company, adults in Austin read and contribute to blogs more than those in any other U.S. metropolitan area. Austin residents have the highest Internet usage in all of Texas. In 2013, Austin was the most active city on Reddit, having the largest number of views per capita. Austin was selected as the No. 2 Best Big City in \"Best Places to Live\" by Money magazine in 2006, and No. 3 in 2009, and also the \"Greenest City in America\" by MSN.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 1074435, 3829005, 1190375, 18413531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 32 ], [ 243, 249 ], [ 373, 378 ], [ 430, 438 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "South Congress is a shopping district stretching down South Congress Avenue from Downtown. This area is home to coffee shops, eccentric stores, restaurants, food trucks, trailers, and festivals. It prides itself on \"Keeping Austin Weird,\" especially with development in the surrounding area(s). Many Austinites attribute its enduring popularity to the magnificent and unobstructed view of the Texas State Capitol.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 18116383, 55796568 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 381, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Rainey Street Historic District is a neighborhood in Downtown Austin formerly consisting of bungalow style homes built in the early 20th century. Since the early 2010s, the former working class residential street has turned into a popular nightlife district. Much of the historic homes have been renovated into hotels, condominiums, bars and restaurants, many of which feature large porches and outdoor yards for patrons. The Rainey Street district is also home to the Emma S. Barrientos Mexican American Cultural Center.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 15301930, 323262, 39903086 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 35 ], [ 96, 104 ], [ 184, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin has been part of the UNESCO Creative Cities Network under Media Arts the category.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 52974142, 30872739 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 58 ], [ 65, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Old Austin\" is an adage often used by nostalgic natives. The term \"Old Austin\" refers to a time when the city was smaller and more bohemian with a considerably lower cost of living and better known for its lack of traffic, hipsters, and urban sprawl. It is often employed by longtime residents expressing displeasure at the rapidly changing culture, or when referencing nostalgia of Austin culture.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 145008, 171302, 373672, 8612424, 655311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 24 ], [ 39, 48 ], [ 132, 140 ], [ 224, 232 ], [ 238, 250 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The growth and popularity of Austin can be seen by the expansive development taking place in its downtown landscape. Forbes ranked Austin as the second fastest-growing city in 2015. This growth can have a negative impact on longtime small businesses that cannot keep up with the expenses associated with gentrification and the rising cost of real estate. A former Austin musician, Dale Watson, described his move away from Austin, \"I just really feel the city has sold itself. Just because you're going to get $45 million for a company to come to town – if it's not in the best interest of the town, I don't think they should do it. This city was never about money. It was about quality of life.\" Though much is changing rapidly in Austin, businesses such as Thundercloud Subs are thought by many to maintain classic Austin business cultural sentiments unique to the history of the city; as Diana Burgess stated, \"I definitely appreciate that they haven't raised their prices a ton or made things super fancy. I think it speaks to that original Old Austin vibe. A lot of us that grew up here really appreciate that.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 41940, 3213645 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 304, 318 ], [ 381, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The O. Henry House Museum hosts the annual O. Henry Pun-Off, a pun contest where the successful contestants exhibit wit akin to that of the author William Sydney Porter.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 9869149, 22367437, 43069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 43, 59 ], [ 147, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other annual events include Eeyore's Birthday Party, Spamarama, Austin Pride Festival & Parade in August, the Austin Reggae Festival in April, Kite Festival, Texas Craft Brewers Festival in September, Art City Austin in April, East Austin Studio Tour in November, and Carnaval Brasileiro in February. Sixth Street features annual festivals such as the Pecan Street Festival and Halloween night. The three-day Austin City Limits Music Festival has been held in Zilker Park every year since 2002. Every year around the end of March and the beginning of April, Austin is home to \"Texas Relay Weekend.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 3767273, 22012477, 15532763, 15016620, 2947088, 1443527, 165971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 51 ], [ 53, 62 ], [ 71, 76 ], [ 268, 287 ], [ 352, 373 ], [ 409, 442 ], [ 460, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin's Zilker Park Tree is a Christmas display made of lights strung from the top of a Moonlight tower in Zilker Park. The Zilker Tree is lit in December along with the \"Trail of Lights,\" an Austin Christmas tradition. The Trail of Lights was canceled four times, first starting in 2001 and 2002 due to the September 11 Attacks, and again in 2010 and 2011 due to budget shortfalls, but the trail was turned back on for the 2012 holiday season.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 2371324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is perhaps best known for its Texas barbecue and Tex-Mex cuisine. Franklin Barbecue is perhaps Austin's most famous barbecue restaurant; the restaurant has sold out of brisket every day since its establishment. Breakfast tacos and queso are popular food items in the city; Austin is sometimes called the \"home of the breakfast taco.\" Kolaches are a common pastry in Austin bakeries due to the large Czech and German immigrant population in Texas. The Oasis Restaurant is the largest outdoor restaurant in Texas, which promotes itself as the \"Sunset Capital of Texas\" with its terraced views looking West over Lake Travis. P. Terry's, an Austin-based fast food burger chain, has a loyal following among Austinites. Some other Austin-based chain restaurants include Amy's Ice Creams, Bush's Chicken, Chuy's, DoubleDave's Pizzaworks, and Schlotzky's.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 26801881, 30859, 45373326, 288125, 29985, 3149989, 2254459, 7050925, 290327, 20013068, 166312, 2630148, 30160745, 6194061, 11382765, 2959119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 51 ], [ 56, 63 ], [ 73, 90 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 218, 232 ], [ 238, 243 ], [ 341, 347 ], [ 406, 411 ], [ 416, 422 ], [ 458, 474 ], [ 616, 627 ], [ 771, 787 ], [ 789, 803 ], [ 805, 811 ], [ 813, 836 ], [ 842, 853 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is also home to a large number of food trucks, with 1,256 food trucks operating in 2016. The city of Austin has the second-largest number of food trucks per capita in the United States. Austin's first food hall, \"Fareground,\" features a number of Austin-based food vendors and a bar in the ground level and courtyard of One Congress Plaza.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 1326380, 40542479, 14750164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 52 ], [ 208, 217 ], [ 327, 345 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin has a large craft beer scene, with over 50 microbreweries in the metro area. Drinks publication VinePair named Austin as the \"top beer destination in the world\" in 2019. Notable Austin-area breweries include Jester King Brewery, Live Oak Brewing Company, and Real Ale Brewing Company.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 362355, 362355, 44402759, 5222528, 8273131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 50, 64 ], [ 215, 234 ], [ 236, 260 ], [ 266, 290 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As Austin's official slogan is The Live Music Capital of the World, the city has a vibrant live music scene with more music venues per capita than any other U.S. city. Austin's music revolves around the many nightclubs on 6th Street and an annual film/music/interactive festival known as South by Southwest (SXSW). The concentration of restaurants, bars, and music venues in the city's downtown core is a major contributor to Austin's live music scene, as the ZIP Code encompassing the downtown entertainment district hosts the most bar or alcohol-serving establishments in the U.S.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 670155, 19321330, 644528, 4130245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 107 ], [ 208, 217 ], [ 258, 269 ], [ 288, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The longest-running concert music program on American television, Austin City Limits, is recorded at ACL Live at The Moody Theater, located in the bottom floor of the W Hotels in Austin. Austin City Limits and C3 Presents produce the Austin City Limits Music Festival, an annual music and art festival held at Zilker Park in Austin. Other music events include the Urban Music Festival, Fun Fun Fun Fest, Chaos In Tejas and Old Settler's Music Festival. Austin Lyric Opera performs multiple operas each year (including the 2007 opening of Philip Glass's Waiting for the Barbarians, written by University of Texas at Austin alumnus J. M. Coetzee). The Austin Symphony Orchestra performs a range of classical, pop and family performances and is led by music director and conductor Peter Bay. The Austin Baroque Orchestra and La Follia Austin Baroque ensembles both give historically informed performances of Baroque music.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 174839, 43522853, 7059919, 14133759, 1443527, 165971, 39657596, 19659758, 29790873, 17813165, 24540, 17800137, 333250, 31449878, 7182673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 84 ], [ 101, 130 ], [ 168, 176 ], [ 211, 222 ], [ 235, 268 ], [ 311, 322 ], [ 365, 385 ], [ 387, 403 ], [ 424, 452 ], [ 454, 472 ], [ 539, 551 ], [ 554, 580 ], [ 631, 644 ], [ 651, 676 ], [ 779, 788 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin hosts several film festivals, including the SXSW (South by Southwest) Film Festival and the Austin Film Festival, which hosts international films. A movie theater chain by the name of Alamo Drafthouse Cinema was founded in Austin in 1997; the South Lamar location of which is home to the annual week-long Fantastic Fest film festival. In 2004 the city was first in MovieMaker Magazine's annual top ten cities to live and make movies.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 4130245, 5547766, 77819, 6875642, 7893660, 11923461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 90 ], [ 99, 119 ], [ 156, 169 ], [ 191, 214 ], [ 312, 326 ], [ 372, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin has been the location for a number of motion pictures, partly due to the influence of The University of Texas at Austin Department of Radio-Television-Film. Films produced in Austin include The Texas Chain Saw Massacre (1974), Songwriter (1984), Man of the House, Secondhand Lions, Texas Chainsaw Massacre 2, Nadine, Waking Life, Spy Kids, The Faculty, Dazed and Confused, The Guards Themselves, Wild Texas Wind, Office Space, The Life of David Gale, Miss Congeniality, Doubting Thomas, Slacker, Idiocracy, Death Proof, The New Guy, Hope Floats, The Alamo, Blank Check, The Wendall Baker Story, School of Rock, A Slipping-Down Life, A Scanner Darkly, Saturday Morning Massacre, and most recently, the Coen brothers' True Grit, Grindhouse, Machete, How to Eat Fried Worms, Bandslam and Lazer Team. In order to draw future film projects to the area, the Austin Film Society has converted several airplane hangars from the former Mueller Airport into filmmaking center Austin Studios. Projects that have used facilities at Austin Studios include music videos by The Flaming Lips and feature films such as 25th Hour and Sin City.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 11346671, 29781, 94154, 1470810, 1863169, 397753, 12456476, 244752, 11762841, 308430, 503573, 33777630, 95953, 359571, 19715, 1326977, 503562, 2600144, 8586619, 2284155, 3146380, 1343165, 1039329, 805097, 9793561, 1611072, 36303042, 15780, 26224556, 2819577, 10304105, 4492078, 15392801, 42986922, 3317689, 22118224, 82986, 695700, 1336308 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 162 ], [ 197, 225 ], [ 234, 244 ], [ 253, 269 ], [ 271, 287 ], [ 289, 314 ], [ 316, 322 ], [ 324, 335 ], [ 337, 345 ], [ 347, 358 ], [ 360, 378 ], [ 403, 418 ], [ 420, 432 ], [ 434, 456 ], [ 458, 475 ], [ 477, 492 ], [ 494, 501 ], [ 503, 512 ], [ 514, 525 ], [ 527, 538 ], [ 540, 551 ], [ 553, 562 ], [ 564, 575 ], [ 602, 616 ], [ 618, 638 ], [ 640, 656 ], [ 658, 683 ], [ 708, 721 ], [ 723, 732 ], [ 734, 744 ], [ 746, 753 ], [ 755, 777 ], [ 779, 787 ], [ 792, 802 ], [ 859, 878 ], [ 973, 987 ], [ 1066, 1082 ], [ 1109, 1118 ], [ 1123, 1131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin also hosted the MTV series, Austin in 2005. Season 4 of the AMC show Fear the Walking Dead was filmed in various locations around Austin in 2018. The film review websites Spill.com and Ain't It Cool News are based in Austin. Rooster Teeth Productions, creator of popular web series such as Red vs. Blue and RWBY, is also located in Austin.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 18856, 55922148, 801036, 44819206, 25476461, 201608, 1382241, 853212, 39617067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 26 ], [ 52, 60 ], [ 68, 71 ], [ 77, 98 ], [ 179, 188 ], [ 193, 211 ], [ 233, 258 ], [ 298, 310 ], [ 315, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin has a strong theater culture, with dozens of itinerant and resident companies producing a variety of work. The Church of the Friendly Ghost is a volunteer-run arts organization supporting creative expression and counter-culture community. The city also has live performance theater venues such as the Zachary Scott Theatre Center, Vortex Repertory Company, Salvage Vanguard Theater, Rude Mechanicals' the Off Center, Austin Playhouse, Scottish Rite Children's Theater, Hyde Park Theatre, the Blue Theater, The Hideout Theatre, and Esther's Follies. The Victory Grill was a renowned venue on the Chitlin' Circuit. Public art and performances in the parks and on bridges are popular. Austin hosts the Fuse Box Festival each April featuring theater artists.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 38106152, 38485801, 6162388, 10695994, 6768265, 2499307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 146 ], [ 308, 336 ], [ 476, 493 ], [ 538, 554 ], [ 560, 573 ], [ 602, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Paramount Theatre, opened in downtown Austin in 1915, contributes to Austin's theater and film culture, showing classic films throughout the summer and hosting regional premieres for films such as Miss Congeniality. The Zilker Park Summer Musical is a long-running outdoor musical.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 3145231, 19715, 165971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 21 ], [ 201, 218 ], [ 224, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Long Center for the Performing Arts is a 2,300-seat theater built partly with materials reused from the old Lester E. Palmer Auditorium.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 30832707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ballet Austin is among the fifteen largest ballet academies in the country. Each year Ballet Austin's 20-member professional company performs ballets from a wide variety of choreographers, including their international award-winning artistic director, Stephen Mills. The city is also home to the Ballet East Dance Company, a modern dance ensemble, and the Tapestry Dance Company which performs a variety of dance genres.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 12800397, 12406582, 23959452, 18725473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 252, 265 ], [ 296, 321 ], [ 356, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austin improvisational theatre scene has several theaters: ColdTowne Theater, The Hideout Theater, The Fallout Theater, and The Institution Theater. Austin also hosts the Out of Bounds Comedy Festival, which draws comedic artists in all disciplines to Austin.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 15041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austin Public Library is a public library system operated by the City of Austin and consists of the Central Library on César Chávez Street, the Austin History Center, 20 branches and the Recycled Reads bookstore and upcycling facility. The APL library system also has mobile libraries – bookmobile buses and a human-powered trike and trailer called \"unbound: sin fronteras.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 20996283, 182010, 2888301, 5954980, 11774990 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 31, 45 ], [ 123, 142 ], [ 148, 169 ], [ 220, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Central Library, which is an anchor to the redevelopment of the former Seaholm Power Plant site and the Shoal Creek Walk, opened on October 28, 2017. The six-story Central Library contains a living rooftop garden, reading porches, an indoor reading room, bicycle parking station, large indoor and outdoor event spaces, a gift shop, an art gallery, café, and a \"technology petting zoo\" where visitors can play with next-generation gadgets like 3D printers. In 2018, Time magazine named the Austin Central Library on its list of \"World's Greatest Places.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 45629450, 47224503, 358237, 23794037, 1305947, 31600 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 94 ], [ 108, 119 ], [ 202, 216 ], [ 259, 282 ], [ 447, 458 ], [ 469, 473 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Museums in Austin include the Texas Memorial Museum, the George Washington Carver Museum and Cultural Center, Thinkery, the Blanton Museum of Art (reopened in 2006), the Bob Bullock Texas State History Museum across the street (which opened in 2000), The Contemporary Austin, the Elisabet Ney Museum and the galleries at the Harry Ransom Center. The Texas State Capitol itself is also a major tourist attraction.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 12143402, 5680308, 40783170, 4339388, 6031876, 18437400, 4657074, 946273, 503403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 51 ], [ 57, 108 ], [ 110, 118 ], [ 124, 145 ], [ 170, 208 ], [ 251, 274 ], [ 280, 299 ], [ 325, 344 ], [ 350, 369 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Driskill Hotel, built in 1886, once owned by George W. Littlefield, and located at 6th and Brazos streets, was finished just before the construction of the Capitol building. Sixth Street is a musical hub for the city. The Enchanted Forest, a multi-acre outdoor music, art, and performance art space in South Austin hosts events such as fire-dancing and circus-like-acts. Austin is also home to the Lyndon Baines Johnson Library and Museum, which houses documents and artifacts related to the Johnson administration, including LBJ's limousine and a re-creation of the Oval Office.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 4064917, 3742838, 1193095, 1724361, 230331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 49, 70 ], [ 178, 190 ], [ 402, 442 ], [ 571, 582 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Locally produced art is featured at the South Austin Museum of Popular Culture. The Mexic-Arte Museum is a Mexican and Mexican-American art museum founded in 1983. Austin is also home to the O. Henry House Museum, which served as the residence of O. Henry from 1893 to 1895. Farmers' markets are popular attractions, providing a variety of locally grown and often organic foods.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 15103570, 6707654, 43069 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 78 ], [ 84, 101 ], [ 247, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin also has many odd statues and landmarks, such as the Stevie Ray Vaughan Memorial, the Willie Nelson statue, the Mangia dinosaur, the Loca Maria lady at Taco Xpress, the Hyde Park Gym's giant flexed arm, and Daniel Johnston's Hi, How are You? Jeremiah the Innocent frog mural.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 42215405, 66469235, 299437, 10988376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 87 ], [ 93, 113 ], [ 214, 229 ], [ 232, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ann W. Richards Congress Avenue Bridge houses the world's largest urban population of Mexican free-tailed bats. Starting in March, up to 1.5million bats take up residence inside the bridge's expansion and contraction zones as well as in long horizontal grooves running the length of the bridge's underside, an environment ideally suited for raising their young. Every evening around sunset, the bats emerge in search of insects, an exit visible on weather radar. Watching the bat emergence is an event that is popular with locals and tourists, with more than 100,000 viewers per year. The bats migrate to Mexico each winter.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 11612238, 801513, 675776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 42 ], [ 90, 113 ], [ 452, 465 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austin Zoo, located in unincorporated western Travis County, is a rescue zoo that provides sanctuary to displaced animals from a variety of situations, including those involving neglect.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 11284921, 232346, 91426, 31747235 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 27, 41 ], [ 50, 63 ], [ 70, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The HOPE Outdoor Gallery is a public, three-story outdoor street art project located on Baylor Street in the Clarksville neighborhood. The gallery, which consists of the foundations of a failed multifamily development, is a constantly-evolving canvas of graffiti and murals. Also known as \"Castle Hill\" or simply \"Graffiti Park,\" the site on Baylor Street was closed to the public in early January 2019 but remained intact, behind a fence and with an armed guard, in mid-March 2019. The gallery will build a new art park at Carson Creek Ranch in Southeast Austin.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture and contemporary life", "target_page_ids": [ 2658000, 12788254, 11985, 18816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 68 ], [ 109, 120 ], [ 254, 262 ], [ 267, 273 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many Austinites support the athletic programs of the University of Texas at Austin known as the Texas Longhorns. During the 2005–2006 academic term, Longhorns football team was named the NCAA Division I FBS National Football Champion, and Longhorns baseball team won the College World Series. The Texas Longhorns play home games in the state's second-largest sports stadium, Darrell K Royal–Texas Memorial Stadium, seating over 101,000 fans. Baseball games are played at UFCU Disch–Falk Field.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 2834813, 6903029, 17278765, 10848103, 10425358, 1643696, 1756638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 111 ], [ 149, 172 ], [ 187, 233 ], [ 239, 262 ], [ 271, 291 ], [ 375, 413 ], [ 471, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin was the most populous city in the United States without a major-league professional sports team, which changed in 2021 with Austin FC's entry to MLS. Minor-league professional sports came to Austin in 1996, when the Austin Ice Bats began playing at the Travis County Expo Center; they were later replaced by the AHL Texas Stars. Austin has hosted a number of other professional teams, including the Austin Spurs of the NBA G League, the Austin Aztex of the United Soccer League, the Austin Outlaws in WFA football, and the Austin Aces in WTT tennis.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 9314339, 58497200, 448532, 207085, 15879424, 2432297, 450389, 20566786, 356825, 2088521, 20152528, 43062503, 1335320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 102 ], [ 131, 140 ], [ 223, 238 ], [ 319, 322 ], [ 323, 334 ], [ 406, 418 ], [ 426, 438 ], [ 444, 456 ], [ 464, 484 ], [ 490, 504 ], [ 508, 511 ], [ 530, 541 ], [ 545, 548 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Natural features like the bicycle-friendly Texas Hill Country and generally mild Climate make Austin the home of several endurance and multi-sport races and communities. The Capitol 10,000 is the largest race in Texas, and approximately fifth largest in the United States. The Austin Marathon has been run in the city every year since 1992. Additionally, the city is home to the largest 5 mile race in Texas, named the Turkey Trot as it is run annually on thanksgiving. Started in 1991 by Thundercloud Subs, a local sandwich chain (who still sponsors the event), the event has grown to host over 20,000 runners. All proceeds are donated to Caritas of Austin, a local charity.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 317638, 4172738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 61 ], [ 278, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austin-founded American Swimming Association hosts several swim races around town. Austin is also the hometown of several cycling groups and the disgraced cyclist Lance Armstrong. Combining these three disciplines is a growing crop of triathlons, including the Capital of Texas Triathlon held every Memorial Day on and around Lady Bird Lake, Auditorium Shores, and Downtown Austin.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 23243880, 56191, 18928372, 14620859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 182 ], [ 303, 315 ], [ 346, 363 ], [ 369, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is home to the Circuit of the Americas (COTA), a grade 1 Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile specification motor racing facility which hosts the Formula One United States Grand Prix. The State of Texas has pledged $25million in public funds annually for 10 years to pay the sanctioning fees for the race. Built at an estimated cost of $250 to $300million, the circuit opened in 2012 and is located just east of the Austin Bergstrom International Airport. In August 2017, a new soccer-specific stadium was announced to be built between the Austin360 Amphitheater and the Grand Plaza at COTA. A professional soccer team known as Austin Bold FC will start playing in the United Soccer League in 2019.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 28663179, 248019, 293861, 10854, 248865, 262542, 1034291, 58064246, 356825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 45 ], [ 64, 105 ], [ 121, 133 ], [ 159, 170 ], [ 171, 195 ], [ 429, 467 ], [ 491, 514 ], [ 641, 655 ], [ 682, 702 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The summer of 2014 marked the inaugural season for World TeamTennis team Austin Aces, formerly Orange County Breakers of the southern California region. The Austin Aces played their matches at the Cedar Park Center northwest of Austin, and featured former professionals Andy Roddick and Marion Bartoli, as well as current WTA tour player Vera Zvonareva. The team left after the 2015 season.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 1335320, 43062503, 13819265, 15880388, 345090, 2286032, 670462 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 67 ], [ 73, 84 ], [ 95, 117 ], [ 197, 214 ], [ 270, 282 ], [ 287, 301 ], [ 338, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, Precourt Sports Ventures announced a plan to move the Columbus Crew SC soccer franchise from Columbus, Ohio to Austin. Precourt negotiated an agreement with the City of Austin to build a $200million privately funded stadium on public land at 10414 McKalla Place, following initial interest in Butler Shores Metropolitan Park and Roy G. Guerrero Colorado River Park. As part of an arrangement with the league, operational rights of Columbus Crew SC were sold in late 2018, and Austin FC was announced as Major League Soccer's 27th franchise on January 15, 2019, with the expansion team starting play in 2021.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Sports", "target_page_ids": [ 56027845, 245695, 5950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 33 ], [ 63, 79 ], [ 102, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austin Parks and Recreation Department received the Excellence in Aquatics award in 1999 and the Gold Medal Awards in 2004 from the National Recreation and Park Association.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Parks and recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 16736302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To strengthen the region's parks system, which spans more than , The Austin Parks Foundation (APF) was established in 1992 to develop and improve parks in and around Austin. APF works to fill the city's park funding gap by leveraging volunteers, philanthropists, park advocates, and strategic collaborations to develop, maintain and enhance Austin's parks, trails and green spaces.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Parks and recreation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lady Bird Lake (formerly Town Lake) is a river-like reservoir on the Colorado River. The lake is a popular recreational area for paddleboards, kayaks, canoes, dragon boats, and rowing shells. Austin's warm climate and the river's calm waters, nearly length and straight courses are especially popular with crew teams and clubs. Other recreational attractions along the shores of the lake include swimming in Deep Eddy Pool, the oldest swimming pool in Texas, and Red Bud Isle, a small island formed by the 1900 collapse of the McDonald Dam that serves as a recreation area with a dog park and access to the lake for canoeing and fishing. The Ann and Roy Butler Hike and Bike Trail forms a complete circuit around the lake. A local nonprofit, The Trail Foundation, is the Trail's private steward and has built amenities and infrastructure including trailheads, lakefront gathering areas, restrooms, exercise equipment, as well as doing Trailwide ecological restoration work on an ongoing basis. The Butler Trail loop was completed in 2014 with the public-private partnership 1-mile Boardwalk project.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Parks and recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 165936, 11199229, 17383, 99960, 235082, 25736, 25736, 3890635, 10012677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 129, 141 ], [ 143, 148 ], [ 151, 156 ], [ 159, 170 ], [ 177, 189 ], [ 307, 311 ], [ 409, 423 ], [ 512, 540 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Along the shores of Lady Bird Lake is the 350 acre (142 ha) Zilker Park, which contains large open lawns, sports fields, cross country courses, historical markers, concession stands, and picnic areas. Zilker Park is also home to numerous attractions, including the Zilker Botanical Garden, the Umlauf Sculpture Garden, Zilker Hillside Theater, the Austin Nature & Science Center, and the Zilker Zephyr, a gauge miniature railway carries passengers on a tour around the park. Auditorium Shores, an urban park along the lake, is home to the Palmer Auditorium, the Long Center for the Performing Arts, and an off-leash dog park on the water. Both Zilker Park and Auditorium Shores have a direct view of the Downtown skyline.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Parks and recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 165971, 1715674, 4141456, 3310923, 18928372, 2602533, 30832707, 30832707, 761404 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 71 ], [ 265, 288 ], [ 294, 317 ], [ 412, 429 ], [ 476, 493 ], [ 498, 508 ], [ 540, 557 ], [ 563, 598 ], [ 607, 625 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Barton Creek Greenbelt is a public green belt managed by the City of Austin's Park and Recreation Department. The Greenbelt, which begins at Zilker Park and stretches South/Southwest to the Woods of Westlake subdivision, is characterized by large limestone cliffs, dense foliage, and shallow bodies of water. Popular activities include rock climbing, mountain biking, and hiking. Some well known naturally forming swimming holes along Austin's greenbelt include Twin Falls, Sculpture Falls, Gus Fruh Pool, and Campbell's Hole. During years of heavy rainfall, the water level of the creek rises high enough to allow swimming, cliff diving, kayaking, paddle boarding, and tubing.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Parks and recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 12352445, 232435, 165971, 1534984, 17748, 929786, 27999, 13146856, 40275, 11199229, 2176214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 40, 50 ], [ 146, 157 ], [ 213, 224 ], [ 252, 261 ], [ 341, 354 ], [ 620, 628 ], [ 630, 642 ], [ 644, 652 ], [ 654, 669 ], [ 675, 681 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is home to more than 50 public pools and swimming holes. These include Deep Eddy Pool, Texas' oldest man-made swimming pool, and Barton Springs Pool, the nation's largest natural swimming pool in an urban area. Barton Springs Pool is spring-fed while Deep Eddy is well-fed. Both range in temperature from about during the winter to about during the summer. Hippie Hollow Park, a county park situated along Lake Travis, is the only officially sanctioned clothing-optional public park in Texas. Hamilton Pool Preserve is a natural pool that was created when the dome of an underground river collapsed due to massive erosion thousands of years ago. The pool, located about 23 miles (37km) west of Austin, is a popular summer swimming spot for visitors and residents. Hamilton Pool Preserve consists of 232 acres (0.94 km2) of protected natural habitat featuring a jade green pool into which a 50-foot (15 m) waterfall flows.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Parks and recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 1343934, 3890635, 994682, 318006, 19660402, 1756777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 61 ], [ 78, 92 ], [ 136, 155 ], [ 366, 384 ], [ 462, 491 ], [ 502, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Camping is legal on all public property except in front of City Hall since 2019. However, \"Other areas where camping remains banned include any city park space, under Austin Parks and Recreation rules. That includes downtown green spaces as well as trails and greenbelts such as along Barton Creek.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Parks and recreation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "McKinney Falls State Park is a state park administered by the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department, located at the confluence of Onion Creek and Williamson Creek. The park includes several designated hiking trails and campsites with water and electric. The namesake features of the park are the scenic upper and lower falls along Onion Creek. The Emma Long Metropolitan Park is a municipal park along the shores of Lake Austin, originally constructed by the Civilian Conservation Corps. The Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center is a botanical garden and arboretum that features more than 800 species of native Texas plants in both garden and natural settings; the Wildflower Center is located southwest of Downtown in Circle C Ranch. Roy G. Guerrero Park is located along the Colorado River in East Riverside and contains miles of wooded trails, a sandy beach along the river, and a disc golf course.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Parks and recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 10395942, 380812, 6951991, 23584894, 228043, 26164830, 166313, 7821, 5803666, 69427, 338454, 9747803, 23634651, 8212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ], [ 31, 41 ], [ 62, 97 ], [ 128, 139 ], [ 217, 226 ], [ 346, 373 ], [ 414, 425 ], [ 457, 484 ], [ 491, 526 ], [ 532, 548 ], [ 553, 562 ], [ 718, 732 ], [ 794, 808 ], [ 883, 892 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Covert Park, located on the top of Mount Bonnell, is a popular tourist destination overlooking Lake Austin and the Colorado River. The mount provides a vista for viewing the city of Austin, Lake Austin, and the surrounding hills. It was designated a Recorded Texas Historic Landmark in 1969, bearing Marker number 6473, and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2015.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Parks and recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 1238172, 25538461, 64065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 48 ], [ 250, 282 ], [ 342, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Austin Country Club is a private golf club located along the shores of the Colorado River, right next to the Pennybacker Bridge. Founded in 1899, the club moved to its third and present site in 1984, which features a challenging layout designed by noted course architect Pete Dye.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Parks and recreation", "target_page_ids": [ 53616713, 1240686, 6302749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 113, 131 ], [ 275, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2021, Austin is one of the safest large cities in the United States. MoneyGeek ranked it as the 9th safest city with a population above 300,000 in 2020. In 2019, the FBI named Austin the 11th safest city on a list of 22 American cities with a population above 400,000.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "FBI statistics show that overall violent and property crimes dropped in Austin in 2015, but increased in suburban areas of the city. One such southeastern suburb, Del Valle, reported eight homicides within two months in 2016. According to 2016 APD crime statistics, the 78723 census tract had the most violent crime, with 6 murders, 25 rapes, and 81 robberies. The city had 39 homicides in 2016, the most since 1997.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 7074714, 4621620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 172 ], [ 244, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the first American mass school shooting incidents took place in Austin on August 1, 1966, when Charles Whitman shot 43 people, killing 13 from the top of the University of Texas tower. The University of Texas tower shooting led to the formation of the SWAT team of the Austin Police Department.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 50822291, 59628, 105038, 51619141, 146702, 4621620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 30 ], [ 31, 46 ], [ 102, 117 ], [ 196, 230 ], [ 259, 263 ], [ 276, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1991, four teenage girls were murdered in a yogurt shop by an unknown assailant(s). A police officer responded to reports of a fire at the I Can't Believe It's Yogurt! store on Anderson Lane and discovered the girls' bodies in a back room. The murders remain unsolved.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 2940804, 20261677 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 58 ], [ 142, 170 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, Andrew Joseph Stack III deliberately crashed his Piper PA-28 Cherokee into Echelon 1, a building in which the Internal Revenue Service, housing 190 employees was a lessee of. The resulting explosion killed 1 and injured 13 IRS employees, completely destroyed the building and cost the IRS a total of $38.6million. (see 2010 Austin suicide attack)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 172948, 23430752, 26255583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 78 ], [ 119, 143 ], [ 328, 354 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A series of bombings occurred in Austin in March 2018. Over the course of 20 days, five package bombs exploded, killing two people and injuring another five. The suspect, 23-year-old Mark Anthony Conditt of Pflugerville, Texas, blew himself up inside his vehicle after he was pulled over by police on March 21, also injuring a police officer.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 56825907, 49760, 151244, 18835454 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 20 ], [ 88, 100 ], [ 207, 226 ], [ 228, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2020, Austin was the victim of a cyberattack by the Russian group Berserk Bear, possibly related to the U.S. federal government data breach earlier that year.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 37925700, 66159172, 66097941 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 47 ], [ 69, 81 ], [ 107, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On April 18, 2021, a shooting occurred at the Arboretum Oaks Apartments near The Arboretum shopping center, in which a former Travis County Sheriff's Office detective killed his ex-wife, his adoptive daughter, and his daughter's boyfriend. The suspect, who was previously charged with child sexual assault, was arrested in Manor after a 20-hour manhunt.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 28495, 8788896, 332658, 91426, 118576, 18721790, 136702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 77, 90 ], [ 91, 106 ], [ 126, 139 ], [ 157, 166 ], [ 285, 305 ], [ 323, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A mass shooting took place in the early morning of June 12, 2021, on Sixth Street, which resulted in 14 people injured and one dead. The man killed was believed to be an innocent bystander who was struck as he was standing outside a bar. A 19-year-old suspect was formally charged and arrested in Killeen nearly two weeks after the shooting.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 1193095, 135478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 81 ], [ 297, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is administered by an 11-member city council (10 council members elected by geographic district plus a mayor elected at large). The council is accompanied by a hired city manager under the manager-council system of municipal governance. Council and mayoral elections are non-partisan, with a runoff in case there is no majority winner. A referendum approved by voters on November 6, 2012, changed the council composition from six council members plus a mayor elected at large to the current \"10+1\" district system. November 2014 marked the first election under the new system. The Federal government had forced San Antonio and Dallas to abandon at-large systems before 1987; however, the court could not show a racist pattern in Austin and upheld the city's at-large system during a 1984 lawsuit. In five elections between 1973 and 1994 Austin voters rejected single-member districts.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 3532493, 159524, 195149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 51 ], [ 173, 185 ], [ 588, 606 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin formerly operated its city hall at 128 West 8th Street. Antoine Predock and Cotera Kolar Negrete & Reed Architects designed a new city hall building, which was intended to reflect what The Dallas Morning News referred to as a \"crazy-quilt vitality, that embraces everything from country music to environmental protests and high-tech swagger.\" The new city hall, built from recycled materials, has solar panels in its garage. The city hall, at 301 West Second Street, opened in November 2004. Steve Adler assumed the office of mayor on January 6, 2015.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 453580, 43943201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 215 ], [ 499, 510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Law enforcement in Austin is provided by the Austin Police Department, except for state government buildings, which are patrolled by the Texas Department of Public Safety. The University of Texas Police operate from the University of Texas.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 4621620, 1086397, 32031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 69 ], [ 137, 170 ], [ 220, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fire protection within the city limits is provided by the Austin Fire Department, while the surrounding county is divided into twelve geographical areas known as emergency services districts, which are covered by separate regional fire departments. Emergency medical services are provided for the whole county by Austin-Travis County Emergency Medical Services.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 22456981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mayor Steve Adler (D)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 43943201, 5043544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 17 ], [ 19, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is the county seat of Travis County and hosts the Heman Marion Sweatt Travis County Courthouse downtown, as well as other county government offices.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 51509, 91426, 55977267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ], [ 29, 42 ], [ 57, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Texas Department of Transportation operates the Austin District Office in Austin.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 4030255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ) operates the Austin I and Austin II district parole offices in Austin.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 10407129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The United States Postal Service operates several post offices in Austin.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 50591 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is known as an enclave of liberal politics in an otherwise conservative state—so much so, that the city is sometimes sarcastically called the \"People's Republic of Austin\" by residents of other parts of Texas, and conservatives in the Texas Legislature. Former Governor Rick Perry referred to it as a \"blueberry in the tomato soup,\" meaning it is a Democratic city in a Republican state.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 5266241, 545253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 40 ], [ 277, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since redistricting following the 2010 United States census, Austin has been divided between six congressional districts at the federal level: Texas's 35th, Texas's 25th, Texas's 10th, Texas's 21st, Texas's 17th, and Texas's 31st. Texas's 35th congressional district is represented by Democrat Lloyd Doggett. The other five districts are represented by Republicans, of whom only one, Michael McCaul of the 10th district, lives in Travis County.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 30145348, 2076529, 2062577, 2071873, 2063503, 2077000, 833550, 1132718, 91426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 143, 155 ], [ 157, 169 ], [ 171, 183 ], [ 185, 197 ], [ 199, 211 ], [ 217, 229 ], [ 294, 307 ], [ 384, 398 ], [ 430, 443 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a result of the major party realignment that began in the 1970s, central Austin became a stronghold of the Democratic Party, while the suburbs tend to vote Republican. Overall, the city is a blend of downtown liberalism and suburban conservatism but leans to the political left as a whole. The city last went to a Republican candidate in 2000 when former Texas Governor George W. Bush successfully ran for president. In 2004, the Democrats rebounded strongly as John Kerry enjoyed a 14.0% margin over Bush, who once again won Texas.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 5043544, 32070, 3414021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 126 ], [ 159, 169 ], [ 373, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "City residents have been supportive of alternative candidates; for example, Ralph Nader won 10.4% of the vote in Austin in 2000.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 15029741 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2003, the city adopted a resolution against the USA PATRIOT Act that reaffirmed constitutionally guaranteed rights.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 32191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of 2018, all six of Austin's state legislative districts are held by Democrats.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Travis County was also the only county in Texas to reject Texas Constitutional Amendment Proposition 2 that effectively outlawed gay marriage and status equal or similar to it and did so by a wide margin (40% for, 60% against).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Two of the candidates for president in the 2004 race called Austin home. Michael Badnarik, the Libertarian Party candidate, and David Cobb of the Green Party both had lived in Austin. During the run up to the election in November, a presidential debate was held at the University of Texas at Austin student union involving the two candidates. While the Commission on Presidential Debates only invites Democrats and Republicans to participate in televised debates, the debate at UT was open to all presidential candidates. Austin also hosted one of the last presidential debates between Barack Obama and Hillary Clinton during their heated race for the Democratic nomination in 2008.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 452798, 440497, 30696, 32031, 899023, 534366, 5043192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 89 ], [ 128, 138 ], [ 146, 157 ], [ 269, 298 ], [ 353, 387 ], [ 586, 598 ], [ 603, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2016 presidential election, Travis County, which contains the majority of Austin, voted for Hillary Clinton (D) by a 38.9-point margin (66.3% to 27.4%).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 5043192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A controversial turning point in the political history of the Austin area was the 2003 Texas redistricting. Before then, Austin had been entirely or almost entirely within the borders of a single congressional district–what was then the 10th District–for over a century. Opponents characterized the resulting district layout as excessively partisan gerrymandering, and the plan was challenged in court by Democratic and minority activists. The Supreme Court of the United States has never struck down a redistricting plan for being excessively partisan. The plan was subsequently upheld by a three-judge federal panel in late 2003, and on June 28, 2006, the matter was largely settled when the Supreme Court, in a 7–2 decision, upheld the entire congressional redistricting plan with the exception of a Hispanic-majority district in southwest Texas. This affected Austin's districting, as U.S. Rep. Lloyd Doggett's district (U.S. Congressional District 25) was found to be insufficiently compact to compensate for the reduced minority influence in the southwest district; it was redrawn so that it took in most of southeastern Travis County and several counties to its south and east.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 1822802, 12987, 31737, 833550, 8337137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 106 ], [ 349, 363 ], [ 444, 478 ], [ 899, 912 ], [ 1026, 1044 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The distinguishing political movement of Austin politics has been that of the environmental movement, which spawned the parallel neighborhood movement, then the more recent conservationist movement (as typified by the Hill Country Conservancy), and eventually the current ongoing debate about \"sense of place\" and preserving the Austin quality of life. Much of the environmental movement has matured into a debate on issues related to saving and creating an Austin \"sense of place.\" In 2012, Austin became just one of a few cities in Texas to ban the sale and use of plastic bags. However, the ban ended in 2018 due to a court ruling that regarded all bag bans in the state to contravene the Texas Solid Waste Disposal Act.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Government", "target_page_ids": [ 45434, 29810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 100 ], [ 534, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 2015–2019 Census estimates, 51.7% of Austin residents ages 25 and over have earned at least a bachelor's degree, compared to the national figure of 32.1%. 19.4% hold a graduate or professional degree, compared to the national figure of 12.4%.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 188874, 153981, 8810912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 128 ], [ 186, 194 ], [ 198, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is home to the University of Texas at Austin, the flagship institution of the University of Texas System with over 40,000 undergraduate students and 11,000 graduate students.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 32031, 188719, 242746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 51 ], [ 57, 77 ], [ 85, 111 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other institutions of higher learning in Austin include St. Edward's University, Huston–Tillotson University, Austin Community College, Concordia University, the Seminary of the Southwest, the Acton School of Business, Texas Health and Science University, University of St. Augustine for Health Sciences, Austin Graduate School of Theology, Austin Presbyterian Theological Seminary, Virginia College's Austin Campus, The Art Institute of Austin, Southern Careers Institute of Austin, Austin Conservatory and a branch of Park University.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 332070, 2153818, 827552, 1997113, 5711822, 3937245, 37062228, 22285508, 1574225, 6156543, 9236022, 1107755, 2212694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 79 ], [ 81, 108 ], [ 110, 134 ], [ 136, 156 ], [ 162, 187 ], [ 193, 217 ], [ 219, 254 ], [ 256, 303 ], [ 305, 339 ], [ 341, 381 ], [ 383, 399 ], [ 417, 444 ], [ 520, 535 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The University of Texas System and Texas State University System are headquartered in downtown Austin.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 242746, 624245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 30 ], [ 35, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Approximately half of the city by area is served by the Austin Independent School District. This district includes notable schools such as the magnet Liberal Arts and Science Academy High School of Austin, Texas (LASA), which, by test scores, has consistently been within the top thirty high schools in the nation, as well as The Ann Richards School for Young Women Leaders. The remaining portion of Austin is served by adjoining school districts, including Round Rock ISD, Pflugerville ISD, Leander ISD, Manor ISD, Del Valle ISD, Lake Travis ISD, Hays, and Eanes ISD.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 3060563, 3130283, 39210270, 1997442, 3340800, 2142281, 6912205, 6108943, 6108826, 6328820, 1822986, 8959953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 90 ], [ 150, 211 ], [ 326, 373 ], [ 458, 472 ], [ 474, 490 ], [ 492, 503 ], [ 505, 514 ], [ 516, 529 ], [ 531, 546 ], [ 548, 552 ], [ 558, 563 ], [ 564, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Four of the metro's major public school systems, representing 54% of area enrollment, are included in Expansion Management magazine's latest annual education quality ratings of nearly 2,800 school districts nationwide. Two districts—Eanes and Round Rock—are rated \"gold medal,\" the highest of the magazine's cost-performance categories.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Austin metropolitan area is also served by 27 charter school districts and over 100 private schools. Austin has a large network of private and alternative education institutions for children in PreK–12th grade exists. Austin is also home to child developmental institutions.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Austin's main daily newspaper is the Austin American-Statesman. The Austin Chronicle is Austin's alternative weekly, while The Daily Texan is the student newspaper of the University of Texas at Austin. Austin's business newspaper is the weekly Austin Business Journal. The Austin Monitor is an online outlet that specializes in insider reporting on City Hall, Travis County Commissioners Court, AISD, and other related local civics beats. The Monitor is backed by the nonprofit Capital of Texas Media Foundation. Austin also has numerous smaller special interest or sub-regional newspapers such as the Oak Hill Gazette, Westlake Picayune, Hill Country News, Round Rock Leader, NOKOA, and The Villager among others. Texas Monthly, a major regional magazine, is also headquartered in Austin. The Texas Observer, a muckraking biweekly political magazine, has been based in Austin for over five decades. The weekly Community Impact Newspaper published by John Garrett, former publisher of the Austin Business Journal has five regional editions and is delivered to every house and business within certain ZIP codes and all of the news is specific to those ZIP codes. Another statewide publication based in Austin is The Texas Tribune, an on-line publication focused on Texas politics. The Tribune is \"user-supported\" through donations, a business model similar to public radio. The editor is Evan Smith, former editor of Texas Monthly. Smith co-founded the Texas Tribune, a nonprofit, non-partisan public media organization, with Austin venture capitalist John Thornton and veteran journalist Ross Ramsey.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 2842090, 1346454, 1318140, 5023227, 32031, 3773890, 3060563, 11838948, 187068, 4697343, 19985770, 3773890, 24077291, 5591242 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 62 ], [ 64, 84 ], [ 97, 115 ], [ 123, 138 ], [ 171, 200 ], [ 244, 267 ], [ 395, 399 ], [ 602, 618 ], [ 715, 728 ], [ 794, 808 ], [ 911, 937 ], [ 989, 1012 ], [ 1211, 1228 ], [ 1387, 1397 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commercial radio stations include KASE-FM (country), KVET (sports), KVET-FM (country), KKMJ-FM (adult contemporary), KLBJ (talk), KLBJ-FM (classic rock), KFIT (variety hits), KFMK (contemporary Christian), KOKE-FM (progressive country) and KPEZ (rhythmic contemporary). KUT-FM is the leading public radio station in Texas and produces the majority of its content locally. KOOP (FM) is a volunteer-run radio station with more than 60 locally produced programs. KVRX is the student-run college radio station of the University of Texas at Austin with a focus on local and non-mainstream music and community programming. Other listener-supported stations include KAZI (urban contemporary), and KMFA (classical).", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 5886853, 5247, 5885045, 5886858, 4881879, 20083053, 3736378, 3636210, 294091, 8759457, 5249969, 8943731, 2163978, 5886856, 2147772, 4045532, 178808, 3960474, 2835851, 5887121, 460625, 5887125, 6668778 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 41 ], [ 43, 50 ], [ 53, 57 ], [ 68, 75 ], [ 87, 94 ], [ 96, 114 ], [ 117, 121 ], [ 130, 137 ], [ 139, 151 ], [ 154, 158 ], [ 175, 179 ], [ 206, 213 ], [ 215, 234 ], [ 240, 244 ], [ 246, 267 ], [ 270, 276 ], [ 292, 304 ], [ 372, 381 ], [ 460, 464 ], [ 659, 663 ], [ 665, 683 ], [ 690, 694 ], [ 696, 705 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Network television stations (affiliations in parentheses) include KTBC (Fox O&O), KVUE (ABC), KXAN (NBC), KEYE-TV (CBS), KLRU (PBS), KNVA (The CW), KBVO (MyNetworkTV), and KAKW (Univision O&O). KLRU produces several award-winning locally produced programs such as Austin City Limits. Despite Austin's explosive growth, it is only a medium-sized market (currently 38th) because the suburban and rural areas are not much larger than the city proper. Additionally, the proximity of San Antonio truncates the potential market area.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 48907519, 2477490, 1991759, 2221668, 1754769, 1372005, 2322682, 3435510, 2348172, 2477490, 174839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 70 ], [ 76, 79 ], [ 82, 86 ], [ 94, 98 ], [ 106, 113 ], [ 121, 125 ], [ 133, 137 ], [ 148, 152 ], [ 172, 176 ], [ 188, 191 ], [ 264, 282 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alex Jones, journalist, radio show host and filmmaker, produces his talk show The Alex Jones Show in Austin which broadcasts nationally on more than 60 AM and FM radio stations in the United States, WWCR Radio shortwave and XM Radio: Channel 166.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 358934, 3434750, 2388606, 165302 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 97 ], [ 184, 197 ], [ 199, 203 ], [ 224, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2009, 72.7% of Austin (city) commuters drove alone, with other mode shares being: 10.4% carpool, 6% were remote workers, 5% use transit, 2.3% walk, and 1% bicycle. In 2016, the American Community Survey estimated modal shares for Austin (city) commuters of 73.5% for driving alone, 9.6% for carpooling, 3.6% for riding transit, 2% for walking, and 1.5% for cycling. The city of Austin has a lower than average percentage of households without a car. In 2015, 6.9 percent of Austin households lacked a car, and decreased slightly to 6 percent in 2016. The national average was 8.7 percent in 2016. Austin averaged 1.65 cars per household in 2016, compared to a national average of 1.8.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 6366363, 158555, 592043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 76 ], [ 108, 119 ], [ 180, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In mid-2019, TomTom ranked Austin as having the worst traffic congestion in Texas, as well as 19th nationally and 179th globally.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 3684349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Central Austin lies between two major north–south freeways: Interstate 35 to the east and the Mopac Expressway (Loop 1) to the west. U.S. Highway 183 runs from northwest to southeast, and State Highway 71 crosses the southern part of the city from east to west, completing a rough \"box\" around central and north-central Austin. Austin is the largest city in the United States to be served by only one Interstate Highway.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 12434850, 2045267, 11717073, 5292105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 73 ], [ 94, 119 ], [ 133, 149 ], [ 188, 204 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "U.S. Highway 290 enters Austin from the east and merges into Interstate 35. Its highway designation continues south on I-35 and then becomes part of Highway 71, continuing to the west. Highway 290 splits from Highway 71 in southwest Austin, in an interchange known as \"The Y.\" Highway 71 continues to Brady, Texas, and Highway 290 continues west to intersect Interstate 10 near Junction. Interstate 35 continues south through San Antonio to Laredo on the Texas-Mexico border. Interstate 35 is the highway link to the Dallas-Fort Worth metroplex in northern Texas. There are two links to Houston, Texas (Highway 290 and State Highway 71/Interstate 10). Highway 183 leads northwest of Austin toward Lampasas.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 735657, 136349, 7046641, 136253, 53848, 136773, 136277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 301, 313 ], [ 359, 372 ], [ 378, 386 ], [ 426, 437 ], [ 441, 447 ], [ 697, 705 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the mid-1980s, construction was completed on Loop 360, a scenic highway that curves through the hill country from near the 71/Mopac interchange in the south to near the 183/Mopac interchange in the north. The iconic Pennybacker Bridge, also known as the \"360 Bridge,\" crosses Lake Austin to connect the northern and southern portions of Loop 360.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 1240806, 1240686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 56 ], [ 219, 237 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "State Highway 130 is a bypass route designed to relieve traffic congestion, starting from Interstate 35 just north of Georgetown and running along a parallel route to the east, where it bypasses Round Rock, Austin, San Marcos and New Braunfels before ending at Interstate 10 east of Seguin, where drivers could drive west to return to Interstate 35 in San Antonio. The first segment was opened in November 2006, which was located east of Austin–Bergstrom International Airport at Austin's southeast corner on State Highway 71. Highway 130 runs concurrently with Highway 45 from Pflugerville on the north until it reaches US 183 well south of Austin, at which point SR 45 continues west. The entire route of State Highway 130 is now complete. The final leg opened on November 1, 2012. The highway is noted for having a maximum speed limit of for the entire route. The section of the toll road between Mustang Ridge and Seguin has a posted speed limit of , the highest posted speed limit in the United States.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 4360460, 151245, 151124, 151147, 86404, 135968, 53848, 262542, 5292105, 151244, 549861, 4712567, 3517666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 195, 205 ], [ 215, 225 ], [ 230, 243 ], [ 261, 274 ], [ 283, 289 ], [ 353, 364 ], [ 439, 477 ], [ 510, 526 ], [ 579, 591 ], [ 622, 628 ], [ 666, 671 ], [ 977, 1009 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "State Highway 45 runs east–west from just south of Highway 183 in Cedar Park to 130 inside Pflugerville (just east of Round Rock). A tolled extension of State Highway Loop 1 was also created. A new southeast leg of Highway 45 has recently been completed, running from US 183 and the south end of Segment 5 of TX-130 south of Austin due west to I-35 at the FM 1327/Creedmoor exit between the south end of Austin and Buda. The 183A Toll Road opened in March 2007, providing a tolled alternative to U.S. 183 through the cities of Leander and Cedar Park. Currently under construction is a change to East US 290 from US 183 to the town of Manor. Officially, the tollway will be dubbed Tollway 290 with \"Manor Expressway\" as nickname.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 4712567, 151241, 151244, 57637971, 136040, 151243, 151241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 66, 76 ], [ 91, 103 ], [ 356, 363 ], [ 415, 419 ], [ 527, 534 ], [ 539, 549 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the overwhelming initial opposition to the toll road concept when it was first announced, all three toll roads have exceeded revenue projections.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Austin's primary airport is Austin–Bergstrom International Airport (ABIA) (IATA code AUS'''), located southeast of the city. The airport is on the site of the former Bergstrom Air Force Base, which was closed in 1993 as part of the Base Realignment and Closure process. Until 1999, Robert Mueller Municipal Airport was Austin's main airport until ABIA took that role and the old airport was shut down. Austin Executive Airport, along with several smaller airports outside the city center, serves general aviation traffic.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 262542, 1400415, 1089728, 18858237, 31919973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 66 ], [ 167, 191 ], [ 233, 261 ], [ 283, 315 ], [ 403, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amtrak's Austin station is located in west downtown and is served by the Texas Eagle'' which runs daily between Chicago and San Antonio, continuing on to Los Angeles several times a week.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 51928, 5466911, 498239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 9, 23 ], [ 73, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Railway segments between Austin and San Antonio have been evaluated for a proposed regional passenger rail project called \"Lone Star Rail\". However, failure to come to an agreement with the track's current owner, Union Pacific Railroad, ended the project in 2016.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 164671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Greyhound Lines operates the Austin Station north of downtown near Highland Mall. Grupo Senda's Turimex Internacional service operates bus service from Austin to Nuevo Laredo and on to many destinations in Mexico from their station in East Austin. Megabus offers daily service to San Antonio, Dallas/Fort Worth and Houston.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 443825, 17224242, 26165541, 19065327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 67, 80 ], [ 82, 93 ], [ 248, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Capital Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Capital Metro) provides public transportation to the city, primarily with its MetroBus local bus service, the MetroExpress express bus system, as well as a bus rapid transit service, MetroRapid. Capital Metro opened a commuter rail system, Capital MetroRail, in 2010. The system consists of a single line serving downtown Austin, the neighborhoods of East Austin, North Central Austin, and Northwest Austin plus the suburb of Leander.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 3983421, 68673018, 68673018, 333625, 42292819, 14584404, 4336065, 29370222, 151243 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 49 ], [ 129, 137 ], [ 161, 173 ], [ 207, 224 ], [ 234, 244 ], [ 270, 283 ], [ 292, 309 ], [ 416, 436 ], [ 478, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since it began operations in 1985, Capital Metro has proposed adding light rail services to its network. Despite support from the City Council, voters rejected light rail proposals in 2000 and 2014. However, in 2020, voters approved Capital Metro's transit expansion plan, Project Connect, by a comfortable margin. The plan proposes 3 new light rail lines, a second commuter rail line, several new MetroRapid lines, more MetroExpress routes, and a number of other infrastructure, technology and service expansion projects.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 50943, 64831033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 79 ], [ 274, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Capital Area Rural Transportation System connects Austin with outlying suburbs and surrounding rural areas.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 16786854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is served by several ride-sharing companies including Uber and Lyft. On May 9, 2016, Uber and Lyft voluntarily ceased operations in Austin in response to a city ordinance that required ride sharing company drivers to get fingerprint checks, have their vehicles labeled, and not pick up or drop off in certain city lanes. Uber and Lyft resumed service in the summer of 2017. The city was previously served by Fasten until they ceased all operations in the city in March 2018.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 40451131, 722459, 10149406, 52987247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 40 ], [ 61, 65 ], [ 70, 74 ], [ 415, 421 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is also served by Electric Cab of North America's six-passenger electric cabs that operate on a flexible route from the Kramer MetroRail Station to Domain Northside and from the Downtown MetroRail station and MetroRapid stops to locations between the Austin Convention Center and near Sixth and Bowie streets by Whole Foods.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 16105186, 25373735, 7769858, 25373714, 3971350, 620343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 84 ], [ 127, 151 ], [ 155, 171 ], [ 185, 211 ], [ 258, 282 ], [ 319, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Carsharing service Zipcar operates in Austin and, until 2019, the city was also served by Car2Go which kept its North American headquarters in the city even after pulling out.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 956907, 1339212, 26950439 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ], [ 19, 25 ], [ 90, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin is known as the most bike-friendly city in Texas, and was ranked the #7 city in the US by Bicycling Magazine in 2016.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 26984383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city's bike advocacy organization is Bike Austin. BikeTexas, a state-level advocacy organization, also has its main office in Austin.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bicycles are a popular transportation choice among students, faculty, and staff at the University of Texas. According to a survey done at the University of Texas, 57% of commuters bike to campus.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 3973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The City of Austin and Capital Metro jointly own a bike-sharing service, Capital MetroBike, which is available in and around downtown. The service is a franchise of BCycle, a national bike sharing network owned by Trek Bicycle, and is operated by local nonprofit organization Bike Share of Austin. Until 2020 the service was known as Austin BCycle. In 2018, Lime began offering dockless bikes, which do not need to be docked at a designated station.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 488682, 3983421, 31242915, 205910, 54718357, 488682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 63 ], [ 73, 90 ], [ 165, 171 ], [ 214, 226 ], [ 358, 362 ], [ 378, 392 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, scooter-sharing companies Lime and Bird debuted rentable electric scooters in Austin. The city briefly banned the scooters — which began operations before the city could implement a permitting system — until the city completed development of their \"dockless mobility\" permitting process on May 1, 2018. Dockless electric scooters and bikes are banned from Austin city parks and the Ann and Roy Butler Trail and Boardwalk. For the 2018 Austin City Limits Music Festival, the city of Austin offered a designated parking area for dockless bikes and scooters.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 57561320, 54718357, 57561160, 57561320, 165936, 1443527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 35, 39 ], [ 44, 48 ], [ 57, 83 ], [ 391, 429 ], [ 444, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A 2013 study by Walk Score ranked Austin 35th most walkable of the 50 largest U.S. cities. More recently, Walk Score rated some Austin neighborhoods among the most walkable in Texas. Downtown Austin scored 88 points out of a possible 100, with the West Campus neighborhood scoring 87, and East Austin scoring 81.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 18543218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin has two types of relationships with other cities, sister and friendship.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1155299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Austin's sister cities are:", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adelaide, Australia (1983)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 3841955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Angers, Pays de la Loire, France (2011)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 82357, 198748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antalya, Antalya Province, Turkey (2009)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 361527, 1364197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gwangmyeong, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea (2001)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 967700, 323103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 14, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hackney, London, England, United Kingdom (2014)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 93937, 17867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Koblenz, Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany (1991)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 167926, 26239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 10, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lima, Peru (1981)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 85423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Maseru, Lesotho (1978)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 57047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ōita, Ōita, Japan (1990)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 6793355, 221919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 7, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Orlu, South East, Nigeria (2000)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 3167703, 53251816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 7, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pune, Maharashtra, India (2018)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 164634, 20629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ], [ 7, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico (1968)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 18952913, 160592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Taichung, Taiwan (1986)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 296151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Xishuangbanna, Yunnan, China (1997)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 212316, 166410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ], [ 16, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cities of Belo Horizonte, Brazil and Elche, Spain were formerly sister cities, but upon a vote of the Austin City Council in 1991, their status was de-activated.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 82198, 205542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 28 ], [ 41, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Covenants between two city leaders:", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Siem Reap, Cambodia (2011)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 6658464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tehuacán, Mexico (2019)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1595592 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Villefranche-sur-Mer, France (2010)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "International relations", "target_page_ids": [ 1145040 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of companies based in Austin, Texas", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37508085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of people from Austin, Texas", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5540061 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Register of Historic Places listings in Travis County, Texas", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19248638 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Williamson Creek Greenbelt", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 22517537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AustinTexas.gov - official city website", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Austin Chamber of Commerce", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Historic photographs from the Austin History Center, hosted by the Portal to Texas History", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Austin,_Texas", "Cities_in_Texas", "Cities_in_Hays_County,_Texas", "Cities_in_Travis_County,_Texas", "Cities_in_Williamson_County,_Texas", "County_seats_in_Texas", "Cities_in_Greater_Austin", "Planned_cities_in_the_United_States", "Populated_places_established_in_1835", "1839_establishments_in_the_Republic_of_Texas", "Academic_enclaves", "Capitals_of_former_nations", "State_capitals_in_the_United_States" ]

[ "Austin, Texas", "Austin, TX" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The argument from morality is an argument for the existence of God. Arguments from morality tend to be based on moral normativity or moral order. Arguments from moral normativity observe some aspect of morality and argue that God is the best or only explanation for this, concluding that God must exist. Arguments from moral order are based on the asserted need for moral order to exist in the universe. They claim that, for this moral order to exist, God must exist to support it. The argument from morality is noteworthy in that one cannot evaluate the soundness of the argument without attending to almost every important philosophical issue in meta-ethics.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 621169, 22081, 5042765, 18917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 66 ], [ 112, 129 ], [ 226, 229 ], [ 648, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "German philosopher Immanuel Kant devised an argument from morality based on practical reason. Kant argued that the goal of humanity is to achieve perfect happiness and virtue (the summum bonum) and believed that an afterlife must exist in order for this to be possible, and that God must exist to provide this. In his book Mere Christianity, C. S. Lewis argued that \"conscience reveals to us a moral law whose source cannot be found in the natural world, thus pointing to a supernatural Lawgiver.\" Lewis argued that accepting the validity of human reason as a given must include accepting the validity of practical reason, which could not be valid without reference to a higher cosmic moral order which could not exist without a God to create and/or establish it. A related argument is from conscience; John Henry Newman argued that the conscience supports the claim that objective moral truths exist because it drives people to act morally even when it is not in their own interest. Newman argued that, because the conscience suggests the existence of objective moral truths, God must exist to give authority to these truths.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14631, 882424, 1126849, 1178, 20433, 5813, 83895, 186123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 32 ], [ 76, 92 ], [ 180, 192 ], [ 215, 224 ], [ 323, 340 ], [ 342, 353 ], [ 803, 820 ], [ 837, 847 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Contemporary defenders of the argument from morality are Graham Ward, Alister McGrath and William Lane Craig.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13679029, 1463438, 314725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 68 ], [ 70, 85 ], [ 90, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "All variations of the argument from morality begin with an observation about moral thought or experiences and conclude with the existence of God. Some of these arguments propose moral facts which they claim evident through human experience, arguing that God is the best explanation for these. Other versions describe some end which humans should strive to attain that is only possible if God exists.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General form", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many arguments from morality are based on moral normativity, which suggests that objective moral truths exist and require God's existence to give them authority. Often, they consider that morality seems to be binding – obligations are seen to convey more than just a preference, but imply that the obligation will stand, regardless of other factors or interests. For morality to be binding, God must exist. In its most general form, the argument from moral normativity is:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General form", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A human experience of morality is observed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General form", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "God is the best or only explanation for this moral experience.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General form", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, God exists.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General form", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some arguments from moral order suggest that morality is based on rationality and that this can only be the case if there is a moral order in the universe. The arguments propose that only the existence of God as orthodoxly conceived could support the existence of moral order in the universe, so God must exist. Alternative arguments from moral order have proposed that we have an obligation to attain the perfect good of both happiness and moral virtue. They attest that whatever we are obliged to do must be possible, and achieving the perfect good of both happiness and moral virtue is only possible if a natural moral order exists. A natural moral order requires the existence of God as orthodoxly conceived, so God must exist.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "General form", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In his Critique of Pure Reason, German philosopher Immanuel Kant stated that no successful argument for God's existence arises from reason alone. In his Critique of Practical Reason he went on to argue that, despite the failure of these arguments, morality requires that God's existence is assumed, owing to practical reason. Rather than proving the existence of God, Kant was attempting to demonstrate that all moral thought requires the assumption that God exists. Kant argued that humans are obliged to bring about the summum bonum: the two central aims of moral virtue and happiness, where happiness arises out of virtue. As ought implies can, Kant argued, it must be possible for the summum bonum to be achieved. He accepted that it is not within the power of humans to bring the summum bonum about, because we cannot ensure that virtue always leads to happiness, so there must be a higher power who has the power to create an afterlife where virtue can be rewarded by happiness.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Variations", "target_page_ids": [ 347543, 14631, 42446, 603599, 1126849, 33954342, 1178 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 30 ], [ 51, 64 ], [ 132, 138 ], [ 153, 181 ], [ 522, 534 ], [ 629, 646 ], [ 932, 941 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Philosopher G. H. R. Parkinson notes a common objection to Kant's argument: that what ought to be done does not necessarily entail that it is possible. He also argues that alternative conceptions of morality exist which do not rely on the assumptions that Kant makes – he cites utilitarianism as an example which does not require the summum bonum. Nicholas Everitt argues that much moral guidance is unattainable, such as the Biblical command to be Christ-like. He proposes that Kant's first two premises only entail that we must try to achieve the perfect good, not that it is actually attainable.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Variations", "target_page_ids": [ 31792, 66729191, 37531624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 278, 292 ], [ 348, 364 ], [ 510, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both theists and non-theists have accepted that the existence of objective moral truths might entail the existence of God. Atheist philosopher J. L. Mackie accepted that, if objective moral truths existed, they would warrant a supernatural explanation. Scottish philosopher W. R. Sorley presented the following argument:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Variations", "target_page_ids": [ 15247542, 240934, 1940399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 130 ], [ 143, 155 ], [ 274, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If morality is objective and absolute, God must exist.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Variations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Morality is objective and absolute.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Variations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Therefore, God must exist.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Variations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many critics have challenged the second premise of this argument, by offering a biological and sociological account of the development of human morality which suggests that it is neither objective nor absolute. This account, supported by biologist E. O. Wilson and philosopher Michael Ruse, proposes that the human experience of morality is a by-product of natural selection, a theory philosopher Mark D. Linville calls evolutionary naturalism. According to the theory, the human experience of moral obligations was the result of evolutionary pressures, which attached a sense of morality to human psychology because it was useful for moral development; this entails that moral values do not exist independently of the human mind. Morality might be better understood as an evolutionary imperative in order to propagate genes and ultimately reproduce. No human society today advocates immorality, such as theft or murder, because it would undoubtedly lead to the end of that particular society and any chance for future survival of offspring. Scottish empiricist David Hume made a similar argument, that belief in objective moral truths is unwarranted and to discuss them is meaningless.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Variations", "target_page_ids": [ 10313, 1439425, 9236, 7925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 260 ], [ 277, 289 ], [ 530, 552 ], [ 1062, 1072 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because evolutionary naturalism proposes an empirical account of morality, it does not require morality to exist objectively; Linville considers the view that this will lead to moral scepticism or antirealism. C. S. Lewis argued that, if evolutionary naturalism is accepted, human morality cannot be described as absolute and objective because moral statements cannot be right or wrong. Despite this, Lewis argued, those who accept evolutionary naturalism still act as if objective moral truths exist, leading Lewis to reject naturalism as incoherent. As an alternative ethical theory, Lewis offered a form of divine command theory which equated God with goodness and treated goodness as an essential part of reality, thus asserting God's existence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Variations", "target_page_ids": [ 10174, 241265, 2171, 5813, 250856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 53 ], [ 177, 193 ], [ 197, 208 ], [ 210, 221 ], [ 610, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "J.C.A. Gaskin challenges the first premise of the argument from moral objectivity, arguing that it must be shown why absolute and objective morality entails that morality is commanded by God, rather than simply a human invention. It could be the consent of humanity that gives it moral force, for example. American philosopher Michael Martin argues that it is not necessarily true that objective moral truths must entail the existence of God, suggesting that there could be alternative explanations: he argues that naturalism may be an acceptable explanation and, even if a supernatural explanation is necessary, it does not have to be God (polytheism is a viable alternative). Martin also argues that a non-objective account of ethics might be acceptable and challenges the view that a subjective account of morality would lead to moral anarchy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Variations", "target_page_ids": [ 250856, 743205, 3986852, 19195836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 174, 190 ], [ 327, 341 ], [ 364, 380 ], [ 641, 651 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "William Lane Craig has argued for this form of the moral argument.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Variations", "target_page_ids": [ 314725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Related to the argument from morality is the argument from conscience, associated with eighteenth-century bishop Joseph Butler and nineteenth-century cardinal John Henry Newman. Newman proposed that the conscience, as well as giving moral guidance, provides evidence of objective moral truths which must be supported by the divine. He argued that emotivism is an inadequate explanation of the human experience of morality because people avoid acting immorally, even when it might be in their interests. Newman proposed that, to explain the conscience, God must exist.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Variations", "target_page_ids": [ 163552, 83895, 186123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 126 ], [ 159, 176 ], [ 203, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "British philosopher John Locke argued that moral rules cannot be established from conscience because the differences in people's consciences would lead to contradictions. Locke also noted that the conscience is influenced by \"education, company, and customs of the country\", a criticism mounted by J. L. Mackie, who argued that the conscience should be seen as an \"introjection\" of other people into an agent's mind. Michael Martin challenges the argument from conscience with a naturalistic account of conscience, arguing that naturalism provides an adequate explanation for the conscience without the need for God's existence. He uses the example of the internalization by humans of social pressures, which leads to the fear of going against these norms. Even if a supernatural cause is required, he argues, it could be something other than God; this would mean that the phenomenon of the conscience is no more supportive of monotheism than polytheism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Variations", "target_page_ids": [ 16143, 19522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ], [ 927, 937 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "C. S. Lewis argues for the existence of God in a similar way in his book Mere Christianity, but he does not directly refer to it as the argument from morality.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Variations", "target_page_ids": [ 5813, 20433 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 73, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Kant's 'Appropriation' of Lampe's God\", Harvard Theological Review 85:1 (January 1992), pp.85–108; revised and reprinted as Chapter IV in Stephen Palmquist, Kant's Critical Religion (Ashgate, 2000).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Arguments_for_the_existence_of_God", "Ethics" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "ASL is a common initialism for American Sign Language, the sign language of the United States and Canada (not be confused with Auslan, also called ASL), and may also refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1201, 378916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 53 ], [ 127, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American Soccer League (1921–33)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 41950822 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American Soccer League (1933–83)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 41950861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American Soccer League (1988–89)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 41950901 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American Soccer League (2014)", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 41907032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Australia's Surfing Life, surf magazine", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3446353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Axpo Super League, Switzerland, soccer league", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2524633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Static Lullaby, a band, Chino Hills, California, USA", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1485383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Advanced Squad Leader, a tactical board wargame", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 636220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"age/sex/location\", commonly used in personal advertisements etc.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 549819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Average shot length, in film editing", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 919384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AfreecaTV StarCraft League, a videogame tournament series", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 58447808 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aeronautical Syndicate Ltd, British aeroplane manufacturer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 47955616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Air Serbia, ICAO airline code", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 39984306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ASL Aviation Group, a Belgian air taxi and charter airline", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 1769770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American Society of Lymphology", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 5525218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Argininosuccinate lyase, an enzyme", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 3548720 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arterial spin labelling, a perfusion MRI technique", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 58296164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ACPI Source Language, for ACPI tables", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 2432697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adobe Source Libraries, open-source GUI software libraries", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 3516204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Advanced Simulation Library, open-source hardware-accelerated multiphysics simulation software", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 47888776 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AMPL Solver Library, an open-source automatic differentiation library", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 1076270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apache Software License, an open-source license for software", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 145908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Application Services Library, a process model for the maintenance of software applications", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 1701254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arithmetic shift left, an operation implementing an Arithmetic shift", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 40725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Above sea level, an altitude measurement", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 10397282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Association for Symbolic Logic, of specialists in mathematical logic and philosophical logic", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 3770438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Automated Side Loader, type of garbage collection truck", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 465689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Atmospheric Sciences Laboratory, a research institution formerly under the U.S. Army Materiel Command", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Science and technology", "target_page_ids": [ 69460238 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The American School in London", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 2835888 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Appalachian School of Law, Grundy, Virginia, USA", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 1911188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Art Students' League of Philadelphia", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 29295924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anti-Saloon League, an organization of temperance movements that lobbied for prohibition in the United States.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 948659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Advanced stop line, a road marking at junctions", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 2612605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Former Artists' Suffrage League, UK", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 29587752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Autobacs Sportscar Laboratory, of Autobacs Seven, Japan", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 4625749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ansar al-Sharia in Libya, a Salafist Islamist militia group", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 37210407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Animelo Summer Live, a Japanese music festival", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Society", "target_page_ids": [ 17161787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] } ]

[]

[ "A/S/L" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Auschwitz concentration camp ( (); also or ) was a complex of over 40 concentration and extermination camps operated by Nazi Germany in occupied Poland (in a portion annexed into Germany in 1939) during World War II and the Holocaust. It consisted of Auschwitz I, the main camp (Stammlager) in Oświęcim; Auschwitz II-Birkenau, a concentration and extermination camp with gas chambers; Auschwitz III, a labor camp for the chemical conglomerate IG Farben; and dozens of subcamps. The camps became a major site of the Nazis' final solution to the Jewish question.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 514725, 10335, 21212, 352509, 32927, 10396793, 381661, 142788, 6703477, 151417, 512514, 10160, 3096764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 84 ], [ 89, 107 ], [ 121, 133 ], [ 137, 152 ], [ 204, 216 ], [ 225, 234 ], [ 295, 303 ], [ 372, 383 ], [ 403, 413 ], [ 444, 453 ], [ 459, 477 ], [ 523, 537 ], [ 545, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Germany sparked World War II by invading Poland in September 1939, the Schutzstaffel (SS) converted Auschwitz I, an army barracks, into a prisoner-of-war camp.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 765642, 309288, 27040, 1029985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 34 ], [ 38, 53 ], [ 77, 90 ], [ 144, 164 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The initial transport of political detainees to Auschwitz consisted almost solely of Poles for whom the camp was initially established. The bulk of inmates were Polish for the first two years.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6426881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1940, German criminals brought to the camp as functionaries, established the camp's reputation for sadism. Prisoners were beaten, tortured, and executed for the most trivial reasons. The first gassings—of Soviet and Polish prisoners—took place in block 11 of Auschwitz I around August 1941. Construction of Auschwitz II began the following month, and from 1942 until late 1944 freight trains delivered Jews from all over German-occupied Europe to its gas chambers. Of the numbers sent to Auschwitz, 1.1million were murdered. The number of victims includes 960,000 Jews (865,000 of whom were gassed on arrival), 74,000 ethnic Poles, 21,000 Roma, 15,000 Soviet prisoners of war, and up to 15,000 other Europeans. Those not gassed were murdered via starvation, exhaustion, disease, individual executions, or beatings. Others were killed during medical experiments.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 10335, 9140389, 19359918 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 209 ], [ 429, 451 ], [ 849, 868 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At least 802 prisoners tried to escape, 144 successfully, and on 7 October 1944, two Sonderkommando units, consisting of prisoners who operated the gas chambers, launched an unsuccessful uprising. Only 789 Schutzstaffel personnel (no more than 15 percent) ever stood trial after the Holocaust ended; several were executed, including camp commandant Rudolf Höss. The Allies' failure to act on early reports of atrocities by bombing the camp or its railways remains controversial.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 142973, 27040, 409605, 2198844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 99 ], [ 206, 219 ], [ 349, 360 ], [ 366, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the Soviet Red Army approached Auschwitz in January 1945, toward the end of the war, the SS sent most of the camp's population west on a death march to camps inside Germany and Austria. Soviet troops Liberation on 27 January 1945, a day commemorated since 2005 as International Holocaust Remembrance Day. In the decades after the war, survivors such as Primo Levi, Viktor Frankl, and Elie Wiesel wrote memoirs of their experiences, and the camp became a dominant symbol of the Holocaust. In 1947, Poland founded the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum on the site of Auschwitz I and II, and in 1979 it was named a World Heritage Site by UNESCO.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25682, 30863081, 5352322, 6373818, 39425, 177316, 10518, 21672549, 44940, 21786641 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 22 ], [ 140, 151 ], [ 267, 306 ], [ 338, 347 ], [ 356, 366 ], [ 368, 381 ], [ 387, 398 ], [ 519, 550 ], [ 613, 632 ], [ 636, 642 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ideology of National Socialism (Nazism) combined elements of \"racial hygiene\", eugenics, antisemitism, pan-Germanism, and territorial expansionism, Richard J. Evans writes. Adolf Hitler and his Nazi Party became obsessed by the \"Jewish question\". Both during and immediately after the Nazi seizure of power in Germany in 1933, acts of violence against German Jews became ubiquitous, and legislation was passed excluding them from certain professions, including the civil service and the law.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 31045316, 681316, 9737, 1078, 24727, 1716206, 2731583, 21736, 3096764, 3796622, 1263527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 34 ], [ 66, 80 ], [ 83, 91 ], [ 93, 105 ], [ 107, 120 ], [ 152, 168 ], [ 177, 189 ], [ 198, 208 ], [ 233, 248 ], [ 289, 310 ], [ 356, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Harassment and economic pressure encouraged Jews to leave Germany; their businesses were denied access to markets, forbidden from advertising in newspapers, and deprived of government contracts. On 15 September 1935, the Reichstag passed the Nuremberg Laws. One, the Reich Citizenship Law, defined as citizens those of \"German or related blood who demonstrate by their behaviour that they are willing and suitable to serve the German People and Reich faithfully\", and the Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor prohibited marriage and extramarital relations between those with \"German or related blood\" and Jews.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 51493645, 34850681, 3191713, 3191713, 3191713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 65 ], [ 221, 230 ], [ 242, 256 ], [ 267, 288 ], [ 472, 527 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Germany invaded Poland in September 1939, triggering World War II, Hitler ordered that the Polish leadership and intelligentsia be destroyed. The area around Auschwitz was annexed to the German Reich, as part of first Gau Silesia and from 1941 Gau Upper Silesia. The camp at Auschwitz was established in April 1940, at first as a quarantine camp for Polish political prisoners. On 22 June 1941, in an attempt to obtain new territory, Hitler invaded the Soviet Union. The first gassing at Auschwitz—of a group of Soviet prisoners of war—took place around August 1941. By the end of that year, during what most historians regard as the first phase of the Holocaust, 500,000–800,000 Soviet Jews had been murdered in mass shootings by a combination of German Einsatzgruppen, ordinary German soldiers, and local collaborators. At the Wannsee Conference in Berlin on 20 January 1942, Reinhard Heydrich outlined the Final Solution to the Jewish Question to senior Nazis, and from early 1942 freight trains delivered Jews from all over occupied Europe to German Extermination camps in Poland: Auschwitz, Bełżec, Chełmno, Majdanek, Sobibór, and Treblinka. Most prisoners were gassed on arrival.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 309288, 352509, 49991479, 49990944, 22618, 510764, 33862, 25914, 10160, 9140389, 140611, 581018, 253575, 230757, 42424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 27 ], [ 177, 204 ], [ 223, 234 ], [ 249, 266 ], [ 447, 471 ], [ 761, 775 ], [ 835, 853 ], [ 884, 901 ], [ 915, 952 ], [ 1034, 1049 ], [ 1102, 1108 ], [ 1110, 1117 ], [ 1119, 1127 ], [ 1129, 1136 ], [ 1142, 1151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A former World War I camp for transient workers and later a Polish army barracks, Auschwitz I was the main camp (Stammlager) and administrative headquarters of the camp complex. Fiftykm southwest of Kraków, the site was first suggested in February 1940 as a quarantine camp for Polish prisoners by Arpad Wigand, the inspector of the Sicherheitspolizei (security police) and deputy of Erich von dem Bach-Zelewski, the Higher SS and Police Leader for Silesia. Richard Glücks, head of the Concentration Camps Inspectorate, sent Walter Eisfeld, former commandant of the Sachsenhausen concentration camp in Oranienburg, Germany, to inspect it. Around 1,000m long and 400m wide, Auschwitz consisted at the time of 22 brick buildings, eight of them two-story. A second story was added to the others in 1943 and eight new blocks were built.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 16815, 26584782, 1163105, 414585, 1197006, 3101317, 27343069, 29614986, 890606, 164114 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 205 ], [ 298, 310 ], [ 333, 351 ], [ 384, 411 ], [ 417, 444 ], [ 458, 472 ], [ 486, 518 ], [ 525, 539 ], [ 566, 598 ], [ 602, 613 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler, head of the SS, approved the site in April 1940 on the recommendation of SS-Obersturmbannführer Rudolf Höss of the camps inspectorate. Höss oversaw the development of the camp and served as its first commandant. The first 30 prisoners arrived on 20 May 1940 from the Sachsenhausen camp. German \"career criminals\" (Berufsverbrecher), the men were known as \"greens\" (Grünen) after the Triangles on their prison clothing. Brought to the camp as functionaries, this group did much to establish the sadism of early camp life, which was directed particularly at Polish inmates, until the political prisoners took over their roles. Bruno Brodniewicz, the first prisoner (who was given serial number 1), became Lagerälteste (camp elder). The others were given positions such as kapo and block supervisor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 1118689, 13436, 27040, 673171, 409605, 63860489, 3317607, 3317607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 16, 32 ], [ 46, 48 ], [ 110, 129 ], [ 130, 141 ], [ 659, 676 ], [ 737, 749 ], [ 804, 808 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first mass transport—of 728 Polish male political prisoners, including Catholic priests and Jews—arrived on 14 June 1940 from Tarnów, Poland. They were given serial numbers 31 to 758. In a letter on 12 July 1940, Höss told Glücks that the local population was \"fanatically Polish, ready to undertake any sort of operation against the hated SS men\". By the end of 1940, the SS had confiscated land around the camp to create a 40-square-kilometer (15 sq mi) \"zone of interest\" (Interessengebiet) patrolled by the SS, Gestapo and local police. By March 1941, 10,900 were imprisoned in the camp, most of them Poles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 74613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An inmate's first encounter with Auschwitz, if they were registered and not sent straight to the gas chamber, was at the prisoner reception center near the gate with the Arbeit macht frei sign, where they were tattooed, shaved, disinfected, and given a striped prison uniform. Built between 1942 and 1944, the center contained a bathhouse, laundry, and 19 gas chambers for delousing clothes. The prisoner reception center of Auschwitz I became the visitor reception center of the Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 21672549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 480, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Construction of crematorium I began at Auschwitz I at the end of June or beginning of July 1940. Initially intended not for mass murder but for prisoners who had been executed or had otherwise died in the camp, the crematorium was in operation from August 1940 until July 1943, by which time the crematoria at Auschwitz II had taken over. By May 1942 three ovens had been installed in crematorium I, which together could burn 340 bodies in 24 hours.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first experimental gassing took place around August 1941, when Lagerführer Karl Fritzsch, at the instruction of Rudolf Höss, murdered a group of Soviet prisoners of war by throwing Zyklon B crystals into their basement cell in block 11 of Auschwitz I. A second group of 600 Soviet prisoners of war and around 250 sick Polish prisoners were gassed on 3–5 September. The morgue was later converted to a gas chamber able to hold at least 700–800 people. Zyklon B was dropped into the room through slits in the ceiling.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 8868211, 71305, 38376154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 92 ], [ 185, 193 ], [ 231, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historians have disagreed about the date the all-Jewish transports began arriving in Auschwitz. At the Wannsee Conference in Berlin on 20 January 1942, the Nazi leadership outlined, in euphemistic language, its plans for the Final Solution. According to Franciszek Piper, the Auschwitz commandant Rudolf Höss offered inconsistent accounts after the war, suggesting the extermination began in December 1941, January 1942, or before the establishment of the women's camp in March 1942. In Kommandant in Auschwitz, he wrote: \"In the spring of 1942 the first transports of Jews, all earmarked for extermination, arrived from Upper Silesia.\" On 15 February 1942, according to Danuta Czech, a transport of Jews from Beuthen, Upper Silesia (Bytom, Poland), arrived at Auschwitz I and was sent straight to the gas chamber. In 1998 an eyewitness said the train contained \"the women of Beuthen\". Saul Friedländer wrote that the Beuthen Jews were from the Organization Schmelt labor camps and had been deemed unfit for work. According to Christopher Browning, transports of Jews unfit for work were sent to the gas chamber at Auschwitz from autumn 1941. The evidence for this and the February 1942 transport was contested in 2015 by Nikolaus Wachsmann.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 33862, 10160, 4376862, 409605, 59998726, 196188, 74601, 2805984, 63088665, 1748457, 46703378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 121 ], [ 225, 239 ], [ 254, 270 ], [ 297, 308 ], [ 671, 683 ], [ 719, 732 ], [ 734, 739 ], [ 886, 902 ], [ 945, 965 ], [ 1027, 1047 ], [ 1222, 1240 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around 20 March 1942, according to Danuta Czech, a transport of Polish Jews from Silesia and Zagłębie Dąbrowskie was taken straight from the station to the Auschwitz II gas chamber, which had just come into operation. On 26 and 28 March, two transports of Slovakian Jews were registered as prisoners in the Women's camp, where they were kept for slave labour; these were the first transports organized by Adolf Eichmann's department IV B4 (the Jewish office) in the Reich Security Head Office (RSHA). On 30 March the first RHSA transport arrived from France. \"Selection\", where new arrivals were chosen for work or the gas chamber, began in April 1942 and was conducted regularly from July. Piper writes that this reflected Germany's increasing need for labor. Those selected as unfit for work were gassed without being registered as prisoners.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 28399, 3776058, 19596649, 63231671, 550055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 88 ], [ 93, 112 ], [ 405, 419 ], [ 422, 438 ], [ 466, 492 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is also disagreement about how many were gassed in Auschwitz I. Perry Broad, an SS-Unterscharführer, wrote that \"transport after transport vanished in the Auschwitz [I] crematorium.\" In the view of Filip Müller, one of the Auschwitz I Sonderkommando, tens of thousands of Jews were murdered there from France, Holland, Slovakia, Upper Silesia, and Yugoslavia, and from the Theresienstadt, Ciechanow, and Grodno ghettos. Against this, Jean-Claude Pressac estimated that up to 10,000 people had been murdered in Auschwitz I. The last inmates gassed there, in December 1942, were around 400 members of the Auschwitz II Sonderkommando, who had been forced to dig up and burn the remains of that camp's mass graves, thought to hold over 100,000 corpses.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 25787292, 4900515, 142973, 1819766, 390496, 23220009, 9236078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 81 ], [ 204, 216 ], [ 241, 255 ], [ 379, 393 ], [ 395, 404 ], [ 410, 416 ], [ 440, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After visiting Auschwitz I in March 1941, it appears that Himmler ordered that the camp be expanded, although Peter Hayes notes that, on 10 January 1941, the Polish underground told the Polish government-in-exile in London: \"the Auschwitz concentration camp...can accommodate approximately 7,000 prisoners at present, and is to be rebuilt to hold approximately 30,000.\" Construction of Auschwitz II-Birkenau—called a Kriegsgefangenenlager (prisoner-of-war camp) on blueprints—began in October 1941 in Brzezinka, about three kilometers from Auschwitz I. The initial plan was that Auschwitz II would consist of four sectors (Bauabschnitte I–IV), each consisting of six subcamps (BIIa–BIIf) with their own gates and fences. The first two sectors were completed (sector BI was initially a quarantine camp), but the construction of BIII began in 1943 and stopped in April 1944, and the plan for BIV was abandoned.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 58586653, 539820, 1953196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 121 ], [ 186, 212 ], [ 501, 510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "SS-Sturmbannführer Karl Bischoff, an architect, was the chief of construction. Based on an initial budget of RM 8.9million, his plans called for each barracks to hold 550 prisoners, but he later changed this to 744 per barracks, which meant the camp could hold 125,000, rather than 97,000. There were 174 barracks, each measuring , divided into 62 bays of . The bays were divided into \"roosts\", initially for three inmates and later for four. With personal space of to sleep and place whatever belongings they had, inmates were deprived, Robert-Jan van Pelt wrote, \"of the minimum space needed to exist\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 11649825, 768720, 17739660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 32 ], [ 109, 111 ], [ 539, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The prisoners were forced to live in the barracks as they were building them; in addition to working, they faced long roll calls at night. As a result, most prisoners in BIb (the men's camp) in the early months died of hypothermia, starvation or exhaustion within a few weeks. Some 10,000 Soviet prisoners of war arrived at Auschwitz I between 7 and 25 October 1941, but by 1 March 1942 only 945 were still registered; they were transferred to Auschwitz II, where most of them had died by May.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 146879 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first gas chamber at Auschwitz II was operational by March 1942. On or around 20 March, a transport of Polish Jews sent by the Gestapo from Silesia and Zagłębie Dąbrowskie was taken straight from the Oświęcim freight station to the Auschwitz II gas chamber, then buried in a nearby meadow. The gas chamber was located in what prisoners called the \"little red house\" (known as bunker 1 by the SS), a brick cottage that had been turned into a gassing facility; the windows had been bricked up and its four rooms converted into two insulated rooms, the doors of which said \"Zur Desinfektion\" (\"to disinfection\"). A second brick cottage, the \"little white house\" or bunker 2, was converted and operational by June 1942. When Himmler visited the camp on 17 and 18 July 1942, he was given a demonstration of a selection of Dutch Jews, a mass-murder in a gas chamber in bunker 2, and a tour of the building site of Auschwitz III, the new IG Farben plant being constructed at Monowitz. Use of bunkers I and 2 stopped in spring 1943 when the new crematoria were built, although bunker 2 became operational again in May 1944 for the murder of the Hungarian Jews. Bunker I was demolished in 1943 and bunker 2 in November 1944.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 28399, 3776058, 381661, 151417, 4560757 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 151 ], [ 156, 175 ], [ 204, 212 ], [ 935, 944 ], [ 972, 980 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Plans for crematoria II and III show that both had an oven room on the ground floor, and an underground dressing room and gas chamber . The dressing rooms had wooden benches along the walls and numbered pegs for clothing. Victims would be led from these rooms to a five-yard-long narrow corridor, which in turn led to a space from which the gas chamber door opened. The chambers were white inside, and nozzles were fixed to the ceiling to resemble showerheads. The daily capacity of the crematoria (how many bodies could be burned in a 24-hour period) was 340 corpses in crematorium I; 1,440 each in crematoria II and III; and 768 each in IV and V. By June 1943 all four crematoria were operational, but crematorium I was not used after July 1943. This made the total daily capacity 4,416, although by loading three to five corpses at a time, the Sonderkommando were able to burn some 8,000 bodies a day. This maximum capacity was rarely needed; the average between 1942 and 1944 was 1,000 bodies burned every day.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After examining several sites for a new plant to manufacture Buna-N, a type of synthetic rubber essential to the war effort, the German chemical conglomerate IG Farben chose a site near the towns of Dwory and Monowice (Monowitz in German), about east of Auschwitz I. Tax exemptions were available to corporations prepared to develop industries in the frontier regions under the Eastern Fiscal Assistance Law, passed in December 1940. In addition to its proximity to the concentration camp, a source of cheap labor, the site had good railway connections and access to raw materials. In February 1941, Himmler ordered that the Jewish population of Oświęcim be expelled to make way for skilled laborers; that all Poles able to work remain in the town and work on building the factory; and that Auschwitz prisoners be used in the construction work.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 2853674, 1738731, 151417, 19021709, 381661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 67 ], [ 79, 95 ], [ 158, 167 ], [ 199, 204 ], [ 647, 655 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Auschwitz inmates began working at the plant, known as Buna Werke and IG-Auschwitz, in April 1941, demolishing houses in Monowitz to make way for it. By May, because of a shortage of trucks, several hundred of them were rising at 3am to walk there twice a day from Auschwitz I. Because a long line of exhausted inmates walking through the town of Oświęcim might harm German-Polish relations, the inmates were told to shave daily, make sure they were clean, and sing as they walked. From late July they were taken to the factory by train on freight wagons. Given the difficulty of moving them, including during the winter, IG Farben decided to build a camp at the plant. The first inmates moved there on 30 October 1942. Known as KL Auschwitz III-Aussenlager (Auschwitz III subcamp), and later as the Monowitz concentration camp, it was the first concentration camp to be financed and built by private industry.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Measuring , the camp was larger than Auschwitz I. By the end of 1944, it housed 60 barracks measuring , each with a day room and a sleeping room containing 56 three-tiered wooden bunks. IG Farben paid the SS three or four Reichsmark for nine- to eleven-hour shifts from each worker. In 1943–1944, about 35,000 inmates worked at the plant; 23,000 (32 a day on average) were murdered through malnutrition, disease, and the workload. Within three to four months at the camp, Peter Hayes writes, the inmates were \"reduced to walking skeletons\". Deaths and transfers to the gas chambers at Auschwitz II reduced the population by nearly a fifth each month. Site managers constantly threatened inmates with the gas chambers, and the smell from the crematoria at Auschwitz I and II hung heavy over the camp.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 768720, 58586653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 222, 232 ], [ 472, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the factory had been expected to begin production in 1943, shortages of labor and raw materials meant start-up was postponed repeatedly. The Allies bombed the plant in 1944 on 20 August, 13 September, 18 December, and 26 December. On 19 January 1945, the SS ordered that the site be evacuated, sending 9,000 inmates, most of them Jews, on a death march to another Auschwitz subcamp at Gliwice. From Gliwice, prisoners were taken by rail in open freight wagons to the Buchenwald and Mauthausen concentration camps. The 800 inmates who had been left behind in the Monowitz hospital were liberated along with the rest of the camp on 27 January 1945 by the 1st Ukrainian Front of the Red Army.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 74600, 49266, 365088, 3469763, 25682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 394, 401 ], [ 476, 486 ], [ 491, 501 ], [ 662, 681 ], [ 689, 697 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several other German industrial enterprises, such as Krupp and Siemens-Schuckert, built factories with their own subcamps. There were around 28 camps near industrial plants, each camp holding hundreds or thousands of prisoners. Designated as Aussenlager (external camp), Nebenlager (extension camp), Arbeitslager (labor camp), or Aussenkommando (external work detail), camps were built at Blechhammer, Jawiszowice, Jaworzno, Lagisze, Mysłowice, Trzebinia, and as far afield as the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia in Czechoslovakia. Industries with satellite camps included coal mines, foundries and other metal works, and chemical plants. Prisoners were also made to work in forestry and farming. For example, Wirtschaftshof Budy, in the Polish village of Budy near Brzeszcze, was a farming subcamp where prisoners worked 12-hour days in the fields, tending animals, and making compost by mixing human ashes from the crematoria with sod and manure. Incidents of sabotage to decrease production took place in several subcamps, including Charlottengrube, Gleiwitz II, and Rajsko. Living conditions in some of the camps were so poor that they were regarded as punishment subcamps.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Camps", "target_page_ids": [ 17060, 1622668, 22422357, 6493614, 3439599, 387098, 387108, 387077, 425568, 5288988, 74600, 19021719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 58 ], [ 63, 80 ], [ 389, 400 ], [ 402, 413 ], [ 415, 423 ], [ 425, 432 ], [ 434, 443 ], [ 445, 454 ], [ 481, 516 ], [ 770, 779 ], [ 1057, 1068 ], [ 1074, 1080 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rudolf Höss, born in Baden-Baden in 1900, was named the first commandant of Auschwitz when Heinrich Himmler ordered on 27 April 1940 that the camp be established. Living with his wife and children in a two-story stucco house near the commandant's and administration building, he served as commandant until 11 November 1943, with Josef Kramer as his deputy. Succeeded as commandant by Arthur Liebehenschel, Höss joined the SS Business and Administration Head Office in Oranienburg as director of Amt DI, a post that made him deputy of the camps inspectorate.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 409605, 88156, 13436, 697519, 1361876, 1302255, 5488107 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 21, 32 ], [ 91, 107 ], [ 212, 218 ], [ 329, 341 ], [ 384, 404 ], [ 425, 464 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Richard Baer became commandant of Auschwitz I on 11 May 1944 and Fritz Hartjenstein of Auschwitz II from 22 November 1943, followed by Josef Kramer from 15 May 1944 until the camp's liquidation in January 1945. Heinrich Schwarz was commandant of Auschwitz III from the point at which it became an autonomous camp in November 1943 until its liquidation. Höss returned to Auschwitz between 8 May and 29 July 1944 as the local SS garrison commander (Standortältester) to oversee the arrival of Hungary's Jews, which made him the superior officer of all the commandants of the Auschwitz camps.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 528217, 441240, 4121004 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 65, 83 ], [ 211, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Aleksander Lasik, about 6,335 people (6,161 of them men) worked for the SS at Auschwitz over the course of the camp's existence; 4.2 percent were officers, 26.1 percent non-commissioned officers, and 69.7 percent rank and file. In March 1941, there were 700 SS guards; in June 1942, 2,000; and in August 1944, 3,342. At its peak in January 1945, 4,480 SS men and 71 SS women worked in Auschwitz; the higher number is probably attributable to the logistics of evacuating the camp. Female guards were known as SS supervisors (SS-Aufseherinnen).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 62410413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most of the staff were from Germany or Austria, but as the war progressed, increasing numbers of Volksdeutsche from other countries, including Czechoslovakia, Poland, Yugoslavia, and the Baltic states, joined the SS at Auschwitz. Not all were ethnically German. Guards were also recruited from Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia. Camp guards, around three quarters of the SS personnel, were members of the SS-Totenkopfverbände (death's head units). Other SS staff worked in the medical or political departments, or in the economic administration, which was responsible for clothing and other supplies, including the property of dead prisoners. The SS viewed Auschwitz as a comfortable posting; being there meant they had avoided the front and had access to the victims' property.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 71963, 1523439, 539928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 110 ], [ 402, 422 ], [ 424, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Certain prisoners, at first non-Jewish Germans but later Jews and non-Jewish Poles, were assigned positions of authority as Funktionshäftlinge (functionaries), which gave them access to better housing and food. The Lagerprominenz (camp elite) included Blockschreiber (barracks clerk), Kapo (overseer), Stubendienst (barracks orderly), and Kommandierte (trusties). Wielding tremendous power over other prisoners, the functionaries developed a reputation as sadists. Very few were prosecuted after the war, because of the difficulty of determining which atrocities had been performed by order of the SS.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 3317607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 285, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the SS oversaw the murders at each gas chamber, the forced labor portion of the work was done by prisoners known from 1942 as the Sonderkommando (special squad). These were mostly Jews but they included groups such as Soviet POWs. In 1940–1941 when there was one gas chamber, there were 20 such prisoners, in late 1943 there were 400, and by 1944 during the Holocaust in Hungary the number had risen to 874. The Sonderkommando removed goods and corpses from the incoming trains, guided victims to the dressing rooms and gas chambers, removed their bodies afterwards, and took their jewelry, hair, dental work, and any precious metals from their teeth, all of which was sent to Germany. Once the bodies were stripped of anything valuable, the Sonderkommando burned them in the crematoria.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 142973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Because they were witnesses to the mass murder, the Sonderkommando lived separately from the other prisoners, although this rule was not applied to the non-Jews among them. Their quality of life was further improved by their access to the property of new arrivals, which they traded within the camp, including with the SS. Nevertheless, their life expectancy was short; they were regularly murdered and replaced. About 100 survived to the camp's liquidation. They were forced on a death march and by train to the camp at Mauthausen, where three days later they were asked to step forward during roll call. No one did, and because the SS did not have their records, several of them survived.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 365088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 521, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Uniquely at Auschwitz, prisoners were tattooed with a serial number, on their left breast for Soviet prisoners of war and on the left arm for civilians. Categories of prisoner were distinguishable by triangular pieces of cloth (German: Winkel) sewn onto on their jackets below their prisoner number. Political prisoners (Schutzhäftlinge or Sch), mostly Poles, had a red triangle, while criminals (Berufsverbrecher or BV) were mostly German and wore green. Asocial prisoners (Asoziale or Aso), which included vagrants, prostitutes and the Roma, wore black. Purple was for Jehovah's Witnesses (Internationale Bibelforscher-Vereinigung or IBV)'s and pink for gay men, who were mostly German. An estimated 5,000–15,000 gay men prosecuted under German Penal Code Section 175 (proscribing sexual acts between men) were detained in concentration camps, of whom an unknown number were sent to Auschwitz. Jews wore a yellow badge, the shape of the Star of David, overlaid by a second triangle if they also belonged to a second category. The nationality of the inmate was indicated by a letter stitched onto the cloth. A racial hierarchy existed, with German prisoners at the top. Next were non-Jewish prisoners from other countries. Jewish prisoners were at the bottom.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 422493, 209643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 908, 920 ], [ 939, 952 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Deportees were brought to Auschwitz crammed in wretched conditions into goods or cattle wagons, arriving near a railway station or at one of several dedicated trackside ramps, including one next to Auschwitz I. The Altejudenrampe (old Jewish ramp), part of the Oświęcim freight railway station, was used from 1942 to 1944 for Jewish transports. Located between Auschwitz I and Auschwitz II, arriving at this ramp meant a 2.5km journey to Auschwitz II and the gas chambers. Most deportees were forced to walk, accompanied by SS men and a car with a Red Cross symbol that carried the Zyklon B, as well as an SS doctor in case officers were poisoned by mistake. Inmates arriving at night, or who were too weak to walk, were taken by truck. Work on a new railway line and ramp (right) between sectors BI and BII in Auschwitz II, was completed in May 1944 for the arrival of Hungarian Jews between May and early July 1944. The rails led directly to the area around the gas chambers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 2378869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 870, 884 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The day began at 4:30am for the men (an hour later in winter), and earlier for the women, when the block supervisor sounded a gong and started beating inmates with sticks to make them wash and use the latrines quickly. Sanitary arrangements were atrocious, with few latrines and a lack of clean water. Each washhouse had to service thousands of prisoners. In sectors BIa and BIb in Auschwitz II, two buildings containing latrines and washrooms were installed in 1943. These contained troughs for washing and 90 faucets; the toilet facilities were \"sewage channels\" covered by concrete with 58 holes for seating. There were three barracks with washing facilities or toilets to serve 16 residential barracks in BIIa, and six washrooms/latrines for 32 barracks in BIIb, BIIc, BIId, and BIIe. Primo Levi described a 1944 Auschwitz III-Monowitz washroom:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 39425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 789, 799 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prisoners received half a liter of coffee substitute or a herbal tea in the morning, but no food. A second gong heralded roll call, when inmates lined up outside in rows of ten to be counted. No matter the weather, they had to wait for the SS to arrive for the count; how long they stood there depended on the officers' mood, and whether there had been escapes or other events attracting punishment. Guards might force the prisoners to squat for an hour with their hands above their heads or hand out beatings or detention for infractions such as having a missing button or an improperly cleaned food bowl. The inmates were counted and re-counted.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "After roll call, to the sound of \"Arbeitskommandos formieren\" (\"form work details\"), prisoners walked to their place of work, five abreast, to begin a working day that was normally 11 hours long—longer in summer and shorter in winter. A prison orchestra, such as the Women's Orchestra of Auschwitz, was forced to play cheerful music as the workers left the camp. Kapos were responsible for the prisoners' behavior while they worked, as was an SS escort. Much of the work took place outdoors at construction sites, gravel pits, and lumber yards. No rest periods were allowed. One prisoner was assigned to the latrines to measure the time the workers took to empty their bladders and bowels.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 1745587 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 267, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lunch was three-quarters of a liter of watery soup at midday, reportedly foul-tasting, with meat in the soup four times a week and vegetables (mostly potatoes and rutabaga) three times. The evening meal was 300 grams of bread, often moldy, part of which the inmates were expected to keep for breakfast the next day, with a tablespoon of cheese or marmalade, or 25 grams of margarine or sausage. Prisoners engaged in hard labor were given extra rations.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 152561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 171 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A second roll call took place at seven in the evening, in the course of which prisoners might be hanged or flogged. If a prisoner was missing, the others had to remain standing until the absentee was found or the reason for the absence discovered, even if it took hours. On 6 July 1940, roll call lasted 19 hours because a Polish prisoner, Tadeusz Wiejowski, had escaped; following an escape in 1941, a group of prisoners was picked out from the escapee's barracks and sent to block 11 to be starved to death. After roll call, prisoners retired to their blocks for the night and received their bread rations. Then they had some free time to use the washrooms and receive their mail, unless they were Jews: Jews were not allowed to receive mail. Curfew (\"nighttime quiet\") was marked by a gong at nine o'clock. Inmates slept in long rows of brick or wooden bunks, or on the floor, lying in and on their clothes and shoes to prevent them from being stolen. The wooden bunks had blankets and paper mattresses filled with wood shavings; in the brick barracks, inmates lay on straw. According to Miklós Nyiszli:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 26752013, 5257810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 340, 357 ], [ 1091, 1105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sunday was not a work day, but prisoners had to clean the barracks and take their weekly shower, and were allowed to write (in German) to their families, although the SS censored the mail. Inmates who did not speak German would trade bread for help. Observant Jews tried to keep track of the Hebrew calendar and Jewish holidays, including Shabbat, and the weekly Torah portion. No watches, calendars, or clocks were permitted in the camp. Only two Jewish calendars made in Auschwitz survived to the end of the war. Prisoners kept track of the days in other ways, such as obtaining information from newcomers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 15415041, 13782, 16147, 28809, 827482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 250, 264 ], [ 292, 307 ], [ 312, 327 ], [ 339, 346 ], [ 356, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "About 30 percent of the registered inmates were female. The first mass transport of women, 999 non-Jewish German women from the Ravensbrück concentration camp, arrived on 26 March 1942. Classified as criminal, asocial and political, they were brought to Auschwitz as founder functionaries of the women's camp. Rudolf Höss wrote of them: \"It was easy to predict that these beasts would mistreat the women over whom they exercised power... Spiritual suffering was completely alien to them.\" They were given serial numbers 1–999. The women's guard from Ravensbrück, Johanna Langefeld, became the first Auschwitz women's camp Lagerführerin. A second mass transport of women, 999 Jews from Poprad, Slovakia, arrived on the same day. According to Danuta Czech, this was the first registered transport sent to Auschwitz by the Reich Security Head Office (RSHA) office IV B4, known as the Jewish Office, led by SS Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann. (Office IV was the Gestapo.) A third transport of 798 Jewish women from Bratislava, Slovakia, followed on 28 March.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 33730885, 1281335, 349029, 59998726, 550055, 19596649, 12899, 18933194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 158 ], [ 563, 580 ], [ 685, 691 ], [ 741, 753 ], [ 820, 846 ], [ 926, 940 ], [ 961, 968 ], [ 1014, 1024 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Women were at first held in blocks 1–10 of Auschwitz I, but from 6 August 1942, 13,000 inmates were transferred to a new women's camp (Frauenkonzentrationslager or FKL) in Auschwitz II. This consisted at first of 15 brick and 15 wooden barracks in sector (Bauabschnitt) BIa; it was later extended into BIb, and by October 1943 it held 32,066 women. In 1943–1944, about 11,000 women were also housed in the Gypsy family camp, as were several thousand in the Theresienstadt family camp.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Conditions in the women's camp were so poor that when a group of male prisoners arrived to set up an infirmary in October 1942, their first task, according to researchers from the Auschwitz museum, was to distinguish the corpses from the women who were still alive. Gisella Perl, a Romanian-Jewish gynecologist and inmate of the women's camp, wrote in 1948:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 11297976 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Langefeld was succeeded as Lagerführerin in October 1942 by SS Oberaufseherin Maria Mandl, who developed a reputation for cruelty. Höss hired men to oversee the female supervisors, first SS Obersturmführer Paul Müller, then SS Hauptsturmführer Franz Hössler. Mandl and Hössler were executed after the war. Sterilization experiments were carried out in barracks 30 by a German gynecologist, Carl Clauberg, and another German doctor, Horst Schumann.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 476861, 17376699, 1269219, 3944556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 89 ], [ 244, 257 ], [ 390, 403 ], [ 432, 446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "German doctors performed a variety of experiments on prisoners at Auschwitz. SS doctors tested the efficacy of X-rays as a sterilization device by administering large doses to female prisoners. Carl Clauberg injected chemicals into women's uteruses in an effort to glue them shut. Prisoners were infected with spotted fever for vaccination research and exposed to toxic substances to study the effects. In one experiment, Bayer—then part of IG Farben—paid RM 150 each for 150 female inmates from Auschwitz (the camp had asked for RM 200 per woman), who were transferred to a Bayer facility to test an anesthetic. A Bayer employee wrote to Rudolf Höss: \"The transport of 150 women arrived in good condition. However, we were unable to obtain conclusive results because they died during the experiments. We would kindly request that you send us another group of women to the same number and at the same price.\" The Bayer research was led at Auschwitz by Helmuth Vetter of Bayer/IG Farben, who was also an Auschwitz physician and SS captain, and by Auschwitz physicians Friedrich Entress and Eduard Wirths.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 34197, 720902, 1269219, 31863, 23748305, 151417, 23748305, 40293145, 3863233 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 117 ], [ 123, 136 ], [ 194, 207 ], [ 240, 246 ], [ 422, 427 ], [ 441, 450 ], [ 952, 966 ], [ 1067, 1084 ], [ 1089, 1102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most infamous doctor at Auschwitz was Josef Mengele, the \"Angel of Death\", who worked in Auschwitz II from 30 May 1943, at first in the Gypsy family camp. Interested in performing research on identical twins, dwarfs, and those with hereditary disease, Mengele set up a kindergarten in barracks 29 and 31 for children he was experimenting on, and for all Romani children under six, where they were given better food rations. From May 1944, he would select twins and dwarfs from among the new arrivals during \"selection\", reportedly calling for twins with \"Zwillinge heraus!\" (\"twins step forward!\"). He and other doctors (the latter prisoners) would measure the twins' body parts, photograph them, and subject them to dental, sight and hearing tests, x-rays, blood tests, surgery, and blood transfusions between them. Then he would have them killed and dissected. Kurt Heissmeyer, another German doctor and SS officer, took 20 Polish Jewish children from Auschwitz to use in pseudoscientific experiments at the Neuengamme concentration camp near Hamburg, where he injected them with the tuberculosis bacilli to test a cure for tuberculosis. In April 1945, the children were murdered by hanging to conceal the project.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 84508, 79238, 138301, 26168616, 23047, 332511, 30653, 261229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 55 ], [ 196, 211 ], [ 213, 219 ], [ 867, 882 ], [ 978, 994 ], [ 1014, 1043 ], [ 1090, 1102 ], [ 1103, 1110 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Jewish skeleton collection was obtained from among a pool of 115 Jewish inmates, chosen for their perceived stereotypical racial characteristics. Rudolf Brandt and Wolfram Sievers, general manager of the Ahnenerbe (a Nazi research institute), delivered the skeletons to the collection of the Anatomy Institute at the Reichsuniversität Straßburg in Alsace-Lorraine. The collection was sanctioned by Heinrich Himmler and under the direction of August Hirt. Ultimately 87 of the inmates were shipped to Natzweiler-Struthof and murdered in August 1943. Brandt and Sievers were executed in 1948 after being convicted during the Doctors' trial, part of the Subsequent Nuremberg trials.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 31255787, 1201763, 4402811, 423021, 16589418, 206997, 13436, 3381436, 221204, 361219, 1367953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 28 ], [ 148, 161 ], [ 166, 181 ], [ 206, 215 ], [ 319, 346 ], [ 350, 365 ], [ 400, 416 ], [ 444, 455 ], [ 502, 521 ], [ 625, 639 ], [ 653, 680 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prisoners could be beaten and killed by guards and kapos for the slightest infraction of the rules. Polish historian Irena Strzelecka writes that kapos were given nicknames that reflected their sadism: \"Bloody\", \"Iron\", \"The Strangler\", \"The Boxer\". Based on the 275 extant reports of punishment in the Auschwitz archives, Strzelecka lists common infractions: returning a second time for food at mealtimes, removing your own gold teeth to buy bread, breaking into the pigsty to steal the pigs' food, putting your hands in your pockets.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Flogging during roll-call was common. A flogging table called \"the goat\" immobilized prisoners' feet in a box, while they stretched themselves across the table. Prisoners had to count out the lashes—\"25 mit besten Dank habe ich erhalten\" (\"25 received with many thanks\")— and if they got the figure wrong, the flogging resumed from the beginning. Punishment by \"the post\" involved tying prisoners hands behind their backs with chains attached to hooks, then raising the chains so the prisoners were left dangling by the wrists. If their shoulders were too damaged afterwards to work, they might be sent to the gas chamber. Prisoners were subjected to the post for helping a prisoner who had been beaten, and for picking up a cigarette butt. To extract information from inmates, guards would force their heads onto the stove, and hold them there, burning their faces and eyes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Known as block 13 until 1941, block 11 of Auschwitz I was the prison within the prison, reserved for inmates suspected of resistance activities. Cell 22 in block 11 was a windowless standing cell (Stehbunker). Split into four sections, each section measured less than and held four prisoners, who entered it through a hatch near the floor. There was a 5cmx5cm vent for air, covered by a perforated sheet. Strzelecka writes that prisoners might have to spend several nights in cell 22; Wiesław Kielar spent four weeks in it for breaking a pipe. Several rooms in block 11 were deemed the Polizei-Ersatz-Gefängnis Myslowitz in Auschwitz (Auschwitz branch of the police station at Mysłowice). There were also Sonderbehandlung cases (\"special treatment\") for Poles and others regarded as dangerous to Nazi Germany.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 27622274, 387108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 195 ], [ 678, 687 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The courtyard between blocks 10 and 11, known as the \"death wall\", served as an execution area, including for Poles in the General Government area who had been sentenced to death by a criminal court. The first executions, by shooting inmates in the back of the head, took place at the death wall on 11 November 1941, Poland's National Independence Day. The 151 accused were led to the wall one at a time, stripped naked and with their hands tied behind their backs. Danuta Czech noted that a \"clandestine Catholic mass\" was said the following Sunday on the second floor of Block 4 in Auschwitz I, in a narrow space between bunks.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 14193421, 59998726, 5684685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 326, 351 ], [ 466, 478 ], [ 505, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An estimated 4,500 Polish political prisoners were executed at the death wall, including members of the camp resistance. An additional 10,000 Poles were brought to the camp to be executed without being registered. About 1,000 Soviet prisoners of war died by execution, although this is a rough estimate. A Polish government-in-exile report stated that 11,274 prisoners and 6,314 prisoners of war had been executed. Rudolf Höss wrote that \"execution orders arrived in an unbroken stream\". According to SS officer Perry Broad, \"[s]ome of these walking skeletons had spent months in the stinking cells, where not even animals would be kept, and they could barely manage to stand straight. And yet, at that last moment, many of them shouted 'Long live Poland', or 'Long live freedom'.\" The dead included Colonel Jan Karcz and Major Edward Gött-Getyński, executed on 25 January 1943 with 51 others suspected of resistance activities. Józef Noji, the Polish long-distance runner, was executed on 15 February that year. In October 1944, 200 Sonderkommando were executed for their part in the Sonderkommando revolt. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 409605, 25787292, 2183082, 17657114, 16698184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 415, 426 ], [ 512, 523 ], [ 808, 817 ], [ 828, 848 ], [ 929, 939 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A separate camp for the Roma, the Zigeunerfamilienlager (\"Gypsy family camp\"), was set up in the BIIe sector of Auschwitz II-Birkenau in February 1943. For unknown reasons, they were not subject to selection and families were allowed to stay together. The first transport of German Roma arrived on 26 February that year. There had been a small number of Romani inmates before that; two Czech Romani prisoners, Ignatz and Frank Denhel, tried to escape in December 1942, the latter successfully, and a Polish Romani woman, Stefania Ciuron, arrived on 12 February 1943 and escaped in April. Josef Mengele, the Holocaust's most infamous physician, worked in the gypsy family camp from 30 May 1943 when he began his work in Auschwitz.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 26152, 40842172, 84508, 10396793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 28 ], [ 275, 286 ], [ 588, 601 ], [ 603, 616 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Auschwitz registry (Hauptbücher) shows that 20,946 Roma were registered prisoners, and another 3,000 are thought to have entered unregistered. On 22 March 1943, one transport of 1,700 Polish Sinti and Roma was gassed on arrival because of illness, as was a second group of 1,035 on 25 May 1943. The SS tried to liquidate the camp on 16 May 1944, but the Roma fought them, armed with knives and iron pipes, and the SS retreated. Shortly after this, the SS removed nearly 2,908 from the family camp to work, and on 2 August 1944 gassed the other 2,897. Ten thousand remain unaccounted for.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 43836297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The SS deported around 18,000 Jews to Auschwitz from the Theresienstadt ghetto in Terezin, Czechoslovakia, beginning on 8 September 1943 with a transport of 2,293 male and 2,713 female prisoners. Placed in sector BIIb as a \"family camp\", they were allowed to keep their belongings, wear their own clothes, and write letters to family; they did not have their hair shaved and were not subjected to selection. Correspondence between Adolf Eichmann's office and the International Red Cross suggests that the Germans set up the camp to cast doubt on reports, in time for a planned Red Cross visit to Auschwitz, that mass murder was taking place there. The women and girls were placed in odd-numbered barracks and the men and boys in even-numbered. An infirmary was set up in barracks 30 and 32, and barracks 31 became a school and kindergarten. The somewhat better living conditions were nevertheless inadequate; 1,000 members of the family camp were dead within six months. Two other groups of 2,491 and 2,473 Jews arrived from Theresienstadt in the family camp on 16 and 20 December 1943.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 1819766, 230519, 5322, 19596649, 5023832 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 78 ], [ 82, 89 ], [ 91, 105 ], [ 431, 445 ], [ 463, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 8 March 1944, 3,791 of the prisoners (men, women and children) were sent to the gas chambers; the men were taken to crematorium III and the women later to crematorium II. Some of the group were reported to have sung Hatikvah and the Czech national anthem on the way. Before they were murdered, they had been asked to write postcards to relatives, postdated to 25–27 March. Several twins were held back for medical experiments. The Czechoslovak government-in-exile initiated diplomatic manoeuvers to save the remaining Czech Jews after its representative in Bern received the Vrba-Wetzler report, written by two escaped prisoners, Rudolf Vrba and Alfred Wetzler, which warned that the remaining family-camp inmates would be gassed soon. The BBC also became aware of the report; its German service broadcast news of the family-camp murders during its women's programme on 16 June 1944, warning: \"All those responsible for such massacres from top downwards will be called to account.\" The Red Cross visited Theresienstadt in June 1944 and were persuaded by the SS that no one was being deported from there. The following month, about 2,000 women from the family camp were selected to be moved to other camps and 80 boys were moved to the men's camp; the remaining 7,000 were gassed between 10 and 12 July.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Life in the camps", "target_page_ids": [ 189968, 16215656, 4601133, 5043162, 1447841, 58489518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 227 ], [ 434, 466 ], [ 578, 597 ], [ 633, 644 ], [ 649, 663 ], [ 999, 1021 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first gassings at Auschwitz took place in early September 1941, when around 850 inmates—Soviet prisoners of war and sick Polish inmates—were killed with Zyklon B in the basement of block 11 in Auschwitz I. The building proved unsuitable, so gassings were conducted instead in crematorium I, also in Auschwitz I, which operated until December 1942. There, more than 700 victims could be killed at once. Tens of thousands were killed in crematorium I. To keep the victims calm, they were told they were to undergo disinfection and de-lousing; they were ordered to undress outside, then were locked in the building and gassed. After its decommissioning as a gas chamber, the building was converted to a storage facility and later served as an SS air raid shelter. The gas chamber and crematorium were reconstructed after the war. Dwork and van Pelt write that a chimney was recreated; four openings in the roof were installed to show where the Zyklon B had entered; and two of the three furnaces were rebuilt with the original components.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [ 38376154, 2348583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 185, 193 ], [ 533, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early 1942, mass exterminations were moved to two provisional gas chambers (the \"red house\" and \"white house\", known as bunkers 1 and 2) in Auschwitz II, while the larger crematoria (II, III, IV, and V) were under construction. Bunker 2 was temporarily reactivated from May to November 1944, when large numbers of Hungarian Jews were gassed. In summer 1944 the combined capacity of the crematoria and outdoor incineration pits was 20,000 bodies per day. A planned sixth facility—crematorium VI—was never built.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From 1942, Jews were being transported to Auschwitz from all over German-occupied Europe by rail, arriving in daily convoys. The gas chambers worked to their fullest capacity from May to July 1944, during the Holocaust in Hungary. A rail spur leading to crematoria II and III in Auschwitz II was completed that May, and a new ramp was built between sectors BI and BII to deliver the victims closer to the gas chambers (images top right). On 29 April the first 1,800 Jews from Hungary arrived at the camp. From 14 May until early July 1944, 437,000 Hungarian Jews, half the pre-war population, were deported to Auschwitz, at a rate of 12,000 a day for a considerable part of that period. The crematoria had to be overhauled. Crematoria II and III were given new elevators leading from the stoves to the gas chambers, new grates were fitted, and several of the dressing rooms and gas chambers were painted. Cremation pits were dug behind crematorium V. The incoming volume was so great that the Sonderkommando resorted to burning corpses in open-air pits as well as in the crematoria.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [ 2378869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Polish historian Franciszek Piper, of the 1,095,000 Jews deported to Auschwitz, around 205,000 were registered in the camp and given serial numbers; 25,000 were sent to other camps; and 865,000 were murdered soon after arrival. Adding non-Jewish victims gives a figure of 900,000 who were murdered without being registered.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [ 4376862 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During \"selection\" on arrival, those deemed able to work were sent to the right and admitted into the camp (registered), and the rest were sent to the left to be gassed. The group selected to die included almost all children, women with small children, the elderly, and others who appeared on brief and superficial inspection by an SS doctor not to be fit for work. Practically any fault—scars, bandages, boils and emaciation—might provide reason enough to be deemed unfit. Children might be made to walk toward a stick held at a certain height; those who could walk under it were selected for the gas. Inmates unable to walk or who arrived at night were taken to the crematoria on trucks; otherwise the new arrivals were marched there. Their belongings were seized and sorted by inmates in the \"Kanada\" warehouses, an area of the camp in sector BIIg that housed 30 barracks used as storage facilities for plundered goods; it derived its name from the inmates' view of Canada as a land of plenty.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [ 63167393 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 795, 814 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The crematoria consisted of a dressing room, gas chamber, and furnace room. In crematoria II and III, the dressing room and gas chamber were underground; in IV and V, they were on the ground floor. The dressing room had numbered hooks on the wall to hang clothes. In crematorium II, there was also a dissection room (Sezierraum). SS officers told the victims they had to take a shower and undergo delousing. The victims undressed in the dressing room and walked into the gas chamber; signs said \"Bade\" (bath) or \"Desinfektionsraum\" (disinfection room). A former prisoner testified that the language of the signs changed depending on who was being killed. Some inmates were given soap and a towel. A gas chamber could hold up to 2,000; one former prisoner said it was around 3,000.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Zyklon B was delivered to the crematoria by a special SS bureau known as the Hygiene Institute. After the doors were shut, SS men dumped in the Zyklon B pellets through vents in the roof or holes in the side of the chamber. The victims were usually dead within 10 minutes; Rudolf Höss testified that it took up to 20 minutes. Leib Langfus, a member of the Sonderkommando, buried his diary (written in Yiddish) near crematorium III in Auschwitz II. It was found in 1952, signed \"A.Y.R.A\":", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [ 42096848, 34272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 342 ], [ 405, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sonderkommando wearing gas masks dragged the bodies from the chamber. They removed glasses and artificial limbs and shaved off the women's hair; women's hair was removed before they entered the gas chamber at Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka, but at Auschwitz it was done after death. By 6 February 1943, the Reich Economic Ministry had received 3,000kg of women's hair from Auschwitz and Majdanek. The hair was first cleaned in a solution of sal ammoniac, dried on the brick floor of the crematoria, combed, and placed in paper bags. The hair was shipped to various companies, including one manufacturing plant in Bremen-Bluementhal, where workers found tiny coins with Greek letters on some of the braids, possibly from some of the 50,000 Greek Jews deported to Auschwitz in 1943. When they liberated the camp in January 1945, the Red Army found 7,000kg of human hair in bags ready to ship.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [ 140611, 230757, 42424, 253575, 295424, 9420388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 209, 215 ], [ 217, 224 ], [ 230, 239 ], [ 387, 395 ], [ 441, 453 ], [ 613, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Just before cremation, jewelry was removed, along with dental work and teeth containing precious metals. Gold was removed from the teeth of dead prisoners from 23 September 1940 onwards by order of Heinrich Himmler. The work was carried out by members of the Sonderkommando who were dentists; anyone overlooking dental work might themselves be cremated alive. The gold was sent to the SS Health Service and used by dentists to treat the SS and their families; 50kg had been collected by 8 October 1942. By early 1944, 10–12kg of gold were being extracted monthly from victims' teeth.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The corpses were burned in the nearby incinerators, and the ashes were buried, thrown in the Vistula river, or used as fertilizer. Any bits of bone that had not burned properly were ground down in wooden mortars.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [ 25594515, 317450 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 100 ], [ 204, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At least 1.3million people were sent to Auschwitz between 1940 and 1945, and at least 1.1million died. Overall 400,207 prisoners were registered in the camp: 268,657 male and 131,560 female. A study in the late 1980s by Polish historian Franciszek Piper, published by Yad Vashem in 1991, used timetables of train arrivals combined with deportation records to calculate that, of the 1.3million sent to the camp, 1,082,000 had died there, a figure (rounded up to 1.1million) that Piper regarded as a minimum. That figure came to be widely accepted.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [ 4376862, 181963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 237, 253 ], [ 268, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Germans tried to conceal how many they had murdered. In July 1942, according to Rudolf Höss's post-war memoir, Höss received an order from Heinrich Himmler, via Adolf Eichmann's office and SS commander Paul Blobel, that \"[a]ll mass graves were to be opened and the corpses burned. In addition the ashes were to be disposed of in such a way that it would be impossible at some future time to calculate the number of corpses burned.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [ 409605, 13436, 19596649, 1269407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 95 ], [ 143, 159 ], [ 165, 179 ], [ 206, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Earlier estimates of the death toll were higher than Piper's. Following the camp's liberation, the Soviet government issued a statement, on 8 May 1945, that four million people had been murdered on the site, a figure based on the capacity of the crematoria. Höss told prosecutors at Nuremberg that at least 2,500,000 people had been gassed there, and that another 500,000 had died of starvation and disease. He testified that the figure of over two million had come from Eichmann. In his memoirs, written in custody, Höss wrote that Eichmann had given the figure of 2.5million to Höss's superior officer Richard Glücks, based on records that had been destroyed. Höss regarded this figure as \"far too high. Even Auschwitz had limits to its destructive possibilities,\" he wrote.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [ 3101317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 604, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Around one in six Jews murdered in the Holocaust died in Auschwitz. By nation, the greatest number of Auschwitz's Jewish victims originated from Hungary, accounting for 430,000 deaths, followed by Poland (300,000), France (69,000), Netherlands (60,000), Greece (55,000), Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia (46,000), Slovakia (27,000), Belgium (25,000), Germany and Austria (23,000), Yugoslavia (10,000), Italy (7,500), Norway (690), and others (34,000). Timothy Snyder writes that fewer than one percent of the million Soviet Jews murdered in the Holocaust were murdered in Auschwitz. Of the at least 387 Jehovah's Witnesses who were imprisoned at Auschwitz, 132 died in the camp.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selection and extermination process", "target_page_ids": [ 5832465 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 455, 469 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Information about Auschwitz became available to the Allies as a result of reports by Captain Witold Pilecki of the Polish Home Army who, as \"Tomasz Serafiński\" (serial number 4859), allowed himself to be arrested in Warsaw and taken to Auschwitz. He was imprisoned there from 22 September 1940 until his escape on 27 April 1943. Michael Fleming writes that Pilecki was instructed to sustain morale, organize food, clothing and resistance, prepare to take over the camp if possible, and smuggle information out to the Polish military. Pilecki called his resistance movement Związek Organizacji Wojskowej (ZOW, \"Union of Military Organization\").", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 824265, 66231, 57119084, 20228442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 107 ], [ 122, 131 ], [ 329, 344 ], [ 573, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The resistance sent out the first oral message about Auschwitz with Dr. Aleksander Wielkopolski, a Polish engineer who was released in October 1940. The following month the Polish underground in Warsaw prepared a report on the basis of that information, The camp in Auschwitz, part of which was published in London in May 1941 in a booklet, The German Occupation of Poland, by the Polish Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The report said of the Jews in the camp that \"scarcely any of them came out alive\". According to Fleming, the booklet was \"widely circulated amongst British officials\". The Polish Fortnightly Review based a story on it, writing that \"three crematorium furnaces were insufficient to cope with the bodies being cremated\", as did The Scotsman on 8 January 1942, the only British news organization to do so.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 518436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 744, 756 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 24 December 1941, the resistance groups representing the various prisoner factions met in block 45 and agreed to cooperate. Fleming writes that it has not been possible to track Pilecki's early intelligence from the camp. Pilecki compiled two reports after he escaped in April 1943; the second, Raport W, detailed his life in Auschwitz I and estimated that 1.5million people, mostly Jews, had been murdered. On 1 July 1942, the Polish Fortnightly Review published a report describing Birkenau, writing that \"prisoners call this supplementary camp 'Paradisal', presumably because there is only one road, leading to Paradise\". Reporting that inmates were being killed \"through excessive work, torture and medical means\", it noted the gassing of the Soviet prisoners of war and Polish inmates in Auschwitz I in September 1941, the first gassing in the camp. It said: \"It is estimated that the Oswiecim camp can accommodate fifteen thousand prisoners, but as they die on a mass scale there is always room for new arrivals.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 29258744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 298, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Polish government-in-exile in London first reported the gassing of prisoners in Auschwitz on 21 July 1942, and reported the gassing of Soviet POWs and Jews on 4 September 1942. In 1943, the Kampfgruppe Auschwitz (Combat Group Auschwitz) was organized within the camp with the aim of sending out information about what was happening. The Sonderkommando buried notes in the ground, hoping they would be found by the camp's liberators. The group also smuggled out photographs; the Sonderkommando photographs, of events around the gas chambers in Auschwitz II, were smuggled out of the camp in September 1944 in a toothpaste tube.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 539820, 48671697, 43709609 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 30 ], [ 194, 215 ], [ 482, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Fleming, the British press responded, in 1943 and the first half of 1944, either by not publishing reports about Auschwitz or by burying them on the inside pages. The exception was the Polish Jewish Observer, a City and East London Observer supplement edited by Joel Cang, a former Warsaw correspondent for the Manchester Guardian. The British reticence stemmed from a Foreign Office concern that the public might pressure the government to respond or provide refuge for the Jews, and that British actions on behalf of the Jews might affect its relationships in the Middle East. There was similar reticence in the United States, and indeed within the Polish government-in-exile and the Polish resistance. According to Fleming, the scholarship suggests that the Polish resistance distributed information about the Holocaust in Auschwitz without challenging the Allies' reluctance to highlight it.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 47774675, 19344515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 224, 253 ], [ 324, 343 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the first escape on 6 July 1940 of Tadeusz Wiejowski, at least 802 prisoners (757 men and 45 women) tried to escape from the camp, according to Polish historian Henryk Świebocki. He writes that most escapes were attempted from work sites outside the camp's perimeter fence. Of the 802 escapes, 144 were successful, 327 were caught, and the fate of 331 is unknown.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 26752013, 62732191 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 57 ], [ 166, 182 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four Polish prisoners— (serial number 8502), Kazimierz Piechowski (no.918), (no.6438), and Józef Lempart (no.3419)—escaped successfully on 20 June 1942. After breaking into a warehouse, three of them dressed as SS officers and stole rifles and an SS staff car, which they drove out of the camp with the fourth handcuffed as a prisoner. They wrote later to Rudolf Höss apologizing for the loss of the vehicle. On 21 July 1944, Polish inmate Jerzy Bielecki dressed in an SS uniform and, using a faked pass, managed to cross the camp's gate with his Jewish girlfriend, Cyla Cybulska, pretending that she was wanted for questioning. Both survived the war. For having saved her, Bielecki was recognized by Yad Vashem as Righteous Among the Nations.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 26522536, 33478311, 181963, 797799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 65 ], [ 441, 455 ], [ 702, 712 ], [ 716, 743 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jerzy Tabeau (no.27273, registered as Jerzy Wesołowski) and Roman Cieliczko (no.27089), both Polish prisoners, escaped on 19 November 1943; Tabeau made contact with the Polish underground and, between December 1943 and early 1944, wrote what became known as the Polish Major's report about the situation in the camp. On 27 April 1944, Rudolf Vrba (no.44070) and Alfréd Wetzler (no.29162) escaped to Slovakia, carrying detailed information to the Slovak Jewish Council about the gas chambers. The distribution of the Vrba-Wetzler report, and publication of parts of it in June 1944, helped to halt the deportation of Hungarian Jews to Auschwitz. On 27 May 1944, Arnost Rosin (no.29858) and Czesław Mordowicz (no.84216) also escaped to Slovakia; the Rosin-Mordowicz report was added to the Vrba-Wetzler and Tabeau reports to become what is known as the Auschwitz Protocols. The reports were first published in their entirety in November 1944 by the United States War Refugee Board as The Extermination Camps of Auschwitz (Oświęcim) and Birkenau in Upper Silesia.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 37988603, 5043162, 1447841, 58628621, 4601133, 5043162, 47224711, 58114794, 4601116, 9039580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 335, 346 ], [ 362, 376 ], [ 446, 467 ], [ 516, 535 ], [ 541, 567 ], [ 601, 630 ], [ 689, 706 ], [ 851, 870 ], [ 961, 978 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 1941 the Commander-in-Chief of the Polish Army and prime minister-in-exile, Władysław Sikorski, arranged for a report to be forwarded to Air Marshal Richard Pierse, head of RAF Bomber Command. Written by Auschwitz prisoners in or around December 1940, the report described the camp's atrocious living conditions and asked the Polish government-in-exile to bomb it:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 40153898, 353480, 3852105, 25679, 338882, 539820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 57 ], [ 87, 105 ], [ 160, 174 ], [ 184, 187 ], [ 188, 202 ], [ 337, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pierse replied that it was not technically feasible to bomb the camp without harming the prisoners. In May 1944 Slovak rabbi Michael Dov Weissmandl suggested that the Allies bomb the rails leading to the camp. Historian David Wyman published an essay in Commentary in 1978 entitled \"Why Auschwitz Was Never Bombed\", arguing that the United States Army Air Forces could and should have attacked Auschwitz. In his book America and the Holocaust 1941–1945 (1984), Wyman argued that, since the IG Farben plant at Auschwitz III had been bombed three times between August and December 1944 by the US Fifteenth Air Force in Italy, it would have been feasible for the other camps or railway lines to be bombed too. Bernard Wasserstein's Britain and the Jews of Europe (1979) and Martin Gilbert's Auschwitz and the Allies (1981) raised similar questions about British inaction. Since the 1990s, other historians have argued that Allied bombing accuracy was not sufficient for Wyman's proposed attack, and that counterfactual history is an inherently problematic endeavor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 304318, 12010475, 206205, 23508196, 6245234, 464047, 679790, 1573210, 72208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 147 ], [ 220, 231 ], [ 254, 264 ], [ 333, 362 ], [ 417, 453 ], [ 595, 614 ], [ 708, 727 ], [ 772, 786 ], [ 1002, 1024 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Sonderkommando who worked in the crematoria were witnesses to the mass murder and were therefore regularly murdered themselves. On 7 October 1944, following an announcement that 300 of them were to be sent to a nearby town to clear away rubble—\"transfers\" were a common ruse for the murder of prisoners—the group, mostly Jews from Greece and Hungary, staged an uprising. They attacked the SS with stones and hammers, killing three of them, and set crematorium IV on fire with rags soaked in oil that they had hidden. Hearing the commotion, the Sonderkommando at crematorium II believed that a camp uprising had begun and threw their Oberkapo into a furnace. After escaping through a fence using wirecutters, they managed to reach Rajsko, where they hid in the granary of an Auschwitz satellite camp, but the SS pursued and killed them by setting the granary on fire.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 142973, 19021719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 734, 740 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By the time the rebellion at crematorium IV had been suppressed, 212 members of the Sonderkommando were still alive and 451 had been killed. The dead included Zalmen Gradowski, who kept notes of his time in Auschwitz and buried them near crematorium III; after the war, another Sonderkommando member showed the prosecutors where to dig. The notes were published in several formats, including in 2017 as From the Heart of Hell.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 46363629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The last mass transports to arrive in Auschwitz were 60,000–70,000 Jews from the Łódź Ghetto, some 2,000 from Theresienstadt, and 8,000 from Slovakia. The last selection took place on 30 October 1944. On 1 or 2 November 1944, Heinrich Himmler ordered the SS to halt the mass murder by gas. On 25 November, he ordered that Auschwitz's gas chambers and crematoria be destroyed. The Sonderkommando and other prisoners began the job of dismantling the buildings and cleaning up the site. On 18 January 1945, Engelbert Marketsch, a German criminal transferred from Mauthausen, became the last prisoner to be assigned a serial number in Auschwitz, number 202499.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 1712115, 2489628, 365088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 92 ], [ 141, 149 ], [ 560, 570 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Polish historian Andrzej Strzelecki, the evacuation of the camp was one of its \"most tragic chapters\". Himmler ordered the evacuation of all camps in January 1945, telling camp commanders: \"The Führer holds you personally responsible for... making sure that not a single prisoner from the concentration camps falls alive into the hands of the enemy.\" The plundered goods from the \"Kanada\" barracks, together with building supplies, were transported to the German interior. Between 1 December 1944 and 15 January 1945, over one million items of clothing were packed to be shipped out of Auschwitz; 95,000 such parcels were sent to concentration camps in Germany.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning on 17 January, some 58,000 Auschwitz detainees (about two-thirds Jews)—over 20,000 from Auschwitz I and II and over 30,000 from the subcamps—were evacuated under guard, at first heading west on foot, then by open-topped freight trains, to concentration camps in Germany and Austria: Bergen-Belsen, Buchenwald, Dachau, Flossenburg, Gross-Rosen, Mauthausen, Dora-Mittelbau, Ravensbruck, and Sachsenhausen. Fewer than 9,000 remained in the camps, deemed too sick to move. During the marches, the SS shot or otherwise dispatched anyone unable to continue; \"execution details\" followed the marchers, killing prisoners who lagged behind. Peter Longerich estimated that a quarter of the detainees were thus killed. By December 1944 some 15,000 Jewish prisoners had made it from Auschwitz to Bergen-Belsen, where they were liberated by the British on 15 April 1945.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 150011, 49266, 355852, 355180, 512535, 365088, 513828, 33730885, 890606, 7294097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 293, 306 ], [ 308, 318 ], [ 320, 326 ], [ 328, 339 ], [ 341, 352 ], [ 354, 364 ], [ 366, 380 ], [ 382, 393 ], [ 399, 412 ], [ 642, 657 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 20 January, crematoria II and III were blown up, and on 23 January the \"Kanada\" warehouses were set on fire; they apparently burned for five days. Crematorium IV had been partly demolished after the Sonderkommando revolt in October, and the rest of it was destroyed later. On 26 January, one day ahead of the Red Army's arrival, crematorium V was blown up.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first in the camp complex to be liberated was Auschwitz III, the IG Farben camp at Monowitz; a soldier from the 100th Infantry Division of the Red Army entered the camp around 9am on Saturday, 27 January 1945. The 60th Army of the 1st Ukrainian Front (also part of the Red Army) arrived in Auschwitz I and II around 3pm. They found 7,000 prisoners alive in the three main camps, 500 in the other subcamps, and over 600 corpses. Items found included 837,000 women's garments, 370,000 men's suits, 44,000 pairs of shoes, and 7,000kg of human hair, estimated by the Soviet war crimes commission to have come from 140,000 people. Some of the hair was examined by the Forensic Science Institute in Kraków, where it was found to contain traces of hydrogen cyanide, the main ingredient of Zyklon B. Primo Levi described seeing the first four soldiers on horseback approach Auschwitz III, where he had been in the sick bay. They threw \"strangely embarrassed glances at the sprawling bodies, at the battered huts and at us few still alive...\":", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 25682, 48583104, 3469763, 16815, 42078, 71305, 39425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 155 ], [ 218, 227 ], [ 235, 254 ], [ 697, 703 ], [ 745, 761 ], [ 786, 794 ], [ 796, 806 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Georgii Elisavetskii, a Soviet soldier who entered one of the barracks, said in 1980 that he could hear other soldiers telling the inmates: \"You are free, comrades!\" But they did not respond, so he tried in Russian, Polish, German, Ukrainian. Then he used some Yiddish: \"They think that I am provoking them. They begin to hide. And only when I said to them: 'Do not be afraid, I am a colonel of Soviet Army and a Jew. We have come to liberate you'... Finally, as if the barrier collapsed... they rushed toward us shouting, fell on their knees, kissed the flaps of our overcoats, and threw their arms around our legs.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 34272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Soviet military medical service and Polish Red Cross (PCK) set up field hospitals that looked after 4,500 prisoners suffering from the effects of starvation (mostly diarrhea) and tuberculosis. Local volunteers helped until the Red Cross team arrived from Kraków in early February. In Auschwitz II, the layers of excrement on the barracks floors had to be scraped off with shovels. Water was obtained from snow and from fire-fighting wells. Before more help arrived, 2,200 patients there were looked after by a few doctors and 12 PCK nurses. All the patients were later moved to the brick buildings in Auschwitz I, where several blocks became a hospital, with medical personnel working 18-hour shifts.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 9293476, 53951, 30653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 56 ], [ 169, 177 ], [ 183, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The liberation of Auschwitz received little press attention at the time; the Red Army was focusing on its advance toward Germany and liberating the camp had not been one of its key aims. Boris Polevoi reported on the liberation in Pravda on 2 February 1945 but made no mention of Jews; inmates were described collectively as \"victims of Fascism\". It was when the Western Allies arrived in Buchenwald, Bergen-Belsen, and Dachau in April 1945 that the liberation of the camps received extensive coverage.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Resistance, escapes, and liberation", "target_page_ids": [ 707232, 38443676, 49266, 150011, 355852 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 200 ], [ 231, 237 ], [ 389, 399 ], [ 401, 414 ], [ 420, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Only 789 Auschwitz staff, up to 15 percent, ever stood trial; most of the cases were pursued in Poland and the Federal Republic of Germany. According to Aleksander Lasik, female SS officers were treated more harshly than male; of the 17 women sentenced, four received the death penalty and the others longer prison terms than the men. He writes that this may have been because there were only 200 women overseers, and therefore they were more visible and memorable to the inmates.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "After the war", "target_page_ids": [ 11867, 62410413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 138 ], [ 153, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Camp commandant Rudolf Höss was arrested by the British on 11 March 1946 near Flensburg, northern Germany, where he had been working as a farmer under the pseudonym Franz Lang. He was imprisoned in Heide, then transferred to Minden for interrogation, part of the British occupation zone. From there he was taken to Nuremberg to testify for the defense in the trial of SS-Obergruppenführer Ernst Kaltenbrunner. Höss was straightforward about his own role in the mass murder and said he had followed the orders of Heinrich Himmler. Extradited to Poland on 25 May 1946, he wrote his memoirs in custody, first published in Polish in 1951 then in German in 1958 as Kommandant in Auschwitz. His trial before the Supreme National Tribunal in Warsaw opened on 11 March 1947; he was sentenced to death on 2 April and hanged in Auschwitz I on 16 April, near crematorium I.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "After the war", "target_page_ids": [ 409605, 88374, 92365, 182340, 2949977, 21287, 10148, 13436, 19470076, 32908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 27 ], [ 78, 87 ], [ 198, 203 ], [ 225, 231 ], [ 263, 286 ], [ 315, 324 ], [ 389, 408 ], [ 512, 528 ], [ 706, 731 ], [ 735, 741 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 25 November 1947, the Auschwitz trial began in Kraków, when Poland's Supreme National Tribunal brought to court 40 former Auschwitz staff, including commandant Arthur Liebehenschel, women's camp leader Maria Mandel, and camp leader Hans Aumeier. The trials ended on 22 December 1947, with 23 death sentences, seven life sentences, and nine prison sentences ranging from three to 15 years. Hans Münch, an SS doctor who had several former prisoners testify on his behalf, was the only person to be acquitted.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "After the war", "target_page_ids": [ 1282104, 16815, 19470076, 1302255, 476861, 414105, 5007797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 40 ], [ 50, 56 ], [ 72, 97 ], [ 163, 183 ], [ 205, 217 ], [ 235, 247 ], [ 392, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other former staff were hanged for war crimes in the Dachau Trials and the Belsen Trial, including camp leaders Josef Kramer, Franz Hössler, and Vinzenz Schöttl; doctor Friedrich Entress; and guards Irma Grese and Elisabeth Volkenrath. Bruno Tesch and Karl Weinbacher, the owner and chief executive officer of the firm Tesch & Stabenow, one of the suppliers of Zyklon B, were arrested by the British after the war and executed for knowingly supplying the chemical for use on humans. The 180-day Frankfurt Auschwitz trials, held in West Germany from 20 December 1963 to 20 August 1965, tried 22 defendants, including two dentists, a doctor, two camp adjudants and the camp's pharmacist. The 700-page indictment, presenting the testimony of 254 witnesses, was accompanied by a 300-page report about the camp, Nationalsozialistische Konzentrationslager, written by historians from the Institut für Zeitgeschichte in Germany, including Martin Broszat and Helmut Krausnick. The report became the basis of their book, Anatomy of the SS State (1968), the first comprehensive study of the camp and the SS. The court convicted 19 of the defendants, giving six of them life sentences and the others between three and ten years.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "After the war", "target_page_ids": [ 1863232, 504422, 1361876, 17376699, 40293137, 40293145, 249427, 477003, 6218205, 42130810, 29131263, 1859154, 33166, 11929989, 2004510, 55896430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 66 ], [ 75, 87 ], [ 112, 124 ], [ 126, 139 ], [ 145, 160 ], [ 169, 186 ], [ 199, 209 ], [ 214, 234 ], [ 236, 247 ], [ 252, 267 ], [ 319, 335 ], [ 495, 521 ], [ 531, 543 ], [ 882, 909 ], [ 932, 946 ], [ 951, 967 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the decades since its liberation, Auschwitz has become a primary symbol of the Holocaust. Historian Timothy D. Snyder attributes this to the camp's high death toll and \"unusual combination of an industrial camp complex and a killing facility\", which left behind far more witnesses than single-purpose killing facilities such as Chełmno or Treblinka. In 2005 the United Nations General Assembly designated 27 January, the date of the camp's liberation, as International Holocaust Remembrance Day. Helmut Schmidt visited the site in November 1977, the first West German chancellor to do so, followed by his successor, Helmut Kohl, in November 1989. In a statement on the 50th anniversary of the liberation, Kohl said that \"[t]he darkest and most awful chapter in German history was written at Auschwitz.\" In January 2020, world leaders gathered at Yad Vashem in Jerusalem to commemorate the 75th anniversary. It was the city's largest-ever political gathering, with over 45 heads of state and world leaders, including royalty. At Auschwitz itself, Reuven Rivlin and Andrzej Duda, the presidents of Israel and Poland, laid wreaths.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "After the war", "target_page_ids": [ 5832465, 581018, 42424, 31957, 5352322, 41901, 33166, 20890626, 41896, 181963, 2334667, 45266008 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 120 ], [ 331, 338 ], [ 342, 351 ], [ 365, 396 ], [ 458, 497 ], [ 499, 513 ], [ 559, 570 ], [ 571, 581 ], [ 619, 630 ], [ 849, 859 ], [ 1049, 1062 ], [ 1067, 1079 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Notable memoirists of the camp include Primo Levi, Elie Wiesel, and Tadeusz Borowski. Levi's If This is a Man, first published in Italy in 1947 as Se questo è un uomo, became a classic of Holocaust literature, an \"imperishable masterpiece\". Wiesel wrote about his imprisonment at Auschwitz in Night (1960) and other works, and became a prominent spokesman against ethnic violence; in 1986, he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. Camp survivor Simone Veil was elected President of the European Parliament, serving from 1979 to 1982. Two Auschwitz victims—Maximilian Kolbe, a priest who volunteered to die by starvation in place of a stranger, and Edith Stein, a Jewish convert to Catholicism—were named saints of the Catholic Church.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "After the war", "target_page_ids": [ 39425, 10518, 810499, 4014891, 398028, 26230922, 574751, 9581, 70560, 43501, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 49 ], [ 51, 62 ], [ 68, 84 ], [ 93, 109 ], [ 293, 298 ], [ 409, 426 ], [ 442, 453 ], [ 483, 502 ], [ 553, 569 ], [ 645, 656 ], [ 715, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017, a Körber Foundation survey found that 40 percent of 14-year-olds in Germany did not know what Auschwitz was. The following year a survey organized by the Claims Conference, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and others found that 41 percent of 1,350 American adults surveyed, and 66 percent of millennials, did not know what Auschwitz was, while 22 percent said they had never heard of the Holocaust. A CNN-ComRes poll in 2018 found a similar situation in Europe.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "After the war", "target_page_ids": [ 3943713, 3830717, 553427, 149183, 62028, 23715936 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ], [ 163, 180 ], [ 182, 221 ], [ 308, 319 ], [ 417, 420 ], [ 421, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 2 July 1947, the Polish government passed a law establishing a state memorial to remember \"the martyrdom of the Polish nation and other nations in Oswiecim\". The museum established its exhibits at Auschwitz I; after the war, the barracks in Auschwitz II-Birkenau had been mostly dismantled and moved to Warsaw to be used on building sites. Dwork and van Pelt write that, in addition, Auschwitz I played a more central role in the persecution of the Polish people, in opposition to the importance of Auschwitz II to the Jews, including Polish Jews. An exhibition opened in Auschwitz I in 1955, displaying prisoner mug shots; hair, suitcases, and shoes taken from murdered prisoners; canisters of Zyklon B pellets; and other objects related to the killings. UNESCO added the camp to its list of World Heritage Sites in 1979. All the museum's directors were, until 1990, former Auschwitz prisoners. Visitors to the site have increased from 492,500 in 2001, to over one million in 2009, to two million in 2016.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "After the war", "target_page_ids": [ 343261, 21786641, 44940 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 616, 624 ], [ 759, 765 ], [ 796, 815 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There have been protracted disputes over the perceived Christianization of the site. Pope John Paul II celebrated mass over the train tracks leading to Auschwitz II-Birkenau on 7 June 1979 and called the camp \"the Golgotha of our age\", referring to the crucifixion of Jesus. More controversy followed when Carmelite nuns founded a convent in 1984 in a former theater outside the camp's perimeter, near block 11 of Auschwitz I, after which a local priest and some survivors erected a large cross—one that had been used during the pope's mass—behind block 11 to commemorate 152 Polish inmates shot by the Germans in 1941. After a long dispute, Pope John Paul II intervened and the nuns moved the convent elsewhere in 1993. The cross remained, triggering the \"War of the Crosses\", as more crosses were erected to commemorate Christian victims, despite international objections. The Polish government and Catholic Church eventually agreed to remove all but the original.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "After the war", "target_page_ids": [ 23805, 5684685, 387583, 22852566, 43577, 37726271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 102 ], [ 114, 118 ], [ 214, 222 ], [ 253, 273 ], [ 306, 315 ], [ 473, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 4 September 2003, despite a protest from the museum, three Israeli Air Force F-15 Eagles performed a fly-over of Auschwitz II-Birkenau during a ceremony at the camp below. All three pilots were descendants of Holocaust survivors, including the man who led the flight, Major-General Amir Eshel. On 27 January 2015, some 300 Auschwitz survivors gathered with world leaders under a giant tent at the entrance to Auschwitz II to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the camp's liberation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "After the war", "target_page_ids": [ 177619, 11715, 34598441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 79 ], [ 80, 90 ], [ 285, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Museum curators consider visitors who pick up items from the ground to be thieves, and local police will charge them as such; the maximum penalty is a 10-year prison sentence. In 2017 two British youths from the Perse School were fined in Poland after picking up buttons and shards of decorative glass in 2015 from the \"Kanada\" area of Auschwitz II, where camp victims' personal effects were stored. The Arbeit Macht Frei sign over the main camp's gate was stolen in December 2009 by a Swedish former neo-Nazi and two Polish men. The sign was later recovered.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "After the war", "target_page_ids": [ 1466120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018 the Polish government passed an amendment to its Act on the Institute of National Remembrance, making it a criminal offence to violate the \"good name\" of Poland by accusing it of crimes committed by Germany in the Holocaust, which would include referring to Auschwitz and other camps as \"Polish death camps\". Staff at the museum were accused by nationalist media in Poland of focusing too much on the fate of the Jews in Auschwitz at the expense of ethnic Poles. The brother of the museum's director, Piotr Cywiński, wrote that Cywiński had experienced \"50 days of incessant hatred\". After discussions with Israel's prime minister, amid international concern that the new law would stifle research, the Polish government adjusted the amendment so that anyone accusing Poland of complicity would be guilty only of a civil offence.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "After the war", "target_page_ids": [ 65627719, 10396793, 3874841, 19267051 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 101 ], [ 222, 231 ], [ 295, 315 ], [ 509, 523 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Auschwitz Album", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 974247 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Auschwitz-Birkenau Foundation", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27951943 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Höcker Album", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16276669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Nazi concentration camps", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1212565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of victims and survivors of Auschwitz", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 21627726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Polish death camp\" controversy", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3874841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ]", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " }", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Borowski, Tadeusz (1992) [1976]. This Way for the Gas, Ladies and Gentlemen. Trans. from the Polish by Barbara Vedder. East Rutherford: Penguin Books. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 810499, 6792518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 34, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pilecki, Witold (2012). The Auschwitz Volunteer: Beyond Bravery. Trans. from the Polish by Jarek Garlinski. Los Angeles: Aquila Polonica. ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 824265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trial of the Major War Criminals before the International Military Tribunal. Nuremberg, 14 November 1945– 1 October 1946.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Google Earth", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Auschwitz-Birkenau State Museum.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Auschwitz\". United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 553427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Auschwitz Album\". Yad Vashem.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 181963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Auschwitz-Birkenau photographs by Bill Hunt.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Auschwitz_concentration_camp", "1940_establishments_in_Germany", "Bayer", "German_extermination_camps_in_Poland", "IG_Farben", "Nazi_concentration_camps_in_Poland", "Nazi_war_crimes_in_Poland", "Registered_museums_in_Poland", "The_Holocaust", "Tourism_in_Eastern_Europe", "World_Heritage_Sites_in_Poland", "World_War_II_sites_in_Poland", "World_War_II_sites_of_Nazi_Germany" ]

[ "KZ Auschwitz", "Birkenau", "Auschwitz death camp", "Auschwitz concentration camp", "Auschwitz-Birkenau", "Auschwitz Birkenau German Nazi Concentration and Extermination Camp (1940-1945)" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Archery is the sport, practice, or skill of using a bow to shoot arrows. The word comes from the Latin arcus, meaning bow. Historically, archery has been used for hunting and combat. In modern times, it is mainly a competitive sport and recreational activity. A person who practices archery is typically called an archer, bowman, or toxophilite.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 219810, 28495, 51513, 17730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 55 ], [ 59, 64 ], [ 65, 70 ], [ 97, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oldest known evidence of the bow and arrow comes from South African sites such as Sibudu Cave, where the remains of bone and stone arrowheads have been found dating approximately 72,000 to 60,000 years ago.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 23250986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Based on indirect evidence, the bow also seems to have appeared or reappeared later in Eurasia, near the transition from the Upper Paleolithic to the Mesolithic. The earliest definite remains of bow and arrow from Europe are possible fragments from Germany found at Mannheim-Vogelstang dated 17,500 to 18,000 years ago, and at Stellmoor dated 11,000 years ago. Azilian points found in Grotte du Bichon, Switzerland, alongside the remains of both a bear and a hunter, with flint fragments found in the bear's third vertebra, suggest the use of arrows at 13,500 years ago. Other signs of its use in Europe come from the in the north of Hamburg, Germany and dates from the late Paleolithic, about 10,000–9000 BC. The arrows were made of pine and consisted of a main shaft and a fore shaft with a flint point. There are no definite earlier bows; previous pointed shafts are known, but may have been launched by spear-throwers rather than bows. The oldest bows known so far comes from the Holmegård swamp in Denmark.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1158651, 20568, 952876, 57510413, 13467, 22860, 39389, 43701, 202388, 23432194, 148603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 142 ], [ 150, 160 ], [ 361, 368 ], [ 385, 401 ], [ 636, 643 ], [ 677, 688 ], [ 736, 740 ], [ 796, 801 ], [ 910, 923 ], [ 947, 958 ], [ 987, 996 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the site of Nataruk in Turkana County, Kenya, obsidian bladelets found embedded in a skull and within the thoracic cavity of another skeleton, suggest the use of stone-tipped arrows as weapons about 10,000 years ago. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 49180731, 7078833, 22721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ], [ 26, 40 ], [ 49, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bows eventually replaced the spear-thrower as the predominant means for launching shafted projectiles, on every continent except Australasia, though spear-throwers persisted alongside the bow in parts of the Americas, notably Mexico and among the Inuit.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 202388, 144553, 21492915, 15704166 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 42 ], [ 90, 101 ], [ 129, 140 ], [ 247, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bows and arrows have been present in Egyptian and neighboring Nubian culture since its respective predynastic and Pre-Kerma origins. In the Levant, artifacts that could be arrow-shaft straighteners are known from the Natufian culture, (c. 10,800–8,300 BC) onwards. The Khiamian and PPN A shouldered Khiam-points may well be arrowheads.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8087628, 21492837, 1427446, 1394631, 18138, 54716, 28370007, 629000 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 42 ], [ 62, 67 ], [ 98, 109 ], [ 114, 123 ], [ 140, 146 ], [ 217, 233 ], [ 269, 277 ], [ 282, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Classical civilizations, notably the Assyrians, Greeks, Armenians, Persians, Parthians, Romans, Indians, Koreans, Chinese, and Japanese fielded large numbers of archers in their armies. Akkadians were the first to use composite bows in war according to the victory stele of Naram-Sin of Akkad. Egyptians referred to Nubia as \"Ta-Seti,\" or \"The Land of the Bow,\" since the Nubians were known to be expert archers, and by the 16th Century BC Egyptians were using the composite bow in warfare. The Bronze Age Aegean Cultures were able to deploy a number of state-owned specialized bow makers for warfare and hunting purposes already from the 15th century BC. The Welsh longbow proved its worth for the first time in Continental warfare at the Battle of Crécy. In the Americas archery was widespread at European contact.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 252905, 2085, 66540, 87368, 30927438, 19180547, 521555, 13890, 48605, 5760, 25890428, 1566, 789975, 1154494, 21492837, 18432, 58916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 37, 46 ], [ 48, 54 ], [ 56, 65 ], [ 67, 75 ], [ 77, 84 ], [ 88, 93 ], [ 96, 103 ], [ 105, 112 ], [ 114, 121 ], [ 127, 135 ], [ 186, 195 ], [ 218, 232 ], [ 274, 292 ], [ 316, 321 ], [ 660, 673 ], [ 740, 755 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archery was highly developed in Asia. The Sanskrit term for archery, dhanurveda, came to refer to martial arts in general. In East Asia, Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea was well known for its regiments of exceptionally skilled archers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 27698, 10054322, 173273 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 50 ], [ 69, 79 ], [ 137, 145 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The medieval shortbow was technically identical with the classical era bows, having a range of approximately . It was the primary ranged weapon of the battlefield through the early medieval period. Around the tenth century the crossbow was introduced in Europe. Crossbows generally had a longer range, greater accuracy and more penetration than the shortbow, but suffered from a much slower rate of fire. Crossbows were used in the early Crusades, with models having a range of and being able to penetrate armour or kill a horse. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6948, 4412145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 235 ], [ 438, 446 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the late medieval period the English army famously relied on massed archers armed with the longbow. The French army relied more on the crossbow. Like their predecessors archers were more likely to be peasants or yeomen than men-at-arms. The longbow had a range of up to . However its lack of accuracy at long ranges made it a mass weapon rather than an individual one. Significant victories attributable to the longbow, such as the Battle of Crecy and Battle of Agincourt resulted in the English longbow becoming part of military lore.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2508874, 58916, 4615, 18432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 105 ], [ 439, 454 ], [ 459, 478 ], [ 495, 510 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tribesmen of Central Asia (after the domestication of the horse) and American Plains Indians (after gaining access to horses by Europeans) became extremely adept at archery on horseback. Lightly armoured, but highly mobile archers were excellently suited to warfare in the Central Asian steppes, and they formed a large part of armies that repeatedly conquered large areas of Eurasia. Shorter bows are more suited to use on horseback, and the composite bow enabled mounted archers to use powerful weapons. Seljuk Turks used mounted archers against the European First Crusade, especially at the Battle of Dorylaeum (1097). Their tactic was to shoot at the enemy infantry, and use their superior mobility to prevent the enemy from closing with them. Empires throughout the Eurasian landmass often strongly associated their respective \"barbarian\" counterparts with the usage of the bow and arrow, to the point where powerful states like the Han Dynasty referred to their neighbours, the Xiong-nu, as \"Those Who Draw the Bow\". For example, Xiong-nu mounted bowmen made them more than a match for the Han military, and their threat was at least partially responsible for Chinese expansion into the Ordos region, to create a stronger, more powerful buffer zone against them. It is possible that \"barbarian\" peoples were responsible for introducing archery or certain types of bows to their \"civilized\" counterparts—the Xiong-nu and the Han being one example. Similarly, short bows seem to have been introduced to Japan by northeast Asian groups.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 45413, 53543, 1331554, 19685198, 789975, 6116724, 106128, 398093, 43460, 74297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 37, 63 ], [ 78, 92 ], [ 165, 185 ], [ 443, 456 ], [ 506, 518 ], [ 561, 574 ], [ 594, 620 ], [ 938, 949 ], [ 984, 992 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The development of firearms rendered bows obsolete in warfare, although efforts were sometimes made to preserve archery practice. In England and Wales, for example, the government tried to enforce practice with the longbow until the end of the 16th century. This was because it was recognized that the bow had been instrumental to military success during the Hundred Years' War. Despite the high social status, ongoing utility, and widespread pleasure of archery in Armenia, China, Egypt, England and Wales, the Americas, India, Japan, Korea, Turkey and elsewhere, almost every culture that gained access to even early firearms used them widely, to the neglect of archery. Early firearms were inferior in rate-of-fire, and were very sensitive to wet weather. However, they had longer effective range and were tactically superior in the common situation of soldiers shooting at each other from behind obstructions. They also required significantly less training to use properly, in particular penetrating steel armor without any need to develop special musculature. Armies equipped with guns could thus provide superior firepower, and highly trained archers became obsolete on the battlefield. However, the bow and arrow is still an effective weapon, and archers have seen military action in the 21st century. Traditional archery remains in use for sport, and for hunting in many areas.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1012887, 19038039, 2402376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 27 ], [ 359, 377 ], [ 508, 520 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Early recreational archery societies included the Finsbury Archers and the Ancient Society of Kilwinning Archers. The latter's annual Papingo event was first recorded in 1483. (In this event, archers shoot vertically from the base of an abbey tower to dislodge a wood pigeon placed approximately above.) The Royal Company of Archers was formed in 1676 and is one of the oldest sporting bodies in the world. Archery remained a small and scattered pastime, however, until the late 18th century when it experienced a fashionable revival among the aristocracy. Sir Ashton Lever, an antiquarian and collector, formed the Toxophilite Society in London in 1781, with the patronage of George, the Prince of Wales.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12558234, 37671, 1701827, 40225 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 141 ], [ 545, 556 ], [ 562, 574 ], [ 678, 705 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archery societies were set up across the country, each with its own strict entry criteria and outlandish costumes. Recreational archery soon became extravagant social and ceremonial events for the nobility, complete with flags, music and 21-gun salutes for the competitors. The clubs were \"the drawing rooms of the great country houses placed outside\" and thus came to play an important role in the social networks of the local upper class. As well as its emphasis on display and status, the sport was notable for its popularity with females. Young women could not only compete in the contests but retain and show off their sexuality while doing so. Thus, archery came to act as a forum for introductions, flirtation and romance. It was often consciously styled in the manner of a Medieval tournament with titles and laurel wreaths being presented as a reward to the victor. General meetings were held from 1789, in which local lodges convened together to standardise the rules and ceremonies. Archery was also co-opted as a distinctively British tradition, dating back to the lore of Robin Hood and it served as a patriotic form of entertainment at a time of political tension in Europe. The societies were also elitist, and the new middle class bourgeoisie were excluded from the clubs due to their lack of social status.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 713664, 18836, 146996, 4135000, 26171, 251534, 58031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 251 ], [ 781, 789 ], [ 790, 800 ], [ 817, 830 ], [ 1085, 1095 ], [ 1234, 1246 ], [ 1247, 1258 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the Napoleonic Wars, the sport became increasingly popular among all classes, and it was framed as a nostalgic reimagining of the preindustrial rural Britain. Particularly influential was Sir Walter Scott's 1819 novel, Ivanhoe that depicted the heroic character Lockseley winning an archery tournament.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 45420, 210545, 27884, 15055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 25 ], [ 136, 149 ], [ 198, 210 ], [ 225, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1840s saw the second attempts at turning the recreation into a modern sport. The first Grand National Archery Society meeting was held in York in 1844 and over the next decade the extravagant and festive practices of the past were gradually whittled away and the rules were standardized as the 'York Round' - a series of shoots at , , and . Horace A. Ford helped to improve archery standards and pioneered new archery techniques. He won the Grand National 11 times in a row and published a highly influential guide to the sport in 1856.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8149135, 34361, 5134336 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 121 ], [ 142, 146 ], [ 345, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Towards the end of the 19th century, the sport experienced declining participation as alternative sports such as croquet and tennis became more popular among the middle class. By 1889, just 50 archery clubs were left in Britain, but it was still included as a sport at the 1900 Paris Olympics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6643, 29773, 169719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 120 ], [ 125, 131 ], [ 273, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The National Archery Association of the United States was organized in 1879, in part by Maurice Thompson (the author of the seminal text “The Witchery of Archery”) and his brother Will Thompson. Maurice was president in its inaugural year and Will was president in 1882, 1903, and 1904. The 1910 President was Frank E Canfield. Today it is known as USA Archery and is recognized by United States Olympic & Paralympic Committee.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3064413, 19950059, 7304021, 287713 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 104 ], [ 138, 161 ], [ 180, 193 ], [ 382, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States, primitive archery was revived in the early 20th century. The last of the Yahi Indian tribe, a native known as Ishi, came out of hiding in California in 1911. His doctor, Saxton Pope, learned many of Ishi's traditional archery skills, and popularized them. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 6209020, 174892, 13143994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 106 ], [ 132, 136 ], [ 192, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the 1920s, professional engineers took an interest in archery, previously the exclusive field of traditional craft experts. They led the commercial development of new forms of bow including the modern recurve and compound bow. These modern forms are now dominant in modern Western archery; traditional bows are in a minority. Archery returned to the Olympics in 1972. In the 1980s, the skills of traditional archery were revived by American enthusiasts, and combined with the new scientific understanding. Much of this expertise is available in the Traditional Bowyer's Bibles (see Further reading). Modern game archery owes much of its success to Fred Bear, an American bow hunter and bow manufacturer.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18340510, 84228, 3106201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 213 ], [ 218, 230 ], [ 654, 663 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2021, five people were killed and three injured by an archer in Norway in the Kongsberg attack.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 69007508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Deities and heroes in several mythologies are described as archers, including the Greek Artemis and Apollo, the Roman Diana and Cupid, the Germanic Agilaz, continuing in legends like those of Wilhelm Tell, Palnetoke, or Robin Hood. Armenian Hayk and Babylonian Marduk, Indian Karna (also known as Radheya/son of Radha), Abhimanyu, Eklavya, Arjuna, Bhishma, Drona, Rama, and Shiva were known for their shooting skills. The famous archery competition of hitting the eye of a rotating fish while watching its reflection in the water bowl was one of the many archery skills depicted in the Mahabharata.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2905, 594, 8391, 20924853, 3191207, 407800, 1037206, 26171, 670110, 85557, 857051, 693611, 3442748, 100254, 601629, 1167995, 19377014, 28849, 19643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 95 ], [ 100, 106 ], [ 118, 123 ], [ 128, 133 ], [ 148, 154 ], [ 192, 204 ], [ 206, 215 ], [ 220, 230 ], [ 241, 245 ], [ 261, 267 ], [ 276, 281 ], [ 320, 329 ], [ 331, 338 ], [ 340, 346 ], [ 348, 355 ], [ 357, 362 ], [ 364, 368 ], [ 374, 379 ], [ 586, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Persian Arash was a famous archer. Earlier Greek representations of Heracles normally depict him as an archer. Archery, and the bow, play an important part in the epic poem the Odyssey, when Odysseus returns home in disguise and then bests the suitors in an archery competition after hinting at his identity by stringing and drawing his great bow that only he can draw, a similar motif is present in the Turkic Iranian heroic archeheroic poem Alpamysh.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 840275, 13815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 13 ], [ 68, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The () were worshipped on the Greek island of Delos as attendants of Artemis, presiding over aspects of archery; (), represented distancing, (), trajectory, and (), aim.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Yi the archer and his apprentice Feng Meng appear in several early Chinese myths, and the historical character of Zhou Tong features in many fictional forms. Jumong, the first Taewang of the Goguryeo kingdom of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, is claimed by legend to have been a near-godlike archer. Archery features in the story of Oguz Khagan. Similarly, archery and the bow feature heavily into historical Korean identity.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2558282, 36081963, 5568326, 1588551, 56000539, 173273, 316424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 33, 42 ], [ 114, 123 ], [ 158, 164 ], [ 176, 183 ], [ 191, 199 ], [ 215, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In West African Yoruba belief, Osoosi is one of several deities of the hunt who are identified with bow and arrow iconography and other insignia associated with archery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 67393, 682534, 3288658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 16, 22 ], [ 31, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While there is great variety in the construction details of bows (both historic and modern), all bows consist of a string attached to elastic limbs that store mechanical energy imparted by the user drawing the string. Bows may be broadly split into two categories: those drawn by pulling the string directly and those that use a mechanism to pull the string.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Directly drawn bows may be further divided based upon differences in the method of limb construction, notable examples being self bows, laminated bows and composite bows. Bows can also be classified by the bow shape of the limbs when unstrung; in contrast to traditional European straight bows, a recurve bow and some types of longbow have tips that curve away from the archer when the bow is unstrung. The cross-section of the limb also varies; the classic longbow is a tall bow with narrow limbs that are D-shaped in cross section, and the flatbow has flat wide limbs that are approximately rectangular in cross-section. Cable-backed bows use cords as the back of the bow; the draw weight of the bow can be adjusted by changing the tension of the cable. They were widespread among Inuit who lacked easy access to good bow wood. One variety of cable-backed bow is the Penobscot bow or Wabenaki bow, invented by Frank Loring (Chief Big Thunder) about 1900. It consists of a small bow attached by cables on the back of a larger main bow.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 10069202, 10069212, 789975, 169191, 18340510, 2508874, 2392467, 14640307, 15704166, 13231954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 133 ], [ 136, 149 ], [ 155, 168 ], [ 206, 215 ], [ 297, 308 ], [ 458, 465 ], [ 542, 549 ], [ 623, 639 ], [ 783, 788 ], [ 886, 894 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In different cultures, the arrows are released from either the left or right side of the bow, and this affects the hand grip and position of the bow. In Arab archery, Turkish archery and Kyūdō, the arrows are released from the right hand side of the bow, and this affects construction of the bow. In western archery, the arrow is usually released from the left hand side of the bow for a right-handed archer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 47653864, 4247648, 157501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 165 ], [ 167, 182 ], [ 187, 192 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Compound bows are designed to reduce the force required to hold the string at full draw, hence allowing the archer more time to aim with less muscular stress. Most compound designs use cams or elliptical wheels on the ends of the limbs to achieve this. A typical let-off is anywhere from 65% to 80%. For example, a bow with 80% let-off only requires to hold at full draw. Up to 99% let-off is possible. The compound bow was invented by Holless Wilbur Allen in the 1960s (a US patent was filed in 1966 and granted in 1969) and it has become the most widely used type of bow for all forms of archery in North America.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 84228, 3869934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 438, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mechanically drawn bows typically have a stock or other mounting, such as the crossbow. Crossbows typically have shorter draw lengths compared to compound bows. Because of this, heavier draw weights are required to achieve the same energy transfer to the arrow. These mechanically drawn bows also have devices to hold the tension when the bow is fully drawn. They are not limited by the strength of a single archer and larger varieties have been used as siege engines.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 6948, 233403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 86 ], [ 454, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The most common form of arrow consists of a shaft, with an arrowhead at the front end, and fletchings and a nock at the other end. Arrows across time and history have normally been carried in a container known as a quiver, which can take many different forms. Shafts of arrows are typically composed of solid wood, bamboo, fiberglass, aluminium alloy, carbon fiber, or composite materials. Wooden arrows are prone to warping. Fiberglass arrows are brittle, but can be produced to uniform specifications easily. Aluminium shafts were a very popular high-performance choice in the latter half of the 20th century, due to their straightness, lighter weight, and subsequently higher speed and flatter trajectories. Carbon fiber arrows became popular in the 1990s because they are very light, flying even faster and flatter than aluminium arrows. Today, the most popular arrows at tournaments and Olympic events are made of composite materials.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 51513, 1017709, 1166642, 51513, 25295, 33550, 39029, 174431, 6191356, 23809352, 157616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 49 ], [ 59, 68 ], [ 91, 100 ], [ 108, 112 ], [ 215, 221 ], [ 309, 313 ], [ 315, 321 ], [ 323, 333 ], [ 335, 350 ], [ 352, 364 ], [ 369, 387 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The arrowhead is the primary functional component of the arrow. Some arrows may simply use a sharpened tip of the solid shaft, but separate arrowheads are far more common, usually made from metal, stone, or other hard materials. The most commonly used forms are target points, field points, and broadheads, although there are also other types, such as bodkin, judo, and blunt heads.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fletching is traditionally made from bird feathers, but solid plastic vanes and thin sheet-like spin vanes are used. They are attached near the nock (rear) end of the arrow with thin double sided tape, glue, or, traditionally, sinew. The most common configuration in all cultures is three fletches, though as many as six have been used. Two makes the arrow unstable in flight. When the arrow is three-fletched, the fletches are equally spaced around the shaft, with one placed such that it is perpendicular to the bow when nocked on the string, though variations are seen with modern equipment, especially when using the modern spin vanes. This fletch is called the \"index fletch\" or \"cock feather\" (also known as \"the odd vane out\" or \"the nocking vane\"), and the others are sometimes called the \"hen feathers\". Commonly, the cock feather is of a different color. However, if archers are using fletching made of feather or similar material, they may use same color vanes, as different dyes can give varying stiffness to vanes, resulting in less precision. When an arrow is four-fletched, two opposing fletches are often cock feathers, and occasionally the fletches are not evenly spaced.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 1166642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fletching may be either parabolic cut (short feathers in a smooth parabolic curve) or shield cut (generally shaped like half of a narrow shield), and is often attached at an angle, known as helical fletching, to introduce a stabilizing spin to the arrow while in flight. Whether helical or straight fletched, when natural fletching (bird feathers) is used it is critical that all feathers come from the same side of the bird. Oversized fletchings can be used to accentuate drag and thus limit the range of the arrow significantly; these arrows are called flu-flus. Misplacement of fletchings can change the arrow's flight path dramatically.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 6653978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 559, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dacron and other modern materials offer high strength for their weight and are used on most modern bows. Linen and other traditional materials are still used on traditional bows. Several modern methods of making a bowstring exist, such as the 'endless loop' and 'Flemish twist'. Almost any fiber can be made into a bowstring. The author of Arab Archery suggests the hide of a young, emaciated camel. Njál's saga describes the refusal of a wife, Hallgerður, to cut her hair to make an emergency bowstring for her husband, Gunnar Hámundarson, who is then killed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 292941, 140913, 87277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 400, 411 ], [ 521, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most modern archers wear a bracer (also known as an arm-guard) to protect the inside of the bow arm from being hit by the string and prevent clothing from catching the bowstring. The bracer does not brace the arm; the word comes from the armoury term \"brassard\", meaning an armoured sleeve or badge. The Navajo people have developed highly ornamented bracers as non-functional items of adornment. Some archers (nearly all female archers) wear protection on their chests, called chestguards or plastrons. The myth of the Amazons was that they had one breast removed to solve this problem. Roger Ascham mentions one archer, presumably with an unusual shooting style, who wore a leather guard for his face.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 1184626, 1247334, 3007285, 1695, 262141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 33 ], [ 252, 260 ], [ 304, 317 ], [ 520, 527 ], [ 588, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The drawing digits are normally protected by a leather tab, glove, or thumb ring. A simple tab of leather is commonly used, as is a skeleton glove. Medieval Europeans probably used a complete leather glove.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 1184660, 3220588 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 58 ], [ 70, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eurasiatic archers who used the thumb or Mongolian draw protected their thumbs, usually with leather according to the author of Arab Archery, but also with special rings of various hard materials. Many surviving Turkish and Chinese examples are works of considerable art. Some are so highly ornamented that the users could not have used them to loose an arrow. Possibly these were items of personal adornment, and hence value, remaining extant whilst leather had virtually no intrinsic value and would also deteriorate with time. In traditional Japanese archery a special glove is used that has a ridge to assist in drawing the string.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [ 3220588, 157501, 157501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 156, 169 ], [ 545, 561 ], [ 572, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A release aid is a mechanical device designed to give a crisp and precise loose of arrows from a compound bow. In the most commonly used, the string is released by a finger-operated trigger mechanism, held in the archer's hand or attached to their wrist. In another type, known as a back-tension release, the string is automatically released when drawn to a pre-determined tension.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stabilizers are mounted at various points on the bow. Common with competitive archery equipment are special brackets that allow multiple stabilizers to be mounted at various angles to fine tune the bow's balance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stabilizers aid in aiming by improving the balance of the bow. Sights, quivers, rests, and design of the riser (the central, non-bending part of the bow) make one side of the bow heavier. One purpose of stabilizers are to offset these forces. A reflex riser design will cause the top limb to lean towards the shooter. In this case a heavier front stabilizer is desired to offset this action. A deflex riser design has the opposite effect and a lighter front stabilizer may be used.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stabilizers can reduce noise and vibration. These energies are absorbed by viscoelastic polymers, gels, powders, and other materials used to build stabilizers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stabilizers improve the forgiveness and accuracy by increasing the moment of inertia of the bow to resist movement during the shooting process. Lightweight carbon stabilizers with weighted ends are desirable because they improve the moment of inertia while minimizing the weight added.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Equipment", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The standard convention on teaching archery is to hold the bow depending upon eye dominance. (One exception is in modern kyūdō where all archers are trained to hold the bow in the left hand.) Therefore, if one is right-eye dominant, they would hold the bow in the left hand and draw the string with the right hand. However, not everyone agrees with this line of thought. A smoother, and more fluid release of the string will produce the most consistently repeatable shots, and therefore may provide greater accuracy of the arrow flight. Some believe that the hand with the greatest dexterity should therefore be the hand that draws and releases the string. Either eye can be used for aiming, and the less dominant eye can be trained over time to become more effective for use. To assist with this, an eye patch can be temporarily worn over the dominant eye.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Shooting technique and form", "target_page_ids": [ 157501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The hand that holds the bow is referred to as the bow hand and its arm the bow arm. The opposite hand is called the drawing hand or string hand. Terms such as bow shoulder or string elbow follow the same convention.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Shooting technique and form", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If shooting according to eye dominance, right-eye-dominant archers shooting conventionally hold the bow with their left hand. If shooting according to hand dexterity, the archer draws the string with the hand that possesses the greatest dexterity, regardless of eye dominance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Shooting technique and form", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To shoot an arrow, an archer first assumes the correct stance. The body should be at or nearly perpendicular to the target and the shooting line, with the feet placed shoulder-width apart. As an archer progresses from beginner to a more advanced level other stances such as the \"open stance\" or the \"closed stance\" may be used, although many choose to stick with a \"neutral stance\". Each archer has a particular preference, but mostly this term indicates that the leg furthest from the shooting line is a half to a whole foot-length from the other foot, on the ground.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Shooting technique and form", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To load, the bow is pointed toward the ground, tipped slightly clockwise of vertical (for a right handed shooter) and the shaft of the arrow is placed on the arrow rest or shelf. The back of the arrow is attached to the bowstring with the nock (a small locking groove located at the proximal end of the arrow). This step is called \"nocking the arrow\". Typical arrows with three vanes should be oriented such that a single vane, the \"cock feather\", is pointing away from the bow, to improve the clearance of the arrow as it passes the arrow rest.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Shooting technique and form", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A compound bow is fitted with a special type of arrow rest, known as a launcher, and the arrow is usually loaded with the cock feather/vane pointed either up, or down, depending upon the type of launcher being used.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Shooting technique and form", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The bowstring and arrow are held with three fingers, or with a mechanical arrow release. Most commonly, for finger shooters, the index finger is placed above the arrow and the next two fingers below, although several other techniques have their adherents around the world, involving three fingers below the arrow, or an arrow pinching technique. Instinctive shooting is a technique eschewing sights and is often preferred by traditional archers (shooters of longbows and recurves). In either the split finger or three finger under case, the string is usually placed in the first or second joint, or else on the pads of the fingers. When using a mechanical release aid, the release is hooked onto the D-loop.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Shooting technique and form", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another type of string hold, used on traditional bows, is the type favoured by the Mongol warriors, known as the \"thumb release\", style. This involves using the thumb to draw the string, with the fingers curling around the thumb to add some support. To release the string, the fingers are opened out and the thumb relaxes to allow the string to slide off the thumb. When using this type of release, the arrow should rest on the same side of the bow as the drawing hand i.e. Left hand draw = arrow on left side of bow.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Shooting technique and form", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The archer then raises the bow and draws the string, with varying alignments for vertical versus slightly canted bow positions. This is often one fluid motion for shooters of recurves and longbows, which tend to vary from archer to archer. Compound shooters often experience a slight jerk during the drawback, at around the last , where the draw weight is at its maximum—before relaxing into a comfortable stable full draw position. The archer draws the string hand towards the face, where it should rest lightly at a fixed anchor point. This point is consistent from shot to shot, and is usually at the corner of the mouth, on the chin, to the cheek, or to the ear, depending on preferred shooting style. The archer holds the bow arm outwards, toward the target. The elbow of this arm should be rotated so that the inner elbow is perpendicular to the ground, though archers with hyper extendable elbows tend to angle the inner elbow toward the ground, as exemplified by the Korean archer Jang Yong-Ho. This keeps the forearm out of the way of the bowstring.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Shooting technique and form", "target_page_ids": [ 42671182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 989, 1001 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In modern form, the archer stands erect, forming a \"T\". The archer's lower trapezius muscles are used to pull the arrow to the anchor point. Some modern recurve bows are equipped with a mechanical device, called a clicker, which produces a clicking sound when the archer reaches the correct draw length. In contrast, traditional English Longbow shooters step \"into the bow\", exerting force with both the bow arm and the string hand arm simultaneously, especially when using bows having draw weights from to over . Heavily stacked traditional bows (recurves, long bows, and the like) are released immediately upon reaching full draw at maximum weight, whereas compound bows reach their maximum weight around the last , dropping holding weight significantly at full draw. Compound bows are often held at full draw for a short time to achieve maximum accuracy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Shooting technique and form", "target_page_ids": [ 211356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The arrow is typically released by relaxing the fingers of the drawing hand (see bow draw), or triggering the mechanical release aid. Usually the release aims to keep the drawing arm rigid, the bow hand relaxed, and the arrow is moved back using the back muscles, as opposed to using just arm motions. An archer should also pay attention to the recoil or follow through of his or her body, as it may indicate problems with form (technique) that affect accuracy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Shooting technique and form", "target_page_ids": [ 14442703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are two main forms of aiming in archery: using a mechanical or fixed sight, or barebow.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aiming methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mechanical sights can be affixed to the bow to aid in aiming. They can be as simple as a pin, or may use optics with magnification. They usually also have a peep sight (rear sight) built into the string, which aids in a consistent anchor point. Modern compound bows automatically limit the draw length to give a consistent arrow velocity, while traditional bows allow great variation in draw length. Some bows use mechanical methods to make the draw length consistent. Barebow archers often use a sight picture, which includes the target, the bow, the hand, the arrow shaft and the arrow tip, as seen at the same time by the archer. With a fixed \"anchor point\" (where the string is brought to, or close to, the face), and a fully extended bow arm, successive shots taken with the sight picture in the same position fall on the same point. This lets the archer adjust aim with successive shots to achieve accuracy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aiming methods", "target_page_ids": [ 1870055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 832, 837 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern archery equipment usually includes sights. Instinctive aiming is used by many archers who use traditional bows. The two most common forms of a non-mechanical release are split-finger and three-under. Split-finger aiming requires the archer to place the index finger above the nocked arrow, while the middle and ring fingers are both placed below. Three-under aiming places the index, middle, and ring fingers under the nocked arrow. This technique allows the archer to better look down the arrow since the back of the arrow is closer to the dominant eye, and is commonly called \"gun barreling\" (referring to common aiming techniques used with firearms).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aiming methods", "target_page_ids": [ 1835570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When using short bows or shooting from horseback, it is difficult to use the sight picture. The archer may look at the target, but without including the weapon in the field of accurate view. Aiming then involves hand-eye coordination—which includes proprioception and motor-muscle memory, similar to that used when throwing a ball. With sufficient practice, such archers can normally achieve good practical accuracy for hunting or for war. Aiming without a sight picture may allow more rapid shooting, not however increasing accuracy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aiming methods", "target_page_ids": [ 21290714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Instinctive shooting is a style of shooting that includes the barebow aiming method that relies heavily upon the subconscious mind, proprioception, and motor/muscle memory to make aiming adjustments; the term used to refer to a general category of archers who did not use a mechanical or fixed sight.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Aiming methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When a projectile is thrown by hand, the speed of the projectile is determined by the kinetic energy imparted by the thrower's muscles performing work. However, the energy must be imparted over a limited distance (determined by arm length) and therefore (because the projectile is accelerating) over a limited time, so the limiting factor is not work but rather power, which determines how much energy can be added in the limited time available. Power generated by muscles, however, is limited by force–velocity relationship, and even at the optimal contraction speed for power production, total work by the muscle is less than half of what it would be if the muscle contracted over the same distance at slow speeds, resulting in less than 1/4 the projectile launch velocity possible without the limitations of the force–velocity relationship.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 17327, 149861, 24236, 1110611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 100 ], [ 146, 150 ], [ 362, 367 ], [ 497, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When a bow is used, the muscles are able to perform work much more slowly, resulting in greater force and greater work done. This work is stored in the bow as elastic potential energy, and when the bowstring is released, this stored energy is imparted to the arrow much more quickly than can be delivered by the muscles, resulting in much higher velocity and, hence, greater distance. This same process is employed by frogs, which use elastic tendons to increase jumping distance. In archery, some energy dissipates through elastic hysteresis, reducing the overall amount released when the bow is shot. Of the remaining energy, some is dampened both by the limbs of the bow and the bowstring. Depending on the arrow's elasticity, some of the energy is also absorbed by compressing the arrow, primarily because the release of the bowstring is rarely in line with the arrow shaft, causing it to flex out to one side. This is because the bowstring accelerates faster than the archer's fingers can open, and consequently some sideways motion is imparted to the string, and hence arrow nock, as the power and speed of the bow pulls the string off the opening fingers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 3617189, 147003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 183 ], [ 524, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even with a release aid mechanism some of this effect is usually experienced, since the string always accelerates faster than the retaining part of the mechanism. This makes the arrow oscillate in flight—its center flexing to one side and then the other repeatedly, gradually reducing as the arrow's flight proceeds. This is clearly visible in high-speed photography of arrows at discharge. A direct effect of these energy transfers can clearly be seen when dry firing. Dry firing refers to releasing the bowstring without a nocked arrow. Because there is no arrow to receive the stored potential energy, almost all the energy stays in the bow. Some have suggested that dry firing may cause physical damage to the bow, such as cracks and fractures—and because most bows are not specifically made to handle the high amounts of energy dry firing produces, should never be done.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 8110105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 458, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern arrows are made to a specified 'spine', or stiffness rating, to maintain matched flexing and hence accuracy of aim. This flexing can be a desirable feature, since, when the spine of the shaft is matched to the acceleration of the bow(string), the arrow bends or flexes around the bow and any arrow-rest, and consequently the arrow, and fletchings, have an un-impeded flight. This feature is known as the archer's paradox. It maintains accuracy, for if part of the arrow struck a glancing blow on discharge, some inconsistency would be present, and the excellent accuracy of modern equipment would not be achieved.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [ 9162580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 411, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The accurate flight of an arrow depends on its fletchings. The arrow's manufacturer (a \"fletcher\") can arrange fletching to cause the arrow to rotate along its axis. This improves accuracy by evening pressure buildups that would otherwise cause the arrow to \"plane\" on the air in a random direction after shooting. Even with a carefully made arrow, the slightest imperfection or air movement causes some unbalanced turbulence in air flow. Consequently, rotation creates an equalization of such turbulence, which, overall, maintains the intended direction of flight i.e. accuracy. This rotation is not to be confused with the rapid gyroscopic rotation of a rifle bullet. Fletching that is not arranged to induce rotation still improves accuracy by causing a restoring drag any time the arrow tilts from its intended direction of travel.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The innovative aspect of the invention of the bow and arrow was the amount of power delivered to an extremely small area by the arrow. The huge ratio of length vs. cross sectional area, coupled with velocity, made the arrow more powerful than any other hand held weapon until firearms were invented. Arrows can spread or concentrate force, depending on the application. Practice arrows, for instance, have a blunt tip that spreads the force over a wider area to reduce the risk of injury or limit penetration. Arrows designed to pierce armor in the Middle Ages used a very narrow and sharp tip (\"bodkinhead\") to concentrate the force. Arrows used for hunting used a narrow tip (\"broadhead\") that widens further, to facilitate both penetration and a large wound.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Physics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Using archery to take game animals is known as \"bow hunting\". Bow hunting differs markedly from hunting with firearms, as distance between hunter and prey must be much shorter to ensure a humane kill. The skills and practices of bow hunting therefore emphasize very close approach to the prey, whether by still hunting, stalking, or waiting in a blind or tree stand. In many countries, including much of the United States, bow hunting for large and small game is legal. Bow hunters generally enjoy longer seasons than are allowed with other forms of hunting such as black powder, shotgun, or rifle. Usually, compound bows are used for large game hunting due to the relatively short time it takes to master them as opposed to the longbow or recurve bow. These compound bows may feature fiber optic sights, stabilizers, and other accessories designed to increase accuracy at longer distances. Using a bow and arrow to take fish is known as \"bow fishing\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Hunting", "target_page_ids": [ 2368447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 939, 950 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Competitive archery involves shooting arrows at a target for accuracy from a set distance or distances. This is the most popular form of competitive archery worldwide and is called target archery. A form particularly popular in Europe and America is field archery, shot at targets generally set at various distances in a wooded setting. Competitive archery in the United States is governed by USA Archery and National Field Archery Association (NFAA), which also certifies instructors.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modern competitive archery", "target_page_ids": [ 7603269, 29833, 8501914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 195 ], [ 239, 246 ], [ 250, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Para-archery is an adaptation of archery for athletes with a disability, governed by the World Archery Federation (WA), and is one of the sports in the Summer Paralympic Games. There are also several other lesser-known and historical forms of archery, as well as archery novelty games and flight archery, where the aim is to shoot the greatest distance.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Modern competitive archery", "target_page_ids": [ 956980, 67537, 2007, 31194092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 113 ], [ 159, 175 ], [ 263, 284 ], [ 289, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arash", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 840275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Arab archery", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47653864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Archery Association of India", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24880427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 3D archery", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31194092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bow draw", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14442703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bowfishing", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2368447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bowhunting", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2368441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clout archery", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16993351 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Field archery", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8501914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gungdo ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1736320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kyūdō", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 157501 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Kyūjutsu", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13670642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Modern competitive archery", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31194092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mounted archery", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19685198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Run archery", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30276595 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sagittarii", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4779848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Target archery", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7603269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Turkish archery", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4247648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of archery terms", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 14488307 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of notable archers", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8035448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Enea Bianchi, “Philosophies of Archery”, in Popular Inquiry, vol.2, 2021, 22-37.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ford, Horace (1887) The Theory and Practice of Archery London: Longmans, Green", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Elmer, Robert P. (Robert Potter) (1917) American Archery; a Vade Mecum of the Art of Shooting with the Long Bow Columbus, OH: National Archery Association of the United States", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hansard, George Agar (1841) The Book of Archery: being the complete history and practice of the art, ancient and modern ... London: H. G. Bohn", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hargrove, Ely (1792) Anecdotes of Archery; from the earliest ages to the year 1791. Including an account of the most famous archers of ancient and modern times; with some curious particulars in the life of Robert Fitz-Ooth Earl of Huntington, vulgarly called Robin Hood .... York: printed for E. Hargrove, bookseller, Knaresbro' (later editions: York, 1845 and facsimile reprint, London: Tabard Press, 1970)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 41997269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Heath, E. G. & Chiara, Vilma (1977) Brazilian Indian Archery: a preliminary ethno-toxological study of the archery of the Brazilian Indians. Manchester: Simon Archery Foundation", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Johnes, Martin. Archery, romance and elite culture in England and Wales, c.1780–1840, 89, 193–208.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Klopsteg, Paul (1963) A Chapter in the Evolution of Archery in America Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lake, Fred & Wright, Hal (1974) A Bibliography of Archery: an indexed catalogue of 5,000 articles, books, films, manuscripts, periodicals and theses on the use of the bow for hunting, war, and recreation, from the earliest times to the present day. Manchester: Simon Archery Foundation", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Morse, Edward (1922) Additional notes on arrow release Salem, Massachusetts: Peabody Museum", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pope, Saxton (1925) Hunting with the Bow and Arrow New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Pope, Saxton (1918) Yahi Archery Berkeley: University of California Press", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Thompson, Maurice (1878) The Witchery of Archery: a Complete Manual of Archery New York: Scribner & Sons", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "FITA-Style Archery Targets Bow and Arrow Targets", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Traditional Bowyer's Bible. [Azle, TX]: Bois d'Arc Press; New York, N.Y.: Distributed by Lyons & Burford", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Traditional Bowyer's Bible; Volume 1. 1992. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Traditional Bowyer's Bible; Volume 2. 1992. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Traditional Bowyer's Bible; Volume 3. 1994. ; ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Traditional Bowyer's Bible; Volume 4. The Lyons Press, 2008. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Paralympic archery at IPC web site", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 67671 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " USA Archery is the National Governing Body", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Archery", "Competition", "Hunting_methods", "Precision_sports", "Summer_Olympic_sports", "Warfare_of_the_Middle_Ages", "Organizations_established_in_1879" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto (; 3 February 1898 – 11 May 1976) was a Finnish architect and designer. His work includes architecture, furniture, textiles and glassware, as well as sculptures and paintings. He never regarded himself as an artist, seeing painting and sculpture as \"branches of the tree whose trunk is architecture.\" Aalto's early career ran in parallel with the rapid economic growth and industrialization of Finland during the first half of the 20th century. Many of his clients were industrialists, among them the Ahlström-Gullichsen family. The span of his career, from the 1920s to the 1970s, is reflected in the styles of his work, ranging from Nordic Classicism of the early work, to a rational International Style Modernism during the 1930s to a more organic modernist style from the 1940s onwards. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1170, 51892, 1254375, 8223946, 7999544, 314881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 81 ], [ 139, 147 ], [ 152, 161 ], [ 525, 551 ], [ 659, 676 ], [ 710, 729 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Typical for his entire career is a concern for design as a Gesamtkunstwerk, a total work of art, in which he – together with his first wife Aino Aalto – would design the building, and give special treatment to the interior surfaces, furniture, lamps and glassware. His furniture designs are considered Scandinavian Modern, in the sense of a concern for materials, especially wood, and simplification but also technical experimentation, which led him to receiving patents for various manufacturing processes, such as bent wood. As a designer he is celebrated as the inventor of bent plywood furniture. The Alvar Aalto Museum, designed by Aalto himself, is located in what is regarded as his home city Jyväskylä.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 284685, 2295131, 6587771, 43378193, 258746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 74 ], [ 140, 150 ], [ 302, 321 ], [ 605, 623 ], [ 700, 709 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto was born in Kuortane, Finland. His father, Johan Henrik Aalto, was a Finnish-speaking land-surveyor and his mother, Selma Matilda \"Selly\" (née Hackstedt) was a Swedish-speaking postmistress. When Aalto was 5 years old, the family moved to Alajärvi, and from there to Jyväskylä in Central Finland.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 782414, 372634, 258746, 782658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 44 ], [ 263, 271 ], [ 291, 300 ], [ 304, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He studied at the Jyväskylä Lyceum school, where he completed his basic education in 1916, and took drawing lessons from local artist Jonas Heiska. In 1916, he then enrolled to study architecture at the Helsinki University of Technology. His studies were interrupted by the Finnish Civil War, in which he fought. He fought on the side of the White Army and fought at the Battle of Länkipohja and the Battle of Tampere.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 45536424, 60816, 11772, 262429, 53408331, 3464055 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 146 ], [ 203, 236 ], [ 274, 291 ], [ 342, 352 ], [ 371, 391 ], [ 400, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He built his first piece of architecture while a student; a house for his parents at Alajärvi. Later, he continued his education, graduating in 1921. In the summer of 1922 he began military service, finishing at Hamina reserve officer training school, and was promoted to reserve second lieutenant in June 1923.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 372634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1920, while a student, Aalto made his first trip abroad, travelling via Stockholm to Gothenburg, where he briefly found work with architect Arvid Bjerke. In 1922, he accomplished his first independent piece at the Industrial Exposition in Tampere. In 1923, he returned to Jyväskylä, where he opened an architectural office under the name 'Alvar Aalto, Architect and Monumental Artist'. At that time he wrote articles for the Jyväskylä newspaper Sisä-Suomi under the pseudonym Remus. During this time, he designed a number of small single-family houses in Jyväskylä, and the office's workload steadily increased.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 26741, 11861, 68836, 258746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 84 ], [ 88, 98 ], [ 242, 249 ], [ 275, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 6 October 1924, Aalto married architect Aino Marsio. Their honeymoon in Italy was Aalto's first trip there, though Aino had previously made a study trip there. The latter trip together sealed an intellectual bond with the culture of the Mediterranean region that remained important to Aalto for life.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 2295131, 2454408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 54 ], [ 240, 253 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On their return they continued with several local projects, notably the Jyväskylä Worker's Club, which incorporated a number of motifs which they had studied during their trip, most notably the decorations of the Festival hall modelled on the Rucellai Sepulchre in Florence by Leon Battista Alberti. After winning the architecture competition for the Southwest Finland Agricultural Cooperative building in 1927, the Aaltos moved their office to Turku. They had made contact with the city's most progressive architect, Erik Bryggman before moving. They began collaborating with him, most notably on the Turku Fair of 1928–29. Aalto's biographer, Göran Schildt, claimed that Bryggman was the only architect with whom Aalto cooperated as an equal. With an increasing quantity of work in the Finnish capital, the Aaltos' office moved again in 1933 to Helsinki.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 39404192, 18031, 48672, 7400682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 243, 261 ], [ 277, 298 ], [ 445, 450 ], [ 518, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Aaltos designed and built a joint house-office (1935–36) for themselves in Munkkiniemi, Helsinki, but later (1954–56) had a purpose-built office erected in the same neighbourhood – now the former is a \"home museum\" and the latter the premises of the Alvar Aalto Academy. In 1926, the young Aaltos designed and had built for themselves a summer cottage in Alajärvi, Villa Flora.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 43376775, 16794173, 43377346, 372634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 50 ], [ 79, 90 ], [ 128, 148 ], [ 359, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aino Aalto died of cancer in 1949. Aino and Alvar Aalto had two children, a daughter, Johanna \"Hanni\", Mrs Alanen (born 1925), and a son, Hamilkar Aalto (born 1928).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1952, Aalto married architect Elissa Mäkiniemi (died 1994). In 1952, he designed and built a summer cottage, the so-called Experimental House, for himself and his second wife, Elissa Aalto in Muuratsalo in Central Finland. Alvar Aalto died on 11 May 1976, in Helsinki, and is buried in the Hietaniemi cemetery in Helsinki. His wife Elissa Aalto, became the director of the practice, running the office from 1976−1994 and continued the works of the office which were still in progress. In 1978 the Museum of Finnish Architecture in Helsinki arranged a major exhibition of Aalto's works.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 2946889, 43378193, 2946889, 35294198, 13696, 1032709, 2946889, 16811347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 49 ], [ 116, 144 ], [ 179, 191 ], [ 195, 205 ], [ 262, 270 ], [ 293, 312 ], [ 335, 347 ], [ 500, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although he is sometimes regarded as among the first and most influential architects of Nordic modernism, closer examination reveals that Aalto (while a pioneer in Finland) closely followed and had personal contacts with other pioneers in Sweden, in particular Gunnar Asplund and Sven Markelius. What they, and many others of that generation in the Nordic countries shared, was a common classical education and an approach to classical architecture, that historians now call Nordic Classicism It was a style that had been a reaction to the previous dominant style of National Romanticism before moving, in the late 1920s, towards Modernism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture career", "target_page_ids": [ 19547, 1540127, 3569986, 7999544, 5645353 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 104 ], [ 261, 275 ], [ 280, 294 ], [ 475, 492 ], [ 567, 587 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Upon returning to Jyväskylä in 1923 to establish his own architect's office, Aalto designed several single-family homes designed in the style of Nordic Classicism. For example, the manor-like house for his mother's cousin Terho Manner in Töysa (1923), a summer villa for the Jyväskylä chief constable (also from 1923) and the Alatalo farmhouse in Tarvaala (1924). During this period he completed his first public buildings, the Jyväskylä Workers' Club in 1925, the Jyväskylä Defence Corps Building in 1926 and the Seinäjoki Civil Guard House building in 1924–29. He entered several architectural competitions for prestigious state public buildings, in Finland and abroad. This included two competitions for the Finnish Parliament building in 1923 and 1924, the extension to the University of Helsinki in 1931, and the building to house the League of Nations in Geneva, Switzerland, in 1926–27. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture career", "target_page_ids": [ 67606265, 66885601, 220548, 17926 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 465, 497 ], [ 514, 541 ], [ 778, 800 ], [ 840, 857 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aalto's first church design to be completed, Muurame church, illustrates his transition from Nordic Classicism to Functionalism.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture career", "target_page_ids": [ 65269686 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This was the period when Aalto was most prolific in his writings, with articles for professional journals and newspapers. Among his most well-known essays from this period are \"Urban culture\" (1924), \"Temple baths on Jyväskylä ridge\" (1925), \"Abbé Coignard's sermon\" (1925), and \"From doorstep to living room\" (1926).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture career", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The shift in Aalto's design approach from classicism to modernism is epitomised by the Viipuri Library in Vyborg (1927–35), which went through a transformation from an originally classical competition entry proposal to the completed high-modernist building. His humanistic approach is in full evidence in the library: the interior displays natural materials, warm colours, and undulating lines. Due to problems about financing and a change of site, the Viipuri Library project lasted eight years. During that time he designed the Standard Apartment Building (1928–29) in Turku, Turun Sanomat Building (1929–30) and Paimio Sanatorium (1929–32) he designed in collaboration with his first wife Aino Aalto. A number of factors heralded Aalto's shift towards modernism: on a personal level, Aalto's increased familiarization of international trends, especially after travelling throughout Europe, but in terms of completed projects it was the client of the Standard Apartment Building giving Aalto the opportunity to experiment with concrete prefabrication, the cutting-edge Corbusian form language of the Turun Sanomat Building, and these were then carried forward both in the Paimio Sanatorium and in the ongoing design for the library. Although the Turun Sanomat Building and Paimio Sanatorium are comparatively pure modernist works, they carried the seeds of his questioning of such an orthodox modernist approach and a move to a more daring, synthetic attitude. It has been pointed out that the planning principle for Paimio Sanatorium – the splayed wings – was indebted to the Zonnestraal Sanatorium (1925–31) by Jan Duiker, which Aalto visited while under construction. While these early Functionalist works by Aalto bear hallmarks of influences from Le Corbusier, Walter Gropius and other key modernist figures of central Europe, in all these buildings Aalto nevertheless started to show his individuality in a departure from such norms with the introduction of organic references.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture career", "target_page_ids": [ 7395157, 21494997, 2295131, 5851062, 17900, 33807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 102 ], [ 106, 112 ], [ 692, 702 ], [ 1174, 1191 ], [ 1754, 1766 ], [ 1768, 1782 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through Sven Markelius, Aalto became a member of the Congres Internationaux d'Architecture Moderne (CIAM), attending the second congress in Frankfurt in 1929 and the fourth congress in Athens in 1933, where he established a close friendship with László Moholy-Nagy, Sigfried Giedion and Philip Morton Shand. It was during this time that he followed closely the work of the main driving force behind the new modernism, Le Corbusier, and visited him in his Paris office several times in the following years.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture career", "target_page_ids": [ 394070, 175863, 3145125, 15046547, 17900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 98 ], [ 246, 264 ], [ 266, 282 ], [ 287, 306 ], [ 418, 430 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was not until the completion of the Paimio Sanatorium (1932) and Viipuri Library (1935) that Aalto first achieved world attention in architecture. His reputation grew in the US following the invitation to hold a retrospective exhibition of his works at the MOMA in New York in 1938, which was his visit to the US. The significance of the exhibition – which later went on a 12-city tour of the country – is in the fact that he was the second-ever architect – after Le Corbusier – to have a solo exhibition at the museum. His reputation grew in the US following the critical reception of his design for the Finnish Pavilion at the 1939 New York World's Fair, described by Frank Lloyd Wright as a \"work of genius\". It could be said that Aalto's international reputation was sealed with his inclusion in the second edition of Sigfried Giedion's influential book on Modernist architecture, Space, Time and Architecture: The growth of a new tradition (1949), in which Aalto received more attention than any other Modernist architect, including Le Corbusier. In his analysis of Aalto, Giedion gave primacy to qualities that depart from direct functionality, such as mood, atmosphere, intensity of life and even national characteristics, declaring that \"Finland is with Aalto wherever he goes\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture career", "target_page_ids": [ 219288, 10683, 17900 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 632, 658 ], [ 673, 691 ], [ 1041, 1053 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1930s Alvar spent some time experimenting with laminated wood, sculpture and abstract relief, characterized by irregular curved forms. Utilizing this knowledge he was able to solve technical problems concerning the flexibility of wood and also of working out spatial issues in his designs. Aalto's early experiments with wood and his move away from a purist modernism would be tested in built form with the commission to design Villa Mairea (1939) in Noormarkku, the luxury home of young industrialist couple Harry and Maire Gullichsen. It was Maire Gullichsen who acted as the main client, and she worked closely not only with Alvar but also Aino Aalto on the design, inspiring them to be more daring in their work. The original design was to include a private art gallery: this was not built. The building forms a U-shape around a central inner 'garden', where the central feature is a kidney-shaped swimming pool. Adjacent to the pool is a sauna executed in a rustic style, alluding to both Finnish and Japanese precedents. The design of the house is a synthesis of numerous stylistic influences, from traditional Finnish vernacular to purist modernism, as well as influences from English and Japanese architecture. While the house is clearly intended for a wealthy family, Aalto nevertheless argued that it was also an experiment that would prove useful in the design of mass housing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture career", "target_page_ids": [ 5771457, 783175, 40219850, 66076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 439, 451 ], [ 462, 472 ], [ 530, 546 ], [ 765, 784 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His increased fame led to offers and commissions outside Finland. In 1941 he accepted an invitation as a visiting professor to Massachusetts Institute of Technology in the US. Because of the Second World War, he returned to Finland to direct the Reconstruction Office. Post war, he returned to MIT, where he designed the student dormitory Baker House, completed in 1949. The dormitory lay along the Charles River and its undulating form provided maximum view and ventilation for each resident. This building was the first building of Aalto's redbrick period. Originally used in Baker House to signify the Ivy League university tradition, on his return to Finland Aalto used it in a number of key buildings, in particular, in several of the buildings in the new Helsinki University of Technology campus (starting in 1950), Säynätsalo Town Hall (1952), Helsinki Pensions Institute (1954), Helsinki House of Culture (1958), as well as in his own summer house, the Experimental House in Muuratsalo (1957).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture career", "target_page_ids": [ 18879, 32927, 7341483, 146280, 60816, 11623581, 24298543, 43378193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 164 ], [ 191, 207 ], [ 339, 350 ], [ 399, 412 ], [ 761, 794 ], [ 822, 842 ], [ 887, 912 ], [ 961, 993 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1950s Aalto immersed himself in sculpting: wood, bronze, marble or mixed media. Among notable works from this period is the memorial to the Battle of Suomussalmi (1960). Located on the battlefield, it consists of a leaning bronze pillar on a pedestal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture career", "target_page_ids": [ 187309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early 1960s and 1970s (until his death in 1976) were marked by key works in Helsinki, in particular the huge town plan for the void in centre of Helsinki adjacent to Töölö Bay and the vast railway yards, and marked on the edges by significant buildings such as the National Museum and the main railway station, both by Eliel Saarinen. In his town plan Aalto proposed a line of separate marble-clad buildings fronting the bay which would house various cultural institutions, including a concert hall, opera, museum of architecture and headquarters for the Finnish Academy. The scheme also extended into the Kamppi district with a series of tall office blocks. Aalto first presented his scheme in 1961, but it went through various modifications during the early 1960s. Only two fragments of the overall plan were realized: the Finlandia Hall concert hall (1976) fronting Töölö Bay, and an office building in the Kamppi district for the Helsinki Electricity Company (1975). The Miesian formal language of geometric grids employed in the buildings was also used by Aalto for other sites in Helsinki, including the Enso-Gutzeit headquarters building (1962), the Academic Bookstore (1962) and the SYP Bank building (1969).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture career", "target_page_ids": [ 549280, 2445984, 304903, 2671452, 1739843, 1885366, 17897, 65957908, 63122831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 175 ], [ 193, 206 ], [ 323, 337 ], [ 559, 574 ], [ 610, 616 ], [ 829, 843 ], [ 979, 986 ], [ 1114, 1148 ], [ 1161, 1179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following Aalto's death in 1976 his office continued to operate under the direction of his widow Elissa, completing works already (to some extent) designed. These works include the Jyväskylä City Theatre and Essen opera house. Since the death of Elissa Aalto the office has continued to operate as the Alvar Aalto Academy, giving advice on the restoration of Aalto buildings and organizing vast archive material.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Architecture career", "target_page_ids": [ 26395315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 208, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Whereas Aalto was famous for his architecture, his furniture designs were well thought of and are still popular today. He studied Josef Hoffmann and the Wiener Werkstätte, and for a period of time, worked under Eliel Saarinen. He also gained inspiration from Gebrüder Thonet. During the late 1920s and 1930s he, working closely with Aino Aalto, also focusing much of his energy on furniture design, partly due to the decision to design much of the individual furniture pieces and lamps for the Paimio Sanatorium. Of particular significance was the experimentation in bent plywood chairs, most notably the so-called Paimio chair, which had been designed for the sitting tuberculosis patient, and the Model 60 stacking stool. The Aaltos, together with visual arts promoter Maire Gullichsen and art historian Nils-Gustav Hahl founded the Artek company in 1935, ostensibly to sell Aalto products but also other imported products. He became the first furniture designer to use the cantilever principle in chair design using wood.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Furniture career", "target_page_ids": [ 10899874, 1275160, 304903, 1589993, 60346525, 2768418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 130, 144 ], [ 153, 170 ], [ 211, 225 ], [ 259, 274 ], [ 699, 722 ], [ 835, 840 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aalto's awards included the Prince Eugen Medal in 1954, the Royal Gold Medal for Architecture from the Royal Institute of British Architects in 1957 and the Gold Medal from the American Institute of Architects in 1963. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1957. He also was a member of the Academy of Finland, and was its president from 1963 to 1968. From 1925 to 1956 he was a member of the Congrès International d'Architecture Moderne. In 1960 he received an honorary doctorate at the Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Awards", "target_page_ids": [ 30455177, 750724, 1648961, 500492, 391882, 7335007, 394070, 231683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 46 ], [ 103, 140 ], [ 157, 167 ], [ 177, 209 ], [ 267, 304 ], [ 342, 360 ], [ 444, 488 ], [ 539, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aalto's career spans the changes in style from (Nordic Classicism) to purist International Style Modernism to a more personal, synthetic and idiosyncratic Modernism. Aalto's wide field of design activity ranges from the large scale of city planning and architecture to interior design, furniture and glassware design and painting. It has been estimated that during his entire career Aalto designed over 500 individual buildings, approximately 300 of which were built, the vast majority of which are in Finland. He also has a few buildings in France, Germany, Italy and the USA.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 7999544, 314881, 46212943, 1254375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 65 ], [ 77, 96 ], [ 235, 248 ], [ 300, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aalto's work with wood, was influenced by early Scandinavian architects. His experiments and departure from the norm brought attention to his ability to make wood do things not previously done. His techniques in the way he cut the beech tree, for example, and also his ability to use plywood as structural and aesthetic. Other examples include the rough-hewn vertical placement of logs at his pavilion at the Lapua expo, looking similar to a medieval barricade, at the orchestra platform at Turku and the Paris expo at the World Fair, he used varying sizes and shapes of planks. Also at Paris and at Villa Mairea he utilized birch boarding in a vertical arrangement. Also his famous undulating walls and ceilings made of red pine. In his roofing, he created massive spans (155-foot at the covered statium at Otaniemi) all without tie rods. His stairway at Villa Mairea, he evokes feelings of a natural forest by binding beech wood with withes into columns.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 165252, 782538, 48672, 5771457, 60815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 231, 236 ], [ 409, 414 ], [ 491, 496 ], [ 600, 612 ], [ 808, 816 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aalto claimed that his paintings were not made as individual artworks but as part of his process of architectural design, and many of his small-scale \"sculptural\" experiments with wood led to later larger architectural details and forms. These experiments also led to a number of patents: for example, he invented a new form of laminated bent-plywood furniture in 1932 (which was patented in 1933). His experimental method had been influenced by his meetings with various members of the Bauhaus design school, especially László Moholy-Nagy, whom he first met in 1930. Aalto's furniture was exhibited in London in 1935, to great critical acclaim, and to cope with the consumer demand Aalto, together with his wife Aino, Maire Gullichsen and Nils-Gustav Hahl founded the company Artek that same year. Aalto glassware (Aino as well as Alvar) is manufactured by Iittala.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 3832, 175863, 40219850, 2768418, 7638376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 487, 494 ], [ 521, 539 ], [ 719, 735 ], [ 777, 782 ], [ 858, 865 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aalto's 'High Stool' and 'Stool E60' (manufactured by Artek) are currently used in Apple Stores across the world to serve as seating for customers. Finished in black lacquer, the stools are used to seat customers at the 'Genius Bar' and also in other areas of the store at times when seating is required for a product workshop or special event. Aalto was also influential in bringing modern art to the knowledge of the Finnish people, in particular the work of his friends, Alexander Milne Calder and Fernand Léger.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 60346525, 2768418, 501016, 163543, 872431, 63150 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 35 ], [ 54, 59 ], [ 83, 94 ], [ 384, 394 ], [ 474, 496 ], [ 501, 514 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1921–1923: Bell tower of Kauhajärvi Church, Lapua, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 782538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1924–1926: Seinäjoki Civil Guard House, Seinäjoki, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 66885601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1924–1928: Municipal hospital, Alajärvi, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 372634 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1926–1929: Defence Corps Building, Jyväskylä, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 67606265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1927–1928: South-West Finland Agricultural Cooperative building, Turku, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 48672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1927–1935: Municipal library, Viipuri, Finland (now Vyborg, Russia)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 7395157, 21494997, 33924 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 29 ], [ 31, 38 ], [ 49, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1928–1929, 1930: Turun Sanomat newspaper offices, Turku, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 1917270 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1928–1933: Paimio Sanatorium, Tuberculosis sanatorium and staff housing, Paimio, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 5851062, 783337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 29 ], [ 74, 80 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1931: Toppila paper mill in Oulu, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 208798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1931: Central University Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia (former Yugoslavia)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 55906, 5573, 232269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 42 ], [ 44, 51 ], [ 60, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1932: Villa Tammekann, Tartu, Estonia", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 66896974, 31627 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 22 ], [ 24, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1934: Corso theatre, restaurant interior, Zürich, Switzerland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 40334603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1936–1939: Ahlstrom Sunila Pulp Mill, Housing, and Town Plan, Kotka, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 7821365, 380881 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 20 ], [ 63, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1937–1939: Villa Mairea, Noormarkku, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 5771457, 783175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 24 ], [ 26, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1939: Finnish Pavilion, at the 1939 New York World's Fair", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 219288 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1945: Sawmill at Varkaus, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 784931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1947–1948: Baker House, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts, U.S.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 7341483, 18879, 5685 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 23 ], [ 25, 62 ], [ 64, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1949–1966: Helsinki University of Technology, Espoo, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 60816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1949–1952: Säynätsalo Town Hall, Säynätsalo (now part of Jyväskylä), Finland; 1949 competition, built 1952", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 11623581, 258746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 32 ], [ 58, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1950–1957: National Pension Institution office building, Helsinki, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 378426, 13696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 40 ], [ 58, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1951–1971: University of Jyväskylä various buildings and facilities on the university campus, Jyväskylä, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 258910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1952–1958: House of Culture, Helsinki, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 24298543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1953: The Experimental House, Muuratsalo, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 43378193 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1953–1955: Rautatalo office building, Helsinki, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 65958580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1956–1958: Home for Louis Carré, Bazoches, France", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 67095927, 15897602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 32 ], [ 34, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1956–1958: Church of the Three Crosses, Vuoksenniska, Imatra, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 44388725, 220413 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 39 ], [ 55, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1957–1967: city center (library, theatre, City Hall, Lakeuden Risti Church and central administrative buildings), Seinäjoki, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 44405238, 65735625, 65733781, 65721216, 44397778, 514883 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 23 ], [ 25, 32 ], [ 34, 41 ], [ 43, 52 ], [ 54, 75 ], [ 115, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1958: Post and telegraph office, Baghdad, Iraq", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 4492, 7515928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 41 ], [ 43, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1958–1972: KUNSTEN Museum of Modern Art Aalborg, Aalborg, Denmark", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 22508328, 5479136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 48 ], [ 50, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1959–1962: Community Centre, Wolfsburg, Germany", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 150228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1959–1962: Church of the Holy Ghost (Heilig-Geist-Gemeindezentrum), Wolfsburg, Germany", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 60166525, 150228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 36 ], [ 69, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1959–1962: Enso-Gutzeit headquarters, Helsinki, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 65957908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1961–1975: Lappia Hall performing arts and conference venue, Rovaniemi, Finland; part of the city's 'Aalto Centre'", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 65500987, 162984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 23 ], [ 62, 71 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1962: Aalto-Hochhaus, Bremen, Germany", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 20433889, 9420388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 21 ], [ 23, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1964–1965: Kaufmann Conference Center at the Institute of International Education, New York City, U.S.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 12098494 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965: Rovaniemi library, Rovaniemi, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 65510405, 162984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 24 ], [ 26, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1962–1971: Finlandia Hall, Helsinki, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 1885366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1963–1968: Church of St Stephen (Stephanus Kirche), Detmerode, Wolfsburg, Germany", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 60135316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1963–1965: Building for Västmanland-Dala nation, Uppsala, Sweden", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 12232420, 31784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 48 ], [ 50, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1967–1970: Library at the Mount Angel Abbey, St. Benedict, Salem, Oregon, U.S.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 2095505, 26811621 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 44 ], [ 67, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1965–1968: Nordic House, Reykjavík, Iceland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 22756073, 25798 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 24 ], [ 26, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1966: Church of the Assumption of Mary, Riola di Vergato, Italy (built 1975–1978)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 31502122, 6720934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 39 ], [ 50, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973: Alvar Aalto Museum, a.k.a. Taidemuseo, Jyväskylä, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 43378193, 258746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 25 ], [ 46, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1970–1973: Sähkötalo, Helsinki, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 16554262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1978 (completed): Ristinkirkko, Lahti, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 64768506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1959–1988: Essen opera house, Essen, Germany", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 26395315, 173973 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 29 ], [ 31, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1986: Rovaniemi city hall, Rovaniemi, Finland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 65527802, 162984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 26 ], [ 28, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Chairs", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1932: Paimio Chair", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 2768418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1933: Model 60 stacking stool", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 60346525 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1933: Four-legged Stool E60", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1935–36: Armchair 404 (a/k/a/ Zebra Tank Chair)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1939: Armchair 406", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lamps", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1954: Floor lamp A805", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1959: Floor lamp A810", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vases", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1936: Aalto Vase", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 1175858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"God created paper for the purpose of drawing architecture on it. Everything else is at least for me an abuse of paper.\" Alvar Aalto, Sketches, 1978, 104.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Quotations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"We should work for simple, good, undecorated things\" and he continues, \"but things which are in harmony with the human being and organically suited to the little man in the street.\" Alvar Aalto, speech in London 1957.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Quotations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"It’s not an art to take and copy everything from tradition or past, it’s necessary to take the material and energy from nature and respond with the work of art, bringing your own psychical energy into it. We are prone to take everything from nature without giving anything in return. That’s not good – it can take a revenge on us.”", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Quotations", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aalto has an early place in any alphabetical list, and in May 2020 his entry in the combined index of Who Was Who was second out of 131,546 entries. First was Robert Aagaard, a furniture maker.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Quotations", "target_page_ids": [ 1170141, 18804167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 113 ], [ 159, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As already mentioned, Aalto's international reputation was sealed with his inclusion in the second edition of Sigfried Giedion's influential book on Modernist architecture, Space, Time and Architecture: The growth of a new tradition (1949), in which Aalto received more attention than any other Modernist architect, including Le Corbusier. In his analysis of Aalto, Giedion gave primacy to qualities that depart from direct functionality, such as mood, atmosphere, intensity of life and even national characteristics, declaring that \"Finland is with Aalto wherever he goes\". However, a few more recent architecture critics and historians have questioned Aalto's position of influence in the canonic history. Italian Marxist architecture historians Manfredo Tafuri and Francesco Dal Co put forward the viewpoint that Aalto's \"historical significance has perhaps been rather exaggerated; with Aalto we are outside of the great themes that have made the course of contemporary architecture so dramatic. The qualities of his works have a meaning only as masterful distractions, not subject to reproduction outside the remote reality [sic] in which they have their roots.\" Their viewpoint was propounded by their own priority given to urbanism, seeing Aalto as an anti-urban, and thus consequently disparaging what they regarded as peripheral non-urban areas of the world: \"Essentially his architecture is not appropriate to urban typologies.\" Similarly concerned with the appropriateness of Aalto's form language, at the other end of the political spectrum, American postmodernist critic Charles Jencks made a claim for the need for buildings to signify meaning; however, he then lifted out Aalto's Pensions Institute building as an example of what he termed Aalto's 'soft paternalism': \"Conceived as a fragmented mass to break up the feeling of bureaucracy, it succeeds all too well in being humane and killing the pensioner with kindness. The forms are familiar red brick and ribbon-strip windows broken by copper and bronze elements – all carried through with a literal-mindedness that borders on the soporific.\" But also during Aalto's lifetime he faced critique from his fellow architects in Finland, most notably Kirmo Mikkola and Juhani Pallasmaa; by the last decade of his life Aalto's work was seen as idiosyncratic and individualistic, when the opposing tendencies of rationalism and constructivism – often championed under left-wing politics – argued for anonymous virtually non-aesthetic architecture. Mikkola wrote of Aalto's late works: \"Aalto has moved to his present baroque line...\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Critique of Aalto's architecture", "target_page_ids": [ 17900, 611519, 33214681, 1178218, 4725161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 326, 338 ], [ 748, 763 ], [ 768, 784 ], [ 1584, 1598 ], [ 2233, 2249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aalto has been commemorated in a number of ways:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alvar Aalto is the eponym of the Alvar Aalto Medal, now considered one of world architecture's most prestigious awards.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 45811, 8858360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 26 ], [ 34, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Aalto was featured in the 50 mk note in the last series of the Finnish markka (before its replacement by the Euro in 2002).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 19050, 9472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 78 ], [ 110, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The centenary of Aalto's birth in 1998 was marked in Finland not only by several books and exhibitions, but also by the promotion of specially bottled red and white Aalto Wine and a specially designed cupcake.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 910272 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 202, 209 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In 1976, the year of his death, Aalto was commemorated on a Finnish postage stamp.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Piazza Alvar Aalto, a square named after Aalto, can be found in the Porta Nuova business district of Milan, Italy", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aalto University, a Finnish university formed by merging Helsinki University of Technology, Helsinki School of Economics and TaiK in 2010, is named after Alvar Aalto.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [ 17670781, 60816, 486339, 1309265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 58, 91 ], [ 93, 121 ], [ 126, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " An Alvar Aallon katu (Alvar Aalto Street) can be found in five different Finnish cities: Helsinki, Jyväskylä, Oulu, Kotka and Seinäjoki.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In 2017, the Alvar Aalto Museum launched Alvar Aalto Cities, that is, a network of cities containing buildings by Alvar Aalto. The objective of the network is to increase awareness of Aalto's work both in Finland and abroad. It is hoped that by combining forces on communications and marketing, the visibility and accessibility of exhibitions, tourist attractions and events will be improved. To date, the network city members are: Aalborg, Alajärvi, Espoo, Eura, Hamina, Helsinki, Imatra, Jyväskylä, Järvenpää, Kotka, Kouvola, Lahti, Oulu, Paimio, Pori, Raseborg, Rovaniemi, Seinäjoki, Turku, Vantaa and Varkaus. It is estimated that in total there would be 40 cities worldwide that would qualify as Alvar Aalto City.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Memorials", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Architecture of Finland", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9309491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aino Aalto", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2295131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elissa Aalto", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2946889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Göran Schildt has written and edited many books on Aalto, the most well-known being the three-volume biography, usually referred to as the definitive biography on Aalto.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other books", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Jormakka, Kari; Gargus, Jacqueline; Graf, Douglas The Use and Abuse of Paper. Essays on Alvar Aalto. Datutop 20: Tampere 1999.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aalto research", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The extensive archives of Alvar Aalto are nowadays kept at the Alvar Aalto Museum, Jyväskylä, Finland. Material is also available from the former offices of Aalto, at Tiilimäki 20, Helsinki, nowadays the headquarters of the Alvar Aalto Foundation.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Since 1995 the Alvar Aalto Museum and Aalto Academy has published a journal, Ptah, which is devoted not only to Aalto scholarship but also to architecture generally as well as theory, design and art.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Archives", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alvar Aalto Foundation Custodian of Aalto's architectural drawings and writings.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Institute of International Education, Kaufmann Conference Rooms architectural drawings and papers, 1961–1966.Held by the Department of Drawings & Archives, Avery Architectural & Fine Arts Library, Columbia University.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Resources", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alvar Aalto biography at FinnishDesign.com", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Short Biographies: Alvar Aalto ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aalto bibliography – From the official site", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alvar Aalto – Design Dictionary Illustrated article about Alvar Aalto", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alvar Aalto Biography in Spanish about Alvar Aalto", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Modern Furniture and the history of Moulded Plywood Role played by Alvar Alto in the use of Moulded plywood for furniture.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alvar Aalto on Empty Canon", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Map of the Alvar Aalto works – Wikiartmap, the art map of the public space", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Catalogs", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Artek.fi, Aalto furniture; company founded by Aalto.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alvar Aalto glassware, iittala.com", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Between Humanism and Materialism New York Museum of Modern Art exhibit site. Contains an especially useful timeline of his life and career.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Buildings and reviews", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Checkonsite.com – Alvar Aalto architecture guide.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Ahead of the curve\" The Guardian – Fiona MacCarthy recalls a shared lunch of smoked reindeer and schnapps in his elegant Helsinki restaurant", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 19344515 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Baker House", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " North Jutland Museum", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " S. Maria Assunta – Riola BO Italy", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Alvar_Aalto", "1898_births", "1976_deaths", "People_from_Kuortane", "People_from_Vaasa_Province_(Grand_Duchy_of_Finland)", "People_of_the_Finnish_Civil_War_(White_side)", "20th-century_Finnish_architects", "Finnish_furniture_designers", "Finnish_industrial_designers", "Modernist_architects", "International_style_architects", "Congrès_International_d'Architecture_Moderne_members", "Modernist_architecture_in_Finland", "Recipients_of_the_Royal_Gold_Medal", "Aalto_University_alumni", "Fellows_of_the_American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences", "Members_of_the_Academy_of_Arts,_Berlin", "Recipients_of_the_Prince_Eugen_Medal", "Recipients_of_the_Pour_le_Mérite_(civil_class)", "Burials_at_Hietaniemi_Cemetery", "1939_New_York_World's_Fair_artists", "Recipients_of_the_AIA_Gold_Medal", "Honorary_Fellows_of_the_American_Institute_of_Architects" ]

[ "Aalto", "Hugo Alvar Henrik Aalto" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The English language was introduced to the Americas by British colonisation, beginning in the late 16th and early 17th centuries. The language also spread to numerous other parts of the world as a result of British trade and colonisation and the spread of the former British Empire, which, by 1921, included 470–570 million people, about a quarter of the world's population. Written forms of British and American English as found in newspapers and textbooks vary little in their essential features, with only occasional noticeable differences.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 8569916, 29833, 52507, 4721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 43, 51 ], [ 55, 75 ], [ 267, 281 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over the past 400 years, the forms of the language used in the Americas—especially in the United States—and that used in the United Kingdom have diverged in a few minor ways, leading to the versions now often referred to as American English and British English. Differences between the two include pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary (lexis), spelling, punctuation, idioms, and formatting of dates and numbers. However, the differences in written and most spoken grammar structure tend to be much fewer than in other aspects of the language in terms of mutual intelligibility. A few words have completely different meanings in the two versions or are even unknown or not used in one of the versions. One particular contribution towards formalising these differences came from Noah Webster, who wrote the first American dictionary (published 1828) with the intention of showing that people in the United States spoke a different dialect from those spoken in the UK, much like a regional accent.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 29833, 3434750, 12569, 3136742, 190054, 23711, 47563, 7123, 21620, 158441 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 71 ], [ 90, 103 ], [ 313, 320 ], [ 322, 340 ], [ 342, 350 ], [ 352, 363 ], [ 365, 370 ], [ 391, 395 ], [ 775, 787 ], [ 803, 828 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This divergence between American English and British English has provided opportunities for humorous comment: e.g. in fiction George Bernard Shaw says that the United States and United Kingdom are \"two countries divided by a common language\"; and Oscar Wilde says that \"We have really everything in common with America nowadays, except, of course, the language\" (The Canterville Ghost, 1888). Henry Sweet incorrectly predicted in 1877 that within a century American English, Australian English and British English would be mutually unintelligible (A Handbook of Phonetics). Perhaps increased worldwide communication through radio, television, the Internet and globalisation has tended to reduce regional variation. This can lead to some variations becoming extinct (for instance the wireless being progressively superseded by the radio) or the acceptance of wide variations as \"perfectly good English\" everywhere.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 12855, 22614, 1579630, 703113, 46313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 145 ], [ 247, 258 ], [ 363, 384 ], [ 393, 404 ], [ 660, 673 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although spoken American and British English are generally mutually intelligible, there are occasional differences which might cause embarrassment—for example, in American English a rubber is usually interpreted as a condom rather than an eraser; and a British fanny refers to the female pubic area, while the American fanny refers to a butt or ass (US) or an arse (UK).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Directional suffix -ward(s): British forwards, towards, rightwards, etc.; American forward, toward, rightward. In both varieties distribution varies somewhat: afterwards, towards, and backwards are not unusual in America; while in the United Kingdom upward and rightward are the more common options, as is forward, which is standard in phrasal verbs such as look forward to. The forms with -s may be used as adverbs (or preposition towards) but rarely as adjectives: in the UK, as in America, one says \"an upward motion\". The Oxford English Dictionary in 1897 suggested a semantic distinction for adverbs, with -wards having a more definite directional sense than -ward; subsequent authorities such as Fowler have disputed this contention.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Word derivation and compounds", "target_page_ids": [ 38612815, 22641, 56442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 349 ], [ 527, 552 ], [ 703, 709 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American English (AmE) freely adds the suffix -s to day, night, evening, weekend, Monday, etc. to form adverbs denoting repeated or customary action: I used to stay out evenings; the library is closed on Saturdays. This usage has its roots in Old English but many of these constructions are now regarded as American (for example, the OED labels nights \"now chiefly N. Amer. colloq.\" in constructions such as to sleep nights, but to work nights is standard in British English).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Word derivation and compounds", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In British English (BrE), the agentive -er suffix is commonly attached to football (also cricket; often netball; occasionally basketball and volleyball). AmE usually uses football player. Where the sport's name is usable as a verb, the suffixation is standard in both varieties: for example, golfer, bowler (in ten-pin bowling and in lawn bowls), and shooter. AmE appears sometimes to use the BrE form in baller as slang for a basketball player, as in the video game NBA Ballers. However, this is derived from slang use of to ball as a verb meaning to play basketball.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Word derivation and compounds", "target_page_ids": [ 25675557, 21592, 19568112, 207747, 4248, 28498, 3745982 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 97 ], [ 105, 112 ], [ 293, 297 ], [ 312, 327 ], [ 335, 345 ], [ 352, 359 ], [ 468, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " English writers everywhere occasionally make new compound words from common phrases; for example, health care is now being replaced by healthcare on both sides of the Atlantic. However, AmE has made certain words in this fashion that are still treated as phrases in BrE.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Word derivation and compounds", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In compound nouns of the form <verb>noun>, sometimes AmE prefers the bare infinitive where BrE favours the gerund. Examples include (AmE first): jump rope/skippingrope; racecar/racing car; rowboat/rowing boat; sailboat/sailing boat; file cabinet/filing cabinet; dial tone/dialling tone; drainboard/draining board. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Word derivation and compounds", "target_page_ids": [ 244283, 15254, 113094, 491910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 70, 85 ], [ 108, 114 ], [ 146, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Generally AmE has a tendency to drop inflectional suffixes, thus preferring clipped forms: compare cookbook v. cookery book; Smith, age 40 v. Smith, aged 40; skim milk v. skimmed milk; dollhouse v. dolls' house; barber shop v. barber's shop.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Word derivation and compounds", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Singular attributives in one country may be plural in the other, and vice versa. For example, the UK has a drugs problem, while the United States has a drug problem (although the singular usage is also commonly heard in the UK); Americans read the sports section of a newspaper; the British are more likely to read the sport section. However, BrE maths is singular, just as AmE math is: both are abbreviations of mathematics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Word derivation and compounds", "target_page_ids": [ 25778403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 255 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Some British English words come from French roots, while American English finds its words from other places, e.g. AmE eggplant and zucchini are aubergine and courgette in BrE.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Word derivation and compounds", "target_page_ids": [ 45712, 431003, 45712, 431003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 128 ], [ 133, 141 ], [ 146, 155 ], [ 160, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Similarly, American English has occasionally replaced more traditional English words with their Spanish counterparts. This is especially common in regions historically affected by Spanish settlement (such as the American Southwest and Florida) as well as other areas that have since experienced strong Hispanic migration (such as urban centers). Examples of these include grocery markets' preference in the U.S. for Spanish names such as cilantro and manzanilla over coriander and camomile respectively.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Word derivation and compounds", "target_page_ids": [ 341640, 166716, 341640, 166716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 439, 447 ], [ 452, 462 ], [ 468, 477 ], [ 482, 490 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The familiarity of speakers with words and phrases from different regions varies, and the difficulty of discerning an unfamiliar definition also depends on the context and the term. As expressions spread with the globalisation of telecommunication, they are often but not always recognised as foreign to the speaker's dialect, and words from other dialects may carry connotations with regard to register, social status, origin, and intelligence.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 46313, 33094374, 1438533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 226 ], [ 230, 247 ], [ 395, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Words such as bill and biscuit are used regularly in both AmE and BrE but can mean different things in each form. The word \"bill\" has several meanings, most of which are shared between AmE and BrE. However, in AmE \"bill\" often refers to a piece of paper money (as in a \"dollar bill\") which in BrE is more commonly referred to as a note. In AmE it can also refer to the visor of a cap, though this is by no means common. In AmE a biscuit (from the French \"twice baked\" as in biscotto) is a soft bready product that is known in BrE as a scone or a specifically hard, sweet biscuit. Meanwhile, a BrE biscuit incorporates both dessert biscuits and AmE cookies (from the Dutch 'little cake').", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As chronicled by Winston Churchill, the opposite meanings of the verb to table created a misunderstanding during a meeting of the Allied forces; in BrE to table an item on an agenda means to open it up for discussion whereas in AmE, it means to remove it from discussion, or at times, to suspend or delay discussion; e.g. Let's table that topic for later.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 33265, 16970478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 34 ], [ 70, 78 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word \"football\" in BrE refers to association football, also known as soccer. In AmE, \"football\" means American football. The standard AmE term \"soccer\", a contraction of \"association (football)\", is actually of British origin, derived from the formalisation of different codes of football in the 19th century, and was a fairly unremarkable usage (possibly marked for class) in BrE until relatively recently; it has lately become perceived as an Americanism. In non-American and non-Canadian contexts, particularly in sports news from outside the United States and Canada, American (or US branches of foreign) news agencies and media organisations also use \"football\" to mean \"soccer\", especially in direct quotes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 10568, 742915, 18951490 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 57 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 106, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly, the word \"hockey\" in BrE refers to field hockey and in AmE, \"hockey\" means ice hockey.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 10886, 14790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 58 ], [ 86, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Words with completely different meanings are relatively few; most of the time there are either (1) words with one or more shared meanings and one or more meanings unique to one variety (for example, bathroom and toilet) or (2) words the meanings of which are actually common to both BrE and AmE but that show differences in frequency, connotation or denotation (for example, smart, clever, mad).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Some differences in usage and meaning can cause confusion or embarrassment. For example, the word fanny is a slang word for vulva in BrE but means buttocks in AmE—the AmE phrase fanny pack is bum bag in BrE. In AmE the word pissed means being annoyed whereas in BrE it is a coarse word for being drunk (in both varieties, pissed off means irritated).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 25439126, 13947297, 1928807 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 129 ], [ 147, 155 ], [ 178, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly, in AmE the word pants is the common word for the BrE trousers and knickers refers to a variety of half-length trousers (though most AmE users would use the term \"shorts\" rather than knickers), while the majority of BrE speakers would understand pants to mean underpants and knickers to mean female underpants.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes the confusion is more subtle. In AmE the word quite used as a qualifier is generally a reinforcement, though it is somewhat uncommon in actual colloquial American use today and carries an air of formality: for example, \"I'm quite hungry\" is a very polite way to say \"I'm very hungry\". In BrE quite (which is much more common in conversation) may have this meaning, as in \"quite right\" or \"quite mad\", but it more commonly means \"somewhat\", so that in BrE \"I'm quite hungry\" can mean \"I'm somewhat hungry\". This divergence of use can lead to misunderstanding.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Most speakers of American English are aware of some uniquely British terms. It is generally very easy to guess what some words, such as BrE \"driving licence\", mean, the AmE equivalent being \"driver's license\". However, use of many other British words such as naff (slang but commonly used to mean \"not very good\") are unheard of in American English.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 50322 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 259, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Speakers of BrE usually find it easy to understand most common AmE terms, such as \"sidewalk (pavement or footpath)\", \"gas (gasoline/petrol)\", \"counterclockwise (anticlockwise)\" or \"elevator (lift)\", thanks in large part to considerable exposure to American popular culture and literature. Terms heard less often, especially when rare or absent in American popular culture, such as \"copacetic (very satisfactory)\", are unlikely to be understood by most BrE speakers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other examples:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In the UK the word whilst is commonly used as a conjunction (as an alternative to while, especially prevalent in some dialects). Whilst tends to appear in non-temporal senses, as when used to point out a contrast. In AmE while is used in both contexts, and whilst may even be unknown. Other conjunctions with the -st ending are also found even in AmE as much as in BrE, despite being old-fashioned or an affectation (e.g., unbeknownst). ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In the UK generally the use of fall to mean \"autumn\" is obsolete. Although found often from Elizabethan literature to Victorian literature, the seasonal use of fall remains easily understandable to BrE speakers only because it is so commonly used that way in the U.S.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 3049, 241563, 18973384, 2243028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 52 ], [ 57, 65 ], [ 93, 115 ], [ 119, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the UK the term period for a full stop is not used; in AmE the term full stop is rarely, if ever, used for the punctuation mark and commonly not understood whatsoever. For example, British Prime Minister Tony Blair said, \"Terrorism is wrong, full stop\", whereas in AmE, the equivalent sentence is \"Terrorism is wrong, period.\" The use of period as an interjection meaning \"and nothing else; end of discussion\" is beginning to be used in colloquial British English, though sometimes without conscious reference to punctuation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 23523100, 3301347 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ], [ 207, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is increasingly common for Americans to say \"Happy holidays\", referring to all, or at least multiple, winter (in the Northern hemisphere) or summer (in the Southern hemisphere) holidays (Christmas, Hanukkah, Kwanzaa, etc.) especially when one's religious observances are not known; the phrase is rarely heard in the UK. In the UK, the phrases \"holiday season\" and \"holiday period\" refer to the period in the winter (in the Northern hemisphere) or summer (in the Southern hemisphere) when most people take time off from work, and travel; AmE does not use holiday in this sense, instead using vacation for recreational excursions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 7388, 17422, 509409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 211 ], [ 213, 220 ], [ 596, 604 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In AmE, the prevailing Christmas greeting is \"Merry Christmas\", which is the traditional English Christmas greeting, as found in the English Christmas carol \"We Wish You a Merry Christmas\", and which appears several times in Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol. In BrE, \"Happy Christmas\" is a common alternative to \"Merry Christmas\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 207223, 2492748, 5884, 73670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 156 ], [ 158, 187 ], [ 225, 240 ], [ 242, 259 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Generally in British English, numbers with a value over one hundred have the word \"and\" inserted before the last two digits. For example, the number 115, when written in words or spoken aloud, would be \"One hundred and fifteen\", in British English. In American English, numbers are typically said or written in words in the same way, however if the word \"and\" is omitted (\"One hundred fifteen\"), this is also considered acceptable (in BrE this would be considered gramatically incorrect).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Likewise, in the US, the word \"on\" can be left out when referring to events occurring on any particular day of the week. The US possibility \"The Cowboys won the game Saturday\" would have the equivalent in the UK of \"Sheffield United won the match on Saturday.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Both BrE and AmE use the expression \"I couldn't care less\", to mean that the speaker does not care at all. Some Americans use \"I could care less\" to mean the same thing. This variant is frequently derided as sloppy, as the literal meaning of the words is that the speaker does care to some extent.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In both areas, saying, \"I don't mind\" often means, \"I'm not annoyed\" (for example, by someone's smoking), while \"I don't care\" often means, \"The matter is trivial or boring\". However, in answering a question such as \"Tea or coffee?\", if either alternative is equally acceptable an American may answer, \"I don't care\", while a British person may answer, \"I don't mind\". Either can sound odd, confusing, or rude, to those accustomed to the other variant.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"To be all set\" in both BrE and AmE can mean \"to be prepared or ready\", though it appears to be more common in AmE. It can also have an additional meaning in AmE of \"to be finished or done\", for example, a customer at a restaurant telling a waiter \"I'm all set. I'll take the check.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A number of English idioms that have essentially the same meaning show lexical differences between the British and the American version; for instance:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " In the US, a \"carpet\" typically refers to a fitted carpet, rather than a rug.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 14579013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lexical items that reflect separate social and cultural development.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The US has a more uniform nationwide system of terms than does the UK, where terminology and structure varies among constituent countries, but the division by grades varies somewhat among the states and even among local school districts. For example, elementary school often includes kindergarten and may include sixth grade, with middle school including only two grades or extending to ninth grade.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the UK, the US equivalent of a high school is often referred to as a \"secondary school\" regardless of whether it is state funded or private. US Secondary education also includes middle school or junior high school, a two- or three-year transitional school between elementary school and high school. \"Middle school\" is sometimes used in the UK as a synonym for the younger junior school, covering the second half of the primary curriculum, current years four to six in some areas. However, in Dorset (South England), it is used to describe the second school in the three-tier system, which is normally from year 5 to year 8 . In other regions, such as Evesham and the surrounding area in Worcestershire, the second tier goes from year 6 to year 8, and both starting secondary school in year nine. In Kirklees, West Yorkshire, in the villages of the Dearne Valley there is a three tier system: first schools year reception to year five, middle school (Scissett/Kirkburton Middle School) year 6 to year 8 and high school ()year 9 to year 13.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 37589, 191460, 33778, 152358, 149139, 324802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 495, 517 ], [ 654, 661 ], [ 690, 704 ], [ 802, 810 ], [ 812, 826 ], [ 851, 864 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A public school has opposite meanings in the two countries. In American English this is a government-owned institution open to all students, supported by public funding. The British English use of the term is in the context of \"private\" education: to be educated privately with a tutor. In England and Wales the term strictly refers to an ill-defined group of prestigious private independent schools funded by students' fees, although it is often more loosely used to refer to any independent school. Independent schools are also known as \"private schools\", and the latter is the term used in Scotland and Northern Ireland for all such fee-funded schools. Strictly, the term public school is not used in Scotland and Northern Ireland in the same sense as in England, but nevertheless Gordonstoun, the Scottish private school, is sometimes referred to as a public school, as are some other Scottish private schools. Government-funded schools in Scotland and Northern Ireland are properly referred to as \"state schools\" but are sometimes confusingly referred to as \"public schools\" (with the same meaning as in the US), and in the US, where most public schools are administered by local governments, a state school typically refers to a college or university run by one of the U.S. states.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 238561, 21265, 210583, 7858726, 18618239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 372, 399 ], [ 606, 622 ], [ 784, 795 ], [ 1233, 1256 ], [ 1275, 1285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Speakers in both the United States and the United Kingdom use several additional terms for specific types of secondary school. A US prep school or preparatory school is an independent school funded by tuition fees; the same term is used in the UK for a private school for pupils under 13, designed to prepare them for fee-paying public schools. In the US, Catholic schools cover costs through tuition and have affiliations with a religious institution, most often a Catholic church or diocese. In England, where the state-funded education system grew from parish schools organised by the local established church, the Church of England (C of E, or CE), and many schools, especially primary schools (up to age 11) retain a church connection and are known as church schools, CE schools or CE (aided) schools. There are also faith schools associated with the Roman Catholic Church and other major faiths, with a mixture of funding arrangements.\tIn Scotland, Catholic schools are generally operated as government-funded state schools for Catholic communities, particularly in large cities such as Glasgow.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 299970, 2467778, 1452366, 410868, 339549, 292285, 5955, 11722032, 3937155, 68736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 165 ], [ 253, 287 ], [ 356, 371 ], [ 466, 474 ], [ 529, 545 ], [ 594, 612 ], [ 618, 635 ], [ 682, 697 ], [ 757, 771 ], [ 1093, 1100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the US, a magnet school receives government funding and has special admission requirements: in some cases pupils gain admission through superior performance on admission tests, while other magnet schools admit students through a lottery. The UK has city academies, which are independent privately sponsored schools run with public funding and which can select up to 10% of pupils by aptitude. Moreover, in the UK 36 local education authorities retain selection by ability at 11. They maintain grammar schools (state funded secondary schools), which admit pupils according to performance in an examination (known as the 11+) and comprehensive schools that take pupils of all abilities. Grammar schools select the most academically able 10% to 23% of those who sit the exam. Students who fail the exam go to a secondary modern school, sometimes called a \"high school\", or increasingly an \"academy\". In areas where there are no grammar schools the comprehensives likewise may term themselves high schools or academies. Nationally only 6% of pupils attend grammar schools, mainly in four distinct counties. Some private schools are called \"grammar schools\", chiefly those that were grammar schools long before the advent of state education.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 412232, 1999955, 525009, 156975, 1418100, 15092205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 26 ], [ 252, 266 ], [ 386, 394 ], [ 496, 510 ], [ 811, 834 ], [ 1082, 1104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the UK a university student is said to \"study\", to \"read\" or, informally, simply to \"do\" a subject. In the recent past the expression 'to read a subject' was more common at the older universities such as Oxford and Cambridge. In the US a student studies or majors in a subject (although a student's major, concentration or, less commonly, emphasis is also used in US colleges or universities to refer to the major subject of study). To major in something refers to the student's principal course of study; to study may refer to any class being taken.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "BrE:\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AmE:\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At university level in BrE, each module is taught or facilitated by a lecturer or tutor; professor is the job-title of a senior academic (in AmE, at some universities, the equivalent of the BrE lecturer is instructor, especially when the teacher has a lesser degree or no university degree, though the usage may become confusing according to whether the subject being taught is considered technical or not; it is also different from adjunct instructor/professor). In AmE each class is generally taught by a professor (although some US tertiary educational institutions follow the BrE usage), while the position of lecturer is occasionally given to individuals hired on a temporary basis to teach one or more classes and who may or may not have a doctoral degree.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 366338, 20646803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 78 ], [ 121, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The word course in American use typically refers to the study of a restricted topic or individual subject (for example, \"a course in Early Medieval England\", \"a course in integral calculus\") over a limited period of time (such as a semester or term) and is equivalent to a module or sometimes unit at a British university. In the UK, a course of study or simply course is likely to refer to the entire programme of study, which may extend over several years and be made up of any number of modules, hence it is also practically synonymous to a degree programme. A few university-specific exceptions exist: for example, at Cambridge the word paper is used to refer to a module, while the whole course of study is called tripos.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 25978572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 622, 631 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A dissertation in AmE refers to the final written product of a doctoral student to fulfil the requirement of that program. In BrE, the same word refers to the final written product of a student in an undergraduate or taught master's programme. A dissertation in the AmE sense would be a thesis in BrE, though dissertation is also used.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Another source of confusion is the different usage of the word college. (See a full international discussion of the various meanings at college.) In the US, it refers to a post-high school institution that grants either associate's or bachelor's degrees, and in the UK, it refers to any post-secondary institution that is not a university (including sixth form college after the name in secondary education for years 12 and 13, the sixth form) where intermediary courses such as A levels or NVQs can be taken and GCSE courses can be retaken. College may sometimes be used in the UK or in Commonwealth countries as part of the name of a secondary or high school (for example, Dubai College). In the case of Oxford, Cambridge, Aberdeen, London, Lancaster, Durham, Kent and York universities, all members are also members of a college which is part of the university, for example, one is a member of King's College, Cambridge and hence of the university.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 5689, 20568362, 231917, 151712, 2783993, 213135, 60919, 316977, 29997930, 205868, 155637, 151267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 143 ], [ 479, 487 ], [ 491, 494 ], [ 513, 517 ], [ 675, 688 ], [ 725, 733 ], [ 735, 741 ], [ 743, 752 ], [ 754, 760 ], [ 762, 766 ], [ 771, 775 ], [ 897, 922 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In both the US and UK college can refer to some division within a university that comprises related academic departments such as the \"college of business and economics\" though in the UK \"faculty\" is more often used. Institutions in the US that offer two to four years of post-high school education often have the word college as part of their name, while those offering more advanced degrees are called a university. (There are exceptions: Boston College, Dartmouth College and the College of William & Mary are examples of colleges that offer advanced degrees, while Vincennes University is an unusual example of a \"university\" that offers only associate degrees in the vast majority of its academic programs.) American students who pursue a bachelor's degree (four years of higher education) or an associate degree (two years of higher education) are college students regardless of whether they attend a college or a university and refer to their educational institutions informally as colleges. A student who pursues a master's degree or a doctorate degree in the arts and sciences is in AmE a graduate student; in BrE a postgraduate student although graduate student is also sometimes used. Students of advanced professional programs are known by their field (business student, law student, medical student). Some universities also have a residential college system, the details of which may vary but generally involve common living and dining spaces as well as college-organised activities. Nonetheless, when it comes to the level of education, AmE generally uses the word college (e.g., going to college) whereas BrE generally uses the word university (e.g., going to university) regardless of the institution's official designation/status in both countries.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 239811, 8418, 175966, 670265, 1097407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 440, 454 ], [ 456, 473 ], [ 478, 507 ], [ 568, 588 ], [ 1343, 1362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the context of higher education, the word school is used slightly differently in BrE and AmE. In BrE, except for the University of London, the word school is used to refer to an academic department in a university. In AmE, the word school is used to refer to a collection of related academic departments and is headed by a dean. When it refers to a division of a university, school is practically synonymous to a college.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Professor\" has different meanings in BrE and AmE. In BrE it is the highest academic rank, followed by reader, senior lecturer and lecturer. In AmE \"professor\" refers to academic staff of all ranks, with (full) professor (largely equivalent to the UK meaning) followed by associate professor and assistant professor.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 233885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Tuition\" has traditionally had separate meaning in each variation. In BrE it is the educational content transferred from teacher to student at a university. In AmE it is the money (the fees) paid to receive that education (BrE: tuition fees).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 249320 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 241 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In both the US and the UK, a student takes an exam, but in BrE a student can also be said to sit an exam. When preparing for an exam students revise (BrE)/review (AmE) what they have studied; the BrE idiom to revise for has the equivalent to review for in AmE.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Examinations are supervised by invigilators in the UK and proctors (or (exam) supervisors) in the US (a proctor in the UK is an official responsible for student discipline at the University of Oxford or Cambridge). In the UK a teacher first sets and then administers exam, while in the US, a teacher first writes, makes, prepares, etc. and then gives an exam. With the same basic meaning of the latter idea but with a more formal or official connotation, a teacher in the US may also administer or proctor an exam.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "BrE:\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AmE:\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In BrE, students are awarded marks as credit for requirements (e.g., tests, projects) while in AmE, students are awarded points or \"grades\" for the same. Similarly, in BrE, a candidate's work is being marked, while in AmE it is said to be graded to determine what mark or grade is given.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is additionally a difference between American and British usage in the word school. In British usage \"school\" by itself refers only to primary (elementary) and secondary (high) schools and to sixth forms attached to secondary schools—if one \"goes to school\", this type of institution is implied. By contrast an American student at a university may be \"in/at school\", \"coming/going to school\", etc. US and British law students and medical students both commonly speak in terms of going to \"law school\" and \"med[ical] school\", respectively. However, the word school is used in BrE in the context of higher education to describe a division grouping together several related subjects within a university, for example a \"School of European Languages\" containing departments for each language and also in the term \"art school\". It is also the name of some of the constituent colleges of the University of London, for example, School of Oriental and African Studies, London School of Economics.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 118652, 67704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 926, 964 ], [ 966, 992 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among high-school and college students in the United States, the words freshman (or the gender-neutral terms first year or sometimes freshie), sophomore, junior and senior refer to the first, second, third, and fourth years respectively. It is important that the context of either high school or college first be established or else it must be stated directly (that is, She is a high-school freshman. He is a college junior.). Many institutes in both countries also use the term first-year as a gender-neutral replacement for freshman, although in the US this is recent usage, formerly referring only to those in the first year as a graduate student. One exception is the University of Virginia; since its founding in 1819 the terms \"first-year\", \"second-year\", \"third-year\", and \"fourth-year\" have been used to describe undergraduate university students. At the United States service academies, at least those operated by the federal government directly, a different terminology is used, namely \"fourth class\", \"third class\", \"second class\" and \"first class\" (the order of numbering being the reverse of the number of years in attendance). In the UK first-year university students are sometimes called freshers early in the academic year; however, there are no specific names for those in other years nor for school pupils. Graduate and professional students in the United States are known by their year of study, such as a \"second-year medical student\" or a \"fifth-year doctoral candidate.\" Law students are often referred to as \"1L\", \"2L\", or \"3L\" rather than \"nth-year law students\"; similarly, medical students are frequently referred to as \"M1\", \"M2\", \"M3\", or \"M4\".\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 59801, 481839 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 672, 694 ], [ 863, 894 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While anyone in the US who finishes studying at any educational institution by passing relevant examinations is said to graduate and to be a graduate, in the UK only degree and above level students can graduate. Student itself has a wider meaning in AmE, meaning any person of any age studying any subject at any level (including those not doing so at an educational institution, such as a \"piano student\" taking private lessons in a home), whereas in BrE it tends to be used for people studying at a post-secondary educational institution and the term pupil is more widely used for a young person at primary or secondary school, though the use of \"student\" for secondary school pupils in the UK is increasingly used, particularly for \"sixth form\" (years 12 and 13).\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The names of individual institutions can be confusing. There are several high schools with the word \"university\" in their names in the United States that are not affiliated with any post-secondary institutions and cannot grant degrees, and there is one public high school, Central High School of Philadelphia, that does grant bachelor's degrees to the top ten per cent of graduating seniors. British secondary schools occasionally have the word \"college\" in their names.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 1225280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 273, 308 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When it comes to the admissions process, applicants are usually asked to solicit letters of reference or reference forms from referees in BrE. In AmE, these are called letters of recommendation or recommendation forms. Consequently, the writers of these letters are known as referees and recommenders, respectively by country. In AmE, the word referee is nearly always understood to refer to an umpire of a sporting match.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the context of education, for AmE, the word staff mainly refers to school personnel who are neither administrators nor have teaching loads or academic responsibilities; personnel who have academic responsibilities are referred to as members of their institution's faculty. In BrE, the word staff refers to both academic and non-academic school personnel. As mentioned previously, the term faculty in BrE refers more to a collection of related academic departments.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the UK, political candidates stand for election, while in the US, they run for office. There is virtually no crossover between BrE and AmE in the use of these terms. Also, the document which contains a party's positions/principles is referred to as a party platform in AmE, whereas it is commonly known as a party manifesto in BrE. (In AmE, using the term manifesto may connote that the party is an extremist or radical organisation.) The term general election is used slightly differently in British and American English. In BrE, it refers exclusively to a nationwide parliamentary election and is differentiated from local elections (mayoral and council) and by-elections; whereas in AmE, it refers to a final election for any government position in the US, where the term is differentiated from the term primary (an election that determines a party's candidate for the position in question). Additionally, a by-election in BrE is called a special election in AmE.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 155434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 665, 676 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In AmE, the term swing state, swing county, swing district is used to denote a jurisdiction/constituency where results are expected to be close but crucial to the overall outcome of the general election. In BrE, the term marginal constituency is more often used for the same and swing is more commonly used to refer to how much one party has gained (or lost) an advantage over another compared to the previous election.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the UK, the term government only refers to what is commonly known in America as the executive branch or the particular administration.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 10263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A local government in the UK is generically referred to as the \"council,\" whereas in the United States, a local government will be generically referred to as the \"City\" (or county, village, etc., depending on what kind of entity the government serves).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In financial statements, what is referred to in AmE as revenue or sales is known in BrE as turnover. In AmE, having \"high turnover\" in a business context would generally carry negative implications, though the precise meaning would differ by industry.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A bankrupt firm goes into administration or liquidation in BrE; in AmE it goes bankrupt, or files for Chapter 7 (liquidation) or Chapter 11 (reorganisation). An insolvent individual or partnership goes bankrupt in both BrE and AmE.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 8824684, 63474, 7279 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 40 ], [ 92, 111 ], [ 129, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If a finance company takes possession of a mortgaged property from a debtor, it is called foreclosure in AmE and repossession in BrE. In some limited scenarios, repossession may be used in AmE, but it is much less commonly compared to foreclosure. One common exception in AmE is for automobiles, which are always said to be repossessed. Indeed, an agent who collects these cars for the bank is colloquially known in AmE as a repo man.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 595535, 2301687, 2301687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 101 ], [ 113, 125 ], [ 161, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In BrE, the term curriculum vitae (commonly abbreviated to CV) is used to describe the document prepared by applicants containing their credentials required for a job. In AmE, the term résumé is more commonly used, with CV primarily used in academic or research contexts, and is usually more comprehensive than a résumé.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AmE distinguishes between coverage as a noun and cover as a verb; an American seeks to buy enough insurance coverage in order to adequately cover a particular risk. BrE uses the word \"cover\" for both the noun and verb forms.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AmE speakers refer to transportation and BrE speakers to transport. (Transportation in the UK has traditionally meant the punishment of criminals by deporting them to an overseas penal colony.) In AmE, the word transport is usually used only as a verb, seldom as a noun or adjective except in reference to certain specialised objects, such as a tape transport or a military transport (e.g., a troop transport, a kind of vehicle, not an act of transporting).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 241953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 163 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Differences in terminology are especially obvious in the context of roads. The British term dual carriageway, in American parlance, would be divided highway or perhaps, simply highway. The central reservation on a motorway or dual carriageway in the UK would be the median or center divide on a freeway, expressway, highway or parkway in the US. The one-way lanes that make it possible to enter and leave such roads at an intermediate point without disrupting the flow of traffic are known as slip roads in the UK but in the US, they are typically known as ramps and both further distinguish between on-ramps or on-slips (for entering onto a highway/carriageway) and off-ramps or exit-slips (for leaving a highway/carriageway). When American engineers speak of slip roads, they are referring to a street that runs alongside the main road (separated by a berm) to allow off-the-highway access to the premises that are there; however, the term frontage road is more commonly used, as this term is the equivalent of service road in the UK. However, it is not uncommon for an American to use service road as well instead of frontage road.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 25897, 692197, 692197, 48519, 420502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 72 ], [ 92, 108 ], [ 141, 156 ], [ 176, 183 ], [ 942, 955 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the UK, the term outside lane refers to the higher-speed overtaking lane (passing lane in the US) closest to the centre of the road, while inside lane refers to the lane closer to the edge of the road. In the US, outside lane is used only in the context of a turn, in which case it depends in which direction the road is turning (i.e., if the road bends right, the left lane is the \"outside lane\", but if the road bends left, it is the right lane). Both also refer to slow and fast lanes (even though all actual traffic speeds may be at or around the legal speed limit).\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the UK drink driving refers to driving after having consumed alcoholic beverages, while in the US, the term is drunk driving. The legal term in the US is driving while intoxicated (DWI) or driving under the influence (of alcohol) (DUI). The equivalent legal phrase in the UK is drunk in charge of a motor vehicle (DIC) or more commonly driving with excess alcohol.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 29981150, 511428 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 23 ], [ 192, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the UK, a hire car is the US equivalent of a rental car. The term \"hired car\" can be especially misleading for those in the US, where the term \"hire\" is generally only applied to the employment of people and the term \"rent\" is applied to the temporary custody of goods. To an American, \"hired car\" would imply that the car has been brought into the employment of an organisation as if it were a person, which would sound nonsensical.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 5539662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the UK, a saloon is a vehicle that is equivalent to the American sedan. This is particularly confusing to Americans, because in the US the term saloon is used in only one context: describing an old bar (UK pub) in the American West (a Western saloon). Coupé is used by both to refer to a two-door car, but is usually pronounced with two syllables in the UK (coo-pay) and one syllable in the US (coop).\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 381325, 5987957, 204658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 73 ], [ 238, 252 ], [ 255, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the UK, van may refer to a lorry (UK) of any size, whereas in the US, van is only understood to be a very small, boxy truck (US) (such as a moving van) or a long passenger automobile with several rows of seats (such as a minivan). A large, long vehicle used for cargo transport would nearly always be called a truck in the US, though alternate terms such as eighteen-wheeler may be occasionally heard (regardless of the actual number of tires on the truck).\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 20828 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 224, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the UK, a silencer is the equivalent to the US muffler. In the US, the word silencer has only one meaning: an attachment on the barrel of a gun designed to stop the distinctive crack of a gunshot.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 618731, 38048372 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 57 ], [ 79, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Specific auto parts and transport terms have different names in the two dialects, for example:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 2938583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are also differences in terminology in the context of rail transport. The best known is railway in the UK and railroad in America, but there are several others. A railway station in the UK is a railroad station in the US, while train station is used in both; trains have drivers (often called engine drivers) in the UK, while in America trains are driven by engineers; trains have guards in the UK and conductors in the US, though the later is also common in the UK; a place where two tracks meet is called a set of points in the UK and a switch in the US; and a place where a road crosses a railway line at ground level is called a level crossing in the UK and a grade crossing or railroad crossing in America. In the UK, the term sleeper is used for the devices that bear the weight of the rails and are known as ties or crossties in the United States. In a rail context, sleeper (more often, sleeper car) would be understood in the US as a rail car with sleeping quarters for its passengers. The British term platform in the sense \"The train is at Platform 1\" would be known in the US by the term track, and used in the phrase \"The train is on Track 1\". The British term brake van or guard's van is a caboose in the US. The American English phrase \"All aboard\" when boarding a train is rarely used in the UK, and when the train reaches its final stop, in the UK the phrase used by rail personnel is \"All change\" while in the US it is \"All out\", though such announcements are uncommon in both regions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 25715, 155664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 74 ], [ 1020, 1028 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For sub-surface rail networks, while 'underground' is commonly used in the UK, only the London Underground actually carries this name: the UK's only other such system, the smaller Glasgow Subway, was in fact the first to be called 'subway'. Nevertheless, both 'subway' and 'metro' are now more common in the US, varying by city: in Washington D.C., for example, 'metro' is used, while in New York City 'subway' is preferred. Another variation is the 'T' in Boston.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 17839, 467145 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 106 ], [ 180, 194 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Traditionally, a show on British television would have referred to a light-entertainment program (BrE programme) with one or more performers and a participative audience, whereas in American television, the term is used for any type of program. British English traditionally referred to other types of program by their type, such as drama, serial etc., but the term show has now taken on the generalised American meaning. In American television the episodes of a program first broadcast in a particular year constitute a season, while the entire run of the program—which may span several seasons—is called a series. In British television, on the other hand, the word series may apply to the episodes of a program in one particular year, for example, \"The 1998 series of Grange Hill\", as well as to the entire run. However, the entire run may occasionally be referred to as a \"show\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 236502 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 770, 781 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term telecast, meaning television broadcast and uncommon even in the US, is not used in British English. A television program would be broadcast, aired or shown in both the UK and US.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A long-distance call is a \"trunk call\" in British English, but is a \"toll call\" in American English, though neither term is well known among younger Americans. The distinction is a result of historical differences in the way local service was billed; the Bell System traditionally flat-rated local calls in all but a few markets, subsidising local service by charging higher rates, or tolls, for intercity calls, allowing local calls to appear to be free. British Telecom (and the British Post Office before it) charged for all calls, local and long distance, so labelling one class of call as \"toll\" would have been meaningless.\t", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 1394709, 21347591, 4642 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 20 ], [ 255, 266 ], [ 456, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Similarly, a toll-free number in America is a freephone number in the UK. The term \"freefone\" is a BT trademark.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 406726, 406726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 29 ], [ 46, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In British English, the name of a river is placed after the word (River Thames). In American English, the name is placed before the word (Hudson River).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Vocabulary", "target_page_ids": [ 49031, 47911 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 78 ], [ 138, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Generally, a non-restrictive relative clause (also called non-defining or supplementary) is one containing information that is supplementary, i.e. does not change the meaning of the rest of the sentence, while a restrictive relative clause (also called defining or integrated) contains information essential to the meaning of the sentence, effectively limiting the modified noun phrase to a subset that is defined by the relative clause.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An example of a restrictive clause is \"The dog that bit the man was brown.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An example of a non-restrictive clause is \"The dog, which bit the man, was brown.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the former, \"that bit the man\" identifies which dog the statement is about.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the latter, \"which bit the man\" provides supplementary information about a known dog.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A non-restrictive relative clause is typically set off by commas, whereas a restrictive relative clause is not, but this is not a rule that is universally observed. In speech, this is also reflected in the intonation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Writers commonly use which to introduce a non-restrictive clause, and that to introduce a restrictive clause. That is rarely used to introduce a non-restrictive relative clause in prose. Which and that are both commonly used to introduce a restrictive clause; a study in 1977 reported that about 75 per cent of occurrences of which were in restrictive clauses.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "H. W. Fowler, in A Dictionary of Modern English Usage of 1926, followed others in suggesting that it would be preferable to use which as the non-restrictive (what he calls \"non-defining\") pronoun and that as the restrictive (what he calls defining) pronoun, but he also stated that this rule was observed neither by most writers nor by the best writers. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He implied that his suggested usage was more common in American English.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fowler notes that his recommended usage presents problems, in particular that that must be the first word of the clause, which means, for instance, that which cannot be replaced by that when it immediately follows a preposition (e.g. \"the basic unit from which matter is constructed\") – though this would not prevent a stranded preposition (e.g. \"the basic unit that matter is constructed from\").", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Style guides by American prescriptivists, such as Bryan Garner, typically insist, for stylistic reasons, that that be used for restrictive relative clauses and which be used for non-restrictive clauses, referring to the use of which in restrictive clauses as a \"mistake\". ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [ 229136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 2015 edition of Fowler's Dictionary of Modern English Usage, \"In AmE which is 'not generally used in restrictive clauses, and that fact is then interpreted as the absolute rule that only that may introduce a restrictive clause', whereas in BrE 'either that or which may be used in restrictive clauses', but many British people 'believe that that is obligatory'\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Style", "target_page_ids": [ 56442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the early 18th century English spelling was not standardised. Different standards became noticeable after the publishing of influential dictionaries. For the most part current BrE spellings follow those of Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language (1755), while AmE spellings follow those of Noah Webster's An American Dictionary of the English Language (1828). In the United Kingdom, the influences of those who preferred the French spellings of certain words proved decisive. In many cases AmE spelling deviated from mainstream British spelling; on the other hand it has also often retained older forms. Many of the now characteristic AmE spellings were popularised, although often not created, by Noah Webster. Webster chose already-existing alternative spellings \"on such grounds as simplicity, analogy or etymology\". Webster did attempt to introduce some reformed spellings, as did the Simplified Spelling Board in the early 20th century, but most were not adopted. Later spelling changes in the UK had little effect on present-day US spelling, and vice versa.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Writing", "target_page_ids": [ 10081, 7931, 48594, 53819, 21620, 158441, 1421004, 19077643 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 46 ], [ 143, 155 ], [ 213, 227 ], [ 230, 264 ], [ 309, 321 ], [ 324, 370 ], [ 877, 895 ], [ 908, 933 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There have been some trends of transatlantic difference in use of periods in some abbreviations. These are discussed at Abbreviation § Periods (full stops) and spaces. Unit symbols such as kg and Hz are never punctuated.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Writing", "target_page_ids": [ 1171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 120, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In British English, \"( )\" marks are often referred to as brackets, whereas \"[ ]\" are called square brackets and \"{ }\" are called curly brackets. In formal British English and in American English \"( )\" marks are parentheses (singular: parenthesis), \"[ ]\" are called brackets or square brackets, and \"{ }\" can be called either curly brackets or braces. Despite the different names, these marks are used in the same way in both varieties.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Writing", "target_page_ids": [ 59338, 59338, 59338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 211, 222 ], [ 277, 292 ], [ 325, 339 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "British and American English differ in the preferred quotation mark style, including the placement of commas and periods. In American English, \" and ' are called quotation marks, whereas in British English, \" and ' are referred to as either inverted commas or speech marks. Additionally, in American English direct speech typically uses the double quote mark ( \" ), whereas in British English it is common to use the inverted comma ( ' ).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Writing", "target_page_ids": [ 59349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American newspapers commonly use a comma as a shorthand for \"and\" in headlines. For example, The Washington Post had the headline \"A TRUE CONSERVATIVE: For McCain, Bush Has Both Praise, Advice.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Writing", "target_page_ids": [ 102226 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are many differences in the writing and speaking of English numerals, most of which are matters of style, with the notable exception of different definitions for billion.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [ 163873, 47182594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 74 ], [ 168, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The two countries have different conventions for floor numbering. The UK uses a mixture of the metric system and Imperial units, where in the US, United States customary units are dominant in everyday life with a few fields using the metric system.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [ 18732880, 2732151, 15492, 32308, 636702 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 64 ], [ 81, 109 ], [ 114, 128 ], [ 147, 176 ], [ 225, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Monetary amounts in the range of one to two major currency units are often spoken differently. In AmE one may say a dollar fifty or a pound eighty, whereas in BrE these amounts would be expressed one dollar fifty and one pound eighty. For amounts over a dollar an American will generally either drop denominations or give both dollars and cents, as in two-twenty or two dollars and twenty cents for $2.20. An American would not say two dollars twenty. On the other hand, in BrE, two-twenty or two pounds twenty would be most common.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is more common to hear a British-English speaker say one thousand two hundred dollars than a thousand two hundred dollars, although the latter construct is common in AmE. In British English, the \"\" comes after the hundreds (one thousand, two hundred thirty dollars). The term twelve hundred dollars, popular in AmE, is frequently used in BrE but only for exact multiples of 100 up to 1,900. Speakers of BrE very rarely hear amounts over 1,900 expressed in hundreds, for example, twenty-three hundred. In AmE it would not be unusual to refer to a high, uneven figure such as 2,307 as twenty-three hundred and seven.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In BrE, particularly in television or radio advertisements, integers can be pronounced individually in the expression of amounts. For example, on sale for £399 might be expressed on sale for three nine nine, though the full three hundred ninety-nine pounds is at least as common. An American advertiser would almost always say on sale for three ninety-nine, with context distinguishing $399 from $3.99. In British English the latter pronunciation implies a value in pounds and pence, so three ninety-nine would be understood as £3.99.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In spoken BrE the word pound is sometimes colloquially used for the plural as well. For example, three pound forty and twenty pound a week are both heard in British English. Some other currencies do not change in the plural; yen and rand being examples. This is in addition to normal adjectival use, as in a twenty-pound-a-week pay-rise (US raise). The euro most often takes a regular plural -s in practice despite the EU dictum that it should remain invariable in formal contexts; the invariable usage is more common in Ireland, where it is the official currency.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [ 1096516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 353, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In BrE the use of p instead of pence is common in spoken usage. Each of the following has equal legitimacy: 3 pounds 12 p; 3 pounds 12 p; 3 pounds 12 pence; 3 pounds 12 pence; as well as just 8 p or 8 pence. In everyday usage the amount is simply read as figures (£3.50 = three pounds fifty) as in AmE.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [ 140487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AmE uses words such as nickel, dime, and quarter for small coins. In BrE the usual usage is a 10-pence piece or a 10p piece or simply a 10p, for any coin below £1, pound coin and two-pound coin. BrE did have specific words for a number of coins before decimalisation. Formal coin names such as half crown (2/6) and florin (2/-), as well as slang or familiar names such as bob (1/-) and tanner (6d) for pre-decimalisation coins are still familiar to older BrE speakers but they are not used for modern coins. In older terms like two-bob bit (2/-) and thrupenny bit (3d), the word bit had common usage before decimalisation similar to that of piece today.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [ 358546, 374688, 32150, 39223, 521601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 29 ], [ 31, 35 ], [ 41, 48 ], [ 208, 244 ], [ 252, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In order to make explicit the amount in words on a check (BrE cheque), Americans write three and (using this solidus construction or with a horizontal division line): they do not need to write the word dollars as it is usually already printed on the check. On a cheque UK residents would write three pounds and 24 pence, three pounds ‒ 24, or three pounds ‒ 24p since the currency unit is not preprinted. To make unauthorised amendment difficult, it is useful to have an expression terminator even when a whole number of dollars/pounds is in use: thus, Americans would write three and or three and on a three-dollar check (so that it cannot easily be changed to, for example, three million), and UK residents would write three pounds only.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [ 59352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dates are usually written differently in the short (numerical) form. Christmas Day 2000, for example, is 25/12/00 or 25.12.00 in the UK and 12/25/00 in the US, although the formats 25/12/2000, 25.12.2000, and 12/25/2000 now have more currency than they had before Y2K. Occasionally other formats are encountered, such as the ISO 8601 2000-12-25, popular among programmers, scientists and others seeking to avoid ambiguity, and to make alphanumerical order coincide with chronological order. The difference in short-form date order can lead to misunderstanding, especially when using software or equipment that uses the foreign format. For example, 06/04/05 could mean either June 4, 2005 (if read as US format), 6 April 2005 (if seen as in UK format) or even 5 April 2006 if taken to be an older ISO 8601-style format where 2-digit years were allowed.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [ 25739013, 15024, 4009786, 55931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 267 ], [ 325, 333 ], [ 435, 447 ], [ 470, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When using the name of the month rather than the number to write a date in the UK, the recent standard style is for the day to precede the month, e. g., 21 April. Month preceding date is almost invariably the style in the US, and was common in the UK until the late twentieth century. British usage normally changes the day from an integer to an ordinal, i.e., 21st instead of 21. In speech, \"of\" and \"the\" are used in the UK, as in \"the 21st of April\". In written language, the words \"the\" and \"of\" may be and are usually dropped, i.e., 21st April. The US would say this as \"April 21st\", and this form is still common in the UK. One of the few exceptions in American English is saying \"the Fourth of July\" as a shorthand for the United States Independence Day. In the US military the British forms are used, but the day is read cardinally, while among some speakers of New England and Southern American English varieties and who come from those regions but live elsewhere, those forms are common, even in formal contexts.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [ 781729, 5463713, 627175 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 744, 760 ], [ 870, 881 ], [ 886, 911 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phrases such as the following are common in the UK but are generally unknown in the US: \"A week today\", \"a week tomorrow\", \"a week (on) Tuesday\" and \"Tuesday week\"; these all refer to a day which is more than a week into the future. \"A fortnight Friday\" and \"Friday fortnight\" refer to a day two weeks after the coming Friday). \"A week on Tuesday\" and \"a fortnight on Friday\" could refer either to a day in the past (\"it's a week on Tuesday, you need to get another one\") or in the future (\"see you a week on Tuesday\"), depending on context. In the US the standard construction is \"a week from today\", \"a week from tomorrow\", etc. BrE speakers may also say \"Thursday last\" or \"Thursday gone\" where AmE would prefer \"last Thursday\". \"I'll see you (on) Thursday coming\" or \"let's meet this coming Thursday\" in BrE refer to a meeting later this week, while \"not until Thursday next\" would refer to next week. In BrE there is also common use of the term 'Thursday after next' or 'week after next' meaning 2 weeks in the future and 'Thursday before last' and 'week before last' meaning 2 weeks in the past, but not when referring to times more than 2 weeks been or gone or when using the terms tomorrow today or yesterday then in BrE you would say '5 weeks on Tuesday' or '2 weeks yesterday'.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 24-hour clock (18:00, 18.00 or 1800) is considered normal in the UK and Europe in many applications including air, rail and bus timetables; it is largely unused in the US outside military, police, aviation and medical applications. As a result, many Americans refer to the 24-hour clock as military time. Some British English style guides recommend the full stop (.) when telling time, compared to American English which uses colons (:) (i.e., 11:15 PM/pm/p.m. or 23:15 for AmE and 11.15 pm or 23.15 for BrE). Usually in the military (and sometimes in the police, aviation and medical) applications on both sides of the Atlantic 0800 and 1800 are read as (oh/zero) eight hundred and eighteen hundred hours respectively. Even in the UK, hundred follows twenty, twenty-one, twenty-two and twenty-three when reading 2000, 2100, 2200 and 2300 according to those applications.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [ 241342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fifteen minutes after the hour is called quarter past in British usage and a quarter after or, less commonly, a quarter past in American usage. Fifteen minutes before the hour is usually called quarter to in British usage and a quarter of, a quarter to or a quarter 'til in American usage; the form a quarter to is associated with parts of the Northern United States, while a quarter 'til or till is found chiefly in the Appalachian region. Thirty minutes after the hour is commonly called half past in both BrE and AmE; half after used to be more common in the US. In informal British speech, the preposition is sometimes omitted, so that 5:30 may be referred to as half five; this construction is entirely foreign to US speakers, who would possibly interpret half five as 4:30 (halfway to 5:00) rather than 5:30. The AmE formations top of the hour and bottom of the hour are not used in BrE. Forms such as eleven forty are common in both varieties. To be simple and direct in telling time, no terms relating to fifteen or thirty minutes before/after the hour are used; rather the time is told exactly as for example nine fifteen, ten forty-five.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [ 509638, 292598 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 344, 366 ], [ 421, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In sports statistics, certain percentages such as those for winning or win–loss records and saves in field or ice hockey and association football are almost always expressed as a decimal proportion to three places in AmE and are usually read aloud as if they are whole numbers, e.g. (0).500 or five hundred, hence the phrase \"games/matches over five hundred\", whereas in BrE they are also expressed but as true percentages instead, after multiplying the decimal by 100%, that is, 50% or \"fifty per cent\" and \"games/matches over 50% or 50 per cent\". However, \"games/matches over 50% or 50 percent\" is also found in AmE, albeit sporadically, e.g., hitting percentages in volleyball.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [ 2514586, 567617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 79 ], [ 92, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The American practice of expressing so-called percentages in sports statistics as decimals originated with baseball's batting averages, developed by English-born statistician and historian Henry Chadwick.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Numerical expressions", "target_page_ids": [ 18786251, 14421 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 134 ], [ 189, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linguist Braj Kachru, quoted by The Christian Science Monitor in 1996, stated that \"American English is spreading faster than British English\". The Monitor stated that English taught in Europe and the Commonwealth is more British-influenced, while English taught in Latin America is more American-influenced; however, most English use outside the classroom is more influenced by the United States: Americans greatly outnumber Britons; in addition, as of 1993, the United States originated 75 per cent of the world's TV programming. A BBC columnist assessed in 2015 that \"American English is the current dominant force globally, like it or not\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 1285487, 227687, 9239, 21175158, 18524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 20 ], [ 32, 61 ], [ 186, 192 ], [ 197, 213 ], [ 266, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lists of words having different meanings in American and British English", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 454126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American and British English pronunciation differences", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2728442 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American and British English spelling differences", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2053693 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " American and British English grammatical differences", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 53871851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " British and American keyboards", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2399673 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of dialects of the English language", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 346590 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Algeo, John (2006). British or American English?. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hargraves, Orin (2003). Mighty Fine Words and Smashing Expressions. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " McArthur, Tom (2002). The Oxford Guide to World English. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Murphy, Lynne (2018). The Prodigal Tongue: The Love-Hate Relationship Between British and American English. London. Oneworld Publications. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Peters, Pam (2004). The Cambridge Guide to English Usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. .", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Trudgill, Peter and Jean Hannah. (2002). International English: A Guide to the Varieties of Standard English, 4th ed. London: Arnold. ", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Word substitution list, by the Ubuntu English (United Kingdom) Translators team", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Linguistics Issues List of American, Canadian and British spelling differences", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Map of US English dialects", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The Septic's Companion: A British Slang Dictionary", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " British English vs. American English Slang Compared", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " British English-American English Vocabulary Quiz", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "American_and_British_English_differences" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Atomic semantics is a type of guarantee provided by a data register shared by several processors in a parallel machine or in a network of computers working together.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5218, 145162 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 96 ], [ 102, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Atomic semantics are very strong. An atomic register provides strong guarantees even when there is concurrency and failures.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A read/write register R stores a value and is accessed by two basic operations: read and write(v). A read returns the value stored in R and write(v) changes the value stored in R to v.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A register is called atomic if it satisfies the two following properties:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1) Each invocation op of a read or write operation:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "•Must appear as if it were executed at a single point τ(op) in time.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "•τ (op) works as follow:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "τb(op) ≤ τ (op) ≤ τe(op): where τb(op) and τe(op) indicate the time when the operation op begins and ends.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "•If op1 ≠ op2, then τ (op1)≠τ (op2)", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "2) Each read operation returns the value written by the last write operation before the read, in the sequence where all operations are ordered by their τ values.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Atomic/Linearizable register:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Termination: when a node is correct, sooner or later each read and write operation will complete.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Safety Property (Linearization points for read and write and failed operations):", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Read operation:It appears as if happened at all nodes at some times between the invocation and response time.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Write operation: Similar to read operation, it appears as if happened at all nodes at some times between the invocation and response time.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Failed operation(The atomic term comes from this notion):It appears as if it is completed at every single node or it never happened at any node.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Example : We know that an atomic register is one that is linearizable to a sequential safe register.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following picture shows where we should put the linearization point for each operation:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "An atomic register could be defined for a variable with a single writer but multi- readers (SWMR), single-writer/single-reader (SWSR), or multi-writer/multi-reader (MWMR). Here is an example of a multi-reader multi-writer atomic register which is accessed by three processes (P1, P2, P3). Note that R. read() → v means that the corresponding read operation returns v, which is the value of the register. Therefore, the following execution of the register R could satisfies the definition of the atomic registers:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "R.write(1), R.read()→1, R.write(3), R.write(2), R.read()→2, R.read()→2.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Regular semantics", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 25983 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Safe semantics", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28254 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atomic semantics are defined formally in Lamport's \"On Interprocess Communication\" Distributed Computing 1, 2 (1986), 77-101. (Also appeared as SRC Research Report 8).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Concurrency_control" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC) is an ocean current that flows clockwise (as seen from the South Pole) from west to east around Antarctica. An alternative name for the ACC is the West Wind Drift. The ACC is the dominant circulation feature of the Southern Ocean and has a mean transport estimated at 100–150 Sverdrups (Sv, millionm3/s), or possibly even higher, making it the largest ocean current. The current is circumpolar due to the lack of any landmass connecting with Antarctica and this keeps warm ocean waters away from Antarctica, enabling that continent to maintain its huge ice sheet.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 376476, 18959138, 20611428, 92923, 493760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 59 ], [ 136, 146 ], [ 255, 269 ], [ 316, 324 ], [ 593, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Associated with the Circumpolar Current is the Antarctic Convergence, where the cold Antarctic waters meet the warmer waters of the subantarctic, creating a zone of upwelling nutrients. These nurture high levels of phytoplankton with associated copepods and krill, and resultant foodchains supporting fish, whales, seals, penguins, albatrosses, and a wealth of other species.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2787195, 9969628, 50557 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 68 ], [ 132, 144 ], [ 215, 228 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACC has been known to sailors for centuries; it greatly speeds up any travel from west to east, but makes sailing extremely difficult from east to west, although this is mostly due to the prevailing westerly winds. Jack London's story \"Make Westing\" and the circumstances preceding the mutiny on the Bounty poignantly illustrate the difficulty it caused for mariners seeking to round Cape Horn westbound on the clipper ship route from New York to California. The eastbound clipper route, which is the fastest sailing route around the world, follows the ACC around three continental capes – Cape Agulhas (Africa), South East Cape (Australia), and Cape Horn (South America).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 786501, 42978, 69406, 4460850, 3841204, 303684, 2712987, 4460850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 217 ], [ 219, 230 ], [ 290, 310 ], [ 388, 397 ], [ 477, 490 ], [ 594, 606 ], [ 617, 632 ], [ 650, 659 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current creates the Ross and Weddell gyres.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 17580356, 17580338 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 28 ], [ 33, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ACC connects the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, and serves as a principal pathway of exchange among them. The current is strongly constrained by landform and bathymetric features. To trace it starting arbitrarily at South America, it flows through the Drake Passage between South America and the Antarctic Peninsula and then is split by the Scotia Arc to the east, with a shallow warm branch flowing to the north in the Falkland Current and a deeper branch passing through the Arc more to the east before also turning to the north. Passing through the Indian Ocean, the current first retroflects the Agulhas Current to form the Agulhas Return Current before it is split by the Kerguelen Plateau, and then moving northward again. Deflection is also seen as it passes over the mid-ocean ridge in the Southeast Pacific.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 698, 23070, 14580, 250515, 965387, 330453, 573762, 13945015, 2316103, 548149, 46713959, 1779205, 1821971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 29 ], [ 31, 38 ], [ 44, 56 ], [ 156, 164 ], [ 169, 180 ], [ 263, 276 ], [ 307, 326 ], [ 352, 362 ], [ 431, 447 ], [ 611, 626 ], [ 639, 661 ], [ 688, 705 ], [ 786, 801 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current is accompanied by three fronts: the Subantarctic front (SAF), the Polar front (PF), and the Southern ACC front (SACC). Furthermore, the waters of the Southern Ocean are separated from the warmer and saltier subtropical waters by the subtropical front (STF).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 34989901, 2839326, 4551850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 42 ], [ 78, 89 ], [ 245, 262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The northern boundary of the ACC is defined by the northern edge of the SAF, this being the most northerly water to pass through Drake Passage and therefore be circumpolar. Much of the ACC transport is carried in this front, which is defined as the latitude at which a subsurface salinity minimum or a thick layer of unstratified Subantarctic mode water first appears, allowed by temperature dominating density stratification. Still further south lies the PF, which is marked by a transition to very cold, relatively fresh, Antarctic Surface Water at the surface. Here a temperature minimum is allowed by salinity dominating density stratification, due to the lower temperatures. Farther south still is the SACC, which is determined as the southernmost extent of Circumpolar Deep Water (temperature of about 2°C at 400m). This water mass flows along the shelfbreak of the western Antarctic Peninsula and thus marks the most southerly water flowing through Drake Passage and therefore circumpolar. The bulk of the transport is carried in the middle two fronts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 40984195, 37516041 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 343, 353 ], [ 763, 785 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The total transport of the ACC at Drake Passage is estimated to be around 135Sv, or about 135 times the transport of all the world's rivers combined. There is a relatively small addition of flow in the Indian Ocean, with the transport south of Tasmania reaching around 147Sv, at which point the current is probably the largest on the planet.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Structure", "target_page_ids": [ 29944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 244, 252 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The circumpolar current is driven by the strong westerly winds in the latitudes of the Southern Ocean.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dynamics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In latitudes where there are continents, winds blowing on light surface water can simply pile up light water against these continents. But in the Southern Ocean, the momentum imparted to the surface waters cannot be offset in this way. There are different theories on how the Circumpolar Current balances the momentum imparted by the winds. The increasing eastward momentum imparted by the winds causes water parcels to drift outward from the axis of the Earth's rotation (in other words, northward) as a result of the Coriolis force. This northward Ekman transport is balanced by a southward, pressure-driven flow below the depths of the major ridge systems. Some theories connect these flows directly, implying that there is significant upwelling of dense deep waters within the Southern Ocean, transformation of these waters into light surface waters, and a transformation of waters in the opposite direction to the north. Such theories link the magnitude of the Circumpolar Current with the global thermohaline circulation, particularly the properties of the North Atlantic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dynamics", "target_page_ids": [ 7783, 5634358, 387457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 519, 533 ], [ 550, 565 ], [ 1002, 1026 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alternatively, ocean eddies, the oceanic equivalent of atmospheric storms, or the large-scale meanders of the Circumpolar Current may directly transport momentum downward in the water column. This is because such flows can produce a net southward flow in the troughs and a net northward flow over the ridges without requiring any transformation of density. In practice both the thermohaline and the eddy/meander mechanisms are likely to be important.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dynamics", "target_page_ids": [ 4318651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current flows at a rate of about over the Macquarie Ridge south of New Zealand. The ACC varies with time. Evidence of this is the Antarctic Circumpolar Wave, a periodic oscillation that affects the climate of much of the southern hemisphere. There is also the Antarctic oscillation, which involves changes in the location and strength of Antarctic winds. Trends in the Antarctic Oscillation have been hypothesized to account for an increase in the transport of the Circumpolar Current over the past two decades.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Dynamics", "target_page_ids": [ 16749537, 325020, 1277885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 62 ], [ 135, 161 ], [ 265, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Published estimates of the onset of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current vary, but it is commonly considered to have started at the Eocene/Oligocene boundary. The isolation of Antarctica and formation of the ACC occurred with the openings of the Tasmanian Passage and the Drake Passage. The Tasmanian Seaway separates East Antarctica and Australia, and is reported to have opened to water circulation 33.5Ma. The timing of the opening of the Drake Passage, between South America and the Antarctic Peninsula, is more disputed; tectonic and sediment evidence show that it could have been open as early as pre-34Ma, estimates of the opening of the Drake passage are between 20 and 40Ma. The isolation of Antarctica by the current is credited by many researchers with causing the glaciation of Antarctica and global cooling in the Eocene epoch. Oceanic models have shown that the opening of these two passages limited polar heat convergence and caused a cooling of sea surface temperatures by several degrees; other models have shown that CO2 levels also played a significant role in the glaciation of Antarctica.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 9419, 22286, 58755835, 330453, 286818, 1067415, 9419 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 135 ], [ 136, 145 ], [ 243, 260 ], [ 269, 282 ], [ 523, 531 ], [ 773, 783 ], [ 824, 830 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Antarctic sea ice cycles seasonally, in February–March the amount of sea ice is lowest, and in August–September the sea ice is at its greatest extent. Ice levels have been monitored by satellite since 1973. Upwelling of deep water under the sea ice brings substantial amounts of nutrients. As the ice melts, the melt water provides stability and the critical depth is well below the mixing depth, which allows for a positive net primary production. As the sea ice recedes epontic algae dominate the first phase of the bloom, and a strong bloom dominate by diatoms follows the ice melt south.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Phytoplankton", "target_page_ids": [ 208303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 429, 447 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another phytoplankton bloom occurs more to the north near the Antarctic convergence, here nutrients are present from thermohaline circulation. Phytoplankton blooms are dominated by diatoms and grazed by copepods in the open ocean, and by krill closer to the continent. Diatom production continues through the summer, and populations of krill are sustained, bringing large numbers of cetaceans, cephalopods, seals, birds, and fish to the area.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Phytoplankton", "target_page_ids": [ 2787195, 387457, 7626, 42726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 83 ], [ 117, 141 ], [ 383, 391 ], [ 394, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Phytoplankton blooms are believed to be limited by irradiance in the austral (southern hemisphere) spring, and by biologically available iron in the summer. Much of the biology in the area occurs along the major fronts of the current, the Subtropical, Subantarctic, and the Antarctic Polar fronts, these are areas associated with well defined temperature changes. Size and distribution of phytoplankton are also related to fronts. Microphytoplankton (>20μm) are found at fronts and at sea ice boundaries, while nanophytoplankton (<20μm) are found between fronts.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Phytoplankton", "target_page_ids": [ 14598810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 511, 528 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Studies of phytoplankton stocks in the southern sea have shown that the Antarctic Circumpolar Current is dominated by diatoms, while the Weddell Sea has abundant coccolithophorids and silicoflagellates. Surveys of the SW Indian Ocean have shown phytoplankton group variation based on their location relative to the Polar Front, with diatoms dominating South of the front, and dinoflagellates and flagellates in higher populations North of the front.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Phytoplankton", "target_page_ids": [ 242660, 47520, 46374, 10585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 148 ], [ 162, 178 ], [ 333, 339 ], [ 396, 407 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some research has been conducted on Antarctic phytoplankton as a carbon sink. Areas of open water left from ice melt are good areas for phytoplankton blooms. The phytoplankton takes carbon from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. As the blooms die and sink, the carbon can be stored in sediments for thousands of years. This natural carbon sink is estimated to remove 3.5 million tonnes from the ocean each year. 3.5million tonnes of carbon taken from the ocean and atmosphere is equivalent to 12.8million tonnes of carbon dioxide.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Phytoplankton", "target_page_ids": [ 5980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An expedition in May 2008 by 19 scientists studied the geology and biology of eight Macquarie Ridge sea mounts, as well as the Antarctic Circumpolar Current to investigate the effects of climate change of the Southern Ocean. The circumpolar current merges the waters of the Atlantic, Indian, and Pacific Oceans and carries up to 150 times the volume of water flowing in all of the world's rivers. The study found that any damage on the cold-water corals nourished by the current will have a long-lasting effect. After studying the circumpolar current it is clear that it strongly influences regional and global climate as well as underwater biodiversity.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Studies", "target_page_ids": [ 16749537, 2119174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 99 ], [ 176, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The current helps preserve wooden shipwrecks by preventing wood-boring \"ship worms\" from reaching targets such as Ernest Shackleton's ship, the Endurance.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Studies", "target_page_ids": [ 170825, 60004, 2293646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 82 ], [ 114, 131 ], [ 144, 153 ] ] } ]

[ "Currents_of_the_Southern_Ocean", "Geography_of_the_Southern_Ocean", "Climate_of_Chile", "Subantarctic" ]

[ "ACC" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Arbor Day (or Arbour in some countries) is a secular day of observance in which individuals and groups are encouraged to plant trees. Today, many countries observe such a holiday. Though usually observed in the spring, the date varies, depending on climate and suitable planting season.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 354236, 13279, 18955875, 5999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 52 ], [ 53, 70 ], [ 127, 131 ], [ 249, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Spanish village of Mondoñedo held the first documented arbor plantation festival in the world organized by its mayor in 1594. The place remains as Alameda de los Remedios and it is still planted with lime and horse-chestnut trees. A humble granite marker and a bronze plate recall the event. Additionally, the small Spanish village of Villanueva de la Sierra held the first modern Arbor Day, an initiative launched in 1805 by the local priest with the enthusiastic support of the entire population.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 261456, 1420412 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 204, 208 ], [ 213, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first American Arbor Day was originated by J. Sterling Morton of Nebraska City, Nebraska, at an annual meeting of the Nebraska State board of agriculture held in Lincoln. On April 10, 1872, an estimated one million trees were planted in Nebraska.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 723930, 124098, 17653, 21647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 65 ], [ 69, 92 ], [ 166, 173 ], [ 241, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Birdsey Northrop of Connecticut was responsible for globalizing the idea when he visited Japan in 1883 and delivered his Arbor Day and Village Improvement message. In that same year, the American Forestry Association made Northrop the Chairman of the committee to campaign for Arbor Day nationwide. He also brought his enthusiasm for Arbor Day to Australia, Canada, and Europe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 6466, 15573, 5230473, 4689264, 5042916, 9239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 31 ], [ 89, 94 ], [ 187, 216 ], [ 347, 356 ], [ 358, 364 ], [ 370, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Beginning in 1906, Pennsylvania conservationist Major Israel McCreight of DuBois, Pennsylvania, argued that President Theodore Roosevelt’s conservation speeches were limited to businessmen in the lumber industry and recommended a campaign of youth education and a national policy on conservation education. McCreight urged Roosevelt to make a public statement to school children about trees and the destruction of American forests. Conservationist Gifford Pinchot, Chief of the United States Forest Service, embraced McCreight’s recommendations and asked the President to speak to the public school children of the United States about conservation. On April 15, 1907, Roosevelt issued an \"Arbor Day Proclamation to the School Children of the United States\" about the importance of trees and that forestry deserves to be taught in U.S. schools. Pinchot wrote McCreight, \"we shall all be indebted to you for having made the suggestion.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Origins and history", "target_page_ids": [ 23332, 2711708, 131993, 30535, 224687, 42652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 31 ], [ 48, 70 ], [ 74, 94 ], [ 118, 136 ], [ 449, 464 ], [ 479, 507 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arbor Day has been observed in Australia since 20 June 1889. National Schools Tree Day is held on the last Friday of July for schools and National Tree Day the last Sunday in July throughout Australia. Many states have Arbor Day, although Victoria has an Arbor Week, which was suggested by Premier Rupert (Dick) Hamer in the 1980s.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 4689460, 24655, 491160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 239, 247 ], [ 290, 297 ], [ 298, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International Day of Treeplanting is celebrated in Flanders on or around 21 March as a theme-day/educational-day/observance, not as a public holiday. Tree planting is sometimes combined with awareness campaigns of the fight against cancer: Kom Op Tegen Kanker.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 10878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Arbor Day (Dia da Árvore) is celebrated on September 21. It is not a national holiday. However, schools nationwide celebrate this day with environment-related activities, namely tree planting.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arbour Day is celebrated on November 22. It is sponsored by the National Parks Trust of the Virgin Islands. Activities include an annual national Arbour Day Poetry Competition and tree planting ceremonies throughout the territory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cambodia celebrates Arbor Day on July 9 with a tree planting ceremony attended by the king.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The day was founded by Sir George W. Ross, later the Premier of Ontario, when he was Minister of Education in Ontario (1883-1899). According to the Ontario Teachers' Manuals \"History of Education\" (1915), Ross established both Arbour Day and Empire Day - \"the former to give the school children an interest in making and keeping the school grounds attractive, and the latter to inspire the children with a spirit of patriotism\" (p.222). This predates the claimed founding of the day by Don Clark of Schomberg, Ontario for his wife Margret Clark in 1906. In Canada, National Forest Week is the last full week of September, and National Tree Day (Maple Leaf Day) falls on the Wednesday of that week. Ontario celebrates Arbour Week from the last Friday in April to the first Sunday in May. Prince Edward Island celebrates Arbour Day on the third Friday in May during Arbour Week. Arbour Day is the longest running civic greening project in Calgary and is celebrated on the first Thursday in May. On this day, each grade 1 student in Calgary's schools receives a tree seedling to be taken home to be planted on private property.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 56926349, 22218, 23071 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 565, 585 ], [ 698, 705 ], [ 787, 807 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Tree Planting Day is on July 22.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Dia del Arbol\" was celebrated on June 28th 2022, as defined by Chile's Environment Ministry", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arbor Day () was founded by the forester Ling Daoyang in 1915 and has been a traditional holiday in the Republic of China since 1916. The Beiyang government's Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce first commemorated Arbor Day in 1915 at the suggestion of forester Ling Daoyang. In 1916, the government announced that all provinces of the Republic of China would celebrate the on the same day as the Qingming Festival, April 5, despite the differences in climate across China, which is on the first day of the fifth solar term of the traditional Chinese lunisolar calendar. From 1929, by decree of the Nationalist government, Arbor Day was , to commemorate the death of Sun Yat-sen, who had been a major advocate of afforestation in his life.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 59610584, 843485, 3986480, 59610584, 33167689, 438060, 18382, 4192551, 88483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 53 ], [ 89, 96 ], [ 138, 156 ], [ 263, 275 ], [ 337, 354 ], [ 398, 415 ], [ 552, 570 ], [ 600, 622 ], [ 668, 679 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan in 1949, the celebration of Arbor Day on March 12 was retained. In mainland China, during the fourth session of the Fifth National People's Congress of the People's Republic of China in 1979 adopted the Resolution on the Unfolding of a Nationwide Voluntary Tree-planting Campaign. This resolution established the Arbor Day and stipulated that every able-bodied citizen between the ages of 11 and 60 should plant three to five trees per year or do the equivalent amount of work in seedling, cultivation, tree tending, or other services. Supporting documentation instructs all units to report population statistics to the local afforestation committees for workload allocation. Many couples choose to marry the day before the annual celebration, and they plant the tree to mark beginning of their life together and the new life of the tree.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 57868399, 8717276, 38878740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 21 ], [ 29, 64 ], [ 197, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Tree Planting Day is on November 6.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Día del Árbol\" is on June 15.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Dia del Árbol\" (Day of the Tree) was first observed on October 10, 1904 and is today observed in October of each year.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arbor Day in the Czech Republic is celebrated on October 20.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arbor Day is on January 15.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arbor Day (\"Tag des Baumes\") is on April 25. Its first celebration was in 1952.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Van Mahotsav is an annual pan-Indian tree planting festival, occupying a week in the month of July. During this event millions of trees are planted. It was initiated in 1950 by K. M. Munshi, the then Union Minister for Agriculture and Food, to create an enthusiasm in the mind of the populace for the conservation of forests and planting of trees.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 11780303 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The name Van Mahotsava (the festival of trees) originated in July 1947 after a successful tree-planting drive was undertaken in Delhi, in which national leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Dr Rajendra Prasad and Abul Kalam Azad participated. Paryawaran Sachetak Samiti, a leading environmental organization conducts mass events and activities on this special day celebration each year. The week was simultaneously celebrated in a number of states in the country.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 37756, 16243, 702083, 676919, 45434, 105070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 133 ], [ 166, 182 ], [ 184, 202 ], [ 207, 222 ], [ 275, 288 ], [ 289, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Iran, it is known as \"National Tree Planting Day\". By the Solar Hijri calendar, it is on the fifteenth day of the month Esfand, which usually corresponds with March 5. This day is the first day of the \"Natural Recyclable Resources Week\" (March 5 to 12).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 36692983, 868456, 20314, 20197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 81 ], [ 123, 129 ], [ 162, 169 ], [ 252, 254 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This is the time when the saplings of the all kinds in terms of different climates of different parts of Iran are shared among the people. They are also taught how to plant trees.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Jewish holiday Tu Bishvat, the new year for trees, is on the 15th day of the month of Shvat, which usually falls in January or February. Originally based on the date used to calculate the age of fruit trees for tithing as mandated in Leviticus 19:23–25, the holiday now is most often observed by planting trees or raising money to plant trees, and by eating fruit, specifically grapes, figs, pomegranates, olives, and dates. Tu Bishvat is a semi-official holiday in Israel; schools are open but Hebrew-speaking schools often go on tree-planting excursions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 30876015, 198924, 147619, 18187, 2764696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 215, 222 ], [ 238, 247 ], [ 450, 476 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Japan celebrates a similarly themed Greenery Day, held on May 4.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 490619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Tree Planting Day is on April 21. Often people plant palm trees and coconut trees along the Indian Ocean that borders the east coast of Kenya.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "North Korea marks \"Tree Planting Day\" on March 2, when people across the country plant trees. This day is considered to combine traditional Asian cultural values with the country's dominant Communist ideology.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 21255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In South Korea, April 5, Singmogil or Sikmogil (식목일), the Arbor Day, was a public holiday until 2005. Even though Singmogil is no longer an official holiday, the day is still celebrated, with the South Korean public continuing to take part in tree-planting activities.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 27019, 43051375, 495030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 25, 34 ], [ 75, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Tree Planting Day is usually on March 21 depending on the lunar cycle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "National Tree Planting Day is on the second Saturday in November.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "National Tree Planting Day is on the 2nd Monday of December.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Día del Árbol was established in Mexico in 1959 with President Adolfo López Mateos issuing a decree that it should be observed on the 2nd Thursday of July.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 390164 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 86 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Tree Planting Day is on the 2nd Saturday of May and October. The first National Tree Planting Day was celebrated May 8, 2010.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Namibia's first Arbor Day was celebrated on October 8, 2004. It takes place annually on the second Friday of October.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since conference and of the Food and Agriculture Organization's publication World Festival of Trees, and a resolution of the United Nations in 1954: \"The Conference, recognising the need of arousing mass consciousness of the aesthetic, physical and economic value of trees, recommends a World Festival of Trees to be celebrated annually in each member country on a date suited to local conditions\"; it has been adopted by the Netherlands. In 1957, the National Committee Day of Planting Trees/Foundation of National Festival of Trees (Nationale Boomplantdag/Nationale Boomfeestdag) was created.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 11107, 31769, 21148 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 61 ], [ 125, 139 ], [ 426, 437 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On the third Wednesday in March each year (near the spring equinox), three quarters of Dutch schoolchildren aged 10/11 and Dutch celebrities plant trees. Stichting Nationale Boomfeestdag organizes all the activities in the Netherlands for this day. Some municipalities however plant the trees around 21 September because of the planting season.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2007, the 50th anniversary was celebrated with special golden jubilee activities.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "New Zealand’s first Arbor Day planting was on 3 July 1890 at Greytown, in the Wairarapa. The first official celebration was scheduled to take place in Wellington in August 2012, with the planting of pohutukawa and Norfolk pines along Thorndon Esplanade.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 4913064, 1076015, 245795, 33804, 171900, 444064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 61, 69 ], [ 78, 87 ], [ 151, 161 ], [ 199, 209 ], [ 214, 227 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prominent New Zealand botanist Dr Leonard Cockayne worked extensively on native plants throughout New Zealand and wrote many notable botanical texts. As early as the 1920s he held a vision for school students of New Zealand to be involved in planting native trees and plants in their school grounds. This vision bore fruit and schools in New Zealand have long planted native trees on Arbor Day.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 2658134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1977, New Zealand has celebrated Arbor Day on 5 June, which is also World Environment Day. Prior to then, Arbor Day was celebrated on 4 August, which is rather late in the year for tree planting in New Zealand, hence the date change.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 1838622 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of the Department of Conservation's Arbor Day activities focus on ecological restoration projects using native plants to restore habitats that have been damaged or destroyed by humans or invasive pests and weeds. There are great restoration projects underway around New Zealand and many organisations including community groups, landowners, conservation organisations, iwi, volunteers, schools, local businesses, nurseries and councils are involved in them. These projects are part of a vision to protect and restore the indigenous biodiversity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 368208, 219984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 38 ], [ 374, 377 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1975, Niger has celebrated Arbor Day as part of its Independence Day: 3 August. On this day, aiding the fight against desertification, each Nigerien plants a tree. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 21373, 20761584, 8104 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 17 ], [ 58, 74 ], [ 124, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Having in mind the bad condition of the forest fund, and in particular the catastrophic wildfires which occurred in the summer of 2007, a citizens' initiative for afforestation was started in North Macedonia. The campaign by the name 'Tree Day-Plant Your Future' was first organized on 12 March 2008, when an official non-working day was declared and more than 150,000 Macedonians planted 2 million trees in one day (symbolically, one for each citizen). Six million more were planted in November the same year, and another 12,5 million trees in 2009. This has been established as a tradition and takes place every year.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 56106, 23564616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 96 ], [ 192, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National tree plantation day of Pakistan (قومی شجر کاری دن) is celebrated on 18 August.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since 1947, Arbor Day in the Philippines has been institutionalized to be observed throughout the nation by planting trees and ornamental plants and other forms of relevant activities. Its practice was instituted through Proclamation No. 30. It was subsequently revised by Proclamation No. 41, issued in the same year. In 1955, the commemoration was extended from a day to a week and moved to the last full week of July. Over two decades later, its commemoration was moved to the second week of June. In 2003, the commemorations were reduced from a week to a day and was moved to June 25 per Proclamation No. 396. The same proclamation directed \"the active participation of all government agencies, including government-owned and controlled corporations, private sector, schools, civil society groups and the citizenry in tree planting activity\". It was subsequently revised by Proclamation 643 in the succeeding year.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, Republic Act 10176 was passed, which revived tree planting events \"as [a] yearly event for local government units\" and mandated the planting of at least one tree per year for able-bodied Filipino citizens aged 12 years old and above. Since 2012, many local arbor day celebrations have been commemorated, as in the cases of Natividad and Tayug in Pangasinan and Santa Rita in Pampanga.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 2069125, 2069153, 2137111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 332, 341 ], [ 346, 351 ], [ 370, 380 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Poland, Arbor Day has been celebrated since 2002. Each October 10, many Polish people plant trees as well as participate in events organized by ecological foundations. Moreover, Polish Forest Inspectorates and schools give special lectures and lead ecological awareness campaigns.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arbor Day is celebrated on March 21. It is not a national holiday but instead schools nationwide celebrate this day with environment-related activities, namely tree planting.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "All-Russian day of forest plantation was celebrated for the first time on 14 May 2011. Now it is held in April–May (it depends on the weather in different regions).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 701438 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arbor Day in Samoa is celebrated on the first Friday in November.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arbor Day in Saudi Arabia is celebrated on April 29.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Arbor Day was celebrated from 1945 until 2000 in South Africa. After that, the national government extended it to National Arbor Week, which lasts annually from 1–7 September. Two trees, one common and one rare, are highlighted to increase public awareness of indigenous trees, while various \"greening\" activities are undertaken by schools, businesses and other organizations. For example, the social enterprise Greenpop, which focusses on sustainable urban greening, forest restoration and environmental awareness in Sub-Saharan Africa, leverages Arbor Day each year to call for tree planting action. During Arbor Month 2019, responding to recent studies that underscore the importance of tree restoration, they launched their new goal of planting 500,000 by 2025.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 17416221, 1690901, 20623119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 61 ], [ 394, 411 ], [ 452, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1896 Mariano Belmás Estrada promoted the first \"Festival of Trees\" in Madrid.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 61582923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Spain there was an International Forest Day on 21 March, but a decree in 1915 also brought in an Arbor Day throughout Spain. Each municipality or collective decides the date for its Arbor Day, usually between February and May. In Villanueva de la Sierra (Extremadura), where the first Arbor Day in the world was held in 1805, it is celebrated, as on that occasion, on Tuesday Carnaval. It is a great day in the local festive calendar.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 30503698, 13124681, 68204 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 46 ], [ 233, 256 ], [ 258, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As an example of commitment to nature, the small town of Pescueza, with only 180 inhabitants, organizes every spring a large plantation of holm oaks, which is called the \"Festivalino\", promoted by city council, several foundations, and citizen participation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 13124345 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Tree Planting Day is on November 15.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "National Tree Planting Day is on April 1.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "National Tree Planting Day is on March 24.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "First mounted in 1975, National Tree Week is a celebration of the start of the winter tree planting season, usually at the end of November. Around a million trees are planted each year by schools, community organizations and local authorities.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 6 February 2020, Myerscough College in Lancashire, England, supported by the Arbor Day Foundation, celebrated the UK's first Arbor Day.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 5570808, 58704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 38 ], [ 80, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arbor Day was founded in 1872 by J. Sterling Morton in Nebraska City, Nebraska. By the 1920s, each state in the United States had passed public laws that stipulated a certain day to be Arbor Day or Arbor and Bird Day observance.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 723930, 124098, 21647, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 51 ], [ 55, 68 ], [ 70, 78 ], [ 112, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "National Arbor Day is celebrated every year on the last Friday in April; it is a civic holiday in Nebraska. Other states have selected their own dates for Arbor Day.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [ 52396, 21647, 18618239 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 94 ], [ 98, 106 ], [ 114, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The customary observance is to plant a tree. On the first Arbor Day, April 10, 1872, an estimated one million trees were planted.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Venezuela recognizes Día del Arbol (Day of the Tree) on the last Sunday of May.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Around the world", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arbor Day Foundation (US)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 58704 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Earth Day", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 158548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Greenery Day (Japan)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 490619 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International Day of Forests", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30503698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " National Public Lands Day (US)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19469070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Timeline of environmental events", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3721271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tu BiShvat (Jewish holiday)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30876015 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " World Water Day", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1552902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " International Arbor Days", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arbor Day lesson plans for the classroom", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " National Arbor Day Foundation", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " State Arbor Days and state trees", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Environmental_awareness_days", "Trees_in_culture", "1872_establishments_in_Nebraska", "Recurring_events_established_in_1872", "Urban_forestry", "Reforestation", "Types_of_secular_holidays", "Forestry_events", "Holidays_and_observances_by_scheduling_(nth_weekday_of_the_month)", "Forestry-related_lists" ]

[ "Tree Day" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Sir Alfred Jules \"Freddie\" Ayer (; 29 October 1910– 27 June 1989), usually cited as A. J. Ayer, was an English philosopher known for his promotion of logical positivism, particularly in his books Language, Truth, and Logic (1936) and The Problem of Knowledge (1956).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18403, 3291133 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 169 ], [ 197, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was educated at Eton College and the University of Oxford, after which he studied the philosophy of logical positivism at the University of Vienna. From 1933 to 1940 he lectured on philosophy at Christ Church, Oxford.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 53228, 31797, 53049, 128325 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 31 ], [ 40, 60 ], [ 129, 149 ], [ 198, 219 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Second World War Ayer was a Special Operations Executive and MI6 agent.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 28898, 39923951 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 27 ], [ 39, 67 ], [ 72, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was Grote Professor of the Philosophy of Mind and Logic at University College London from 1946 until 1959, after which he returned to Oxford to become Wykeham Professor of Logic at New College. He was president of the Aristotelian Society from 1951 to 1952 and knighted in 1970. He was known for his advocacy of humanism, and was the second President of the British Humanist Association (now known as Humanists UK).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31110831, 52029, 3924999, 128354, 7527838, 16897, 5135982, 511455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 58 ], [ 62, 87 ], [ 154, 171 ], [ 184, 195 ], [ 221, 241 ], [ 264, 270 ], [ 315, 323 ], [ 361, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayer was born in St John's Wood, in north west London, to Jules Louis Cyprien Ayer and Reine (née Citroen), wealthy parents from continental Europe. His mother was from the Dutch-Jewish family who founded the Citroën car company in France; his father was a Swiss Calvinist financier who worked for the Rothschild family, including for their bank and as secretary to Alfred Rothschild.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 94270, 5867, 51310, 6024, 179855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 31 ], [ 129, 147 ], [ 209, 216 ], [ 263, 272 ], [ 302, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayer was educated at Ascham St Vincent's School, a former boarding preparatory school for boys in the seaside town of Eastbourne in Sussex, in which he started boarding at the comparatively early age of seven for reasons to do with the First World War, and Eton College, where he was a King's Scholar. It was at Eton that Ayer first became known for his characteristic bravado and precocity. Although primarily interested in furthering his intellectual pursuits, he was very keen on sports, particularly rugby, and reputedly played the Eton Wall Game very well. In the final examinations at Eton, Ayer came second in his year, and first in classics. In his final year, as a member of Eton's senior council, he unsuccessfully campaigned for the abolition of corporal punishment at the school. He won a classics scholarship to Christ Church, Oxford. He graduated with a BA with first-class honours.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 16437778, 2467778, 18729001, 49699, 4764461, 53228, 4478711, 178878, 20411847, 128325, 156992, 460615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 47 ], [ 67, 85 ], [ 118, 128 ], [ 132, 138 ], [ 236, 251 ], [ 257, 269 ], [ 286, 300 ], [ 536, 550 ], [ 757, 776 ], [ 825, 846 ], [ 868, 870 ], [ 876, 895 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After graduation from Oxford, Ayer spent a year in Vienna, returned to England and published his first book, Language, Truth and Logic in 1936. The first exposition in English of logical positivism as newly developed by the Vienna Circle, this made Ayer at age 26 the 'enfant terrible' of British philosophy. As a newly famous intellectual, Ayer played a prominent role in the Oxford by-election campaign of 1938. Ayer campaigned first for the Labour candidate Patrick Gordon Walker, and then for the joint Labour-Liberal \"Independent Progressive\" candidate Sandie Lindsay who ran on an anti-appeasement platform against the Conservative candidate, Quintin Hogg who ran as the appeasement candidate. The by-election when it was held on 27 October 1938 was quite close with Hogg winning a narrow victory over Lindsay. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 3291133, 18403, 225873, 19808760, 497614, 6780486, 78354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 134 ], [ 180, 198 ], [ 225, 238 ], [ 378, 396 ], [ 462, 483 ], [ 559, 573 ], [ 650, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Second World War he served as an officer in the Welsh Guards, chiefly in intelligence (Special Operations Executive (SOE) and MI6). Ayer was commissioned second lieutenant into the Welsh Guards from Officer Cadet Training Unit on 21 September 1940.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 39923951, 201930, 410731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 136 ], [ 162, 179 ], [ 189, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the war, he briefly returned to the University of Oxford where he became a fellow and Dean of Wadham College. He thereafter taught philosophy at London University from 1946 until 1959, when he also started to appear on radio and television. He was an extrovert and social mixer who liked dancing and attending the clubs in London and New York. He was also obsessed with sport: he had played rugby for Eton, and was a noted cricketer and a keen supporter of Tottenham Hotspur football team, where he was for many years a season ticket holder. For an academic, Ayer was an unusually well-connected figure in his time, with close links to 'high society' and the establishment. Presiding over Oxford high-tables, he is often described as charming, but at times he could also be intimidating.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 31797, 39090915, 60919, 68198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 62 ], [ 92, 114 ], [ 151, 168 ], [ 463, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayer was married four times to three women. His first marriage was from 1932–1941 to (Grace Isabel) Renée (d. 1980), with whom he had a son - alleged to be in fact the son of Ayer's friend and colleague, philosopher Stuart Hampshire - and a daughter. Renée subsequently married Stuart Hampshire. In 1960 he married Alberta Constance (Dee) Wells, with whom he had one son. Ayer's marriage to Wells was dissolved in 1983 and that same year he married Vanessa Salmon, former wife of politician Nigel Lawson. She died in 1985 and in 1989 he remarried Dee Wells, who survived him. Ayer also had a daughter with Hollywood columnist Sheilah Graham Westbrook.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 729989, 50922249, 101217, 8029723 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 232 ], [ 315, 344 ], [ 491, 503 ], [ 626, 650 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1950, Ayer attended the founding meeting of the Congress for Cultural Freedom in West Berlin, through he later stated that he only went because of the offer of a \"free trip\". Ayer gave a speech on why he felt that John Stuart Mill's classic liberal conceptions of liberty and freedom were still valid for the 20th century. Together with the historian Hugh Trevor-Roper, Ayer fought against Arthur Koestler and Franz Borkenau, arguing that the latter two were far too dogmatic and extreme in their anti-communism, and were in fact proposing illiberal measures in the defense of liberty. Adding to the tension was the location in West Berlin, together with the fact that the Korean War began on 25 June 1950, the fourth day of the congress, giving a feeling that the world was on the brink of war. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1187194, 15626, 140453, 18950939, 6140353, 33170, 16772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 80 ], [ 217, 233 ], [ 354, 371 ], [ 393, 408 ], [ 413, 427 ], [ 631, 642 ], [ 676, 686 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1959 to his retirement in 1978, Sir Alfred held the Wykeham Chair, Professor of Logic at Oxford. He was knighted in 1970. After his retirement, Ayer taught or lectured several times in the United States, including serving as a visiting professor at Bard College in the fall of 1987. At a party that same year held by fashion designer Fernando Sanchez, Ayer, then 77, confronted Mike Tyson who was forcing himself upon the (then) little-known model Naomi Campbell. When Ayer demanded that Tyson stop, the boxer reportedly asked, \"Do you know who the fuck I am? I'm the heavyweight champion of the world,\" to which Ayer replied, \"And I am the former Wykeham Professor of Logic. We are both pre-eminent in our field. I suggest that we talk about this like rational men\". Ayer and Tyson then began to talk, allowing Campbell to slip out. Ayer was also involved in politics being involved in anti-Vietnam War activism, supporting the Labour Party (and then later the Social Democratic Party), Chairman of the Campaign Against Racial Discrimination in Sport, and President of the Homosexual Law Reform Society.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 276259, 3581603, 39027, 19371120, 3924999, 40605472, 947922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 266 ], [ 339, 355 ], [ 383, 393 ], [ 453, 467 ], [ 653, 679 ], [ 967, 990 ], [ 1079, 1108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1988, a year before his death, Ayer wrote an article entitled, \"What I saw when I was dead\", describing an unusual near-death experience. Of the experience, Ayer first said that it \"slightly weakened my conviction that my genuine death... will be the end of me, though I continue to hope that it will be.\" However, a few weeks later he revised this, saying \"what I should have said is that my experiences have weakened, not my belief that there is no life after death, but my inflexible attitude towards that belief\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 19008500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayer died on 27 June 1989. From 1980 to 1989 Ayer lived at 51 York Street, Marylebone, where a memorial plaque was unveiled on 19 November 1995.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 24324929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Language, Truth and Logic (1936), Ayer presents the verification principle as the only valid basis for philosophy. Unless logical or empirical verification is possible, statements like \"God exists\" or \"charity is good\" are not true or untrue but meaningless, and may thus be excluded or ignored. Religious language in particular was unverifiable and as such literally nonsense. He also criticises C. A. Mace's opinion that metaphysics is a form of intellectual poetry. The stance that a belief in \"God\" denotes no verifiable hypothesis is sometimes referred to as igtheism (for example, by Paul Kurtz). In later years Ayer reiterated that he did not believe in God and began to refer to himself as an atheist. He followed in the footsteps of Bertrand Russell by debating with the Jesuit scholar Frederick Copleston on the topic of religion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophical ideas", "target_page_ids": [ 3292195, 5537708, 876488, 311092, 4163, 11161 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 77 ], [ 402, 412 ], [ 569, 577 ], [ 595, 605 ], [ 747, 763 ], [ 800, 819 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayer's version of emotivism divides \"the ordinary system of ethics\" into four classes:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophical ideas", "target_page_ids": [ 251323 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Propositions that express definitions of ethical terms, or judgements about the legitimacy or possibility of certain definitions\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophical ideas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Propositions describing the phenomena of moral experience, and their causes\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophical ideas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Exhortations to moral virtue\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophical ideas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Actual ethical judgments\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophical ideas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He focuses on propositions of the first class—moral judgments—saying that those of the second class belong to science, those of the third are mere commands, and those of the fourth (which are considered in normative ethics as opposed to meta-ethics) are too concrete for ethical philosophy.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophical ideas", "target_page_ids": [ 22081, 18917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 222 ], [ 237, 248 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayer argues that moral judgments cannot be translated into non-ethical, empirical terms and thus cannot be verified; in this he agrees with ethical intuitionists. But he differs from intuitionists by discarding appeals to intuition of non-empirical moral truths as \"worthless\" since the intuition of one person often contradicts that of another. Instead, Ayer concludes that ethical concepts are \"mere pseudo-concepts\":", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophical ideas", "target_page_ids": [ 886036 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 161 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1945 and 1947, together with Russell and George Orwell, he contributed a series of articles to Polemic, a short-lived British \"Magazine of Philosophy, Psychology, and Aesthetics\" edited by the ex-Communist Humphrey Slater.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophical ideas", "target_page_ids": [ 11891, 6197217, 22079280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 62 ], [ 103, 110 ], [ 214, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayer was closely associated with the British humanist movement. He was an Honorary Associate of the Rationalist Press Association from 1947 until his death. He was elected a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1963. In 1965, he became the first president of the Agnostics' Adoption Society and in the same year succeeded Julian Huxley as president of the British Humanist Association, a post he held until 1970. In 1968 he edited The Humanist Outlook, a collection of essays on the meaning of humanism. In addition he was one of the signers of the Humanist Manifesto.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Philosophical ideas", "target_page_ids": [ 29021, 30863521, 391882, 145837, 511455, 891548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 53 ], [ 100, 129 ], [ 205, 242 ], [ 357, 370 ], [ 391, 419 ], [ 584, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayer is best known for popularising the verification principle, in particular through his presentation of it in Language, Truth, and Logic (1936). The principle was at the time at the heart of the debates of the so-called Vienna Circle which Ayer visited as a young guest. Others, including the leading light of the circle, Moritz Schlick, were already offering their own papers on the issue. Ayer's own formulation was that a sentence can be meaningful only if it has verifiable empirical import; otherwise, it is either \"analytical\" if tautologous or \"metaphysical\" (i.e. meaningless, or \"literally senseless\"). He started to work on the book at the age of 23 and it was published when he was 26. Ayer's philosophical ideas were deeply influenced by those of the Vienna Circle and David Hume. His clear, vibrant and polemical exposition of them makes Language, Truth and Logic essential reading on the tenets of logical empiricism; the book is regarded as a classic of 20th century analytic philosophy, and is widely read in philosophy courses around the world. In it, Ayer also proposed that the distinction between a conscious man and an unconscious machine resolves itself into a distinction between \"different types of perceptible behaviour\", an argument that anticipates the Turing test published in 1950 to test a machine's capability to demonstrate intelligence.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 3292195, 3291133, 225873, 207322, 307139, 6395956, 4495335, 7925, 18403, 159211, 21391751 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 62 ], [ 112, 138 ], [ 222, 235 ], [ 324, 338 ], [ 480, 489 ], [ 524, 534 ], [ 539, 550 ], [ 784, 794 ], [ 915, 933 ], [ 986, 1005 ], [ 1284, 1295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayer wrote two books on the philosopher Bertrand Russell, Russell and Moore: The Analytic Heritage (1971) and Russell (1972). He also wrote an introductory book on the philosophy of David Hume and a short biography of Voltaire.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 4163, 7925, 32375 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 56 ], [ 182, 192 ], [ 218, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayer was a strong critic of the German philosopher Martin Heidegger. As a logical positivist Ayer was in conflict with Heidegger's proposed vast, overarching theories regarding existence. These he felt were completely unverifiable through empirical demonstration and logical analysis, and this sort of philosophy an unfortunate strain in modern thought. He considered Heidegger to be the worst example of such philosophy, which Ayer believed to be entirely useless. In Philosophy in the Twentieth Century (1982) Ayer accuses Heidegger of \"surprising ignorance\" or \"unscrupulous distortion\" and \"what can fairly be described as charlatanism.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 37304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 67 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1972–1973 Ayer gave the Gifford Lectures at the University of St Andrews, later published as The Central Questions of Philosophy. In the preface to the book, he defends his selection to hold the lectureship on the basis that Lord Gifford wished to promote \"natural theology\", in the widest sense of that term\", and that non-believers are allowed to give the lectures if they are \"able reverent men, true thinkers, sincere lovers of and earnest inquirers after truth\". He still believed in the viewpoint he shared with the logical positivists: that large parts of what was traditionally called \"philosophy\"including the whole of metaphysics, theology and aestheticswere not matters that could be judged as being true or false and that it was thus meaningless to discuss them.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 344519, 181348, 21665, 18895, 2130 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 43 ], [ 51, 75 ], [ 260, 276 ], [ 631, 642 ], [ 657, 667 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In The Concept of a Person and Other Essays (1963), Ayer heavily criticized Wittgenstein's private language argument.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 17741, 2848825 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 88 ], [ 91, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayer's sense-data theory in Foundations of Empirical Knowledge was famously criticised by fellow Oxonian J. L. Austin in Sense and Sensibilia, a landmark 1950s' work of common language philosophy. Ayer responded to this in the essay \"Has Austin Refuted the Sense-datum Theory?\", which can be found in his Metaphysics and Common Sense (1969).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 238143, 2511914 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 117 ], [ 121, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was awarded a Knighthood as Knight Bachelor in the London Gazette on 1 January 1970.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Awards", "target_page_ids": [ 390067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1936, Language, Truth, and Logic, London: Gollancz., 2nd ed., with new introduction (1946) ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1936, \"Causation and free will,\" The Aryan Path.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [ 7446629 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1940, The Foundations of Empirical Knowledge, London: Macmillan. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1954, Philosophical Essays, London: Macmillan. (Essays on freedom, phenomenalism, basic propositions, utilitarianism, other minds, the past, ontology.) ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1957, \"The conception of probability as a logical relation\", in S. Korner, ed., Observation and Interpretation in the Philosophy of Physics, New York, N.Y.: Dover Publications.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [ 7870826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1956, The Problem of Knowledge, London: Macmillan. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1957, \"Logical Positivism - A Debate\" (with F. C. Copleston) in: Edwards, Paul, Pap, Arthur (eds.), A Modern Introduction to Philosophy; readings from classical and contemporary sources", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [ 11161, 2159372, 4017696 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 60 ], [ 66, 79 ], [ 81, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1963, The Concept of a Person and Other Essays, London: Macmillan. (Essays on truth, privacy and private languages, laws of nature, the concept of a person, probability.) ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1967, \"Has Austin Refuted the Sense-Datum Theory?\" Synthese vol. XVIII, pp.117–140. (Reprinted in Ayer 1969).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1968, The Origins of Pragmatism, London: Macmillan. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1969, Metaphysics and Common Sense, London: Macmillan. (Essays on knowledge, man as a subject for science, chance, philosophy and politics, existentialism, metaphysics, and a reply to Austin on sense-data theory [Ayer 1967].) ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1971, The Analytical Heritage, London: Macmillan. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1972, Probability and Evidence, London: Macmillan. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1972, Russell, London: Fontana Modern Masters. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [ 29176975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1973, The Central Questions of Philosophy, London: Weidenfeld. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1977, Part of My Life, London: Collins. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1979, \"Replies\", in G. F. Macdonald, ed., Perception and Identity: Essays Presented to A. J. Ayer, With His Replies, London: Macmillan; Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1980, Hume, Oxford: Oxford University Press", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1982, Philosophy in the Twentieth Century, London: Weidenfeld.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1984, Freedom and Morality and Other Essays, Oxford: Clarendon Press.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1984, More of My Life, London: Collins.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1986, Ludwig Wittgenstein, London: Penguin.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1986, Voltaire, New York: Random House.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1988, Thomas Paine, London: Secker & Warburg. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1990, The Meaning of Life and Other Essays, Weidenfeld & Nicolson.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1991, \"A Defense of Empiricism\" in: Griffiths, A. Phillips (ed.), Memorial Essays (Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplements). Cambridge University Press.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [ 65673136 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1992, \"Intellectual Autobiography\" and Repiies in: Lewis Edwin Hahn (ed.), The Philosophy of A.J. Ayer (The Library of Living Philosophers Volume XXI), Open Court Publishing Co.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For more complete publication details see \"The Philosophical Works of A. J. Ayer\" (1979) and \"Bibliography of the writings of A.J. Ayer\" (1992).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A priori knowledge", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6679056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of British philosophers", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23023599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ayer, A.J. (1989). \"That undiscovered country\", New Humanist, Vol. 104 (1), May, pp.10–13.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rogers, Ben (1999). A.J. Ayer: A Life. New York: Grove Press. . (Chapter one and a review by Hilary Spurling, The New York Times, 24 December 2000.)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Jim Holt, \"Positive Thinking\" (review of Karl Sigmund, Exact Thinking in Demented Times: The Vienna Circle and the Epic Quest for the Foundations of Science, Basic Books, 449 pp.), The New York Review of Books, vol. LXIV, no. 20 (21 December 2017), pp.74–76.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 38184237, 8066527, 297129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 41, 53 ], [ 182, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ted Honderich, Ayer's Philosophy and its Greatness.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 912033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anthony Quinton, Alfred Jules Ayer. Proceedings of the British Academy, 94 (1996), pp.255–282.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 2158784 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Graham Macdonald, Alfred Jules Ayer, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 7 May 2005.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 357356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Logical Positivism\" (video) Men of Ideas interview with Bryan Magee (1978)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 43324802, 851085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 42 ], [ 58, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Frege, Russell, and Modern Logic\" (video) The Great Philosophers interview with Bryan Magee (1987)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 43333113 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ayer's Elizabeth Rathbone Lecture on Philosophy & Politics", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ayer entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A.J. Ayer: Out of time by Alex Callinicos", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 427836 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Appearance on Desert Island Discs - 3 August 1984", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

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[ "Alfred Jules Ayer", "Alfred J. Ayer", "Sir Alfred Jules Ayer" ]

[ { "plaintext": "André Weil (; ; 6 May 1906 – 6 August 1998) was a French mathematician, known for his foundational work in number theory and algebraic geometry. He was a founding member and the de facto early leader of the mathematical Bourbaki group. The philosopher Simone Weil was his sister. The writer Sylvie Weil is his daughter.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18902, 21527, 1997, 167394, 23276, 179955, 63779108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 70 ], [ 107, 120 ], [ 125, 143 ], [ 220, 234 ], [ 240, 251 ], [ 252, 263 ], [ 291, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "André Weil was born in Paris to agnostic Alsatian Jewish parents who fled the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine by the German Empire after the Franco-Prussian War in 1870–71. Simone Weil, who would later become a famous philosopher, was Weil's younger sister and only sibling. He studied in Paris, Rome and Göttingen and received his doctorate in 1928. While in Germany, Weil befriended Carl Ludwig Siegel. Starting in 1930, he spent two academic years at Aligarh Muslim University in India. Aside from mathematics, Weil held lifelong interests in classical Greek and Latin literature, in Hinduism and Sanskrit literature: he had taught himself Sanskrit in 1920. After teaching for one year at Aix-Marseille University, he taught for six years at University of Strasbourg. He married Éveline de Possel (née Éveline Gillet) in 1937.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 22989, 894, 18310813, 206997, 12674, 44035, 179955, 25458, 23307013, 21031297, 716602, 42348022, 13543, 589920, 4876289, 722824 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 28 ], [ 32, 40 ], [ 41, 53 ], [ 92, 107 ], [ 115, 128 ], [ 139, 158 ], [ 171, 182 ], [ 294, 298 ], [ 303, 312 ], [ 330, 339 ], [ 383, 401 ], [ 452, 477 ], [ 585, 593 ], [ 598, 617 ], [ 690, 714 ], [ 743, 767 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Weil was in Finland when World War II broke out; he had been traveling in Scandinavia since April 1939. His wife Éveline returned to France without him. Weil was mistakenly arrested in Finland at the outbreak of the Winter War on suspicion of spying; however, accounts of his life having been in danger were shown to be exaggerated. Weil returned to France via Sweden and the United Kingdom, and was detained at Le Havre in January 1940. He was charged with failure to report for duty, and was imprisoned in Le Havre and then Rouen. It was in the military prison in Bonne-Nouvelle, a district of Rouen, from February to May, that Weil completed the work that made his reputation. He was tried on 3 May 1940. Sentenced to five years, he requested to be attached to a military unit instead, and was given the chance to join a regiment in Cherbourg. After the fall of France in June 1940, he met up with his family in Marseille, where he arrived by sea. He then went to Clermont-Ferrand, where he managed to join his wife Éveline, who had been living in German-occupied France.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 10577, 32927, 33924, 54004, 49114, 51715226, 228080, 40888948, 83240 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 19 ], [ 25, 37 ], [ 216, 226 ], [ 412, 420 ], [ 526, 531 ], [ 836, 845 ], [ 857, 871 ], [ 915, 924 ], [ 967, 983 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 1941, Weil and his family sailed from Marseille to New York. He spent the remainder of the war in the United States, where he was supported by the Rockefeller Foundation and the Guggenheim Foundation. For two years, he taught undergraduate mathematics at Lehigh University, where he was unappreciated, overworked and poorly paid, although he did not have to worry about being drafted, unlike his American students. He quit the job at Lehigh and moved to Brazil, where he taught at the Universidade de São Paulo from 1945 to 1947, working with Oscar Zariski. Weil and his wife had two daughters, Sylvie (born in 1942) and Nicolette (born in 1946).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 227730, 436553, 43051, 561499, 359352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 180 ], [ 189, 210 ], [ 266, 283 ], [ 496, 521 ], [ 554, 567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He then returned to the United States and taught at the University of Chicago from 1947 to 1958, before moving to the Institute for Advanced Study, where he would spend the remainder of his career. He was a Plenary Speaker at the ICM in 1950 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1954 in Amsterdam, and in 1978 in Helsinki. Weil was elected Foreign Member of the Royal Society in 1966. In 1979, he shared the second Wolf Prize in Mathematics with Jean Leray.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 32127, 184179, 627842, 41331238, 714278, 245430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 77 ], [ 118, 146 ], [ 230, 233 ], [ 335, 378 ], [ 410, 435 ], [ 441, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Weil made substantial contributions in a number of areas, the most important being his discovery of profound connections between algebraic geometry and number theory. This began in his doctoral work leading to the Mordell–Weil theorem (1928, and shortly applied in Siegel's theorem on integral points). Mordell's theorem had an ad hoc proof; Weil began the separation of the infinite descent argument into two types of structural approach, by means of height functions for sizing rational points, and by means of Galois cohomology, which would not be categorized as such for another two decades. Both aspects of Weil's work have steadily developed into substantial theories.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 1997, 21527, 23087727, 3989092, 23087727, 358069, 3141855, 1111315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 147 ], [ 152, 165 ], [ 214, 234 ], [ 265, 300 ], [ 303, 320 ], [ 375, 391 ], [ 452, 467 ], [ 513, 530 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among his major accomplishments were the 1940s proof of the Riemann hypothesis for zeta-functions of curves over finite fields, and his subsequent laying of proper foundations for algebraic geometry to support that result (from 1942 to 1946, most intensively). The so-called Weil conjectures were hugely influential from around 1950; these statements were later proved by Bernard Dwork, Alexander Grothendieck, Michael Artin, and finally by Pierre Deligne, who completed the most difficult step in 1973.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 244705, 26402563, 244705, 1678313, 2042, 1519821, 394544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 97 ], [ 164, 198 ], [ 275, 291 ], [ 372, 385 ], [ 387, 409 ], [ 411, 424 ], [ 441, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Weil introduced the adele ring in the late 1930s, following Claude Chevalley's lead with the ideles, and gave a proof of the Riemann–Roch theorem with them (a version appeared in his Basic Number Theory in 1967). His 'matrix divisor' (vector bundle avant la lettre) Riemann–Roch theorem from 1938 was a very early anticipation of later ideas such as moduli spaces of bundles. The Weil conjecture on Tamagawa numbers proved resistant for many years. Eventually the adelic approach became basic in automorphic representation theory. He picked up another credited Weil conjecture, around 1967, which later under pressure from Serge Lang (resp. of Serre) became known as the Taniyama–Shimura conjecture (resp. Taniyama–Weil conjecture) based on a roughly formulated question of Taniyama at the 1955 Nikkō conference. His attitude towards conjectures was that one should not dignify a guess as a conjecture lightly, and in the Taniyama case, the evidence was only there after extensive computational work carried out from the late 1960s.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 247978, 366040, 1168608, 247261, 64463469, 276524, 3036289, 782146, 872991, 174475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 30 ], [ 60, 76 ], [ 93, 98 ], [ 125, 145 ], [ 183, 202 ], [ 235, 248 ], [ 380, 415 ], [ 496, 522 ], [ 623, 633 ], [ 671, 698 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other significant results were on Pontryagin duality and differential geometry. He introduced the concept of a uniform space in general topology, as a by-product of his collaboration with Nicolas Bourbaki (of which he was a Founding Father). His work on sheaf theory hardly appears in his published papers, but correspondence with Henri Cartan in the late 1940s, and reprinted in his collected papers, proved most influential. He also chose the symbol ∅, derived from the letter Ø in the Norwegian alphabet (which he alone among the Bourbaki group was familiar with), to represent the empty set.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 366136, 8625, 32339, 178649, 167394, 245466, 362536, 22965711, 184310, 194323, 9566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 52 ], [ 57, 78 ], [ 111, 124 ], [ 128, 144 ], [ 188, 204 ], [ 254, 266 ], [ 331, 343 ], [ 452, 453 ], [ 479, 480 ], [ 488, 506 ], [ 585, 594 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Weil also made a well-known contribution in Riemannian geometry in his very first paper in 1926, when he showed that the classical isoperimetric inequality holds on non-positively curved surfaces. This established the 2-dimensional case of what later became known as the Cartan–Hadamard conjecture.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 195243, 326182, 62358280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 63 ], [ 131, 155 ], [ 271, 297 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He discovered that the so-called Weil representation, previously introduced in quantum mechanics by Irving Segal and David Shale, gave a contemporary framework for understanding the classical theory of quadratic forms. This was also a beginning of a substantial development by others, connecting representation theory and theta functions.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 2981795, 25202, 2255484, 61908916, 251478, 19378200, 449745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 52 ], [ 79, 96 ], [ 100, 112 ], [ 117, 128 ], [ 202, 216 ], [ 296, 317 ], [ 322, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Weil was a member of both the National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Work", "target_page_ids": [ 46510, 283120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 58 ], [ 67, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Weil's ideas made an important contribution to the writings and seminars of Bourbaki, before and after World War II. He also wrote several books on the history of number theory.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "As expositor", "target_page_ids": [ 167394 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Indian (Hindu) thought had great influence on Weil. He was an agnostic, and he respected religions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Beliefs", "target_page_ids": [ 307365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Asteroid 289085 Andreweil, discovered by astronomers at the Saint-Sulpice Observatory in 2004, was named in his memory. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 14 February 2014 ().", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 39867639, 3862683, 578869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 25 ], [ 60, 85 ], [ 155, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mathematical works:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Arithmétique et géométrie sur les variétés algébriques (1935)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sur les espaces à structure uniforme et sur la topologie générale (1937)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " L'intégration dans les groupes topologiques et ses applications (1940)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sur les courbes algébriques et les variétés qui s'en déduisent (1948)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Variétés abéliennes et courbes algébriques (1948)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Introduction à l'étude des variétés kählériennes (1958)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Discontinuous subgroups of classical groups (1958) Chicago lecture notes", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dirichlet Series and Automorphic Forms, Lezioni Fermiane (1971) Lecture Notes in Mathematics, vol. 189", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Essais historiques sur la théorie des nombres (1975)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Elliptic Functions According to Eisenstein and Kronecker (1976)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Number Theory for Beginners (1979) with Maxwell Rosenlicht", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Adeles and Algebraic Groups (1982)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Number Theory: An Approach Through History From Hammurapi to Legendre (1984)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Collected papers:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Œuvres Scientifiques, Collected Works, three volumes (1979)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Autobiography:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [ 2179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " French: Souvenirs d'Apprentissage (1991) . Review in English by J. E. Cremona.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " English translation: The Apprenticeship of a Mathematician (1992), Review by Veeravalli S. Varadarajan; Review by Saunders Mac Lane", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [ 33119851, 336574 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 104 ], [ 116, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Memoir by his daughter:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " At Home with André and Simone Weil by Sylvie Weil, translated by Benjamin Ivry; , Northwestern University Press, 2010.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Books", "target_page_ids": [ 14302085, 7121312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 79 ], [ 83, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of things named after André Weil", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39490837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Trench", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 57876975 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " André Weil, by A. Borel, Bull. AMS 46 (2009), 661–666.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " André Weil: memorial articles in the Notices of the AMS by Armand Borel, Pierre Cartier, Komaravolu Chandrasekharan, Shiing-Shen Chern, and Shokichi Iyanaga", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 4977512, 365672, 1470549, 22907213, 391905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 56 ], [ 60, 72 ], [ 74, 88 ], [ 90, 116 ], [ 118, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Image of Weil", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A 1940 Letter of André Weil on Analogy in Mathematics", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Artless innocents and ivory-tower sophisticates: Some personalities on the Indian mathematical scene – M. S. Raghunathan", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 18730540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " La vie et l'oeuvre d'André Weil, by J-P. Serre, L'Ens. Math. 45 (1999),5–16.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Correspondence entre Henri Cartan et André Weil (1928–1991), par Michèle Audin, Doc. Math. 6, Soc. Math. France, 2011.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1906_births", "1998_deaths", "20th-century_French_mathematicians", "Jewish_French_scientists", "Historians_of_mathematics", "Jewish_agnostics", "French_agnostics", "French_people_of_Jewish_descent", "Institute_for_Advanced_Study_faculty", "Aligarh_Muslim_University_faculty", "Arithmetic_geometers", "École_Normale_Supérieure_alumni", "Nicolas_Bourbaki", "Members_of_the_French_Academy_of_Sciences", "Kyoto_laureates_in_Basic_Sciences", "Wolf_Prize_in_Mathematics_laureates", "Aligarh_Muslim_University_alumni", "University_of_São_Paulo_faculty", "Foreign_Members_of_the_Royal_Society", "Foreign_associates_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences", "Scientists_from_Paris", "Lycée_Saint-Louis_alumni", "20th-century__French__historians", "Members_of_the_American_Philosophical_Society", "French_expatriates_in_Brazil", "French_expatriates_in_the_United_States" ]

[ "Andre Weil" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Achaeans (; Akhaioí, \"the Achaeans\" or \"of Achaea\") is one of the names in Homer which is used to refer to the Greeks collectively.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 13633, 2445603 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 85 ], [ 95, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"Achaean\" is believed to be related to the Hittite term Ahhiyawa and the Egyptian term Ekwesh which appear in texts from the Late Bronze Age and are believed to refer to the Mycenaean civilization or some part of it. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 351025, 46918, 4620, 565602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 59 ], [ 82, 90 ], [ 134, 149 ], [ 183, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the historical period, the term fell into disuse as a general term for Greek people, and was generally reserved for inhabitants of the region of Achaea, a region in the north-central part of the Peloponnese. The city-states of this region later formed a confederation known as the Achaean League, which was influential during the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25776901, 45749, 508563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 148, 154 ], [ 198, 209 ], [ 284, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Homer, the term Achaeans is one of the primary terms used to refer to the Greeks as a whole. It is used 598 times in the Iliad, often accompanied by the epithet \"long-haired\". Other common names used in Homer are Danaans (; Danaoi; used 138 times in the Iliad) and Argives (; ; used 182 times in the Iliad) while Panhellenes ( Panhellenes, \"All of the Greeks\") and Hellenes (; Hellenes) both appear only once; All of the aforementioned terms were used synonymously to denote a common Greek identity. In some English translations of the Iliad, the Achaeans are simply called the Greeks throughout.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Homeric versus later use", "target_page_ids": [ 13633, 19381951, 85272, 8384405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ], [ 124, 129 ], [ 398, 414 ], [ 514, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later, by the Archaic and Classical periods, the term \"Achaeans\" referred to inhabitants of the much smaller region of Achaea. Herodotus identified the Achaeans of the northern Peloponnese as descendants of the earlier, Homeric Achaeans. According to Pausanias, writing in the 2nd century CE, the term \"Achaean\" was originally given to those Greeks inhabiting the Argolis and Laconia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Homeric versus later use", "target_page_ids": [ 1844767, 11936957, 25776901, 13574, 25776901, 45749, 416255, 461032, 18386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 21 ], [ 26, 35 ], [ 119, 125 ], [ 127, 136 ], [ 152, 160 ], [ 177, 188 ], [ 251, 260 ], [ 364, 371 ], [ 376, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pausanias and Herodotus both recount the legend that the Achaeans were forced from their homelands by the Dorians, during the legendary Dorian invasion of the Peloponnese. They then moved into the region later called Achaea.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Homeric versus later use", "target_page_ids": [ 8216, 620378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 113 ], [ 136, 151 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A scholarly consensus has not yet been reached on the origin of the historic Achaeans relative to the Homeric Achaeans and is still hotly debated. Former emphasis on presumed race, such as John A. Scott's article about the blond locks of the Achaeans as compared to the dark locks of \"Mediterranean\" Poseidon, on the basis of hints in Homer, has been rejected by some. The contrasting belief that \"Achaeans\", as understood through Homer, is \"a name without a country\", an ethnos created in the Epic tradition, has modern supporters among those who conclude that \"Achaeans\" were redefined in the 5th century BC, as contemporary speakers of Aeolic Greek.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Homeric versus later use", "target_page_ids": [ 22948, 734995, 429475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 300, 308 ], [ 494, 508 ], [ 639, 651 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karl Beloch suggested there was no Dorian invasion, but rather that the Peloponnesian Dorians were the Achaeans. Eduard Meyer, disagreeing with Beloch, instead put forth the suggestion that the real-life Achaeans were mainland pre-Dorian Greeks. His conclusion is based on his research on the similarity between the languages of the Achaeans and pre-historic Arcadians. William Prentice disagreed with both, noting archeological evidence suggests the Achaeans instead migrated from \"southern Asia Minor to Greece, probably settling first in lower Thessaly\" probably prior to 2000 BC.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Homeric versus later use", "target_page_ids": [ 17584965, 7887090, 854, 24106170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 113, 125 ], [ 492, 502 ], [ 547, 555 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emil Forrer, a Swiss Hittitologist who worked on the Boghazköy tablets in Berlin, said the Achaeans of pre-Homeric Greece were directly associated with the term \"Land of Ahhiyawa\" mentioned in the Hittite texts. His conclusions at the time were challenged by other Hittitologists (i.e. Johannes Friedrich in 1927 and Albrecht Götze in 1930), as well as by Ferdinand Sommer, who published his Die Ahhijava-Urkunden (\"The Ahhiyawa Documents\") in 1932.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hittite documents", "target_page_ids": [ 6197070, 7351032, 3354, 3418875, 14670668 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 15, 20 ], [ 74, 80 ], [ 286, 304 ], [ 317, 331 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some Hittite texts mention a nation lying to the west called Ahhiyawa. In the earliest reference to this land, a letter outlining the treaty violations of the Hittite vassal Madduwatta, it is called Ahhiya. Another important example is the Tawagalawa Letter written by an unnamed Hittite king (most probably Hattusili III) of the empire period (14th–13th century BC) to the king of Ahhiyawa, treating him as an equal and implying Miletus (Millawanda) was under his control. It also refers to an earlier \"Wilusa episode\" involving hostility on the part of Ahhiyawa. Ahhiya(wa) has been identified with the Achaeans of the Trojan War and the city of Wilusa with the legendary city of Troy (note the similarity with early Greek Wilion, later Ilion, the name of the acropolis of Troy). The exact relationship of the term Ahhiyawa to the Achaeans beyond a similarity in pronunciation was hotly debated by scholars, even following the discovery that Mycenaean Linear B is an early form of Greek; the earlier debate was summed up in 1984 by Hans G. Güterbock of the Oriental Institute. More recent research based on new readings and interpretations of the Hittite texts, as well as of the material evidence for Mycenaean contacts with the Anatolian mainland, came to the conclusion that Ahhiyawa referred to the Mycenaean world, or at least to a part of it.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Hittite documents", "target_page_ids": [ 351025, 3092261, 4810477, 13308, 1070870, 70997, 30058, 1042506, 30059, 1536, 18551, 704006, 21702867, 417151 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 12 ], [ 174, 184 ], [ 240, 257 ], [ 280, 287 ], [ 308, 321 ], [ 430, 437 ], [ 621, 631 ], [ 648, 654 ], [ 682, 686 ], [ 764, 773 ], [ 956, 964 ], [ 971, 990 ], [ 1036, 1053 ], [ 1061, 1079 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It has been proposed that Ekwesh of the Egyptian records may relate to Achaea (compared to Hittite Ahhiyawa), whereas Denyen and Tanaju may relate to Classical Greek Danaoi. The earliest textual reference to the Mycenaean world is in the Annals of Thutmosis III (ca. 1479–1425 BC), which refers to messengers from the king of the Tanaju, circa 1437 BC, offering greeting gifts to the Egyptian king, in order to initiate diplomatic relations, when the latter campaigned in Syria. Tanaju is also listed in an inscription at the Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III. The latter ruled Egypt in circa 1382–1344 BC. Moreover, a list of the cities and regions of the Tanaju is also mentioned in this inscription; among the cities listed are Mycenae, Nauplion, Kythera, Messenia and the Thebaid (region of Thebes).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Egyptian sources", "target_page_ids": [ 3674716, 155730, 3255630, 966904, 309762, 206639, 65806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 124 ], [ 248, 261 ], [ 526, 558 ], [ 739, 747 ], [ 749, 756 ], [ 758, 766 ], [ 794, 800 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 5th year of Pharaoh Merneptah, a confederation of Libyan and northern peoples is supposed to have attacked the western delta. Included amongst the ethnic names of the repulsed invaders is the Ekwesh or Eqwesh, whom some have seen as Achaeans, although Egyptian texts specifically mention these Ekwesh to be circumcised (which does not seem to have been a general practice in the Aegean at the time). Homer mentions an Achaean attack upon the delta, and Menelaus speaks of the same in Book IV of the Odyssey to Telemachus when he recounts his own return home from the Trojan War. Some ancient Greek authors also say that Helen had spent the time of the Trojan War in Egypt, and not at Troy, and that after Troy the Greeks went there to recover her.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Egyptian sources", "target_page_ids": [ 1168295, 17633, 2020, 8718425, 46299, 74673, 30058, 8087628, 30059, 42056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 40 ], [ 61, 66 ], [ 203, 209 ], [ 318, 329 ], [ 464, 472 ], [ 521, 531 ], [ 578, 588 ], [ 677, 682 ], [ 695, 699 ], [ 725, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Greek mythology, the perceived cultural divisions among the Hellenes were represented as legendary lines of descent that identified kinship groups, with each line being derived from an eponymous ancestor. Each of the Greek ethne were said to be named in honor of their respective ancestors: Achaeus of the Achaeans, Danaus of the Danaans, Cadmus of the Cadmeans (the Thebans), Hellen of the Hellenes (not to be confused with Helen of Troy), Aeolus of the Aeolians, Ion of the Ionians, and Dorus of the Dorians.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Greek mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 45811, 105004, 13445418, 77965, 75161, 65806, 82134, 63444, 54083700, 1381871, 30864038, 340504, 15022813, 8216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 18 ], [ 188, 197 ], [ 226, 231 ], [ 294, 301 ], [ 319, 325 ], [ 342, 348 ], [ 366, 377 ], [ 380, 386 ], [ 428, 441 ], [ 444, 450 ], [ 458, 466 ], [ 468, 471 ], [ 479, 486 ], [ 492, 497 ], [ 505, 512 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cadmus from Phoenicia, Danaus from Egypt, and Pelops from Anatolia each gained a foothold in mainland Greece and were assimilated and Hellenized. Hellen, Graikos, Magnes, and Macedon were sons of Deucalion and Pyrrha, the only people who survived the Great Flood; the ethne were said to have originally been named Graikoi after the elder son but later renamed Hellenes after Hellen who was proved to be the strongest. Sons of Hellen and the nymph Orseis were Dorus, Xuthos, and Aeolus. Sons of Xuthos and Kreousa, daughter of Erechthea, were Ion and Achaeus.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Greek mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 34076091, 8087628, 854, 79423, 79424, 28856255, 5778596, 54083700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 21 ], [ 35, 40 ], [ 58, 66 ], [ 196, 205 ], [ 210, 216 ], [ 251, 262 ], [ 447, 453 ], [ 478, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Hyginus, 22 Achaeans killed 362 Trojans during their ten years at Troy.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Greek mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 143691, 30059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 20 ], [ 79, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Margalit Finkelberg, the name Ἀχαιοί/Ἀχαιϝοί is derived from Hittite Aḫḫiyawā. However, Robert S. P. Beekes doubted the validity of this derivation and suggested a Pre-Greek proto-form *Akaywa-.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 61646231, 351025, 2339724, 6215972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 32 ], [ 74, 81 ], [ 101, 120 ], [ 177, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The etymology of Danaoi is uncertain; according to Beekes, \"the name is certainly Pre-Greek\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Etymology", "target_page_ids": [ 6215972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Achaea (modern province)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 83711 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Achaea (Roman province)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 496098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Achaean League", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 508563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Achaean Federation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 508563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aegean civilization", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2624 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Denyen", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3674716 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Historicity of the Iliad", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3537964 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Homer", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13633 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mycenaean Greece", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 565602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mycenaean language", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 704006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military of Mycenaean Greece", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 48407885 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Troy", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 4 ] ] } ]

[ "Mycenaean_Greece", "Ancient_tribes_in_Greece", "Sea_Peoples", "Ancient_tribes_in_Crete", "People_of_the_Trojan_War", "Denyen" ]

[ "Ahhiyawa" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Atle Selberg (14 June 1917 – 6 August 2007) was a Norwegian mathematician known for his work in analytic number theory and the theory of automorphic forms, and in particular for bringing them into relation with spectral theory. He was awarded the Fields Medal in 1950 and an honorary Abel Prize in 2002.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18902, 251513, 782146, 506713, 10859, 159285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 73 ], [ 96, 118 ], [ 137, 153 ], [ 211, 226 ], [ 247, 259 ], [ 284, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Selberg was born in Langesund, Norway, the son of teacher Anna Kristina Selberg and mathematician Ole Michael Ludvigsen Selberg. Two of his three brothers, Sigmund and Henrik, were also mathematicians. His other brother, Arne, was a professor of engineering. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 1416593, 37564153, 37555546, 37563752, 37563548 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 29 ], [ 98, 127 ], [ 156, 163 ], [ 168, 174 ], [ 222, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While he was still at school he was influenced by the work of Srinivasa Ramanujan and he found an exact analytical formula for the partition function as suggested by the works of Ramanujan; however, this result was first published by Hans Rademacher. During the war he fought against the German invasion of Norway, and was imprisoned several times. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 47717, 104790, 1864916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 81 ], [ 131, 149 ], [ 234, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He studied at the University of Oslo and completed his Ph.D. in 1943.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Early years", "target_page_ids": [ 31800, 21031297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 36 ], [ 55, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During World War II, Selberg worked in isolation due to the German occupation of Norway. After the war his accomplishments became known, including a proof that a positive proportion of the zeros of the Riemann zeta function lie on the line . ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "World War II", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 1603383, 25809 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 19 ], [ 60, 87 ], [ 202, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the war, he turned to sieve theory, a previously neglected topic which Selberg's work brought into prominence. In a 1947 paper he introduced the Selberg sieve, a method well adapted in particular to providing auxiliary upper bounds, and which contributed to Chen's theorem, among other important results.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "World War II", "target_page_ids": [ 1035915, 18739942, 1400840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 40 ], [ 151, 164 ], [ 264, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1948 Selberg submitted two papers in Annals of Mathematics in which he proved by elementary means the theorems for primes in arithmetic progression and the density of primes. This challenged the widely held view of his time that certain theorems are only obtainable with the advanced methods of complex analysis. Both results were based on his work on the asymptotic formula", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "World War II", "target_page_ids": [ 2785, 11740178, 23692, 5759 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 61 ], [ 118, 150 ], [ 159, 176 ], [ 298, 314 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "where", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "World War II", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "for primes . He established this result by elementary means in March 1948, and by July of that year, Selberg and Paul Erdős each obtained elementary proofs of the prime number theorem, both using the asymptotic formula above as a starting point. Circumstances leading up to the proofs, as well as publication disagreements, led to a bitter dispute between the two mathematicians.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "World War II", "target_page_ids": [ 601284, 9318685, 23692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 123 ], [ 138, 154 ], [ 163, 183 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For his fundamental accomplishments during the 1940s, Selberg received the 1950 Fields Medal.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "World War II", "target_page_ids": [ 10859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Selberg moved to the United States and worked as an associate professor at Syracuse University and later settled at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey in the 1950s where he remained until his death. During the 1950s he worked on introducing spectral theory into number theory, culminating in his development of the Selberg trace formula, the most famous and influential of his results. In its simplest form, this establishes a duality between the lengths of closed geodesics on a compact Riemann surface and the eigenvalues of the Laplacian, which is analogous to the duality between the prime numbers and the zeros of the zeta function.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Institute for Advanced Study", "target_page_ids": [ 29353, 184179, 84658, 506713, 21527, 981694, 19903176, 173181, 2161429, 1763356, 23666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 94 ], [ 120, 148 ], [ 152, 173 ], [ 264, 279 ], [ 285, 298 ], [ 338, 359 ], [ 481, 496 ], [ 503, 526 ], [ 535, 545 ], [ 554, 563 ], [ 611, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was awarded the 1986 Wolf Prize in Mathematics. He was also awarded an honorary Abel Prize in 2002, its founding year, before the awarding of the regular prizes began.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Institute for Advanced Study", "target_page_ids": [ 714278, 159285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 49 ], [ 83, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Selberg received many distinctions for his work in addition to the Fields Medal, the Wolf Prize and the Gunnerus Medal. He was elected to the Norwegian Academy of Science and Letters, the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters and the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Institute for Advanced Study", "target_page_ids": [ 10859, 370712, 23134948, 3553584, 3308091, 391882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 79 ], [ 85, 95 ], [ 104, 118 ], [ 142, 182 ], [ 188, 232 ], [ 241, 278 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1972 he was awarded an honorary degree, doctor philos. honoris causa, at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, later part of Norwegian University of Science and Technology.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Institute for Advanced Study", "target_page_ids": [ 464751, 295967, 231683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 41 ], [ 80, 113 ], [ 129, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Selberg had two children, Ingrid Selberg and Lars Selberg. Ingrid Selberg is married to playwright Mustapha Matura.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Institute for Advanced Study", "target_page_ids": [ 5071088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He died at home in Princeton, New Jersey on 6 August 2007 of heart failure.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Institute for Advanced Study", "target_page_ids": [ 84658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Atle Selberg Collected Papers: 1 (Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collected Papers (Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg Mai 1998), ", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Selected publications", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Albers, Donald J. and Alexanderson, Gerald L. (2011), Fascinating Mathematical People: interviews and memoirs, \"Atle Selberg\", pp 254–73, Princeton University Press, .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 43156665, 1251967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 46 ], [ 139, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Interview with Selberg", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Atle Selberg Archive webpage", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Obituary at IAS", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Obituary in The Times", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Atle Selbergs private archive exists at NTNU University Library", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1917_births", "2007_deaths", "20th-century_American_mathematicians", "21st-century_American_mathematicians", "Fields_Medalists", "Institute_for_Advanced_Study_faculty", "Members_of_the_Royal_Danish_Academy_of_Sciences_and_Letters", "Members_of_the_Norwegian_Academy_of_Science_and_Letters", "Norwegian_emigrants_to_the_United_States", "Norwegian_mathematicians", "Number_theorists", "People_from_Bamble", "University_of_Oslo_alumni", "Wolf_Prize_in_Mathematics_laureates", "Members_of_the_Royal_Swedish_Academy_of_Sciences" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Aeschylus (, ; ; c. 525/524 – c. 456/455 BC) was an ancient Greek tragedian, and is often described as the father of tragedy. Academic knowledge of the genre begins with his work, and understanding of earlier Greek tragedy is largely based on inferences made from reading his surviving plays. According to Aristotle, he expanded the number of characters in the theatre and allowed conflict among them. Formerly, characters interacted only with the chorus.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 66540, 631802, 57993, 308, 197034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 66 ], [ 67, 76 ], [ 118, 125 ], [ 307, 316 ], [ 449, 455 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Only seven of his estimated seventy to ninety plays have survived. There is a long-standing debate regarding the authorship of one of them, Prometheus Bound, with some scholars arguing that it may be the work of his son Euphorion. Fragments from other plays have survived in quotations, and more continue to be discovered on Egyptian papyri. These fragments often give further insights into Aeschylus' work. He was likely the first dramatist to present plays as a trilogy. His Oresteia is the only extant ancient example. At least one of his plays was influenced by the Persians' second invasion of Greece (480–479 BC). This work, The Persians, is one of very few classical Greek tragedies concerned with contemporary events, and the only one extant. The significance of the war with Persia was so great to Aeschylus and the Greeks that his epitaph commemorates his participation in the Greek victory at Marathon while making no mention of his success as a playwright.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 327389, 327389, 34171291, 23664, 31347, 157180, 327628, 327449, 4806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 138 ], [ 140, 156 ], [ 220, 229 ], [ 334, 340 ], [ 464, 471 ], [ 477, 485 ], [ 570, 605 ], [ 631, 643 ], [ 904, 912 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aeschylus was born in c. 525 BC in Eleusis, a small town about 27km northwest of Athens, in the fertile valleys of western Attica. Some scholars argue that his date of birth may be based on counting back forty years from his first victory in the Great Dionysia. His family was wealthy and well established. His father, Euphorion, was said to be a member of the Eupatridae, the ancient nobility of Attica., but this might be a fiction invented by the ancients to account for the grandeur of Aeschylus' plays.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 80628, 1216, 302613, 3128516 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 42 ], [ 81, 87 ], [ 123, 129 ], [ 361, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a youth, Aeschylus worked at a vineyard until, according to the 2nd-century AD geographer Pausanias, the god Dionysus visited him in his sleep and commanded him to turn his attention to the nascent art of tragedy. As soon as he woke, he began to write a tragedy, and his first performance took place in 499BC, when he was 26 years old. He won his first victory at the City Dionysia in 484BC.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 416255, 63325, 465578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 102 ], [ 112, 120 ], [ 371, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 510 BC, when Aeschylus was 15 years old, Cleomenes I expelled the sons of Peisistratus from Athens, and Cleisthenes came to power. Cleisthenes' reforms included a system of registration that emphasized the importance of the deme over family tradition. In the last decade of the 6th century, Aeschylus and his family were living in the deme of Eleusis.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 357135, 9633432, 321019, 543955 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 55 ], [ 77, 89 ], [ 107, 118 ], [ 227, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Persian Wars played a large role in Aeschylus' life and career. In 490BC, he and his brother Cynegeirus fought to defend Athens against the invading army of Darius I of Persia at the Battle of Marathon. The Athenians emerged triumphant, and the victory was celebrated across the city-states of Greece. Cynegeirus was killed while trying to prevent a Persian ship retreating from the shore, for which his countrymen extolled him as a hero.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 327628, 2113123, 47118, 4806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 97, 107 ], [ 161, 179 ], [ 187, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 480 BC, Aeschylus was called into military service again, together with his younger brother Ameinias, against Xerxes I's invading forces at the Battle of Salamis. Aeschylus also fought at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. Ion of Chios was a witness for Aeschylus' war record and his contribution in Salamis. Salamis holds a prominent place in The Persians, his oldest surviving play, which was performed in 472 BC and won first prize at the Dionysia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 24067408, 46289, 47968, 349571, 1420588, 465578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 103 ], [ 113, 121 ], [ 147, 164 ], [ 195, 212 ], [ 224, 236 ], [ 443, 451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aeschylus was one of many Greeks who were initiated into the Eleusinian Mysteries, an ancient cult of Demeter based in his home town of Eleusis. According to Aristotle, Aeschylus was accused of asebeia (impiety) for revealing some of the cult's secrets on stage.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 52000, 8230, 308, 64511604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 81 ], [ 102, 109 ], [ 158, 167 ], [ 194, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other sources claim that an angry mob tried to kill Aeschylus on the spot but he fled the scene. Heracleides of Pontus asserts that the audience tried to stone Aeschylus. Aeschylus took refuge at the altar in the orchestra of the Theater of Dionysus. He pleaded ignorance at his trial. He was acquitted, with the jury sympathetic to the military service of him and his brothers during the Persian Wars. According to the 2nd-century AD author Aelian, Aeschylus' younger brother Ameinias helped to acquit Aeschylus by showing the jury the stump of the hand he had lost at Salamis, where he was voted bravest warrior. The truth is that the award for bravery at Salamis went not to Aeschylus' brother but to Ameinias of Pallene.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 171867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aeschylus travelled to Sicily once or twice in the 470sBC, having been invited by Hiero I, tyrant of Syracuse, a major Greek city on the eastern side of the island. He produced The Women of Aetna during one of these trips (in honor of the city founded by Hieron), and restaged his Persians. By 473BC, after the death of Phrynichus, one of his chief rivals, Aeschylus was the yearly favorite in the Dionysia, winning first prize in nearly every competition. In 472BC, Aeschylus staged the production that included the Persians, with Pericles serving as choregos.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 27619, 28441, 5021131, 36812, 5842698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 29 ], [ 101, 109 ], [ 320, 330 ], [ 532, 540 ], [ 552, 560 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aeschylus married and had two sons, Euphorion and Euaeon, both of whom became tragic poets. Euphorion won first prize in 431 BC in competition against both Sophocles and Euripides. A nephew of Aeschylus, Philocles (his sister's son), was also a tragic poet, and won first prize in the competition against Sophocles' Oedipus Rex. Aeschylus had at least two brothers, Cynegeirus and Ameinias.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Personal life", "target_page_ids": [ 34171291, 26984, 9808, 31907052, 87770, 2113123, 24067408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 45 ], [ 156, 165 ], [ 170, 179 ], [ 204, 213 ], [ 316, 327 ], [ 366, 376 ], [ 381, 389 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 458 BC, Aeschylus returned to Sicily for the last time, visiting the city of Gela, where he died in 456 or 455BC. Valerius Maximus wrote that he was killed outside the city by a tortoise dropped by an eagle which had mistaken his head for a rock suitable for shattering the shell, and killed him stone dead. Pliny, in his Naturalis Historiæ, adds that Aeschylus had been staying outdoors to avoid a prophecy that he would be killed by a falling object, but this story may be legendary and due to a misunderstanding of the iconography on Aeschylus's tomb. Aeschylus' work was so respected by the Athenians that after his death his tragedies were the only ones allowed to be restaged in subsequent competitions. His sons Euphorion and Euæon and his nephew Philocles also became playwrights.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 1033564, 164236, 44920, 74215, 34171291 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 84 ], [ 117, 133 ], [ 311, 316 ], [ 325, 343 ], [ 722, 731 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The inscription on Aeschylus' gravestone makes no mention of his theatrical renown, commemorating only his military achievements:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Castoriadis, the inscription on his grave signifies the primary importance of \"belonging to the City\" (polis), of the solidarity that existed within the collective body of citizen-soldiers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 131855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The seeds of Greek drama were sowed in religious festivals for the gods, chiefly Dionysus, the god of wine. During Aeschylus' lifetime, dramatic competitions became part of the City Dionysia, held in spring. The festival opened with a procession which was followed by a competition of boys singing dithyrambs, and all culminated in a pair of dramatic competitions. The first competition Aeschylus would have participated in involved three playwrights each presenting three tragedies and one satyr play. Such format is called a continuous tragic tetralogy. It allowed Aeschylus to explore the human and theological and cosmic dimensions of a mythic sequence, developing it in successive phases. A second competition involving five comedic playwrights followed, and the winners of both competitions were chosen by a panel of judges.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 63325, 465578, 544080, 974674, 817392 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 89 ], [ 177, 190 ], [ 298, 307 ], [ 491, 501 ], [ 545, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aeschylus entered many of these competitions, and various ancient sources attribute between seventy and ninety plays to him. Only seven tragedies attributed to him have survived intact: The Persians, Seven Against Thebes, The Suppliants, the trilogy known as The Oresteia (the three tragedies Agamemnon, The Libation Bearers and The Eumenides), and Prometheus Bound (whose authorship is disputed). With the exception of this last play– the success of which is uncertain– all of Aeschylus's extant tragedies are known to have won first prize at the City Dionysia.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 327449, 79131, 3321979, 157180, 157180, 157180, 157180, 327389, 3709305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 186, 198 ], [ 200, 220 ], [ 222, 236 ], [ 259, 271 ], [ 293, 302 ], [ 304, 324 ], [ 329, 342 ], [ 349, 365 ], [ 490, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Alexandrian Life of Aeschylus claims that he won the first prize at the City Dionysia thirteen times. This compares favorably with Sophocles' reported eighteen victories (with a substantially larger catalogue, an estimated 120 plays), and dwarfs the five victories of Euripides, who is thought to have written roughly 90 plays.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "One hallmark of Aeschylean dramaturgy appears to have been his tendency to write connected trilogies in which each play serves as a chapter in a continuous dramatic narrative. The Oresteia is the only extant example of this type of connected trilogy, but there is evidence that Aeschylus often wrote such trilogies. The satyr plays that followed his tragic trilogies also drew from myth.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 155890, 157180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 37 ], [ 180, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The satyr play Proteus, which followed the Oresteia, treated the story of Menelaus' detour in Egypt on his way home from the Trojan War. It is assumed, based on the evidence provided by a catalogue of Aeschylean play titles, scholia, and play fragments recorded by later authors, that three other extant plays of his were components of connected trilogies: Seven Against Thebes was the final play in an Oedipus trilogy, and The Suppliants and Prometheus Bound were each the first play in a Danaid trilogy and Prometheus trilogy, respectively. Scholars have also suggested several completely lost trilogies, based on known play titles. A number of these treated myths about the Trojan War. One, collectively called the Achilleis, comprised Myrmidons, Nereids and Phrygians (alternately, The Ransoming of Hector).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 157180, 30058, 1269346, 697734 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 22 ], [ 125, 135 ], [ 225, 232 ], [ 718, 727 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Another trilogy apparently recounted the entrance of the Trojan ally Memnon into the war, and his death at the hands of Achilles (Memnon and The Weighing of Souls being two components of the trilogy). The Award of the Arms, The Phrygian Women, and The Salaminian Women suggest a trilogy about the madness and subsequent suicide of the Greek hero Ajax. Aeschylus seems to have written about Odysseus' return to Ithaca after the war (including his killing of his wife Penelope's suitors and its consequences) in a trilogy consisting of The Soul-raisers, Penelope, and The Bone-gatherers. Other suggested trilogies touched on the myth of Jason and the Argonauts (Argô, Lemnian Women, Hypsipylê), the life of Perseus (The Net-draggers, Polydektês, Phorkides), the birth and exploits of Dionysus (Semele, Bacchae, Pentheus), and the aftermath of the war portrayed in Seven Against Thebes (Eleusinians, Argives (or Argive Women), Sons of the Seven).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 3362080, 1568, 22537, 49169 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 75 ], [ 346, 350 ], [ 390, 398 ], [ 466, 474 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Persians (Persai) is the earliest of Aeschylus' extant plays. It was performed in 472 BC. It was based on Aeschylus' own experiences, specifically the Battle of Salamis. It is unique among surviving Greek tragedies in that it describes a recent historical event. The Persians focuses on the popular Greek theme of hubris and blames Persia's loss on the pride of its king.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [ 47968, 14282 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 172 ], [ 318, 324 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It opens with the arrival of a messenger in Susa, the Persian capital, bearing news of the catastrophic Persian defeat at Salamis, to Atossa, the mother of the Persian King Xerxes. Atossa then travels to the tomb of Darius, her husband, where his ghost appears, to explain the cause of the defeat. It is, he says, the result of Xerxes' hubris in building a bridge across the Hellespont, an action which angered the gods. Xerxes appears at the end of the play, not realizing the cause of his defeat, and the play closes to lamentations by Xerxes and the chorus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [ 60413, 336606, 46289, 8073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 48 ], [ 134, 140 ], [ 173, 179 ], [ 375, 385 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Seven against Thebes (Hepta epi Thebas) was performed in 467 BC. It has the contrasting theme of the interference of the gods in human affairs. Another theme, with which Aeschylus' would continually involve himself, makes its first known appearance in this play, namely that the polis was a key development of human civilization.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [ 131855 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 279, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The play tells the story of Eteocles and Polynices, the sons of the shamed king of Thebes, Oedipus. Eteocles and Polynices agree to share and alternate the throne of the city. After the first year, Eteocles refuses to step down. Polynices therefore undertakes war. The pair kill each other in single combat, and the original ending of the play consisted of lamentations for the dead brothers. But a new ending was added to the play some fifty years later: Antigone and Ismene mourn their dead brothers, a messenger enters announcing an edict prohibiting the burial of Polynices, and Antigone declares her intention to defy this edict. The play was the third in a connected Oedipus trilogy. The first two plays were Laius and Oedipus. The concluding satyr play was The Sphinx.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [ 79132, 79133, 65806, 77363, 974674 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 36 ], [ 41, 50 ], [ 83, 89 ], [ 91, 98 ], [ 749, 759 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aeschylus continued his emphasis on the polis with The Suppliants (Hiketides) in 463 BC. The play gives tribute to the democratic undercurrents which were running through Athens and preceding the establishment of a democratic government in 461. The Danaids (50 daughters of Danaus, founder of Argos) flee a forced marriage to their cousins in Egypt. They turn to King Pelasgus of Argos for protection, but Pelasgus refuses until the people of Argos weigh in on the decision (a distinctly democratic move on the part of the king). The people decide that the Danaids deserve protection and are allowed within the walls of Argos despite Egyptian protests.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [ 14254094, 77965, 70011, 82575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 256 ], [ 274, 280 ], [ 293, 298 ], [ 368, 376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Danaid trilogy had long been assumed because of The Suppliants''' cliffhanger ending. This was confirmed by the 1952 publication of Oxyrhynchus Papyrus 2256 fr. 3. The constituent plays are generally agreed to be The Suppliants and The Egyptians and The Danaids. A plausible reconstruction of the trilogy's last two-thirds runs thus: In The Egyptians, the Argive-Egyptian war threatened in the first play has transpired. King Pelasgus was killed during the war, and Danaus rules Argos. Danaus negotiates a settlement with Aegyptus, a condition of which requires his 50 daughters to marry the 50 sons of Aegyptus. Danaus secretly informs his daughters of an oracle which predicts that one of his sons-in-law would kill him. He orders the Danaids to murder their husbands therefore on their wedding night. His daughters agree. The Danaids would open the day after the wedding.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It is revealed that 49 of the 50 Danaids killed their husbands. Hypermnestra did not kill her husband, Lynceus, and helped him escape. Danaus is angered by his daughter's disobedience and orders her imprisonment and possibly execution. In the trilogy's climax and dénouement, Lynceus reveals himself to Danaus and kills him, thus fulfilling the oracle. He and Hypermnestra will establish a ruling dynasty in Argos. The other 49 Danaids are absolved of their murders, and married off to unspecified Argive men. The satyr play following this trilogy was titled Amymone, after one of the Danaids.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Besides a few missing lines, the Oresteia of 458 BC is the only complete trilogy of Greek plays by any playwright still extant (of Proteus, the satyr play which followed, only fragments are known). Agamemnon and The Libation Bearers (Choephoroi) and The Eumenides together tell the violent story of the family of Agamemnon, king of Argos.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [ 157180, 24759, 157180, 157180, 157180, 1544, 70011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 41 ], [ 131, 138 ], [ 198, 207 ], [ 212, 232 ], [ 250, 263 ], [ 313, 322 ], [ 332, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aeschylus begins in Greece, describing the return of King Agamemnon from his victory in the Trojan War, from the perspective of the townspeople (the Chorus) and his wife, Clytemnestra. Dark foreshadowings build to the death of the king at the hands of his wife, who was angry that their daughter Iphigenia was killed so that the gods would restore the winds and allow the Greek fleet to sail to Troy. Clytemnestra was also unhappy that Agamemnon kept the Trojan prophetess Cassandra as his concubine. Cassandra foretells the murder of Agamemnon and of herself to the assembled townsfolk, who are horrified. She then enters the palace knowing that she cannot avoid her fate. The ending of the play includes a prediction of the return of Orestes, son of Agamemnon, who will seek to avenge his father.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [ 1544, 30058, 6000418, 79258, 6526, 77802 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 67 ], [ 92, 102 ], [ 171, 183 ], [ 296, 305 ], [ 473, 482 ], [ 736, 743 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Libation Bearers opens with Orestes' arrival at Agamemnon's tomb, from exile in Phocis. Electra meets Orestes there. They plan revenge against Clytemnestra and her lover, Aegisthus. Clytemnestra's account of a nightmare in which she gives birth to a snake is recounted by the chorus. This leads her to order her daughter, Electra, to pour libations on Agamemnon's tomb (with the assistance of libation bearers) in hope of making amends. Orestes enters the palace pretending to bear news of his own death. Clytemnestra calls in Aegisthus to learn the news. Orestes kills them both. Orestes is then beset by the Furies, who avenge the murders of kin in Greek mythology.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [ 84259, 77802, 2629, 80527, 10141 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 90 ], [ 106, 113 ], [ 175, 184 ], [ 326, 333 ], [ 614, 620 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The third play addresses the question of Orestes' guilt. The Furies drive Orestes from Argos and into the wilderness. He makes his way to the temple of Apollo and begs Apollo to drive the Furies away. Apollo had encouraged Orestes to kill Clytemnestra, so he bears some of the guilt for the murder. Apollo sends Orestes to the temple of Athena with Hermes as a guide.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [ 1182, 14410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 337, 343 ], [ 349, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Furies track him down, and Athena steps in and declares that a trial is necessary. Apollo argues Orestes' case, and after the judges (including Athena) deliver a tie vote, Athena announces that Orestes is acquitted. She renames the Furies The Eumenides (The Good-spirited, or Kindly Ones), and extols the importance of reason in the development of laws. As in The Suppliants, the ideals of a democratic Athens are praised.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prometheus Bound is attributed to Aeschylus by ancient authorities. Since the late 19th century, however, scholars have increasingly doubted this ascription, largely on stylistic grounds. Its production date is also in dispute, with theories ranging from the 480s BC to as late as the 410s.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The play consists mostly of static dialogue. The Titan Prometheus is bound to a rock throughout, which is his punishment from the Olympian Zeus for providing fire to humans. The god Hephaestus and the Titan Oceanus and the chorus of Oceanids all express sympathy for Prometheus' plight. Prometheus is met by Io, a fellow victim of Zeus' cruelty. He prophesies her future travels, revealing that one of her descendants will free Prometheus. The play closes with Zeus sending Prometheus into the abyss because Prometheus will not tell him of a potential marriage which could prove Zeus' downfall.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [ 47401, 23250, 574742, 34398, 14388, 49071, 197034, 79541, 47229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 54 ], [ 55, 65 ], [ 130, 138 ], [ 139, 143 ], [ 182, 192 ], [ 207, 214 ], [ 223, 229 ], [ 233, 241 ], [ 308, 310 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Prometheus Bound seems to have been the first play in a trilogy, the Prometheia. In the second play, Prometheus Unbound, Heracles frees Prometheus from his chains and kills the eagle that had been sent daily to eat Prometheus' perpetually regenerating liver, then believed the source of feeling. We learn that Zeus has released the other Titans which he imprisoned at the conclusion of the Titanomachy, perhaps foreshadowing his eventual reconciliation with Prometheus.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [ 2324014, 17922353, 79101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 79 ], [ 101, 119 ], [ 390, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the trilogy's conclusion, Prometheus the Fire-Bringer, it seems that the Titan finally warns Zeus not to sleep with the sea nymph Thetis, for she is fated to beget a son greater than the father. Not wishing to be overthrown, Zeus marries Thetis off to the mortal Peleus. The product of that union is Achilles, Greek hero of the Trojan War. After reconciling with Prometheus, Zeus probably inaugurates a festival in his honor at Athens.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Surviving plays", "target_page_ids": [ 2323976, 37552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 56 ], [ 133, 139 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Of Aeschylus' other plays, only titles and assorted fragments are known. There are enough fragments (along with comments made by later authors and scholiasts) to produce rough synopses for some plays.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This play was based on books 9 and 16 of the Iliad. Achilles sits in silent indignation over his humiliation at Agamemnon's hands for most of the play. Envoys from the Greek army attempt to reconcile Achilles to Agamemnon, but he yields only to his friend Patroclus, who then battles the Trojans in Achilles' armour. The bravery and death of Patroclus are reported in a messenger's speech, which is followed by mourning.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [ 19381951, 1544, 81949 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 50 ], [ 212, 221 ], [ 256, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This play was based on books 18 and 19 and 22 of the Iliad. It follows the Daughters of Nereus, the sea god, who lament Patroclus' death. A messenger tells how Achilles (perhaps reconciled to Agamemnon and the Greeks) slew Hector.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [ 13207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 223, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After a brief discussion with Hermes, Achilles sits in silent mourning over Patroclus. Hermes then brings in King Priam of Troy, who wins over Achilles and ransoms his son's body in a spectacular coup de théâtre. A scale is brought on stage and Hector's body is placed in one scale and gold in the other. The dynamic dancing of the chorus of Trojans when they enter with Priam is reported by Aristophanes.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [ 14410, 24132, 1028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 36 ], [ 109, 127 ], [ 392, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The children of Niobe, the heroine, have been slain by Apollo and Artemis because Niobe had gloated that she had more children than their mother, Leto. Niobe sits in silent mourning on stage during most of the play. In the Republic, Plato quotes the line \"God plants a fault in mortals when he wills to destroy a house utterly.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [ 78968, 594, 2905, 18574, 1607411, 22954 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 21 ], [ 55, 61 ], [ 66, 73 ], [ 146, 150 ], [ 223, 231 ], [ 233, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These are the remaining 71 plays ascribed to Aeschylus which are known to us:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alcmene", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Amymone", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Archer-Women", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Argivian Women", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Argo, also titled The Rowers", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Atalanta", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Athamas", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Attendants of the Bridal Chamber", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Award of the Arms", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bacchae", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bassarae", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Bone-Gatherers", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Cabeiroi", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Callisto", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Carians, also titled Europa", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cercyon", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Children of Hercules", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Circe", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Cretan Women", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cycnus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Danaids", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Daughters of Helios", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Daughters of Phorcys", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Descendants", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [ 637497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Edonians", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Egyptians", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Escorts", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Glaucus of Pontus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Glaucus of Potniae", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Hypsipyle", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Iphigenia", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ixion", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Laius", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Lemnian Women", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Lion", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lycurgus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Memnon", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Men of Eleusis", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Messengers", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Myrmidons", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Mysians", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Nemea", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Net-Draggers", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Nurses of Dionysus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Orethyia", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Palamedes", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Penelope", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pentheus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Perrhaibides", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Philoctetes", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Phineus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Phrygian Women", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Polydectes", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Priestesses", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prometheus the Fire-Bearer", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prometheus the Fire-Kindler", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prometheus Unbound", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Proteus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Semele, also titled The Water-Bearers", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sisyphus the Runaway", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sisyphus the Stone-Roller", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Spectators, also titled Athletes of the Isthmian Games", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Sphinx", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Spirit-Raisers", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Telephus", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Thracian Women", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Weighing of Souls", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Women of Aetna (two versions)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Women of Salamis", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Xantriae", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Youths", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Lost plays", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The theatre was just beginning to evolve when Aeschylus started writing for it. Earlier playwrights such as Thespis had already expanded the cast to include an actor who was able to interact with the chorus. Aeschylus added a second actor, allowing for greater dramatic variety, while the chorus played a less important role. He is sometimes credited with introducing skenographia, or scene-decoration, though Aristotle gives this distinction to Sophocles. Aeschylus is also said to have made the costumes more elaborate and dramatic, and made his actors wear platform boots (cothurni) to make them more visible to the audience. According to a later account of Aeschylus' life, the chorus of Furies in the first performance of the Eumenides were so frightening when they entered that children fainted and patriarchs urinated and pregnant women went into labour.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 52585, 197034 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 115 ], [ 200, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aeschylus wrote his plays in verse. No violence is performed onstage. The plays have a remoteness from daily life in Athens, relating stories about the gods, or being set, like The Persians, far away. Aeschylus' work has a strong moral and religious emphasis. The Oresteia trilogy concentrated on humans' position in the cosmos relative to the gods and divine law and divine punishment.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aeschylus' popularity is evident in the praise that the comic playwright Aristophanes gives him in The Frogs, produced some 50 years after Aeschylus' death. Aeschylus appears as a character in the play and claims, at line 1022, that his Seven against Thebes \"made everyone watching it to love being warlike\". He claims, at lines 1026–7, that with The Persians he \"taught the Athenians to desire always to defeat their enemies.\" Aeschylus goes on to say, at lines 1039ff., that his plays inspired the Athenians to be brave and virtuous.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 1028, 494640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 85 ], [ 99, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aeschylus' works were influential beyond his own time. Hugh Lloyd-Jones draws attention to Richard Wagner's reverence of Aeschylus. Michael Ewans argues in his Wagner and Aeschylus. The Ring and the Oresteia (London: Faber. 1982) that the influence was so great as to merit a direct character by character comparison between Wagner's Ring and Aeschylus's Oresteia. But a critic of that book, while not denying that Wagner read and respected Aeschylus, has described the arguments as unreasonable and forced.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 15121738, 25452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 71 ], [ 91, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "J.T. Sheppard argues in the second half of his Aeschylus and Sophocles: Their Work and Influence that Aeschylus and Sophocles have played a major part in the formation of dramatic literature from the Renaissance to the present, specifically in French and Elizabethan drama. He also claims that their influence went beyond just drama and applies to literature in general, citing Milton and the Romantics.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 22135027, 26984, 25532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 116, 125 ], [ 200, 211 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Eugene O'Neill's Mourning Becomes Electra (1931), a trilogy of three plays set in America after the Civil War, is modeled after the Oresteia. Before writing his acclaimed trilogy, O'Neill had been developing a play about Aeschylus, and he noted that Aeschylus \"so changed the system of the tragic stage that he has more claim than anyone else to be regarded as the founder (Father) of Tragedy.\"", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 67018, 149805 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 17, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his presidential campaign in 1968, Senator Robert F. Kennedy quoted the Edith Hamilton translation of Aeschylus on the night of the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. Kennedy was notified of King's murder before a campaign stop in Indianapolis, Indiana, and was warned not to attend the event due to fears of rioting from the mostly African-American crowd. Kennedy insisted on attending and delivered an impromptu speech that delivered news of King's death. Acknowledging the audience's emotions, Kennedy referred to his own grief at the murder of Martin Luther King and, quoting a passage from the play Agamemnon (in translation), said: \"My favorite poet was Aeschylus. And he once wrote: 'Even in our sleep, pain which cannot forget falls drop by drop upon the heart, until in our own despair, against our will, comes wisdom through the awful grace of God.' What we need in the United States is not division; what we need in the United States is not hatred; what we need in the United States is not violence and lawlessness; but is love and wisdom, and compassion toward one another, and a feeling of justice toward those who still suffer within our country, whether they be white or whether they be black... Let us dedicate ourselves to what the Greeks wrote so many years ago: to tame the savageness of man and make gentle the life of this world.\" The quotation from Aeschylus was later inscribed on a memorial at the gravesite of Robert Kennedy following his own assassination.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 21131695, 342230, 20076, 14288752 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 67 ], [ 79, 93 ], [ 156, 178 ], [ 416, 432 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ulrich von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Aeschyli Tragoediae. Editio maior, Berlin 1914.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Editions", "target_page_ids": [ 980134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gilbert Murray, Aeschyli Septem Quae Supersunt Tragoediae. Editio Altera, Oxford 1955.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Editions", "target_page_ids": [ 917201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Denys Page, Aeschyli Septem Quae Supersunt Tragoediae, Oxford 1972.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Editions", "target_page_ids": [ 17592545 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Martin L. West, Aeschyli Tragoediae cum incerti poetae Prometheo, 2nd ed., Stuttgart/Leipzig 1998.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Editions", "target_page_ids": [ 4682035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first translation of the seven plays into English was by Robert Potter in 1779, using blank verse for the iambic trimeters and rhymed verse for the choruses, a convention adopted by most translators for the next century.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Editions", "target_page_ids": [ 27372459 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anna Swanwick produced a verse translation in English of all seven surviving plays as The Dramas of Aeschylus in 1886 full text", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Editions", "target_page_ids": [ 4765857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Stefan Radt (ed.), Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta. Vol. III: Aeschylus (Göttingen, Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2009) (Tragicorum Graecorum Fragmenta, 3).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Editions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alan H. Sommerstein (ed.), Aeschylus, Volume II, Oresteia: Agamemnon. Libation-bearers. Eumenides. 146 (Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: Loeb Classical Library, 2009); Volume III, Fragments. 505 (Cambridge, Massachusetts/London: Loeb Classical Library, 2008).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Editions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 2876 Aeschylus, an asteroid named for him", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 621216 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ancient Greek literature", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 926219 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ancient Greek mythology", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ancient Greek religion", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 274099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Battle of Marathon", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4806 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Classical Greece", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11936957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dionysia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 465578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Music of ancient Greece", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4116363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Theatre of ancient Greece", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 528520 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Live by the sword, die by the sword\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 9031469 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 2, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bierl, A. Die Orestie des Aischylos auf der modernen Bühne: Theoretische Konzeptionen und ihre szenische Realizierung (Stuttgart: Metzler, 1997)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cairns, D., V. Liapis, Dionysalexandros: Essays on Aeschylus and His Fellow Tragedians in Honour of Alexander F. Garvie (Swansea: The Classical Press of Wales, 2006)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Deforge, B. Une vie avec Eschyle. Vérité des mythes (Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2010)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Lefkowitz, Mary (1981). The Lives of the Greek Poets. University of North Carolina Press", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "— (2002). Greek Drama and Dramatists. London: Routledge Press. ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Summers, David (2007). Vision, Reflection, and Desire in Western Painting. University of North Carolina Press", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Thomson, George (1973) Aeschylus and Athens: A Study in the Social Origin of Drama. London: Lawrence and Wishart (4th edition)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 13331823 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vellacott, Philip, (1961). Prometheus Bound and Other Plays: Prometheus Bound, Seven Against Thebes, and The Persians. New York: Penguin Classics. ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zeitlin, Froma (1982). Under the sign of the shield: semiotics and Aeschylus' Seven against Thebes. Lanham, Md.: Lexington Books, 2nd ed. 2009 (Greek studies: interdisciplinary approaches)", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zetlin, Froma (1996). \"The dynamics of misogyny: myth and mythmaking in Aeschylus's Oresteia\", in Froma Zeitlin, Playing the Other: Gender and Society in Classical Greek Literature. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp.87–119.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Zeitlin, Froma (1996). \"The politics of Eros in the Danaid trilogy of Aeschylus\", in Froma Zeitlin, Playing the Other: Gender and Society in Classical Greek Literature''. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp.123–171.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Selected Poems of Aeschylus", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aeschylus-related materials at the Perseus Digital Library", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Complete syntax diagrams at Alpheios", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Online English Translations of Aeschylus", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Photo of a fragment of The Net-pullers", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Aeschylus, I: Persians\" from the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Aeschylus, II: The Oresteia\" from the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Aeschylus, III: Fragments\" from the Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Aeschylus", "5th-century_BC_Greek_people", "5th-century_BC_writers", "520s_BC_births", "450s_BC_deaths", "Year_of_birth_uncertain", "Year_of_death_uncertain", "Tragic_poets", "Ancient_Greeks_accused_of_sacrilege", "Greek_people_of_the_Greco-Persian_Wars", "Battle_of_Marathon", "Accidental_deaths_in_Italy", "Deaths_due_to_animal_attacks" ]

[ "Æschylus", "Aeschylos" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Amber Road was an ancient trade route for the transfer of amber from coastal areas of the North Sea and the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Prehistoric trade routes between Northern and Southern Europe were defined by the amber trade.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1372, 21179, 3335, 19006, 583117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 67 ], [ 94, 103 ], [ 112, 122 ], [ 130, 147 ], [ 161, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As an important commodity, sometimes dubbed \"the gold of the north\", amber was transported from the North Sea and Baltic Sea coasts overland by way of the Vistula and Dnieper rivers to Italy, Greece, the Black Sea, Syria and Egypt over a period of thousands of years.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 25594515, 380138, 14532, 12108, 3386, 7515849, 8087628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 162 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 185, 190 ], [ 192, 198 ], [ 204, 213 ], [ 215, 220 ], [ 225, 230 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The oldest trade in amber started from Sicily. The Sicilian amber trade was directed to Greece, North Africa and Spain. Sicilian amber was also discovered in Mycenae by the archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann. This amber also appeared in sites in southern Spain and Portugal and its distribution is similar to that of ivory, so it is possible that amber from Sicily reached the Iberian Peninsula through contacts with North Africa \"(University of Granada directed by Mercedes Murillo-Barroso) After a decline in the consumption and trade of amber at the beginning of the Bronze Age, around 2,000 BC, the influence of Baltic amber gradually took the place of the Sicilian one throughout the Iberian peninsula starting around 1000 BC The new evidence comes from various archaeological and geological locations on the Iberian peninsula.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Antiquity", "target_page_ids": [ 27619, 37548, 13628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 45 ], [ 158, 165 ], [ 187, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From at least the 16th century BC, amber was moved from Northern Europe to the Mediterranean area. The breast ornament of the Egyptian pharaoh Tutankhamen (c. 1333–1324 BC) contains large Baltic amber beads. Heinrich Schliemann found Sicilian amber beads at Mycenae, as shown by spectroscopic investigation. The quantity of amber in the Royal Tomb of Qatna, Syria, is unparalleled for known second millennium BC sites in the Levant and the Ancient Near East. Amber was sent from the North Sea to the temple of Apollo at Delphi as an offering. From the Black Sea, trade could continue to Asia along the Silk Road, another ancient trade route.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Antiquity", "target_page_ids": [ 30437, 37548, 586822, 594, 7951, 3386, 54253 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 144, 155 ], [ 259, 266 ], [ 352, 357 ], [ 511, 517 ], [ 521, 527 ], [ 553, 562 ], [ 603, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Roman times, a main route ran south from the Baltic coast (modern Lithuania), the entire north–south length of modern-day Poland (likely through the Iron Age settlement of Biskupin), through the land of the Boii (modern Czech Republic and Slovakia) to the head of the Adriatic Sea (Aquileia by the modern Gulf of Venice). Along with amber, other commodities such as animal fur and skin, honey and wax was exported to the Romans in exchange for Roman glass, brass, gold, and non-ferrous metals such as tin and copper to the early Baltic region. As this road was a lucrative trade route connecting the Baltic Sea to the Mediterranean Sea, Roman military fortifications were constructed along the route to protect merchants and traders from Germanic raids.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Antiquity", "target_page_ids": [ 25507, 17675, 476899, 4327, 5321, 26830, 23275478, 75839, 2453870, 15841945, 3292, 12240, 3255479, 30042, 125293 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ], [ 69, 78 ], [ 175, 183 ], [ 210, 214 ], [ 223, 237 ], [ 242, 250 ], [ 271, 283 ], [ 285, 293 ], [ 308, 322 ], [ 448, 459 ], [ 461, 466 ], [ 468, 472 ], [ 478, 496 ], [ 505, 508 ], [ 513, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Old Prussian towns of Kaup and Truso on the Baltic were the starting points of the route to the south. In Scandinavia the amber road probably gave rise to the thriving Nordic Bronze Age culture, bringing influences from the Mediterranean Sea to the northernmost countries of Europe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Antiquity", "target_page_ids": [ 552819, 65488793, 30801, 26740, 1021554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 16 ], [ 26, 30 ], [ 35, 40 ], [ 110, 121 ], [ 172, 189 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kaliningrad Oblast is occasionally referred to in Russian as , which means \"the amber region\" (see Kaliningrad Regional Amber Museum).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Antiquity", "target_page_ids": [ 17311, 27924316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 99, 132 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The shortest (and possibly oldest) road avoids alpine areas and led from the Baltic coastline (nowadays Lithuania and Poland), through Biskupin, Milicz, Wrocław, the Kłodzko Valley (less often through the Moravian Gate), crossed the Danube near Carnuntum in the Noricum Province, headed southwest past Poetovio, Celeia, Emona, Nauportus, and reached Patavium and Aquileia at the Adriatic coast. One of the oldest directions of the last stage of the Amber Road to the south of the Danube, noted in the myth about the Argonauts, used the rivers Sava and Kupa, ending with a short continental road from Nauportus to Tarsatica (Trsat, Rijeka) on the coast of the Adriatic.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Known roads by country", "target_page_ids": [ 496730, 10122255, 22936, 476899, 5297729, 33603, 3380841, 12004708, 21209639, 113295, 64716, 554196, 50054, 620487, 9075177, 50240, 75839, 23275478, 77334, 587845, 1758166, 295123, 23275478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 53 ], [ 104, 113 ], [ 118, 124 ], [ 135, 143 ], [ 145, 151 ], [ 153, 160 ], [ 166, 180 ], [ 205, 218 ], [ 233, 239 ], [ 245, 254 ], [ 262, 278 ], [ 302, 310 ], [ 312, 318 ], [ 320, 325 ], [ 327, 336 ], [ 350, 358 ], [ 363, 371 ], [ 379, 387 ], [ 516, 525 ], [ 543, 547 ], [ 552, 556 ], [ 631, 637 ], [ 659, 667 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several roads connected the North Sea and Baltic Sea, especially the city of Hamburg to the Brenner Pass, proceeding southwards to Brindisi (nowadays Italy) and Ambracia (nowadays Greece).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Known roads by country", "target_page_ids": [ 13467, 51534, 392267, 1371 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 84 ], [ 92, 104 ], [ 131, 139 ], [ 161, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Swiss region indicates a number of alpine roads, concentrating around the capital city Bern and probably originating from the banks of the Rhône and the Rhine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Known roads by country", "target_page_ids": [ 26748, 49749, 80790, 25845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 9 ], [ 91, 95 ], [ 143, 148 ], [ 157, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A small section, including Baarn, Barneveld, Amersfoort and Amerongen, connected the North Sea with the Lower Rhine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Known roads by country", "target_page_ids": [ 118660, 52676761, 101640, 118659 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 32 ], [ 34, 43 ], [ 45, 55 ], [ 60, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A small section led southwards from Antwerp and Bruges to the towns Braine-l’Alleud and Braine-le-Comte, both originally named \"Brennia-Brenna\". The route continued by following the Meuse towards Bern in Switzerland.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Known roads by country", "target_page_ids": [ 32149462, 38334190, 20414, 49749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 43 ], [ 48, 54 ], [ 182, 187 ], [ 196, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Routes connected amber finding locations at Ambares (near Bordeaux), leading to Béarn and the Pyrenees. Routes connecting the amber finding locations in northern Spain and in the Pyrenees were a trading route to the Mediterranean Sea.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Known roads by country", "target_page_ids": [ 15607046, 4097, 1121167, 24707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 51 ], [ 58, 66 ], [ 80, 85 ], [ 94, 102 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Archaeological sources also suggest that routes may have connected Mongolia to Eastern Europe during the Kitan/Liao Period.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Known roads by country", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is a tourist route stretching along the Baltic coast from Kaliningrad to Latvia called \"Amber Road\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern usage", "target_page_ids": [ 40387679, 17514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 75 ], [ 79, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Amber Road\" sites are:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mizgiris Amber Gallery-Museum in Nida;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern usage", "target_page_ids": [ 558440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amber Bay in Juodkrantė;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern usage", "target_page_ids": [ 2155729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lithuania Minor History Museum;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern usage", "target_page_ids": [ 17675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amber collection place in Karklė, Lithuania;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern usage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Palanga Amber Museum in Palanga;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern usage", "target_page_ids": [ 10122255, 2073856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 25, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Open amber workshop in Palanga;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern usage", "target_page_ids": [ 2073856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Amber museum in Gdańsk;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern usage", "target_page_ids": [ 12099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Samogitian Alka in Šventoji.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern usage", "target_page_ids": [ 17153639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Poland a north–south motorway A1 is officially named Amber Highway.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern usage", "target_page_ids": [ 22936, 4238553, 4238553 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 34, 36 ], [ 57, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "EV9 The Amber Route is a long-distance cycling route between Gdansk, Poland and Pula, Croatia which follows the course of the Amber Road.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Modern usage", "target_page_ids": [ 41541756, 12099, 528103 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 61, 67 ], [ 80, 84 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " OWTRAD-scientific description of the amber road in Poland", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Old World Traditional Trade Routes (OWTRAD) Project", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Joannes Richter – \"Die Bernsteinroute bei Backnang\" (pdf file)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Amber", "History_of_Europe", "Transport_in_Prussia", "Prehistoric_Lithuania", "Prehistoric_Poland", "Trade_routes" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Crandall University is a small Christian liberal arts university located in Moncton, New Brunswick, Canada. Crandall is operated by the Canadian Baptists of Atlantic Canada.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18674, 19857, 21182, 344199 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 53 ], [ 76, 83 ], [ 85, 98 ], [ 136, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The school was founded in 1949 under the name United Baptist Bible Training School (UBBTS), and served as both a secondary school and a Bible school. Over two decades, the focus of the school gradually shifted toward post-secondary programs. In 1968, UBBTS became a Bible and junior Christian liberal arts college, and in 1970 the name was changed to Atlantic Baptist College (ABC). A sustained campaign to expand the school's faculty and improve the level of education resulted in ABC being able to grant full Bachelor of Arts degrees in 1983. Its campus at this time was located along the Salisbury Road, west of Moncton's central business district.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19857 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 615, 622 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The institution moved to a new campus built on the Gorge Road, north of the central business district, in 1996. The name was changed to Atlantic Baptist University (ABU), a reflection of expanded student enrollment and academic accreditation. In 2003, the ABU sports teams adopted the name The Blue Tide. The institution was the first, and thus far only, English-language university in Moncton. The Atlantic Baptist University Act was passed by the Legislative Assembly of New Brunswick in 2008.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 666742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 450, 487 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On August 21, 2009 it was announced that the institution had changed its name to Crandall University in honour of Rev. Joseph Crandall, a pioneering Baptist minister in the maritime region. In conjunction with the university name change, Crandall Athletics took on a new identity as \"The Crandall Chargers.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 16507986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2012, Crandall University came under public scrutiny for receiving municipal funds for having a scripturally based hiring policy consistent with its denomination's tradition, that is, forbidding the hiring of non-celibate LGBTQ people. (This has been characterized by the press as an anti-gay hiring policy.) That same year, the Crandall Student Association publicly broke with the university's administration over the policy, with the student president at the time telling the CBC, \"The Christian faith does say do not judge others. And the Christian faith is all about love. So I feel that this policy – to me – doesn’t seem like it’s following those specific guidelines.\" In 2013, a year after the controversy erupted, the university opted to not apply for $150,000 in public funding that it had received annually. The university president also issued an apology, stating: \"We wish to apologize for anything that Crandall University might possibly have communicated in the past that may have seemed unloving or disrespectful in any way toward any individual or groups.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Controversy", "target_page_ids": [ 66730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 481, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crandall is an affiliate member of the Association of the Registrars of the Universities and Colleges of Canada (ARUCC); a full member of the ARUCC regional association, the Atlantic Association of Registrars and Admissions Officers (AARAO); an active member of Christian Higher Education Canada (CHEC); and an active member of the New Brunswick Association of Private Colleges and Universities. However, Crandall faculty are not members of the Canadian Association of University Teachers (CAUT). In their report, the CAUT found that \"while the university has a statement on academic freedom, it is significantly inconsistent with that of the CAUT and the majority of universities across the western world, and assurances that free enquiry is still possible within its constraints are unconvincing.\" They therefore recommended that Crandall University \"be placed on the list of institutions 'found to have imposed a requirement of a commitment to a particular ideology or statement of faith as a condition of employment.'\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Affiliations", "target_page_ids": [ 18100217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 490, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crandall University houses the Baptist Heritage Center whose 300 artifacts preserve the material history of Atlantic Baptists, the Convention of Atlantic Baptist Churches, and its predecessor organizations. The collection and archives includes objects used in worship services, furniture, musical instruments, church building architecture pictures and printed material.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Library and archives", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bachelor of Arts", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 156992 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Biblical Studies", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 392707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Communication Arts – Theatre", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 20913771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "English", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 18974570 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "History", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 10772350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Interdisciplinary Studies", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 15201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Kinesiology", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 545909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Organizational Management", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Psychology", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 22921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Religious Studies", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 354220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sociology", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 18717981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bachelor of Arts and Science", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 2355321 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bachelor of Business Administration", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 389487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "General", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Accounting", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Economics & Finance", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Management", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Marketing", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bachelor of Education", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 249234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bachelor of Technical Education", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Bachelor of Science", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 21068988 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Biology", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 9127632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bachelor of Theology (in partnership with Acadia Divinity College)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 3509246, 137496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ], [ 42, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Master of Education", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 2984946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Master of Education in Literacy", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Master of Education in Inclusionary Practices", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Master of Organizational Management", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Master of Management", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 1016906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Christian Foundations Certificate", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Claystone Certificate", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Cross-Cultural Certificate", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "French Immersion Education Certificate", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Teaching English as a Second Language Certificate", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [ 56332725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Youth Leadership Certificate", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Programs", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Crandall University is represented in the Atlantic Collegiate Athletic Association (ACAA) by 7 varsity teams. The Chargers teams include men's and women's soccer, basketball, and cross country, and women's volleyball. The Chargers also offer a boxing club program that competes internationally.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Athletics", "target_page_ids": [ 31724139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 82 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chargers have won two ACAA banners: women's soccer in 2003-04 and men's cross country in 2021-22.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Athletics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "David Alward – former Premier of New Brunswick", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni", "target_page_ids": [ 2288383, 418965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 22, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ken LeBlanc – entrepreneur", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni", "target_page_ids": [ 25424683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ralph Richardson – first chancellor of the university", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni", "target_page_ids": [ 33520556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cathy Rogers – politician", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Notable alumni", "target_page_ids": [ 43933703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of schools in Moncton", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11757510 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Higher education in New Brunswick", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17662787 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of universities and colleges in New Brunswick", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1019697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Crandall University homepage", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Crandall Athletics homepage", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Education_in_Moncton", "Universities_in_New_Brunswick", "1949_establishments_in_New_Brunswick", "Educational_institutions_established_in_1949", "Baptist_universities_and_colleges", "Baptist_Christianity_in_Canada", "Council_for_Christian_Colleges_and_Universities", "Evangelical_seminaries_and_theological_colleges_in_Canada", "Christian_universities_and_colleges_in_Canada", "Private_universities_and_colleges_in_Canada" ]

[ "Atlantic Baptist College", "United Baptist Bible Training School", "Atlantic Baptist University" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Sir Andrew John Wiles (born 11 April 1953) is an English mathematician and a Royal Society Research Professor at the University of Oxford, specializing in number theory. He is best known for proving Fermat's Last Theorem, for which he was awarded the 2016 Abel Prize and the 2017 Copley Medal by the Royal Society. He was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire in 2000, and in 2018, was appointed the first Regius Professor of Mathematics at Oxford. Wiles is also a 1997 MacArthur Fellow.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 496064, 31797, 21527, 21950759, 19021953, 159285, 373258, 212182, 531186, 4222171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 91 ], [ 118, 138 ], [ 156, 169 ], [ 192, 199 ], [ 200, 221 ], [ 257, 267 ], [ 281, 293 ], [ 333, 384 ], [ 431, 447 ], [ 490, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wiles was born on 11 April 1953 in Cambridge, England, the son of Maurice Frank Wiles (1923–2005) and Patricia Wiles (née Mowll). From 1952-1955, his father worked as the chaplain at Ridley Hall, Cambridge, and later became the Regius Professor of Divinity at the University of Oxford.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Education and early life", "target_page_ids": [ 36995, 4449213, 554717, 798076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 44 ], [ 66, 85 ], [ 183, 205 ], [ 228, 284 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wiles attended King's College School, Cambridge, and The Leys School, Cambridge.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Education and early life", "target_page_ids": [ 18290638, 1176946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 47 ], [ 53, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wiles states that he came across Fermat's Last Theorem on his way home from school when he was 10 years old. He stopped at his local library where he found a book The Last Problem, by Eric Temple Bell, about the theorem. Fascinated by the existence of a theorem that was so easy to state that he, a ten-year-old, could understand it, but that no one had proven, he decided to be the first person to prove it. However, he soon realised that his knowledge was too limited, so he abandoned his childhood dream until it was brought back to his attention at the age of 33 by Ken Ribet's 1986 proof of the epsilon conjecture, which Gerhard Frey had previously linked to Fermat's famous equation.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Education and early life", "target_page_ids": [ 30876850, 700981, 1021312 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 570, 579 ], [ 600, 618 ], [ 626, 638 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1974, Wiles earned his bachelor's degree in mathematics at Merton College, Oxford. Wiles's graduate research was guided by John Coates, beginning in the summer of 1975. Together they worked on the arithmetic of elliptic curves with complex multiplication by the methods of Iwasawa theory. He further worked with Barry Mazur on the main conjecture of Iwasawa theory over the rational numbers, and soon afterward, he generalized this result to totally real fields.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career and research", "target_page_ids": [ 188874, 18831, 128351, 230705, 10225, 537183, 396150, 23087679, 22091332, 19727024, 312853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 43 ], [ 47, 58 ], [ 62, 84 ], [ 126, 137 ], [ 214, 228 ], [ 235, 257 ], [ 276, 290 ], [ 315, 326 ], [ 334, 367 ], [ 377, 392 ], [ 445, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1980, Wiles earned a PhD while at Clare College, Cambridge. After a stay at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey, in 1981, Wiles became a Professor of Mathematics at Princeton University. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career and research", "target_page_ids": [ 75963, 184179, 84658, 58434209, 23922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 61 ], [ 83, 111 ], [ 115, 136 ], [ 162, 186 ], [ 190, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1985–86, Wiles was a Guggenheim Fellow at the Institut des Hautes Études Scientifiques near Paris and at the École Normale Supérieure. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career and research", "target_page_ids": [ 1554430, 14527, 317478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 41 ], [ 49, 89 ], [ 112, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1988 to 1990, Wiles was a Royal Society Research Professor at the University of Oxford, and then he returned to Princeton. ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career and research", "target_page_ids": [ 496064, 31797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 44 ], [ 71, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From 1994 to 2009, Wiles was a Eugene Higgins Professor at Princeton. He rejoined Oxford in 2011 as Royal Society Research Professor.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career and research", "target_page_ids": [ 37402378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 2018, Wiles was appointed Regius Professor of Mathematics at Oxford, the first in the university's history.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career and research", "target_page_ids": [ 531186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Starting in mid-1986, based on successive progress of the previous few years of Gerhard Frey, Jean-Pierre Serre and Ken Ribet, it became clear that Fermat's Last Theorem could be proven as a corollary of a limited form of the modularity theorem (unproven at the time and then known as the \"Taniyama–Shimura–Weil conjecture\"). The modularity theorem involved elliptic curves, which was also Wiles's own specialist area.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career and research", "target_page_ids": [ 1021312, 205483, 30876850, 19021953, 168865, 174475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 92 ], [ 94, 111 ], [ 116, 125 ], [ 148, 169 ], [ 191, 200 ], [ 226, 244 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The conjecture was seen by contemporary mathematicians as important, but extraordinarily difficult or perhaps impossible to prove. For example, Wiles's ex-supervisor John Coates stated that it seemed \"impossible to actually prove\", and Ken Ribet considered himself \"one of the vast majority of people who believed [it] was completely inaccessible\", adding that \"Andrew Wiles was probably one of the few people on earth who had the audacity to dream that you can actually go and prove [it].\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career and research", "target_page_ids": [ 230705, 30876850 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 177 ], [ 236, 245 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite this, Wiles, with his from-childhood fascination with Fermat's Last Theorem, decided to undertake the challenge of proving the conjecture, at least to the extent needed for Frey's curve. He dedicated all of his research time to this problem for over six years in near-total secrecy, covering up his efforts by releasing prior work in small segments as separate papers and confiding only in his wife.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career and research", "target_page_ids": [ 700981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 193 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In June 1993, he presented his proof to the public for the first time at a conference in Cambridge.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career and research", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In August 1993, it was discovered that the proof contained a flaw in one area. Wiles tried and failed for over a year to repair his proof. According to Wiles, the crucial idea for circumventing, rather than closing this area came to him on 19 September 1994, when he was on the verge of giving up. Together with his former student Richard Taylor, he published a second paper which circumvented the problem and thus completed the proof. Both papers were published in May 1995 in a dedicated issue of the Annals of Mathematics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Career and research", "target_page_ids": [ 646931, 2785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 331, 345 ], [ 503, 524 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wiles's proof of Fermat's Last Theorem has stood up to the scrutiny of the world's other mathematical experts. Wiles was interviewed for an episode of the BBC documentary series Horizon about Fermat's Last Theorem. This was broadcast as an episode of the PBS science television series Nova with the title \"The Proof\". His work and life are also described in great detail in Simon Singh's popular book Fermat's Last Theorem.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 19344654, 762779, 325772, 449061, 25905119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 158 ], [ 178, 185 ], [ 285, 289 ], [ 374, 385 ], [ 401, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wiles has been awarded a number of major prizes in mathematics and science:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Junior Whitehead Prize of the London Mathematical Society (1988)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 10681913, 591097 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 8, 23 ], [ 31, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elected a Fellow of the Royal Society (FRS) in 1989", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 41519383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elected member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences (1994)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 391882 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Schock Prize (1995)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 228658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fermat Prize (1995)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 10919195 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wolf Prize in Mathematics (1995/6)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 714278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Elected a Foreign Associate of the National Academy of Sciences (1996)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 60588318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " NAS Award in Mathematics from the National Academy of Sciences (1996)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 28306582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Royal Medal (1996)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 1767766 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ostrowski Prize (1996)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 3159411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cole Prize (1997)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 1372177 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MacArthur Fellowship (1997) ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 4222171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wolfskehl Prize (1997) – see Paul Wolfskehl", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 7725959, 7725959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 30, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elected member of the American Philosophical Society (1997)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 283120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A silver plaque from the International Mathematical Union (1998) recognising his achievements, in place of the Fields Medal, which is restricted to those under 40 (Wiles was 41 when he proved the theorem in 1994)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 14868, 10859 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 58 ], [ 112, 124 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " King Faisal Prize (1998)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 10109223 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clay Research Award (1999)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 664167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Premio Pitagora (Croton, 2004)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Shaw Prize (2005)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 685237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The asteroid 9999 Wiles was named after Wiles in 1999.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 791, 14770387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 13 ], [ 14, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire (2000)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 212182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The building at the University of Oxford housing the Mathematical Institute is named after Wiles.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 31797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abel Prize (2016)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 159285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Copley Medal (2017)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 373258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Wiles's 1987 certificate of election to the Royal Society reads:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Awards and honours", "target_page_ids": [ 496064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Profile from Oxford", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Profile from Princeton", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1953_births", "Living_people", "20th-century_mathematicians", "21st-century_mathematicians", "Abel_Prize_laureates", "Alumni_of_Clare_College,_Cambridge", "Alumni_of_King's_College,_Cambridge", "Alumni_of_Merton_College,_Oxford", "Clay_Research_Award_recipients", "English_mathematicians", "Fellows_of_Merton_College,_Oxford", "Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society", "Fermat's_Last_Theorem", "Foreign_associates_of_the_National_Academy_of_Sciences", "Institute_for_Advanced_Study_visiting_scholars", "Knights_Commander_of_the_Order_of_the_British_Empire", "MacArthur_Fellows", "Members_of_the_American_Philosophical_Society", "Members_of_the_French_Academy_of_Sciences", "Number_theorists", "People_educated_at_The_Leys_School", "People_from_Cambridge", "Princeton_University_faculty", "Recipients_of_the_Copley_Medal", "Regius_Professors_of_Mathematics_(University_of_Oxford)", "Rolf_Schock_Prize_laureates", "Royal_Medal_winners", "Trustees_of_the_Institute_for_Advanced_Study", "Whitehead_Prize_winners", "Wolf_Prize_in_Mathematics_laureates" ]

[ "Sir Andrew John Wiles", "Andrew John Wiles", "Andrew J. Wiles", "Dr. Andrew Wiles", "Prof. Sir Andrew Wiles FRS" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Ambient or Ambiance or Ambience may refer to:", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ambience (sound recording), also known as atmospheres or backgrounds", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Music and sound", "target_page_ids": [ 24892765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ambient music, a genre of music that puts an emphasis on tone and atmosphere", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Music and sound", "target_page_ids": [ 55319 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ambient (album), by Moby", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Music and sound", "target_page_ids": [ 2151258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ambience (album), by the Lambrettas", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Music and sound", "target_page_ids": [ 25241391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Virgin Ambient series, a series of 24 albums released on the UK Virgin Records label between 1993 and 1997", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Music and sound", "target_page_ids": [ 4103337 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ambient 1–4, a set of four albums by Brian Eno, released by Obscure Records between 1978 and 1982", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Music and sound", "target_page_ids": [ 9621281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ambient (computation), a process calculus", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 18934564 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ambient (desktop environment), a MUI-based desktop environment for MorphOS", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 1438540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ambient (novel), a novel by Jack Womack", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 23307573 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mark Ambient (1860–1937), pen name of Harold Harley, English dramatist", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 54957731 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ambiancé, an unreleased experimental film", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 50231411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MS Ambience, a cruise ship", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Other", "target_page_ids": [ 5154840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ambient lighting (disambiguation)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2237904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 34 ] ] } ]

[]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Anne Brontë (, ; 17 January 1820 – 28 May 1849) was an English novelist and poet, and the youngest member of the Brontë literary family.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 256804 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne Brontë was the daughter of Maria (born Branwell) and Patrick Brontë, a poor Irish clergyman in the Church of England. Anne lived most of her life with her family at the parish of Haworth on the Yorkshire moors. Otherwise, she attended a boarding school in Mirfield between 1836 and 1837, and between 1839 and 1845 lived elsewhere working as a governess. In 1846 she published a book of poems with her sisters and later two novels, initially under the pen name Acton Bell. Her first novel, Agnes Grey, was published in 1847 with Wuthering Heights. Her second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, was published in 1848. The Tenant of Wildfell Hall is thought to be one of the first feminist novels.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26678580, 2407330, 5955, 142163, 152101, 13473682, 449780, 55435, 194869, 11185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 53 ], [ 58, 72 ], [ 104, 121 ], [ 184, 191 ], [ 261, 269 ], [ 382, 414 ], [ 495, 505 ], [ 534, 551 ], [ 571, 598 ], [ 685, 693 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne died at 29, probably of pulmonary tuberculosis. After Anne's death, her sister Charlotte edited Agnes Grey to fix issues with its first edition, but prevented republication of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. This is one reason why Anne is not as well known as her sisters. Nonetheless, both of Anne's novels are considered classics of English literature.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 30653, 6532, 18973384 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 51 ], [ 84, 93 ], [ 337, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne's father was Patrick Brontë (1777–1861). Patrick Brontë was born in a two-room cottage in Emdale, Loughbrickland, County Down, Ireland. He was the oldest of ten children born to Hugh Brunty and Eleanor McCrory, poor Irish peasant farmers. The family surname, mac Aedh Ó Proinntigh, was Anglicised as Prunty or Brunty. Struggling against poverty, Patrick learned to read and write, and from 1798 taught others. In 1802, at 25, he won a place to study theology at St. John's College, Cambridge. Here he changed his name, Brunty, to the more distinguished sounding Brontë. In 1807, he was ordained in the priesthood in the Church of England. He served as a curate in Essex and then in Wellington, Shropshire. In 1810, he published his first poem, Winter Evening Thoughts, in a local newspaper. In 1811, he published a collection of moral verse, Cottage Poems. Also in 1811, he became vicar of St. Peter's Church in Hartshead, Yorkshire. In 1812, he was appointed an examiner in Classics at Woodhouse Grove School, near Bradford. This was a Wesleyan academy where, at 35, he met his future wife, the headmaster's niece, Maria Branwell.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Family background", "target_page_ids": [ 2407330, 3968463, 128263, 419808, 48713, 185250, 152473, 8440194, 23861381, 42411, 26678580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 32 ], [ 103, 117 ], [ 119, 130 ], [ 291, 301 ], [ 467, 496 ], [ 659, 665 ], [ 917, 926 ], [ 992, 1014 ], [ 1021, 1029 ], [ 1042, 1050 ], [ 1121, 1135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maria Branwell (1783–1821), Anne's mother, was the daughter of Anne Carne, the daughter of a silversmith, and Thomas Branwell, a successful and property-owning grocer and tea merchant in Penzance. Maria was the eleventh of twelve children and enjoyed the benefits of a prosperous family in a small town. After the death of her parents, Maria went to help her aunt with housekeeping functions at the school. Maria was intelligent and well read, and her strong Methodist faith attracted Patrick Brontë, whose own leanings were similar.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Family background", "target_page_ids": [ 350532, 20119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 187, 195 ], [ 459, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Within three months, on 29 December 1812, though from considerably different backgrounds, Patrick Brontë and Maria Branwell were married. Their first child, Maria (1814–1825), was born after they moved to Hartshead. In 1815, Patrick was appointed curate of the chapel in Market Street Thornton, near Bradford. A second daughter, Elizabeth (1815–1825), was born shortly after. Four more children followed: Charlotte (1816–1855), Patrick Branwell (1817–1848), Emily (1818–1848), and Anne (1820–1849).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Family background", "target_page_ids": [ 152473, 1053214, 23861381, 6532, 848505, 9810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 214 ], [ 285, 293 ], [ 300, 308 ], [ 405, 414 ], [ 428, 444 ], [ 458, 463 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne was the youngest of the Brontë children. She was born on 17 January 1820 on the outskirts of Bradford. Her father, Patrick, was curate there. Anne was baptised there on 25 March 1820. Later Patrick was appointed to the perpetual curacy in Haworth, a small town away. In April 1820 the family moved into the five-roomed Haworth Parsonage.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 23861381 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Anne was barely a year old her mother, Maria, became ill, probably with uterine cancer. Maria Branwell died on 15 September 1821. Patrick tried to remarry, without success. Maria's sister, Elizabeth Branwell (1776–1842), had moved to the parsonage initially for Maria, but spent the rest of her life there raising Maria's children. She did it from a sense of duty. She was stern and expected respect, not love. There was little affection between her and the older children. According to tradition Anne was her favourite.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 412796 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Elizabeth Gaskell's biography of Charlotte, Patrick remembered Anne as precocious. Patrick said that when Anne was four years old he had asked her what a child most wanted and that she had said: \"age and experience\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 55503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In summer 1824 Patrick sent daughters Maria, Elizabeth, Charlotte, and Emily to Crofton Hall in Crofton, West Yorkshire, and subsequently to the Clergy Daughter's School at Cowan Bridge in Lancashire. Maria and Elizabeth Brontë died of consumption on 6 May and 15 June 1825 respectively, and Charlotte and Emily were brought home. The unexpected deaths distressed the family so much that Patrick could not face sending them away again. They were educated at home for the next five years, largely by Elizabeth Branwell and Patrick. The children made little attempt to mix with others outside the parsonage and relied on each other for company. The bleak moors surrounding Haworth became their playground. Anne shared a room with her aunt, Elizabeth. They were close, and she may have influenced Anne's personality and religious beliefs.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Early life", "target_page_ids": [ 12020259, 6344245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 119 ], [ 173, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne's studies at home included music and drawing. The Keighley church organist gave piano lessons to Anne and Emily and Branwell, and John Bradley of Keighley gave them art lessons. Each drew with some skill. Their aunt tried to teach the girls how to run a household, but they inclined more to literature. They read much from their father's well-stocked library. Their reading included the Bible, Homer, Virgil, Shakespeare, Milton, Byron, Scott, articles from Blackwood's Edinburgh Magazine and Fraser's Magazine and The Edinburgh Review, and miscellaneous books of history and geography and biography.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 13633, 32359, 32897, 16215, 17566665, 27884, 3745788, 2539611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 399, 404 ], [ 406, 412 ], [ 414, 425 ], [ 427, 433 ], [ 435, 440 ], [ 442, 447 ], [ 463, 493 ], [ 498, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Their reading fed their imaginations, and their creativity soared after their father gave Branwell a set of toy soldiers in June 1826. They gave names to the soldiers, or the \"Twelves\", and developed their characters. This led to the creation of an imaginary world: the African kingdom of \"Angria\", which was illustrated with maps and watercolour renderings. The children devised plots about the inhabitants of Angria and its capital city, \"Glass Town\", later called Verreopolis or Verdopolis.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Their fantastical worlds and kingdoms gradually acquired characteristics from their historical world, drawing from its sovereigns, armies, heroes, outlaws, fugitives, inns, schools, and publishers. The characters and lands created by the children were given newspapers and magazines and chronicles written in tiny books with writing so small that it was difficult to read without a magnifying glass. These creations and writings were an apprenticeship for their later literary talents.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Around 1831, when Anne was eleven, she and Emily broke away from Charlotte and Branwell to create and develop their own fantasy world, \"Gondal\". Anne and Emily were particularly close, especially after Charlotte left for Roe Head School in January 1831. Charlotte's friend Ellen Nussey visited Haworth in 1833 and reported that Emily and Anne were \"like twins\" and \"inseparable companions\". She described Anne so:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Juvenilia", "target_page_ids": [ 31978903, 17672046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 142 ], [ 273, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne took lessons from Charlotte after Charlotte had returned from Roe Head. Charlotte returned to Roe Head as a teacher on 29 July 1835, accompanied by Emily as a pupil. Emily's tuition was largely financed by Charlotte's teaching. Emily was unable to adapt to life at school and was physically ill from homesickness within a few months. She was withdrawn from school by October and replaced by Anne.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Juvenilia", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anne was 15 and it was her first time away from home. She made few friends at Roe Head. She was quiet and hardworking and determined to stay to acquire the education which she would need to support herself. She stayed for two years and returned home only during Christmas and summer holidays. She won a good-conduct medal in December 1836. Charlotte's letters almost never mention Anne while Anne was at Roe Head, which might imply that they were not close, but Charlotte was at least concerned about Anne's health. By December 1837 Anne had become seriously ill with gastritis and embroiled in religious crisis. A Moravian minister was called to see her several times during her illness, suggesting her distress was caused, in part, by conflict with the local Anglican clergy. Charlotte wrote to their father and he brought Anne home.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Juvenilia", "target_page_ids": [ 1002473, 1221030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 568, 577 ], [ 615, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A year after leaving the school, and aged 19, Anne was seeking a teaching position. She was the daughter of a poor clergyman and needed to earn money. Her father had no private income and the parsonage would revert to the church on his death. Teaching or working as a governess were among few options for a poor and educated woman. In April 1839 Anne started work as a governess for the Ingham family at Blake Hall, near Mirfield.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Employment at Blake Hall", "target_page_ids": [ 152101 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 421, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The children in her charge were spoiled and disobedient. Anne had great difficulty controlling them and little success in educating them. She was not allowed to punish them, and when she complained about their behaviour she received no support and was criticised for being incapable. The Inghams were dissatisfied with their children's progress and dismissed Anne. She returned home in 1839 at Christmas. At home also were Charlotte and Emily, who had left their positions, and Branwell. Anne's time at Blake Hall was so traumatic that she reproduced it in almost perfect detail in her novel Agnes Grey.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Employment at Blake Hall", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anne returned to Haworth and met William Weightman (1814–1842), her father's new curate who had started work in the parish in August 1839. Weightman was 25 and had obtained a two-year licentiate in theology from the University of Durham. He was welcome at the parsonage. Anne's acquaintance with him parallels her writing a number of poems, which may suggest she fell in love with him although there is disagreement over this possibility. Little evidence exists beyond a small anecdote of Charlotte's to Ellen Nussey in January 1842.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "William Weightman", "target_page_ids": [ 29997930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 216, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Agnes Grey Agnes' interest in the curate refreshes her interest in poetry. Outside fiction William Weightman aroused much curiosity. It seems that he was good-looking and engaging, and that his easy humour and kindness towards the sisters made an impression. It is such a character that she portrays in Edward Weston, and that her heroine Agnes Grey finds deeply appealing.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "William Weightman", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Weightman died of cholera in the same year. Anne expressed her grief for his death in her poem I will not mourn thee, lovely one, in which she called him \"our darling\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "William Weightman", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From 1840 to 1845 Anne worked at Thorp Green Hall, a comfortable country house near York. Here she was governess to the children of the Reverend Edmund Robinson and his wife, Lydia. The house appeared as Horton Lodge in Agnes Grey. Anne had four pupils: Lydia (15), Elizabeth (13), Mary (12), and Edmund (8). She initially had problems similar to those at Blake Hall. Anne missed her home and family. In a diary paper in 1841 she wrote that she did not like her situation and wished to leave it. Her quiet and gentle disposition did not help. But Anne was determined and made a success of her position, becoming well-liked by her employers. Her charges, the Robinson girls, became lifelong friends.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Governess", "target_page_ids": [ 34361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 84, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne spent only five or six weeks a year with her family, during holidays at Christmas and in June. The rest of her time was spent with the Robinsons. She accompanied the Robinsons on annual holidays to Scarborough. Between 1840 and 1844 Anne spent around five weeks each summer at the coastal town and loved it. A number of locations in Scarborough were used for her novels. She had opportunities to collect semi-precious stones, considering an interest in geology, at least in her novels, or from personal experience, as something suitable for men and women to be considered as equals.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Governess", "target_page_ids": [ 381565 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne and her sisters considered setting up a school while she was still working for the Robinsons. Various locations were considered, including the parsonage, but the project never materialised. Anne came home on the death of her aunt in early November 1842 while her sisters were in Brussels. Elizabeth Branwell left a £350 legacy (equivalent to £ in ) for each of her nieces.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Governess", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "It was at the Long Plantation at Thorp Green in 1842 that Anne wrote her three-verse poem Lines Composed in a Wood on a Windy Day, which was published in 1846 under the name Acton Bell.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Governess", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In January 1843 Anne returned to Thorp Green and secured a position for Branwell. He was to tutor Edmund, who was growing too old to be in Anne's care. Branwell did not live in the house as Anne did. Anne's vaunted calm appears to have been the result of hard-fought battles, balancing deeply felt emotions with careful thought, a sense of responsibility and resolute determination. All three Brontë sisters worked as governesses or teachers, and all experienced problems controlling their charges, gaining support from their employers, and coping with homesickness, but Anne was the only one who persevered and made a success of her work.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Governess", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anne and Branwell taught at Thorp Green for the next three years. Branwell entered into a secret relationship with his employer's wife, Lydia Robinson. When Anne and Branwell returned home for the holidays in June 1846 Anne resigned. Anne gave no reason, but the reason may have been the relationship between her brother and Mrs Robinson. Branwell was dismissed when his employer found out about the relationship. Anne continued to exchange letters with Elizabeth and Mary Robinson. They came to visit Anne in December 1848.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Back at the parsonage", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anne took Emily to visit some of the places which Anne had become fond of. A plan to visit Scarborough fell through, but they went to York and saw York Minster.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Back at the parsonage", "target_page_ids": [ 381565, 34361, 72950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 102 ], [ 134, 138 ], [ 147, 159 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Brontës were at home with their father during the summer of 1845. None had any immediate prospect of employment. Charlotte found Emily's poems, which had been shared only with Anne. Charlotte said that they should be published. Anne showed her own poems to Charlotte, and Charlotte \"thought that these verses too had a sweet sincere pathos of their own\". The sisters eventually reached an agreement. They told nobody what they were doing. With the money from Elizabeth Branwell they paid for publication of a collection of poems, 21 from Anne and 21 from Emily and 19 from Charlotte.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "A book of poems", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The book was published under pen names which retained their initials but concealed their sex. Anne's pseudonym was Acton Bell. Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell was available for sale in May 1846. The cost of publication was 31 pounds and 10 shillings, about three-quarters of Anne's salary at Thorp Green. On 7 May 1846 the first three copies were delivered to Haworth Parsonage. The book achieved three somewhat favourable reviews, but was a commercial failure, with only two copies sold in the first year. Anne nonetheless found a market for her later poetry. The Leeds Intelligencer and Fraser's Magazine published her poem The Narrow Way under her pseudonym in December 1848. Four months earlier, Fraser's Magazine had published her poem The Three Guides.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "A book of poems", "target_page_ids": [ 46043, 13473682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 37 ], [ 127, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By July 1846 a package containing the manuscripts of each sister's first novel was making the rounds of London publishers. Charlotte had written The Professor, Emily had written Wuthering Heights, and Anne had written Agnes Grey.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Novels", "target_page_ids": [ 1194919, 55435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 145, 158 ], [ 178, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After some rejections Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey were accepted by the publisher Thomas Cautley Newby. The Professor was rejected. It was not long before Charlotte had completed her second novel, Jane Eyre. Jane Eyre was accepted immediately by Smith, Elder & Co. It was the first published of the sisters' novels, and an immediate and resounding success. Meanwhile, Anne and Emily's novels \"lingered in the press\". Anne and Emily were obliged to pay fifty pounds to help meet their publishing costs. Their publisher was galvanised by the success of Jane Eyre and published Wuthering Heights and Agnes Grey together in December 1847. They sold well, but Agnes Grey was outshone by Emily's more dramatic Wuthering Heights.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Novels", "target_page_ids": [ 12017588, 55438, 5732403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 106 ], [ 201, 210 ], [ 250, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Anne's second novel, The Tenant of Wildfell Hall, was published in the last week of June 1848.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Novels", "target_page_ids": [ 194869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is easy to underestimate the extent to which the novel challenged the social and legal structures. In 1913 May Sinclair said that the slamming of Helen Huntingdon's bedroom door against her husband reverberated throughout Victorian England.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Novels", "target_page_ids": [ 1444110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the book Helen has left her husband to protect their son from his influence. She supports herself and her son in hiding by painting. She has violated social conventions and English law. Until the Married Women's Property Act 1870 was passed, a married woman had no legal existence independent from her husband and could not own property nor sue for divorce nor control the custody of her children. Helen's husband had a right to reclaim her and charge her with kidnapping. By subsisting on her own income she was stealing her husband's property since this income was legally his.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Novels", "target_page_ids": [ 12978292, 40147 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 199, 232 ], [ 352, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne stated her intentions in the second edition, published in August 1848. She presented a forceful rebuttal to critics (among them Charlotte) who considered her portrayal of Huntingdon overly graphic and disturbing. Anne \"wished to tell the truth\". She explained further that", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Novels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anne also castigated reviewers who speculated on the sex of authors and the perceived appropriateness of their writing. She was", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Novels", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1848 Anne and Charlotte went to Charlotte's publisher George Smith in London to dispel the rumour that the \"Bell brothers\" were one person. Emily refused to go. Anne and Charlotte spent several days with Smith. Many years after Anne's death, he wrote in the Cornhill Magazine his impressions of her:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "London visit", "target_page_ids": [ 7152659, 3702611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 74 ], [ 266, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The increasing popularity of the Bells' works led to renewed interest in Poems by Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell, originally published by Aylott and Jones. The remaining print run was bought by Smith and Elder, and reissued under new covers in November 1848. It still sold poorly.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "London visit", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Branwell's persistent drunkenness disguised the decline of his health and he died on 24 September 1848. His sudden death shocked the family. He was 31. The cause was recorded as chronic bronchitismarasmus, but was probably tuberculosis.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Family tragedies", "target_page_ids": [ 556521, 30653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 196, 204 ], [ 223, 235 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The family suffered from coughs and colds during the winter of 1848, and Emily became very ill. She worsened over two months and rejected medical aid until the morning of 19 December. She was very weak and said that \"if you will send for a doctor, I will see him now\". But Emily died at about two o'clock that afternoon, aged 30.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Family tragedies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Emily's death deeply affected Anne. Her grief undermined her physical health. Over Christmas Anne had influenza. Her symptoms intensified and in early January her father sent for a Leeds physician. The doctor diagnosed advanced consumption with little hope of recovery. Anne met the news with characteristic determination and self-control. However, in her letter to Ellen Nussey she expressed her frustrated ambitions:", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Family tragedies", "target_page_ids": [ 8262427, 30653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 181, 186 ], [ 228, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike Emily, Anne took all the recommended medicines and followed the advice she was given. That same month she wrote her last poem, A dreadful darkness closes in, in which she deals with being terminally ill. Her health fluctuated for months, but she grew thinner and weaker.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Family tragedies", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anne seemed somewhat better in February. She decided to visit Scarborough to see if the change of location and the fresh sea air might benefit her. Charlotte was initially against the journey, fearing that it would be too stressful, but changed her mind after the doctor's approval and Anne's assurance that it was her last hope.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 24 May 1849 Anne set off for Scarborough with Charlotte and Ellen Nussey. They spent a day and night in York en route. Here they escorted Anne in a wheelchair and did some shopping and visited York Minster. It was clear that Anne had little strength left.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 17672046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On Sunday 27 May Anne asked Charlotte whether it would be easier to return home and die instead of remaining in Scarborough. A doctor was consulted the next day and said that death was close. Anne received the news quietly. She expressed her love and concern for Ellen and Charlotte, and whispered for Charlotte to \"take courage\". Anne died at about two o'clock in the afternoon on Monday 28 May 1849, aged 29.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Charlotte decided to \"lay the flower where it had fallen\". So Anne was buried in Scarborough. The funeral was held on 30 May. Patrick Brontë could not have made the journey if he had wished to. The former schoolmistress at Roe Head, Miss Wooler, was in Scarborough, and she was the only other mourner at Anne's funeral. Anne was buried in St Mary's churchyard, beneath the castle walls and overlooking the bay. Charlotte commissioned a stone to be placed over her grave with the inscription, When Charlotte visited the grave three years later she discovered multiple errors on the headstone and had it refaced. But this was not free of error. For Anne was 29 when she died, not 28 as written.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 43784575 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 340, 349 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011 the Brontë Society installed a new plaque at Anne Brontë's grave. The original gravestone had become illegible at places and could not be restored. It was left undisturbed while the new plaque was laid horizontally, interpreting the fading words of the original and correcting its error. In April 2013 the Brontë Society held a dedication and blessing service at the gravesite to mark the installation of the new plaque.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "Death", "target_page_ids": [ 1624535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Anne's death Charlotte addressed issues with the first edition of Agnes Grey for its republication, but she prevented republication of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall. In 1850 Charlotte wrote that Subsequent critics paid less attention to Anne's work and some dismissed her as \"a Brontë without genius\".", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Reputation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "But since the mid-20th century her life and works have been given better attention. Biographies by Winifred Gérin (1959) and Elizabeth Langland (1989) and Edward Chitham (1991), as well as Juliet Barker's group biography, The Brontës (1994; revised edition 2000), and work by critics such as Inga-Stina Ewbank, Marianne Thormählen, Laura C Berry, Jan B Gordon, Mary Summers, and Juliet McMaster has led to acceptance of Anne Brontë as a major literary figure. Sally McDonald of the Brontë Society said in 2013 that in some ways Anne \"is now viewed as the most radical of the sisters, writing about tough subjects such as women's need to maintain independence and how alcoholism can tear a family apart.\" In 2016 Lucy Mangan championed Anne Brontë in the BBC's Being the Brontës, declaring that \"her time has come\".", "section_idx": 14, "section_name": "Reputation", "target_page_ids": [ 13755146, 21568520, 49979844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 113 ], [ 292, 309 ], [ 712, 723 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "List of feminist literature - 1840s", "section_idx": 15, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1578567 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexander, Christine & Smith, Margaret, The Oxford Companion to the Brontës, Oxford University Press, 2006, ", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Barker, Juliet, The Brontës, St. Martin's Pr., ", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 11324152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chitham, Edward, A Life of Anne Brontë, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 1991, ", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Fraser, Rebeca, The Brontës: Charlotte Brontë and her family, Crown Publishers, 1988, ", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Gérin, Winifred, Anne Brontë, Allen Lane, 1976, ", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 13755146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Harrison, Ada and Stanford, Derek, Anne Brontë – Her Life and Work, Archon Books, 1970 (first published 1959). ", "section_idx": 17, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Allott, Miriam, The Brontës: The Critical Heritage, 1984", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Barker, Juliet, The Brontës, 2000 (revised edition)", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 11324152 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chadwick, Ellis, In the Footsteps of the Brontës, 1982", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chitham, Edward, A Brontë Family Chronology, 2003", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Chitham, Edward, A Life of Anne Brontë, 1991", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Eagleton, Terry, Myths of Power, 1975", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 441906 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ellis, Samantha, Take Courage: Anne Brontë and the Art of Life, 2016", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 34814866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gérin, Winifred, Anne Brontë: A Biography, 1959", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 13755146 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Langland, Elizabeth, Anne Brontë: The Other One, 1989", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Miller, Lucasta, The Brontë Myth, 2001", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 23762348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scott, P. J. M., Anne Brontë: A New Critical Assessment, 1983", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Summers, Mary, Anne Brontë Educating Parents, 2003", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Wise, T. J. and Symington, J. A. (eds.), The Brontës: Their Lives, Friendships and Correspondences, 1932", "section_idx": 18, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 30624922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne Brontë – Her grave in Scarborough", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anne Brontë – The Scarborough Connection , biographical materials and complete poems of Anne Brontë", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anne Brontë – Writer Of Genius, biographical materials on Anne and her family ", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anne Bronte at Northwestern University, information about Anne and Victorian society, critical reception of The Tenant of Wildfell Hall", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Anne Brontë's biography and works at A Celebration of Women Writers", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Poems by Anne Brontë at English Poetry", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Website of the Brontë Society and Brontë Parsonage Museum in Haworth", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Anne Brontë eText Archive", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Music On Christmas Morning – Audio Poem", "section_idx": 19, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1820_births", "1849_deaths", "19th-century_English_women_writers", "19th-century_Christian_universalists", "19th-century_deaths_from_tuberculosis", "19th-century_English_novelists", "Anglican_universalists", "Brontë_family", "Burials_in_North_Yorkshire", "Christian_writers", "English_Anglicans", "English_Christian_universalists", "English_governesses", "English_people_of_Cornish_descent", "English_people_of_Irish_descent", "English_women_novelists", "English_women_poets", "Tuberculosis_deaths_in_England", "People_from_Thornton_and_Allerton", "Pseudonymous_women_writers", "Victorian_novelists", "Victorian_women_writers", "19th-century_pseudonymous_writers" ]

[ "Acton Bell", "Ann Brontë", "Anne Bronte", "Ann Bronte", "Annie Bronte" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Augustine of Hippo (, ; ; 13 November 354 – 28 August 430), also known as Saint Augustine, was a theologian and philosopher of Berber origin and the bishop of Hippo Regius in Numidia, Roman North Africa. His writings influenced the development of Western philosophy and Western Christianity, and he is viewed as one of the most important Church Fathers of the Latin Church in the Patristic Period. His many important works include The City of God, On Christian Doctrine, and Confessions.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48132, 4092, 84910, 56417917, 468634, 13704154, 42206, 33643361, 30869117, 2168500, 434485, 4502005, 621399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 127, 133 ], [ 149, 155 ], [ 159, 171 ], [ 175, 182 ], [ 184, 202 ], [ 247, 265 ], [ 270, 290 ], [ 338, 352 ], [ 360, 372 ], [ 380, 396 ], [ 431, 446 ], [ 448, 469 ], [ 475, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to his contemporary, Jerome, Augustine \"established anew the ancient Faith\". In his youth he was drawn to the eclectic Manichaean faith, and later to the Hellenistic philosophy of Neoplatonism. After his conversion to Christianity and baptism in 386, Augustine developed his own approach to philosophy and theology, accommodating a variety of methods and perspectives. Believing the grace of Christ was indispensable to human freedom, he helped formulate the doctrine of original sin and made significant contributions to the development of just war theory. When the Western Roman Empire began to disintegrate, Augustine imagined the Church as a spiritual City of God, distinct from the material Earthly City. The segment of the Church that adhered to the concept of the Trinity as defined by the Council of Nicaea and the Council of Constantinople closely identified with Augustine's On the Trinity.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16005, 19760, 10649725, 23385833, 191756, 22735, 173505, 504379, 860235, 30511, 11118, 11643, 16620529 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 37 ], [ 129, 145 ], [ 164, 186 ], [ 190, 202 ], [ 393, 408 ], [ 481, 493 ], [ 551, 566 ], [ 577, 597 ], [ 666, 677 ], [ 781, 788 ], [ 807, 824 ], [ 833, 858 ], [ 895, 909 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine is recognized as a saint in the Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Communion. He is also a preeminent Catholic Doctor of the Church and the patron of the Augustinians. His memorial is celebrated on 28 August, the day of his death. Augustine is the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, and a number of cities and dioceses. His thoughts profoundly influenced the medieval worldview. Many Protestants, especially Calvinists and Lutherans, consider him one of the theological fathers of the Protestant Reformation due to his teachings on salvation and divine grace. Protestant Reformers generally, and Martin Luther in particular, held Augustine in preeminence among early Church Fathers. From 1505 to 1521, Luther was a member of the Order of the Augustinian Eremites.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 606848, 10186, 909, 340345, 144980, 68055, 25814008, 6024, 23371382, 37857, 29473, 26556255, 1929054, 7567080, 15451227, 5997030 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 57 ], [ 63, 86 ], [ 96, 114 ], [ 149, 169 ], [ 192, 204 ], [ 286, 298 ], [ 435, 446 ], [ 459, 469 ], [ 474, 483 ], [ 536, 558 ], [ 583, 592 ], [ 597, 609 ], [ 611, 631 ], [ 647, 660 ], [ 718, 732 ], [ 780, 813 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the East, his teachings are more disputed, and were notably attacked by John Romanides, but other theologians and figures of the Eastern Orthodox Church have shown significant approbation of his writings, chiefly Georges Florovsky. The most controversial doctrine associated with him, the filioque, was rejected by the Orthodox Church. Other disputed teachings include his views on original sin, the doctrine of grace, and predestination. Though considered to be mistaken on some points, he is still considered a saint and has influenced some Eastern Church Fathers, most notably Gregory Palamas. In the Orthodox Church, his feast day is celebrated on 15 June. The historian Diarmaid MacCulloch has written: \"Augustine's impact on Western Christian thought can hardly be overstated; only his beloved example, Paul of Tarsus, has been more influential, and Westerners have generally seen Paul through Augustine's eyes.\"", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 42207, 1612209, 10186, 1424088, 11110, 23705, 33643361, 125307, 1833012, 24140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 11 ], [ 75, 89 ], [ 132, 155 ], [ 216, 233 ], [ 292, 300 ], [ 426, 440 ], [ 554, 568 ], [ 583, 598 ], [ 678, 697 ], [ 812, 826 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine of Hippo, also known as Saint Augustine or Saint Austin, is known by various cognomens throughout the many denominations of the Christian world, including Blessed Augustine and the Doctor of Grace ().", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 241700 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Hippo Regius, where Augustine was the bishop, was in modern-day Annaba, Algeria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 84910, 4092, 1251502, 358 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 38, 44 ], [ 64, 70 ], [ 72, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine was born in 354 in the municipium of Thagaste (now Souk Ahras, Algeria) in the Roman province of Numidia. His mother, Monica or Monnica, was a devout Christian; his father Patricius was a pagan who converted to Christianity on his deathbed. He had a brother named Navigius and a sister whose name is lost but is conventionally remembered as Perpetua.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1190968, 5634481, 10799861, 358, 56417917, 740416, 740416, 62431269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 43 ], [ 47, 55 ], [ 61, 71 ], [ 73, 80 ], [ 89, 114 ], [ 128, 134 ], [ 138, 145 ], [ 351, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scholars generally agree Augustine and his family were Berbers, an ethnic group indigenous to North Africa, but were heavily Romanized, speaking only Latin at home as a matter of pride and dignity. In his writings, Augustine leaves some information as to the consciousness of his African heritage. For example, he refers to Apuleius as \"the most notorious of us Africans,\" to Ponticianus as \"a country man of ours, insofar as being African,\" and to Faustus of Mileve as \"an African Gentleman\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 48132, 1789, 16270550, 187697 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 62 ], [ 324, 332 ], [ 449, 466 ], [ 482, 491 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine's family name, Aurelius, suggests his father's ancestors were freedmen of the gens Aurelia given full Roman citizenship by the Edict of Caracalla in 212. Augustine's family had been Roman, from a legal standpoint, for at least a century when he was born. It is assumed his mother, Monica, was of Berber origin, on the basis of her name, but as his family were honestiores, an upper class of citizens known as honorable men, Augustine's first language was likely Latin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 13149886, 1003566, 1755761, 48132, 3853576 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 80 ], [ 88, 100 ], [ 137, 155 ], [ 306, 312 ], [ 370, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the age of 11, Augustine was sent to school at Madaurus (now M'Daourouch), a small Numidian city about south of Thagaste. There he became familiar with Latin literature, as well as pagan beliefs and practices. His first insight into the nature of sin occurred when he and a number of friends stole fruit they did not want from a neighborhood garden. He tells this story in his autobiography, The Confessions. He remembers he stole the fruit, not because he was hungry, but because \"it was not permitted.\" His very nature, he says, was flawed. 'It was foul, and I loved it. I loved my own error—not that for which I erred, but the error itself.\" From this incident he concluded the human person is naturally inclined to sin, and in need of the grace of Christ.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 6184464, 18058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 75 ], [ 156, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At the age of 17, through the generosity of his fellow citizen Romanianus, Augustine went to Carthage to continue his education in rhetoric, though it was above the financial means of his family. In spite of the good warnings of his mother, as a youth Augustine lived a hedonistic lifestyle for a time, associating with young men who boasted of their sexual exploits. The need to gain their acceptance forced inexperienced boys like Augustine to seek or make up stories about sexual experiences.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 6555, 25447, 13470 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 101 ], [ 131, 139 ], [ 270, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It was while he was a student in Carthage that he read Cicero's dialogue Hortensius (now lost), which he described as leaving a lasting impression, enkindling in his heart the love of wisdom and a great thirst for truth. It started his interest in philosophy. Although raised Christian, Augustine became a Manichaean, much to his mother's chagrin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 6046, 170594, 30254806, 19760 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 61 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 73, 83 ], [ 306, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At about the age of 17, Augustine began a relationship with a young woman in Carthage. Though his mother wanted him to marry a person of his class, the woman remained his lover. He was warned by his mother to avoid fornication (sex outside marriage), but Augustine persisted in the relationship for over fifteen years, and the woman gave birth to his son Adeodatus (372–388), which means \"Gift from God\", who was viewed as extremely intelligent by his contemporaries. In 385, Augustine ended his relationship with his lover in order to prepare to marry a teenaged heiress. By the time he was able to marry her, however, he had decided to become a Catholic priest and the marriage did not happen.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine was from the beginning a brilliant student, with an eager intellectual curiosity, but he never mastered Greek – his first Greek teacher was a brutal man who constantly beat his students, and Augustine rebelled and refused to study. By the time he realized he needed to know Greek, it was too late; and although he acquired a smattering of the language, he was never eloquent with it. He did however, become a master of Latin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine taught grammar at Thagaste during 373 and 374. The following year he moved to Carthage to conduct a school of rhetoric and remained there for the next nine years. Disturbed by unruly students in Carthage, he moved to establish a school in Rome, where he believed the best and brightest rhetoricians practiced, in 383. However, Augustine was disappointed with the apathetic reception. It was the custom for students to pay their fees to the professor on the last day of the term, and many students attended faithfully all term, and then did not pay.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Manichaean friends introduced him to the prefect of the City of Rome, Symmachus, who had been asked by the imperial court at Milan to provide a rhetoric professor. Augustine won the job and headed north to take his position in Milan in late 384. Thirty years old, he had won the most visible academic position in the Latin world at a time when such posts gave ready access to political careers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 754330, 36511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 79 ], [ 125, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Augustine spent ten years as a Manichaean, he was never an initiate or \"elect\", but an \"auditor\", the lowest level in this religion's hierarchy. While still at Carthage a disappointing meeting with the Manichaean Bishop, Faustus of Mileve, a key exponent of Manichaean theology, started Augustine's scepticism of Manichaeanism. In Rome, he reportedly turned away from Manichaeanism, embracing the scepticism of the New Academy movement. Because of his education, Augustine had great rhetorical prowess and was very knowledgeable of the philosophies behind many faiths. At Milan, his mother's religiosity, Augustine's own studies in Neoplatonism, and his friend Simplicianus all urged him towards Christianity. This was shortly after the Roman emperor Theodosius I declared Christianity to be the only legitimate religion for the Roman Empire on 27 February 380 by the Edict of Thessalonica and then issued a decree of death for all Manichaean monks in 382. Initially Augustine was not strongly influenced by Christianity and its ideologies, but after coming in contact with Ambrose of Milan, Augustine reevaluated himself and was forever changed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 16270550, 204510, 2420319, 23385833, 8341154, 31131, 24989327, 1370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 247 ], [ 406, 416 ], [ 424, 435 ], [ 641, 653 ], [ 670, 680 ], [ 760, 772 ], [ 877, 898 ], [ 1083, 1090 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine arrived in Milan and visited Ambrose, having heard of his reputation as an orator. Like Augustine, Ambrose was a master of rhetoric, but older and more experienced. Soon, their relationship grew, as Augustine wrote, \"And I began to love him, of course, not at the first as a teacher of the truth, for I had entirely despaired of finding that in thy Church—but as a friendly man.\" Augustine was very much influenced by Ambrose, even more than by his own mother and others he admired. In his Confessions, Augustine states, \"That man of God received me as a father would, and welcomed my coming as a good bishop should.\" Ambrose adopted Augustine as a spiritual son after the death of Augustine's father.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine's mother had followed him to Milan and arranged a respectable marriage for him. Although Augustine acquiesced, he had to dismiss his concubine and grieved for having forsaken his lover. He wrote, \"My mistress being torn from my side as an impediment to my marriage, my heart, which clave to her, was racked, and wounded, and bleeding.\" Augustine confessed he had not been a lover of wedlock so much as a slave of lust, so he procured another concubine since he had to wait two years until his fiancée came of age. However, his emotional wound was not healed. It was during this period that he uttered his famously insincere prayer, \"Grant me chastity and continence, but not yet.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 7366, 38304 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 652, 660 ], [ 665, 675 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is evidence Augustine may have considered this former relationship to be equivalent to marriage. In his Confessions, he admitted the experience eventually produced a decreased sensitivity to pain. Augustine eventually broke off his engagement to his eleven-year-old fiancée, but never renewed his relationship with either of his concubines. Alypius of Thagaste steered Augustine away from marriage, saying they could not live a life together in the love of wisdom if he married. Augustine looked back years later on the life at Cassiciacum, a villa outside of Milan where he gathered with his followers, and described it as Christianae vitae otium – the leisure of Christian life.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 3320583, 6825597 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 347, 366 ], [ 534, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In late August of 386, at the age of 31, having heard of Ponticianus's and his friends' first reading of the life of Anthony of the Desert, Augustine converted to Christianity. As Augustine later told it, his conversion was prompted by hearing a child's voice say \"take up and read\" (). Resorting to the Sortes Sanctorum, he opened a book of St. Paul's writings (codex apostoli, 8.12.29) at random and read Romans 13: 13–14: Not in rioting and drunkenness, not in chambering and wantonness, not in strife and envying, but put on the Lord Jesus Christ, and make no provision for the flesh to fulfill the lusts thereof.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 3246, 1326753 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 138 ], [ 304, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He later wrote an account of his conversion in his Confessions (), which has since become a classic of Christian theology and a key text in the history of autobiography. This work is an outpouring of thanksgiving and penitence. Although it is written as an account of his life, the Confessions also talks about the nature of time, causality, free will, and other important philosophical topics. The following is taken from that work:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 621399, 2179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 62 ], [ 155, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ambrose baptized Augustine and his son Adeodatus, in Milan on Easter Vigil, 24–25 April 387. A year later, in 388, Augustine completed his apology On the Holiness of the Catholic Church. That year, also, Adeodatus and Augustine returned home to Africa. Augustine's mother Monica died at Ostia, Italy, as they prepared to embark for Africa. Upon their arrival, they began a life of aristocratic leisure at Augustine's family's property. Soon after, Adeodatus, too, died. Augustine then sold his patrimony and gave the money to the poor. He only kept the family house, which he converted into a monastic foundation for himself and a group of friends. Furthermore, while he was known for his major contributions regarding Christian rhetoric, another major contribution was his preaching style.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1370, 1624043, 2513801, 740416, 92888, 19626 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ], [ 62, 74 ], [ 139, 146 ], [ 272, 278 ], [ 287, 292 ], [ 593, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After converting to Christianity, Augustine turned against his profession as a rhetoric professor in order to devote more time to preaching. In 391 Augustine was ordained a priest in Hippo Regius (now Annaba), in Algeria. He was especially interested in discovering how his previous rhetorical training in Italian schools would help the Christian Church achieve its objective of discovering and teaching the different scriptures in the Bible. He became a famous preacher (more than 350 preserved sermons are believed to be authentic), and was noted for combating the Manichaean religion, to which he had formerly adhered. He preached around 6,000 to 10,000 sermons when he was alive; however, there are only around 500 sermons that are accessible today. When Augustine preached his sermons, they were recorded by stenographers. Some of his sermons would last over one hour and he would preach multiple times throughout a given week. When talking to his audience, he would stand on an elevated platform; however, he would walk towards the audience during his sermons. When he was preaching, he used a variety of rhetorical devices that included analogies, word pictures, similes, metaphors, repetition, and antithesis when trying to explain more about the Bible. In addition, he used questions and rhymes when talking about the differences between people's life on Earth and heaven as seen in one of his sermons that was preached in 412 AD. Augustine believed that the preachers' ultimate goal is to ensure the salvation of their audience.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 217115, 23707, 84910, 1251502, 358, 24972, 19760, 103533, 28860, 20518, 7946460, 77695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 162, 170 ], [ 173, 179 ], [ 183, 195 ], [ 201, 207 ], [ 213, 220 ], [ 463, 471 ], [ 568, 587 ], [ 1145, 1154 ], [ 1171, 1178 ], [ 1180, 1189 ], [ 1191, 1201 ], [ 1207, 1217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 395, he was made coadjutor Bishop of Hippo and became full Bishop shortly thereafter, hence the name \"Augustine of Hippo\"; and he gave his property to the church of Thagaste. He remained in that position until his death in 430. Bishops were the only individuals allowed to preach when he was alive and he scheduled time to preach after being ordained despite a busy schedule made up of preparing sermons and preaching at other churches besides his own. When serving as the Bishop of Hippo, his goal was to minister to individuals in his congregation and he would choose the passages that the church planned to read every week. As bishop, he believed that it was his job to interpret the work of the Bible. He wrote his autobiographical Confessions in 397–398. His work The City of God was written to console his fellow Christians shortly after the Visigoths had sacked Rome in 410. Augustine worked tirelessly to convince the people of Hippo to convert to Christianity. Though he had left his monastery, he continued to lead a monastic life in the episcopal residence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1338403, 621399, 434485, 32530, 3162376 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 36 ], [ 739, 750 ], [ 772, 787 ], [ 851, 860 ], [ 865, 883 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Much of Augustine's later life was recorded by his friend Possidius, bishop of Calama (present-day Guelma, Algeria), in his Sancti Augustini Vita. During this latter part of Augustine's life, he helped lead a large community of Christians against different political and religious factors which had major influence on his writings. Possidius admired Augustine as a man of powerful intellect and a stirring orator who took every opportunity to defend Christianity against its detractors. Possidius also described Augustine's personal traits in detail, drawing a portrait of a man who ate sparingly, worked tirelessly, despised gossip, shunned the temptations of the flesh, and exercised prudence in the financial stewardship of his see.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 5690085, 43237646, 3972544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 67 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 99, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly before Augustine's death, the Vandals, a Germanic tribe that had converted to Arianism, invaded Roman Africa. The Vandals besieged Hippo in the spring of 430, when Augustine entered his final illness. According to Possidius, one of the few miracles attributed to Augustine, the healing of an ill man, took place during the siege. Augustine has been cited to have excommunicated himself upon the approach of his death in an act of public penance and solidarity with sinners. Spending his final days in prayer and repentance, he requested the penitential Psalms of David be hung on his walls so he could read them and upon which led him to 'weep freely and constantly' according to Posiddius' biography. He directed the library of the church in Hippo and all the books therein should be carefully preserved. He died on 28 August 430. Shortly after his death, the Vandals lifted the siege of Hippo, but they returned soon after and burned the city. They destroyed all but Augustine's cathedral and library, which they left untouched.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Death and sainthood", "target_page_ids": [ 46516, 12446, 1252, 468634, 24203 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 45 ], [ 49, 57 ], [ 86, 94 ], [ 104, 116 ], [ 562, 577 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine was canonized by popular acclaim, and later recognized as a Doctor of the Church in 1298 by Pope Boniface VIII. His feast day is 28 August, the day on which he died. He is considered the patron saint of brewers, printers, theologians, and a number of cities and dioceses. He is invoked against sore eyes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Death and sainthood", "target_page_ids": [ 6097, 24060, 180283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 102, 120 ], [ 126, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine is remembered in the Church of England's calendar of saints with a lesser festival on 28 August.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Death and sainthood", "target_page_ids": [ 5955, 4476440, 7163717, 1781 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 48 ], [ 51, 69 ], [ 77, 92 ], [ 96, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Bede's True Martyrology, Augustine's body was later translated or moved to Cagliari, Sardinia, by the Catholic bishops expelled from North Africa by Huneric. Around 720, his remains were transported again by Peter, bishop of Pavia and uncle of the Lombard king Liutprand, to the church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia, in order to save them from frequent coastal raids by Saracens. In January 1327, Pope John XXII issued the papal bull Veneranda Santorum Patrum, in which he appointed the Augustinians guardians of the tomb of Augustine (called Arca), which was remade in 1362 and elaborately carved with bas-reliefs of scenes from Augustine's life.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Death and sainthood", "target_page_ids": [ 4041, 12448716, 44950, 29376, 14408, 11715007, 1903705, 4382797, 46689, 37670, 144980 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 17 ], [ 65, 75 ], [ 88, 96 ], [ 98, 106 ], [ 162, 169 ], [ 228, 243 ], [ 274, 283 ], [ 302, 326 ], [ 390, 397 ], [ 417, 431 ], [ 507, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 1695, some workmen in the Church of San Pietro in Ciel d'Oro in Pavia discovered a marble box containing human bones (including part of a skull). A dispute arose between the Augustinian hermits (Order of Saint Augustine) and the regular canons (Canons Regular of Saint Augustine) as to whether these were the bones of Augustine. The hermits did not believe so; the canons affirmed they were. Eventually Pope Benedict XIII (1724–1730) directed the Bishop of Pavia, Monsignor Pertusati, to make a determination. The bishop declared that, in his opinion, the bones were those of Saint Augustine.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Death and sainthood", "target_page_ids": [ 2326374, 24019, 707122 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 254 ], [ 414, 432 ], [ 475, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Augustinians were expelled from Pavia in 1700, taking refuge in Milan with the relics of Augustine, and the disassembled Arca, which were removed to the cathedral there. San Pietro fell into disrepair, but was finally rebuilt in the 1870s, under the urging of Agostino Gaetano Riboldi, and reconsecrated in 1896 when the relics of Augustine and the shrine were once again reinstalled.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Death and sainthood", "target_page_ids": [ 36511, 35636497 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 73 ], [ 264, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1842, a portion of Augustine's right arm (cubitus) was secured from Pavia and returned to Annaba. It now rests in the Saint Augustin Basilica within a glass tube inserted into the arm of a life-size marble statue of the saint.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Death and sainthood", "target_page_ids": [ 1251502, 24435085 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 93, 99 ], [ 121, 144 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine's large contribution of writings covered diverse fields including theology, philosophy and sociology. Along with John Chrysostom, Augustine was among the most prolific scholars of the early church by quantity.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 16329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine was one of the first Christian ancient Latin authors with a very clear vision of theological anthropology. He saw the human being as a perfect unity of soul and body. In his late treatise On Care to Be Had for the Dead, section 5 (420) he exhorted respect for the body on the grounds it belonged to the very nature of the human person. Augustine's favourite figure to describe body-soul unity is marriage: caro tua, coniunx tua – your body is your wife.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 852563, 11018921, 219599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 54 ], [ 91, 115 ], [ 338, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Initially, the two elements were in perfect harmony. After the Original sin they are now experiencing dramatic combat between one another. They are two categorically different things. The body is a three-dimensional object composed of the four elements, whereas the soul has no spatial dimensions. Soul is a kind of substance, participating in reason, fit for ruling the body.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine was not preoccupied, as Plato and Descartes were, in detailed efforts to explain the metaphysics of the soul-body union. It sufficed for him to admit they are metaphysically distinct: to be a human is to be a composite of soul and body, with the soul superior to the body. The latter statement is grounded in his hierarchical classification of things into those that merely exist, those that exist and live, and those that exist, live, and have intelligence or reason.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 22954, 25525, 18895, 3482352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 39 ], [ 44, 53 ], [ 95, 106 ], [ 323, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like other Church Fathers such as Athenagoras, Tertullian, Clement of Alexandria and Basil of Caesarea, Augustine \"vigorously condemned the practice of induced abortion\", and although he disapproved of an abortion during any stage of pregnancy, he made a distinction between early and later abortions. He acknowledged the distinction between \"formed\" and \"unformed\" fetuses mentioned in the Septuagint translation of Exodus 21:22–23, which incorrectly translates the word \"harm\" (from the original Hebrew text) as \"form\" in the Koine Greek of the Septuagint. His view was based on the Aristotelian distinction \"between the fetus before and after its supposed 'vivification'\". Therefore, he did not classify as murder the abortion of an \"unformed\" fetus since he thought it could not be known with certainty the fetus had received a soul.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 263018, 31204, 7342, 175143, 765, 27915, 33696661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 45 ], [ 47, 57 ], [ 59, 80 ], [ 85, 102 ], [ 160, 168 ], [ 391, 401 ], [ 528, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine held that \"the timing of the infusion of the soul was a mystery known to God alone\". However, he considered procreation as one of the goods of marriage; abortion figured as a means, along with drugs that cause sterility, of frustrating this good. It lay along a continuum that included infanticide as an instance of 'lustful cruelty' or 'cruel lust.' Augustine called the use of means to avoid the birth of a child an 'evil work:’ a reference to either abortion or contraception or both.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In City of God, Augustine rejected both the contemporary ideas of ages (such as those of certain Greeks and Egyptians) that differed from the Church's sacred writings. In The Literal Interpretation of Genesis Augustine argued God had created everything in the universe simultaneously and not over a period of six days. He argued the six-day structure of creation presented in the Book of Genesis represents a logical framework, rather than the passage of time in a physical way – it would bear a spiritual, rather than physical, meaning, which is no less literal. One reason for this interpretation is the passage in Sirach18:1, creavit omnia simul (\"He created all things at once\"), which Augustine took as proof the days of Genesis1 had to be taken non-literalistically. As an additional support for describing the six days of creation as a heuristic device, Augustine thought the actual event of creation would be incomprehensible by humans and therefore needed to be translated.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 9518673, 23291678, 63452 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 409, 426 ], [ 617, 623 ], [ 843, 852 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine also does not envision original sin as causing structural changes in the universe, and even suggests the bodies of Adam and Eve were already created mortal before the Fall.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 11473533, 747934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 137 ], [ 173, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine developed his doctrine of the Church principally in reaction to the Donatist sect. He taught there is one Church, but within this Church there are two realities, namely, the visible aspect (the institutional hierarchy, the Catholic sacraments, and the laity) and the invisible (the souls of those in the Church, who are either dead, sinful members or elect predestined for Heaven). The former is the institutional body established by Christ on earth which proclaims salvation and administers the sacraments, while the latter is the invisible body of the elect, made up of genuine believers from all ages, and who are known only to God. The Church, which is visible and societal, will be made up of \"wheat\" and \"tares\", that is, good and wicked people (as per Mat. 13:30), until the end of time. This concept countered the Donatist claim that only those in a state of grace were the \"true\" or \"pure\" church on earth, and that priests and bishops who were not in a state of grace had no authority or ability to confect the sacraments.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 144726, 1714063, 30139976, 353930, 30139998, 17402476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 86 ], [ 218, 227 ], [ 233, 252 ], [ 262, 267 ], [ 506, 515 ], [ 868, 882 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine's ecclesiology was more fully developed in City of God. There he conceives of the church as a heavenly city or kingdom, ruled by love, which will ultimately triumph over all earthly empires which are self-indulgent and ruled by pride. Augustine followed Cyprian in teaching that bishops and priests of the Church are the successors of the Apostles, and their authority in the Church is God-given.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 434485, 37899, 2257 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 64 ], [ 264, 271 ], [ 331, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The concept of Church invisible was advocated by Augustine as part of his refutation of the Donatist sect, though he, as other Church Fathers before him, saw the invisible Church and visible Church as one and the same thing, unlike the later Protestant reformers who did not identify the Catholic Church as the true church. He was strongly influenced by the Platonist belief that true reality is invisible and that, if the visible reflects the invisible, it does so only partially and imperfectly (see Theory of Forms). Others question whether Augustine really held to some form of an \"invisible true Church\" concept.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 14508803, 144726, 21520745, 2221011, 25754129 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 31 ], [ 92, 100 ], [ 311, 322 ], [ 358, 367 ], [ 502, 517 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine originally believed in premillennialism, namely that Christ would establish a literal 1,000-year kingdom prior to the general resurrection, but later rejected the belief, viewing it as carnal. The Catholic Church during the Medieval period built its system of eschatology on Augustinian amillennialism, where Christ rules the earth spiritually through his triumphant church.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 349832, 26447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 49 ], [ 136, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the Reformation theologians such as John Calvin accepted amillennialism. Augustine taught that the eternal fate of the soul is determined at death, and that purgatorial fires of the intermediate state purify only those who died in communion with the Church. His teaching provided fuel for later theology.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 37857, 15930, 26305234, 11051468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 22 ], [ 43, 54 ], [ 164, 175 ], [ 189, 207 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Augustine did not develop an independent Mariology, his statements on Mary surpass in number and depth those of other early writers. Even before the Council of Ephesus, he defended the Ever-Virgin Mary as the Mother of God, believing her to be \"full of grace\" (following earlier Latin writers such as Jerome) on account of her sexual integrity and innocence. Likewise, he affirmed that the Virgin Mary \"conceived as virgin, gave birth as virgin and stayed virgin forever\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 16961765, 47363, 715178, 36916, 16005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 59 ], [ 158, 176 ], [ 194, 210 ], [ 218, 231 ], [ 310, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine took the view that, if a literal interpretation contradicts science and humans' God-given reason, the Biblical text should be interpreted metaphorically. While each passage of Scripture has a literal sense, this \"literal sense\" does not always mean the Scriptures are mere history; at times they are rather an extended metaphor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 20518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 329, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine taught that the sin of Adam and Eve was either an act of foolishness (insipientia) followed by pride and disobedience to God or that pride came first. The first couple disobeyed God, who had told them not to eat of the Tree of the knowledge of good and evil (Gen 2:17). The tree was a symbol of the order of creation. Self-centeredness made Adam and Eve eat of it, thus failing to acknowledge and respect the world as it was created by God, with its hierarchy of beings and values.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 174365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "They would not have fallen into pride and lack of wisdom if Satan hadn't sown into their senses \"the root of evil\" (radix Mali). Their nature was wounded by concupiscence or libido, which affected human intelligence and will, as well as affections and desires, including sexual desire. In terms of metaphysics, concupiscence is not a state of being but a bad quality, the privation of good or a wound.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 27694, 64234, 18488, 18895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 65 ], [ 157, 170 ], [ 174, 180 ], [ 298, 309 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine's understanding of the consequences of original sin and the necessity of redeeming grace was developed in the struggle against Pelagius and his Pelagian disciples, Caelestius and Julian of Eclanum, who had been inspired by Rufinus of Syria, a disciple of Theodore of Mopsuestia. They refused to agree original sin wounded human will and mind, insisting human nature was given the power to act, to speak, and to think when God created it. Human nature cannot lose its moral capacity for doing good, but a person is free to act or not act in a righteous way. Pelagius gave an example of eyes: they have capacity for seeing, but a person can make either good or bad use of it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 195357, 24986, 3314968, 3873372, 61233461, 560554 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 145 ], [ 154, 162 ], [ 174, 184 ], [ 189, 206 ], [ 233, 249 ], [ 265, 287 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pelagians insisted human affections and desires were not touched by the fall either. Immorality, e.g. fornication, is exclusively a matter of will, i.e. a person does not use natural desires in a proper way. In opposition, Augustine pointed out the apparent disobedience of the flesh to the spirit, and explained it as one of the results of original sin, punishment of Adam and Eve's disobedience to God.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 43047687 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine had served as a \"Hearer\" for the Manichaeans for about nine years, who taught that the original sin was carnal knowledge. But his struggle to understand the cause of evil in the world started before that, at the age of nineteen. By malum (evil) he understood most of all concupiscence, which he interpreted as a vice dominating people and causing in men and women moral disorder. Agostino Trapè insists Augustine's personal experience cannot be credited for his doctrine about concupiscence. He considers Augustine's marital experience to be quite normal, and even exemplary, aside from the absence of Christian wedding rites. As J. Brachtendorf showed, Augustine used Ciceronian Stoic concept of passions, to interpret Paul's doctrine of universal sin and redemption.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 3815066, 64234, 19224834, 24140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 130 ], [ 281, 294 ], [ 690, 695 ], [ 730, 736 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The view that not only human soul but also senses were influenced by the fall of Adam and Eve was prevalent in Augustine's time among the Fathers of the Church. It is clear the reason for Augustine's distancing from the affairs of the flesh was different from that of Plotinus, a Neoplatonist who taught that only through disdain for fleshly desire could one reach the ultimate state of mankind. Augustine taught the redemption, i.e. transformation and purification, of the body in the resurrection.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 28297, 33643361, 38422, 23385833 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 33 ], [ 138, 159 ], [ 268, 276 ], [ 280, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some authors perceive Augustine's doctrine as directed against human sexuality and attribute his insistence on continence and devotion to God as coming from Augustine's need to reject his own highly sensual nature as described in the Confessions. Augustine taught that human sexuality has been wounded, together with the whole of human nature, and requires redemption of Christ. That healing is a process realized in conjugal acts. The virtue of continence is achieved thanks to the grace of the sacrament of Christian marriage, which becomes therefore a remedium concupiscentiae – remedy of concupiscence. The redemption of human sexuality will be, however, fully accomplished only in the resurrection of the body.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 15179951, 23010681 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 78 ], [ 357, 367 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sin of Adam is inherited by all human beings. Already in his pre-Pelagian writings, Augustine taught that Original Sin is transmitted to his descendants by concupiscence, which he regarded as the passion of both soul and body, making humanity a massa damnata (mass of perdition, condemned crowd) and much enfeebling, though not destroying, the freedom of the will. Although earlier Christian authors taught the elements of physical death, moral weakness, and a sin propensity within original sin, Augustine was the first to add the concept of inherited guilt (reatus) from Adam whereby an infant was eternally damned at birth.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 64234 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Augustine's anti-Pelagian defense of original sin was confirmed at numerous councils, i.e. Carthage (418), Ephesus (431), Orange (529), Trent (1546) and by popes, i.e. Pope Innocent I (401–417) and Pope Zosimus (417–418), his inherited guilt eternally damning infants was omitted by these councils and popes. Anselm of Canterbury established in his Cur Deus Homo the definition that was followed by the great 13th-century Schoolmen, namely that Original Sin is the \"privation of the righteousness which every man ought to possess,\" thus separating it from concupiscence, with which some of Augustine's disciples had identified it, as later did Luther and Calvin. In 1567, Pope Pius V condemned the identification of Original Sin with concupiscence.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 2263006, 47363, 39461966, 6354, 24423, 24429, 21492554, 25572889, 24074 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 114 ], [ 116, 123 ], [ 131, 137 ], [ 145, 150 ], [ 177, 192 ], [ 207, 219 ], [ 318, 338 ], [ 358, 371 ], [ 681, 692 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine taught that God orders all things while preserving human freedom. Prior to 396, he believed predestination was based on God's foreknowledge of whether individuals would believe in Christ, that God's grace was \"a reward for human assent\". Later, in response to Pelagius, Augustine said that the sin of pride consists in assuming \"we are the ones who choose God or that God chooses us (in his foreknowledge) because of something worthy in us\", and argued that God's grace causes individual act of faith.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 195357, 76176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 270, 278 ], [ 311, 316 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Scholars are divided over whether Augustine's teaching implies double predestination, or the belief God chooses some people for damnation as well as some for salvation. Catholic scholars tend to deny he held such a view while some Protestants and secular scholars have held that Augustine did believe in double predestination. About 412, Augustine became the first Christian to understand predestination as a divine unilateral pre-determination of individuals' eternal destinies independently of human choice, although his prior Manichaean sect did teach this concept. Some Protestant theologians, such as Justo L. González and Bengt Hägglund, interpret Augustine's teaching that grace is irresistible, results in conversion, and leads to perseverance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 23705, 10318490, 33274846, 902776, 69604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 84 ], [ 606, 623 ], [ 628, 642 ], [ 689, 701 ], [ 739, 751 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In On Rebuke and Grace (De correptione et gratia), Augustine wrote: \"And what is written, that He wills all men to be saved, while yet all men are not saved, may be understood in many ways, some of which I have mentioned in other writings of mine; but here I will say one thing: He wills all men to be saved, is so said that all the predestinated may be understood by it, because every kind of men is among them.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Speaking of the twins Jacob and Esau, Augustine wrote in his book On the Gift of Perseverance, \"[I]t ought to be a most certain fact that the former is of the predestinated, the latter is not.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Also in reaction against the Donatists, Augustine developed a distinction between the \"regularity\" and \"validity\" of the sacraments. Regular sacraments are performed by clergy of the Catholic Church, while sacraments performed by schismatics are considered irregular. Nevertheless, the validity of the sacraments do not depend upon the holiness of the priests who perform them (ex opere operato); therefore, irregular sacraments are still accepted as valid provided they are done in the name of Christ and in the manner prescribed by the Church. On this point Augustine departs from the earlier teaching of Cyprian, who taught that converts from schismatic movements must be re-baptised. Augustine taught that sacraments administered outside the Catholic Church, though true sacraments, avail nothing. However, he also stated that baptism, while it does not confer any grace when done outside the Church, does confer grace as soon as one is received into the Catholic Church.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 30139998, 1597772, 37899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 130 ], [ 378, 394 ], [ 607, 614 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine is said to have held an understanding of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist, saying that Christ's statement, \"This is my body\" referred to the bread he carried in his hands, and that Christians must have faith the bread and wine are in fact the body and blood of Christ, despite what they see with their eyes. For instance he stated that \"He [Jesus] walked here in the same flesh, and gave us the same flesh to be eaten unto salvation. But no one eats that flesh unless first he adores it; and thus it is discovered how such a footstool of the Lord's feet is adored; and not only do we not sin by adoring, we do sin by not adoring.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 717890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Riggs argued that the influential fourth-century Western theologian Augustine of Hippo, held that Christ is really present in the elements of the Eucharist, but not in a bodily manner, because his body remains in heaven.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 30701025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 218, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine, in his work On Christian Doctrine, referred to the Eucharist as a \"figure\" and a \"sign\". ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Against the Pelagians, Augustine strongly stressed the importance of infant baptism. About the question whether baptism is an absolute necessity for salvation, however, Augustine appears to have refined his beliefs during his lifetime, causing some confusion among later theologians about his position. He said in one of his sermons that only the baptized are saved. This belief was shared by many early Christians. However, a passage from his City of God, concerning the Apocalypse, may indicate Augustine did believe in an exception for children born to Christian parents.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 24986, 24184, 58970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 21 ], [ 69, 83 ], [ 472, 482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine's contemporaries often believed astrology to be an exact and genuine science. Its practitioners were regarded as true men of learning and called mathemathici. Astrology played a prominent part in Manichaean doctrine, and Augustine himself was attracted by their books in his youth, being particularly fascinated by those who claimed to foretell the future. Later, as a bishop, he warned that one should avoid astrologers who combine science and horoscopes. (Augustine's term \"mathematici\", meaning \"astrologers\", is sometimes mistranslated as \"mathematicians\".) According to Augustine, they were not genuine students of Hipparchus or Eratosthenes but \"common swindlers\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 2122, 39870, 13600, 46117 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 51 ], [ 455, 464 ], [ 630, 640 ], [ 644, 656 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Epistemological concerns shaped Augustine's intellectual development. His early dialogues [Contra academicos (386) and De Magistro (389)], both written shortly after his conversion to Christianity, reflect his engagement with sceptical arguments and show the development of his doctrine of divine illumination. The doctrine of illumination claims God plays an active and regular part in human perception and understanding by illuminating the mind so human beings can recognize intelligible realities God presents (as opposed to God designing the human mind to be reliable consistently, as in, for example, Descartes's idea of clear and distinct perceptions). According to Augustine, illumination is obtainable to all rational minds and is different from other forms of sense perception. It is meant to be an explanation of the conditions required for the mind to have a connection with intelligible entities.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 9247, 311982, 307139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 290, 309 ], [ 770, 786 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine also posed the problem of other minds throughout different works, most famously perhaps in On the Trinity (VIII.6.9), and developed what has come to be a standard solution: the argument from analogy to other minds. In contrast to Plato and other earlier philosophers, Augustine recognized the centrality of testimony to human knowledge and argued that what others tell us can provide knowledge even if we don't have independent reasons to believe their testimonial reports.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 30263, 16620529, 1564475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 47 ], [ 101, 115 ], [ 317, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine asserted Christians should be pacifists as a personal, philosophical stance. However, peacefulness in the face of a grave wrong that could only be stopped by violence would be a sin. Defence of one's self or others could be a necessity, especially when authorized by a legitimate authority. While not breaking down the conditions necessary for war to be just, Augustine coined the phrase in his work The City of God. In essence, the pursuit of peace must include the option of fighting for its long-term preservation. Such a war could not be pre-emptive, but defensive, to restore peace. Thomas Aquinas, centuries later, used the authority of Augustine's arguments in an attempt to define the conditions under which a war could be just.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 24956, 21490957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 49 ], [ 598, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Included in Augustine's earlier theodicy is the claim God created humans and angels as rational beings possessing free will. Free will was not intended for sin, meaning it is not equally predisposed to both good and evil. A will defiled by sin is not considered as \"free\" as it once was because it is bound by material things, which could be lost or be difficult to part with, resulting in unhappiness. Sin impairs free will, while grace restores it. Only a will that was once free can be subjected to sin's corruption. After 412, Augustine changed his theology, teaching that humanity had no free will to believe in Christ but only a free will to sin: \"I in fact strove on behalf of the free choice of the human 'will,’ but God's grace conquered\" (Retract. 2.1).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 30106, 47921 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 40 ], [ 114, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The early Christians opposed the deterministic views (e.g., fate) of Stoics, Gnostics, and Manichaeans prevalent in the first four centuries. Christians championed the concept of a relational God who interacts with humans rather than a Stoic or Gnostic God who unilaterally foreordained every event (yet Stoics still claimed to teach free will). Patristics scholar Ken Wilson argues that every early Christian author with extant writings who wrote on the topic prior to Augustine of Hippo (412) advanced human free choice rather than a deterministic God. According to Wilson, Augustine taught traditional free choice until 412, when he reverted to his earlier Manichaean and Stoic deterministic training when battling the Pelagians. Only a few Christians accepted Augustine's view of free will until the Protestant Reformation when both Luther and Calvin embraced Augustine's deterministic teachings wholeheartedly.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 2168500 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 347, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Catholic Church considers Augustine's teaching to be consistent with free will. He often said that anyone can be saved if they wish. While God knows who will and will not be saved, with no possibility for the latter to be saved in their lives, this knowledge represents God's perfect knowledge of how humans will freely choose their destinies.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine was among the earliest to examine the legitimacy of the laws of man, and attempt to define the boundaries of what laws and rights occur naturally, instead of being arbitrarily imposed by mortals. All who have wisdom and conscience, he concludes, are able to use reason to recognize the lex naturalis, natural law. Mortal law should not attempt to force people to do what is right or avoid what is wrong, but simply to remain just. Therefore \"an unjust law is no law at all\". People are not obligated to obey laws that are unjust, those that their conscience and reason tell them violate natural law and rights.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 22063, 25662673, 327672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 311, 322 ], [ 452, 482 ], [ 613, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine led many clergy under his authority at Hippo to free their slaves as \"pious and holy\" act. He boldly wrote a letter urging the emperor to set up a new law against slave traders and was very much concerned about the sale of children. Christian emperors of his time for 25 years had permitted sale of children, not because they approved of the practice, but as a way of preventing infanticide when parents were unable to care for a child. Augustine noted that the tenant farmers in particular were driven to hire out or to sell their children as a means of survival.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 15474 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 389, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his book, The City of God, he presents the development of slavery as a product of sin and as contrary to God's divine plan. He wrote that God \"did not intend that this rational creature, who was made in his image, should have dominion over anything but the irrational creation – not man over man, but man over the beasts\". Thus he wrote that righteous men in primitive times were made shepherds of cattle, not kings over men. \"The condition of slavery is the result of sin\", he declared. In The City of God, Augustine wrote he felt the existence of slavery was a punishment for the existence of sin, even if an individual enslaved person committed no sin meriting punishment. He wrote: \"Slavery is, however, penal, and is appointed by that law which enjoins the preservation of the natural order and forbids its disturbance.\" Augustine believed slavery did more harm to the slave owner than the enslaved person himself: \"the lowly position does as much good to the servant as the proud position does harm to the master.\" Augustine proposes as a solution to sin a type of cognitive reimagining of one's situation, where slaves \"may themselves make their slavery in some sort free, by serving not in crafty fear, but in faithful love,\" until the end of the world eradicated slavery for good: \"until all unrighteousness pass away, and all principality and every human power be brought to nothing, and God be all in all.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Against certain Christian movements, some of which rejected the use of Hebrew Scripture, Augustine countered that God had chosen the Jews as a special people, and he considered the scattering of Jewish people by the Roman Empire to be a fulfillment of prophecy. He rejected homicidal attitudes, quoting part of the same prophecy, namely \"Slay them not, lest they should at last forget Thy law\" (Psalm 59:11). Augustine, who believed Jewish people would be converted to Christianity at \"the end of time\", argued God had allowed them to survive their dispersion as a warning to Christians; as such, he argued, they should be permitted to dwell in Christian lands. The sentiment sometimes attributed to Augustine that Christians should let the Jews \"survive but not thrive\" (it is repeated by author James Carroll in his book Constantine's Sword, for example) is apocryphal and is not found in any of his writings.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 30344, 25955086, 6024052 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 87 ], [ 133, 137 ], [ 797, 810 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For Augustine, the evil of sexual immorality was not in the sexual act itself, but in the emotions that typically accompany it. In On Christian Doctrine Augustine contrasts love, which is enjoyment on account of God, and lust, which is not on account of God. Augustine claims that, following the Fall, sexual lust (concupiscentia) has become necessary for copulation (as required to stimulate male erection), sexual lust is an evil result of the Fall, and therefore, evil must inevitably accompany sexual intercourse (On marriage and concupiscence 1.19, see footnote). Therefore, following the Fall, even marital sex carried out merely to procreate inevitably perpetuates evil (On marriage and concupiscence 1.27; A Treatise against Two Letters of the Pelagians 2.27). For Augustine, proper love exercises a denial of selfish pleasure and the subjugation of corporeal desire to God. The only way to avoid evil caused by sexual intercourse is to take the \"better\" way (Confessions 8.2) and abstain from marriage (On marriage and concupiscence 1.31). Sex within marriage is not, however, for Augustine a sin, although necessarily producing the evil of sexual lust. Based on the same logic, Augustine also declared the pious virgins raped during the sack of Rome to be innocent because they did not intend to sin nor enjoy the act.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Before the Fall, Augustine believed sex was a passionless affair, \"just like many a laborious work accomplished by the compliant operation of our other limbs, without any lascivious heat\", that the seed \"might be sown without any shameful lust, the genital members simply obeying the inclination of the will\". After the Fall, by contrast, the penis cannot be controlled by mere will, subject instead to both unwanted impotence and involuntary erections: \"Sometimes the urge arises unwanted; sometimes, on the other hand, it forsakes the eager lover, and desire grows cold in the body while burning in the mind... It arouses the mind, but it does not follow through what it has begun and arouse the body also\" (City of God 14.16).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine censured those who try to prevent the creation of offspring when engaging in sexual relations, saying that though they may be nominally married they are not really, but are using that designation as a cloak for turpitude. When they allow their unwanted children to die of exposure, they unmask their sin. Sometimes they use drugs to produce sterility, or other means to try to destroy the fetus before they are born. Their marriage is not wedlock but debauchery.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine believed Adam and Eve had both already chosen in their hearts to disobey God's command not to eat of the Tree of Knowledge before Eve took the fruit, ate it, and gave it to Adam. Accordingly, Augustine did not believe Adam was any less guilty of sin. Augustine praises women and their role in society and in the Church. In his Tractates on the Gospel of John, Augustine, commenting on the Samaritan woman from John 4:1–42, uses the woman as a figure of the Church in agreement with the New Testament teaching that the Church is the bride of Christ. \"Husbands, love your wives, as Christ loved the church and gave himself up for her.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 28179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 399, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine is considered an influential figure in the history of education. A work early in Augustine's writings is De Magistro (On the Teacher), which contains insights about education. His ideas changed as he found better directions or better ways of expressing his ideas. In the last years of his life Augustine wrote his Retractationes (Retractations), reviewing his writings and improving specific texts. Henry Chadwick believes an accurate translation of \"retractationes\" may be \"reconsiderations\". Reconsiderations can be seen as an overarching theme of the way Augustine learned. Augustine's understanding of the search for understanding, meaning, and truth as a restless journey leaves room for doubt, development, and change.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine was a strong advocate of critical thinking skills. Because written works were limited during this time, spoken communication of knowledge was very important. His emphasis on the importance of community as a means of learning distinguishes his pedagogy from some others. Augustine believed dialectic is the best means for learning and that this method should serve as a model for learning encounters between teachers and students. Augustine's dialogue writings model the need for lively interactive dialogue among learners.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 276872 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He recommended adapting educational practices to fit the students' educational backgrounds:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the student who has been well-educated by knowledgeable teachers;", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the student who has had no education; and", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " the student who has had a poor education, but believes himself to be well-educated.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If a student has been well educated in a wide variety of subjects, the teacher must be careful not to repeat what they have already learned, but to challenge the student with material they do not yet know thoroughly. With the student who has had no education, the teacher must be patient, willing to repeat things until the student understands, and sympathetic. Perhaps the most difficult student, however, is the one with an inferior education who believes he understands something when he does not. Augustine stressed the importance of showing this type of student the difference between \"having words and having understanding\" and of helping the student to remain humble with his acquisition of knowledge.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Under the influence of Bede, Alcuin, and Rabanus Maurus, De catechizandis rudibus came to exercise an important role in the education of clergy at the monastic schools, especially from the eighth century onwards.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 4041, 1408, 683585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 27 ], [ 29, 35 ], [ 41, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine believed students should be given an opportunity to apply learned theories to practical experience. Yet another of Augustine's major contributions to education is his study on the styles of teaching. He claimed there are two basic styles a teacher uses when speaking to the students. The mixed style includes complex and sometimes showy language to help students see the beautiful artistry of the subject they are studying. The grand style is not quite as elegant as the mixed style, but is exciting and heartfelt, with the purpose of igniting the same passion in the students' hearts. Augustine balanced his teaching philosophy with the traditional Bible-based practice of strict discipline.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 3390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 660, 665 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine knew Latin and Ancient Greek. He had a long correspondence with St Jerome the textual differences existing between the Hebrew Bible and the Greek Septuagint, concluding that the original Greek manuscripts resulted closely similar to the other Hebrew ones, and also that even the differences in the two original versions of the Holy Scripture could enlight its spiritual meaning so as to have been unitarily inspired by God.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 17730, 148363, 30344, 27915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 20 ], [ 25, 38 ], [ 129, 141 ], [ 156, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine of Hippo had to deal with issues of violence and coercion throughout his entire career due largely to the Donatist-Catholic conflict. He is one of very few authors in Antiquity who ever truly theoretically examined the ideas of religious freedom and coercion. Augustine handled the infliction of punishment and the exercise of power over law-breakers by analyzing these issues in ways similar to modern debates on penal reform. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "His teaching on coercion has \"embarrassed his modern defenders and vexed his modern detractors,\" because it is seen as making him appear \"to generations of religious liberals as le prince et patriarche de persecuteurs.\" Yet Brown asserts that, at the same time, Augustine becomes \"an eloquent advocate of the ideal of corrective punishment\" and reformation of the wrongdoer. Russell says Augustine's theory of coercion \"was not crafted from dogma, but in response to a unique historical situation\" and is therefore context dependent, while others see it as inconsistent with his other teachings.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the Great Persecution, \"When Roman soldiers came calling, some of the [Catholic] officials handed over the sacred books, vessels, and other church goods rather than risk legal penalties\" over a few objects. Maureen Tilley says this was a problem by 305, that became a schism by 311, because many of the North African Christians had a long established tradition of a \"physicalist approach to religion.\" The sacred scriptures were not simply books to them, but were the Word of God in physical form, therefore they saw handing over the Bible, and handing over a person to be martyred, as \"two sides of the same coin.\" Those who cooperated with the authorities became known as traditores. The term originally meant one who hands over a physical object, but it came to mean \"traitor\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 2641583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Tilley, after the persecution ended, those who had apostatized wanted to return to their positions in the church. The North African Christians, (the rigorists who became known as Donatists), refused to accept them. Catholics were more tolerant and wanted to wipe the slate clean. For the next 75 years, both parties existed, often directly alongside each other, with a double line of bishops for the same cities. Competition for the loyalty of the people included multiple new churches and violence. No one is exactly sure when the Circumcellions and the Donatists allied, but for decades, they fomented protests and street violence, accosted travelers and attacked random Catholics without warning, often doing serious and unprovoked bodily harm such as beating people with clubs, cutting off their hands and feet, and gouging out eyes.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 2100769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 545, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine became coadjutor Bishop of Hippo in 395, and since he believed that conversion must be voluntary, his appeals to the Donatists were verbal. For several years, he used popular propaganda, debate, personal appeal, General Councils, appeals to the emperor and political pressure to bring the Donatists back into union with the Catholics, but all attempts failed. The harsh realities Augustine faced can be found in his Letter 28 written to bishop Novatus around 416. Donatists had attacked, cut out the tongue and cut off the hands of a Bishop Rogatus who had recently converted to Catholicism. An unnamed count of Africa had sent his agent with Rogatus, and he too had been attacked; the count was \"inclined to pursue the matter.\" Russell says Augustine demonstrates a \"hands on\" involvement with the details of his bishopric, but at one point in the letter, he confesses he does not know what to do. \"All the issues that plague him are there: stubborn Donatists, Circumcellion violence, the vacillating role of secular officials, the imperative to persuade, and his own trepidations.\" The empire responded to the civil unrest with law and its enforcement, and thereafter, Augustine changed his mind on using verbal arguments alone. Instead, he came to support the state's use of coercion. Augustine did not believe the empire's enforcement would \"make the Donatists more virtuous\" but he did believe it would make them \"less vicious.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 1338403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The primary 'proof text' of what Augustine thought concerning coercion is from Letter 93, written in 408, as a reply to the bishop Vincentius, of Cartenna (Mauretania, North Africa). This letter shows that both practical and biblical reasons led Augustine to defend the legitimacy of coercion. He confesses that he changed his mind because of \"the ineffectiveness of dialogue and the proven efficacy of laws.\" He had been worried about false conversions if force was used, but \"now,\" he says, \"it seems imperial persecution is working.\" Many Donatists had converted. \"Fear had made them reflect, and made them docile.\" Augustine continued to assert that coercion could not directly convert someone, but concluded it could make a person ready to be reasoned with.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to Mar Marcos, Augustine made use of several biblical examples to legitimize coercion, but the primary analogy in Letter 93 and in Letter 185, is the parable of the Great Feast in Luke 14.15–24 and its statement compel them to come in. Russell says, Augustine uses the Latin term cogo, instead of the compello of the Vulgate, since to Augustine, cogo meant to \"gather together\" or \"collect\" and was not simply \"compel by physical force.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1970, Robert Markus argued that, for Augustine, a degree of external pressure being brought for the purpose of reform was compatible with the exercise of free will. Russell asserts that Confessions 13 is crucial to understanding Augustine's thought on coercion; using Peter Brown's explanation of Augustine's view of salvation, he explains that Augustine's past, his own sufferings and \"conversion through God's pressures,\" along with his biblical hermeneutics, is what led him to see the value in suffering for discerning truth. According to Russell, Augustine saw coercion as one among many conversion strategies for forming \"a pathway to the inner person.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Augustine's view, there is such a thing as just and unjust persecution. Augustine explains that when the purpose of persecution is to lovingly correct and instruct, then it becomes discipline and is just. He said the church would discipline its people out of a loving desire to heal them, and that, \"once compelled to come in, heretics would gradually give their voluntary assent to the truth of Christian orthodoxy.\" Frederick H. Russell describes this as \"a pastoral strategy in which the church did the persecuting with the dutiful assistance of Roman authorities,\" adding that it is \"a precariously balanced blend of external discipline and inward nurturance.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine placed limits on the use of coercion, recommending fines, imprisonment, banishment, and moderate floggings, preferring beatings with rods which was a common practice in the ecclesial courts. He opposed severity, maiming, and the execution of heretics. While these limits were mostly ignored by Roman authorities, Michael Lamb says that in doing this, \"Augustine appropriates republican principles from his Roman predecessors...\" and maintains his commitment to liberty, legitimate authority, and the rule of law as a constraint on arbitrary power. He continues to advocate holding authority accountable to prevent domination, but affirms the state's right to act.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Herbert A. Deane, on the other hand, says there is a fundamental inconsistency between Augustine's political thought and \"his final position of approval of the use of political and legal weapons to punish religious dissidence\" and others have seconded this view. Brown asserts that Augustine's thinking on coercion is more of an attitude than a doctrine, since it is \"not in a state of rest,\" but is instead marked by \"a painful and protracted attempt to embrace and resolve tensions.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [ 70699511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Russell it is possible to see how Augustine himself had evolved from his earlier Confessions to this teaching on coercion and the latter's strong patriarchal nature: \"Intellectually, the burden has shifted imperceptibly from discovering the truth to disseminating the truth.\" The bishops had become the church's elite with their own rationale for acting as \"stewards of the truth.\" Russell points out that Augustine's views are limited to time and place and his own community, but later, others took what he said and applied it outside those parameters in ways Augustine never imagined or intended.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Views and thought", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine was one of the most prolific Latin authors in terms of surviving works, and the list of his works consists of more than one hundred separate titles. They include apologetic works against the heresies of the Arians, Donatists, Manichaeans and Pelagians; texts on Christian doctrine, notably De Doctrina Christiana (On Christian Doctrine); exegetical works such as commentaries on Genesis, the Psalms and Paul's Letter to the Romans; many sermons and letters; and the Retractationes, a review of his earlier works which he wrote near the end of his life.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 246903, 1252, 144726, 19760, 24986, 18935258, 4502005, 276930, 12667, 24203, 24140, 9961, 203221, 17845 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 172, 182 ], [ 217, 223 ], [ 225, 234 ], [ 236, 247 ], [ 252, 261 ], [ 282, 290 ], [ 300, 322 ], [ 348, 358 ], [ 389, 396 ], [ 402, 408 ], [ 413, 419 ], [ 420, 440 ], [ 447, 453 ], [ 459, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Apart from those, Augustine is probably best known for his Confessions, which is a personal account of his earlier life, and for De civitate Dei (The City of God, consisting of 22 books), which he wrote to restore the confidence of his fellow Christians, which was badly shaken by the sack of Rome by the Visigoths in 410. His On the Trinity, in which he developed what has become known as the 'psychological analogy' of the Trinity, is also considered to be among his masterpieces, and arguably of more doctrinal importance than the Confessions or the City of God. He also wrote On Free Choice of the Will (De libero arbitrio), addressing why God gives humans free will that can be used for evil.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 621399, 434485, 3162376, 32530, 16620529, 30511, 18935258, 29324179 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 70 ], [ 146, 161 ], [ 285, 297 ], [ 305, 314 ], [ 327, 341 ], [ 425, 432 ], [ 504, 513 ], [ 608, 626 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In both his philosophical and theological reasoning, Augustine was greatly influenced by Stoicism, Platonism and Neoplatonism, particularly by the work of Plotinus, author of the Enneads, probably through the mediation of Porphyry and Victorinus (as Pierre Hadot has argued). Some Neoplatonic concepts are still visible in Augustine's early writings. His early and influential writing on the human will, a central topic in ethics, would become a focus for later philosophers such as Schopenhauer, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche. He was also influenced by the works of Virgil (known for his teaching on language), and Cicero (known for his teaching on argument).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 19224834, 2221011, 23385833, 38422, 385808, 794399, 1804933, 5479867, 79432, 9258, 700, 27069, 10671, 32359, 6046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 97 ], [ 99, 108 ], [ 113, 125 ], [ 155, 163 ], [ 179, 186 ], [ 222, 230 ], [ 235, 245 ], [ 250, 262 ], [ 392, 402 ], [ 423, 429 ], [ 483, 495 ], [ 497, 508 ], [ 514, 523 ], [ 564, 570 ], [ 613, 619 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Philosopher Bertrand Russell was impressed by Augustine's meditation on the nature of time in the Confessions, comparing it favourably to Kant's version of the view that time is subjective. Catholic theologians generally subscribe to Augustine's belief that God exists outside of time in the \"eternal present\"; that time only exists within the created universe because only in space is time discernible through motion and change. His meditations on the nature of time are closely linked to his consideration of the human ability of memory. Frances Yates in her 1966 study The Art of Memory argues that a brief passage of the Confessions, 10.8.12, in which Augustine writes of walking up a flight of stairs and entering the vast fields of memory clearly indicates that the ancient Romans were aware of how to use explicit spatial and architectural metaphors as a mnemonic technique for organizing large amounts of information.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 23276, 4163, 14631, 217472, 31217535, 963713, 12794905, 40411 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ], [ 12, 28 ], [ 138, 142 ], [ 269, 284 ], [ 532, 538 ], [ 540, 553 ], [ 572, 589 ], [ 862, 870 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine's philosophical method, especially demonstrated in his Confessions, had continuing influence on Continental philosophy throughout the 20th century. His descriptive approach to intentionality, memory, and language as these phenomena are experienced within consciousness and time anticipated and inspired the insights of modern phenomenology and hermeneutics. Edmund Husserl writes: \"The analysis of time-consciousness is an age-old crux of descriptive psychology and theory of knowledge. The first thinker to be deeply sensitive to the immense difficulties to be found here was Augustine, who laboured almost to despair over this problem.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 76939, 70603, 9518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 336, 349 ], [ 354, 366 ], [ 368, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Martin Heidegger refers to Augustine's descriptive philosophy at several junctures in his influential work Being and Time. Hannah Arendt began her philosophical writing with a dissertation on Augustine's concept of love, Der Liebesbegriff bei Augustin (1929): \"The young Arendt attempted to show that the philosophical basis for vita socialis in Augustine can be understood as residing in neighbourly love, grounded in his understanding of the common origin of humanity.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 37304, 752529, 95184 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ], [ 107, 121 ], [ 123, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jean Bethke Elshtain in Augustine and the Limits of Politics tried to associate Augustine with Arendt in their concept of evil: \"Augustine did not see evil as glamorously demonic but rather as absence of good, something which paradoxically is really nothing. Arendt ... envisioned even the extreme evil which produced the Holocaust as merely banal [in Eichmann in Jerusalem].\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 10396793, 2900572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 318, 331 ], [ 352, 373 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine's philosophical legacy continues to influence contemporary critical theory through the contributions and inheritors of these 20th-century figures. Seen from a historical perspective, there are three main perspectives on the political thought of Augustine: first, political Augustinianism; second, Augustinian political theology; and third, Augustinian political theory.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 11328678 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 319, 337 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Thomas Aquinas was influenced heavily by Augustine. On the topic of original sin, Aquinas proposed a more optimistic view of man than that of Augustine in that his conception leaves to the reason, will, and passions of fallen man their natural powers even after the Fall, without \"supernatural gifts\". While in his pre-Pelagian writings Augustine taught that Adam's guilt as transmitted to his descendants much enfeebles, though does not destroy, the freedom of their will, Protestant reformers Martin Luther and John Calvin affirmed that Original Sin completely destroyed liberty (see total depravity).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 21490957, 113031 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 586, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Leo Ruickbie, Augustine's arguments against magic, differentiating it from miracle, were crucial in the early Church's fight against paganism and became a central thesis in the later denunciation of witches and witchcraft. According to Professor Deepak Lal, Augustine's vision of the heavenly city has influenced the secular projects and traditions of the Enlightenment, Marxism, Freudianism and eco-fundamentalism. Post-Marxist philosophers Antonio Negri and Michael Hardt rely heavily on Augustine's thought, particularly The City of God, in their book of political philosophy Empire.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 11417147, 48489, 23340, 33959, 30758, 1904053, 23585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 25 ], [ 57, 62 ], [ 146, 154 ], [ 224, 234 ], [ 369, 382 ], [ 384, 391 ], [ 393, 404 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Augustine has influenced many modern-day theologians and authors such as John Piper. Hannah Arendt, an influential 20th-century political theorist, wrote her doctoral dissertation in philosophy on Augustine, and continued to rely on his thought throughout her career. Ludwig Wittgenstein extensively quotes Augustine in Philosophical Investigations for his approach to language, both admiringly, and as a sparring partner to develop his own ideas, including an extensive opening passage from the Confessions. Contemporary linguists have argued that Augustine has significantly influenced the thought of Ferdinand de Saussure, who did not 'invent' the modern discipline of semiotics, but rather built upon Aristotelian and Neoplatonic knowledge from the Middle Ages, via an Augustinian connection: \"as for the constitution of Saussurian semiotic theory, the importance of the Augustinian thought contribution (correlated to the Stoic one) has also been recognized. Saussure did not do anything but reform an ancient theory in Europe, according to the modern conceptual exigencies.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 411346, 95184, 17741, 23674, 621399, 11041, 29301, 309909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 83 ], [ 85, 98 ], [ 268, 287 ], [ 320, 348 ], [ 496, 507 ], [ 603, 624 ], [ 672, 681 ], [ 705, 717 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his autobiographical book Milestones, Pope Benedict XVI claims Augustine as one of the deepest influences in his thought.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 39660 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Marc-Antoine Charpentier, Motet \"Pour St Augustin mourant\", H.419, for 2 voices and contino (1687), and \"Pour St Augustin\", H.307, for 2 voices and continuo (1670s).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 82232 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Much of Augustine's conversion is dramatized in the oratorio La conversione di Sant'Agostino (1750) composed by Johann Adolph Hasse. The libretto for this oratorio, written by Duchess Maria Antonia of Bavaria, draws upon the influence of Metastasio (the finished libretto having been edited by him) and is based on an earlier five-act play Idea perfectae conversionis dive Augustinus written by the Jesuit priest Franz Neumayr. In the libretto Augustine's mother Monica is presented as a prominent character that is worried that Augustine might not convert to Christianity. As Dr. Andrea Palent says: Throughout the oratorio Augustine shows his willingness to turn to God, but the burden of the act of conversion weighs heavily on him. This is displayed by Hasse through extended recitative passages.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 214051, 9376530, 214006, 18645409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 131 ], [ 176, 208 ], [ 238, 248 ], [ 413, 426 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In his poem \"Confessional\", Frank Bidart compares the relationship between Augustine and his mother, Saint Monica, to the relationship between the poem's speaker and his mother.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1399905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2010 TV miniseries The Confessions of Saint Augustine, Augustine is played by Matteo Urzia (aged 15), Alessandro Preziosi (aged 25) and Franco Nero (aged 76).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 41381296, 239917 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 129 ], [ 144, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "English pop/rock musician, singer and songwriter Sting wrote a song related to Saint Augustine entitled \"Saint Augustine in Hell\" which was part of his fourth solo studio album Ten Summoner's Tales released in March 1993.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 83312, 3102783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 54 ], [ 177, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Cogito, ergo sum", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rule of Saint Augustine", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1405995 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Green, Bradley G. Colin Gunton and the Failure of Augustine: The Theology of Colin Gunton in the Light of Augustine , James Clarke and Co. (2012), ", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Miles, Margaret R. (2012). Augustine and the Fundamentalist's Daughter , Lutterworth Press, .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 6197946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 74, 91 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Règle de St. Augustin pour les religieuses de son ordre; et Constitutions de la Congrégation des Religieuses du Verbe-Incarné et du Saint-Sacrament (Lyon: Chez Pierre Guillimin, 1662), pp.28–29. Cf. later edition published at Lyon (Chez Briday, Libraire,1962), pp.22–24. English edition, (New York: Schwartz, Kirwin, and Fauss, 1893), pp.33–35.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in English)\" from Augustinus.it", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in French)\" from Abbey Saint Benoît de Port-Valais", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Complete Works of Saint Augustine (in Spanish)\" from Mercaba, Catholic leaders' website", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Works by Saint Augustine\" from CCEL.org", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Works by Augustine at Perseus Digital Library", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"St. Augustine, Bishop and Confessor, Doctor of the Church\", Butler's Lives of the Saints", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Augustine of Hippo edited by James J. O'Donnell – texts, translations, introductions, commentaries, etc.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 6211416 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Augustine's Theory of Knowledge", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Saint Augustine of Hippo\" at the Christian Iconography website", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"The Life of St. Austin, or Augustine, Doctor\" from the Caxton translation of the Golden Legend", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " David Lindsay: Saint Augustine – Doctor Gratiae", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " St. Augustine – A Male Chauvinist? , Fr. Edmund Hill, OP. Talk given to the Robert Hugh Benson Graduate Society at Fisher House, Cambridge, on 22 November 1994.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 8973, 1453751, 24632363 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 58 ], [ 78, 96 ], [ 117, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " St. Augustine Timeline – Church History Timelines", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Giovanni Domenico Giulio: Nachtgedanken des heiligen Augustinus. Trier 1843 ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Augustine of Hippo at EarlyChurch.org.uk – extensive bibliography and on-line articles", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Bibliography on St. Augustine – Started by T.J. van Bavel O.S.A., continued at the Augustinian historical Institute in Louvain, Belgium", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " St. Augustine at the Christian Classics Ethereal Library", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 195344 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Augustine against Secundinus in English.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aurelius Augustinus at \"IntraText Digital Library\" – texts in several languages, with concordance and frequency list", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Augustinus.it – Latin, Spanish and Italian texts", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sanctus Augustinus at Documenta Catholica Omnia – Latin", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " City of God, Confessions, Enchiridion, Doctrine audio books", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Digitized manuscript created in France between 1275 and 1325 with extract of Augustine of Hippo works at SOMNI", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Expositio Psalmorum beati Augustini – digitized codex created between 1150 and 1175, also known as \"Enarrationes in Psalmos. 1–83\", at SOMNI", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aurelii Agustini Hipponae episcopi super loannem librum – digitized codex created in 1481; his sermons about John's Gospel at SOMNI", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sententiae ex omnibus operibus Divi Augustini decerptae – digitized codex created in 1539; at Library of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lewis E 19 In epistolam Johannis ad Parthos (Sermons on the first epistle of Saint John) at OPenn", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lewis E 21 De sermone domini in monte habito (On the sermon on the mount) and other treatises; De superbia (On pride) and other treatises; Expositio dominice orationis (Exposition on the lord's prayer) at OPenn", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lewis E 22 Enarrationes in psalmos (Expositions on the psalms); Initials (ABC); Prayer at OPenn", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lewis E 23 Sermons at OPenn", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lewis E 213 Rule of Saint Augustine; Sermon on Matthew 25:6 at OPenn", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lehigh Codex 3 Bifolium from De civitate Dei, Book 22 at OPenn", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Order of St Augustine", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Blessed Augustine of Hippo: His Place in the Orthodox Church", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Augustine's World: An Introduction to His Speculative Philosophy by Donald Burt, OSA, member of the Augustinian Order, Villanova University", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 144980, 241099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 118 ], [ 120, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tabula in librum Sancti Augustini De civitate Dei by Robert Kilwardby, digitized manuscript of 1464 at SOMNI", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 153666 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 70 ] ] } ]

[ "Augustine_of_Hippo", "354_births", "430_deaths", "4th-century_Berber_people", "4th-century_Christian_theologians", "4th-century_philosophers", "4th-century_Romans", "4th-century_Latin_writers", "5th-century_Berber_people", "5th-century_Christian_saints", "5th-century_Christian_theologians", "5th-century_philosophers", "5th-century_Romans", "5th-century_Latin_writers", "African_philosophers", "Amillennialism", "Ancient_Roman_rhetoricians", "Christian_anti-Gnosticism", "Aurelii", "Augustinian_Order", "Augustinian_philosophers", "Autobiographers", "Berber_Christians", "Burials_at_San_Pietro_in_Ciel_d'Oro", "Christian_apologists", "Christian_ethicists", "Church_Fathers", "Doctors_of_the_Church", "Epistemologists", "Founders_of_philosophical_traditions", "Latin_letter_writers", "Mariology", "Neoplatonists", "Numidian_saints", "Philosophers_of_ethics_and_morality", "Rationalists", "4th-century_bishops_in_Roman_North_Africa", "Philosophers_of_war", "Saints_from_Roman_Africa_(province)", "Sermon_writers", "Systematic_theologians", "Catholic_philosophers", "Roman-era_philosophers", "Ancient_Roman_Christian_mystics", "5th-century_bishops_in_Roman_North_Africa", "Former_Manichaeans", "Christian_saints", "Eastern_Orthodox_saints", "Eastern_Catholic_saints", "Ancient_Roman_Catholic_saints", "Anglican_saints" ]

[ "Saint Augustine", "Saint Austin", "Augustine", "St. Augoustinos", "St. Augustine of Hippo", "Aurelius Augustinus", "Aurelius Augustine", "Aurelius Augustinus Hipponensis", "St. Augustine", "Augustinus", "Saint Augustine of Hippo", "Augustinus, Aurelius" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Acting is an activity in which a story is told by means of its enactment by an actor or actress who adopts a character—in theatre, television, film, radio, or any other medium that makes use of the mimetic mode.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 48470335, 76749, 20913771, 29831, 21555729, 15368428, 329625, 10373080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 72 ], [ 109, 118 ], [ 122, 129 ], [ 131, 141 ], [ 143, 147 ], [ 149, 154 ], [ 198, 205 ], [ 206, 210 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Acting involves a broad range of skills, including a well-developed imagination, emotional facility, physical expressivity, vocal projection, clarity of speech, and the ability to interpret drama. Acting also demands an ability to employ dialects, accents, improvisation, observation and emulation, mime, and stage combat. Many actors train at length in specialist programs or colleges to develop these skills. The vast majority of professional actors have undergone extensive training. Actors and actresses will often have many instructors and teachers for a full range of training involving singing, scene-work, audition techniques, and acting for camera.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 9325864, 2352727, 6155443, 2917649, 20913753, 8128, 256791, 15041, 2101689, 227135, 162707, 21290934, 52648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 79 ], [ 81, 99 ], [ 124, 140 ], [ 153, 159 ], [ 190, 195 ], [ 238, 245 ], [ 248, 255 ], [ 257, 270 ], [ 299, 303 ], [ 309, 321 ], [ 593, 600 ], [ 614, 622 ], [ 650, 656 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Most early sources in the West that examine the art of acting (, hypokrisis) discuss it as part of rhetoric.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23477542, 21208262, 752, 25447 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ], [ 26, 30 ], [ 48, 51 ], [ 99, 107 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the first known actors was an ancient Greek called Thespis of Icaria in Athens. Writing two centuries after the event, Aristotle in his Poetics () suggests that Thespis stepped out of the dithyrambic chorus and addressed it as a separate character. Before Thespis, the chorus narrated (for example, \"Dionysus did this, Dionysus said that\"). When Thespis stepped out from the chorus, he spoke as if he were the character (for example, \"I am Dionysus, I did this\"). To distinguish between these different modes of storytelling—enactment and narration", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11936957, 52585, 188522, 13517898, 308, 397064, 544080, 197034, 76749, 565176, 10373080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 50 ], [ 58, 65 ], [ 69, 75 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 126, 135 ], [ 143, 150 ], [ 195, 204 ], [ 207, 213 ], [ 245, 254 ], [ 283, 291 ], [ 510, 515 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "—Aristotle uses the terms \"mimesis\" (via enactment) and \"diegesis\" (via narration). From Thespis' name derives the word \"thespian\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 329625, 351909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 34 ], [ 57, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conservatories and drama schools typically offer two- to four-year training on all aspects of acting. Universities mostly offer three- to four-year programs, in which a student is often able to choose to focus on acting, whilst continuing to learn about other aspects of theatre. Schools vary in their approach, but in North America the most popular method taught derives from the 'system' of Konstantin Stanislavski, which was developed and popularised in America as method acting by Lee Strasberg, Stella Adler, Sanford Meisner, and others.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Training", "target_page_ids": [ 5178476, 20913771, 571618, 17318, 59495, 572438, 843532, 767577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 31 ], [ 271, 278 ], [ 381, 389 ], [ 393, 416 ], [ 468, 481 ], [ 485, 498 ], [ 500, 512 ], [ 514, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other approaches may include a more physically based orientation, such as that promoted by theatre practitioners as diverse as Anne Bogart, Jacques Lecoq, Jerzy Grotowski, or Vsevolod Meyerhold. Classes may also include psychotechnique, mask work, physical theatre, improvisation, and acting for camera.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Training", "target_page_ids": [ 12835568, 2207572, 1317581, 53520, 743581, 5982329, 247083, 911430, 88772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 91, 111 ], [ 127, 138 ], [ 140, 153 ], [ 155, 170 ], [ 175, 193 ], [ 220, 235 ], [ 237, 241 ], [ 248, 264 ], [ 266, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regardless of a school's approach, students should expect intensive training in textual interpretation, voice, and movement. Applications to drama programmes and conservatories usually involve extensive auditions. Anybody over the age of 18 can usually apply. Training may also start at a very young age. Acting classes and professional schools targeted at under-18s are widespread. These classes introduce young actors to different aspects of acting and theatre, including scene study.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Training", "target_page_ids": [ 21290934 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Increased training and exposure to public speaking allows humans to maintain calmer and more relaxed physiologically. By measuring a public speaker's heart rate maybe one of the easiest ways to judge shifts in stress as the heart rate increases with anxiety . As actors increase performances, heart rate and other evidence of stress can decrease. This is very important in training for actors, as adaptive strategies gained from increased exposure to public speaking can regulate implicit and explicit anxiety. By attending an institution with a specialization in acting, increased opportunity to act will lead to more relaxed physiology and decrease in stress and its effects on the body. These effects can vary from hormonal to cognitive health that can impact quality of life and performance", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Training", "target_page_ids": [ 25084, 23597, 304942, 31595228, 922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 50 ], [ 101, 116 ], [ 150, 160 ], [ 210, 216 ], [ 250, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some classical forms of acting involve a substantial element of improvised performance. Most notable is its use by the troupes of the commedia dell'arte, a form of masked comedy that originated in Italy.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Improvisation", "target_page_ids": [ 88772, 24527985, 247083 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 74 ], [ 134, 152 ], [ 164, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Improvisation as an approach to acting formed an important part of the Russian theatre practitioner Konstantin Stanislavski's 'system' of actor training, which he developed from the 1910s onwards. Late in 1910, the playwright Maxim Gorky invited Stanislavski to join him in Capri, where they discussed training and Stanislavski's emerging \"grammar\" of acting. Inspired by a popular theatre performance in Naples that utilised the techniques of the commedia dell'arte, Gorky suggested that they form a company, modelled on the medieval strolling players, in which a playwright and group of young actors would devise new plays together by means of improvisation. Stanislavski would develop this use of improvisation in his work with his First Studio of the Moscow Art Theatre. Stanislavski's use was extended further in the approaches to acting developed by his students, Michael Chekhov and Maria Knebel.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Improvisation", "target_page_ids": [ 12835568, 17318, 571618, 85036, 295223, 55880, 5347964, 15803135, 2781904, 1369406, 51479620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 99 ], [ 100, 123 ], [ 126, 134 ], [ 226, 237 ], [ 274, 279 ], [ 405, 411 ], [ 526, 552 ], [ 608, 614 ], [ 755, 773 ], [ 870, 885 ], [ 890, 902 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United Kingdom, the use of improvisation was pioneered by Joan Littlewood from the 1930s onwards and, later, by Keith Johnstone and Clive Barker. In the United States, it was promoted by Viola Spolin, after working with Neva Boyd at a Hull House in Chicago, Illinois (Spolin was Boyd's student from 1924 to 1927). Like the British practitioners, Spolin felt that playing games was a useful means of training actors and helped to improve an actor's performance. With improvisation, she argued, people may find expressive freedom, since they do not know how an improvised situation will turn out. Improvisation demands an open mind in order to maintain spontaneity, rather than pre-planning a response. A character is created by the actor, often without reference to a dramatic text, and a drama is developed out of the spontaneous interactions with other actors. This approach to creating new drama has been developed most substantially by the British filmmaker Mike Leigh, in films such as Secrets & Lies (1996), Vera Drake (2004), Another Year (2010), and Mr. Turner (2014).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Improvisation", "target_page_ids": [ 162997, 1459720, 1077017, 3320198, 393522, 612866, 1297472, 26608129, 42283672 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 80 ], [ 119, 134 ], [ 194, 206 ], [ 227, 236 ], [ 968, 978 ], [ 997, 1011 ], [ 1020, 1030 ], [ 1039, 1051 ], [ 1064, 1074 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Improvisation is also used to cover up if an actor or actress makes a mistake.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Improvisation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Acting in front of an audience many times can cause \"stage fright\", a form of stress in which someone becomes anxious in front of an audience. This is common among actors, especially new actors, and can cause symptoms such as increased heart rate, increased blood pressure, and sweating.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physiological effects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a 2017 study on American university students, actors of various experience levels all showed similarly elevated heart rates throughout their performances; this agrees with previous studies on professional and amateur actors' heart rates. While all actors experienced stress, causing elevated heart rate, the more experienced actors displayed less heart rate variability than the less experienced actors in the same play. The more experienced actors experienced less stress while performing, and therefore had a smaller degree of variability than the less experienced, more stressed actors. The more experienced an actor is, the more stable their heart rate will be while performing, but will still experience elevated heart rates.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Physiological effects", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The semiotics of acting involves a study of the ways in which aspects of a performance come to operate for its audience as signs. This process largely involves the production of meaning, whereby elements of an actor's performance acquire significance, both within the broader context of the dramatic action and in the relations each establishes with the real world.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Semiotics", "target_page_ids": [ 29301, 562907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 13 ], [ 123, 127 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the ideas proposed by the Surrealist theorist Antonin Artaud, however, it may also be possible to understand communication with an audience that occurs 'beneath' significance and meaning (which the semiotician Félix Guattari described as a process involving the transmission of \"a-signifying signs\"). In his The Theatre and its Double (1938), Artaud compared this interaction to the way in which a snake charmer communicates with a snake, a process which he identified as \"mimesis\"—the same term that Aristotle in his Poetics () used to describe the mode in which drama communicates its story, by virtue of its embodiment by the actor enacting it, as distinct from \"diegesis\", or the way in which a narrator may describe it. These \"vibrations\" passing from the actor to the audience may not necessarily precipitate into significant elements as such (that is, consciously perceived \"meanings\"), but rather may operate by means of the circulation of \"affects\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Semiotics", "target_page_ids": [ 28766, 215217, 11109, 2954511, 2495840, 329625, 308, 397064, 10373080, 20913753, 351909, 565176, 3669631 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 46 ], [ 56, 70 ], [ 220, 234 ], [ 318, 344 ], [ 408, 421 ], [ 483, 490 ], [ 511, 520 ], [ 528, 535 ], [ 560, 564 ], [ 574, 579 ], [ 676, 684 ], [ 709, 717 ], [ 959, 965 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The approach to acting adopted by other theatre practitioners involve varying degrees of concern with the semiotics of acting. Konstantin Stanislavski, for example, addresses the ways in which an actor, building on what he calls the \"experiencing\" of a role, should also shape and adjust a performance in order to support the overall significance of the drama—a process that he calls establishing the \"perspective of the role\". The semiotics of acting plays a far more central role in Bertolt Brecht's epic theatre, in which an actor is concerned to bring out clearly the socio historical significance of behaviour and action by means of specific performance choices—a process that he describes as establishing the \"not/but\" element in a performed physical \"gestus\" within context of the play's overal \"Fabel\". Eugenio Barba argues that actors ought not to concern themselves with the significance of their performance behaviour; this aspect is the responsibility, he claims, of the director, who weaves the signifying elements of an actor's performance into the director's dramaturgical \"montage\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Semiotics", "target_page_ids": [ 12835568, 17318, 24956001, 564795, 12786774, 3633502, 12780889, 2476386, 103078, 155890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 61 ], [ 127, 150 ], [ 485, 499 ], [ 502, 514 ], [ 716, 723 ], [ 758, 764 ], [ 803, 808 ], [ 811, 824 ], [ 983, 991 ], [ 1074, 1087 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The theatre semiotician Patrice Pavis, alluding to the contrast between Stanislavski's 'system' and Brecht's demonstrating performer—and, beyond that, to Denis Diderot's foundational essay on the art of acting, Paradox of the Actor (–78)—argues that:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Semiotics", "target_page_ids": [ 26423848, 571618, 12786765, 8199, 47804514 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 37 ], [ 72, 95 ], [ 109, 122 ], [ 154, 167 ], [ 211, 231 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Elements of a semiotics of acting include the actor's gestures, facial expressions, intonation and other vocal qualities, rhythm, and the ways in which these aspects of an individual performance relate to the drama and the theatrical event (or film, television programme, or radio broadcast, each of which involves different semiotic systems) considered as a whole. A semiotics of acting recognises that all forms of acting involve conventions and codes by means of which performance behaviour acquires significance—including those approaches, such as Stanislvaski's or the closely related method acting developed in the United States, that offer themselves as \"a natural kind of acting that can do without conventions and be received as self-evident and universal.\" Pavis goes on to argue that:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Semiotics", "target_page_ids": [ 964405, 2069591, 59495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 432, 443 ], [ 448, 453 ], [ 590, 603 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The conventions that govern acting in general are related to structured forms of play, which involve, in each specific experience, \"rules of the game.\" This aspect was first explored by Johan Huizinga (in Homo Ludens, 1938) and Roger Caillois (in Man, Play and Games, 1958). Caillois, for example, distinguishes four aspects of play relevant to acting: mimesis (simulation), agon (conflict or competition), alea (chance), and illinx (vertigo, or \"vertiginous psychological situations\" involving the spectator's identification or catharsis). This connection with play as an activity was first proposed by Aristotle in his Poetics, in which he defines the desire to imitate in play as an essential part of being human and our first means of learning as children:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Semiotics", "target_page_ids": [ 18006808, 18723138, 982984, 1178715, 672932, 16714001, 329625, 43444, 2193564, 658994, 17968822, 416005, 2614714, 3837845, 197055, 9627698 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 85 ], [ 132, 149 ], [ 186, 200 ], [ 205, 216 ], [ 228, 242 ], [ 247, 266 ], [ 353, 360 ], [ 362, 372 ], [ 375, 379 ], [ 381, 389 ], [ 407, 411 ], [ 413, 419 ], [ 434, 441 ], [ 511, 525 ], [ 529, 538 ], [ 739, 759 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This connection with play also informed the words used in English (as was the analogous case in many other European languages) for drama: the word \"play\" or \"game\" (translating the Anglo-Saxon plèga or Latin ludus) was the standard term used until William Shakespeare's time for a dramatic entertainment—just as its creator was a \"play-maker\" rather than a \"dramatist\", the person acting was known as a \"player\", and, when in the Elizabethan era specific buildings for acting were built, they was known as \"play-houses\" rather than \"theatres.\"", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Semiotics", "target_page_ids": [ 20913753, 26744396, 22667, 17730, 32897, 46947, 1690649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 131, 136 ], [ 148, 152 ], [ 181, 192 ], [ 202, 207 ], [ 248, 267 ], [ 430, 445 ], [ 533, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Actors and actresses need to make a resume when applying for roles. The acting resume is very different from a normal resume; it is generally shorter, with lists instead of paragraphs, and it should have a head shot on the back. Sometimes, a resume also contains a short 30 second to 1 minute reel displaying the actors ability's, so that the casting director can see your previous performances, if any. An actors resume should list projects they have acted in before such as plays, movies, or shows, as well as special skills and their contact information.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resumes and auditions", "target_page_ids": [ 346264, 1803617, 1428218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 42 ], [ 206, 215 ], [ 343, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Auditioning is the act of performing either a monologue or sides (lines for one character) as sent by the casting director. Auditioning entails showing the actor's skills to present themselves as a different person; it may be as brief as two minutes. For theater auditions it can be longer than two minutes, or they may perform more than one monologue, as each casting director can have different requirements for actors. Actors should go to auditions dressed for the part, to make it easier for the casting director to visualize them as the character. For television or film they will have to undergo more than one audition. Oftentimes actors are called into another audition at the last minute, and are sent the sides either that morning or the night before. Auditioning can be a stressful part of acting, especially if one has not been trained to audition.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Resumes and auditions", "target_page_ids": [ 1428218 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rehearsal is a process in which actors prepare and practice a performance, exploring the vicissitudes of conflict between characters, testing specific actions in the scene, and finding means to convey a particular sense. Some actors continue to rehearse a scene throughout the run of a show in order to keep the scene fresh in their minds and exciting for the audience.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Rehearsal", "target_page_ids": [ 2335981, 658994, 76749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 105, 113 ], [ 122, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A critical audience with evaluative spectators is known to induce stress on actors during performance, (see Bode & Brutten). Being in front of an audience sharing a story will makes the actors intensely vulnerable. Shockingly, an actor will typically rate the quality of their performance higher than their spectators. Heart rates are generally always higher during a performance with an audience when compared to rehearsal, however what's interesting is that this audience also seems to induce a higher quality of performance. Simply put, while public performances cause extremely high stress levels in actors (more so amateur ones), the stress actually improves the performance, supporting the idea of \"positive stress in challenging situations\"", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Audience", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Depending on what an actor is doing, his or her heart rate will vary. This is the body's way of responding to stress. Prior to a show one will see an increase in heart rate due to anxiety. While performing an actor has an increased sense of exposure which will increase performance anxiety and the associated physiological arousal, such as heart rate. Heart rates increases more during shows compared to rehearsals because of the increased pressure, which is due to the fact that a performance has a potentially greater impact on an actors career. After the show a decrease in the heart rate due to the conclusion of the stress inducing activity can be seen. Often the heart rate will return to normal after the show or performance is done; however, during the applause after the performance there is a rapid spike in heart rate. This can be seen not only in actors but also with public speaking and musicians.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Heart rate", "target_page_ids": [ 600102, 25084, 38284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 270, 289 ], [ 880, 895 ], [ 900, 909 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is a correlation between heart-rate and stress when actors' are performing in front of an audience. Actors claim that having an audience has no change in their stress level, but as soon as they come on stage their heart-rate rises quickly. A 2017 study done in an American University looking at actors' stress by measuring heart-rate showed individual heart-rates rose right before the performance began for those actors opening. There are many factors that can add to an actors' stress. For example, length of monologues, experience level, and actions done on stage including moving the set. Throughout the performance heart-rate rises the most before an actor is speaking. The stress and thus heart-rate of the actor then drops significantly at the end of a monologue, big action scene, or performance.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Heart rate", "target_page_ids": [ 253492 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 451, 458 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Biomechanics", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28079006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Meisner technique", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2584003 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Method acting", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 59495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Presentational and representational acting", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30865724 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stanislavski's system", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 571618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Viewpoints", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2134827 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lists of actors", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 184552 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Boleslavsky, Richard. 1933 Acting: the First Six Lessons. New York: Theatre Arts, 1987. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 1054743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Benedetti, Jean. 1999. Stanislavski: His Life and Art. Revised edition. Original edition published in 1988. London: Methuen. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brustein, Robert. 2005. Letters to a Young Actor New York: Basic Books. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Csapo, Eric, and William J. Slater. 1994. The Context of Ancient Drama. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Elam, Keir. 1980. The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hagen, Uta and Haskel Frankel. 1973. Respect for Acting. New York: Macmillan. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 432599 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Halliwell, Stephen, ed. and trans. 1995. Aristotle Poetics. Loeb Classical Library ser. Aristotle vol. 23. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hodge, Alison, ed. 2000. Twentieth Century Actor Training. London and New York: Routledge. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Magarshack, David. 1950. Stanislavsky: A Life. London and Boston: Faber, 1986. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 11801453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Meisner, Sanford, and Dennis Longwell. 1987. Sanford Meisner on Acting. New York: Vintage. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 767577 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pavis, Patrice. 1998. Dictionary of the Theatre: Terms, Concepts, and Analysis. Trans. Christine Shantz. Toronto and Buffalo: University of Toronto Press. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 26423848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stanislavski, Konstantin. 1938. An Actor's Work: A Student's Diary. Trans. and ed. Jean Benedetti. London and New York: Routledge, 2008. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 17318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stanislavski, Konstantin. 1957. An Actor's Work on a Role. Trans. and ed. Jean Benedetti. London and New York: Routledge, 2010. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 17318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wickham, Glynne. 1959. Early English Stages: 1300—1660. Vol. 1. London: Routledge.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 17424617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wickham, Glynne. 1969. Shakespeare's Dramatic Heritage: Collected Studies in Mediaeval, Tudor and Shakespearean Drama. London: Routledge. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 17424617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Wickham, Glynne. 1981. Early English Stages: 1300—1660. Vol. 3. London: Routledge. . ", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [ 17424617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zarrilli, Phillip B., ed. 2002. Acting (Re)Considered: A Theoretical and Practical Guide. Worlds of Performance Ser. 2nd edition. London and New York: Routledge. .", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Collection: \"History of Acting: Gestural Acting and Realism\" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 5721292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 107 ] ] } ]

[ "Acting", "Role-playing" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "The Delian League, founded in 478 BC, was an association of Greek city-states, with the number of members numbering between 150 and 330 under the leadership of Athens, whose purpose was to continue fighting the Persian Empire after the Greek victory in the Battle of Plataea at the end of the Second Persian invasion of Greece.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 131855, 13517898, 30927438, 349571, 20198436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 77 ], [ 160, 166 ], [ 211, 225 ], [ 257, 274 ], [ 293, 326 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The League's modern name derives from its official meeting place, the island of Delos, where congresses were held in the temple and where the treasury stood until, in a symbolic gesture, Pericles moved it to Athens in 454 BC.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 79077, 36812 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 80, 85 ], [ 187, 195 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Shortly after its inception, Athens began to use the League's funds for its own purposes, which led to conflicts between Athens and the less powerful members of the League. By 431 BC, the threat the League presented to Spartan hegemony combined with Athens's heavy-handed control of the Delian League prompted the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War; the League was dissolved upon the war's conclusion in 404 BC under the direction of Lysander, the Spartan commander.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 24121, 54626, 36487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 330, 347 ], [ 433, 441 ], [ 447, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Greco-Persian Wars had their roots in the conquest of the Greek cities of Asia Minor, and particularly Ionia, by the Achaemenid Persian Empire of Cyrus the Great shortly after 550 BC. The Persians found the Ionians difficult to rule, eventually settling for sponsoring a tyrant in each Ionian city. While Greek states had in the past often been ruled by tyrants, this form of government was on the decline. By 500 BC, Ionia appears to have been ripe for rebellion against these Persian clients. The simmering tension finally broke into open revolt due to the actions of the tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras. Attempting to save himself after a disastrous Persian-sponsored expedition in 499 BC, Aristagoras chose to declare Miletus a democracy. This triggered similar revolutions across Ionia, extending to Doris and Aeolis, beginning the Ionian Revolt.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 854, 46401, 30927438, 800012, 198512, 268717, 70997, 340935, 8791492, 5394089, 1715161, 298695 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 88 ], [ 107, 112 ], [ 121, 146 ], [ 150, 165 ], [ 275, 281 ], [ 490, 497 ], [ 588, 595 ], [ 597, 608 ], [ 674, 684 ], [ 808, 813 ], [ 818, 824 ], [ 840, 853 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Greek states of Athens and Eretria allowed themselves to be drawn into this conflict by Aristagoras, and during their only campaigning season (498 BC) they contributed to the capture and burning of the Persian regional capital of Sardis. After this, the Ionian revolt carried on (without further outside aid) for a further five years, until it was finally completely crushed by the Persians. However, in a decision of great historic significance, the Persian king Darius the Great decided that, despite having subdued the revolt, there remained the unfinished business of exacting punishment on Athens and Eretria for supporting the revolt. The Ionian revolt had severely threatened the stability of Darius's empire, and the states of mainland Greece would continue to threaten that stability unless dealt with. Darius thus began to contemplate the complete conquest of Greece, beginning with the destruction of Athens and Eretria.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 441646, 349177, 45386, 47118 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 26 ], [ 31, 38 ], [ 234, 240 ], [ 468, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the next two decades, there would be two Persian invasions of Greece, occasioning, thanks to Greek historians, some of the most famous battles in history. During the first invasion, Thrace, Macedon and the Aegean Islands were added to the Persian Empire, and Eretria was duly destroyed. However, the invasion ended in 490 BC with the decisive Athenian victory at the Battle of Marathon. After this invasion, Darius died, and responsibility for the war passed to his son Xerxes I.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 20198238, 36857, 42012, 427887, 4806, 46289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 169, 183 ], [ 185, 191 ], [ 193, 200 ], [ 209, 223 ], [ 370, 388 ], [ 473, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Xerxes then personally led a second Persian invasion of Greece in 480 BC, taking an enormous (although oft-exaggerated) army and navy to Greece. Those Greeks who chose to resist (the 'Allies') were defeated in the twin simultaneous battles of Thermopylae on land and Artemisium at sea. All of Greece except the Peloponnesus thus having fallen into Persian hands, the Persians then seeking to destroy the Allied navy once and for all, suffered a decisive defeat at the Battle of Salamis. The following year, 479 BC, the Allies assembled the largest Greek army yet seen and defeated the Persian invasion force at the Battle of Plataea, ending the invasion and the threat to Greece.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 20198436, 157446, 348992, 45749, 47968, 349571 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 62 ], [ 243, 254 ], [ 267, 277 ], [ 311, 323 ], [ 468, 485 ], [ 615, 632 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Allied fleet defeated the remnants of the Persian fleet in the Battle of Mycale near the island of Samos—on the same day as Plataea, according to tradition. This action marks the end of the Persian invasion, and the beginning of the next phase in the Greco-Persian wars, the Greek counterattack. After Mycale, the Greek cities of Asia Minor again revolted, with the Persians now powerless to stop them. The Allied fleet then sailed to the Thracian Chersonese, still held by the Persians, and besieged and captured the town of Sestos. The following year, 478 BC, the Allies sent a force to capture the city of Byzantion (modern day Istanbul). The siege was successful, but the behaviour of the Spartan general Pausanias alienated many of the Allies, and resulted in Pausanias's recall.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Background", "target_page_ids": [ 234687, 327628, 12929, 316022, 3719, 3391396, 416251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 83 ], [ 275, 298 ], [ 443, 462 ], [ 530, 536 ], [ 613, 622 ], [ 635, 643 ], [ 713, 722 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After Byzantion, Sparta was eager to end its involvement in the war. The Spartans greatly feared the rise of the Athenians as a challenge to their power. Additionally, the Spartans were of the view that, with the liberation of mainland Greece, and the Greek cities of Asia Minor, the war's purpose had already been achieved. There was also perhaps a feeling that establishing long-term security for the Asian Greeks would prove impossible. In the aftermath of Mycale, the Spartan king Leotychidas had proposed transplanting all the Greeks from Asia Minor to Europe as the only method of permanently freeing them from Persian dominion.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 1346053 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 485, 496 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Xanthippus, the Athenian commander at Mycale, had furiously rejected this; the Ionian cities had been Athenian colonies, and the Athenians, if no one else, would protect the Ionians. This marked the point at which the leadership of the Greek alliance effectively passed to the Athenians. With the Spartan withdrawal after Byzantion, the leadership of the Athenians became explicit.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The loose alliance of city states which had fought against Xerxes's invasion had been dominated by Sparta and the Peloponnesian league. With the withdrawal of these states, a congress was called on the holy island of Delos to institute a new alliance to continue the fight against the Persians; hence the modern designation \"Delian League\". According to Thucydides, the official aim of the League was to \"avenge the wrongs they suffered by ravaging the territory of the king.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 24280, 79077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 134 ], [ 217, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In reality, this goal was divided into three main efforts—to prepare for future invasion, to seek revenge against Persia, and to organize a means of dividing spoils of war. The members were given a choice of either offering armed forces or paying a tax to the joint treasury; most states chose the tax. League members swore to have the same friends and enemies, and dropped ingots of iron into the sea to symbolize the permanence of their alliance. The Athenian politician Aristides would spend the rest of his life occupied in the affairs of the alliance, dying (according to Plutarch) a few years later in Pontus, whilst determining what the tax of new members was to be.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Formation", "target_page_ids": [ 272860, 24517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 473, 482 ], [ 577, 585 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the first ten years of the league's existence, Cimon/Kimon forced Karystos in Euboea to join the league, conquered the island of Skyros and sent Athenian colonists there.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Composition and expansion", "target_page_ids": [ 1472833, 1407420, 79682, 370149 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 61 ], [ 69, 77 ], [ 81, 87 ], [ 132, 138 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Over time, especially with the suppression of rebellions, Athens exercised hegemony over the rest of the league. Thucydides describes how Athens's control over the League grew:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Composition and expansion", "target_page_ids": [ 53451, 30864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 83 ], [ 113, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Of all the causes of defection, that connected with arrears of tribute and vessels, and with failure of service, was the chief; for the Athenians were very severe and exacting, and made themselves offensive by applying the screw of necessity to men who were not used to and in fact not disposed for any continuous labor. In some other respects the Athenians were not the old popular rulers they had been at first; and if they had more than their fair share of service, it was correspondingly easy for them to reduce any that tried to leave the confederacy. The Athenians also arranged for the other members of the league to pay its share of the expense in money instead of in ships and men, and for this the subject city-states had themselves to blame, their wish to get out of giving service making most leave their homes. Thus while Athens was increasing her navy with the funds they contributed, a revolt always found itself without enough resources or experienced leaders for war.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Composition and expansion", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The first member of the league to attempt to secede was the island of Naxos in c. 471 BC. After being defeated, Naxos is believed (based on similar, later revolts) to have been forced to tear down its walls along with losing its fleet and vote in the League.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Rebellion", "target_page_ids": [ 62278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 75 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 465 BC, Athens founded the colony of Amphipolis on the Strymon river. Thasos, a member of the League, saw her interests in the mines of Mt. Pangaion threatened and defected from the League to Persia. She called to Sparta for assistance but was denied, as Sparta was facing the largest helot revolt in its history.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Rebellion", "target_page_ids": [ 1727, 82863, 236213 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 50 ], [ 73, 79 ], [ 288, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After more than two years of siege, Thasos surrendered to the Athenian leader Aristides and was forced back into the league. As a result, the fortification walls of Thasos were torn down, and they had to pay yearly tribute and fines. Additionally, their land, naval ships, and the mines of Thasos were confiscated by Athens. The siege of Thasos marks the transformation of the Delian league from an alliance into, in the words of Thucydides, a hegemony.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Rebellion", "target_page_ids": [ 272860, 53451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 87 ], [ 444, 452 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 461 BC, Cimon was ostracized and was succeeded in his influence by democrats such as Ephialtes and Pericles. This signaled a complete change in Athenian foreign policy, neglecting the alliance with the Spartans and instead allying with her enemies, Argos and Thessaly. Megara deserted the Spartan-led Peloponnesian League and allied herself with Athens, allowing construction of a double line of walls across the Isthmus of Corinth and protecting Athens from attack from that quarter. Roughly a decade earlier, due to encouragement from influential speaker Themistocles, the Athenians had also constructed the Long Walls connecting their city to the Piraeus, its port, making it effectively invulnerable to attack by land.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Policies of the League", "target_page_ids": [ 22615, 5006165, 70011, 55804, 20344, 24280, 623776, 31069, 3415214, 98387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 31 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 252, 257 ], [ 262, 270 ], [ 272, 278 ], [ 304, 324 ], [ 416, 434 ], [ 560, 572 ], [ 613, 623 ], [ 653, 660 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 454 BC, the Athenian general Pericles moved the Delian League's treasury from Delos to Athens, allegedly to keep it safe from Persia. However, Plutarch indicates that many of Pericles's rivals viewed the transfer to Athens as usurping monetary resources to fund elaborate building projects. Athens also switched from accepting ships, men and weapons as dues from league members, to only accepting money.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Policies of the League", "target_page_ids": [ 36812, 24517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 40 ], [ 146, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The new treasury established in Athens was used for many purposes, not all relating to the defence of members of the league. It was from tribute paid to the league that Pericles set to building the Parthenon on the Acropolis, replacing an older temple, as well as many other non-defense related expenditures. The Delian League was turning from an alliance into an empire.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Policies of the League", "target_page_ids": [ 23672, 2076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 198, 207 ], [ 215, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "War with the Persians continued. In 460 BC, Egypt revolted under local leaders the Hellenes called Inaros and Amyrtaeus, who requested aid from Athens. Pericles led 250 ships, intended to attack Cyprus, to their aid because it would further damage Persia. After four years, however, the Egyptian rebellion was defeated by the Achaemenid general Megabyzus, who captured the greater part of the Athenian forces. In fact, according to Isocrates, the Athenians and their allies lost some 20,000 men in the expedition, while modern estimates place the figure at 50,000 men and 250 ships including reinforcements. The remainder escaped to Cyrene and thence returned home.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Wars against Persia", "target_page_ids": [ 8087628, 10813482, 2618741, 5593, 182496, 85738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 44, 49 ], [ 99, 105 ], [ 110, 119 ], [ 195, 201 ], [ 345, 354 ], [ 633, 639 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This was the Athenians' main (public) reason for moving the treasury of the League from Delos to Athens, further consolidating their control over the League. The Persians followed up their victory by sending a fleet to re-establish their control over Cyprus, and 200 ships were sent out to counter them under Cimon, who returned from ostracism in 451 BC. He died during the blockade of Citium, though the fleet won a double victory by land and sea over the Persians off Salamis, Cyprus.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Wars against Persia", "target_page_ids": [ 5593, 1472833, 22615, 27755358, 78504 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 257 ], [ 309, 314 ], [ 334, 343 ], [ 386, 392 ], [ 470, 485 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This battle was the last major one fought against the Persians. Many writers report that a peace treaty, known as the Peace of Callias, was formalized in 450 BC, but some writers believe that the treaty was a myth created later to inflate the stature of Athens. However, an understanding was definitely reached, enabling the Athenians to focus their attention on events in Greece proper.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Wars against Persia", "target_page_ids": [ 386262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Soon, war with the Peloponnesians broke out. In 458 BC, the Athenians blockaded the island of Aegina, and simultaneously defended Megara from the Corinthians by sending out an army composed of those too young or old for regular military service. The following year, Sparta sent an army into Boeotia, reviving the power of Thebes in order to help hold the Athenians in check. Their return was blocked, and they resolved to march on Athens, where the Long Walls were not yet completed, winning a victory at the Battle of Tanagra. All this accomplished, however, was to allow them to return home via the Megarid. Two months later, the Athenians under Myronides invaded Boeotia, and winning the Battle of Oenophyta gained control of the whole country except Thebes.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Wars in Greece", "target_page_ids": [ 6328050, 2627, 79607, 65806, 393905, 14143141, 394033 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 33 ], [ 94, 100 ], [ 291, 298 ], [ 322, 328 ], [ 509, 526 ], [ 648, 657 ], [ 691, 710 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Reverses followed peace with Persia in 449 BC. The Battle of Coronea, in 447 BC, led to the abandonment of Boeotia. Euboea and Megara revolted, and while the former was restored to its status as a tributary ally, the latter was a permanent loss. The Delian and Peloponnesian Leagues signed a peace treaty, which was set to endure for thirty years. It only lasted until 431 BC, when the Peloponnesian War broke out.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Wars in Greece", "target_page_ids": [ 395603, 79682, 24121 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 68 ], [ 116, 122 ], [ 386, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Those who revolted unsuccessfully during the war saw the example made of the Mytilenians, the principal people on Lesbos. After an unsuccessful revolt, the Athenians ordered the death of the entire male population. After some thought, they rescinded this order, and only put to death the leading 1000 ringleaders of the revolt, and redistributed the land of the entire island to Athenian shareholders, who were sent out to reside on Lesbos.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Wars in Greece", "target_page_ids": [ 181549, 2633994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 88 ], [ 114, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This type of treatment was not reserved solely for those who revolted. Thucydides documents the example of Melos, a small island, neutral in the war, though founded by Spartans. The Melians were offered a choice to join the Athenians, or be conquered. Choosing to resist, their town was besieged and conquered; the males were put to death and the women sold into slavery (see Melian dialogue).", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Wars in Greece", "target_page_ids": [ 182237, 3116984 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 112 ], [ 376, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 454 BC, the Delian League could be fairly characterised as an Athenian Empire; a key event of 454 BC was the moving of the treasury of the Delian League from Delos to Athens. This is often seen as a key marker of the transition from alliance to empire, but while it is significant, it is important to view the period as a whole when considering the development of Athenian imperialism, and not to focus on a single event as being the main contributor to it. At the start of the Peloponnesian War, only Chios and Lesbos were left to contribute ships, and these states were by now far too weak to secede without support. Lesbos tried to revolt first, and failed completely. Chios, the most powerful of the original members of the Delian League save Athens, was the last to revolt, and in the aftermath of the Syracusan Expedition enjoyed success for several years, inspiring all of Ionia to revolt. Athens was nonetheless eventually able to suppress these revolts.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "The Athenian Empire (454–404 BC)", "target_page_ids": [ 24121, 17067, 2633994, 367431, 46401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 481, 498 ], [ 505, 510 ], [ 515, 521 ], [ 810, 830 ], [ 883, 888 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To further strengthen Athens's grip on its empire, Pericles in 450 BC began a policy of establishing kleruchiai—quasi-colonies that remained tied to Athens and which served as garrisons to maintain control of the League's vast territory. Furthermore, Pericles employed a number of offices to maintain Athens' empire: proxenoi, who fostered good relations between Athens and League members; episkopoi and archontes, who oversaw the collection of tribute; and hellenotamiai, who received the tribute on Athens' behalf.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "The Athenian Empire (454–404 BC)", "target_page_ids": [ 145967, 23548837, 164556, 17818139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 111 ], [ 317, 325 ], [ 404, 411 ], [ 458, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Athens's empire was not very stable and after 27 years of war, the Spartans, aided by the Persians and Athenian internal strife, were able to defeat it. However, it did not remain defeated for long. The Second Athenian League, a maritime self-defense league, was founded in 377 BC and was led by Athens. The Athenians would never recover the full extent of their power, and their enemies were now far stronger and more varied.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "The Athenian Empire (454–404 BC)", "target_page_ids": [ 8589652 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 203, 225 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Athenian democracy", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 51992830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chalcis Decree", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 50467073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hellenic civilization", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 66540 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pentecontaetia", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4077467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zone (colony)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 24413064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] } ]

[ "Delian_League", "Military_history_of_ancient_Greece", "Ancient_Delos", "5th-century_BC_military_alliances", "5th-century_BC_establishments", "5th-century_BC_disestablishments", "Greek_city-state_federations", "Former_confederations" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "August Horch (12 October 1868 3 February 1951) was a German engineer and automobile pioneer, the founder of the manufacturing giant which would eventually become Audi.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 152735, 38223, 13673345, 118450, 848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 60 ], [ 61, 69 ], [ 74, 84 ], [ 85, 92 ], [ 163, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Horch was born twice in Winningen, Rhenish Prussia. His initial trade was as a blacksmith, and then was educated at Hochschule Mittweida (Mittweida Technical College). After receiving a degree in engineering, he worked in shipbuilding. Horch worked for Karl Benz from 1896, before founding A. Horch & Co. in November 1899, in Ehrenfeld, Cologne, Germany.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Beginnings", "target_page_ids": [ 13004640, 1744792, 23375081, 16912, 2227755, 24641388, 11867 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 33 ], [ 35, 50 ], [ 117, 137 ], [ 256, 265 ], [ 293, 307 ], [ 329, 347 ], [ 349, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first Horch automobile was built in 1901. The company moved to Reichenbach in 1902 and Zwickau in 1904. Horch left the company in 1909 after a dispute, and set up in competition in Zwickau. His new firm was initially called Horch Automobil-Werke GmbH, but following a legal dispute over the Horch name, he decided to make another automobile company. (The court decided that Horch was a registered trademark on behalf of August Horch's former partners and August Horch was not entitled to use it any more). Consequently, Horch named his new company Audi Automobilwerke GmbH in 1910, Audi being the Latinization of Horch.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Manufacturing", "target_page_ids": [ 2227755, 1267883, 58557, 848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 15 ], [ 68, 79 ], [ 92, 99 ], [ 556, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Horch left Audi in 1920 and went to Berlin and took various jobs. He published his autobiography, I Built Cars (Ich Baute Autos) in 1937. He also served on the board of Auto Union, the successor to Audi Automobilwerke GmbH he founded. He was an honorary citizen of Zwickau and had a street named for his Audi cars in both Zwickau and his birthplace Winningen. He was made an honorary professor at Braunschweig University of Technology.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Post Audi", "target_page_ids": [ 444612, 2127047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 171, 181 ], [ 401, 438 ] ] } ]

[ "1868_births", "1951_deaths", "People_from_Mayen-Koblenz", "People_from_the_Rhine_Province", "Audi_people", "German_automotive_pioneers", "German_industrialists", "Auto_Union", "Engineers_from_Rhineland-Palatinate", "Horch", "German_founders_of_automobile_manufacturers" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Avionics (a blend of aviation and electronics) are the electronic systems used on aircraft. Avionic systems include communications, navigation, the display and management of multiple systems, and the hundreds of systems that are fitted to aircraft to perform individual functions. These can be as simple as a searchlight for a police helicopter or as complicated as the tactical system for an airborne early warning platform.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 4063117, 9663, 849, 316393, 59827, 2059852, 236466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 17 ], [ 55, 65 ], [ 82, 90 ], [ 132, 142 ], [ 309, 320 ], [ 327, 344 ], [ 393, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term \"avionics\" was coined in 1949 by Philip J. Klass, senior editor at Aviation Week & Space Technology magazine as a portmanteau of \"aviation electronics\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2100405, 752875, 16823212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 58 ], [ 77, 109 ], [ 124, 135 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Radio communication was first used in aircraft just prior to World War I. The first airborne radios were in zeppelins, but the military sparked development of light radio sets that could be carried by heavier-than-air craft, so that aerial reconnaissance biplanes could report their observations immediately in case they were shot down. The first experimental radio transmission from an airplane was conducted by the US Navy in August 1910. The first aircraft radios transmitted by radiotelegraphy, so they required two-seat aircraft with a second crewman to tap on a telegraph key to spell out messages by Morse code. During World War I, AM voice two way radio sets were made possible in 1917 by the development of the triode vacuum tube, which were simple enough that the pilot in a single seat aircraft could use it while flying.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15368428, 4764461, 40704, 34440, 20338498, 33131, 187553, 18935, 1140, 804074, 31036, 32496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 61, 72 ], [ 86, 94 ], [ 110, 118 ], [ 235, 256 ], [ 484, 499 ], [ 570, 583 ], [ 609, 619 ], [ 641, 643 ], [ 650, 663 ], [ 722, 728 ], [ 729, 740 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Radar, the central technology used today in aircraft navigation and air traffic control, was developed by several nations, mainly in secret, as an air defense system in the 1930s during the runup to World War II. Many modern avionics have their origins in World WarII wartime developments. For example, autopilot systems that are commonplace today began as specialized systems to help bomber planes fly steadily enough to hit precision targets from high altitudes. Britain's 1940 decision to share its radar technology with its US ally, particularly the magnetron vacuum tube, in the famous Tizard Mission, significantly shortened the war. Modern avionics is a substantial portion of military aircraft spending. Aircraft like the F-15E and the now retired F-14 have roughly 20 percent of their budget spent on avionics. Most modern helicopters now have budget splits of 60/40 in favour of avionics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25676, 48563, 146640, 343230, 20861, 32496, 2935075, 495724, 11719, 8286923 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ], [ 68, 87 ], [ 147, 158 ], [ 303, 312 ], [ 554, 563 ], [ 564, 575 ], [ 591, 605 ], [ 730, 735 ], [ 756, 760 ], [ 832, 842 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The civilian market has also seen a growth in cost of avionics. Flight control systems (fly-by-wire) and new navigation needs brought on by tighter airspaces, have pushed up development costs. The major change has been the recent boom in consumer flying. As more people begin to use planes as their primary method of transportation, more elaborate methods of controlling aircraft safely in these high restrictive airspaces have been invented.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avionics plays a heavy role in modernization initiatives like the Federal Aviation Administration's (FAA) Next Generation Air Transportation System project in the United States and the Single European Sky ATM Research (SESAR) initiative in Europe. The Joint Planning and Development Office put forth a roadmap for avionics in six areas:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11186, 12942905, 19328761, 21106997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 97 ], [ 106, 147 ], [ 185, 217 ], [ 252, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Published Routes and Procedures – Improved navigation and routing", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Negotiated Trajectories – Adding data communications to create preferred routes dynamically", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Delegated Separation – Enhanced situational awareness in the air and on the ground", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " LowVisibility/CeilingApproach/Departure – Allowing operations with weather constraints with less ground infrastructure", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Surface Operations – To increase safety in approach and departure", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " ATM Efficiencies – Improving the ATM process", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Aircraft Electronics Association reports $1.73 billion avionics sales for the first three quarters of 2017 in business and general aviation, a 4.1% yearly improvement: 73.5% came from North America, forward-fit represented 42.3% while 57.7% were retrofits as the U.S. deadline of January 1, 2020 for mandatory ADS-B out approach.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 51018514, 12612, 5560489, 18949160 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 122 ], [ 127, 143 ], [ 250, 258 ], [ 314, 319 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The cockpit of an aircraft is a typical location for avionic equipment, including control, monitoring, communication, navigation, weather, and anti-collision systems. The majority of aircraft power their avionics using 14- or 28‑volt DC electrical systems; however, larger, more sophisticated aircraft (such as airliners or military combat aircraft) have AC systems operating at 400Hz, 115 volts AC. There are several major vendors of flight avionics, including The Boeing Company, Panasonic Avionics Corporation, Honeywell (which now owns Bendix/King), Universal Avionics Systems Corporation, Rockwell Collins (now Collins Aerospace), Thales Group, GE Aviation Systems, Garmin, Raytheon, Parker Hannifin, UTC Aerospace Systems (now Collins Aerospace), Selex ES (now Leonardo S.p.A.), Shadin Avionics, and Avidyne Corporation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 47713, 51215, 42986, 18933266, 5711408, 20259869, 1363506, 16109307, 867009, 277311, 5680024, 1118198, 63554945, 501006, 59170504, 2036694, 570143, 12128070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 234, 236 ], [ 311, 319 ], [ 355, 357 ], [ 462, 480 ], [ 482, 512 ], [ 514, 523 ], [ 540, 551 ], [ 554, 592 ], [ 594, 610 ], [ 636, 648 ], [ 650, 669 ], [ 671, 677 ], [ 679, 687 ], [ 689, 704 ], [ 706, 727 ], [ 753, 761 ], [ 767, 782 ], [ 806, 825 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "International standards for avionics equipment are prepared by the Airlines Electronic Engineering Committee (AEEC) and published by ARINC.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Communications connect the flight deck to the ground and the flight deck to the passengers. On‑board communications are provided by public-address systems and aircraft intercoms.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The VHF aviation communication system works on the airband of 118.000MHz to 136.975MHz. Each channel is spaced from the adjacent ones by 8.33kHz in Europe, 25kHz elsewhere. VHF is also used for line of sight communication such as aircraft-to-aircraft and aircraft-to-ATC. Amplitude modulation (AM) is used, and the conversation is performed in simplex mode. Aircraft communication can also take place using HF (especially for trans-oceanic flights) or satellite communication.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 1416009, 1140, 663969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 58 ], [ 272, 292 ], [ 344, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Air navigation is the determination of position and direction on or above the surface of the Earth. Avionics can use satellite navigation systems (such as GPS and WAAS), inertial navigation system (INS), ground-based radio navigation systems (such as VOR or LORAN), or any combination thereof. Some navigation systems such as GPS calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving map displays. Older ground-based Navigation systems such as VOR or LORAN requires a pilot or navigator to plot the intersection of signals on a paper map to determine an aircraft's location; modern systems calculate the position automatically and display it to the flight crew on moving map displays.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 316393, 1515653, 11866, 862061, 24050869, 153095, 351899, 42497186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 117, 137 ], [ 155, 158 ], [ 163, 167 ], [ 170, 196 ], [ 217, 233 ], [ 251, 254 ], [ 258, 263 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first hints of glass cockpits emerged in the 1970s when flight-worthy cathode ray tube (CRT) screens began to replace electromechanical displays, gauges and instruments. A \"glass\" cockpit refers to the use of computer monitors instead of gauges and other analog displays. Aircraft were getting progressively more displays, dials and information dashboards that eventually competed for space and pilot attention. In the 1970s, the average aircraft had more than 100 cockpit instruments and controls.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 482371, 6014 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 32 ], [ 74, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Glass cockpits started to come into being with the Gulfstream G‑IV private jet in 1985. One of the key challenges in glass cockpits is to balance how much control is automated and how much the pilot should do manually. Generally they try to automate flight operations while keeping the pilot constantly informed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 511793 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aircraft have means of automatically controlling flight. Autopilot was first invented by Lawrence Sperry during World War I to fly bomber planes steady enough to hit accurate targets from 25,000 feet. When it was first adopted by the U.S. military, a Honeywell engineer sat in the back seat with bolt cutters to disconnect the autopilot in case of emergency. Nowadays most commercial planes are equipped with aircraft flight control systems in order to reduce pilot error and workload at landing or takeoff.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 343230, 6804068, 20259869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 66 ], [ 89, 104 ], [ 251, 260 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first simple commercial auto-pilots were used to control heading and altitude and had limited authority on things like thrust and flight control surfaces. In helicopters, auto-stabilization was used in a similar way. The first systems were electromechanical. The advent of fly-by-wire and electro-actuated flight surfaces (rather than the traditional hydraulic) has increased safety. As with displays and instruments, critical devices that were electro-mechanical had a finite life. With safety critical systems, the software is very strictly tested.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 41677283, 37892, 703058, 8286923, 11522 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 68 ], [ 123, 129 ], [ 134, 148 ], [ 162, 172 ], [ 277, 288 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fuel Quantity Indication System (FQIS) monitors the amount of fuel aboard. Using various sensors, such as capacitance tubes, temperature sensors, densitometers & level sensors, the FQIS computer calculates the mass of fuel remaining on board.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Fuel Control and Monitoring System (FCMS) reports fuel remaining on board in a similar manner, but, by controlling pumps & valves, also manages fuel transfers around various tanks.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Refuelling control to upload to a certain total mass of fuel and distribute it automatically.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Transfers during flight to the tanks that feed the engines. E.G. from fuselage to wing tanks", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Centre of gravity control transfers from the tail (trim) tanks forward to the wings as fuel is expended", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maintaining fuel in the wing tips (to help stop the wings bending due to lift in flight) & transferring to the main tanks after landing", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Controlling fuel jettison during an emergency to reduce the aircraft weight.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To supplement air traffic control, most large transport aircraft and many smaller ones use a traffic alert and collision avoidance system (TCAS), which can detect the location of nearby aircraft, and provide instructions for avoiding a midair collision. Smaller aircraft may use simpler traffic alerting systems such as TPAS, which are passive (they do not actively interrogate the transponders of other aircraft) and do not provide advisories for conflict resolution.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 48563, 760810, 41817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 33 ], [ 93, 137 ], [ 382, 393 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To help avoid controlled flight into terrain (CFIT), aircraft use systems such as ground-proximity warning systems (GPWS), which use radar altimeters as a key element. One of the major weaknesses of GPWS is the lack of \"look-ahead\" information, because it only provides altitude above terrain \"look-down\". In order to overcome this weakness, modern aircraft use a terrain awareness warning system (TAWS).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 490866, 531552, 9264025 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 50 ], [ 82, 114 ], [ 398, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Commercial aircraft cockpit data recorders, commonly known as \"black boxes\", store flight information and audio from the cockpit. They are often recovered from an aircraft after a crash to determine control settings and other parameters during the incident.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 160878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 121, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Weather systems such as weather radar (typically Arinc 708 on commercial aircraft) and lightning detectors are important for aircraft flying at night or in instrument meteorological conditions, where it is not possible for pilots to see the weather ahead. Heavy precipitation (as sensed by radar) or severe turbulence (as sensed by lightning activity) are both indications of strong convective activity and severe turbulence, and weather systems allow pilots to deviate around these areas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 675776, 5832894, 1536627, 2014417 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 37 ], [ 87, 105 ], [ 156, 192 ], [ 307, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lightning detectors like the Stormscope or Strikefinder have become inexpensive enough that they are practical for light aircraft. In addition to radar and lightning detection, observations and extended radar pictures (such as NEXRAD) are now available through satellite data connections, allowing pilots to see weather conditions far beyond the range of their own in-flight systems. Modern displays allow weather information to be integrated with moving maps, terrain, and traffic onto a single screen, greatly simplifying navigation.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 314409 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Modern weather systems also include wind shear and turbulence detection and terrain and traffic warning systems. In‑plane weather avionics are especially popular in Africa, India, and other countries where air-travel is a growing market, but ground support is not as well developed.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 223992, 14533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 46 ], [ 173, 178 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There has been a progression towards centralized control of the multiple complex systems fitted to aircraft, including engine monitoring and management. Health and usage monitoring systems (HUMS) are integrated with aircraft management computers to give maintainers early warnings of parts that will need replacement.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 32861742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 153, 188 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The integrated modular avionics concept proposes an integrated architecture with application software portable across an assembly of common hardware modules. It has been used in fourth generation jet fighters and the latest generation of airliners.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Aircraft avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 8485448, 313757, 51215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 31 ], [ 178, 207 ], [ 238, 246 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Military aircraft have been designed either to deliver a weapon or to be the eyes and ears of other weapon systems. The vast array of sensors available to the military is used for whatever tactical means required. As with aircraft management, the bigger sensor platforms (like the E‑3D, JSTARS, ASTOR, Nimrod MRA4, Merlin HM Mk 1) have mission-management computers.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 54248 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Police and EMS aircraft also carry sophisticated tactical sensors.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While aircraft communications provide the backbone for safe flight, the tactical systems are designed to withstand the rigors of the battle field. UHF, VHF Tactical (30–88MHz) and SatCom systems combined with ECCM methods, and cryptography secure the communications. Data links such as Link 11, 16, 22 and BOWMAN, JTRS and even TETRA provide the means of transmitting data (such as images, targeting information etc.).", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 160501, 69480, 1376411, 18934432, 2238415, 1490972, 3295379, 2493890, 1102237, 287831 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 150 ], [ 152, 155 ], [ 209, 213 ], [ 227, 239 ], [ 286, 293 ], [ 295, 297 ], [ 299, 301 ], [ 306, 312 ], [ 314, 318 ], [ 328, 333 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Airborne radar was one of the first tactical sensors. The benefit of altitude providing range has meant a significant focus on airborne radar technologies. Radars include airborne early warning (AEW), anti-submarine warfare (ASW), and even weather radar (Arinc 708) and ground tracking/proximity radar.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 25676, 236466, 3480866, 675776, 7303387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 14 ], [ 171, 193 ], [ 201, 223 ], [ 240, 253 ], [ 255, 264 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The military uses radar in fast jets to help pilots fly at low levels. While the civil market has had weather radar for a while, there are strict rules about using it to navigate the aircraft.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 2220931 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dipping sonar fitted to a range of military helicopters allows the helicopter to protect shipping assets from submarines or surface threats. Maritime support aircraft can drop active and passive sonar devices (sonobuoys) and these are also used to determine the location of enemy submarines.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 8286923, 1173640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 77 ], [ 210, 218 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electro-optic systems include devices such as the head-up display (HUD), forward looking infrared (FLIR), infrared search and track and other passive infrared devices (Passive infrared sensor). These are all used to provide imagery and information to the flight crew. This imagery is used for everything from search and rescue to navigational aids and target acquisition.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 459417, 181389, 1493194, 1966084, 6638573, 6968605 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 65 ], [ 73, 97 ], [ 106, 131 ], [ 168, 191 ], [ 330, 346 ], [ 352, 370 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Electronic support measures and defensive aids systems are used extensively to gather information about threats or possible threats. They can be used to launch devices (in some cases automatically) to counter direct threats against the aircraft. They are also used to determine the state of a threat and identify it.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The avionics systems in military, commercial and advanced models of civilian aircraft are interconnected using an avionics databus. Common avionics databus protocols, with their primary application, include:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Aircraft Data Network (ADN): Ethernet derivative for Commercial Aircraft", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 4546511, 4546511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 24, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Avionics Full-Duplex Switched Ethernet (AFDX): Specific implementation of ARINC 664 (ADN) for Commercial Aircraft", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 3112664, 4546511 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ], [ 86, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ARINC 429: Generic Medium-Speed Data Sharing for Private and Commercial Aircraft", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 3239188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ARINC 664: See ADN above", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 3112664 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ARINC 629: Commercial Aircraft (Boeing 777)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 54270366, 89260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ], [ 33, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ARINC 708: Weather Radar for Commercial Aircraft", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 7303387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ARINC 717: Flight Data Recorder for Commercial Aircraft", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 54270370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ARINC 825: CAN bus for commercial aircraft (for example Boeing 787 and Airbus A350)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 231284, 307133, 1006446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 12, 19 ], [ 57, 67 ], [ 72, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Commercial Standard Digital Bus", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 9263732 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " IEEE 1394b: Military Aircraft", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 26246088 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MIL-STD-1553: Military Aircraft", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 1441618 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " MIL-STD-1760: Military Aircraft", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 6821722 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " TTP – Time-Triggered Protocol: Boeing 787, Airbus A380, Fly-By-Wire Actuation Platforms from Parker Aerospace", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Mission or tactical avionics", "target_page_ids": [ 2042996, 307133, 181173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 4 ], [ 32, 42 ], [ 44, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Astrionics, similar, for spacecraft", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10710026 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ACARS", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2293875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Acronyms and abbreviations in avionics", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1553864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "ARINC", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1335332 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 5 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avionics software", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 308137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "DO-178C", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 28867648 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emergency locator beacon", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 56516958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Emergency position-indicating radiobeacon station", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 103902 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Flight recorder", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 938385 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Integrated modular avionics", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8485448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Avionics: Development and Implementation by Cary R. Spitzer (Hardcover – December 15, 2006)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Principles of Avionics, 4th Edition by Albert Helfrick, Len Buckwalter, and Avionics Communications Inc. (Paperback – July 1, 2007)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Avionics Training: Systems, Installation, and Troubleshooting by Len Buckwalter (Paperback – June 30, 2005)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Avionics Made Simple, by Mouhamed Abdulla, Ph.D.; Jaroslav V. Svoboda, Ph.D. and Luis Rodrigues, Ph.D. (Coursepack – Dec. 2005 - ).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Avionics in Commercial Aircraft", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aircraft Electronics Association (AEA)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Pilot's Guide to Avionics", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Avionic Systems Standardisation Committee", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Space Shuttle Avionics", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aviation Today Avionics magazine", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "RAES Avionics homepage", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Avionics", "Aircraft_instruments", "Spacecraft_components", "Electronic_engineering" ]

[ "235099" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Ares (; , Árēs ) is the Greek god of war and courage. He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and the son of Zeus and Hera. The Greeks were ambivalent toward him. He embodies the physical valor necessary for success in war but can also personify sheer brutality and bloodlust, in contrast to his sister, the armored Athena, whose martial functions include military strategy and generalship. An association with Ares endows places, objects, and other deities with a savage, dangerous, or militarized quality.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 61963, 2297612, 574742, 34398, 13208, 1182 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 33 ], [ 37, 40 ], [ 71, 87 ], [ 104, 108 ], [ 113, 117 ], [ 311, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Ares' name shows his origins as Mycenaean, his reputation for savagery was thought by some to reflect his likely origins as a Thracian deity. Some cities in Greece and several in Asia Minor held annual festivals to bind and detain him as their protector. In parts of Asia Minor, he was an oracular deity. Still further away from Greece, the Scythians were said to ritually kill one in a hundred prisoners of war as an offering to their equivalent of Ares. The later belief that ancient Spartans had offered human sacrifice to Ares may owe more to mythical prehistory, misunderstandings, and reputation than to reality.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 37548, 55092 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 48 ], [ 350, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though there are many literary allusions to Ares' love affairs and children, he has a limited role in Greek mythology. When he does appear, he is often humiliated. In the Trojan War, Aphrodite, protector of Troy, persuades Ares to take the Trojan's side. The Trojans lose, while Ares' sister Athena helps the Greeks to victory. Most famously, when the craftsman-god Hephaestus discovers his wife Aphrodite is having an affair with Ares, he traps the lovers in a net and exposes them to the ridicule of the other gods.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 30058, 1174, 14388, 1174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 117 ], [ 171, 181 ], [ 183, 192 ], [ 366, 376 ], [ 396, 405 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ares' nearest counterpart in Roman religion is Mars, who was given a more important and dignified place in ancient Roman religion as ancestral protector of the Roman people and state. During the Hellenization of Latin literature, the myths of Ares were reinterpreted by Roman writers under the name of Mars, and in later Western art and literature, the mythology of the two figures became virtually indistinguishable.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 19638032, 214954, 668147, 18058, 1449016, 21208262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 51 ], [ 107, 129 ], [ 195, 208 ], [ 212, 228 ], [ 253, 266 ], [ 321, 347 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The etymology of the name Ares is traditionally connected with the Greek word (arē), the Ionic form of the Doric (ara), \"bane, ruin, curse, imprecation\". Walter Burkert notes that \"Ares is apparently an ancient abstract noun meaning throng of battle, war.\" R. S. P. Beekes has suggested a Pre-Greek origin of the name.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [ 11887, 145134, 85437, 604275, 2339724, 6215972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 72 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 108, 113 ], [ 156, 170 ], [ 259, 274 ], [ 291, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest attested form of the name is the Mycenaean Greek , a-re, written in the Linear B syllabic script.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [ 704006, 18551 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 61 ], [ 85, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The adjectival epithet, Areios (\"warlike\") was frequently appended to the names of other gods when they took on a warrior aspect or became involved in warfare: Zeus Areios, Athena Areia, even Aphrodite Areia. The warlike, fully armoured and armed Aphrodite Areia was partnered with Ares in Sparta and was represented at Kythira's temple to Aphrodite Urania.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [ 37512, 514444, 55944907, 36487, 58717118, 21855311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 14 ], [ 15, 22 ], [ 247, 262 ], [ 290, 296 ], [ 320, 327 ], [ 340, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Iliad, the word ares is used as a common noun synonymous with \"battle.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [ 19381951, 37495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 12 ], [ 41, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One epithet of Ares in the Classical period is Enyalios, a name which seems to appear on the Mycenaean KN V 52 tablet as , e-nu-wa-ri-jo. Enyalios was sometimes identified with Ares and sometimes differentiated from him as another war god with separate cult even in the same town; Burkert describes them as \"doubles almost\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Names", "target_page_ids": [ 11936957, 81003, 1748869, 80252 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 43 ], [ 47, 55 ], [ 93, 102 ], [ 103, 105 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In mainland Greece and the Peloponnese, only a few places are known to have had a formal temple and cult of Ares. Pausanias (2nd century AD) notes an altar to Ares at Olympia, and the moving of a Temple of Ares to the Athenian agora during the reign of Augustus, essentially rededicating it (2 AD) as a Roman temple to the Augustan Mars Ultor. The Areopagus (\"mount of Ares\"), a natural rock outcrop in Athens, some distance from the Acropolis, was supposedly where Ares was tried and acquitted by the gods for his revenge-killing of Poseidon's son, Halirrhothius, who had raped Ares' daughter Alcippe. Its name was used for the court that met there, mostly to investigate and try potential cases of treason.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worship, cult and ritual", "target_page_ids": [ 45749, 308634, 9819471, 507380, 1273, 821349, 19638032, 204588, 22948, 78451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 38 ], [ 167, 174 ], [ 196, 210 ], [ 218, 232 ], [ 253, 261 ], [ 303, 315 ], [ 332, 342 ], [ 348, 357 ], [ 534, 542 ], [ 550, 563 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Numismatist M. Jessop Price states that Ares \"typified the traditional Spartan character\", but had no important cult in Sparta; and he never occurs on Spartan coins. Gonzalez observes, in his 2005 survey of Ares' cults in Asia Minor, that cults to Ares on the Greek mainland may have been more common than some sources assert. Wars between Greek states were endemic; war and warriors provided his tribute, and fed his insatiable appetite for battle. Ares' attributes are instruments of war: a helmet, shield, and sword or spear.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worship, cult and ritual", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Gods were immortal but could be bound and restrained, both in mythic narrative and in cult practice. There was an archaic Spartan statue of Ares in chains in the temple of Enyalios (sometimes regarded as the son of Ares, sometimes as Ares himself), which Pausanias claimed meant that the spirit of war and victory was to be kept in the city. The Spartans are known to have ritually bound the images of other deities, including Aphrodite and Artemis (cf Ares and Aphrodite bound by Hephaestus), and in other places there were chained statues of Artemis and Dionysos.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worship, cult and ritual", "target_page_ids": [ 36487, 81003, 1174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 128 ], [ 172, 180 ], [ 427, 436 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Statues of Ares in chains are described in the instructions given by an oracle of the late Hellenistic era to various cities of Pamphylia (in Anatolia) including Syedra, Lycia and Cilicia, places almost perpetually under threat from pirates. Each was told to set up a statue of \"bloody, man-slaying Ares\" and provide it with an annual festival in which it was ritually bound with iron fetters (\"by Dike and Hermes\") as if a supplicant for justice, put on trial and offered sacrifice. The oracle promises that \"thus will he become a peaceful deity for you, once he has driven the enemy horde far from your country, and he will give rise to prosperity much prayed for.\" This Ares karpodotes (\"giver of Fruits\") is well attested in Lycia and Pisidia.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worship, cult and ritual", "target_page_ids": [ 84613, 46366263, 48451, 75462, 9993397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 137 ], [ 162, 168 ], [ 170, 175 ], [ 180, 187 ], [ 398, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Like most Greek deities, Ares was given animal sacrifice; in Sparta, after battle, he was given an ox for a victory by stratagem, or a rooster for victory through onslaught. The usual recipient of sacrifice before battle was Athena. Reports of historic human sacrifice to Ares in an obscure rite known as the Hekatomphonia represent a very long-standing error, repeated through several centuries and well into the modern era. The hekatomphonia was an animal sacrifice to Zeus; it could be offered by any warrior who had personally slain one hundred of the enemy. Pausanias reports that in Sparta, each company of youths sacrificed a puppy to Enyalios before engaging in a hand-to-hand \"fight without rules\" at the Phoebaeum. the chthonic night-time sacrifice of a dog to Enyalios became assimilated to the cult of Ares. Porphyry claims, without detail, that Apollodorus of Athens (circa second century BC) says the Spartans made human sacrifices to Ares, but this may be a reference to mythic pre-history.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worship, cult and ritual", "target_page_ids": [ 444886, 794399, 36487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 730, 738 ], [ 821, 829 ], [ 916, 922 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A Thracian god identified by Herodotus ( – ) as Ares, through interpretatio Graeca, was one of three otherwise unnamed deities that Thracian commoners were said to worship. Herodotus recognises and names the other two as \"Dionysus\" and \"Artemis\", and claims that the Thracian aristocracy exclusively worshiped \"Hermes\". In Herodotus' Histories, the Scythians worship an indigenous form of Greek Ares, who is otherwise unnamed, but ranked beneath Tabiti (whom Herodotus claims as a form of Hestia), Api and Papaios in Scythia's divine hierarchy. His cult object was an iron sword. The \"Scythian Ares\" was offered blood-sacrifices (or ritual killings) of cattle, horses and \"one in every hundred human war-captives\", whose blood was used to douse the sword. Statues, and complex platform-altars made of heaped brushwood were devoted to him. This sword-cult, or one very similar, is said to have persisted among the Alans. Some have posited that the \"Sword of Mars\" in later European history alludes to the Huns having adopted Ares.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worship, cult and ritual", "target_page_ids": [ 13574, 1449016, 55092, 14499166, 36745, 45121, 12167372, 13519 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 38 ], [ 62, 82 ], [ 349, 357 ], [ 446, 452 ], [ 489, 495 ], [ 913, 918 ], [ 948, 961 ], [ 1004, 1008 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some parts of Asia Minor, Ares was a prominent oracular deity, something not found in any Hellennic cult to Ares or Roman cult to Mars. Ares was linked in some regions or polities with a local god or cultic hero, and recognised as a higher, more prestigious deity than in mainland Greece. His cults in southern Asia Minor are attested from the 5th century BC and well into the later Roman Imperial era, at 29 different sites, and on over 70 local coin issues. He is sometimes represented on coinage of the region by the \"Helmet of Ares\" or carrying a spear and a shield, or as a fully armed warrior, sometimes accompanied by a female deity. In what is now western Turkey, the Hellenistic city of Metropolis built a monumental temple to Ares as the city's protector, not before the 3rd century BC. It is now lost, but the names of some of its priests and priestesses survive, along with the temple's likely depictions on coins of the province.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worship, cult and ritual", "target_page_ids": [ 22589, 11018743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 64 ], [ 699, 709 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A sanctuary of Aphrodite was established at Sta Lenika, on Crete, between the cities of Lato and Olus, possibly during the Geometric period. It was rebuilt in the late 2nd century BC as a double-sanctuary to Ares and Aphrodite. Inscriptions record disputes over the ownership of the sanctuary. The names of Ares and Aphrodite appear as witness to sworn oaths, and there is a Victory thanks-offering to Aphrodite, whom Millington believes had capacity as a \"warrior-protector acting in the realm of Ares\". There were cultic links between the Sta Lenika sanctuary, Knossos and other Cretan states, and perhaps with Argos on the mainland. While the Greek literary and artistic record from both the Archaic and Classical eras connects Ares and Aphrodite as complementary companions and ideal though adulterous lovers, their cult pairing and Aphrodite as warrior-protector is localised to Crete.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worship, cult and ritual", "target_page_ids": [ 6591, 5457694, 79545, 6477769, 70011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 64 ], [ 88, 92 ], [ 97, 101 ], [ 123, 139 ], [ 613, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Africa, Maḥrem, the principal god of the kings of Aksum prior to the 4th century AD, was invoked as Ares in Greek inscriptions. The anonymous king who commissioned the Monumentum Adulitanum in the late 2nd or early 3rd century refers to \"my greatest god, Ares, who also begat me, through whom I brought under my sway [various peoples]\". The monumental throne celebrating the king's conquests was itself dedicated to Ares. In the early 4th century, the last pagan king of Aksum, Ezana, referred to \"the one who brought me forth, the invincible Ares\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Worship, cult and ritual", "target_page_ids": [ 15497293, 2222410, 4386936, 997762 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 44, 58 ], [ 171, 192 ], [ 481, 486 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ares was one of the Twelve Olympians in the archaic tradition represented by the Iliad and Odyssey. In Greek literature, Ares often represents the physical or violent and untamed aspect of war and is the personification of sheer brutality and bloodlust (\"overwhelming, insatiable in battle, destructive, and man-slaughtering\", as Burkert puts it), in contrast to his sister, the armored Athena, whose functions as a goddess of intelligence include military strategy and generalship. An association with Ares endows places and objects with a savage, dangerous, or militarized quality; but when Ares does appear in myths, he typically faces humiliation.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characterisation", "target_page_ids": [ 574742, 19381951, 22349, 926219, 1182, 4109467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 36 ], [ 81, 86 ], [ 91, 98 ], [ 103, 119 ], [ 387, 393 ], [ 416, 439 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Iliad, Zeus expresses a recurring Greek revulsion toward the god when Ares returns wounded and complaining from the battlefield at Troy:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characterisation", "target_page_ids": [ 30058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This ambivalence is expressed also in the Greeks' association of Ares with the Thracians, whom they regarded as a barbarous and warlike people. Thrace was considered to be Ares's birthplace and his refuge after the affair with Aphrodite was exposed to the general mockery of the other gods.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characterisation", "target_page_ids": [ 188824, 36857, 1174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 88 ], [ 144, 150 ], [ 227, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A late-6th-century BC funerary inscription from Attica emphasizes the consequences of coming under Ares's sway:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Characterisation", "target_page_ids": [ 302613 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Homeric Hymn 8 to Ares (trans. Evelyn-White) (Greek epic 7th to 4th centuries BC)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hymns", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ares, exceeding in strength, chariot-rider, golden-helmed, doughty in heart, shield-bearer, Saviour of cities, harnessed in bronze, strong of arm, unwearying, mighty with the spear, O defence of Olympus, father of warlike Victory, ally of Themis, stern governor of the rebellious, leader of righteous men, sceptred King of manliness, who whirl your fiery sphere among the planets in their sevenfold courses through the aether wherein your blazing steeds ever bear you above the third firmament of heaven; hear me, helper of men, giver of dauntless youth! Shed down a kindly ray from above upon my life, and strength of war, that I may be able to drive away bitter cowardice from my head and crush down the deceitful impulses of my soul. Restrain also the keen fury of my heart which provokes me to tread the ways of blood-curdling strife. Rather, O blessed one, give you me boldness to abide within the harmless laws of peace, avoiding strife and hatred and the violent fiends of death.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hymns", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Orphic Hymn 65 to Ares (trans. Taylor) (Greek hymns 3rd century BCE to 2nd century CE)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hymns", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "To Ares, Fumigation from Frankincense. Magnanimous, unconquered, boisterous Ares, in darts rejoicing, and in bloody wars; fierce and untamed, whose mighty power can make the strongest walls from their foundations shake: mortal-destroying king, defiled with gore, pleased with war's dreadful and tumultuous roar. Thee human blood, and swords, and spears delight, and the dire ruin of mad savage fight. Stay furious contests, and avenging strife, whose works with woe embitter human life; to lovely Kyrpis [Aphrodite] and to Lyaios [Dionysos] yield, for arms exchange the labours of the field; encourage peace, to gentle works inclined, and give abundance, with benignant mind.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Hymns", "target_page_ids": [ 320737 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He is one of the Twelve Olympians, and the son of Zeus and Hera.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 574742, 34398, 13208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 33 ], [ 50, 54 ], [ 59, 63 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Argonautica, the Golden Fleece hangs in a grove sacred to Ares, until its theft by Jason. The Birds of Ares (Ornithes Areioi) drop feather darts in defense of the Amazons' shrine to Ares, as father of their queen, on a coastal island in the Black Sea.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 5228263, 15885, 1695, 3386 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ], [ 90, 95 ], [ 170, 177 ], [ 248, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ares played a central role in the founding myth of Thebes, as the progenitor of the water-dragon slain by Cadmus. The dragon's teeth were sown into the ground as if a crop and sprang up as the fully armored autochthonic Spartoi. Cadmus placed himself in the god's service for eight years to atone for killing the dragon. To further propitiate Ares, Cadmus took as a bride Harmonia, a daughter of Ares's union with Aphrodite. In this way, Cadmus harmonized all strife and founded the city of Thebes. In reality, Thebes came to dominate Boeotia's great and fertile plain, which in both history and myth was a battleground for competing polities. According to Plutarch, the plain was anciently described as \"The dancing-floor of Ares\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 12797709, 65806, 75161, 45281, 84086, 80670, 79607 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 47 ], [ 51, 57 ], [ 106, 112 ], [ 207, 217 ], [ 220, 227 ], [ 372, 380 ], [ 535, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Homer's Odyssey, in the tale sung by the bard in the hall of Alcinous, the Sun-god Helios once spied Ares and Aphrodite having sex secretly in the hall of Hephaestus, her husband. Helios reported the incident to Hephaestus. Contriving to catch the illicit couple in the act, Hephaestus fashioned a finely-knitted and nearly invisible net with which to snare them. At the appropriate time, this net was sprung, and trapped Ares and Aphrodite locked in very private embrace.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 22349, 82883, 67230, 14388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 18 ], [ 64, 72 ], [ 86, 92 ], [ 158, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "But Hephaestus was not satisfied with his revenge, so he invited the Olympian gods and goddesses to view the unfortunate pair. For the sake of modesty, the goddesses demurred, but the male gods went to witness the sight. Some commented on the beauty of Aphrodite, others remarked that they would eagerly trade places with Ares, but all who were present mocked the two. Once the couple was released, the embarrassed Ares returned to his homeland, Thrace, and Aphrodite went to Paphos.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a much later interpolated detail, Ares put the young soldier Alectryon, who was Ares companion in drinking and even love-making, by his door to warn them of Helios's arrival as Helios would tell Hephaestus of Aphrodite's infidelity if the two were discovered, but Alectryon fell asleep on guard duty. Helios discovered the two and alerted Hephaestus. The furious Ares turned the sleepy Alectryon into a rooster which now always announces the arrival of the sun in the morning, as a way of apologizing to Ares.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 79181, 37402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 73 ], [ 406, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Chorus of Aeschylus' Suppliants (written 463 BC) refers to Ares as Aphrodite's \"mortal-destroying bedfellow\". In the Illiad, Ares helps the Trojans because of his affection for their divine protector, Aphrodite; she thus redirects his innate destructive savagery to her own purposes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 2023, 3321979 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 25, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In one archaic myth, related only in the Iliad by the goddess Dione to her daughter Aphrodite, two chthonic giants, the Aloadae, named Otus and Ephialtes, bound Ares in chains and imprisoned him in a bronze urn, where he remained for thirteen months, a lunar year. \"And that would have been the end of Ares and his appetite for war, if the beautiful Eriboea, the young giants' stepmother, had not told Hermes what they had done,\" she related. In this, [Burkert] suspects \"a festival of licence which is unleashed in the thirteenth month.\" Ares was held screaming and howling in the urn until Hermes rescued him, and Artemis tricked the Aloadae into slaying each other.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 39955403, 78535, 18369, 14410, 2905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 67 ], [ 120, 127 ], [ 253, 263 ], [ 402, 408 ], [ 616, 623 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Nonnus's Dionysiaca, in the war between Cronus and Zeus, Ares killed an unnamed giant son of Echidna who was allied with Cronus, and described as spitting \"horrible poison\" and having \"snaky\" feet. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 164259, 1331888, 19230687, 80397 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 12, 22 ], [ 43, 49 ], [ 96, 103 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Homer's Iliad, Ares has no fixed allegiance. He promises Athena and Hera that he will fight for the Achaeans but Aphrodite persuades him to side with the Trojans. During the war, Diomedes fights Hector and sees Ares fighting on the Trojans' side. Diomedes calls for his soldiers to withdraw. Zeus grants Athene permission to drive Ares from the battlefield. Encouraged by Hera and Athena, Diomedes thrusts with his spear at Ares. Athena drives the spear home, and all sides tremble at Ares's cries. Ares flees to Mount Olympus, forcing the Trojans to fall back. Ares overhears that his son Ascalaphus has been killed and wants to change sides again, rejoining the Achaeans for vengeance, disregarding Zeus's order that no Olympian should join the battle. Athena stops him. Later, when Zeus allows the gods to fight in the war again, Ares attacks Athena to avenge his previous injury. Athena overpowers him by striking him with a boulder.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 13633, 19381951, 2020, 1174, 30059, 81927, 13207, 12418604 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 8 ], [ 11, 16 ], [ 103, 111 ], [ 116, 125 ], [ 157, 164 ], [ 182, 190 ], [ 198, 204 ], [ 516, 529 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Deimos (\"Terror\" or \"Dread\") and Phobos (\"Fear\") are Ares' companions in war, and according to Hesiod, are also his children by Aphrodite. Eris, the goddess of discord, or Enyo, the goddess of war, bloodshed, and violence, was considered the sister and companion of the violent Ares. In at least one tradition, Enyalius, rather than another name for Ares, was his son by Enyo.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 80095, 80097, 13700, 1174, 9823, 79208 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 33, 39 ], [ 95, 101 ], [ 128, 137 ], [ 139, 143 ], [ 172, 176 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ares may also be accompanied by Kydoimos, the daemon of the din of battle; the Makhai (\"Battles\"); the \"Hysminai\" (\"Acts of manslaughter\"); Polemos, a minor spirit of war, or only an epithet of Ares, since it has no specific dominion; and Polemos's daughter, Alala, the goddess or personification of the Greek war-cry, whose name Ares uses as his own war-cry. Ares's sister Hebe (\"Youth\") also draws baths for him.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 10812629, 4174965, 8357903, 4110143, 12734, 2946566, 318068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 40 ], [ 79, 85 ], [ 140, 147 ], [ 259, 264 ], [ 270, 277 ], [ 281, 296 ], [ 374, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to Pausanias, local inhabitants of Therapne, Sparta, recognized Thero, \"feral, savage,\" as a nurse of Ares.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 416255, 13816693, 36487, 30855769 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 22 ], [ 45, 53 ], [ 55, 61 ], [ 74, 79 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Though Ares plays a relatively limited role in Greek mythology as represented in literary narratives, his numerous love affairs and abundant offspring are often alluded to.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 23416994, 297267 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 62 ], [ 161, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The union of Ares and Aphrodite created the gods Eros, Anteros, Phobos, Deimos, and Harmonia. Other versions include Alcippe as one of his daughters.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 19191789, 78758, 80097, 80095, 80670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 53 ], [ 55, 62 ], [ 64, 70 ], [ 72, 78 ], [ 84, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Cycnus (Κύκνος) of Macedonia was a son of Ares, who tried to build a temple to his father with the skulls and bones of guests and travellers. Heracles fought him, and in one account, killed him. In another account, Ares fought his son's killer but Zeus parted the combatants with a thunderbolt.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 54217570, 19078, 13815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 19, 28 ], [ 142, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Once, Ares got to bed with Eos, the goddess of the dawn. Aphrodite discovered them, and in anger she cursed Eos with insatiable lust for men.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 10477, 35549978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 30 ], [ 36, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By a woman named Teirene he had a daughter named Thrassa, who in turn had a daughter named Polyphonte. Polyphonte was cursed by Aphrodite to love and mate with a bear, producing two sons, Agrius and Oreius, who were hubristic toward the gods and had a habit of eating their guests. Zeus sent Hermes to punish them, and he chose to chop off their hands and feet. Since Polyphonte was descended from him, Ares stopped Hermes, and the two brothers came into an agreement to turn Polyphonte's family into birds instead. Oreius became an eagle owl, Agrius a vulture, and Polyphonte a strix, possibly a small owl, certainly a portent of war; Polyphonte's servant prayed not to become a bird of evil omen and Ares and Hermes fulfilled her wish by choosing the woodpecker for her, a good omen for hunters.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 58118197, 23894344, 67790082, 14410, 1636476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 56 ], [ 91, 101 ], [ 188, 205 ], [ 292, 298 ], [ 579, 584 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Sometimes poets and dramatists recounted ancient traditions, which varied, and sometimes they invented new details; later scholiasts might draw on either or simply guess. Thus while Phobos and Deimos were regularly described as offspring of Ares, others listed here such as Meleager, Sinope and Solymus were sometimes said to be children of Ares and sometimes given other fathers.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Mythology", "target_page_ids": [ 1269346, 80097, 80095, 83184, 635811, 32148826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 129 ], [ 182, 188 ], [ 193, 199 ], [ 274, 282 ], [ 284, 290 ], [ 295, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The nearest counterpart of Ares among the Roman gods is Mars, originally an agricultural deity, who as a father of Romulus, Rome's legendary founder, was given a more important and dignified place in ancient Roman religion, as a guardian deity of the entire Roman state and its people. During the Hellenization of Latin literature, the myths of Ares were reinterpreted by Roman writers under the name of Mars. Greek writers under Roman rule also recorded cult practices and beliefs pertaining to Mars under the name of Ares. Thus in the classical tradition of later Western art and literature, the mythology of the two figures later became virtually indistinguishable.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Mars", "target_page_ids": [ 9357769, 19638032, 9403710, 214954, 207848, 668147, 18058, 1449016, 25507, 593135, 412589, 21208262 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 52 ], [ 56, 60 ], [ 115, 122 ], [ 200, 222 ], [ 229, 243 ], [ 297, 310 ], [ 314, 330 ], [ 355, 368 ], [ 430, 440 ], [ 455, 469 ], [ 537, 556 ], [ 566, 592 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Renaissance and Neoclassical works of art, Ares's symbols are a spear and helmet, his animal is a dog, and his bird is the vulture. In literary works of these eras, Ares is replaced by the Roman Mars, a romantic emblem of manly valor rather than the cruel and blood-thirsty god of Greek mythology.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Renaissance and later depictions", "target_page_ids": [ 25532, 183280, 32557, 19638032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 19, 31 ], [ 126, 133 ], [ 198, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Family tree of the Greek gods", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 97771 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Antoninus Liberalis, The Metamorphoses of Antoninus Liberalis: A Translation with a Commentary, edited and translated by Francis Celoria, Routledge, 1992. . Online version at ToposText.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 310260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Apollodorus, Apollodorus, The Library, with an English Translation by Sir James George Frazer, F.B.A., F.R.S. in 2 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1921. . Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 85577, 1251937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 151, 175 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Burkert, Walter, Greek Religion, Harvard University Press, 1985. . Internet Archive.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 604275, 1251937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 34, 58 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Etymologicum Magnum, Friderici Sylburgii (ed.), Leipzig: J.A.G. Weigel, 1816. Internet Archive.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 13989289 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Gantz, Timothy, Early Greek Myth: A Guide to Literary and Artistic Sources, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996, Two volumes: (Vol. 1), (Vol. 2).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1507749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. . Internet Archive.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hansen, William, Handbook of Classical Mythology, ABC-CLIO, 2004. . Internet Archive.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 63104470, 9074870 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 51, 59 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hard, Robin, The Routledge Handbook of Greek Mythology: Based on H.J. Rose's \"Handbook of Greek Mythology\", Psychology Press, 2004. . Google Books.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hesiod, Theogony, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library. Internet Archive.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 13700, 30551, 1251937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 17 ], [ 132, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homer, The Iliad with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1924. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 13633, 1251937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 110, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homer, The Odyssey with an English Translation by A.T. Murray, Ph.D. in two volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann, Ltd. 1919. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 13633, 1251937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ], [ 112, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homeric Hymn 8 to Ares, in The Homeric Hymns and Homerica with an English Translation by Hugh G. Evelyn-White, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1914. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 185320, 1251937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ], [ 138, 162 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hyginus, Gaius Julius, De Astronomica, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Online version at ToposText.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 143691, 1646170 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 24, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hyginus, Gaius Julius, Fabulae, in The Myths of Hyginus, edited and translated by Mary A. Grant, Lawrence: University of Kansas Press, 1960. Online version at ToposText.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 143691, 143691 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ], [ 24, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nonnus, Dionysiaca, Volume II: Books 1635, translated by W. H. D. Rouse, Loeb Classical Library No. 345, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1940. Online version at Harvard University Press. . Internet Archive (1940).", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 164259, 1331888, 4085783, 660135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 9, 19 ], [ 58, 72 ], [ 75, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Oxford Classical Dictionary, revised third edition, Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth (editors), Oxford University Press, 2003. . Internet Archive.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 251997, 48518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 103, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pausanias, Pausanias Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 416255 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peck, Harry Thurston, Harpers Dictionary of Classical Antiquities, New York, Harper and Brothers, 1898. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 3176204, 16892866 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ], [ 23, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Pseudo-Plutarch, De fluviis, in Plutarch's morals, Volume V, edited and translated by William Watson Goodwin, Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1874. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 4488551, 2445726 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ], [ 87, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Smith, William, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology, London (1873). Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 1395165, 2055360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ], [ 17, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stephanus of Byzantium, Stephani Byzantii Ethnica: Volumen I Alpha - Gamma, edited by Margarethe Billerbeck, in collaboration with Jan Felix Gaertner, Beatrice Wyss and Christian Zubler, De Gruyter, 2006. . Online version at De Gruyter. Google Books.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [ 164306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tripp, Edward, Crowell's Handbook of Classical Mythology, Thomas Y. Crowell Co; First edition (June 1970). . Internet Archive.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Greek_war_deities", "War_gods", "Martian_deities", "Consorts_of_Aphrodite", "Children_of_Hera", "Metamorphoses_characters", "Deities_in_the_Iliad", "Children_of_Zeus", "Characters_in_Greek_mythology", "Deeds_of_Poseidon", "Ares", "Dog_deities", "Characters_in_the_Odyssey", "Consorts_of_Eos", "Greek_mythology_of_Thrace", "Twelve_Olympians" ]

[ "god of war" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Alexander Grothendieck (; ; ; 28 March 1928– 13 November 2014) was a stateless and then French mathematician who became the leading figure in the creation of modern algebraic geometry. His research extended the scope of the field and added elements of commutative algebra, homological algebra, sheaf theory, and category theory to its foundations, while his so-called \"relative\" perspective led to revolutionary advances in many areas of pure mathematics. He is considered by many to be the greatest mathematician of the twentieth century.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18902, 1997, 245990, 139410, 245466, 5869, 1816636, 457210 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 108 ], [ 165, 183 ], [ 252, 271 ], [ 273, 292 ], [ 294, 306 ], [ 312, 327 ], [ 368, 390 ], [ 438, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck began his productive and public career as a mathematician in 1949. In 1958, he was appointed a research professor at the Institut des hautes études scientifiques (IHÉS) and remained there until 1970, when, driven by personal and political convictions, he left following a dispute over military funding. He received the Fields Medal in 1966 for advances in algebraic geometry, homological algebra, and K-theory. He later became professor at the University of Montpellier and, while still producing relevant mathematical work, he withdrew from the mathematical community and devoted himself to political and religious pursuits (first Buddhism and later, a more Christian vision). In 1991, he moved to the French village of Lasserre in the Pyrenees, where he lived in seclusion, still working tirelessly on mathematics and his philosophical and religious thoughts until his death in 2014.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 14527, 10859, 1997, 139410, 246748, 627315, 15431589, 24707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 174 ], [ 332, 344 ], [ 369, 387 ], [ 389, 408 ], [ 414, 422 ], [ 457, 482 ], [ 734, 742 ], [ 750, 758 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck was born in Berlin to anarchist parents. His father, Alexander \"Sascha\" Schapiro (also known as Alexander Tanaroff), had Hasidic Jewish roots and had been imprisoned in Russia before moving to Germany in 1922, while his mother, Johanna \"Hanka\" Grothendieck, came from a Protestant German family in Hamburg and she worked as a journalist. As teenagers, both of his parents had broken away from their early backgrounds. At the time of his birth, Grothendieck's mother was married to the journalist Johannes Raddatz and initially, his birth name was recorded as \"Alexander Raddatz\". That marriage was dissolved in 1929 and \"Sascha\" acknowledged his paternity, but never married Hanka. Grothendieck had a maternal sibling, his half sister Maidi.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 3354, 12, 22061676, 14436, 25814008, 13467 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 31 ], [ 35, 44 ], [ 66, 93 ], [ 134, 148 ], [ 283, 293 ], [ 311, 318 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck lived with his parents in Berlin until the end of 1933, when his father moved to Paris to evade Nazism. His mother followed soon thereafter. Grothendieck was left in the care of Wilhelm Heydorn, a Lutheran pastor and teacher in Hamburg. According to Winfried Scharlau, during this time, his parents took part in the Spanish Civil War as non-combatant auxiliaries, however, others state that \"Sascha\" fought in the anarchist militia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 22989, 31045316, 23371382, 215153, 13467, 64284249, 18842471 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 99 ], [ 109, 115 ], [ 210, 218 ], [ 219, 225 ], [ 241, 248 ], [ 263, 280 ], [ 329, 346 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1939, Grothendieck was put on a train in Hamburg for France. Shortly afterward his father was interned in Le Vernet. He and his mother were then interned in various camps from 1940 to 1942 as \"undesirable dangerous foreigners\". The first camp was the Rieucros Camp, where his mother contracted the tuberculosis that eventually caused her death. While there, Alexander managed to attend the local school, at Mende. Once Alexander managed to escape from the camp, intending to assassinate Hitler. Later, his mother Hanka was transferred to the Gurs internment camp for the remainder of World War II. Alexander was permitted to live separated from his mother. In the village of Le Chambon-sur-Lignon, he was sheltered and hidden in local boarding houses or pensions, although he occasionally had to seek refuge in the woods during Nazi raids, surviving at times without food or water for several days. His father was arrested under the Vichy anti-Jewish legislation, and sent to the Drancy internment camp, and then handed over by the French Vichy government to the Germans to be sent to be murdered at the Auschwitz concentration camp in 1942. In Le Chambon, Grothendieck attended the Collège Cévenol (now known as the Le Collège-Lycée Cévenol International), a unique secondary school founded in 1938 by local Protestant pacifists and anti-war activists. Many of the refugee children hidden in Le Chambon attended Collège Cévenol, and it was at this school that Grothendieck apparently first became fascinated with mathematics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 11002011, 48518441, 1069869, 2731583, 6321466, 32927, 360258, 1161304, 10997556, 1479255, 20599016, 2006, 9115436 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 122 ], [ 258, 271 ], [ 414, 419 ], [ 494, 500 ], [ 549, 569 ], [ 591, 603 ], [ 682, 703 ], [ 761, 768 ], [ 940, 969 ], [ 987, 1009 ], [ 1039, 1062 ], [ 1111, 1139 ], [ 1224, 1262 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the war, the young Grothendieck studied mathematics in France, initially at the University of Montpellier where at first he did not perform well, failing such classes as astronomy. Working on his own, he rediscovered the Lebesgue measure. After three years of increasingly independent studies there, he went to continue his studies in Paris in 1948.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 627315, 18198 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 111 ], [ 227, 243 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Initially, Grothendieck attended Henri Cartan's Seminar at École Normale Supérieure, but he lacked the necessary background to follow the high-powered seminar. On the advice of Cartan and André Weil, he moved to the University of Nancy where two leading experts were working on Grothendieck's area of interest, topological vector spaces: Jean Dieudonné and Laurent Schwartz. The latter had recently won a Fields Medal. He showed his new student his latest paper; it ended with a list of 14 open questions, relevant for locally convex spaces. Grothendieck introduced new mathematical methods that enabled him to solve all of these problems within a few months.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 362536, 317478, 2019, 7393851, 45752, 1070084, 317485, 518844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 45 ], [ 59, 83 ], [ 188, 198 ], [ 216, 235 ], [ 311, 335 ], [ 338, 352 ], [ 357, 373 ], [ 519, 539 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Nancy, he wrote his dissertation under those two professors on functional analysis, from 1950 to 1953. At this time he was a leading expert in the theory of topological vector spaces. From 1953 to 1955 he moved to the University of São Paulo in Brazil, where he immigrated by means of a Nansen passport, given that he refused to take French nationality. By 1957, he set this subject aside in order to work in algebraic geometry and homological algebra. The same year he was invited to visit Harvard by Oscar Zariski, but the offer fell through when he refused to sign a pledge promising not to work to overthrow the United States government, a position that, he was warned, might have landed him in prison. The prospect of prison did not worry him, so long as he could have access to books.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 11180, 561499, 36566, 139410, 359352 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 85 ], [ 221, 244 ], [ 290, 305 ], [ 435, 454 ], [ 505, 518 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Comparing Grothendieck during his Nancy years to the École Normale Supérieure–trained students at that time (Pierre Samuel, Roger Godement, René Thom, Jacques Dixmier, Jean Cerf, Yvonne Bruhat, Jean-Pierre Serre, and Bernard Malgrange), Leila Schneps said:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 317478, 2604194, 971810, 61633, 9169420, 56530120, 22081008, 205483, 9170142, 42154655 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 77 ], [ 110, 123 ], [ 125, 139 ], [ 141, 150 ], [ 152, 167 ], [ 169, 178 ], [ 180, 193 ], [ 195, 212 ], [ 218, 235 ], [ 238, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " His first works on topological vector spaces in 1953 have been successfully applied to physics and computer science, culminating in a relation between Grothendieck inequality and the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen paradox in quantum physics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 9395279, 10296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 175 ], [ 184, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1958, Grothendieck was installed at the Institut des hautes études scientifiques (IHÉS), a new privately funded research institute that, in effect, had been created for Jean Dieudonné and Grothendieck. Grothendieck attracted attention by an intense and highly productive activity of seminars there (de facto working groups drafting into foundational work some of the ablest French and other mathematicians of the younger generation). Grothendieck practically ceased publication of papers through the conventional, learned journal route. He was, however, able to play a dominant role in mathematics for approximately a decade, gathering a strong school.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 14527, 1070084, 324572 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 83 ], [ 172, 186 ], [ 517, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Officially during this time, he had as students Michel Demazure (who worked on SGA3, on group schemes), Luc Illusie (cotangent complex), Michel Raynaud, Jean-Louis Verdier (cofounder of the derived category theory), and Pierre Deligne. Collaborators on the SGA projects also included Michael Artin (étale cohomology), Nick Katz (monodromy theory, and Lefschetz pencils). Jean Giraud worked out torsor theory extensions of nonabelian cohomology there as well. Many others such as David Mumford, Robin Hartshorne, Barry Mazur and C.P. Ramanujam were also involved.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 32535595, 510523, 27206965, 4760928, 9168893, 985897, 394544, 1519821, 396231, 1451427, 251250, 2783111, 572753, 363441, 40814966, 394594, 5693379, 23087679, 14709171 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 63 ], [ 88, 100 ], [ 104, 115 ], [ 137, 151 ], [ 153, 171 ], [ 190, 206 ], [ 220, 234 ], [ 284, 297 ], [ 299, 315 ], [ 318, 327 ], [ 329, 345 ], [ 351, 367 ], [ 371, 382 ], [ 394, 400 ], [ 422, 443 ], [ 479, 492 ], [ 494, 510 ], [ 512, 523 ], [ 528, 542 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alexander Grothendieck's work during what is described as the \"Golden Age\" period at the IHÉS established several unifying themes in algebraic geometry, number theory, topology, category theory, and complex analysis. His first (pre-IHÉS) discovery in algebraic geometry was the Grothendieck–Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem, a generalisation of the Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem proved algebraically; in this context he also introduced K-theory. Then, following the programme he outlined in his talk at the 1958 International Congress of Mathematicians, he introduced the theory of schemes, developing it in detail in his Éléments de géométrie algébrique (EGA) and providing the new more flexible and general foundations for algebraic geometry that has been adopted in the field since that time. He went on to introduce the étale cohomology theory of schemes, providing the key tools for proving the Weil conjectures, as well as crystalline cohomology and algebraic de Rham cohomology to complement it. Closely linked to these cohomology theories, he originated topos theory as a generalisation of topology (relevant also in categorical logic). He also provided an algebraic definition of fundamental groups of schemes and more generally the main structures of a categorical Galois theory. As a framework for his coherent duality theory, he also introduced derived categories, which were further developed by Verdier.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1997, 21527, 29954, 5869, 5759, 1532606, 2892412, 246748, 627842, 364754, 471387, 396231, 244705, 10220067, 603916, 21391464, 1063799, 11004, 61316, 1815224, 985897 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 133, 151 ], [ 153, 166 ], [ 168, 176 ], [ 178, 193 ], [ 199, 215 ], [ 278, 322 ], [ 348, 379 ], [ 437, 445 ], [ 513, 553 ], [ 583, 590 ], [ 623, 655 ], [ 825, 841 ], [ 901, 917 ], [ 930, 952 ], [ 957, 985 ], [ 1063, 1068 ], [ 1126, 1143 ], [ 1190, 1207 ], [ 1276, 1289 ], [ 1314, 1330 ], [ 1358, 1376 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The results of his work on these and other topics were published in the EGA and in less polished form in the notes of the Séminaire de géométrie algébrique (SGA) that he directed at the IHÉS.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 394508 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 155 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck's political views were radical and pacifistic. He strongly opposed both United States intervention in Vietnam and Soviet military expansionism. To protest against the Vietnam War, he gave lectures on category theory in the forests surrounding Hanoi while the city was being bombed. In 1966, he had declined to attend the International Congress of Mathematicians (ICM) in Moscow, where he was to receive the Fields Medal. He retired from scientific life around 1970 after he had found out that IHÉS was partly funded by the military. He returned to academia a few years later as a professor at the University of Montpellier.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 15611519, 24956, 32611, 217572, 32611, 5869, 56667, 627315 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 43 ], [ 48, 58 ], [ 99, 122 ], [ 127, 155 ], [ 180, 191 ], [ 213, 228 ], [ 256, 261 ], [ 610, 635 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While the issue of military funding was perhaps the most obvious explanation for Grothendieck's departure from the IHÉS, those who knew him say that the causes of the rupture ran more deeply. Pierre Cartier, a visiteur de longue durée (\"long-term guest\") at the IHÉS, wrote a piece about Grothendieck for a special volume published on the occasion of the IHÉS's fortieth anniversary. The Grothendieck Festschrift, published in 1990, was a three-volume collection of research papers to mark his sixtieth birthday in 1988.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1470549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 192, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In that publication, Cartier notes that as the son of an antimilitary anarchist and one who grew up among the disenfranchised, Grothendieck always had a deep compassion for the poor and the downtrodden. As Cartier puts it, Grothendieck came to find Bures-sur-Yvette as \"une cage dorée\" (\"a gilded cage\"). While Grothendieck was at the IHÉS, opposition to the Vietnam War was heating up, and Cartier suggests that this also reinforced Grothendieck's distaste at having become a mandarin of the scientific world. In addition, after several years at the IHÉS, Grothendieck seemed to cast about for new intellectual interests. By the late 1960s, he had started to become interested in scientific areas outside mathematics. David Ruelle, a physicist who joined the IHÉS faculty in 1964, said that Grothendieck came to talk to him a few times about physics. Biology interested Grothendieck much more than physics, and he organized some seminars on biological topics.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1017816, 32611, 3210880, 22939, 9127632 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 249, 265 ], [ 359, 370 ], [ 719, 731 ], [ 843, 850 ], [ 852, 859 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1970, Grothendieck, with two other mathematicians, Claude Chevalley and Pierre Samuel, created a political group entitled Survivre—the name later changed to Survivre et vivre. The group published a bulletin and was dedicated to antimilitary and ecological issues. It also developed strong criticism of the indiscriminate use of science and technology. Grothendieck devoted the next three years to this group and served as the main editor of its bulletin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 366040, 2604194 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 70 ], [ 75, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although Grothendieck continued with mathematical enquiries, his standard mathematical career mostly ended when he left the IHÉS. After leaving the IHÉS, Grothendieck became a temporary professor at Collège de France for two years. He then became a professor at the University of Montpellier, where he became increasingly estranged from the mathematical community. He formally retired in 1988, a few years after having accepted a research position at the CNRS.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 17535342, 295691, 144610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 195 ], [ 199, 216 ], [ 455, 459 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While not publishing mathematical research in conventional ways during the 1980s, he produced several influential manuscripts with limited distribution, with both mathematical and biographical content.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Produced during 1980 and 1981, La Longue Marche à travers la théorie de Galois (The Long March Through Galois Theory) is a 1600-page handwritten manuscript containing many of the ideas that led to the Esquisse d'un programme. It also includes a study of Teichmüller theory.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 19575137, 1835661 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 224 ], [ 254, 272 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1983, stimulated by correspondence with Ronald Brown and Tim Porter at Bangor University, Grothendieck wrote a 600-page manuscript entitled Pursuing Stacks. It began with a letter addressed to Daniel Quillen. This letter and successive parts were distributed from Bangor (see External links below). Within these, in an informal, diary-like manner, Grothendieck explained and developed his ideas on the relationship between algebraic homotopy theory and algebraic geometry and prospects for a noncommutative theory of stacks. The manuscript, which is being edited for publication by G. Maltsiniotis, later led to another of his monumental works, Les Dérivateurs. Written in 1991, this latter opus of approximately 2000 pages, further developed the homotopical ideas begun in Pursuing Stacks. Much of this work anticipated the subsequent development during the mid-1990s of the motivic homotopy theory of Fabien Morel and Vladimir Voevodsky.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 27079705, 23820776, 40783144, 435519, 1997, 13185596, 28977644, 104482 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 55 ], [ 74, 91 ], [ 143, 158 ], [ 196, 210 ], [ 456, 474 ], [ 520, 525 ], [ 906, 918 ], [ 923, 941 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1984, Grothendieck wrote the proposal Esquisse d'un Programme (\"Sketch of a Programme\") for a position at the Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS). It describes new ideas for studying the moduli space of complex curves. Although Grothendieck never published his work in this area, the proposal inspired other mathematicians to work in the area by becoming the source of dessin d'enfant theory and Anabelian geometry. Later, it was published in two-volumes and entitled Geometric Galois Actions (Cambridge University Press, 1997).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 19575137, 144610, 361609, 1585922, 27119265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 64 ], [ 113, 157 ], [ 206, 218 ], [ 388, 403 ], [ 415, 433 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During this period, Grothendieck also gave his consent to publishing some of his drafts for EGA on Bertini-type theorems (EGAV, published in Ulam Quarterly in 1992–1993 and later made available on the Grothendieck Circle web site in 2004).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 21746779 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 1,000-page autobiographical manuscript, Récoltes et semailles (1986), Grothendieck describes his approach to mathematics and his experiences in the mathematical community, a community that initially accepted him in an open and welcoming manner, but which he progressively perceived to be governed by competition and status. He complains about what he saw as the \"burial\" of his work and betrayal by his former students and colleagues after he had left the community. The Récoltes et semailles work is now available on the internet in the French original, and an English translation is underway. A Japanese translation in four volumes was completed by Tsuji Yuichi, a friend of Grothendieck from the Survivre period, and its first three volumes were published between 1989 and 1993, while the fourth volume is completed, but it never has been published. Grothendieck helped with the translation and wrote a preface for it. Parts of Récoltes et semailles have been translated into Spanish, as well as into a Russian translation that was published in Moscow. The French original was finally published in two volumes in January 2022, with additional texts by people of various professions who discuss certain aspects of the book.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1988, Grothendieck declined the Crafoord Prize with an open letter to the media. He wrote that he and other established mathematicians had no need for additional financial support and criticized what he saw as the declining ethics of the scientific community that was characterized by outright scientific theft that he believed had become commonplace and tolerated. The letter also expressed his belief that totally unforeseen events before the end of the century would lead to an unprecedented collapse of civilization. Grothendieck added however that his views were \"in no way meant as a criticism of the Royal Academy's aims in the administration of its funds\" and he added, \"I regret the inconvenience that my refusal to accept the Crafoord prize may have caused you and the Royal Academy.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 256390 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "La Clef des Songes, a 315-page manuscript written in 1987, is Grothendieck's account of how his consideration of the source of dreams led him to conclude that a deity exists. As part of the notes to this manuscript, Grothendieck described the life and the work of 18 \"mutants\", people whom he admired as visionaries far ahead of their time and heralding a new age. The only mathematician on his list was Bernhard Riemann. Influenced by the Catholic mystic Marthe Robin who was claimed to have survived on the Holy Eucharist alone, Grothendieck almost starved himself to death in 1988. His growing preoccupation with spiritual matters was also evident in a letter entitled Lettre de la Bonne Nouvelle sent to 250 friends in January 1990. In it, he described his encounters with a deity and announced that a \"New Age\" would commence on 14 October 1996.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 621169, 41980, 23373407 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 161, 166 ], [ 404, 420 ], [ 456, 468 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More than 20,000 pages of Grothendieck's mathematical and other writings are held at the University of Montpellier and remain unpublished. They have been digitized for preservation and are freely available in open access through the Institut Montpelliérain Alexander Grothendieck portal.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1991, Grothendieck moved to a new address that he did not provide to his previous contacts in the mathematical community. Very few people visited him afterward. Local villagers helped sustain him with a more varied diet after he tried to live on a staple of dandelion soup. At some point, Leila Schneps and Pierre Lochak located him, then carried on a brief correspondence. Thus they became among \"the last members of the mathematical establishment to come into contact with him\". After his death, it was revealed that he lived alone in a house in Lasserre, Ariège, a small village at the foot of the Pyrenees.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 19230414, 42154655, 15431589, 24707 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 261, 275 ], [ 292, 305 ], [ 551, 567 ], [ 604, 612 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2010, Grothendieck wrote the letter entitled \"Déclaration d'intention de non-publication\" to Luc Illusie, claiming that all materials published in his absence had been published without his permission. He asked that none of his work be reproduced in whole or in part and that copies of this work be removed from libraries. He characterized a website devoted to his work as \"an abomination\". His dictate may have been reversed in 2010.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 27206965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 13 November 2014, aged 86, Grothendieck died in the hospital of Saint-Girons, Ariège.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 3117134 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 87 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck was born in Weimar Germany. In 1938, aged ten, he moved to France as a refugee. Records of his nationality were destroyed in the fall of Nazi Germany in 1945 and he did not apply for French citizenship after the war. Thus, he became a stateless person for at least the majority of his working life and he traveled on a Nansen passport. Part of his reluctance to hold French nationality is attributed to not wishing to serve in the French military, particularly due to the Algerian War (1954–62). He eventually applied for French citizenship in the early 1980s, after he was well past the age that exempted him from military service.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 33685, 21212, 3815019, 789786, 36566, 82430 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 39 ], [ 142, 162 ], [ 196, 214 ], [ 248, 257 ], [ 332, 347 ], [ 485, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck was very close to his mother to whom he dedicated his dissertation. She died in 1957 from the tuberculosis that she contracted in camps for displaced persons. He had five children: a son with his landlady during his time in Nancy, three children, Johanna (1959), Alexander (1961), and Mathieu (1965) with his wife Mireille Dufour, and one child with Justine Skalba, with whom he lived in a commune in the early 1970s.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 30653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck's early mathematical work was in functional analysis. Between 1949 and 1953 he worked on his doctoral thesis in this subject at Nancy, supervised by Jean Dieudonné and Laurent Schwartz. His key contributions include topological tensor products of topological vector spaces, the theory of nuclear spaces as foundational for Schwartz distributions, and the application of Lp spaces in studying linear maps between topological vector spaces. In a few years, he had become a leading authority on this area of functional analysis—to the extent that Dieudonné compares his impact in this field to that of Banach.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 11180, 141920, 1070084, 317485, 2702982, 45752, 2702957, 51955, 45194, 29646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 65 ], [ 141, 146 ], [ 162, 176 ], [ 181, 197 ], [ 229, 255 ], [ 260, 284 ], [ 301, 314 ], [ 336, 357 ], [ 383, 392 ], [ 612, 618 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is, however, in algebraic geometry and related fields where Grothendieck did his most important and influential work. From approximately 1955 he started to work on sheaf theory and homological algebra, producing the influential \"Tôhoku paper\" (Sur quelques points d'algèbre homologique, published in the Tohoku Mathematical Journal in 1957) where he introduced abelian categories and applied their theory to show that sheaf cohomology may be defined as certain derived functors in this context.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 1997, 245466, 139410, 44572732, 5009222, 45063, 1055357, 433875 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 37 ], [ 167, 172 ], [ 184, 203 ], [ 232, 244 ], [ 307, 334 ], [ 364, 382 ], [ 421, 437 ], [ 464, 479 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Homological methods and sheaf theory had already been introduced in algebraic geometry by Jean-Pierre Serre and others, after sheaves had been defined by Jean Leray. Grothendieck took them to a higher level of abstraction and turned them into a key organising principle of his theory. He shifted attention from the study of individual varieties to his relative point of view (pairs of varieties related by a morphism), allowing a broad generalization of many classical theorems. The first major application was the relative version of Serre's theorem showing that the cohomology of a coherent sheaf on a complete variety is finite-dimensional; Grothendieck's theorem shows that the higher direct images of coherent sheaves under a proper map are coherent; this reduces to Serre's theorem over a one-point space.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 205483, 245430, 1816636, 27716891, 603780, 3022744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 107 ], [ 154, 164 ], [ 352, 374 ], [ 408, 416 ], [ 584, 598 ], [ 682, 701 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1956, he applied the same thinking to the Riemann–Roch theorem, which recently had been generalized to any dimension by Hirzebruch. The Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem was announced by Grothendieck at the initial Mathematische Arbeitstagung in Bonn, in 1957. It appeared in print in a paper written by Armand Borel with Serre. This result was his first work in algebraic geometry. Grothendieck went on to plan and execute a programme for rebuilding the foundations of algebraic geometry, which at the time were in a state of flux and under discussion in Claude Chevalley's seminar. He outlined his programme in his talk at the 1958 International Congress of Mathematicians.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 247261, 987495, 1532606, 1186588, 3295, 365672, 366040, 627842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 65 ], [ 123, 133 ], [ 139, 172 ], [ 218, 245 ], [ 249, 253 ], [ 307, 319 ], [ 559, 575 ], [ 637, 677 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His foundational work on algebraic geometry is at a higher level of abstraction than all prior versions. He adapted the use of non-closed generic points, which led to the theory of schemes. Grothendieck also pioneered the systematic use of nilpotents. As 'functions' these can take only the value 0, but they carry infinitesimal information, in purely algebraic settings. His theory of schemes has become established as the best universal foundation for this field, because of its expressiveness as well as its technical depth. In that setting one can use birational geometry, techniques from number theory, Galois theory, commutative algebra, and close analogues of the methods of algebraic topology, all in an integrated way.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 3043978, 364754, 252235, 160990, 382733, 21527, 61316, 245990, 38801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 138, 151 ], [ 181, 188 ], [ 240, 249 ], [ 315, 328 ], [ 556, 575 ], [ 593, 606 ], [ 608, 621 ], [ 623, 642 ], [ 682, 700 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck is noted for his mastery of abstract approaches to mathematics and his perfectionism in matters of formulation and presentation. Relatively little of his work after 1960 was published by the conventional route of the learned journal, circulating initially in duplicated volumes of seminar notes; his influence was to a considerable extent personal. His influence spilled over into many other branches of mathematics, for example the contemporary theory of D-modules. Although lauded as \"the Einstein of mathematics\", his work also provoked adverse reactions, with many mathematicians seeking out more concrete areas and problems.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 324572, 3440755 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 230, 245 ], [ 469, 477 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The bulk of Grothendieck's published work is collected in the monumental, yet incomplete, Éléments de géométrie algébrique (EGA) and Séminaire de géométrie algébrique (SGA). The collection, Fondements de la Géometrie Algébrique (FGA), which gathers together talks given in the Séminaire Bourbaki, also contains important material.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 471387, 394508, 7134874, 2904840 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 122 ], [ 133, 166 ], [ 190, 227 ], [ 277, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck's work includes the invention of the étale and l-adic cohomology theories, which explain an observation made by André Weil that argued for a connection between the topological characteristics of a variety and its diophantine (number theoretic) properties. For example, the number of solutions of an equation over a finite field reflects the topological nature of its solutions over the complex numbers. Weil had realized that to prove such a connection, one needed a new cohomology theory, but neither he nor any other expert saw how to accomplish this until such a theory was expressed by Grothendieck.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 396231, 396231, 2019, 11615, 5826 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 55 ], [ 60, 77 ], [ 125, 135 ], [ 328, 340 ], [ 399, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This program culminated in the proofs of the Weil conjectures, the last of which was settled by Grothendieck's student Pierre Deligne in the early 1970s after Grothendieck had largely withdrawn from mathematics.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 244705, 394544 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 61 ], [ 119, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Grothendieck's retrospective Récoltes et Semailles, he identified twelve of his contributions that he believed qualified as \"great ideas\". In chronological order, they are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Topological tensor products and nuclear spaces", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 2702982, 2702957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ], [ 33, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Continuous\" and \"discrete\" duality (derived categories, \"six operations\")", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 609737, 985897, 39560800 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 36 ], [ 38, 56 ], [ 59, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yoga of the Grothendieck–Riemann–Roch theorem K-theory relation with intersection theory", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 1532606, 246748, 3148602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 46 ], [ 47, 55 ], [ 70, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Schemes", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 364754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Topoi", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 21391464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Étale cohomology and l-adic cohomology", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 396231, 396231 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ], [ 22, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Motives and the motivic Galois group (Grothendieck ⊗-categories)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 430680, 430680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 17, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Crystals and crystalline cohomology, yoga of \"de Rham coefficients\", \"Hodge coefficients\"...", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 10220067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Topological algebra\": ∞-stacks, derivators; cohomological formalism of topoi as inspiration for a new homotopical algebra", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 13200604, 1321050 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 43 ], [ 104, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tame topology", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 71402929 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Yoga of anabelian algebraic geometry, Galois–Teichmüller theory", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 27119265, 37761264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 37 ], [ 39, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"Schematic\" or \"arithmetic\" point of view for regular polyhedra and regular configurations of all kinds", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 333299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Here the term yoga denotes a kind of \"meta-theory\" that may be used heuristically; Michel Raynaud writes the other terms \"Ariadne's thread\" and \"philosophy\" as effective equivalents.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [ 4760928 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck wrote that, of these themes, the largest in scope was topoi, as they synthesized algebraic geometry, topology, and arithmetic. The theme that had been most extensively developed was schemes, which were the framework \"par excellence\" for eight of the other themes (all but 1, 5, and 12). Grothendieck wrote that the first and last themes, topological tensor products and regular configurations, were of more modest size than the others. Topological tensor products had played the role of a tool rather than of a source of inspiration for further developments; but he expected that regular configurations could not be exhausted within the lifetime of a mathematician who devoted oneself to it. He believed that the deepest themes were motives, anabelian geometry, and Galois–Teichmüller theory.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Mathematical work", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck is considered by many to be the greatest mathematician of the twentieth century. In an obituary David Mumford and John Tate wrote:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 394594, 245933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 109, 122 ], [ 127, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although mathematics became more and more abstract and general throughout the 20th century, it was Alexander Grothendieck who was the greatest master of this trend. His unique skill was to eliminate all unnecessary hypotheses and burrow into an area so deeply that its inner patterns on the most abstract level revealed themselves–and then, like a magician, show how the solution of old problems fell out in straightforward ways now that their real nature had been revealed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By the 1970s, Grothendieck's work was seen as influential, not only in algebraic geometry and the allied fields of sheaf theory and homological algebra, but influenced logic, in the field of categorical logic.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck approached algebraic geometry by clarifying the foundations of the field, and by developing mathematical tools intended to prove a number of notable conjectures. Algebraic geometry has traditionally meant the understanding of geometric objects, such as algebraic curves and surfaces, through the study of the algebraic equations for those objects. Properties of algebraic equations are in turn studied using the techniques of ring theory. In this approach, the properties of a geometric object are related to the properties of an associated ring. The space (e.g., real, complex, or projective) in which the object is defined, is extrinsic to the object, while the ring is intrinsic.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 253260, 250424 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 266, 281 ], [ 439, 450 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck laid a new foundation for algebraic geometry by making intrinsic spaces (\"spectra\") and associated rings the primary objects of study. To that end, he developed the theory of schemes that informally can be thought of as topological spaces on which a commutative ring is associated to every open subset of the space. Schemes have become the basic objects of study for practitioners of modern algebraic geometry. Their use as a foundation allowed geometry to absorb technical advances from other fields.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 364754, 30450, 61346 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 195 ], [ 233, 250 ], [ 263, 279 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His generalization of the classical Riemann–Roch theorem related topological properties of complex algebraic curves to their algebraic structure and now bears is entitled, the Grothendieck–Hirzebruch–Riemann–Roch theorem. The tools he developed to prove this theorem started the study of algebraic and topological K-theory, which explores the topological properties of objects by associating them with rings. After direct contact with Grothendieck's ideas at the Bonn Arbeitstagung, topological K-theory was founded by Michael Atiyah and Friedrich Hirzebruch.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 1532606, 247261, 253260, 598500, 2912468, 1186588, 20698, 987495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 18 ], [ 36, 56 ], [ 99, 114 ], [ 288, 297 ], [ 302, 322 ], [ 463, 481 ], [ 519, 533 ], [ 538, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck's construction of new cohomology theories, which use algebraic techniques to study topological objects, has influenced the development of algebraic number theory, algebraic topology, and representation theory. As part of this project, his creation of topos theory, a category-theoretic generalization of point-set topology, has influenced the fields of set theory and mathematical logic.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 194060, 174705, 38801, 19378200, 21391464, 178649, 27553, 19636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 45 ], [ 151, 174 ], [ 176, 194 ], [ 200, 221 ], [ 264, 276 ], [ 317, 335 ], [ 366, 376 ], [ 381, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Weil conjectures were formulated in the later 1940s as a set of mathematical problems in arithmetic geometry. They describe properties of analytic invariants, called local zeta functions, of the number of points on an algebraic curve or variety of higher dimension. Grothendieck's discovery of the ℓ-adic étale cohomology, the first example of a Weil cohomology theory, opened the way for a proof of the Weil conjectures, ultimately completed in the 1970s by his student Pierre Deligne. Grothendieck's large-scale approach has been called a \"visionary program\". The ℓ-adic cohomology then became a fundamental tool for number theorists, with applications to the Langlands program.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 244705, 1973177, 396014, 396231, 2960213, 394544, 171905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 20 ], [ 93, 112 ], [ 170, 189 ], [ 303, 326 ], [ 351, 366 ], [ 476, 490 ], [ 667, 684 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck's conjectural theory of motives was intended to be the \"ℓ-adic\" theory but without the choice of \"ℓ\", a prime number. It did not provide the intended route to the Weil conjectures, but has been behind modern developments in algebraic K-theory, motivic homotopy theory, and motivic integration. This theory, Daniel Quillen's work, and Grothendieck's theory of Chern classes, are considered the background to the theory of algebraic cobordism, another algebraic analogue of topological ideas.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 430680, 598500, 809314, 6838270, 435519, 294349, 32257774 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 43 ], [ 237, 255 ], [ 257, 280 ], [ 286, 305 ], [ 320, 334 ], [ 372, 383 ], [ 434, 453 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Grothendieck's emphasis on the role of universal properties across varied mathematical structures brought category theory into the mainstream as an organizing principle for mathematics in general. Among its uses, category theory creates a common language for describing similar structures and techniques seen in many different mathematical systems. His notion of abelian category is now the basic object of study in homological algebra. The emergence of a separate mathematical discipline of category theory has been attributed to Grothendieck's influence, although unintentional.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 32245, 5869, 45063, 139410 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 39, 59 ], [ 106, 121 ], [ 363, 379 ], [ 416, 435 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The novel Colonel Lágrimas (Colonel Tears in English, available by Restless Books) by Puerto Rican–Costa Rican writer Carlos Fonseca is a semibiographic novel about Grothendieck.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The band Stone Hill All Stars have a song named after Alexander Grothendieck.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the novel When We Cease to Understand the World, Benjamin Labatut dedicates one chapter to the story of Grothendieck.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Influence", "target_page_ids": [ 67277339 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " λ-ring", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 32055176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " AB5 category", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30051646 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Abelian category", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 45063 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Accessible category", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15311782 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Algebraic geometry", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Algebraic stack", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 717377 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Barsotti–Tate group", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 29750969 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Chern class", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 294349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Descent (mathematics)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 361449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dévissage", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 26377503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dunford–Pettis property", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 16388109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Excellent ring", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10016360 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Formally smooth map", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 31589196 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Fundamental group scheme", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27509612 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " K-theory", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 246748 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hilbert scheme", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 6612581 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Homotopy hypothesis", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40965653 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nakai conjecture", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3132530 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nuclear operator", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63684284 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nuclear space", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2702957 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Parafactorial local ring", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38086750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Projective tensor product", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63566617 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quasi-finite morphism", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2143056 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Quot scheme", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41883481 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Scheme (mathematics)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 364754 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Section conjecture", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 37661889 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Semistable abelian variety", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 898483 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sheaf cohomology", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1055357 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stack (mathematics)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13185596 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Standard conjectures on algebraic cycles", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10470079 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Sketch of a program", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19575137 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tannakian formalism", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 7221237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Theorem of absolute purity", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 61664297 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Theorem on formal functions", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 36834283 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ultrabornological space", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 63904912 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Weil conjectures", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 244705 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Vector bundles on algebraic curves", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3129077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Zariski's main theorem", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13969950 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " ∞-groupoid", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 40965675 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of things named after Alexander Grothendieck", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39402871 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Three-volume biography, first volume available in English, .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Sources and further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Séminaire Grothendieck is a peripatetic seminar on Grothendieck view not just on mathematics ", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Grothendieck Circle, collection of mathematical and biographical information, photos, links to his writings", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The origins of 'Pursuing Stacks': This is an account of how 'Pursuing Stacks' was written in response to a correspondence in English with Ronnie Brown and Tim Porter at Bangor, which continued until 1991. See also Alexander Grothendieck: some recollections.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Récoltes et Semailles", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Récoltes et Semailles\" et \"La Clef des Songes\", French originals and Spanish translations", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " English summary of \"La Clef des Songes\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Video of a lecture with photos from Grothendieck's life, given by Winfried Scharlau at IHES in 2009", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Can one explain schemes to biologists —biographical sketch of Grothendieck by David Mumford & John Tate", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 394594, 245933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 79, 92 ], [ 95, 104 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Archives Grothendieck", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Who Is Alexander Grothendieck?, Winfried Scharlau, Notices of the AMS 55(8), 2008.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"Alexander Grothendieck: A Country Known Only by Name, Pierre Cartier, Notices of the AMS 62(4), 2015.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alexandre Grothendieck 1928–2014, Part 1, Notices of the AMS 63(3), 2016.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A. Grothendieck by Mateo Carmona", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Les-archives-insaisissables-d-alexandre-grothendieck", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Kutateladze S.S. Rebelious Genius: In Memory of Alexander Grothendieck", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 33985750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alexandre-Grothendieck-une-mathematique-en-cathedrale-gothique", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Les-archives-insaisissables-d-alexandre-grothendieck", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1928_births", "2014_deaths", "20th-century_French_mathematicians", "Algebraic_geometers", "Algebraists", "Emigrants_from_Nazi_Germany_to_France", "Fields_Medalists", "French_pacifists", "Functional_analysts", "German_people_of_Ukrainian-Jewish_descent", "Nancy-Université_alumni", "Nicolas_Bourbaki", "Non-interventionism", "Operator_theorists", "Scientists_from_Berlin", "Stateless_people" ]

[ "Alexandre Grothendieck", "Grothendieck", "Nicolas Bourbaki" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) is an international mutual aid fellowship of alcoholics dedicated to abstinence-based recovery from alcoholism through its spiritually-inclined Twelve Step program. Following its Twelve Traditions, AA is non-professional, non-denominational, as well as apolitical and unaffiliated. In 2020 AA estimated its worldwide membership to be over two million with 75% of those in the U.S. and Canada.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 11419474, 18589546, 2965, 31398, 331008, 2570425, 11144531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 56 ], [ 95, 111 ], [ 126, 136 ], [ 170, 181 ], [ 205, 222 ], [ 248, 266 ], [ 279, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AA has maintained neutrality towards the disease model of alcoholism though its program is sympathetic to it, but its wider acceptance has been partly due to many AA members independently promulgating it. Regarding its effectiveness, a recent scientific review has shown that AA does as well or better than clinical interventions or no treatment at all; in particular, AA produces better abstinence rates at lower medical costs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 6044476 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "1935 is marked by AA as its starting year when a newly sober Bill Wilson (Bill W.) first commiserated with the alcoholic Bob Smith (Dr. Bob) and brought him into AA’s precursor the Christian revivalist Oxford Group. Leaving the Oxford Group to form a fellowship of alcoholics only, Wilson and Smith, along with other early members, wrote The Story of How More Than One Hundred Men Have Recovered From Alcoholism, from which AA acquired its name. Published in 1939 and commonly called \"the Big Book\", it contains AA's Twelve Step recovery program. Later editions included the Twelve Traditions, first adopted in 1946 to formalize and unify the fellowship as a benign anarchy.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 331004, 249457, 30863286, 818009, 25966126 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 61, 72 ], [ 121, 130 ], [ 181, 201 ], [ 202, 214 ], [ 340, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Twelve Steps are presented as a suggested self-improvement program of initially admitting powerlessness over alcohol and acknowledging its damage, the listing of and striving to correct personal failings and the making of amends for past misdeeds. To stay recovered, they suggest maintained spiritual development and the taking of other alcoholics through the Steps. Though not explicitly suggested, the latter is often done by sponsoring other alcoholics. The Steps do urge submission to the will of God—\"as we understood Him\"—but are accepting and accommodating to the practices and convictions of other spiritual persuasions as well as those of non-theist members.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 28387, 423076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 295, 316 ], [ 652, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Twelve Traditions are AA's guidelines for members, groups and its non-governing upper echelons. Besides making a desire to stop drinking as the only requirement for membership, the Traditions advise against dogma, hierarchies and involvement in public controversies while mindful that helping others recover from alcoholism is AA’s primary purpose. Without threat of retribution or means of enforcement, the Traditions urge members to remain anonymous in public media. They also wish that members or groups to not use AA to gain wealth, property or prestige. Within AA, groups are autonomous, self-supporting through members’ voluntary contributions and obliged to reject outside contributions. Externally, no AA entity can represent AA as affiliated with or in support of other organizations or causes.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "With AA's permission, subsequent fellowships such as Narcotics Anonymous and Gamblers Anonymous have adopted and adapted the Twelve Steps and the Twelve Traditions to their addiction recovery programs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 255404, 11691676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 72 ], [ 77, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AA sprang from the Oxford Group, a non-denominational, altruistic movement modeled after first-century Christianity. Some members founded the group to help in maintaining sobriety. \"Grouper\" Ebby Thacher and former drinking buddy approached Wilson saying that he had \"got religion\", was sober, and that Wilson could do the same if he set aside objections and instead formed a personal idea of God, \"another power\" or \"higher power\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 818009, 22911628, 8284899 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 31 ], [ 89, 115 ], [ 191, 203 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Feeling a \"kinship of common suffering\" and, though drunk, Wilson attended his first group gathering. Within days, Wilson admitted himself to the Charles B. Towns Hospital after drinking four beers on the way—the last alcohol he ever drank. Under the care of William Duncan Silkworth (an early benefactor of AA), Wilson's detox included the deliriant belladonna. At the hospital, a despairing Wilson experienced a bright flash of light, which he felt to be God revealing himself. Following his hospital discharge, Wilson joined the Oxford Group and recruited other alcoholics to the group. Wilson's early efforts to help others become sober were ineffective, prompting Silkworth to suggest that Wilson place less stress on religion and more on the science of treating alcoholism. Wilson's first success came during a business trip to Akron, Ohio, where he was introduced to Robert Smith, a surgeon and Oxford Group member who was unable to stay sober. After thirty days of working with Wilson, Smith drank his last drink on 10 June 1935, the date marked by AA for its anniversaries.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18217517, 249454, 1806556, 207035, 249457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 172 ], [ 260, 284 ], [ 342, 351 ], [ 352, 362 ], [ 876, 888 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first female member, Florence Rankin, joined AA in March 1937, and the first non-Protestant member, a Roman Catholic, joined in 1939. The first Black AA group was established in 1945 in Washington, D.C. by Jim S., an African-American physician from Virginia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 106, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To share their method, Wilson and other members wrote the initially-titled book, Alcoholics Anonymous: The Story of How More Than One Hundred Men Have Recovered from Alcoholism, from which AA drew its name. Informally known as \"The Big Book\" (with its first 164 pages virtually unchanged since the 1939 edition), it suggests a twelve-step program in which members admit that they are powerless over alcohol and need help from a \"higher power\". They seek guidance and strength through prayer and meditation from God or a Higher Power of their own understanding; take a moral inventory with care to include resentments; list and become ready to remove character defects; list and make amends to those harmed; continue to take a moral inventory, pray, meditate, and try to help other alcoholics recover. The second half of the book, \"Personal Stories\" (subject to additions, removal, and retitling in subsequent editions), is made of AA members' redemptive autobiographical sketches.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The Big Book, the Twelve Steps, and the Twelve Traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 3410269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 520, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1941, interviews on American radio and favorable articles in US magazines, including a piece by Jack Alexander in The Saturday Evening Post, led to increased book sales and membership. By 1946, as the growing fellowship quarreled over structure, purpose, and authority, as well as finances and publicity, Wilson began to form and promote what became known as AA's \"Twelve Traditions,\" which are guidelines for an altruistic, unaffiliated, non-coercive, and non-hierarchical structure that limited AA's purpose to only helping alcoholics on a non-professional level while shunning publicity. Eventually, he gained formal adoption and inclusion of the Twelve Traditions in all future editions of the Big Book. At the 1955 conference in St. Louis, Missouri, Wilson relinquished stewardship of AA to the General Service Conference, as AA grew to millions of members internationally.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "The Big Book, the Twelve Steps, and the Twelve Traditions", "target_page_ids": [ 510910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AA says it is \"not organized in the formal or political sense\", and Bill Wilson, borrowing the phrase from anarchist theorist Peter Kropotkin, called it a \"benign anarchy\". In Ireland, Shane Butler said that AA \"looks like it couldn't survive as there's no leadership or top-level telling local cumanns what to do, but it has worked and proved itself extremely robust\". Butler explained that \"AA's 'inverted pyramid' style of governance has helped it to avoid many of the pitfalls that political and religious institutions have encountered since it was established here in 1946.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization and finances", "target_page_ids": [ 51074, 1633790 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 141 ], [ 295, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, AA counted 2,087,840 members and 120,300 AA groups worldwide. The Twelve Traditions informally guide how individual AA groups function, and the Twelve Concepts for World Service guide how the organization is structured globally.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization and finances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A member who accepts a service position or an organizing role is a \"trusted servant\" with terms rotating and limited, typically lasting three months to two years and determined by group vote and the nature of the position. Each group is a self-governing entity with AA World Services acting only in an advisory capacity. AA is served entirely by alcoholics, except for seven \"nonalcoholic friends of the fellowship\" of the 21-member AA Board of Trustees.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization and finances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AA groups are self-supporting, relying on voluntary donations from members to cover expenses. The AA General Service Office (GSO) limits contributions to US$3,000 a year. Above the group level, AA may hire outside professionals for services that require specialized expertise or full-time responsibilities.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization and finances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Like individual groups, the GSO is self-supporting. AA receives proceeds from books and literature that constitute more than 50% of the income for its General Service Office. In keeping with AA's Seventh Tradition, the Central Office is fully self-supporting through the sale of literature and related products, and the voluntary donations of AA members and groups. It does not accept donations from people or organizations outside of AA.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization and finances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In keeping with AA's Eighth Tradition, the Central Office employs special workers who are compensated financially for their services, but their services do not include traditional \"12th Step\" work of working with alcoholics in need. All 12th Step calls that come to the Central Office are handed to sober AA members who have volunteered to handle these calls. It also maintains service centers, which coordinate activities such as printing literature, responding to public inquiries, and organizing conferences. Other International General Service Offices (Australia, Costa Rica, Russia, etc.) are independent of AA World Services in New York.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Organization and finances", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AA's program extends beyond abstaining from alcohol. Its goal is to effect enough change in the alcoholic's thinking \"to bring about recovery from alcoholism\" through \"an entire psychic change,\" or spiritual awakening. A spiritual awakening is meant to be achieved by taking the Twelve Steps, and sobriety is furthered by volunteering for AA and regular AA meeting attendance or contact with AA members. Members are encouraged to find an experienced fellow alcoholic, called a sponsor, to help them understand and follow the AA program. The sponsor should preferably have experience of all twelve of the steps, be the same sex as the sponsored person, and refrain from imposing personal views on the sponsored person. Following the helper therapy principle, sponsors in AA may benefit from their relationship with their charges, as \"helping behaviors\" correlate with increased abstinence and lower probabilities of binge drinking.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Program", "target_page_ids": [ 31398, 14897647 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 279, 291 ], [ 732, 756 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AA's program is an inheritor of Counter-Enlightenment philosophy. AA shares the view that acceptance of one's inherent limitations is critical to finding one's proper place among other humans and God. Such ideas are described as \"Counter-Enlightenment\" because they are contrary to the Enlightenment's ideal that humans have the capacity to make their lives and societies a heaven on Earth using their own power and reason.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Program", "target_page_ids": [ 505760, 30758 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 53 ], [ 286, 299 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After evaluating AA's literature and observing AA meetings for sixteen months, sociologists David R. Rudy and Arthur L. Greil found that for an AA member to remain sober a high level of commitment is necessary. This commitment is facilitated by a change in the member's worldview. To help members stay sober AA must, they argue, provide an all-encompassing worldview while creating and sustaining an atmosphere of transcendence in the organization. To be all-encompassing AA's ideology emphasizes tolerance rather than a narrow religious worldview that could make the organization unpalatable to potential members and thereby limit its effectiveness. AA's emphasis on the spiritual nature of its program, however, is necessary to institutionalize a feeling of transcendence. A tension results from the risk that the necessity of transcendence if taken too literally, would compromise AA's efforts to maintain a broad appeal. As this tension is an integral part of AA, Rudy and Greil argue that AA is best described as a quasi-religious organization.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Program", "target_page_ids": [ 213446, 3159905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 270, 279 ], [ 414, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AA meetings are gatherings where recovery from alcoholism is discussed. One perspective sees them as \"quasi-ritualized therapeutic sessions run by and for, alcoholics\". There are a variety of meeting types some of which are listed below. At some point during the meeting a basket is passed around for voluntary donations. AA's 7th tradition requires that groups be self-supporting, \"declining outside contributions\". Weekly meetings are listed in local AA directories in print, online and in apps.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Program", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "\"Open\" meetings welcome anyone— nonalcoholics can attend as observers. Meetings listed as \"closed\" welcome those with a self-professed \"desire to stop drinking,\" which cannot be challenged by another member on any grounds.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Program", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At speaker meetings one or more members come to tell their stories.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Program", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "At Big Book meetings, attendees read from the AA Big Book and discuss it.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Program", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are also meetings with or without a topic that allow participants to speak up or \"share\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Program", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AA meetings do not exclude other alcoholics, though some meetings cater to specific demographics such as gender, profession, age, sexual orientation, or culture. Meetings in the United States are held in a variety of languages including Armenian, English, Farsi, Finnish, French, Japanese, Korean, Russian, and Spanish. While AA has pamphlets that suggest meeting formats, groups have the autonomy to hold and conduct meetings as they wish \"except in matters affecting other groups or AA as a whole\". Different cultures affect ritual aspects of meetings, but around the world \"many particularities of the AA meeting format can be observed at almost any AA gathering\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Program", "target_page_ids": [ 38076, 29252, 2217, 11600, 19984080, 16756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 105, 111 ], [ 130, 148 ], [ 237, 245 ], [ 256, 261 ], [ 263, 270 ], [ 290, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the Fifth Step, AA members typically reveal their own past misconduct to their sponsors. US courts have not extended the status of privileged communication, such as physician-patient privilege or clergy–penitent privilege, to communications between an AA member and their sponsor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Program", "target_page_ids": [ 14439975, 1549377, 3752602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 158 ], [ 168, 195 ], [ 199, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A study found an association between an increase in attendance at AA meetings with increased spirituality and a decrease in the frequency and intensity of alcohol use. The research also found that AA was effective at helping agnostics and atheists become sober. The authors concluded that though spirituality was an important mechanism of behavioral change for some alcoholics, it was not the only effective mechanism. Since the mid-1970s, several 'agnostic' or 'no-prayer' AA groups have begun across the U.S., Canada, and other parts of the world, which hold meetings that adhere to a tradition allowing alcoholics to freely express their doubts or disbelief that spirituality will help their recovery, and these meetings forgo the use of opening or closing prayers. There are online resources listing AA meetings for atheists and agnostics.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Spirituality", "target_page_ids": [ 15247542 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 240, 247 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More informally than not, AA's membership has helped popularize the disease concept of alcoholism which had appeared in the eighteenth century. Though AA usually avoids the term disease, 1973 conference-approved literature said \"we had the disease of alcoholism.\" Regardless of official positions, since AA's inception, most members have believed alcoholism to be a disease.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Disease concept of alcoholism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "AA's Big Book calls alcoholism \"an illness which only a spiritual experience will conquer.\" Ernest Kurtz says this is \"The closest the book Alcoholics Anonymous comes to a definition of alcoholism.\" Somewhat divergently in his introduction to The Big Book, non-member and early benefactor William Silkworth said those unable to moderate their drinking suffer from an allergy. In presenting the doctor's postulate, AA said \"The doctor's theory that we have an allergy to alcohol interests us. As laymen, our opinion as to its soundness may, of course, mean little. But as ex-problem drinkers, we can say that his explanation makes good sense. It explains many things for which we cannot otherwise account.\" AA later acknowledged that \"alcoholism is not a true allergy, the experts now inform us.\" Wilson explained in 1960 why AA had refrained from using the term disease:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Disease concept of alcoholism", "target_page_ids": [ 249454, 55313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 289, 306 ], [ 367, 374 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since then medical and scientific communities have defined alcoholism as an \"addictive disease\" (aka Alcohol Use Disorder, Severe, Moderate, or Mild). The ten criteria are: alcoholism is a Primary Illness not caused by other illnesses nor by personality or character defects; second, an addiction gene is part of its etiology; third, alcoholism has predictable symptoms; fourth, it is progressive, becoming more severe even after long periods of abstinence; fifth, it is chronic and incurable; sixth, alcoholic drinking or other drug use persists in spite of negative consequences and efforts to quit; seventh, brain chemistry and neural functions change so alcohol is perceived as necessary for survival; eighth, it produces physical dependence and life-threatening withdrawal; ninth, it is a terminal illness; tenth, alcoholism can be treated and can be kept in remission.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Disease concept of alcoholism", "target_page_ids": [ 2965 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "AA's New York General Service Office regularly surveys AA members in North America. Its 2014 survey of over 6,000 members in Canada and the United States concluded that, in North America, AA members who responded to the survey were 62% male and 38% female. The survey found that 89% of AA members were white.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Canadian and United States demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Average member sobriety is slightly under 10 years with 36% sober more than ten years, 13% sober from five to ten years, 24% sober from one to five years, and 27% sober less than one year. Before coming to AA, 63% of members received some type of treatment or counseling, such as medical, psychological, or spiritual. After coming to AA, 59% received outside treatment or counseling. Of those members, 84% said that outside help played an important part in their recovery.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Canadian and United States demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The same survey showed that AA received 32% of its membership from other members, another 32% from treatment facilities, 30% were self-motivated to attend AA, 12% of its membership from court-ordered attendance, and only 1% of AA members decided to join based on information obtained from the Internet. People taking the survey were allowed to select multiple answers for what motivated them to join AA.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Canadian and United States demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Many AA meetings take place in treatment facilities. Carrying the message of AA into hospitals was how the co-founders of AA first remained sober. They discovered great value in working with alcoholics who are still suffering, and that even if the alcoholic they were working with did not stay sober, they did. Bill Wilson wrote, \"Practical experience shows that nothing will so much insure immunity from drinking as intensive work with other alcoholics\". Bill Wilson visited Towns Hospital in New York City in an attempt to help the alcoholics who were patients there in 1934. At St. Thomas Hospital in Akron, Ohio, Smith worked with still more alcoholics. In 1939, a New York mental institution, Rockland State Hospital, was one of the first institutions to allow AA hospital groups. Service to corrections and treatment facilities used to be combined until the General Service Conference, in 1977, voted to dissolve its Institutions Committee and form two separate committees, one for treatment facilities, and one for correctional facilities.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Relationship with institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 40131017 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 581, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the United States and Canada, AA meetings are held in hundreds of correctional facilities. The AA General Service Office has published a workbook with detailed recommendations for methods of approaching correctional-facility officials with the intent of developing an in-prison AA program. In addition, AA publishes a variety of pamphlets specifically for the incarcerated alcoholic. Additionally, the AA General Service Office provides a pamphlet with guidelines for members working with incarcerated alcoholics.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Relationship with institutions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "United States courts have ruled that inmates, parolees, and probationers cannot be ordered to attend AA. Though AA itself was not deemed a religion, it was ruled that it contained enough religious components (variously described in Griffin v. Coughlin below as, inter alia, \"religion\", \"religious activity\", \"religious exercise\") to make coerced attendance at AA meetings a violation of the Establishment Clause of the First Amendment of the constitution. In 2007, the Ninth Circuit of the U.S. Court of Appeals stated that a parolee who was ordered to attend AA had standing to sue his parole office.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Relationship with institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 1384931, 31653, 325378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 391, 411 ], [ 419, 434 ], [ 469, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1939, High Watch Recovery Center in Kent, Connecticut, was founded by Bill Wilson and Marty Mann. Sister Francis who owned the farm tried to gift the spiritual retreat for alcoholics to Alcoholics Anonymous, however citing the sixth tradition Bill W. turned down the gift but agreed to have a separate non-profit board run the facility composed of AA members. Bill Wilson and Marty Mann served on the High Watch board of directors for many years. High Watch was the first and therefore the oldest 12-step-based treatment center in the world still operating today.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Relationship with institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 58945959 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1949, the Hazelden treatment center was founded and staffed by AA members, and since then many alcoholic rehabilitation clinics have incorporated AA's precepts into their treatment programs. 32% of AA's membership was introduced to it through a treatment facility.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Relationship with institutions", "target_page_ids": [ 2674076 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are several ways one can determine whether AA works and numerous ways of measuring if AA is successful, such as looking at abstinence, reduced drinking intensity, reduced alcohol-related consequences, alcohol addiction severity, and healthcare cost.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The effectiveness of AA (compared to other methods and treatments) has been challenged throughout the years, but recent high quality clinical meta-studies using randomized trials show that AA costs less than other treatments and results in increased abstinence.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because of the anonymous and voluntary nature of Alcoholics Anonymous (\"AA\") meetings, it has been difficult to perform random trials with them; the research suggests that AA can help alcoholics make positive changes.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Alcoholics Anonymous appears to be about as effective as other abstinence-based support groups.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 2020 Cochrane review of Alcoholics Anonymous shows that AA results in more alcoholics being abstinent and for longer periods of time than some other treatments, but only as well in drinks-per-day and other measures. When comparing Alcoholics Anonymous and/or Twelve Step Facilitation to other alcohol use disorder interventions, at the 12-month follow up, randomized controlled trials show a 42% abstinent rate for AA/TSF treatments, compared to 35% abstinent using non-AA interventions. A TSF treatment is a \"twelve-step facilitation\" treatment: A treatment which encourages a patient to attend Alcoholics Anonymous.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [ 240766, 163180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 361, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The study concludes that \"Manualized AA/TSF interventions usually produced higher rates of continuous abstinence than the other established treatments investigated. Non-manualized AA/TSF performed as well as other established treatments [...] clinically-delivered TSF interventions designed to increase AA participation usually lead to better outcomes over the subsequent months to years in terms of producing higher rates of continuous abstinence.\" Here, a \"manualized\" treatment is one where a standard procedure was used.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While Nick Heather speculated that subjects receiving Alcoholics Anonymous-centered interventions who were not abstinent did worse than other subjects, John Kelley and Alexandra Abry clarified that not only did the subjects undergoing AA-based interventions have a higher abstinent rate, those who did not achieve abstinence did not have worse drinking outcomes.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A 2006 study by Rudolf H. Moos and Bernice S. Moos saw a 67% success rate 16 years later for the 24.9% of alcoholics who ended up, on their own, undergoing a lot of AA treatment. The study's results may be skewed by self-selection bias.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [ 292154 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 217, 236 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Project MATCH was a 1990s 8-year, multi-site, $27-million investigation that studied which types of alcoholics respond best to which forms of treatment.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [ 15945948 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Brandsma 1980 showed that Alcoholics Anonymous is more effective than no treatment whatsoever.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [ 60001058 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2001–2002, the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) conducted the National Epidemiological Survey on Alcoholism and Related Conditions (NESARC). Similarly structured to the NLAES, the survey conducted in-person interviews with 43,093 individuals. Respondents were asked if they had ever attended a twelve-step meeting for an alcohol problem in their lifetime (the question was not AA-specific). 1441 (3.4%) of respondents answered the question affirmatively. Answers were further broken down into three categories: disengaged, those who started attending at some point in the past but had ceased attending at some point in the past year (988); continued engagement, those who started attending at some point in the past and continued to attend during the past year (348); and newcomers, those who started attending during the past year (105). In their discussion of the findings, Kaskautas et al. (2008) state that to study disengagement, only the disengaged and continued engagement should be utilized (pg. 270).", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [ 1705096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "American psychiatrist Lance Dodes, in The Sober Truth, says that research indicates that only five to eight percent of the people who go to one or more AA meetings achieve sobriety.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [ 52815517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 5–8% figure put forward by Dodes is controversial; other doctors say that the book uses \"three separate, questionable, calculations that arrive at the 5–8% figure.\" Addiction specialists state that the book's conclusion that \"[12-step] approaches are almost completely ineffective and even harmful in treating substance use disorders\" is wrong. One review called Dodes' reasoning against AA success a \"pseudostatistical polemic.\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Dodes has not, as of March 2020, read the 2020 Cochrane review showing AA efficacy, but opposes the idea that a social network is needed to overcome substance abuse.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In a 2015 article for The Atlantic, Gabrielle Glaser criticized the dominance of AA in the treatment of addiction in the United States. Her article uses Lance Dodes's figures and an outdated Cochrane report to state that AA has a low success rate, but those figures have been criticized by experts in the addiction treatment field. The Glaser article says that \"nothing about the 12-step approach draws on modern science\", but a large amount of scientific research has been done with AA, showing that AA increases abstinence rates. The Glaser article criticizes 12-step programs for being \"faith-based\", but 12-step programs allow for a very wide diversity of spiritual beliefs, and there are a growing number of secular 12-step meetings.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Effectiveness", "target_page_ids": [ 149743 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Thirteenth-stepping\" is a pejorative term for AA members approaching new members for dates. A study in the Journal of Addiction Nursing sampled 55 women in AA and found that 35% of these women had experienced a \"pass\" and 29% had felt seduced at least once in AA settings. This has also happened with new male members who received guidance from older female AA members pursuing sexual company. The authors suggest that both men and women must be prepared for this behavior or find male or female-only groups. Women-only meetings are a very prevalent part of AA culture, and AA has become more welcoming for women. AA's pamphlet on sponsorship suggests that men be sponsored by men and women be sponsored by women.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Stanton Peele argued that some AA groups apply the disease model to all problem drinkers, whether or not they are \"full-blown\" alcoholics. Along with Nancy Shute, Peele has advocated that besides AA, other options should be readily available to those problem drinkers who can manage their drinking with the right treatment. The Big Book says \"moderate drinkers\" and \"a certain type of hard drinker\" can stop or moderate their drinking. The Big Book suggests no program for these drinkers, but instead seeks to help drinkers without \"power of choice in drink.\"", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 3229131, 605639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 51, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1983, a review stated that the AA program's focus on admission of having a problem increases deviant stigma and strips members of their previous cultural identity, replacing it with the deviant identity. A 1985 study based on observations of AA meetings warned of detrimental iatrogenic effects of the twelve-step philosophy and concluded that AA uses many methods that are also used by cults. A later review disagreed, stating that AA's program bore little resemblance to religious cult practices. In 2014, Vaillant published a paper making the case that Alcoholics Anonymous is not a cult.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 2649767, 477975, 24008546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 110 ], [ 148, 165 ], [ 279, 289 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Alcoholics Anonymous publishes several books, reports, pamphlets, and other media, including a periodical known as the AA Grapevine. Two books are used primarily: Alcoholics Anonymous (the \"Big Book\") and Twelve Steps and Twelve Traditions, the latter explaining AA's fundamental principles in depth. The full text of each of these two books is available on the AA website at no charge.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [ 25966126, 40431484 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 183 ], [ 205, 239 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 575 pages.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 192 pages.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Literature", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " My Name Is Bill W.– dramatized biography of co-founder Bill Wilson.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 3447491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Lois Wilson Story– a 2010 film about the wife of founder Bill Wilson, and the beginnings of Alcoholics Anonymous and Al-Anon.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 11691207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 123, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bill W.– a 2011 biographical documentary film that tells the story of Bill Wilson using interviews, recreations, and rare archival material.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 35866311 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A Walk Among the Tombstones (2015), a mystery/suspense film based on Lawrence Block's books featuring Matthew Scudder, a recovering alcoholic detective whose AA membership is a central element of the plot.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 38793060, 1782573, 2078201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ], [ 70, 84 ], [ 103, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " When a Man Loves a Woman – a school counselor attends AA meetings in a residential treatment facility.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 728946 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Clean and Sober – an addict (alcohol, cocaine) visits an AA meeting to get a sponsor.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 2244939 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Days of Wine and Roses – a 1962 film about a married couple struggling with alcoholism. Jack Lemmon's character attends an AA meeting in the film.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 161866, 15821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ], [ 89, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Drunks – a 1995 film starring Richard Lewis as an alcoholic who leaves an AA meeting and relapses. The film cuts back and forth between his eventual relapse and the other meeting attendees.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 43965382 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Come Back, Little Sheba – A 1952 film based on a play of the same title about a loveless marriage where the husband played by Burt Lancaster is an alcoholic who gets help from two members of the local AA chapter. A 1977 TV drama was also based on the play.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 187100, 4537 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ], [ 127, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " I'll Cry Tomorrow – A 1955 film about singer Lillian Roth played by Susan Hayward who goes to AA to help her stop drinking. The film was based on Roth's autobiography of the same name detailing her alcoholism and sobriety through AA.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 190392, 2076664, 183785, 42018176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ], [ 46, 58 ], [ 69, 82 ], [ 154, 184 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " You Kill Me – a 2007 crime-comedy film starring Ben Kingsley as a mob hit man with a drinking problem who is forced to accept a job at a mortuary and go to AA meetings.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 6559383, 168480 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ], [ 49, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Smashed – a 2012 drama film starring Mary Elizabeth Winstead. An elementary school teacher's drinking begins to interfere with her job, so she attempts to get sober in AA.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 36701552, 2324849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 8 ], [ 38, 61 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Don't Worry, He Won't Get Far on Foot – a 2018 biography/comedy/drama by Gus Van Sant, based on the life of cartoonist John Callahan.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 52443882, 1757423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 38 ], [ 120, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flight — a 2012 film starring Denzel Washington as an alcoholic airline pilot. The movie includes a dramatic representation of a prison AA meeting.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 33668481, 100692 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 7 ], [ 31, 48 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " In CBS' Elementary, Jonny Lee Miller plays an adaptation of Sherlock Holmes who is a recovering drug addict. Several episodes are centered around AA meetings and the process of recovery.", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "AA in media", "target_page_ids": [ 35011562, 235324, 27159 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 19 ], [ 21, 37 ], [ 61, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Adult Children of Alcoholics", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 27560517 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Al-Anon/Alateen", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11691207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Calix Society", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 33610820 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Community reinforcement approach and family training (CRAFT)", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 41700062 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 53 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Drug addiction recovery groups", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13588294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Drug rehabilitation", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 427922 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Group psychotherapy", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47418 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of twelve-step groups", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4864797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Long-term effects of alcohol", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 337566 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Recovery approach", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 8600080 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Short-term effects of alcohol consumption", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19329865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stepping Stones (house), home of Bill W.", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 12119815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Washingtonian movement", "section_idx": 13, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 896455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " A History of Agnostic Groups in AA", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Reproduction of the 1938 Original Manuscript of Alcoholics Anonymous", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Alcoholics_Anonymous", "Addiction_and_substance_abuse_organizations", "Non-profit_organizations_based_in_New_York_City", "Organizations_established_in_1935", "Therapeutic_community", "Twelve-step_programs" ]

[ "AA", "Friends of Bill W.", "Friends of Bill W.", "Friends of Bill W", "Friend of Bill W.", "Friends of Bill", "Alchoholics anonymous", "Alcholholics anonymous", "Alcoholics anonymous", "Friend of bill w", "Aa.org", "Alcoholic's Anonymous", "Alcoholics Anonymous World Services" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In computer graphics, alpha compositing or alpha blending is the process of combining one image with a background to create the appearance of partial or full transparency. It is often useful to render picture elements (pixels) in separate passes or layers and then combine the resulting 2D images into a single, final image called the composite. Compositing is used extensively in film when combining computer-rendered image elements with live footage. Alpha blending is also used in 2D computer graphics to put rasterized foreground elements over a background.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 18567210, 491961, 23665, 35248, 1136715, 21555729, 31626763, 290200, 60108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 20 ], [ 158, 170 ], [ 201, 217 ], [ 287, 296 ], [ 335, 344 ], [ 381, 385 ], [ 401, 424 ], [ 439, 451 ], [ 512, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In order to combine the picture elements of the images correctly, it is necessary to keep an associated matte for each element in addition to its color. This matte layer contains the coverage information—the shape of the geometry being drawn—making it possible to distinguish between parts of the image where something was drawn and parts that are empty.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2603725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 104, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the most basic operation of combining two images is to put one over the other, there are many operations, or blend modes, that are used.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16119919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 118, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a 2D image a color combination is stored for each picture element (pixel), often a combination of red, green and blue (RGB). When alpha compositing is in use, each pixel has an additional numeric value stored in its alpha channel, with a value ranging from 0 to 1. A value of 0 means that the pixel is fully transparent and the color in the pixel beneath will show through. A value of 1 means that the pixel is fully opaque.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 25989, 351077 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 125 ], [ 311, 322 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the existence of an alpha channel, it is possible to express compositing image operations using a compositing algebra. For example, given two images A and B, the most common compositing operation is to combine the images so that A appears in the foreground and B appears in the background. This can be expressed as A over B. In addition to over, Porter and Duff defined the compositing operators in, held out by (the phrase refers to holdout matting and is usually abbreviated out), atop, and xor (and the reverse operators rover, rin, rout, and ratop) from a consideration of choices in blending the colors of two pixels when their coverage is, conceptually, overlaid orthogonally:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 2603725 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 439, 454 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As an example, the over operator can be accomplished by applying the following formula to each pixel:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Here , and stand for the color components of the pixels in the result, image A and image B respectively, applied to each color channel (red/green/blue) individually, whereas , and are the alpha values of the respective pixels.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The over operator is, in effect, the normal painting operation (see Painter's algorithm). Bruce A. Wallace derived the over operator based on a physical reflectance/transmittance model, as opposed to Duff's geometrical approach. The in and out operators are the alpha compositing equivalent of clipping. The two use only the alpha channel of the second image and ignore the color components.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Description", "target_page_ids": [ 47028, 41644, 480927, 1263046 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 87 ], [ 153, 164 ], [ 165, 178 ], [ 294, 302 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "If an alpha channel is used in an image, there are two common representations that are available: straight (unassociated) alpha and premultiplied (associated) alpha.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Straight versus premultiplied", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " With straight alpha, the RGB components represent the color of the object or pixel, disregarding its opacity.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Straight versus premultiplied", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " With premultiplied alpha, the RGB components represent the emission of the object or pixel, and the alpha represents the occlusion. The over operator then becomes:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Straight versus premultiplied", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A more obvious advantage of this is that, in certain situations, it can save a subsequent multiplication (e.g. if the image is used many times during later compositing). However, the most significant advantages of using premultiplied alpha are for correctness and simplicity rather than performance: premultiplied alpha allows correct filtering and blending. In addition, premultiplied alpha allows regions of regular alpha blending and regions with additive blending mode to be encoded within the same image.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Straight versus premultiplied", "target_page_ids": [ 16119919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 450, 472 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Assuming that the pixel color is expressed using straight (non-premultiplied) RGBA tuples, a pixel value of (0, 0.7, 0, 0.5) implies a pixel that has 70% of the maximum green intensity and 50% opacity. If the color were fully green, its RGBA would be (0, 1, 0, 0.5).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Straight versus premultiplied", "target_page_ids": [ 132729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, if this pixel uses premultiplied alpha, all of the RGB values (0, 0.7, 0) are multiplied, or scaled for occlusion, by the alpha value 0.5, which is appended to yield (0, 0.35, 0, 0.5). In this case, the 0.35 value for the G channel actually indicates 70% green emission intensity (with 50% occlusion). A pure green emission would be encoded as (0, 0.5, 0, 0.5). Knowing whether a file uses straight or premultiplied alpha is essential to correctly process or composite it, as a different calculation is required. It is also entirely acceptable to have an RGBA triplet express emission with no occlusion, such as (0.4, 0.3, 0.2, 0.0). Fires and flames, glows, flares, and other such phenomena can only be represented using associated / premultiplied alpha.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Straight versus premultiplied", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The only important difference is in the dynamic range of the color representation in finite precision numerical calculations (which is in all applications): premultiplied alpha has a unique representation for transparent pixels, avoiding the need to choose a \"clear color\" or resultant artifacts such as edge fringes (see the next paragraphs). In an associated / premultiplied alpha image, the RGB represents the emission amount, while the alpha is occlusion. Premultiplied alpha has some practical advantages over normal alpha blending because interpolation and filtering give correct results.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Straight versus premultiplied", "target_page_ids": [ 14569, 23434533 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 545, 558 ], [ 563, 572 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ordinary interpolation without premultiplied alpha leads to RGB information leaking out of fully transparent (A=0) regions, even though this RGB information is ideally invisible. When interpolating or filtering images with abrupt borders between transparent and opaque regions, this can result in borders of colors that were not visible in the original image. Errors also occur in areas of semitransparency because the RGB components are not correctly weighted, giving incorrectly high weighting to the color of the more transparent (lower alpha) pixels.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Straight versus premultiplied", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Premultiplication can reduce the available relative precision in the RGB values when using integer or fixed-point representation for the color components, which may cause a noticeable loss of quality if the color information is later brightened or if the alpha channel is removed. In practice, this is not usually noticeable because during typical composition operations, such as OVER, the influence of the low-precision color information in low-alpha areas on the final output image (after composition) is correspondingly reduced. This loss of precision also makes premultiplied images easier to compress using certain compression schemes, as they do not record the color variations hidden inside transparent regions, and can allocate fewer bits to encode low-alpha areas. The same “limitations” of lower quantisation bit depths such as 8 bit per channel are also present in imagery without alpha, and this argument is problematic as a result.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Straight versus premultiplied", "target_page_ids": [ 8013 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 597, 605 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The RGB values of typical digital images do not directly correspond to the physical light intensities, but are rather compressed by a gamma correction function:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gamma correction", "target_page_ids": [ 68466 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "This transformation better utilizes the limited number of bits in the encoded image by choosing that better matches the non-linear human perception of luminance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gamma correction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Accordingly, computer programs that deal with such images must decode the RGB values into a linear space (by undoing the gamma-compression), blend the linear light intensities, and re-apply the gamma compression to the result:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gamma correction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When combined with premultiplied alpha, pre-multiplication is done in linear space, prior to gamma compression. This results in the following formula:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gamma correction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Note that only the color components undergo gamma-correction; the alpha channel is always linear.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Gamma correction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Although used for similar purposes, transparent colors and image masks do not permit the smooth blending of the superimposed image pixels with those of the background (only whole image pixels or whole background pixels allowed).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other transparency methods", "target_page_ids": [ 3361242, 468313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 53 ], [ 59, 69 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A similar effect can be achieved with a 1-bit alpha channel, as found in the 16-bit RGBA high color mode of the Truevision TGA image file format and related TARGA and AT-Vista/NU-Vista display adapters' high color graphic mode. This mode devotes 5 bits for every primary RGB color (15-bit RGB) plus a remaining bit as the \"alpha channel\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other transparency methods", "target_page_ids": [ 80868, 270982, 2679981, 270982, 15547460 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 99 ], [ 112, 126 ], [ 127, 144 ], [ 157, 162 ], [ 282, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Screendoor transparency can be used to simulate partial occlusion where only 1-bit alpha is available.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other transparency methods", "target_page_ids": [ 1243526 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For some applications, a single alpha channel is not sufficient: a stained-glass window, for instance, requires a separate transparency channel for each RGB channel to model the red, green and blue transparency separately. More alpha channels can be added for accurate spectral color filtration applications.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Other transparency methods", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The concept of an alpha channel was introduced by Alvy Ray Smith and in the late 1970s at the New York Institute of Technology Computer Graphics Lab, and fully developed in a 1984 paper by Thomas Porter and Tom Duff. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 2132353, 549001, 56778192, 506220 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 64 ], [ 95, 149 ], [ 190, 203 ], [ 208, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The use of the term alpha is explained by Smith as follows: \"We called it that because of the classic linear interpolation formula that uses the Greek letter (alpha) to control the amount of interpolation between, in this case, two images A and B\". That is, when compositing image A atop image B, the value of in the formula is taken directly from A's alpha channel.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 794534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 130 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Compositing Digital Images - Thomas Porter and Tom Duff (Original Paper)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Image Compositing Fundamentals", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Understand Compositing and Color extensions in SVG 1.2 in 30 minutes!", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Alpha Matting and Premultiplication", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Computer_graphics_algorithms" ]

[ "alpha blend", "alpha channel" ]

[ { "plaintext": "In computer science, an array data structure, or simply an array, is a data structure consisting of a collection of elements (values or variables), each identified by at least one array index or key. An array is stored such that the position of each element can be computed from its index tuple by a mathematical formula. The simplest type of data structure is a linear array, also called one-dimensional array.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5323, 8519, 338331, 22284121, 132729 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 19 ], [ 71, 85 ], [ 126, 132 ], [ 136, 145 ], [ 289, 294 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For example, an array of 10 32-bit (4-byte) integer variables, with indices 0 through 9, may be stored as 10 words at memory addresses 2000, 2004, 2008, ..., 2036, (in hexadecimal: , , , ..., ) so that the element with index i has the address 2000 + (i × 4).", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 80733, 1613344, 13263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 34 ], [ 109, 114 ], [ 168, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The memory address of the first element of an array is called first address, foundation address, or base address.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Because the mathematical concept of a matrix can be represented as a two-dimensional grid, two-dimensional arrays are also sometimes called matrices. In some cases the term \"vector\" is used in computing to refer to an array, although tuples rather than vectors are the more mathematically correct equivalent. Tables are often implemented in the form of arrays, especially lookup tables; the word table is sometimes used as a synonym of array.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 20556859, 132729, 32370, 337862, 356457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 44 ], [ 234, 239 ], [ 253, 260 ], [ 309, 314 ], [ 372, 384 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arrays are among the oldest and most important data structures, and are used by almost every program. They are also used to implement many other data structures, such as lists and strings. They effectively exploit the addressing logic of computers. In most modern computers and many external storage devices, the memory is a one-dimensional array of words, whose indices are their addresses. Processors, especially vector processors, are often optimized for array operations.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 208382, 27701, 2598557, 5218, 58205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 174 ], [ 180, 186 ], [ 283, 299 ], [ 392, 402 ], [ 415, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arrays are useful mostly because the element indices can be computed at run time. Among other things, this feature allows a single iterative statement to process arbitrarily many elements of an array. For that reason, the elements of an array data structure are required to have the same size and should use the same data representation. The set of valid index tuples and the addresses of the elements (and hence the element addressing formula) are usually, but not always, fixed while the array is in use.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 192263, 938656 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 80 ], [ 141, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term array is often used to mean array data type, a kind of data type provided by most high-level programming languages that consists of a collection of values or variables that can be selected by one or more indices computed at run-time. Array types are often implemented by array structures; however, in some languages they may be implemented by hash tables, linked lists, search trees, or other data structures.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 22817874, 93817, 189842, 13833, 18167, 844292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 52 ], [ 64, 73 ], [ 91, 122 ], [ 352, 362 ], [ 365, 376 ], [ 379, 390 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The term is also used, especially in the description of algorithms, to mean associative array or \"abstract array\", a theoretical computer science model (an abstract data type or ADT) intended to capture the essential properties of arrays.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 775, 95154, 323392, 2349 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 56, 65 ], [ 76, 93 ], [ 117, 145 ], [ 156, 174 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first digital computers used machine-language programming to set up and access array structures for data tables, vector and matrix computations, and for many other purposes. John von Neumann wrote the first array-sorting program (merge sort) in 1945, during the building of the first stored-program computer.p.159 Array indexing was originally done by self-modifying code, and later using index registers and indirect addressing. Some mainframes designed in the 1960s, such as the Burroughs B5000 and its successors, used memory segmentation to perform index-bounds checking in hardware.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15942, 20039, 78011, 217647, 383680, 838142, 332693, 1323131 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 178, 194 ], [ 234, 244 ], [ 282, 311 ], [ 356, 375 ], [ 393, 407 ], [ 413, 432 ], [ 485, 500 ], [ 526, 545 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Assembly languages generally have no special support for arrays, other than what the machine itself provides. The earliest high-level programming languages, including FORTRAN (1957), Lisp (1958), COBOL (1960), and ALGOL 60 (1960), had support for multi-dimensional arrays, and so has C (1972). In C++ (1983), class templates exist for multi-dimensional arrays whose dimension is fixed at runtime as well as for runtime-flexible arrays.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11168, 18016, 6799, 1453, 6021, 72038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 167, 174 ], [ 183, 187 ], [ 196, 201 ], [ 214, 222 ], [ 284, 285 ], [ 297, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arrays are used to implement mathematical vectors and matrices, as well as other kinds of rectangular tables. Many databases, small and large, consist of (or include) one-dimensional arrays whose elements are records.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 879358, 20556859, 8377, 492295 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 49 ], [ 54, 62 ], [ 115, 123 ], [ 209, 215 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arrays are used to implement other data structures, such as lists, heaps, hash tables, deques, queues, stacks, strings, and VLists. Array-based implementations of other data structures are frequently simple and space-efficient (implicit data structures), requiring little space overhead, but may have poor space complexity, particularly when modified, compared to tree-based data structures (compare a sorted array to a search tree).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 13996, 13833, 8904, 25265, 273993, 27701, 3669635, 2554671, 15844857, 844292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 72 ], [ 74, 84 ], [ 87, 92 ], [ 95, 100 ], [ 103, 109 ], [ 111, 118 ], [ 228, 251 ], [ 278, 286 ], [ 402, 414 ], [ 420, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One or more large arrays are sometimes used to emulate in-program dynamic memory allocation, particularly memory pool allocation. Historically, this has sometimes been the only way to allocate \"dynamic memory\" portably.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 66924, 1815313 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 66, 91 ], [ 106, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arrays can be used to determine partial or complete control flow in programs, as a compact alternative to (otherwise repetitive) multiple statements. They are known in this context as control tables and are used in conjunction with a purpose built interpreter whose control flow is altered according to values contained in the array. The array may contain subroutine pointers (or relative subroutine numbers that can be acted upon by SWITCH statements) that direct the path of the execution.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Applications", "target_page_ids": [ 45459, 21337396, 45459, 32177451, 459018, 1831479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 64 ], [ 185, 198 ], [ 267, 279 ], [ 357, 367 ], [ 368, 376 ], [ 435, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When data objects are stored in an array, individual objects are selected by an index that is usually a non-negative scalar integer. Indexes are also called subscripts. An index maps the array value to a stored object.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [ 2938351, 14563 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 123 ], [ 124, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are three ways in which the elements of an array can be indexed:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 0 (zero-based indexing) The first element of the array is indexed by subscript of 0.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [ 34541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 1 (one-based indexing) The first element of the array is indexed by subscript of 1.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " n (n-based indexing) The base index of an array can be freely chosen. Usually programming languages allowing n-based indexing also allow negative index values and other scalar data types like enumerations, or characters may be used as an array index.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [ 2938351, 4723370, 73443 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 176 ], [ 193, 205 ], [ 210, 220 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Using zero based indexing is the design choice of many influential programming languages, including C, Java and Lisp. This leads to simpler implementation where the subscript refers to an offset from the starting position of an array, so the first element has an offset of zero.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [ 6021, 15881, 18016 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 101 ], [ 103, 107 ], [ 112, 116 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Arrays can have multiple dimensions, thus it is not uncommon to access an array using multiple indices. For example, a two-dimensional array with three rows and four columns might provide access to the element at the 2nd row and 4th column by the expression in the case of a zero-based indexing system. Thus two indices are used for a two-dimensional array, three for a three-dimensional array, and n for an n-dimensional array.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The number of indices needed to specify an element is called the dimension, dimensionality, or rank of the array.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [ 366007 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 99 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In standard arrays, each index is restricted to a certain range of consecutive integers (or consecutive values of some enumerated type), and the address of an element is computed by a \"linear\" formula on the indices.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [ 4723370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 119, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A one-dimensional array (or single dimension array) is a type of linear array. Accessing its elements involves a single subscript which can either represent a row or column index.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As an example consider the C declaration which declares a one-dimensional array of ten integers. Here, the array can store ten elements of type . This array has indices starting from zero through nine. For example, the expressions and are the first and last elements respectively.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For a vector with linear addressing, the element with index i is located at the address , where B is a fixed base address and c a fixed constant, sometimes called the address increment or stride.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the valid element indices begin at 0, the constant B is simply the address of the first element of the array. For this reason, the C programming language specifies that array indices always begin at 0; and many programmers will call that element \"zeroth\" rather than \"first\".", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [ 6021, 34541 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 134, 156 ], [ 250, 256 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, one can choose the index of the first element by an appropriate choice of the base address B. For example, if the array has five elements, indexed 1 through 5, and the base address B is replaced by , then the indices of those same elements will be 31 to 35. If the numbering does not start at 0, the constant B may not be the address of any element.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For a multidimensional array, the element with indices i,j would have address B + c · i + d · j, where the coefficients c and d are the row and column address increments, respectively.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "More generally, in a k-dimensional array, the address of an element with indices i1, i2, ..., ik is", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " B + c1 · i1 + c2 · i2 + … + ck · ik.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For example: int a[2][3];", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This means that array a has 2 rows and 3 columns, and the array is of integer type. Here we can store 6 elements they will be stored linearly but starting from first row linear then continuing with second row. The above array will be stored as a11, a12, a13, a21, a22, a23.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This formula requires only k multiplications and k additions, for any array that can fit in memory. Moreover, if any coefficient is a fixed power of 2, the multiplication can be replaced by bit shifting.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [ 264399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 190, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The coefficients ck must be chosen so that every valid index tuple maps to the address of a distinct element.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "If the minimum legal value for every index is 0, then B is the address of the element whose indices are all zero. As in the one-dimensional case, the element indices may be changed by changing the base address B. Thus, if a two-dimensional array has rows and columns indexed from 1 to 10 and 1 to 20, respectively, then replacing B by will cause them to be renumbered from 0 through 9 and 4 through 23, respectively. Taking advantage of this feature, some languages (like FORTRAN 77) specify that array indices begin at 1, as in mathematical tradition while other languages (like Fortran 90, Pascal and Algol) let the user choose the minimum value for each index.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The addressing formula is completely defined by the dimension d, the base address B, and the increments c1, c2, ..., ck. It is often useful to pack these parameters into a record called the array's descriptor or stride vector or dope vector. The size of each element, and the minimum and maximum values allowed for each index may also be included in the dope vector. The dope vector is a complete handle for the array, and is a convenient way to pass arrays as arguments to procedures. Many useful array slicing operations (such as selecting a sub-array, swapping indices, or reversing the direction of the indices) can be performed very efficiently by manipulating the dope vector.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [ 366016, 11493669, 32177451, 683334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 240 ], [ 397, 403 ], [ 474, 484 ], [ 498, 511 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Often the coefficients are chosen so that the elements occupy a contiguous area of memory. However, that is not necessary. Even if arrays are always created with contiguous elements, some array slicing operations may create non-contiguous sub-arrays from them.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There are two systematic compact layouts for a two-dimensional array. For example, consider the matrix", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the row-major order layout (adopted by C for statically declared arrays), the elements in each row are stored in consecutive positions and all of the elements of a row have a lower address than any of the elements of a consecutive row:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " {| class=\"wikitable\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| 1 || 2 || 3 || 4 || 5 || 6 || 7 || 8 || 9", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In column-major order (traditionally used by Fortran), the elements in each column are consecutive in memory and all of the elements of a column have a lower address than any of the elements of a consecutive column:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " {| class=\"wikitable\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|-", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "| 1 || 4 || 7 || 2 || 5 || 8 || 3 || 6 || 9", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "|}", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "For arrays with three or more indices, \"row major order\" puts in consecutive positions any two elements whose index tuples differ only by one in the last index. \"Column major order\" is analogous with respect to the first index.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In systems which use processor cache or virtual memory, scanning an array is much faster if successive elements are stored in consecutive positions in memory, rather than sparsely scattered. Many algorithms that use multidimensional arrays will scan them in a predictable order. A programmer (or a sophisticated compiler) may use this information to choose between row- or column-major layout for each array. For example, when computing the product A·B of two matrices, it would be best to have A stored in row-major order, and B in column-major order.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [ 849181, 32354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 36 ], [ 40, 54 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Static arrays have a size that is fixed when they are created and consequently do not allow elements to be inserted or removed. However, by allocating a new array and copying the contents of the old array to it, it is possible to effectively implement a dynamic version of an array; see dynamic array. If this operation is done infrequently, insertions at the end of the array require only amortized constant time.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [ 1456434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 287, 300 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some array data structures do not reallocate storage, but do store a count of the number of elements of the array in use, called the count or size. This effectively makes the array a dynamic array with a fixed maximum size or capacity; Pascal strings are examples of this.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [ 1456434, 27701 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 183, 196 ], [ 236, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "More complicated (non-linear) formulas are occasionally used. For a compact two-dimensional triangular array, for instance, the addressing formula is a polynomial of degree 2.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Element identifier and addressing formulas", "target_page_ids": [ 28639331 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 92, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Both store and select take (deterministic worst case) constant time. Arrays take linear (O(n)) space in the number of elements n that they hold.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Efficiency", "target_page_ids": [ 405944, 44578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 67 ], [ 89, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In an array with element size k and on a machine with a cache line size of B bytes, iterating through an array of n elements requires the minimum of ceiling(nk/B) cache misses, because its elements occupy contiguous memory locations. This is roughly a factor of B/k better than the number of cache misses needed to access n elements at random memory locations. As a consequence, sequential iteration over an array is noticeably faster in practice than iteration over many other data structures, a property called locality of reference (this does not mean however, that using a perfect hash or trivial hash within the same (local) array, will not be even faster - and achievable in constant time). Libraries provide low-level optimized facilities for copying ranges of memory (such as memcpy) which can be used to move contiguous blocks of array elements significantly faster than can be achieved through individual element access. The speedup of such optimized routines varies by array element size, architecture, and implementation.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Efficiency", "target_page_ids": [ 64028, 268162, 13790, 405944, 33691376, 3909369 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 513, 534 ], [ 577, 589 ], [ 593, 605 ], [ 681, 694 ], [ 784, 790 ], [ 818, 828 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Memory-wise, arrays are compact data structures with no per-element overhead. There may be a per-array overhead (e.g., to store index bounds) but this is language-dependent. It can also happen that elements stored in an array require less memory than the same elements stored in individual variables, because several array elements can be stored in a single word; such arrays are often called packed arrays. An extreme (but commonly used) case is the bit array, where every bit represents a single element. A single octet can thus hold up to 256 different combinations of up to 8 different conditions, in the most compact form.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Efficiency", "target_page_ids": [ 2554671, 1613344, 1189937, 4240997 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 76 ], [ 358, 362 ], [ 451, 460 ], [ 516, 521 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Array accesses with statically predictable access patterns are a major source of data parallelism.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Efficiency", "target_page_ids": [ 9467420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 97 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Dynamic arrays or growable arrays are similar to arrays but add the ability to insert and delete elements; adding and deleting at the end is particularly efficient. However, they reserve linear (Θ(n)) additional storage, whereas arrays do not reserve additional storage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Efficiency", "target_page_ids": [ 1456434, 44578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 195, 196 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Associative arrays provide a mechanism for array-like functionality without huge storage overheads when the index values are sparse. For example, an array that contains values only at indexes 1 and 2 billion may benefit from using such a structure. Specialized associative arrays with integer keys include Patricia tries, Judy arrays, and van Emde Boas trees.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Efficiency", "target_page_ids": [ 95154, 1481659, 484569, 1189425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 17 ], [ 306, 319 ], [ 322, 332 ], [ 339, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Balanced trees require O(log n) time for indexed access, but also permit inserting or deleting elements in O(log n) time, whereas growable arrays require linear (Θ(n)) time to insert or delete elements at an arbitrary position.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Efficiency", "target_page_ids": [ 378310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Linked lists allow constant time removal and insertion in the middle but take linear time for indexed access. Their memory use is typically worse than arrays, but is still linear.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Efficiency", "target_page_ids": [ 18167 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "An Iliffe vector is an alternative to a multidimensional array structure. It uses a one-dimensional array of references to arrays of one dimension less. For two dimensions, in particular, this alternative structure would be a vector of pointers to vectors, one for each row(pointer on c or c++). Thus an element in row i and column j of an array A would be accessed by double indexing (A[i][j] in typical notation). This alternative structure allows jagged arrays, where each row may have a different size—or, in general, where the valid range of each index depends on the values of all preceding indices. It also saves one multiplication (by the column address increment) replacing it by a bit shift (to index the vector of row pointers) and one extra memory access (fetching the row address), which may be worthwhile in some architectures.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Efficiency", "target_page_ids": [ 1696737, 229292, 1913333 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 16 ], [ 109, 119 ], [ 450, 462 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The dimension of an array is the number of indices needed to select an element. Thus, if the array is seen as a function on a set of possible index combinations, it is the dimension of the space of which its domain is a discrete subset. Thus a one-dimensional array is a list of data, a two-dimensional array is a rectangle of data, a three-dimensional array a block of data, etc.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Dimension", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This should not be confused with the dimension of the set of all matrices with a given domain, that is, the number of elements in the array. For example, an array with 5 rows and 4 columns is two-dimensional, but such matrices form a 20-dimensional space. Similarly, a three-dimensional vector can be represented by a one-dimensional array of size three.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Dimension", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Dynamic array", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1456434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Parallel array", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 991858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Variable-length array", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 13854884 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Bit array", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1189937 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Array slicing", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 683334 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Offset (computer science)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 3240434 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Row- and column-major order", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1620786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Stride of an array", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 366038 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 19 ] ] } ]

[ "Arrays" ]

[ "array", "array index" ]

[ { "plaintext": "\"Advance Australia Fair\" is the national anthem of Australia. Written by Scottish-born composer Peter Dodds McCormick, the song was first performed in 1878, sung in Australia as a patriotic song. It first replaced \"God Save the Queen\" as the official national anthem in 1974, following a nationwide opinion survey. \"God Save the Queen\" was reinstated in January 1976, but a plebiscite to choose the national song in 1977 preferred \"Advance Australia Fair\", which was restored in 1984. \"God Save the Queen\" became known as the royal anthem, which is used at public engagements attended by the Queen or members of the Royal Family. The 1984 version of \"Advance Australia Fair\" has lyrics modified from McCormick's original and verses trimmed down from four to two. In January 2021, the lyrics were changed again.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 234540, 4689264, 34850722, 290720, 12334, 1374481, 21918361, 12153654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 47 ], [ 51, 60 ], [ 73, 81 ], [ 96, 117 ], [ 215, 233 ], [ 374, 420 ], [ 526, 538 ], [ 588, 597 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Advance Australia Fair\" was published in early December 1878 by Scottish-born composer Peter Dodds McCormick (1833–1916) under the pen-name \"Amicus\" (which means \"friend\" in Latin). It was first sung by Andrew Fairfax, accompanied by a concert band conducted by McCormick, at a function of the Highland Society of New South Wales in Sydney on 30 November 1878 (Saint Andrew's Day). The song gained in popularity and an amended version was sung by a choir of around 10,000 at the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901. In 1907 the Australian Government awarded McCormick £100 for his composition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 290720, 1067315, 4689264 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 109 ], [ 362, 380 ], [ 500, 525 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a letter to R.B. Fuller dated 1 August 1913, McCormick described the circumstances that inspired him to write \"Advance Australia Fair\":", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The earliest known sound recording of \"Advance Australia Fair\" appears in The Landing of the Australian Troops in Egypt (circa 1916), a short commercial recording dramatising the arrival of Australian troops in Egypt en route to Gallipoli.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 214109 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 229, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before its adoption as Australia's national anthem, \"Advance Australia Fair\" had considerable use elsewhere. For example, Australia's national broadcaster, the Australian Broadcasting Commission, used it to announce its news bulletins until 1952. It was also frequently played at the start or end of official functions. Towards the end of World War II it was one of three songs played in certain picture theatres, along with \"God Save the King\" and the US national anthem.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 3079, 31064 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 194 ], [ 453, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other songs and marches have been influenced by \"Advance Australia Fair\", such as the Australian vice-regal salute.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21918361 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1973, Prime Minister Gough Whitlam and his government, desiring to forge a new nationalism separate from the United Kingdom, decided that Australia needed a national anthem that could represent the country with \"distinction\", and they held a competition to find one to replace the existing anthem, \"God Save the Queen\". In January of that year, Whitlam dedicated an entire Australia Day speech to the search for a new anthem, referring to it as a \"symbolic expression of our national pride and dignity\". The Australia Council for the Arts organised the contest, which was dubbed the \"Australian National Anthem Quest\". The contest was held in two stages, the first seeking lyrics and the second music, each having a large prize of A$5,000 for the winning entry. On the recommendation of the Council for the Arts, none of the new entries was felt worthy enough, so the contest ended with suggestions for \"Advance Australia Fair\", \"Waltzing Matilda\" and \"The Song of Australia\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12454, 12334, 21281411, 3779377, 81215, 40429, 316531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 37 ], [ 302, 320 ], [ 376, 389 ], [ 511, 541 ], [ 734, 736 ], [ 933, 949 ], [ 956, 977 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1974 the Whitlam government performed a nationwide opinion survey to determine the song to be sung on occasions of national significance. Conducted through the Australian Bureau of Statistics, the survey polled 60,000 people nationally. \"Advance Australia Fair\" was chosen by 51.4% of respondents and, on 9 April of that year, Whitlam announced in parliament that it was the national anthem. It was to be used on all occasions excepting those of a specifically regal nature. A spokesman for Whitlam later stated that the Government regarded the tune, primarily, as the national anthem. During the 1975 election campaign following the dismissal of Whitlam by Sir John Kerr, David Combe proposed that the song be played at the start of the Labor Party's official campaign launch on 24 November 1975 at Festival Hall, Melbourne. Whitlam's speechwriter Graham Freudenberg rejected this idea because, among other reasons, the status of the anthem at that point was still tentative.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 4732815, 9938007, 52851, 20192607, 1495, 7189875, 3988772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 163, 194 ], [ 600, 622 ], [ 637, 674 ], [ 676, 687 ], [ 741, 752 ], [ 803, 827 ], [ 852, 870 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 22 January 1976 the Fraser government reinstated \"God Save the Queen\" as the national anthem for use at royal, vice-regal, defence and loyal toast occasions. Fraser stated that \"Advance Australia Fair\", \"Song of Australia\" or \"Waltzing Matilda\" could be used for non-regal occasions. His government made plans to conduct a national poll to find a song for use on ceremonial occasions when it was desired to mark a separate Australian identity. This was conducted as a plebiscite to choose the National Song, held as an optional additional question in the 1977 referendum on various issues. On 23 May the government announced the results, \"Advance Australia Fair\" received 43.29% of the vote, defeating the three alternatives, \"Waltzing Matilda\" (28.28%), \"The Song of Australia\" (9.65%) and the existing national anthem, \"God Save the Queen\" (18.78%).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19734, 19219238, 1374481, 1364356, 40429, 316531 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 29 ], [ 138, 149 ], [ 471, 509 ], [ 558, 573 ], [ 730, 746 ], [ 759, 780 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "\"Advance Australia Fair\", with modified lyrics and reduced to two verses (see Development of lyrics), was adopted as the Australian national anthem by the Labor government of Bob Hawke, coming into effect on 19 April 1984. At the same time, \"God Save the Queen\" became known as the royal anthem, and continues to be played alongside the Australian national anthem at public engagements in Australia that are attended by the Queen or members of the Royal Family.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1495, 4059, 21918361, 12153654 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 160 ], [ 175, 184 ], [ 282, 294 ], [ 420, 429 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Even though any personal copyright of Peter Dodds McCormick's original lyrics has expired, as he died in 1916, the Commonwealth of Australia claims copyright on the official lyrics and particular arrangements of music. Non-commercial use of the anthem is permitted without case-by-case permission, but the Commonwealth government requires permission for commercial use.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5278 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 34 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The orchestral arrangement of \"Advance Australia Fair\" that is now regularly played for Australian victories at international sporting medal ceremonies, and at the openings of major domestic sporting, cultural and community events, is by Tommy Tycho, an immigrant from Hungary. It was commissioned by ABC Music in 1984 and then televised by Channel 10 in 1986 in their Australia Day broadcast, featuring Julie Anthony as the soloist.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26797655, 48760421, 342308, 2200910 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 238, 249 ], [ 301, 310 ], [ 341, 351 ], [ 404, 417 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The national anthem was changed on 1 January 2021 by proclamation of the Governor-General on the advice of the Federal Executive Council. The change prior to that was on 19 April 1984.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 12601, 1137489 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 73, 89 ], [ 111, 136 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lyrics of \"Advance Australia Fair\", as modified by the National Australia Day Council, were officially adopted in April 1984. The lyrics were updated as of 1 January 2021 in an attempt to recognise the legacy of Indigenous Australians, with the word \"one\" in the second line replacing the previous \"young\". The lyrics are now as follows:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Lyrics", "target_page_ids": [ 9157799, 12598742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 89 ], [ 216, 238 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the original lyrics were written in 1878, there have been several changes, in some cases with the intent of altering the anthem's political focus especially in regard to gender neutrality and Indigenous Australians. Some of these have been minor while others have significantly altered the song. The original song was four verses long. For its 1984 adoption as the national anthem, the song was cut from the four verses to two. The first verse was kept largely as the 1878 original, except for the change in the first line from \" let us rejoice\" to \" let us rejoice\". The second, third and fourth verses of the original were dropped, in favour of a modified version of the new third verse which was sung at Federation in 1901.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development of lyrics", "target_page_ids": [ 296726, 12598742, 1241326 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 176, 193 ], [ 198, 220 ], [ 713, 723 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lyrics published in the second edition (1879) were as follows:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development of lyrics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 1901 Federation version of the third verse was originally sung as:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development of lyrics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The lyrics of \"Advance Australia Fair\", as modified by the National Australia Day Council and officially adopted on 19 April 1984, were as follows:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development of lyrics", "target_page_ids": [ 9157799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 89 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These lyrics were updated on 1 January 2021 to the Lyrics, in which \"young\" in the second line is replaced with \"one\" to reflect the pre-colonial presence of Indigenous Australians.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Development of lyrics", "target_page_ids": [ 12598742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 158, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In May 1976, after reinstating \"God Save the Queen\", Fraser advised the Australian Olympic Federation to use \"Waltzing Matilda\" as the national anthem for the forthcoming Montréal Olympic Games (July–August 1976). Fraser responded to criticism of \"Waltzing Matilda\" compared with \"Advance Australia Fair\", and countered, \"in the second verse... we find these words, 'Britannia rules the waves'.\" Despite the outcome of the 1977 plebiscite to choose the National Song favouring \"Advance Australia Fair\", successive Fraser Ministries did not implement the change.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 2332307, 72622, 24316342 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 101 ], [ 171, 193 ], [ 514, 531 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The fourth line of the anthem, \"our home is girt by sea\", has been criticised for using the so-called archaic word \"girt\". Additionally, the lyrics and melody of the Australian national anthem have been criticised in some quarters as being dull and unendearing to the Australian people. National Party senator Sandy Macdonald said in 2001 that \"Advance Australia Fair\" is so boring that the nation risks singing itself to sleep, with boring music and words impossible to understand.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 233963, 21927, 2889663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 102, 109 ], [ 287, 301 ], [ 310, 325 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Political sentiment is divided. Craig Emerson of the Australian Labor Party has critiqued the anthem, former MP Peter Slipper has said that Australia should consider another anthem, in 2011 former Victorian Premier Jeff Kennett suggested \"I Am Australian\", while former Australian Labor Party leader Kim Beazley defended it.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 561269, 1495, 595759, 63591, 1889044, 1495, 322538 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 45 ], [ 53, 75 ], [ 112, 125 ], [ 215, 227 ], [ 239, 254 ], [ 270, 292 ], [ 300, 311 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The song has been criticised for failing to represent or acknowledge Australia's Indigenous peoples and aspects of the country's colonial past. The lyrics have been accused of celebrating British colonisation and perpetuating the concept of terra nullius, with the second line of the anthem (\"for we are young and free\") criticised in particular for ignoring the long history of Indigenous Australians. It has also been suggested that the word \"fair\" celebrates the \"civilising\" mission of British colonists.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 12598742, 247874, 7705856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 99 ], [ 241, 254 ], [ 363, 401 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since about 2015, public debate about the anthem has increased. Boxer Anthony Mundine stated in 2013, 2017 and 2018 that he would not stand for the anthem, prompting organisers not to play it before his fights. In September 2018 a 9-year-old Brisbane girl was disciplined by her school after refusing to stand for the national anthem; her actions were applauded by some public commenters, and criticised by others. In 2019, several National Rugby League football players decided not to sing the anthem before the first match of the State of Origin series and before the Indigenous All-Stars series with New Zealand; NRL coach and celebrated former player Mal Meninga supported the protesting players and called for a referendum on the subject.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 1483431, 192093, 255709, 482080, 19944331, 4913064, 957217 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 86 ], [ 243, 251 ], [ 433, 454 ], [ 533, 548 ], [ 571, 591 ], [ 604, 615 ], [ 656, 667 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several alternative versions of \"Advance Australia Fair\" have been proposed to address the alleged exclusion of Indigenous Australians. Judith Durham of The Seekers and Mutti Mutti musician Kutcha Edwards released their alternative lyrics in 2009, replacing \"for we are young and free\" with the opening lines \"Australians let us stand as one, upon this sacred land\". In 2015, Aboriginal Australian soprano Deborah Cheetham declined an invitation to sing the anthem at the 2015 AFL grand final after the AFL turned down her request to replace the words \"for we are young and free\" with \"in peace and harmony\". She has advocated for the lyrics being rewritten and endorsed Durham and Edwards' alternative version.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 65942, 31085, 44271685, 20194631, 24254904, 4732785 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 136, 149 ], [ 153, 164 ], [ 169, 180 ], [ 190, 204 ], [ 406, 422 ], [ 477, 480 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2017 the Recognition in Anthem Project was established and began work on a new version, with lyrics written by poet and former Victorian Supreme Court judge Peter Vickery following consultation with Indigenous communities and others. Vickery's proposed lyrics replaced \"we are young and free\" with \"we are one and free\" in the first verse, deleted the second and added two new ones; the second verse acknowledging Indigenous history, immigration and calls for unity and respect, and the third adapting lines from the official second verse. It was debuted at the Desert Song Festival in Alice Springs by an Aboriginal choir. Former prime minister Bob Hawke endorsed Vickery's alternative lyrics in 2018. In 2017, the federal government under then prime minister Malcolm Turnbull granted permission for Vickery's lyrics to be sung at certain occasions as a \"patriotic song\", but said that before making any official change to the anthem, \"The Government would need to be convinced of a sufficient groundswell of support in the wider community\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 40709170, 183935, 314742 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 173 ], [ 589, 602 ], [ 764, 780 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In November 2020, NSW Premier Gladys Berejiklian proposed changing one word in the opening couplet, from \"we are young and free\" to \"we are one and free\", to acknowledge Australia's Indigenous history. The proposal was supported by the federal Minister for Indigenous Australians, Ken Wyatt, and in December 2020 Prime Minister Scott Morrison announced that this change would be adopted from 1 January 2021, having received approval from Governor-General David Hurley.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticism", "target_page_ids": [ 7219220, 40544488, 28464298, 14521782, 12601, 16442028 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 30, 48 ], [ 244, 279 ], [ 281, 290 ], [ 328, 342 ], [ 438, 454 ], [ 455, 467 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Lyrics for the anthem have been written twice in the Dharug language, an Australian Aboriginal language spoken around Sydney by the Dharawal people.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Dharawal lyrics", "target_page_ids": [ 4419591, 345155, 27862, 6894589 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 53, 68 ], [ 73, 103 ], [ 118, 124 ], [ 132, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A first version was first performed in July 2010, at a Rugby League State of Origin match in Sydney, though there was some opposition:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Dharawal lyrics", "target_page_ids": [ 1954843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2020, another setting, in Dharug, followed by the anthem in English, was sung before a Rugby Union international between Australia and Argentina:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Dharawal lyrics", "target_page_ids": [ 25405, 18951905 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 110 ], [ 147, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011, about fifty different Christian schools from different denominations came under criticism for singing an unofficial version of the song written by the Sri Lankan immigrant Ruth Ponniah in 1988. The song replaced the official second verse of \"Advance Australia Fair\" with lyrics that were Christian in nature.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other unofficial variants", "target_page_ids": [ 26750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 160, 169 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Minister for School Education, Early Childhood and Youth Peter Garrett and chief executive of the National Australia Day Council Warren Pearson admonished the schools for modifying the lyrics of the anthem, and the Australian Parents Council and the Federation of Parents and Citizens' Association of NSW called for a ban on the modified song. Stephen O'Doherty, chief executive of Christian Schools Australia, defended the use of the lyrics in response.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Other unofficial variants", "target_page_ids": [ 4978971, 157428, 9157799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 56 ], [ 57, 70 ], [ 98, 128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Lyrics on official government website", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Streaming audio of Advance Australia Fair with links and information (archive link)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Brief history", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Australian Government websites:", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Official published lyrics, music with band parts and sound recordings", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Four-part musical score & lyrics PDF 169 KB ", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Australian National Anthem Audio for download (MP3 2.04 MB)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Department of Foreign Affair and Trade's webpage on Advance Australia Fair", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Online scores held by Australian government libraries (The MusicAustralia collaboration)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Advance Australia Fair (Original Lyrics) – Australian singer Peter Dawson (c. 1930)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " MIDI version", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Oceanian_anthems", "National_symbols_of_Australia", "Australian_patriotic_songs", "1878_songs", "National_anthems", "National_anthem_compositions_in_C_major", "Music_controversies" ]

[ "Australia's national anthem", "national anthem of Australia" ]

[ { "plaintext": "An automatic number announcement circuit (ANAC) is a component of a central office of a telephone company that provides a service to installation and service technicians to determine the telephone number of a line. The facility has a telephone number that may be called to listen to an automatic announcement that includes the caller's telephone number.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 47005, 18790468, 59602 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 105 ], [ 187, 203 ], [ 209, 213 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ANAC number is useful primarily during the installation of landline telephones to quickly identify one of multiple lines.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A technician calls the local telephone number of the automatic number announcement service. This call is connected to equipment at a local central office that uses a voice synthesizer or digital samples to announce the telephone number of the line calling in. The main purpose of this system is to allow telephone company technicians to identify the telephone line they are connected to.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 26668156, 42799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 139, 153 ], [ 206, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Automatic number announcement systems are based on automatic number identification, and meant for phone company technicians, the ANAC system works with unlisted numbers, numbers with caller ID blocking, and numbers with no outgoing calls allowed. Installers of multi-line business services where outgoing calls from all lines display the company's main number on call display can use ANAC to identify a specific line in the system, even if CID displays every line as \"line one\".", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 250906, 406844 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 82 ], [ 152, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some ANACs are very regional or local in scope, while others are state-/province- or area-code-wide: there appears to be no consistent national system for them. Most are provider-specific. Every telephone company, whether large or small, determines its own ANAC for each individual central office, which tends to perpetuate the current situation of a mess of overlapping and/or spotty areas of coverage. No official lists of ANAC numbers are published as telephone companies believe overuse of these numbers could make them more likely to be busy when needed by installers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 627405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 94 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under the North American Numbering Plan, almost all North American area codes reserve telephone numbers beginning with 958 and 959 for internal local and long-distance testing (respectively), sometimes called plant testing. (One exception is Winnipeg, which reserves 959 only.) Numbers within this block are used for various test utilities such as a ringback number (to test the ringer when installing telephone sets), milliwatt tone (a number simply answers with a continuous test tone) and a loop around (which connects a call to another inbound call to the same or another test number). ANAC numbers can also appear in the 958 range, but there is no requirement that they reside there.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 214971, 3778285, 450637, 30003, 188261, 4436402 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 39 ], [ 242, 250 ], [ 350, 365 ], [ 402, 411 ], [ 477, 486 ], [ 494, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In some area codes, multiple additional prefixes had been reserved for test purposes, in addition to the standard 958 and 959. Many area codes reserved 999; 320 was also formerly reserved in Bell Canada territory. As widespread inefficiencies in numbering (such as the assignment of entire blocks of 10000 numbers to every competing carrier in every small village to support local number portability schemes) have created shortages of available numbers, these prefixes are often \"reclaimed\" and issued as standard exchanges, moving the handful of numbers in them to one standard test exchange (usually 958).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 252579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 191, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some carriers have been known to disable payphone calls to 958 or 959 test lines, such as Bell Canada's system-wide ANAC line at (area code) 958-2580. Conversely, a standard line on which voice service has been unsubscribed (such as an ADSL dry loop) may still accept calls to the 958 test exchange but not allow calls to standard numbers. This \"soft disconnect\" condition is intended to allow calls to 9-1-1 emergency services and to the telco business office to order telephone service, but to no other numbers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 163387, 18934536, 4237345, 146296 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 49 ], [ 236, 240 ], [ 241, 249 ], [ 403, 427 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some large telephone companies have toll-free numbers set up. In most cases, these numbers remain undisclosed to prevent abuse, but MCI maintains this widely published, toll-free ANAC: 1-800-437-7950. This is distinct from technical support and other lines which use ANI so that a computer can automatically display the customer's account on a \"screen pop\" for the next available customer service representative: the MCI number is intended specifically for ANAC use.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 406726, 250906, 3100556, 978916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 52 ], [ 267, 270 ], [ 345, 355 ], [ 380, 396 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Formerly, some companies changed their ANAC number every month for secrecy; this is still the case with a few numbers. In one example of this concern, most payphones in the United States are assigned a telephone number and can ring if the number is called. The phone can then be used to make and receive calls by anyone, making it a potential tool in anonymous criminal activity such as narcotics trafficking. Where a payphone does not have any number listed on the unit, the number can be discovered by calling an ANAC service.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 218449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 387, 408 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Late in the 20th century, after caller ID and pre-paid cell phone service became commonplace and with these services being more easily exploited for criminal purposes, especially in the case of burner phones, this type of abuse of payphones faded from concern. In Canada, this behaviour has always been more difficult. As a matter of course, incoming calls to payphones are disabled; furthermore, the Bell ANAC number is also disabled (although the telephone number is marked on the payphone itself as it is needed to report a non-working coin phone to 6-1-1 repair service).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 162281, 1234735, 9875, 1234735, 561309 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 41 ], [ 46, 65 ], [ 135, 142 ], [ 194, 207 ], [ 553, 558 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There are some private national toll-free numbers that use ANI and then have a computer read back the number that is calling, but these are not intended for use in identifying the customer's own phone number. They are used in order for the agent in the call center to confirm the phone the customer is calling from, so that a computer can automatically display the customer's account on a \"screen pop\" for the next available customer service representative; they are distinct from purpose-made toll-free ANAC numbers. Regardless, if one were to call one of these numbers, listen for the number confirmation and hang up, they would in effect be using this system as if it were an ANAC.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [ 250906, 7243, 3100556, 978916 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 62 ], [ 253, 264 ], [ 390, 400 ], [ 425, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One such toll-free service is one owned by MCI - 1-800-444-4444. This number (US only) is easy to remember and, when called, will read back the number after a very short message. A suspended (out of service) line or an incoming only line would not be able to reach any toll-free numbers.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Operation", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "These numbers appear on various lists circulated on-line, many from the 1980s and 1990s. Most were published years ago by Phrack, 2600 Magazine, the alt.2600 Usenet newsgroup (as part of the FAQ) or phone phreaks and are now hopelessly outdated. The information is not reliable, as numbers change often. Many of the listed numbers no longer work.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 37076, 18588994, 10916, 89972 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 128 ], [ 158, 164 ], [ 191, 194 ], [ 199, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The list is presented by area code, number and location. In some regions, there are several numbers, depending on the telephone company or the area code of the caller, as there can be several central offices serving some areas.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The North American Numbering Plan reserves 958-XXXX and 1-NPA-959-XXXX for local and long-distance test numbers in almost all USA and Canadian area codes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 214971 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Frequently, a prefix outside the 958 or 959 range (such as 200, 997, 998, 999) was also listed as a test exchange, only to be reclaimed and issued as a block of standard numbers at a later date. NANPA's utilised codes report will indicate 'UA' (unassignable) for valid test prefixes; if a formerly 'UA' code newly appears on the available list or becomes an active exchange, any former test numbers from its time as a reserved prefix are presumed invalid and deprecated. N11 prefixes such as 211, 311 and 511 are also disappearing as test numbers as these codes are reassigned to local services such as city, community or highway information.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 677464, 296859, 296669, 561317 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 471, 474 ], [ 492, 495 ], [ 497, 500 ], [ 505, 508 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "958, 959 test prefixes The standard location for test numbers in most NANP area codes, although specific local numbers vary. 1-NPA-959 traditionally contained long-distance test numbers, but this convention is often ignored; AT&T's 959-1122 and GTE (Verizon)'s 959-1114 are local. Some area codes will flag additional codes as 'UA' or unassignable, in some cases reserving them for test numbers.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A few commonly-used 958 or 959 numbers for major incumbent landline carriers:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 958, as a three-digit number in many former NYNEX/Bell Atlantic areas, now Verizon or FairPoint (207 Maine, 212 New York, 215 Pennsylvania, 315 New York, 413 Massachusetts, 508 Massachusetts, 516 New York, 603 New Hampshire, 609 New Jersey, 610 Pennsylvania, 617 Massachusetts, 718 New York, 732 New Jersey, 856 New Jersey, 958 New Jersey)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 526458, 9195534 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 45, 50 ], [ 87, 96 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 959-1114 Verizon, for all former GTE points in California (area codes 310, 714, 760, 805); also Southwestern Virginia (276), Farmersburg/North Terre Haute/South Terre Haute/Riley Indiana (812) and Durham, North Carolina (919)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 18619278, 12611 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ], [ 34, 37 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 959-1122 PacBell (AT&T), all points (California area codes 209, 213, 310, 408, 415, 510, 530, 619, 650, 714, 760, 805, 831, 909, 916 and 925)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 536576, 17555269 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 17 ], [ 19, 23 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 959-1122 Southwestern Bell (AT&T), (417 Missouri, 620 Kansas, 816 Missouri, 913 Kansas, 817 Texas, 972 Texas and 682 Texas)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 30865021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 27 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 959-3111 CenturyLink All circuits", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 23069970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Numbers otherwise vary arbitrarily by locality:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 216: 959-9892 Akron/Canton/Cleveland/Lorain/Youngstown, Ohio", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 301: 958-9968 Hagerstown/Rockville, Maryland", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 309: 959-1114 Central Illinois (Frontier, Ex-Verizon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 309: 959-9833 Quad City Illinois Area (AT&T)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 412: 959-1114 Pittsburgh Pennsylvania (Verizon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 503: 958 Portland, Oregon (CLEC, MCIMetro ATS)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 602/623/480: 958-7847 Phoenix Metro Area (Qwest)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 610: 958-4100 Allentown/Reading, Pennsylvania", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 717: 958 Harrisburg/Scranton/Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania <CenturyLink: \"Sorry but your call can not be completed\">", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 724: 959-1114 Pittsburgh Pennsylvania (Verizon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 787: 787-959-1240 Puerto Rico (PRTC)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 787: 787-959-1250 Puerto Rico (PRTC)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 805: 959-1123 Bakersfield/San Luis Obispo, California (?) (Returns DTMF Tones)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 814: 958-2111 Cresson, Pennsylvania", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 850: 959-3111 Tallahassee, Florida", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 860: 959-9822 Connecticut", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 919: 959-1031 Raleigh/Cary/Apex, North Carolina area. (BellSouth/AT&T) Dial as 7-digits.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 919: 959-1041 Raleigh/Cary/Apex, North Carolina area. (BellSouth/AT&T) Dial as 7-digits.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 970: 958-(any 4 digits) Greeley, Colorado (Qwest)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 973: 973-959-3111 Northern New Jersey (Centurylink)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other regionally nonassignable (UA) test prefixes These are, over time, being phased out. As each reservation consumes a block of 10000 numbers, the prefixes are increasingly being recovered for use as regular exchange codes and the test numbers moved (usually) to 958-XXXX. If the number is active for test, the prefix listed (often 200, 990, 997, 998, 999) remains within a block currently marked by NANPA.com as unassignable in the one specified area code. These test numbers will be shut down before the 'UA' flag is removed, the prefix made available or reassigned as a standard exchange.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 210: 830 Brownsville/Laredo/San Antonio, Texas", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 214: 970-222-2222 Dallas, Texas (Southwestern Bell)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 214: 970-611-1111 Dallas, Texas (Southwestern Bell)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 312: 200 Chicago, Illinois (Ameritech)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 313: 200-200-2002 Ann Arbor/Dearborn/Detroit, Michigan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 313: 200-222-2222 Ann Arbor/Dearborn/Detroit, Michigan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 313: 200-200-200-200-200 Ann Arbor/Dearborn/Detroit, Michigan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 315: 998 Syracuse/Utica, New York", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 412: 975 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (Verizon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 508: 200-222-1234 Fall River/New Bedford/Worcester, Massachusetts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 508: 200-222-2222 Fall River/New Bedford/Worcester, Massachusetts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 508: 260-11 Fall River/New Bedford/Worcester, Massachusetts (Verizon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 512: 830 Austin/Corpus Christi, Texas", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 513: 380-55555555 Cincinnati/Dayton, Ohio", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 518: 997 Albany/Schenectady/Troy, New York", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 518: 998 Albany/Schenectady/Troy, New York", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 607: 993 Binghamton/Elmira, New York", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 617: 200-222-1234 Boston, Massachusetts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 617: 200-222-2222 Boston, Massachusetts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 617: 200-444-4444 Boston, Massachusetts (Woburn, Massachusetts)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 617: 220 Boston, Massachusetts (Verizon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 617: 220-2622 Boston, Massachusetts (Verizon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 618: 930 Alton/Cairo/Mt. Vernon, Illinois", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 724: 975 Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (Verizon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 781: 200-222-2222 Boston, Massachusetts", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 810: 200-200-200-200-200 Flint/Pontiac/Southfield/Troy, Michigan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 817: 970-611-1111 Ft. Worth/Waco, Texas (Southwestern Bell)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 817: 970-1234 Ft. Worth, Texas (AT&T / SBC)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 914: 990-1111 Peekskill/Poughkeepsie/White Plains/Yonkers, New York", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vertical service codes, carrier-specific Most vertical service codes are activated with #, * or a leading 11- and are internal to an individual landline or wireless carrier. This block mostly contains codes to activate or deactivate features such as call forwarding, but rarely a test number may appear in this set.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 406816 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 250, 265 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 515: 552# Des Moines Metro Area (CLEC), Iowa", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 434: 118 Charlottesville, Virginia (Verified 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 732: *99 Central New Jersey (Optimum Phone Service)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 802: 111-2222 Vermont", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 909: 111 Riverside/San Bernardino Counties, California (GTE) <This is the GT Ringback/Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands code, no Idaho here>", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 909: 114 and 959-1114 Ontario/Pomona/San Bernardino, California (Current for all GTE switches in California)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 914: *99 Westchester County, New York (Cablevision/Optimum Voice)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Long-distance carrier-specific Area code 700 is reserved for carrier-specific numbers operated by interstate long-distance providers, such as AT&T. With the exception of 1-700-555-4141 (which identifies the default interexchange carrier on a line), all of these are LD carrier-specific. Area code 700 is therefore rarely used.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 3602032 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 44 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 802: 1-700-222-2222 Vermont", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Area code 1-200 There is no non-geographic area code 200, although exchange 1-NPA-200-XXXX now exists in many local area codes (if it has not been explicitly reserved). The 1-200 area has occasionally been used as an unused space in which to place test numbers, but is rare as in most communities a 1- indicates a long-distance trunk call.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 312: 1-200-555-1212 Chicago, Illinois", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 312: 1-200-8825 Chicago, Illinois (Last Four Change Rapidly)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 708: 1-200-555-1212 Chicago/Elgin, Illinois", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 708: 1-200-8825 Chicago/Elgin, Illinois (Last Four Change Rapidly)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 906: 1-200-222-2222 Marquette/Sault Ste. Marie, Michigan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Local numbers These are regular numbers within valid local exchanges in the communities listed. Many belong to competitive local exchange carriers or independent telephone company exchanges. Supposedly, a test call gives an automatic announcement. Some may announce caller ID instead of ANI; these will incur a toll (if they work at all) for calls outside their home area. These are unverified; there is a risk these will be reassigned to individual subscribers:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 307830, 15715105 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 145 ], [ 150, 179 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 209: 888-6945 Stockton, California (Reads ANAC and CNAM) (out of service, returns false answer supervision 2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 334: 557-2311 Montgomery, Alabama (CLEC) (no answer, 2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 334: 557-2411 Montgomery, Alabama (CLEC) (busy/no answer, 2013)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 419: 353-1206 Bowling Green, Ohio (Frontier) (Verified March 2022 - Works from Verizon, but not from AT&T and VoIP carriers)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 503: 266-1021 Canby-Needy, Oregon (Canby Telephone Association, independent, returns ANI) (Verified March 2022, but does not supervise; will not work via Google Voice)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 503: 697-0053 Clackamas/Lake Oswego, Oregon (Qwest, returns Caller ID) (Verified May 2018, but will only work when calling from the Centurylink Lake Oswego exchange)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 505: 243-0049 Albuquerque, New Mexico (Quest, returns Caller ID, additional test menu) (Verified March 2022)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 508: 200-5555 Worcester, Massachusetts (Dial 7 digits—City VZ landlines only?) (Verified September 2019 via Worcester 5ESS)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 515: 280-1241 Des Moines, Iowa (Qwest, returns Caller ID, additional test menu) (Verified March 2022)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 541: 330-0024 Bend, Oregon (Qwest, returns Caller ID, additional test menu) (Verified March 2022)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 561: 364-1781 Boynton Beach, Florida (Bellsouth, West Palm Beach/Jupiter/Juno Beach, returns Caller ID) (out of service, dead air, March 2022)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 570: 674-0086 Dallas, Pennsylvania (Frontier/Commonwealth Telephone) (Verified March 2022)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 602: 253-0227 Phoenix, Arizona (Qwest) (No answer, February 2018) (Reassigned to customer December 2019)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 608: 884-1206 Edgerton, Wisconsin (Frontier North, 7 digits only, returns Caller ID) (Verified March 2022)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 702: 889-4579 Las Vegas, Nevada (CenturyLink) (no answer, 2014) (No answer, February 2018)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 712: 563-1206 Audubon, Iowa (Windstream) (Out of service, March 2022)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 747: 268-1966 La Cañada Flintridge, California (FPPTN/California Bell) (Out of service, March 2022)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 806: 863-9999 Woodrow, Texas (South Plains Telephone Co-Op) (Out of service, March 2022)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 812: 462-1218 Terre Haute, Indiana (Frontier North) (no answer, 2014)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "N-1-1 numbers These are mostly dead, except in rare locations where some of the standard information numbers (2-1-1 through 8-1-1) have not yet been assigned to their usual function. The corresponding test number will stop working when 2-1-1 becomes community info, 3-1-1 becomes city or county hall, 4-1-1 becomes directory info or 5-1-1 provides highway conditions, for instance. With rare exception, one should not expect these numbers to be valid.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 402: 311 Lincoln, Nebraska (Verified 2016)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 410: 811 Annapolis/Baltimore, Maryland", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 419: 311 Toledo, Ohio", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 434: 311 Danville, Virginia (Verizon)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 501: 511 Arkansas", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 503: 611 Portland, Oregon", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 515: 811 Des Moines, Iowa", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 540: 311 Roanoke, Virginia (GTE) (Verified 2016)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 703: 811 Alexandria/Arlington/Roanoke, Virginia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 713: 811 Humble, Texas", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 810: 311 Pontiac/Southfield/Troy, Michigan", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 907: 811 Alaska", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 908: 311-MMYY Northern New Jersey (Embarq, now CenturyTel) (MMYY is current Month/Year)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Please note that it is always preferable to call the local ANAC; only if the local ANAC number can not be called is it advisable to call a toll-free ANAC number. It is also preferable to call an open ANAC rather than the password-protected one given below.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1-800-444-4444 MCI ANAC (no input needed) (Verified January 25, 2022 from Raleigh NC) (not reachable from Canada)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1-800-437-7950 MCI ANAC (no input needed) (Verified January 25, 2022 from Raleigh NC) (Verified March 9, 2021 from Canada)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1-800-223-1104 PASSWORD-PROTECTED ANAC 195632 (Verified June 20, 2020)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1-855-343-2255 TracFone ANAC (press 1 for English) (January 25, 2022 from Raleigh NC)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1-855-227-3250 Consolidated Communications ANAC (January 25, 2022 from Raleigh NC)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1-877-521-2311 CenturyLink (Verified March 9, 2021 from US & Canada)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The below numbers are not true ANAC numbers; however, they do read back one's phone number. These numbers provide valuable services to the customers they serve; it is, therefore, inadvisable to misuse them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1-800-225-5313 BANK OF SOUTH SIDE VIRGINIA, FRAUD DEPT (press 1) (Verified March 9, 2021 from US and Canada)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1-800-225-5214 NATIONAL CAPITAL BANK OF WASHINGTON, FRAUD DEPT (press 1) (Verified April 2018)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1-800-444-2222 MCI customer service (business) (Verified March 9, 2021 from US and Canada)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1-800-444-3333 MCI customer service (residential) (Verified March 9, 2021 from US and Canada)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1-800-314-4258, 1-800-444-0800, 1-800-444-4444, 1-800-950-5555 and 1-888-624-9266 (press 2 at prompt) are also often listed as MCI customer service.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1-800-660-2626, 1- 800-288-2020 AT&T Customer Service (Verified April 2018)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The current use of exchange prefixes for each area code is listed by CNAC; if an exchange changes from \"plant test\" to reclaimed or active, any former test numbers with the associated prefix are invalidated. Commonly-used test numbers for major carriers (dialled with any of the local area codes, as 10 digits) include:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 555-0311 Rogers (403 Alberta, 519 613 Ontario)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 372874 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 958-2580 Bell Canada (519 613 416 705 905 Ontario, 450 418 438 514 579 581 819 873 Quebec)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 252579 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 958-6111 Telus landline (403 780 Alberta, 250 BC)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 160073 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 959-4444 Manitoba Telecom Services (204 MB) (959 is used since 958 is a regular Winnipeg exchange, not a test prefix)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 706817 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 958-9999 Bell Aliant (506 NB, 709 NL)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 867903 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " 958-2222 Eastlink", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 2060211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 10, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "These numbers are carrier specific and may be blocked from some individual payphones.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Additional plant test codes may be in use locally in some areas:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "403: 555-0311 Alberta (GroupTel - may work in other parts of Canada - untested)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "306: 958-1115 Saskatchewan (SaskTel - Bell 306 Mobility does not connect)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "604: 1116 British Columbia (Telus)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "604: 1211 British Columbia (Telus)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "819: 959-1135 Most of Outaouais region (Bell Canada)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "604: 827-2440 University of British Columbia", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Occasionally, a number in an existing, standard local exchange in the area is used. These will incur a toll (and might not work) outside their home area. Some may be announcing caller ID, which is not the same as ANI. As standard local calls, they are not accessible from ADSL \"dry loop\", inbound-only or unsubscribed lines:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 162281 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 177, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "403: 705-0311 Calgary, Alberta (Allstream - gives \"call cannot be completed as dialled\" in other parts of Canada, identifying as Allstream, active November 2019)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "416: 477-0034 Toronto, Ontario (Fibernetics - Verified January 2021)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "416: 477-0035 Toronto, Ontario (Fibernetics - verified January 2021; this number allows you to leave a message for reasons not yet determined)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "416: 981-0001 Toronto, Ontario (verified July 2010) (busy, September 2015)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "418: 380-0099 Quebec City (Vidéotron - verified 2017)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 100727 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "905: 310-3789 Mississauga, ON (Now no longer includes loop line or ringback. In NPAs where Bell Canada is incumbent, 310-xxxx is assigned as a pseudo-tollfree exchange which may be called at local call rates from an entire area code.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 160089 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Bell Canada territory, +1-areacode-320 was formerly reserved for 320-xxxx test numbers; these were moved to the 958-xxxx range and 320-xxxx reclaimed for use as a standard exchange. 958-ANAC was in use by Bell Canada (416 Toronto) but looks to have been replaced by 416-958-2580. The use of N11 prefixes (such as 3-1-1) for test numbers is also deprecated as 3-1-1 now often reaches city hall or municipal services while 2-1-1 is local community information.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 252579, 383746 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 14 ], [ 386, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some lists erroneously mention 1-555-1313 as ANAC (506 New Brunswick). The purpose of +1-areacode-555-1313, a pay-per-use \"name that number\" reverse lookup information service introduced in the mid-1990s, differs from ANAC. ANAC announces the caller's own number; the reverse lookup gives the directory name for a listed telephone number input by the user. 555-1313 is one of the rare uses of the 555 exchange for other than the standard 555-1212 directory information line.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 481348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 393, 409 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "17070, Openreach Linetest Facilities", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "020 8759 9036, same recording as 17070 but useful on LLU and cable lines where 17070's functionality is limited. Not usable on mobiles.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "0808 170 7788, it does have a long introductory message, but it is useful on COCOTs which have 17070 barred.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 163387 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "18866, Same recording as 0808 170 7788 but a shorter number to remember.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "020 8180 3803, Same recording as 0808 170 7788. These numbers are set up by a company offering low-charge calls in the UK, these numbers are meant to be used as a sort of operator routed through in order to qualify for these cheap calls. However, if the phone these numbers are dialled from is already registered with this company it will not announce the number.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "19 9000", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "This service announces the line number on all Eir lines, including lines where calls are carried by another provider using carrier preselect.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 381580, 4671745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 49 ], [ 123, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The same number also works for lines provided by local-loop unbundling.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [ 18457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 70 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The number is called out without the leading 0. For example, 021 XXX XXXX is read back as \"21 XXX XXXX\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "There is also an extended ANAC service for identifying which carrier handles calls. Dialling these numbers will cause the local switch to announce which carrier the calls are being routed through for a specific category of calls.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "19 800 - International calls", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "19 822 - Local calls", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "19 801 - Calls to other parts of the Republic of Ireland, Irish mobile numbers and to landlines in Northern Ireland.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (Not working in all networks)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "1800 801 920", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "127 22 123(Telstra landlines only)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1956 or 0 (8) 320-1231 area code and number", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1957 or 0 (8) 320-1234 local number", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Subscribers may also dial +64 (8) 320-1231 from overseas to test if the (CPN) Caller ID number is being passed on to New Zealand; this should announce the area code and local number as it appears on call display.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "+27 21 405 9111 Cape Town ANAC", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "+27 21 405 9116 Cape Town ANAC with callback", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "+27 10 130 0999 Johannesburg ANAC", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "+27 31 120 0999 Durban ANAC", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "+27 87 180 0999 VoIP ANAC", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "+27 84 190 0048 Mobile ANAC", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "ANAC numbers", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Plant test number", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 39438399 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ringback number", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 450637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Automatic number announcement circuit numbers and recordings", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Telephone_numbers", "Telephony_signals" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Amerigo Vespucci (; ; 9 March 1451 – 22 February 1512) was an Italian merchant, explorer, and navigator from the Republic of Florence, from whose name the term \"America\" is derived.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 385155, 292676, 174683 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 69 ], [ 113, 133 ], [ 161, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1497 and 1504, Vespucci participated in at least two voyages of the Age of Discovery, first on behalf of Spain (14991500) and then for Portugal (15011502). In 1503 and 1505, two booklets were published under his name, containing colourful descriptions of these explorations and other alleged voyages. Both publications were extremely popular and widely read across much of Europe. Although historians still dispute the authorship and veracity of these accounts, at the time they were instrumental in raising awareness of the new discoveries and enhancing the reputation of Vespucci as an explorer and navigator.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 690842 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 92 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vespucci claimed to have understood, back in 1501 during his Portuguese expedition, that Brazil was part of a continent new to Europeans, which he called the \"New World\". The claim inspired cartographer Martin Waldseemüller to recognize Vespucci's accomplishments in 1507 by applying the Latinized form \"America\" for the first time to a map showing the New World. Other cartographers followed suit, and by 1532 the name America was permanently affixed to the newly discovered continents.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 2393552, 20651 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 168 ], [ 203, 223 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is unknown whether Vespucci was ever aware of these honours. In 1505, he was made a citizen of Castile by royal decree and in 1508, he was appointed to the newly created position of piloto mayor (master navigator) for Spain's Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) in Seville, a post he held until his death in 1512.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 750274, 1183294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 105 ], [ 229, 249 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vespucci was born on 9 March 1451, in Florence, a wealthy Italian city-state and a center of Renaissance art and learning.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 292676 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amerigo Vespucci was the third son of Nastagio Vespucci, a Florentine notary for the Money-Changers Guild, and Lisa di Giovanni Mini. The family resided in the District of Santa Lucia d'Ognissanti along with other families of the Vespucci clan. Earlier generations of Vespucci had funded a family chapel in the Ognissanti church, and the nearby Hospital of San Giovanni di Dio was founded by Simone di Piero Vespucci in 1380. Vespucci's immediate family was not especially prosperous but they were politically well-connected. Amerigo's grandfather, also named Amerigo Vespucci, served a total of 36 years as the chancellor of the Florentine government, known as the Signoria; and Nastagio also served in the Signoria and in other guild offices. More importantly, the Vespuccis had good relations with Lorenzo de' Medici, the powerful de facto ruler of Florence.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 297484, 865176, 18633, 43594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 76 ], [ 666, 674 ], [ 801, 819 ], [ 834, 842 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amerigo's two older brothers, Antonio and Girolamo, were sent to the University of Pisa for their education; Antonio followed his father to become a notary, while Girolamo entered the Church and joined the Knights Hospitaller in Rhodes. Amerigo's career path seemed less certain; instead of following his brothers to the university, he remained in Florence and was tutored by his uncle, Giorgio Antonio Vespucci, a Dominican friar in the monastery of San Marco. Fortunately for Amerigo, his uncle was one of the most celebrated humanist scholars in Florence at the time and provided him with a broad education in literature, philosophy, rhetoric, and Latin. He was also introduced to geography and astronomy, subjects that played an essential part in his career. Amerigo's later writings demonstrated a familiarity with the work of the classic Greek cosmographers, Ptolemy and Strabo, and the more recent work of Florentine astronomer Paolo dal Pozzo Toscanelli.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 453158, 8055956, 8973, 8419191, 23979, 52121, 1295715 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 87 ], [ 206, 225 ], [ 415, 430 ], [ 434, 460 ], [ 865, 872 ], [ 877, 883 ], [ 935, 961 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1478, Guido Antonio Vespucci led a Florentine diplomatic mission to Paris and invited his younger cousin, Amerigo Vespucci, to join him. Amerigo's role is not clear, but it was likely as an attache or private secretary. Along the way they had business in Bologna, Milan, and Lyon. Their objective in Paris was to obtain French support for Florence's war with Naples. Louis XI was noncommittal and the diplomatic mission returned to Florence in 1481 with little to show for their efforts.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 70506 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 370, 378 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After his return from Paris, Amerigo worked for a time with his father and continued his studies in science. In 1482, when his father died, Amerigo went to work for Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici, head of a junior branch of the Medici family. Although Amerigo was twelve years older, they had been schoolmates under the tutelage of Giorgio Antonio Vespucci. Amerigo served first as a household manager and then gradually took on increasing responsibilities, handling various business dealings for the family both at home and abroad. Meanwhile, he continued to show an interest in geography, at one point buying an expensive map made by the master cartographer Gabriel de Vallseca.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 297153, 31584795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 165, 200 ], [ 665, 684 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1488, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco became dissatisfied with his Seville business agent, Tomasso Capponi. He dispatched Vespucci to investigate the situation and provide an assessment of a suggested replacement, Florentine merchant Gianotto Berardi. Vespucci's findings have been lost but Capponi returned to Florence around this time and Berardi took over the Medici business in Seville. In addition to managing Medici's trade in Seville, Berardi had his own business in African slavery and ship chandlery.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 4269876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 490, 503 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1492 Vespucci had settled permanently in Seville. His motivations for leaving Florence are unclear; he continued to transact some business on behalf of his Medici patrons but more and more he became involved with Berardi's other activities, most notably his support of Christopher Columbus's voyages. Barardi invested half a million maravedis in Columbus's first voyage, and he won a potentially lucrative contract to provision Columbus's large second fleet. However, profits proved to be elusive. In 1495, Berardi signed a contract with the crown to send 12 resupply ships to Hispaniola but then died unexpectedly in December without completing the terms of the contract.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5635 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 272, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vespucci was the executor of Berardi's will, collecting debts and paying outstanding obligations for the firm. Afterwards he was left owing 140,000 maravedis. He continued to provision ships bound for the West Indies, but his opportunities were diminishing; Columbus's expeditions were not providing the hoped-for profits, and his patron, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco Medici, was using other Florentine agents for his business in Seville.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sometime after he settled in Seville, Vespucci married a Spanish woman, Maria Cerezo. Very little is known about her; Vespucci's will refers to her as the daughter of celebrated military leader Gonzalo Fernández de Córdoba. Historian Fernández-Armesto speculates that she may have been Gonzalo's illegitimate offspring and a connection that would have been very useful to Vespucci. She was an active participant in his business and held power of attorney for Vespucci when he was away.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 489919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 194, 222 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The evidence for Vespucci's voyages of exploration consists almost entirely of a handful of letters written by him or attributed to him. Historians have differed sharply on the authorship, accuracy and veracity of these documents. Consequently, opinions also vary widely regarding the number of voyages undertaken, their routes, and Vespucci's roles and accomplishments. Starting in the late 1490s Vespucci participated in two voyages to the New World that are relatively well-documented in the historical record. Two others have been alleged but the evidence is more problematical. Traditionally, Vespucci's voyages are referred to as the \"first\" through \"fourth\", even by historians who dismiss one or more of the trips.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A letter, addressed to Florentine official Piero Soderini, dated 1504 and published the following year, purports to be an account by Vespucci of a voyage to the New World, departing from Spain on 10 May 1497, and returning on 15 October 1498. This is perhaps the most controversial of Vespucci's voyages, as this letter is the only known record of its occurrence, and many historians doubt that it took place as described. Some question the authorship and accuracy of the letter and consider it to be a forgery. Others point to the inconsistencies in the narrative of the voyage, particularly the alleged course, starting near Honduras and proceeding northwest for 870 leagues (about )a course that would have taken them across Mexico to the Pacific Ocean.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 976736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Certain earlier historians, including contemporary Bartolomé de las Casas, suspected that Vespucci incorporated observations from a later voyage into a fictitious account of this supposed first one, so as to gain primacy over Columbus and position himself as the first European explorer to encounter the mainland. Others, including scholar Alberto Magnaghi, have suggested that the Solderini letter was not written by Vespucci at all, but rather by an unknown author who had access to the navigator's private letters to Lorenzo de' Medici about his 1499 and 1501 expeditions to the Americas, which make no mention of a 1497 voyage. The Soderini letter is one of two attributed to Vespucci that was edited and widely circulated during his lifetime.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 69830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1499, Vespucci joined an expedition licensed by Spain and led by Alonso de Ojeda as fleet commander and Juan de la Cosa as chief navigator. Their intention was to explore the coast of a new landmass found by Columbus on his third voyage and in particular investigate a rich source of pearls that Columbus had reported. Vespucci and his backers financed two of the four ships in the small fleet. His role on the voyage is not clear. Writing later about his experience, Vespucci gave the impression that he had a leadership role, but that is unlikely, due to his inexperience. Instead, he may have served as a commercial representative on behalf of the fleet's investors. Years later, Ojeda recalled that \"Morigo Vespuche\" was one of his pilots on the expedition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 758725, 959813 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 68, 83 ], [ 107, 122 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The vessels left Spain on 18 May 1499 and stopped first in the Canary Islands before reaching South America somewhere near present-day Surinam or French Guiana. From there the fleet split up: Ojeda proceeded northwest toward modern Venezuela with two ships, while the other pair headed south with Vespucci aboard. The only record of the southbound journey comes from Vespucci himself. He assumed they were on the coast of Asia and hoped by heading south they would, according to the Greek geographer Ptolemy, round the unidentified \"Cape of Cattigara\" and reach the Indian Ocean. They passed two huge rivers (the Amazon and the Para) which poured freshwater out to sea. They continued south for another 40 leagues (about ) before encountering a very strong adverse current which they could not overcome. Forced to turn around, the ships headed north, retracing their course to the original landfall. From there Vespucci continued up the South American coast to the Gulf of Paria and along the shore of what is now Venezuela. At some point they may have rejoined Ojeda but the evidence is unclear. In the late summer, they decided to head north for the Spanish colony at Hispaniola in the West Indies to resupply and repair their ships before heading home. After Hispaniola they made a brief slave raid in the Bahamas, capturing 232 natives, and then returned to Spain.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5717, 26828, 21350970, 3418022, 45678917, 14580, 1701, 2505386, 1103924, 13714, 5574915, 3451 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 77 ], [ 135, 142 ], [ 146, 159 ], [ 500, 507 ], [ 541, 550 ], [ 566, 578 ], [ 613, 619 ], [ 628, 632 ], [ 966, 979 ], [ 1171, 1181 ], [ 1189, 1200 ], [ 1310, 1317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1501, Manuel I of Portugal commissioned an expedition to investigate a landmass far to the west in the Atlantic Ocean encountered unexpectedly by a wayward Pedro Álvares Cabral on his voyage around Africa to India. That land would eventually become present-day Brazil. The king wanted to know the extent of this new discovery and determine where it lay in relation to the line established by the Treaty of Tordesillas. Any land that lay to the east of the line could be claimed by Portugal. Vespucci's reputation as an explorer and presumed navigator had already reached Portugal, and he was hired by the king to serve as pilot under the command of Gonçalo Coelho.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 144835, 246843, 73591, 2038487 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 29 ], [ 160, 180 ], [ 400, 421 ], [ 653, 667 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Coelho's fleet of three ships left Lisbon in May 1501. Before crossing the Atlantic they resupplied at Cape Verde, where they encountered Cabral on his way home from his voyage to India. This was the same expedition that had found Brazil on its outward-bound journey the previous year. Coelho left Cape Verde in June, and from this point Vespucci's account is the only surviving record of their explorations. On 17 August 1501 the expedition reached Brazil at a latitude of about 6° south. Upon landing it encountered a hostile band of natives who killed and ate one of its crewmen. Sailing south along the coast they found friendlier natives and were able to engage in some minor trading. At 23° S they found a bay which they named Rio de Janeiro because it was 1 January 1502. On 13 February 1502, they left the coast to return home. Vespucci estimated their latitude at 32° S but experts now estimate they were closer to 25° S. Their homeward journey is unclear since Vespucci left a confusing record of astronomical observations and distances travelled.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 18962637 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1503, Vespucci may have participated in a second expedition for the Portuguese crown, again exploring the east coast of Brazil. There is evidence that a voyage was led by Coelho at about this time but no independent confirmation that Vespucci took part. The only source for this last voyage is the Soderini letter; but several modern scholars dispute Vespucci's authorship of that letter and it is uncertain whether Vespucci undertook this trip. There are also difficulties with the reported dates and details in the account of this voyage.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By early 1505, Vespucci was back in Seville. His reputation as an explorer and navigator continued to grow and his recent service in Portugal did not seem to damage his standing with King Ferdinand. On the contrary, the king was likely interested in learning about the possibility of a western passage to India. In February, he was summoned by the king to consult on matters of navigation. During the next few months he received payments from the crown for his services and in April he was declared by royal proclamation a citizen of Castile and León.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "From 1505 until his death in 1512, Vespucci remained in service to the Spanish crown. He continued his work as a chandler, supplying ships bound for the Indies. He was also hired to captain a ship as part of a fleet bound for the \"spice islands\" but the planned voyage never took place. In March 1508, he was named chief pilot for the Casa de Contratación or House of Commerce which served as a central trading house for Spain's overseas possessions. He was paid an annual salary of 50,000 maravedis with an extra 25,000 for expenses. In his new role, Vespucci was responsible for ensuring that ships' pilots were adequately trained and licensed before sailing to the New World. He was also charged with compiling a \"model map\" based on input from pilots who were obligated to share what they learned after each voyage.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 1183294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 335, 355 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vespucci wrote his will in April 1511. He left most of his modest estate, including five household slaves, to his wife. His clothes, books, and navigational equipment were left to his nephew Giovanni Vespucci. He requested to be buried in a Franciscan habit in his wife's family tomb. Vespucci died on 22 February 1512.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Upon his death, Vespucci's wife was awarded an annual pension of 10,000 maravedis to be deducted from the salary of the successor chief pilot. His nephew Giovanni was hired into the Casa de Contratación where he spent his subsequent years spying on behalf of the Florentine state.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vespucci's voyages became widely known in Europe after two accounts attributed to him were published between 1503 and 1505. The Soderini letter (1505) came to the attention of a group of humanist scholars studying geography in Saint-Dié, a small French town in the Duchy of Lorraine. Led by Walter Lud, the academy included Matthias Ringmann and Martin Waldseemüller. In 1506, they obtained a French translation of the Soderini letter as well as a Portuguese maritime map that detailed the coast of lands recently discovered in the western Atlantic. They surmised that this was the \"new world\" or the \"antipodes\" hypothesized by classical writers. The Soderini letter gave Vespucci credit for discovery of this new continent and implied that the Portuguese map was based on his explorations.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Naming of America", "target_page_ids": [ 1138774, 49149, 1692198, 20651, 470457 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 227, 236 ], [ 265, 282 ], [ 324, 341 ], [ 346, 366 ], [ 602, 611 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In April 1507, Ringmann and Waldseemüller published their Introduction to Cosmography with an accompanying world map. The Introduction was written in Latin and included a Latin translation of the Soderini letter. In a preface to the Letter, Ringmann wrote ", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Naming of America", "target_page_ids": [ 1692094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A thousand copies of the world map were printed with the title Universal Geography According to the Tradition of Ptolemy and the Contributions of Amerigo Vespucci and Others. It was decorated with prominent portraits of Ptolemy and Vespucci and, for the first time, the name America was applied to a map of the New World.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Naming of America", "target_page_ids": [ 4522556 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 173 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Introduction and map were a great success and four editions were printed in the first year alone. The map was widely used in universities and was influential among cartographers who admired the craftsmanship that went into its creation. In the following years, other maps were printed that often incorporated the name America. In 1538, Gerardus Mercator used America to name both the North and South continents on his influential map. By this point the name had been securely fixed on the New World.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Naming of America", "target_page_ids": [ 61002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 340, 357 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many supporters of Columbus felt that Vespucci had stolen an honour that rightfully belonged to Columbus. Most historians now believe that he was unaware of Waldseemüller's map before his death in 1512 and many assert that he was not even the author of the Soderini letter.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Naming of America", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Knowledge of Vespucci's voyages relies almost entirely on a handful of letters written by him or attributed to him. Two of these letters were published during his lifetime and received widespread attention throughout Europe. Several scholars now believe that Vespucci did not write the two published letters in the form in which they circulated during his lifetime. They suggest that they were fabrications based in part on genuine Vespucci letters.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vespucci letters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Mundus Novus (1503) was a letter written to Vespucci's former schoolmate and one-time patron, Lorenzo di Pierfrancesco de' Medici. Originally published in Latin, the letter described his voyage to Brazil in 15011502 serving under the Portuguese flag. The document proved to be extremely popular throughout Europe. Within a year of publication, twelve editions were printed including translations into Italian, French, German, Dutch and other languages. By 1550, at least 50 editions had been issued. ", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vespucci letters", "target_page_ids": [ 297153 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 129 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Letter to Soderini (1505) was a letter ostensibly intended for Piero di Tommaso Soderini, the leader of the Florentine Republic. It was written in Italian and published in Florence around 1505. It is more sensational in tone than the other letters and the only one to assert that Vespucci made four voyages of exploration. The authorship and the veracity of the letter have been widely questioned by modern historians. Nevertheless, this document was the original inspiration for naming the American continent in honour of Amerigo Vespucci.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vespucci letters", "target_page_ids": [ 976736 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The remaining documents were unpublished manuscripts; handwritten letters uncovered by researchers more than 250 years after Vespucci's death. After years of controversy, the authenticity of the three complete letters was convincingly demonstrated by Alberto Magnaghi in 1924. Most historians now accept them as the work of Vespucci but aspects of the accounts are still disputed.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vespucci letters", "target_page_ids": [ 17796792 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 251, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Letter from Seville (1500) describes a voyage made in 14991500 while in the service of Spain. It was first published in 1745 by Angelo Maria Bandini.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vespucci letters", "target_page_ids": [ 56303927, 149455 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 19 ], [ 128, 148 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Letter from Cape Verde (1501) was written in Cape Verde at the outset of a voyage undertaken for Portugal in 15011502. It was first published by Count Baldelli Boni in 1807. It describes the first leg of the journey from Lisbon to Cape Verde and provides details about Pedro Cabral's voyage to India which were obtained when the two fleets met by chance while anchored in the harbour at Cape Verde.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vespucci letters", "target_page_ids": [ 246843 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 269, 283 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Letter from Lisbon (1502) is essentially a continuation of the letter started in Cape Verde. It describes the remainder of a voyage made on behalf of Portugal in 15011502. The letter was first published by Francesco Bartolozzi in 1789.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vespucci letters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ridolfi Fragment (1502) is part of a letter attributed to Vespucci but some of its assertions remain controversial. It was first published in 1937 by Roberto Ridolfi. The letter appears to be an argumentative response to questions or objections raised by the unknown recipient. A reference is made to three voyages made by Vespucci, two on behalf of Spain and one for Portugal.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Vespucci letters", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Vespucci has been called \"the most enigmatic and controversial figure in early American history\". The debate has become known among historians as the \"Vespucci question\". How many voyages did he make? What was his role on the voyages and what did he learn? The evidence relies almost entirely on a handful of letters attributed to him. Many historians have analysed these documents and have arrived at contradictory conclusions.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1515, Sebastian Cabot became one of the first to question Vespucci's accomplishments and express doubts about his 1497 voyage. Later, Bartolomé de las Casas argued that Vespucci was a liar and stole the credit that was due Columbus. By 1600, most regarded Vespucci as an impostor and not worthy of his honours and fame. In 1839, Alexander von Humboldt after careful consideration asserted the 1497 voyage was impossible but accepted the two Portuguese-sponsored voyages. Humboldt also called into question the assertion that Vespucci recognized that he had encountered a new continent. According to Humboldt, Vespucci (and Columbus) died in the belief that they had reached the eastern edge of Asia. Vespucci's reputation was perhaps at its lowest in 1856 when Ralph Waldo Emerson called Vespucci a \"thief\" and \"pickle dealer\" from Seville who managed to get \"half the world baptized with his dishonest name\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 517634, 69830, 70631, 26202 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 137, 159 ], [ 332, 354 ], [ 764, 783 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Opinions began to shift somewhat after 1857 when Brazilian historian Francisco Adolfo de Varnhagen wrote that everything in the Soderini letter was true. Other historians followed in support of Vespucci including John Fiske and Henry Harrisse.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 4040782, 195994, 47759561 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 69, 98 ], [ 213, 223 ], [ 228, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1924, Alberto Magnaghi published the results of his exhaustive review of Vespucci's writings and relevant cartography. He denied Vespucci's authorship of the 1503 Mundus Novus and the 1505 Letter to Soderini, the only two texts published during his lifetime. He suggested that the Soderini letter was not written by Vespucci, but was cobbled together by unscrupulous Florentine publishers who combined several accounts – some from Vespucci, others from elsewhere. Magnaghi determined that the manuscript letters were authentic and based on them he was the first to propose that only the second and third voyages were true, and the first and fourth voyages (only found in the Soderini letter) were fabrications. While Magnaghi has been one of the chief proponents of a two-voyage narrative, Roberto Levellier was an influential Argentinian historian who endorsed the authenticity of all Vespucci's letters and proposed the most extensive itinerary for his four voyages.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Other modern historians and popular writers have taken varying positions on Vespucci's letters and voyages, espousing two, three, or four voyages and supporting or denying the authenticity of his two printed letters. Most authors believe that the three manuscript letters are authentic while the first voyage as described in the Soderini letter draws the most criticism and disbelief.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A two-voyage thesis was accepted and popularized by Frederick J. Pohl (1944), and rejected by Germán Arciniegas (1955), who posited that all four voyages were truthful. Luciano Formisiano (1992) also rejects the Magnaghi thesis (acknowledging that publishers probably tampered with Vespucci's writings) and declares all four voyages genuine, but differs from Arciniegas in details (particularly the first voyage). Samuel Morison (1974) flatly rejected the first voyage but was noncommittal about the two published letters. Felipe Fernández-Armesto (2007) calls the authenticity question \"inconclusive\" and hypothesizes that the first voyage was probably another version of the second; the third is unassailable, and the fourth is probably true.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Historiography", "target_page_ids": [ 2583160, 9872547, 1211783 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 69 ], [ 94, 111 ], [ 523, 547 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Vespucci's historical importance may rest more with his letters (whether or not he wrote them all) than his discoveries. Burckhardt cites the naming of America after him as an example of the immense role of the Italian literature of the time in determining historical memory. Within a few years of the publication of his two letters, the European public became aware of the newly discovered continents of the Americas. According to Vespucci:", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Canaday, James A. \"The Life of Amerigo Vespucci\"", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Vespucci, Amerigo. \"Account of His First Voyage 1497 (Letter to Pier Soderini, Gonfalonier of the Republic of Florence)\". Internet Modern History Sourcebook-Fordham University (U.S.)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Mason, Wyatt, 'I am America. (And So?)' \"The New York Times\", 12 December 2007.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 30680 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 42, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Martin Waldseemüller, Franz Wieser (Ritter von), Edward Burke (trans), The Cosmographiæ Introductio of Martin Waldseemüller in facsimile: followed by the Four voyages of Amerigo Vespucci, The United States Catholic Historical Society, 1908.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " 1507 Waldseemüller Map from the US Library of Congress", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 18944081 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " TOPS Lecture at Library of Congress, Drs. France and Easton", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " World Digital Library presentation of the 1507 Waldseemüller Map in the Library of Congress. This is the only known surviving copy of the wall map edition of which it is believed 1,000 copies were printed. Four originals of the 1507 globe gore map are in existence in Germany, UK and US.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 3225920 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Online Galleries, History of Science Collections, University of Oklahoma Libraries High resolution images of works by and/or portraits of Amerigo Vespucci in .jpg and .tiff format.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Soderini Letters in Giovanni Battista Ramusio, Primo Volume delle Nauigationi et Viaggi, Venetia, 1550, fol.138–140.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "1451_births", "1512_deaths", "15th-century_Italian_businesspeople", "15th-century_people_of_the_Republic_of_Florence", "16th-century_explorers", "16th-century_Italian_businesspeople", "16th-century_Italian_cartographers", "Businesspeople_from_Florence", "Cartographers_of_North_America", "Explorers_of_South_America", "Infectious_disease_deaths_in_Spain", "Italian_explorers", "Italian_explorers_of_South_America", "Italian_navigators", "Italian_Roman_Catholics", "Maritime_history_of_Portugal", "Slave_owners" ]

[ "Americo Vespucio" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Aristide Joseph Bonaventure Maillol (; December 8, 1861– September 27, 1944) was a French sculptor, painter, and printmaker.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26714, 18622193, 42532 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 90, 98 ], [ 100, 107 ], [ 113, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maillol was born in Banyuls-sur-Mer, Roussillon. He decided at an early age to become a painter, and moved to Paris in 1881 to study art. After several applications and several years of living in poverty, his enrollment in the École des Beaux-Arts was accepted in 1885, and he studied there under Jean-Léon Gérôme and Alexandre Cabanel. His early paintings show the influence of his contemporaries Pierre Puvis de Chavannes and Paul Gauguin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5045746, 171409, 22989, 18976459, 469851, 389398, 164378, 64719 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 35 ], [ 37, 47 ], [ 110, 115 ], [ 227, 247 ], [ 297, 313 ], [ 318, 335 ], [ 398, 423 ], [ 428, 440 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Gauguin encouraged his growing interest in decorative art, an interest that led Maillol to take up tapestry design. In 1893 Maillol opened a tapestry workshop in Banyuls, producing works whose high technical and aesthetic quality gained him recognition for renewing this art form in France. He began making small terracotta sculptures in 1895, and within a few years his concentration on sculpture led to the abandonment of his work in tapestry.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 87026, 174241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 107 ], [ 313, 323 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In July 1896, Maillol married Clotilde Narcis, one of his employees at his tapestry workshop. Their only son, Lucian, was born that October.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Maillol's first major sculpture, A Seated Woman, was modeled after his wife. The first version (in the Museum of Modern Art, New York) was completed in 1902, and renamed La Méditerranée. Maillol, believing that \"art does not lie in the copying of nature\", produced a second, less naturalistic version in 1905. In 1902, the art dealer Ambroise Vollard provided Maillol with his first exhibition.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 66107, 3865119 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 103, 123 ], [ 335, 351 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The subject of nearly all of Maillol's mature work is the female body, treated with a classical emphasis on stable forms. The figurative style of his large bronzes is perceived as an important precursor to the greater simplifications of Henry Moore, and his serene classicism set a standard for European (and American) figure sculpture until the end of World War II.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 99260, 5517329, 32927 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 95 ], [ 237, 248 ], [ 353, 365 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Josep Pla said of Maillol, \"These archaic ideas, Greek, were the great novelty Maillol brought into the tendency of modern sculpture. What you need to love from the ancients is not the antiquity, it is the sense of permanent, renewed novelty, that is due to the nature and reason.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 4869583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His important public commissions include a 1912 commission for a monument to Cézanne, as well as numerous war memorials commissioned after World War I.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 24472, 4764461 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 84 ], [ 139, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Maillol served as a juror with Florence Meyer Blumenthal in awarding the Prix Blumenthal (1919–1954) a grant awarded to painters, sculptors, decorators, engravers, writers, and musicians.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 28024580, 28024580 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 56 ], [ 73, 88 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He made a series of woodcut illustrations for an edition of Vergil's Eclogues published by Harry Graf Kessler in 1926–27. He also illustrated Daphnis and Chloe by Longus (1937) and Chansons pour elle by Paul Verlaine (1939).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 162300, 32359, 1633271, 12800411, 1047924, 343273, 155265 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 27 ], [ 60, 66 ], [ 69, 77 ], [ 91, 109 ], [ 142, 159 ], [ 163, 169 ], [ 203, 216 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He died in Banyuls at the age of eighty-three, in an automobile accident. While driving home during a thunderstorm, the car in which he was a passenger skidded off the road and rolled over. A large collection of Maillol's work is maintained at the Musée Maillol in Paris, which was established by Dina Vierny, Maillol's model and platonic companion during the last 10 years of his life. His home a few kilometers outside Banyuls, also the site of his final resting place, has been turned into a museum, the Musée Maillol Banyuls-sur-Mer, where a number of his works and sketches are displayed.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 18144423, 22989, 6195913, 62195039 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 261 ], [ 265, 270 ], [ 297, 308 ], [ 507, 536 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Three of his bronzes grace the grand staircase of the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City: Summer (1910–11), Venus Without Arms (1920), and Kneeling Woman: Monument to Debussy (1950–55). The third, the artist's only reference to music, is a copy of an original created for the French city of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, Claude Debussy's birthplace.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 216641, 75952, 6260 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 78 ], [ 298, 319 ], [ 321, 335 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the German occupation of France, dozens of artworks by Maillol were seized by the Nazi looting organization known as the E.R.R. or Reichsleiter Rosenberg Taskforce. The Database of Art Objects at the Jeu de Paume lists thirty artworks by Maillol. The German Lost Art Foundation database lists 33 entries for Maillol. The German Historical Museum's database for artworks recovered by the Allies at the Munich Central Collecting Point has 13 items related to Maillol. Maillol's sculpture ‘Head of Flora’ was found in the stash of Cornelius Gurlitt, son of Hitler's art dealer Hildebrand Gurlitt together with lithographs, drawings and paintings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nazi-looted art", "target_page_ids": [ 5020586, 30983686, 2618678, 31603610, 41032777, 40963068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 38 ], [ 138, 170 ], [ 328, 352 ], [ 408, 439 ], [ 535, 552 ], [ 581, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A photograph from May 24, 1946 shows \"Six men, members of the Monuments, Fine Arts & Archives section of the military, prepare Aristide Maillol's sculpture Baigneuse à la draperie, looted during World War II for transport to France. Sculpture is labeled with sign: Wiesbaden, no. 31.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nazi-looted art", "target_page_ids": [ 7825135 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 62, 93 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Jewish art collectors whose artworks by Maillol were looted by Nazis include Hugo Simon, Alfred Flechtheim and many others.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Nazi-looted art", "target_page_ids": [ 67404542, 36316047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 87 ], [ 89, 106 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Action in Chains (1905)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 62062593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Flora, Nude (1910)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 48364066 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " L'Été sans bras (1911)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 49450294 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bathing Woman with Raised Arms (1921)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 62062663 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Nymph (1930)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 31163245 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Mountain (1937)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 58255819 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " L'Air (1938)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 33839944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The River (1938–43)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 38492930 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Mme Henry Clemens van de Velde (c. 1899)", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum, \"Aristide Maillol, 1861-1944\", New York, Solomon R. Guggenheim Foundation, 1975.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Frèches-Thory, Claire, & Perucchi-Petry, Ursula, ed.: Die Nabis: Propheten der Moderne, Kunsthaus Zürich & Grand Palais, Paris & Prestel, Munich 1993 (German), (French)", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Lorquin, Bertrand (1995). Maillol. Skira. .", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rewald, John (1951). The Woodcuts of Aristide Maillol. New York: Pantheon Books.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 4791821 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 13 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Masters of 20th Century Figure Sculpture", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Maillol Museum", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Aristide Maillol in Cultural Plunder by the Einsatzstab Reichsleiter Rosenberg: Database of Art Objects at the Jeu de Paume", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "French_sculptors", "Modern_sculptors", "1861_births", "1944_deaths", "Painters_from_Catalonia", "Sculptors_from_Catalonia", "French_male_painters", "French_male_sculptors", "Prix_Blumenthal", "Alumni_of_the_École_des_Beaux-Arts", "French_Roman_Catholics", "People_from_Pyrénées-Orientales", "Road_incident_deaths_in_France", "19th-century_French_painters", "20th-century_French_painters", "20th-century_French_male_artists", "19th-century_French_sculptors", "20th-century_French_sculptors", "19th-century_French_male_artists" ]

[ "Aristide Joseph Bonaventure Maillol", "Aristide-Joseph-Bonaventure Maillol", "Maillol", "a. maillol" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Antonio Canova (; 1 November 1757 – 13 October 1822) was an Italian Neoclassical sculptor, famous for his marble sculptures. Often regarded as the greatest of the Neoclassical artists, his sculpture was inspired by the Baroque and the classical revival, and has been characterised as having avoided the melodramatics of the former, and the cold artificiality of the latter.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 385155, 183280, 165763, 3957, 254706 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 67 ], [ 68, 89 ], [ 106, 122 ], [ 219, 226 ], [ 303, 312 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1757, Antonio Canova was born in the Venetian Republic city of Possagno to Pietro Canova, a stonecutter, and Maria Angela Zardo Fantolini. In 1761, his father died. A year later, his mother remarried. As such, in 1762, he was put into the care of his paternal grandfather Pasino Canova, who was a stonemason, owner of a quarry, and was a \"sculptor who specialized in altars with statues and low reliefs in late Baroque style\". He led Antonio into the art of sculpting.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 613492, 6716803, 214934, 204228 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 57 ], [ 66, 74 ], [ 301, 311 ], [ 324, 330 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Before the age of ten, Canova began making models in clay, and carving marble. Indeed, at the age of nine, he executed two small shrines of Carrara marble, which are still extant. After these works, he appears to have been constantly employed under his grandfather.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 474106 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 140, 154 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1770, he was an apprentice for two years to Giuseppe Bernardi, who was also known as 'Torretto'. Afterwards, he was under the tutelage of Giovanni Ferrari until he began his studies at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia. At the Academy, he won several prizes. During this time, he was given his first workshop within a monastery by some local monks.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 31322716, 31322630, 9125185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 64 ], [ 141, 157 ], [ 192, 226 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Senator Giovanni Falier commissioned Canova to produce statues of Orpheus and Eurydice for his garden – the Villa Falier at Asolo. The statues were begun in 1775, and both were completed by 1777. The pieces exemplify the late Rococo style. On the year of their completion, both works were exhibited for the Feast of the Ascension in Piazza S. Marco. Widely praised, the works won Canova his first renown among the Venetian elite. Another Venetian who is said to have commissioned early works from Canova was the abate Filippo Farsetti, whose collection at Ca' Farsetti on the Grand Canal he frequented.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 22877693, 26157112, 2707141, 36886, 1325485, 57807477, 32357144, 651582 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 77 ], [ 82, 90 ], [ 128, 133 ], [ 230, 242 ], [ 311, 333 ], [ 522, 538 ], [ 560, 572 ], [ 580, 591 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1779, Canova opened his own studio at Calle Del Traghetto at S. Maurizio,. At this time, Procurator Pietro Vettor Pisani commissioned Canova's first marble statue: a depiction of Daedalus and Icarus. The statue inspired great admiration for his work at the annual art fair; Canova was paid for 100 gold zecchini for the completed work. At the base of the statue, Daedalus' tools are scattered about; these tools are also an allusion to Sculpture, of which the statue is a personification. With such an intention, there is suggestion that Daedalus is a portrait of Canova's grandfather Pasino.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 8258, 82721 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 182, 190 ], [ 195, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canova arrived in Rome, on 28 December 1780. Prior to his departure, his friends had applied to the Venetian senate for a pension. Successful in the application, the stipend allotted amounted to three hundred ducats, limited to three years.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While in Rome, Canova spent time studying and sketching the works of Michelangelo.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1781, Girolamo Zulian – the Venetian ambassador to Rome – hired Canova to sculpt Theseus and the Minotaur. Zulian played a fundamental role in Canova's rise to fame, turning some rooms of his palace into a studio for the artist and placing his trust in him despite Canova's early critics in Rome. The statue depicts the victorious Theseus seated on the lifeless body of a Minotaur. The initial spectators were certain that the work was a copy of a Greek original, and were shocked to learn it was a contemporary work. The highly regarded work is now in the collection of the Victoria & Albert Museum, in London.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 66262557, 65896155, 31255, 20634, 97275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 24 ], [ 84, 108 ], [ 334, 341 ], [ 375, 383 ], [ 578, 602 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1783 and 1785, Canova arranged, composed, and designed a funerary monument dedicated to Clement XIV for the Church of Santi Apostoli. After another two years, the work met completion in 1787. The monument secured Canova's reputation as the pre-eminent living artist.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 24149, 36451206 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 96, 107 ], [ 116, 140 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1792, he completed another cenotaph, this time commemorating Clement XIII for St. Peter's Basilica. Canova harmonized its design with the older Baroque funerary monuments in the basilica.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 24148, 73188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 76 ], [ 81, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1790, he began to work on a funerary monument for Titian, which was eventually abandoned by 1795. During the same year, he increased his activity as a painter. Canova was notoriously disinclined to restore sculptures. However, in 1794 he made an exception for his friend and early patron Zulian, restoring a few sculptures that Zulian had moved from Rome to Venice.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The following decade was extremely productive, beginning works such as Hercules and Lichas, Cupid and Psyche, Hebe, Tomb of Duchess Maria Christina of Saxony-Teschen, and The Penitent Magdalene.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 2716070 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1797, he went to Vienna, but only a year later, in 1798, he returned to Possagno for a year.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 6716803 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 75, 83 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1800, Canova was the most celebrated artist in Europe. He systematically promoted his reputation by publishing engravings of his works and having marble versions of plaster casts made in his workshop. He became so successful that he had acquired patrons from across Europe including France, England, Russia, Poland, Austria and Holland, as well as several members from different royal lineages, and prominent individuals. Among his patrons were Napoleon and his family, for whom Canova produced much work, including several depictions between 1803 and 1809. The most notable representations were that of Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker, and Venus Victrix which was portrayal of Pauline Bonaparte.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 69880, 21090073, 7108397, 1179985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 448, 456 ], [ 607, 638 ], [ 644, 657 ], [ 681, 698 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker had its inception after Canova was hired to make a bust of Napoleon in 1802. The statue was begun in 1803, with Napoleon requesting to be shown in a French General's uniform, Canova rejected this, insisting on an allusion to Mars, the Roman god of War. It was completed in 1806. In 1811, the statue arrived in Paris, but not installed; neither was its bronze copy in the Foro Napoleonico in Milan. In 1815, the original went to the Duke of Wellington, after his victory at Waterloo against Napoleon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 21090073, 19638032, 28957716, 33158, 8474, 4356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ], [ 257, 261 ], [ 267, 276 ], [ 280, 283 ], [ 460, 482 ], [ 505, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Venus Victrix was originally conceived as a robed and recumbent sculpture of Pauline Borghese in the guise of Diana. Instead, Pauline ordered Canova to make the statue a nude Venus. The work was not intended for public viewing.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 7108397, 1179985, 8391 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 77, 93 ], [ 110, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other works for the Napoleon family include, a bust of Napoleon, a statue of Napoleon's mother, and Marie Louise as Concordia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 62665, 543350 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 112 ], [ 116, 125 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1802, Canova was assigned the post of 'Inspector-General of Antiquities and Fine Art of the Papal State', a position formerly held by Raphael. One of his activities in this capacity was to pioneer the restoration of the Appian Way by restoring the tomb of Servilius Quartus. In 1808 Canova became an associated member of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 44525, 47569, 392098 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 144 ], [ 223, 233 ], [ 328, 362 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1814, he began his The Three Graces.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 1916420 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 38 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1815, he was named 'Minister Plenipotentiary of the Pope,' and was tasked with recovering various works of art that were taken to Paris by Napoleon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 69880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 142, 150 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Also in 1815, he visited London, and met with Benjamin Haydon. It was after the advice of Canova that the Elgin marbles were acquired by the British Museum, with plaster copies sent to Florence, according to Canova's request.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 207571, 173395 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 61 ], [ 106, 119 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1816, Canova returned to Rome with some of the art Napoleon had taken. He was rewarded with several marks of distinction: he was appointed President of the Accademia di San Luca, inscribed into the \"Golden Book of Roman Nobles\" by the Pope's own hands, and given the title of Marquis of Ischia, alongside an annual pension of 3000 crowns.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 2823473, 366378 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 180 ], [ 290, 296 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1819, he commenced and completed his commissioned work Venus Italica as a replacement for the Venus de' Medici.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 61936586, 6982851 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 71 ], [ 97, 113 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After his 1814 proposal to build a personified statue of Religion for St. Peter's Basilica was rejected, Canova sought to build his own temple to house it. This project came to be the Tempio Canoviano. Canova designed, financed, and partly built the structure himself. The structure was to be a testament to Canova's piety. The building's design was inspired by combining the Parthenon and the Pantheon together. On 11 July 1819, Canova laid the foundation stone dressed in red Papal uniform and decorated with all his medals. It first opened in 1830, and was finally completed in 1836. After the foundation-stone of this edifice had been laid, Canova returned to Rome; but every succeeding autumn he continued to visit Possagno to direct the workmen and encourage them with rewards.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 73188, 44197222, 23672, 340002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 90 ], [ 184, 200 ], [ 376, 385 ], [ 394, 402 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the period that intervened between commencing operations at Possagno and his death, he executed or finished some of his most striking works. Among these were the group Mars and Venus, the colossal figure of Pius VI, the Pietà, the St John, and a colossal bust of his friend, the Count Cicognara.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 45400, 274967 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 214, 221 ], [ 227, 232 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1820, he made a statue of George Washington for the state of North Carolina. As recommended by Thomas Jefferson, the sculptor used the marble bust of Washington by Giuseppe Ceracchi as a model. It was delivered on 24 December 1821. The statue and the North Carolina State House where it was displayed were later destroyed by fire in 1831. A plaster replica was sent by the king of Italy in 1910, now on view at the North Carolina Museum of History. A marble copy was sculpted by Romano Vio in 1970, now on view in the rotunda of the capitol building.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 59766009, 21650, 29922, 45606945, 8977288, 59773907, 10098520, 14865020, 3630858 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 46 ], [ 64, 78 ], [ 98, 114 ], [ 138, 163 ], [ 167, 184 ], [ 254, 280 ], [ 418, 450 ], [ 482, 492 ], [ 536, 552 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1822, he journeyed to Naples, to superintend the construction of wax moulds for an equestrian statue of Ferdinand VII. The adventure was disastrous to his health, but soon became healthy enough to return to Rome. From there, he voyaged to Venice; however, on 13 October 1822, he died there at the age of 64. As he never married, the name became extinct, except through his stepbrothers' lineage of Satori-Canova.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 149127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 120 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On 12 October 1822, Canova instructed his brother to use his entire estate to complete the Tempio in Possagno.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "On 25 October 1822, his body was placed in the Tempio Canoviano. His heart was interred at the Basilica di Santa Maria Gloriosa dei Frari in Venice, and his right hand preserved in a vase at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Venezia.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 743672, 9125185 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 95, 137 ], [ 195, 229 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His memorial service was so grand that it rivaled the ceremony that the city of Florence held for Michelangelo in 1564.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1826, Giovanni Battista Sartori sold Canova's Roman studio and took every plaster model and sculpture to Possagno, where they were installed in the Tempio Canoviano.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Life", "target_page_ids": [ 44197222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 151, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Among Canova's most notable works are:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Psyche Revived by Cupid's Kiss was commissioned in 1787 by Colonel John Campbell. It is regarded as a masterpiece of Neoclassical sculpture, but shows the mythological lovers at a moment of great emotion, characteristic of the emerging movement of Romanticism. It represents the god Cupid in the height of love and tenderness, immediately after awakening the lifeless Psyche with a kiss.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 7367316, 5449436, 26094, 20924853, 760054 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ], [ 59, 80 ], [ 248, 259 ], [ 284, 289 ], [ 369, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker had its inception after Canova was hired to make a bust of Napoleon in 1802. The statue was begun in 1802, with Napoleon requesting to be shown in a French General's uniform, Canova rejected this, insisting on an allusion to Mars, the Roman god of War. It was completed in 1806. In 1811, the statue arrived in Paris, but not installed; neither was its bronze copy in the Foro Napoleonico in Milan. In 1815, the original went to the Duke of Wellington, after his victory at Waterloo against Napoleon.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 21090073, 19638032, 28957716, 33158, 8474, 4356 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 31 ], [ 257, 261 ], [ 267, 276 ], [ 280, 283 ], [ 460, 482 ], [ 505, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Perseus Triumphant, sometimes called Perseus with the Head of Medusa, was a statue commissioned by tribune Onorato Duveyriez. It depicts the Greek hero Perseus after his victory over the Gorgon Medusa.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 209446, 80990, 392192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 159 ], [ 187, 193 ], [ 194, 200 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The statue was based freely to the Apollo Belvedere and the Medusa Rondanini.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 2000175, 17279585 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 51 ], [ 60, 76 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Napoleon, after his 1796 Italian Campaign, took the Apollo Belvedere to Paris. In the statue's absence, Pope Pius VII acquired Canova's Perseus Triumphant and placed the work upon the Apollo'''s pedestal. The statue was so successful that when the Apollo was returned, Perseus remained as a companion piece.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 69880, 2098888, 2000175, 69246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 8 ], [ 20, 41 ], [ 52, 68 ], [ 104, 117 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One replica of the statue was commissioned from Canova by the Polish countess Waleria Tarnowska; it's now displayed in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 45697566, 37535, 645042 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 78, 95 ], [ 123, 149 ], [ 153, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Karl Ludwig Fernow said of the statue that \"every eye must rest with pleasure on the beautiful surface, even when the mind finds its hopes of high and pure enjoyment disappointed.\"", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 648324 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Venus Victrix ranks among the most famous of Canova's works. Originally, Canova wished the depictation to be of a robed Diana, but Pauline Borghese insisted to appear as a nude Venus. The work was not intended for public viewing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 7108397, 8391, 1179985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 120, 125 ], [ 131, 147 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "John Russell, the 6th Duke of Bedford, commissioned a version of the now famous work. He had previously visited Canova in his studio in Rome in 1814 and had been immensely impressed by a carving of the Graces the sculptor had made for the Empress Josephine. When the Empress died in May of the same year he immediately offered to purchase the completed piece, but was unsuccessful as Josephine's son Eugène claimed it (his son Maximilian brought it to St. Petersburg, where it can now be found in the Hermitage Museum). Undeterred, the Duke commissioned another version for himself.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 592138, 58255, 25458, 62626, 62627, 5529951, 24320051, 175403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ], [ 22, 26 ], [ 137, 141 ], [ 240, 257 ], [ 402, 408 ], [ 429, 439 ], [ 454, 468 ], [ 503, 519 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The sculpting process began in 1814 and was completed in 1817. Finally in 1819 it was installed at the Duke's residence in Woburn Abbey. Canova even made the trip over to England to supervise its installation, choosing for it to be displayed on a pedestal adapted from a marble plinth with a rotating top. This version is now owned jointly by the Victoria and Albert Museum and the National Galleries of Scotland, and is alternately displayed at each.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 145141, 1497491, 1497491, 97275, 834002 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 136 ], [ 249, 257 ], [ 280, 286 ], [ 350, 376 ], [ 385, 415 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canova had a distinct, signature style in which he combined Greek and Roman art practices with early stirrings of romanticism to delve into a new path of Neoclassicism. Canova's sculptures fall into three categories: Heroic compositions, compositions of grace, and sepulchral monuments. In each of these, Canova's underlying artistic motivations were to challenge, if not compete, with classical statues.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Artistic process", "target_page_ids": [ 183280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 154, 167 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canova refused to take in pupils and students, but would hire workers to carve the initial figure from the marble. According to art historian Giuseppe Pavanello, \"Canova's system of work concentrated on the initial idea, and on the final carving of the marble\". He had an elaborate system of comparative pointing so that the workers were able to reproduce the plaster form in the selected block of marble. These workers would leave a thin veil over the entire statue so Canova's could focus on the surface of the statue.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Artistic process", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "While he worked, he had people read to him select literary and historical texts.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Artistic process", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the last quarter of the eighteenth century, it became fashionable to view art galleries at night by torchlight. Canova was an artist that leapt on the fad and displayed his works of art in his studio by candlelight. As such, Canova would begin to finalize the statue with special tools by candlelight, to soften the transitions between the various parts of the nude. After a little recarving, he began to rub the statue down with pumice stone, sometimes for periods longer than weeks or months. If that was not enough, he would use tripoli (rottenstone) and lead.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Artistic process", "target_page_ids": [ 3342929, 17747 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 539, 560 ], [ 565, 569 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He then applied a now unknown chemical-composition of patina onto the flesh of the figure to lighten the skin tone. Importantly, his friends also denied any usage of acids in his process.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Artistic process", "target_page_ids": [ 407847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 60 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Conversations revolving around the justification of art as superfluous usually invoked the name of Canova. Karl Ludwig Fernow believed that Canova was not Kantian enough in his aesthetic, because emphasis seemed to have been placed on agreeableness rather than Beauty. Canova was faulted for creating works that were artificial in complexity.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Criticisms", "target_page_ids": [ 648324, 14631, 549047 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 107, 125 ], [ 155, 159 ], [ 196, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although the Romantic period artists buried Canova's name soon after he died, he is slowly being rediscovered. Giuseppe Pavanello wrote in 1996 that \"the importance and value of Canova's art is now recognized as holding in balance the last echo of the Ancients and the first symptom of the restless experimentation of the modern age\".", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 26094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canova spent large parts of his fortune helping young students and sending patrons to struggling sculptors, including Sir Richard Westmacott and John Gibson.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1951051, 871176 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 140 ], [ 145, 156 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He was introduced into various orders of chivalry.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 59639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 49 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of his works, sketches, and writings are collected in the Sala Canoviana of the Museo Civico of Bassano del Grappa. Other works, including plaster casts are the Museo Canoviano in Asolo.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 57966268 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 123 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2018, a crater on Mercury was named in his honor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 67743228, 19694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 17 ], [ 21, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two of Canova's works appear as engravings in Fisher's Drawing Room Scrap Book, 1834, with poetical illustrations by Letitia Elizabeth Landon. These are of The Dancing Girl and Hebe''.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Literary inspirations", "target_page_ids": [ 375464 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 141 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Canova, South Dakota", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Literary inspirations", "target_page_ids": [ 134958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Via Antonio Canova, in Treviso", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Literary inspirations", "target_page_ids": [ 925340 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Aeroporto di Treviso A. Canova", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Literary inspirations", "target_page_ids": [ 2461035 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Museo Canova in Possagno", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Literary inspirations", "target_page_ids": [ 64732172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Tempio Canoviano, in Possagno", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Literary inspirations", "target_page_ids": [ 44197222 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " .", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "References", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Canova's Three Graces (second version) in the Victoria and Albert Museum, London (2000). One of three Flickr photos by ketrin 1407.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 97275, 1178458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 73 ], [ 103, 109 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Canova's Perseus and Medusa in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York (2009). Part of Flickr set by ketrin1407.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 37535, 1178458 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 62 ], [ 89, 95 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Europe in the age of enlightenment and revolution, a catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art Libraries (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Canova (see index)", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Antonio Canova: Photo Gallery", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Canova's death mask at Princeton", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Canova museum and plaster cast gallery", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Canova 2009 Exhibition in Forlì, Italy", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Antonio_Canova", "1757_births", "1822_deaths", "People_from_the_Province_of_Treviso", "18th-century_Italian_sculptors", "Italian_male_sculptors", "19th-century_Italian_sculptors", "Neoclassical_sculptors", "Members_of_the_Royal_Netherlands_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences", "Artists_of_the_Boston_Public_Library", "19th-century_male_artists", "Burials_at_Santa_Maria_Gloriosa_dei_Frari" ]

[ "Antoine Canova", "Marchese d'Ischia Antonio Canova", "Canova", "Antonio Kanova", "A. Canova", "a. canova", "anton canova", "M. Canova", "canova antonio" ]

[ { "plaintext": "François Auguste René Rodin (12 November 184017 November 1917) was a French sculptor, generally considered the founder of modern sculpture. He was schooled traditionally and took a craftsman-like approach to his work. Rodin possessed a unique ability to model a complex, turbulent, and deeply pocketed surface in clay. He is known for such sculptures as The Thinker, Monument to Balzac, The Kiss, The Burghers of Calais, and The Gates of Hell.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 26714, 26714, 36980, 660546, 18761143, 2144815, 1003907, 2263435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 84 ], [ 129, 138 ], [ 313, 317 ], [ 354, 365 ], [ 367, 385 ], [ 387, 395 ], [ 397, 419 ], [ 425, 442 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many of Rodin's most notable sculptures were criticized, as they clashed with predominant figurative sculpture traditions in which works were decorative, formulaic, or highly thematic. Rodin's most original work departed from traditional themes of mythology and allegory. He modeled the human body with naturalism, and his sculptures celebrate individual character and physicality. Although Rodin was sensitive to the controversy surrounding his work, he refused to change his style, and his continued output brought increasing favor from the government and the artistic community.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 699908, 1837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 175, 183 ], [ 262, 270 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From the unexpected naturalism of Rodin's first major figure – inspired by his 1875 trip to Italy – to the unconventional memorials whose commissions he later sought, his reputation grew, and Rodin became the preeminent French sculptor of his time. By 1900, he was a world-renowned artist. Wealthy private clients sought Rodin's work after his World's Fair exhibit, and he kept company with a variety of high-profile intellectuals and artists. His student, Camille Claudel, became his associate, lover, and creative rival. Rodin's other students included Antoine Bourdelle, Constantin Brâncuși, and Charles Despiau. He married his lifelong companion, Rose Beuret, in the last year of both their lives. His sculptures suffered a decline in popularity after his death in 1917, but within a few decades his legacy solidified. Rodin remains one of the few sculptors widely known outside the visual arts community.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 308868, 88077, 167835, 6585, 3285728, 68951856 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 344, 356 ], [ 457, 472 ], [ 555, 572 ], [ 574, 593 ], [ 599, 614 ], [ 651, 662 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rodin was born in 1840 into a working-class family in Paris, the second child of Marie Cheffer and Jean-Baptiste Rodin, who was a police department clerk. He was largely self-educated, and began to draw at age 10. Between ages 14 and 17, he attended the Petite École, a school specializing in art and mathematics where he studied drawing and painting. His drawing teacher Horace Lecoq de Boisbaudran believed in first developing the personality of his students so that they observed with their own eyes and drew from their recollections, and Rodin expressed appreciation for his teacher much later in life. It was at Petite École that he met Jules Dalou and Alphonse Legros.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 28595483, 926649, 209261 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 372, 399 ], [ 642, 653 ], [ 658, 673 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1857, Rodin submitted a clay model of a companion to the École des Beaux-Arts in an attempt to win entrance; he did not succeed, and two further applications were also denied. Entrance requirements were not particularly high at the Grande École, so the rejections were considerable setbacks. Rodin's inability to gain entrance may have been due to the judges' Neoclassical tastes, while Rodin had been schooled in light, 18th-century sculpture. He left the Petite École in 1857 and earned a living as a craftsman and ornamenter for most of the next two decades, producing decorative objects and architectural embellishments.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 18976459, 183280 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 60, 80 ], [ 363, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rodin's sister Maria, two years his senior, died of peritonitis in a convent in 1862, and Rodin was anguished with guilt because he had introduced her to an unfaithful suitor. He turned away from art and joined the Catholic order of the Congregation of the Blessed Sacrament. Saint Peter Julian Eymard, founder and head of the congregation, recognized Rodin's talent and sensed his lack of suitability for the order, so he encouraged Rodin to continue with his sculpture. Rodin returned to work as a decorator while taking classes with animal sculptor Antoine-Louis Barye. The teacher's attention to detail and his finely rendered musculature of animals in motion significantly influenced Rodin.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 142549, 6481948, 2669064, 854669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 63 ], [ 237, 274 ], [ 282, 301 ], [ 552, 571 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1864, Rodin began to live with a young seamstress named Rose Beuret (born in June 1844), with whom he stayed for the rest of his life, with varying commitment. The couple had a son named Auguste-Eugène Beuret (1866–1934). That year, Rodin offered his first sculpture for exhibition and entered the studio of Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse, a successful mass producer of objets d'art. Rodin worked as Carrier-Belleuse' chief assistant until 1870, designing roof decorations and staircase and doorway embellishments. With the arrival of the Franco-Prussian War, Rodin was called to serve in the French National Guard, but his service was brief due to his near-sightedness. Decorators' work had dwindled because of the war, yet Rodin needed to support his family, as poverty was a continual difficulty for him until about the age of 30. Carrier-Belleuse soon asked him to join him in Belgium, where they worked on ornamentation for the Brussels Stock Exchange.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 68951856, 7774331, 44035, 4693853 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 59, 70 ], [ 311, 341 ], [ 542, 561 ], [ 936, 959 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rodin planned to stay in Belgium a few months, but he spent the next six years outside of France. It was a pivotal time in his life. He had acquired skill and experience as a craftsman, but no one had yet seen his art, which sat in his workshop since he could not afford castings. His relationship with Carrier-Belleuse had deteriorated, but he found other employment in Brussels, displaying some works at salons, and his companion Rose soon joined him there. Having saved enough money to travel, Rodin visited Italy for two months in 1875, where he was drawn to the work of Donatello and Michelangelo. Their work had a profound effect on his artistic direction. Rodin said, \"It is Michelangelo who has freed me from academic sculpture.\" Returning to Belgium, he began work on The Age of Bronze, a life-size male figure whose naturalism brought Rodin attention but led to accusations of sculptural cheatingits naturalism and scale was such that critics alleged he had cast the work from a living model. Much of Rodin's later work was explicitly larger or smaller than life, in part to demonstrate the folly of such accusations.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 69852, 21019, 6189543 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 575, 584 ], [ 589, 601 ], [ 777, 794 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rose Beuret and Rodin returned to Paris in 1877, moving into a small flat on the Left Bank. Misfortune surrounded Rodin: his mother, who had wanted to see her son marry, was dead, and his father was blind and senile, cared for by Rodin's sister-in-law, Aunt Thérèse. Rodin's eleven-year-old son Auguste, possibly developmentally delayed, was also in the ever-helpful Thérèse's care. Rodin had essentially abandoned his son for six years, and would have a very limited relationship with him throughout his life. Father and son joined the couple in their flat, with Rose as caretaker. Charges of fakery surrounding The Age of Bronze continued. Rodin increasingly sought soothing female companionship in Paris, and Rose stayed in the background.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 393174 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rodin earned his living collaborating with more established sculptors on public commissions, primarily memorials and neo-baroque architectural pieces in the style of Carpeaux. In competitions for commissions he submitted models of Denis Diderot, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and Lazare Carnot, all to no avail. On his own time, he worked on studies leading to the creation of his next important work, St. John the Baptist Preaching.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 3081172, 299202, 8199, 15941, 26532764 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 117, 128 ], [ 166, 174 ], [ 231, 244 ], [ 246, 267 ], [ 273, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1880, Carrier-Belleuse– then art director of the Sèvres national porcelain factory– offered Rodin a part-time position as a designer. The offer was in part a gesture of reconciliation, and Rodin accepted. That part of Rodin which appreciated 18th-century tastes was aroused, and he immersed himself in designs for vases and table ornaments that brought the factory renown across Europe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 23475797, 167718 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 58 ], [ 68, 77 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The artistic community appreciated his work in this vein, and Rodin was invited to Paris Salons by such friends as writer Léon Cladel. During his early appearances at these social events, Rodin seemed shy; in his later years, as his fame grew, he displayed the loquaciousness and temperament for which he is better known. French statesman Leon Gambetta expressed a desire to meet Rodin, and the sculptor impressed him when they met at a salon. Gambetta spoke of Rodin in turn to several government ministers, likely including , the Undersecretary of the Ministry of Fine Arts, whom Rodin eventually met.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 910816, 2662291, 203292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 83, 94 ], [ 122, 133 ], [ 339, 352 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rodin's relationship with Turquet was rewarding: through him, he won the 1880 commission to create a portal for a planned museum of decorative arts. Rodin dedicated much of the next four decades to his elaborate Gates of Hell, an unfinished portal for a museum that was never built. Many of the portal's figures became sculptures in themselves, including Rodin's most famous, The Thinker and The Kiss. With the museum commission came a free studio, granting Rodin a new level of artistic freedom. Soon, he stopped working at the porcelain factory; his income came from private commissions.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 5185317, 2263435, 660546, 2144815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 101, 107 ], [ 212, 225 ], [ 376, 387 ], [ 392, 400 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1883, Rodin agreed to supervise a course for sculptor Alfred Boucher in his absence, where he met the 18-year-old Camille Claudel. The two formed a passionate but stormy relationship and influenced each other artistically. Claudel inspired Rodin as a model for many of his figures, and she was a talented sculptor, assisting him on commissions as well as creating her own works. Her Bust of Rodin was displayed to critical acclaim at the 1892 Salon.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 2313333, 88077, 61711974 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 57, 71 ], [ 117, 132 ], [ 386, 399 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Although busy with The Gates of Hell, Rodin won other commissions. He pursued an opportunity to create a historical monument for the town of Calais. For a monument to French author Honoré de Balzac, Rodin was chosen in 1891. His execution of both sculptures clashed with traditional tastes, and met with varying degrees of disapproval from the organizations that sponsored the commissions. Still, Rodin was gaining support from diverse sources that propelled him toward fame.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 85468, 42368 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 141, 147 ], [ 181, 197 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1889, the Paris Salon invited Rodin to be a judge on its artistic jury. Though Rodin's career was on the rise, Claudel and Beuret were becoming increasingly impatient with Rodin's \"double life\". Claudel and Rodin shared an atelier at a small old castle (the Château de l'Islette in the Loire), but Rodin refused to relinquish his ties to Beuret, his loyal companion during the lean years, and mother of his son. During one absence, Rodin wrote to Beuret, \"I think of how much you must have loved me to put up with my caprices...I remain, in all tenderness, your Rodin.\"", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Claudel and Rodin parted in 1898. Claudel suffered an alleged nervous breakdown several years later and was confined to an institution for 30 years by her family, until her death in 1943, despite numerous attempts by doctors to explain to her mother and brother that she was sane.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Biography", "target_page_ids": [ 99614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 254, 261 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1864, Rodin submitted his first sculpture for exhibition, The Man with the Broken Nose, to the Paris Salon. The subject was an elderly neighborhood street porter. The unconventional bronze piece was not a traditional bust, but instead the head was \"broken off\" at the neck, the nose was flattened and crooked, and the back of the head was absent, having fallen off the clay model in an accident. The work emphasized texture and the emotional state of the subject; it illustrated the \"unfinishedness\" that would characterize many of Rodin's later sculptures. The Salon rejected the piece.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 910816, 4169, 1389981 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 109 ], [ 185, 191 ], [ 220, 224 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Brussels, Rodin created his first full-scale work, The Age of Bronze, having returned from Italy. Modeled after a Belgian soldier, the figure drew inspiration from Michelangelo's Dying Slave, which Rodin had observed at the Louvre. Attempting to combine Michelangelo's mastery of the human form with his own sense of human nature, Rodin studied his model from all angles, at rest and in motion; he mounted a ladder for additional perspective, and made clay models, which he studied by candlelight. The result was a life-size, well-proportioned nude figure, posed unconventionally with his right hand atop his head, and his left arm held out at his side, forearm parallel to the body.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 6189543, 13046276, 17546 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 71 ], [ 182, 193 ], [ 227, 233 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1877, the work debuted in Brussels and then was shown at the Paris Salon. The statue's apparent lack of a theme was troubling to critics– commemorating neither mythology nor a noble historical event– and it is not clear whether Rodin intended a theme. He first titled the work The Vanquished, in which form the left hand held a spear, but he removed the spear because it obstructed the torso from certain angles. After two more intermediary titles, Rodin settled on The Age of Bronze, suggesting the Bronze Age, and in Rodin's words, \"man arising from nature\". Later, however, Rodin said that he had had in mind \"just a simple piece of sculpture without reference to subject\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 4620 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 503, 513 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Its mastery of form, light, and shadow made the work look so naturalistic that Rodin was accused of surmoulage– having taken a cast from a living model. Rodin vigorously denied the charges, writing to newspapers and having photographs taken of the model to prove how the sculpture differed. He demanded an inquiry and was eventually exonerated by a committee of sculptors. Leaving aside the false charges, the piece polarized critics. It had barely won acceptance for display at the Paris Salon, and criticism likened it to \"a statue of a sleepwalker\" and called it \"an astonishingly accurate copy of a low type\". Others rallied to defend the piece and Rodin's integrity. The government minister Turquet admired the piece, and The Age of Bronze was purchased by the state for 2,200 francs– what it had cost Rodin to have it cast in bronze.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 10815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 782, 787 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A second male nude, St. John the Baptist Preaching, was completed in 1878. Rodin sought to avoid another charge of surmoulage by making the statue larger than life: St. John stands almost . While The Age of Bronze is statically posed, St. John gestures and seems to move toward the viewer. The effect of walking is achieved despite the figure having both feet firmly on the ground– a technical achievement that was lost on most contemporary critics. Rodin chose this contradictory position to, in his words, \"display simultaneously...views of an object which in fact can be seen only successively\".", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 32273059 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 50 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Despite the title, St. John the Baptist Preaching did not have an obviously religious theme. The model, an Italian peasant who presented himself at Rodin's studio, possessed an idiosyncratic sense of movement that Rodin felt compelled to capture. Rodin thought of John the Baptist, and carried that association into the title of the work. In 1880, Rodin submitted the sculpture to the Paris Salon. Critics were still mostly dismissive of his work, but the piece finished third in the Salon's sculpture category.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 16125 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 280 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Regardless of the immediate receptions of St. John and The Age of Bronze, Rodin had achieved a new degree of fame. Students sought him at his studio, praising his work and scorning the charges of surmoulage. The artistic community knew his name.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "A commission to create a portal for Paris' planned Museum of Decorative Arts was awarded to Rodin in 1880. Although the museum was never built, Rodin worked throughout his life on The Gates of Hell, a monumental sculptural group depicting scenes from Dante's Inferno in high relief. Often lacking a clear conception of his major works, Rodin compensated with hard work and a striving for perfection.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 12821, 2263435, 8169, 31140 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 31 ], [ 180, 197 ], [ 251, 258 ], [ 259, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He conceived The Gates with the surmoulage controversy still in mind: \"...I had made the St. John to refute [the charges of casting from a model], but it only partially succeeded. To prove completely that I could model from life as well as other sculptors, I determined...to make the sculpture on the door of figures smaller than life.\" Laws of composition gave way to the Gates''' disordered and untamed depiction of Hell. The figures and groups in this, Rodin's meditation on the condition of man, are physically and morally isolated in their torment.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Gates of Hell comprised 186 figures in its final form. Many of Rodin's best-known sculptures started as designs of figures for this composition, such as The Thinker, The Three Shades, and The Kiss, and were only later presented as separate and independent works. Other well-known works derived from The Gates are Ugolino, Fallen Caryatid Carrying her Stone, Fugit Amor, She Who Was Once the Helmet-Maker's Beautiful Wife, The Falling Man, and The Prodigal Son.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 660546, 57164751, 1507812, 362895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 157, 168 ], [ 170, 186 ], [ 317, 324 ], [ 333, 341 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Thinker (originally titled The Poet, after Dante) was to become one of the best-known sculptures in the world. The original was a high bronze piece created between 1879 and 1889, designed for the Gates lintel, from which the figure would gaze down upon Hell. While The Thinker most obviously characterizes Dante, aspects of the Biblical Adam, the mythological Prometheus, and Rodin himself have been ascribed to him. Other observers de-emphasize the apparent intellectual theme of The Thinker, stressing the figure's rough physicality and the emotional tension emanating from it.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 36648936, 3775581, 23250 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 207, 213 ], [ 342, 346 ], [ 365, 375 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The town of Calais had contemplated a historical monument for decades when Rodin learned of the project. He pursued the commission, interested in the medieval motif and patriotic theme. The mayor of Calais was tempted to hire Rodin on the spot upon visiting his studio, and soon the memorial was approved, with Rodin as its architect. It would commemorate the six townspeople of Calais who offered their lives to save their fellow citizens.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "During the Hundred Years' War, the army of King Edward III besieged Calais, and Edward ordered that the town's population be killed en masse. He agreed to spare them if six of the principal citizens would come to him prepared to die, bareheaded and barefooted and with ropes around their necks. When they came, he ordered that they be executed, but pardoned them when his queen, Philippa of Hainault, begged him to spare their lives. The Burghers of Calais depicts the men as they are leaving for the king's camp, carrying keys to the town's gates and citadel.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 19038039, 46377, 47754, 1003907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 29 ], [ 43, 58 ], [ 379, 399 ], [ 434, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rodin began the project in 1884, inspired by the chronicles of the siege by Jean Froissart. Though the town envisioned an allegorical, heroic piece centered on Eustache de Saint-Pierre, the eldest of the six men, Rodin conceived the sculpture as a study in the varied and complex emotions under which all six men were laboring. One year into the commission, the Calais committee was not impressed with Rodin's progress. Rodin indicated his willingness to end the project rather than change his design to meet the committee's conservative expectations, but Calais said to continue.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 143281, 1837 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 90 ], [ 122, 133 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1889, The Burghers of Calais was first displayed to general acclaim. It is a bronze sculpture weighing , and its figures are tall. The six men portrayed do not display a united, heroic front; rather, each is isolated from his brothers, individually deliberating and struggling with his expected fate. Rodin soon proposed that the monument's high pedestal be eliminated, wanting to move the sculpture to ground level so that viewers could \"penetrate to the heart of the subject\". At ground level, the figures' positions lead the viewer around the work, and subtly suggest their common movement forward.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The committee was incensed by the untraditional proposal, but Rodin would not yield. In 1895, Calais succeeded in having Burghers displayed in their preferred form: the work was placed in front of a public garden on a high platform, surrounded by a cast-iron railing. Rodin had wanted it located near the town hall, where it would engage the public. Only after damage during the First World War, subsequent storage, and Rodin's death was the sculpture displayed as he had intended. It is one of Rodin's best-known and most acclaimed works.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Commissioned to create a monument to French writer Victor Hugo in 1889, Rodin dealt extensively with the subject of artist and muse. Like many of Rodin's public commissions, Monument to Victor Hugo was met with resistance because it did not fit conventional expectations. Commenting on Rodin's monument to Victor Hugo, The Times in 1909 expressed that \"there is some show of reason in the complaint that [Rodin's] conceptions are sometimes unsuited to his medium, and that in such cases they overstrain his vast technical powers\". The 1897 plaster model was not cast in bronze until 1964.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 42146, 39127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 51, 62 ], [ 319, 328 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Société des Gens des Lettres, a Parisian organization of writers, planned a monument to French novelist Honoré de Balzac immediately after his death in 1850. The society commissioned Rodin to create the memorial in 1891, and Rodin spent years developing the concept for his sculpture. Challenged in finding an appropriate representation of Balzac given the author's rotund physique, Rodin produced many studies: portraits, full-length figures in the nude, wearing a frock coat, or in a robe– a replica of which Rodin had requested. The realized sculpture displays Balzac cloaked in the drapery, looking forcefully into the distance with deeply gouged features. Rodin's intent had been to show Balzac at the moment of conceiving a work– to express courage, labor, and struggle.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 42368, 1228805, 242527 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 124 ], [ 470, 480 ], [ 490, 494 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When Balzac was exhibited in 1898, the negative reaction was not surprising. The Société rejected the work, and the press ran parodies. Criticizing the work, Morey (1918) reflected, \"there may come a time, and doubtless will come a time, when it will not seem outre to represent a great novelist as a huge comic mask crowning a bathrobe, but even at the present day this statue impresses one as slang.\" A modern critic, indeed, claims that Balzac is one of Rodin's masterpieces.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 18960192 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 126, 134 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The monument had its supporters in Rodin's day; a manifesto defending him was signed by Monet, Debussy, and future Premier Georges Clemenceau, among many others. In the BBC series Civilisation, art historian Kenneth Clark praised the monument as \"the greatest piece of sculpture of the 19th Century, perhaps, indeed, the greatest since Michelangelo.\" Rather than try to convince skeptics of the merit of the monument, Rodin repaid the Société his commission and moved the figure to his garden. After this experience, Rodin did not complete another public commission. Only in 1939 was Monument to Balzac cast in bronze and placed on the Boulevard du Montparnasse at the intersection with Boulevard Raspail.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 6548, 6260, 218751, 65738, 19344654, 565919, 159002, 21019, 18761143, 18295445, 18295110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 93 ], [ 95, 102 ], [ 115, 122 ], [ 123, 141 ], [ 169, 172 ], [ 180, 192 ], [ 208, 221 ], [ 336, 348 ], [ 584, 602 ], [ 636, 661 ], [ 687, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The popularity of Rodin's most famous sculptures tends to obscure his total creative output. A prolific artist, he created thousands of busts, figures, and sculptural fragments over more than five decades. He painted in oils (especially in his thirties) and in watercolors. The Musée Rodin holds 7,000 of his drawings and prints, in chalk and charcoal, and thirteen vigorous drypoints. He also produced a single lithograph.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 22605, 180046, 44734, 21193982, 174259, 18426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 224 ], [ 261, 272 ], [ 333, 338 ], [ 343, 351 ], [ 375, 383 ], [ 412, 422 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Portraiture was an important component of Rodin's oeuvre, helping him to win acceptance and financial independence. His first sculpture was a bust of his father in 1860, and he produced at least 56 portraits between 1877 and his death in 1917. Early subjects included fellow sculptor Jules Dalou (1883) and companion Camille Claudel (1884).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 926649 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 284, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later, with his reputation established, Rodin made busts of prominent contemporaries such as English politician George Wyndham (1905), Irish playwright George Bernard Shaw (1906), socialist (and former mistress of the Prince of Wales who became King Edward VII) Countess of Warwick (1908), Austrian composer Gustav Mahler (1909), former Argentine president Domingo Faustino Sarmiento and French statesman Georges Clemenceau (1911).", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 750395, 12855, 1729233, 65174, 383564, 65738 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 126 ], [ 152, 171 ], [ 262, 281 ], [ 308, 321 ], [ 357, 383 ], [ 405, 423 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "His undated drawing Study of a Woman Nude, Standing, Arms Raised, Hands Crossed Above Head is one of the works seized in 2012 from the collection of Cornelius Gurlitt.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Works", "target_page_ids": [ 41032777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 149, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rodin was a naturalist, less concerned with monumental expression than with character and emotion. Departing with centuries of tradition, he turned away from the idealism of the Greeks, and the decorative beauty of the Baroque and neo-Baroque movements. His sculpture emphasized the individual and the concreteness of flesh, and suggested emotion through detailed, textured surfaces, and the interplay of light and shadow. To a greater degree than his contemporaries, Rodin believed that an individual's character was revealed by his physical features.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aesthetic", "target_page_ids": [ 3957, 3081172 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 219, 226 ], [ 231, 242 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rodin's talent for surface modeling allowed him to let every part of the body speak for the whole. The male's passion in The Thinker is suggested by the grip of his toes on the rock, the rigidness of his back, and the differentiation of his hands. Speaking of The Thinker, Rodin illuminated his aesthetic: \"What makes my Thinker think is that he thinks not only with his brain, with his knitted brow, his distended nostrils and compressed lips, but with every muscle of his arms, back, and legs, with his clenched fist and gripping toes.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aesthetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Sculptural fragments to Rodin were autonomous works, and he considered them the essence of his artistic statement. His fragments– perhaps lacking arms, legs, or a head– took sculpture further from its traditional role of portraying likenesses, and into a realm where forms existed for their own sake. Notable examples are The Walking Man, Meditation without Arms, and Iris, Messenger of the Gods.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aesthetic", "target_page_ids": [ 11923328, 57189439, 63183688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 322, 337 ], [ 339, 362 ], [ 368, 395 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rodin saw suffering and conflict as hallmarks of modern art. \"Nothing, really, is more moving than the maddened beast, dying from unfulfilled desire and asking in vain for grace to quell its passion.\" Charles Baudelaire echoed those themes, and was among Rodin's favorite poets. Rodin enjoyed music, especially the opera composer Gluck, and wrote a book about French cathedrals. He owned a work by the as-yet-unrecognized Van Gogh, and admired the forgotten El Greco.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aesthetic", "target_page_ids": [ 5804, 99636, 766983, 32603, 140639 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 201, 219 ], [ 330, 335 ], [ 360, 377 ], [ 422, 430 ], [ 458, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Instead of copying traditional academic postures, Rodin preferred his models to move naturally around his studio (despite their nakedness). The sculptor often made quick sketches in clay that were later fine-tuned, cast in plaster, and cast in bronze or carved from marble. Rodin's focus was on the handling of clay.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aesthetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "George Bernard Shaw sat for a portrait and gave an idea of Rodin's technique: \"While he worked, he achieved a number of miracles. At the end of the first fifteen minutes, after having given a simple idea of the human form to the block of clay, he produced by the action of his thumb a bust so living that I would have taken it away with me to relieve the sculptor of any further work.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aesthetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "He described the evolution of his bust over a month, passing through \"all the stages of art's evolution\": first, a \"Byzantine masterpiece\", then \"Bernini intermingled\", then an elegant Houdon. \"The hand of Rodin worked not as the hand of a sculptor works, but as the work of Elan Vital. The Hand of God is his own hand.\"", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aesthetic", "target_page_ids": [ 647630, 12635, 75196, 2321181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 125 ], [ 146, 153 ], [ 185, 191 ], [ 275, 285 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After he completed his work in clay, he employed highly skilled assistants to re-sculpt his compositions at larger sizes (including any of his large-scale monuments such as The Thinker), to cast the clay compositions into plaster or bronze, and to carve his marbles. Rodin's major innovation was to capitalize on such multi-staged processes of 19th century sculpture and their reliance on plaster casting.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aesthetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Since clay deteriorates rapidly if not kept wet or fired into a terra-cotta, sculptors used plaster casts as a means of securing the composition they would make from the fugitive material that is clay. This was common practice amongst Rodin's contemporaries, and sculptors would exhibit plaster casts with the hopes that they would be commissioned to have the works made in a more permanent material. Rodin, however, would have multiple plasters made and treat them as the raw material of sculpture, recombining their parts and figures into new compositions, and new names.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aesthetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As Rodin's practice developed into the 1890s, he became more and more radical in his pursuit of fragmentation, the combination of figures at different scales, and the making of new compositions from his earlier work. A prime example of this is the bold The Walking Man (1899–1900), which was exhibited at his major one-person show in 1900. This is composed of two sculptures from the 1870s that Rodin found in his studio– a broken and damaged torso that had fallen into neglect and the lower extremities of a statuette version of his 1878 St. John the Baptist Preaching he was having re-sculpted at a reduced scale.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aesthetic", "target_page_ids": [ 11923328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 253, 268 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Without finessing the join between upper and lower, between torso and legs, Rodin created a work that many sculptors at the time and subsequently have seen as one of his strongest and most singular works. This is despite the fact that the object conveys two different styles, exhibits two different attitudes toward finish, and lacks any attempt to hide the arbitrary fusion of these two components. It was the freedom and creativity with which Rodin used these practices– along with his activation surfaces of sculptures through traces of his own touch and with his more open attitude toward bodily pose, sensual subject matter, and non-naturalistic surface– that marked Rodin's re-making of traditional 19th century sculptural techniques into the prototype for modern sculpture.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Aesthetic", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "By 1900, Rodin's artistic reputation was entrenched. Gaining exposure from a pavilion of his artwork set up near the 1900 World's Fair (Exposition Universelle) in Paris, he received requests to make busts of prominent people internationally, while his assistants at the atelier produced duplicates of his works. His income from portrait commissions alone totaled probably 200,000 francs a year. As Rodin's fame grew, he attracted many followers, including the German poet Rainer Maria Rilke, and authors Octave Mirbeau, Joris-Karl Huysmans, and Oscar Wilde.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later years (1900–1917)", "target_page_ids": [ 50268, 26408, 153994, 64464, 22614 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 122, 134 ], [ 472, 490 ], [ 504, 518 ], [ 520, 539 ], [ 545, 556 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rilke stayed with Rodin in 1905 and 1906, and did administrative work for him; he would later write a laudatory monograph on the sculptor. Rodin and Beuret's modest country estate in Meudon, purchased in 1897, was a host to such guests as King Edward, dancer Isadora Duncan, and harpsichordist Wanda Landowska. A British journalist who visited the property noted in 1902 that in its complete isolation, there was \"a striking analogy between its situation and the personality of the man who lives in it\". Rodin moved to the city in 1908, renting the main floor of the Hôtel Biron, an 18th-century townhouse. He left Beuret in Meudon, and began an affair with the American-born Duchesse de Choiseul. From 1910, he mentored the Russian sculptor, Moissey Kogan.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later years (1900–1917)", "target_page_ids": [ 653841, 416786, 46721, 160640, 14312, 560701, 6448915, 53644068 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 121 ], [ 183, 189 ], [ 239, 250 ], [ 259, 273 ], [ 279, 290 ], [ 294, 309 ], [ 567, 578 ], [ 743, 756 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "While Rodin was beginning to be accepted in France by the time of The Burghers of Calais, he had not yet conquered the American market. Because of his technique and the frankness of some of his work, he did not have an easy time selling his work to American industrialists. However, he came to know Sarah Tyson Hallowell (1846–1924), a curator from Chicago who visited Paris to arrange exhibitions at the large Interstate Expositions of the 1870s and 1880s. Hallowell was not only a curator but an adviser and a facilitator who was trusted by a number of prominent American collectors to suggest works for their collections, the most prominent of these being the Chicago hotelier Potter Palmer and his wife, Bertha Palmer (1849–1918).", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later years (1900–1917)", "target_page_ids": [ 30119529, 1145754, 1145765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 299, 320 ], [ 680, 693 ], [ 708, 721 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next opportunity for Rodin in America was the 1893 Chicago World's Fair. Hallowell wanted to help promote Rodin's work and he suggested a solo exhibition, which she wrote him was beaucoup moins beau que l'original but impossible, outside the rules. Instead, she suggested he send a number of works for her loan exhibition of French art from American collections and she told him she would list them as being part of an American collection. Rodin sent Hallowell three works, Cupid and Psyche, Sphinx and Andromeda. All nudes, these works provoked great controversy and were ultimately hidden behind a drape with special permission given for viewers to see them.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later years (1900–1917)", "target_page_ids": [ 41960, 57163120 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 75 ], [ 507, 516 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Bust of Dalou and Burgher of Calais were on display in the official French pavilion at the fair and so between the works that were on display and those that were not, he was noticed. However, the works he gave Hallowell to sell found no takers, but she soon brought the controversial Quaker-born financier Charles Yerkes (1837–1905) into the fold and he purchased two large marbles for his Chicago manse; Yerkes was likely the first American to own a Rodin sculpture.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later years (1900–1917)", "target_page_ids": [ 43810 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 306, 320 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other collectors soon followed including the tastemaking Potter Palmers of Chicago and Isabella Stewart Gardner (1840–1924) of Boston, all arranged by Sarah Hallowell. In appreciation for her efforts at unlocking the American market, Rodin eventually presented Hallowell with a bronze, a marble and a terra cotta. When Hallowell moved to Paris in 1893, she and Rodin continued their warm friendship and correspondence, which lasted to the end of the sculptor's life. After Hallowell's death, her niece, the painter Harriet Hallowell, inherited the Rodins and after her death, the American heirs could not manage to match their value in order to export them, so they became the property of the French state.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later years (1900–1917)", "target_page_ids": [ 3764677, 30115205 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 87, 111 ], [ 515, 532 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the start of the 20th century, Rodin was a regular visitor to Great Britain, where he developed a loyal following by the beginning of the First World War. He first visited England in 1881, where his friend, the artist Alphonse Legros, had introduced him to the poet William Ernest Henley. With his personal connections and enthusiasm for Rodin's art, Henley was most responsible for Rodin's reception in Britain. (Rodin later returned the favor by sculpting a bust of Henley that was used as the frontispiece to Henley's collected works and, after his death, on his monument in London.)", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later years (1900–1917)", "target_page_ids": [ 209261, 225207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 224, 239 ], [ 272, 293 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Through Henley, Rodin met Robert Louis Stevenson and Robert Browning, in whom he found further support. Encouraged by the enthusiasm of British artists, students, and high society for his art, Rodin donated a significant selection of his works to the nation in 1914.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later years (1900–1917)", "target_page_ids": [ 26444, 61180 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 48 ], [ 53, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "After the revitalization of the Société Nationale des Beaux-Arts in 1890, Rodin served as the body's vice-president. In 1903, Rodin was elected president of the International Society of Painters, Sculptors, and Engravers. He replaced its former president, James Abbott McNeill Whistler, upon Whistler's death. His election to the prestigious position was largely due to the efforts of Albert Ludovici, father of English philosopher Anthony Ludovici, who was private secretary to Rodin for several months in 1906, but the two men parted company after Christmas, \"to their mutual relief.\"", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later years (1900–1917)", "target_page_ids": [ 4128205, 39537659, 74097, 1940310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 64 ], [ 161, 220 ], [ 256, 285 ], [ 432, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his later creative years, Rodin's work turned increasingly toward the female form, and themes of more overt masculinity and femininity. He concentrated on small dance studies, and produced numerous erotic drawings, sketched in a loose way, without taking his pencil from the paper or his eyes from the model. Rodin met American dancer Isadora Duncan in 1900, attempted to seduce her, and the next year sketched studies of her and her students. In July 1906, Rodin was also enchanted by dancers from the Royal Ballet of Cambodia, and produced some of his most famous drawings from the experience.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later years (1900–1917)", "target_page_ids": [ 369910, 160640 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 205, 220 ], [ 342, 356 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Fifty-three years into their relationship, Rodin married Rose Beuret. They married on 29 January 1917, and Beuret died two weeks later, on 16 February. Rodin was ill that year; in January, he suffered weakness from influenza, and on 16 November his physician announced that \"congestion of the lungs has caused great weakness. The patient's condition is grave.\" Rodin died the next day, age 77, at his villa in Meudon, Île-de-France, on the outskirts of Paris.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later years (1900–1917)", "target_page_ids": [ 19572217, 416786, 1716427 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 215, 224 ], [ 410, 416 ], [ 418, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A cast of The Thinker was placed next to his tomb in Meudon; it was Rodin's wish that the figure served as his headstone and epitaph. In 1923, Marcell Tirel, Rodin's secretary, published a book alleging that Rodin's death was largely due to cold, and the fact that he had no heat at Meudon. Rodin requested permission to stay in the Hotel Biron, a museum of his works, but the director of the museum refused to let him stay there.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Later years (1900–1917)", "target_page_ids": [ 603121, 10074, 6448915 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 111, 120 ], [ 125, 132 ], [ 333, 344 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rodin willed to the French state his studio and the right to make casts from his plasters. Because he encouraged the edition of his sculpted work, Rodin's sculptures are represented in many public and private collections. The Musée Rodin was founded in 1916 and opened in 1919 at the Hôtel Biron, where Rodin had lived, and it holds the largest Rodin collection, with more than 6,000 sculptures and 7,000 works on paper. The French order Légion d'honneur made him a Commander, and he received an honorary doctorate from the University of Oxford.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1010196, 6448915, 160188, 464751, 31797 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 226, 237 ], [ 284, 295 ], [ 438, 454 ], [ 496, 514 ], [ 524, 544 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During his lifetime, Rodin was compared to Michelangelo, and was widely recognized as the greatest artist of the era. In the three decades following his death, his popularity waned with changing aesthetic values. Since the 1950s, Rodin's reputation has re-ascended; he is recognized as the most important sculptor of the modern era, and has been the subject of much scholarly work. The sense of incompletion offered by some of his sculpture, such as The Walking Man, influenced the increasingly abstract sculptural forms of the 20th century.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 21019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 43, 55 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rodin restored an ancient role of sculpture– to capture the physical and intellectual force of the human subject– and he freed sculpture from the repetition of traditional patterns, providing the foundation for greater experimentation in the 20th century. His popularity is ascribed to his emotion-laden representations of ordinary men and women– to his ability to find the beauty and pathos in the human animal. His most popular works, such as The Kiss and The Thinker, are widely used outside the fine arts as symbols of human emotion and character. To honor Rodin's artistic legacy, the Google search engine homepage displayed a Google Doodle featuring The Thinker to celebrate his 172nd birthday on 12 November 2012.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1092923, 1464549 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 590, 596 ], [ 632, 645 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Rodin had enormous artistic influence. A whole generation of sculptors studied in his workshop. These include Gutzon Borglum, Antoine Bourdelle, Constantin Brâncuși, Camille Claudel, Charles Despiau, Malvina Hoffman, Carl Milles, François Pompon, Rodo, Gustav Vigeland, Clara Westhoff and Margaret Winser, even though Brancusi later rejected his legacy. Rodin also promoted the work of other sculptors, including Aristide Maillol and Ivan Meštrović whom Rodin once called \"the greatest phenomenon amongst sculptors.\" Other sculptors whose work has been described as owing to Rodin include Joseph Csaky, Alexander Archipenko, Joseph Bernard, Henri Gaudier-Brzeska, Georg Kolbe, Wilhelm Lehmbruck, Jacques Lipchitz, Pablo Picasso, Adolfo Wildt, and Ossip Zadkine. Henry Moore acknowledged Rodin's seminal influence on his work.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 361180, 167835, 6585, 88077, 3285728, 905861, 902361, 3005281, 15928471, 102229, 550692, 55718712, 2063, 250507, 35152596, 770430, 3277942, 679585, 3146162, 921512, 166597, 24176, 25311267, 44518, 5517329 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 110, 124 ], [ 126, 143 ], [ 145, 164 ], [ 166, 181 ], [ 183, 198 ], [ 200, 215 ], [ 217, 228 ], [ 230, 245 ], [ 247, 251 ], [ 253, 268 ], [ 270, 284 ], [ 289, 304 ], [ 413, 429 ], [ 434, 448 ], [ 589, 601 ], [ 603, 623 ], [ 625, 639 ], [ 641, 662 ], [ 664, 675 ], [ 677, 694 ], [ 696, 712 ], [ 714, 727 ], [ 729, 741 ], [ 747, 760 ], [ 762, 773 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several films have been made featuring Rodin as a prominent character or presence. These include Camille Claudel, a 1988 film in which Gérard Depardieu portrays Rodin, Camille Claudel 1915 from 2013, and Rodin, a 2017 film starring Vincent Lindon as Rodin. Furthermore, the Rodin Studios artists' cooperative housing in New York City, completed in 1917 to designs by Cass Gilbert, was named after Rodin.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 760738, 45238, 38199519, 53765331, 1257866, 65840775, 53406 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 112 ], [ 135, 151 ], [ 168, 188 ], [ 204, 209 ], [ 232, 246 ], [ 274, 287 ], [ 367, 379 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The relative ease of making reproductions has also encouraged many forgeries: a survey of expert opinion placed Rodin in the top ten most-faked artists. Rodin fought against forgeries of his works as early as 1901, and since his death, many cases of organized, large-scale forgeries have been revealed. A massive forgery was discovered by French authorities in the early 1990s and led to the conviction of art dealer Guy Hain.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 738703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 417, 425 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "To deal with the complexity of bronze reproduction, France has promulgated several laws since 1956 which limit reproduction to twelve casts– the maximum number that can be made from an artist's plasters and still be considered his work. As a result of this limit, The Burghers of Calais, for example, is found in fourteen cities.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 1003907 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 264, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the market for sculpture, plagued by fakes, the value of a piece increases significantly when its provenance can be established. A Rodin work with a verified history sold for US$4.8million in 1999, and Rodin's bronze Ève, grand modele– version sans rocher sold for $18.9million at a 2008 Christie's auction in New York. Art critics concerned about authenticity have argued that taking a cast does not equal reproducing a Rodin sculpture– especially given the importance of surface treatment in Rodin's work.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 155688 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 291, 301 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A number of drawings previously attributed to Rodin are now known to have been forged by Ernest Durig.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Legacy", "target_page_ids": [ 51214021 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 89, 101 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " (Online Essay)", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "General sources", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Corbett, Rachel (2016). You Must Change Your Life: the Story of Rainer Maria Rilke and Auguste Rodin, New York: W. W. Norton and Company. .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Sanyal, Narayan (1984). Rodin, Dey's Publishing Company, Kolkata. .", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Vincent, Clare. \"Auguste Rodin (1840–1917)\". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–. (October 2004)", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Tobias G. Natter, Max Hollein (Eds.): Klimt & Rodin: An Artistic Encounter.'' DelMonico Books – Prestel Publishing, Munich e.a. 2017, ISBN 978-3-7913-5708-9.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Further reading", "target_page_ids": [ 25712694 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Musée Rodin, Paris", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Friends of Rodin, association organizing for its members events around Auguste Rodin", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rodin Museum, Philadelphia", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Auguste Rodin at the National Gallery of Art", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rodin Collection, Stanford University", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Auguste Rodin: Timeline of Art History Metropolitan Museum of Art", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Rodin Exhibition at the Brooklyn Museum Nov 1987 – Jan 1988", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 604865 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Rodin at the Victoria and Albert Museum", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 97275 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 40 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Correspondence with Walter Butterworth held at the University of Salford", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Public Art Fund: Rodin at Rockefeller Center", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Video documentary about Rodin's work", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " (by Ranier Maria Rilke, trans. by Jessie Lemont & Hans Trausil)", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 26408 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 6, 24 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Portrait of Auguste Rodin by Alphonse Legros at University of Michigan Museum of Art", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 5721292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 49, 85 ] ] } ]

[ "Auguste_Rodin", "1840_births", "1917_deaths", "19th-century_French_sculptors", "20th-century_French_sculptors", "Artists_from_Paris", "French_male_sculptors", "French_printmakers", "Grand_Officiers_of_the_Légion_d'honneur", "Modern_sculptors", "People_of_the_French_Third_Republic", "People_of_the_July_Monarchy" ]

[ "Rodin", "François-Auguste-René Rodin", "François Auguste Rodin", "Francois A. Rene Rodin", "Rodan", "Ogi︠u︡st Roden", "François Auguste René Rodin", "René François Auguste Rodin", "august rodin", "rodin", "a. rodin", "rodin auguste", "rodin a.", "aug. rodin", "e. rodin", "Lo-tan", "Roden Rone Fransua Ogyust" ]

[ { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor is a city in the U.S. state of Michigan and the county seat of Washtenaw County. The 2020 census recorded its population to be 123,851. It is the principal city of the Ann Arbor Metropolitan Statistical Area, which encompasses all of Washtenaw County. Ann Arbor is also included in the Greater Detroit Combined Statistical Area and the Great Lakes megalopolis, the most populated and largest megalopolis in North America.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5391, 18859, 51509, 95030, 23962196, 75799, 490908, 2116639, 18420030, 25123333, 21139 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 19 ], [ 41, 49 ], [ 58, 69 ], [ 73, 89 ], [ 96, 107 ], [ 189, 218 ], [ 297, 312 ], [ 313, 338 ], [ 347, 370 ], [ 403, 414 ], [ 418, 431 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor is home to the University of Michigan. The university significantly shapes Ann Arbor's economy as it employs about 30,000 workers, including about 12,000 in the medical center. The city's economy is also centered on high technology, with several companies drawn to the area by the university's research and development infrastructure.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 31740, 3039777 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 47 ], [ 171, 185 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor was founded in 1824, named after the wives of the village's founders, both named Ann, and the stands of bur oak trees. The city's population grew at a rapid rate in the early to the mid-20th century.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 473493 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 114, 121 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The lands of present-day Ann Arbor were part of Massachusetts's western claim after the French and Indian War (1754–1763), bounded by the latitudes of Massachusetts Bay Colony's original charter, to which it was entitled by its interpretation of its original sea-to-sea grant from The British Crown. Massachusetts ceded the claim to the federal government as part of the Northwest Territory after April 19, 1785.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1645518, 1028770, 39062, 197490, 32609472, 357357, 1645518, 195149, 234989 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 48, 61 ], [ 64, 77 ], [ 88, 109 ], [ 151, 175 ], [ 259, 275 ], [ 285, 298 ], [ 300, 313 ], [ 338, 356 ], [ 372, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In about 1774, the Potawatomi founded two villages in the area of what is now Ann Arbor.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 351662 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 19, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor was founded in 1824 by land speculators John Allen and Elisha Walker Rumsey. On May 25, 1824, the town plat was registered with Wayne County as \"Annarbour\", the earliest known use of the town's name. Allen and Rumsey decided to name it for their wives, both named Ann, and for the stands of bur oak in the of land they purchased for $800 from the federal government at $1.25 per acre. The local Ojibwa named the settlement kaw-goosh-kaw-nick, after the sound of Allen's sawmill.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22278517, 22278643, 721336, 473493, 219064, 352327 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 60 ], [ 65, 85 ], [ 113, 117 ], [ 301, 308 ], [ 406, 412 ], [ 481, 488 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor became the seat of Washtenaw County in 1827, and was incorporated as a village in 1833. The Ann Arbor Land Company, a group of speculators, set aside of undeveloped land and offered it to the state of Michigan as the site of the state capitol, but lost the bid to Lansing. In 1837, the property was accepted instead as the site of the University of Michigan.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18538, 31740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 275, 282 ], [ 346, 368 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the university's establishment in the city in 1837, the histories of the University of Michigan and Ann Arbor have been closely linked. The town became a regional transportation hub in 1839 with the arrival of the Michigan Central Railroad, and a north–south railway connecting Ann Arbor to Toledo and other markets to the south was established in 1878. Throughout the 1840s and the 1850s settlers continued to come to Ann Arbor. While the earlier settlers were primarily of British ancestry, the newer settlers also consisted of Germans, Irish, and Black people. In 1851, Ann Arbor was chartered as a city, though the city showed a drop in population during the Depression of 1873. It was not until the early 1880s that Ann Arbor again saw robust growth, with new emigrants from Greece, Italy, Russia, and Poland. Ann Arbor saw increased growth in manufacturing, particularly in milling. Ann Arbor's Jewish community also grew after the turn of the 20th century, and its first and oldest synagogue, Beth Israel Congregation, was established in 1916.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1855690, 30849, 596473, 1095698, 1131183, 18484689 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 245 ], [ 297, 303 ], [ 669, 687 ], [ 886, 893 ], [ 907, 913 ], [ 1006, 1030 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1960s and 1970s, the city gained a reputation as an important center for liberal politics. Ann Arbor also became a locus for left-wing activism and anti-Vietnam War movement, as well as the student movement. The first major meetings of the national left-wing campus group Students for a Democratic Society took place in Ann Arbor in 1960; in 1965, the city was home to the first U.S. teach-in against the Vietnam War. During the ensuing 15 years, many countercultural and New Left enterprises sprang up and developed large constituencies within the city. These influences washed into municipal politics during the early and mid-1970s when three members of the Human Rights Party (HRP) won city council seats on the strength of the student vote. During their time on the council, HRP representatives fought for measures including pioneering antidiscrimination ordinances, measures decriminalizing marijuana possession, and a rent-control ordinance; many of these progressive organizations remain in effect today in modified form.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1854610, 39588052, 1471703, 32611, 144633, 42034955, 2297714, 37071, 2304236, 41258426 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 159, 184 ], [ 283, 316 ], [ 395, 403 ], [ 416, 427 ], [ 463, 478 ], [ 483, 491 ], [ 671, 689 ], [ 851, 869 ], [ 882, 927 ], [ 935, 947 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Two religious-conservative institutions were created in Ann Arbor; the Word of God (established in 1967), a charismatic inter-denominational movement; and the Thomas More Law Center (established in 1999).", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 8307502, 474670, 2752999 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 82 ], [ 108, 119 ], [ 159, 181 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following a 1956 vote, the city of East Ann Arbor merged with Ann Arbor to encompass the eastern sections of the city.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In the past several decades, Ann Arbor has grappled with the effects of sharply rising land values, gentrification, and urban sprawl stretching into outlying countryside. On November 4, 2003, voters approved a greenbelt plan under which the city government bought development rights on agricultural parcels of land adjacent to Ann Arbor to preserve them from sprawling development. Since then, a vociferous local debate has hinged on how and whether to accommodate and guide development within city limits. Ann Arbor consistently ranks in the \"top places to live\" lists published by various mainstream media outlets every year. In 2008, it was ranked by CNNMoney.com 27th out of 100 \"America's best small cities\". And in 2010, Forbes listed Ann Arbor as one of the most liveable cities in the United States.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 41940, 655311, 232435, 13830523, 294894, 3434750 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 100, 114 ], [ 120, 132 ], [ 210, 219 ], [ 654, 666 ], [ 727, 733 ], [ 793, 806 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and (2.99%) is water. Most of the water portion of the city is the Huron River.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and cityscape", "target_page_ids": [ 57070, 635473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 17, 35 ], [ 155, 166 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor is road miles west of Ypsilanti. Ann Arbor is also road miles west of Detroit. Ann Arbor Charter Township adjoins the city's north and east sides. Ann Arbor is situated on the Huron River in a productive agricultural and fruit-growing region. The landscape of Ann Arbor consists of hills and valleys, with the terrain becoming steeper near the Huron River. The elevation ranges from about along the Huron River to on the city's west side, near the intersection of Maple Road and Pauline Blvd. Generally, the west-central and northwestern parts of the city and U-M's North Campus are the highest parts of the city; the lowest parts are along the Huron River and in the southeast. Ann Arbor Municipal Airport, which is south of the city at , has an elevation of .", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and cityscape", "target_page_ids": [ 30383880, 8687, 119220, 635473, 3664869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 33, 42 ], [ 82, 89 ], [ 91, 117 ], [ 188, 199 ], [ 693, 720 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor's \"Tree Town\" nickname stems from the dense forestation of its parks and residential areas. The city contains more than 50,000 trees along its streets and an equal number in parks. In recent years, the emerald ash borer has destroyed many of the city's approximately 10,500 ash trees. The city contains 157 municipal parks ranging from small neighborhood green spots to large recreation areas. Several large city parks and a university park border sections of the Huron River. Fuller Recreation Area, near the University Hospital complex, contains sports fields, pedestrian and bike paths, and swimming pools. The Nichols Arboretum, owned by the University of Michigan, is a arboretum that contains hundreds of plant and tree species. It is on the city's east side, near the university's Central Campus. Located across the Huron River just beyond the university's North Campus is the university's Matthaei Botanical Gardens, which contains 300acres of gardens and a large tropical conservatory as well as a wildflower garden specializing in the vegetation of the southern Great Lakes Region..", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and cityscape", "target_page_ids": [ 1162925, 66706, 3039777, 714991, 3319589, 31740, 338454, 635473, 3319211 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 212, 229 ], [ 284, 292 ], [ 520, 539 ], [ 588, 597 ], [ 624, 641 ], [ 656, 678 ], [ 686, 695 ], [ 834, 845 ], [ 908, 934 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Kerrytown Shops, Main Street Business District, the State Street Business District, and the South University Business District are commercial areas in downtown Ann Arbor. Three commercial areas south of downtown include the areas near I-94 and Ann Arbor-Saline Road, Briarwood Mall, and the South Industrial area. Other commercial areas include the Arborland/Washtenaw Avenue and Packard Road merchants on the east side, the Plymouth Road area in the northeast, and the Westgate/West Stadium areas on the west side. Downtown contains a mix of 19th- and early-20th-century structures and modern-style buildings, as well as a farmers' market in the Kerrytown district. The city's commercial districts are composed mostly of two- to four-story structures, although downtown and the area near Briarwood Mall contain a small number of high-rise buildings.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and cityscape", "target_page_ids": [ 6587648, 337903, 39862422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 271, 285 ], [ 628, 643 ], [ 651, 669 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor's residential neighborhoods contain architectural styles ranging from classic 19th- and early 20th-century designs to ranch-style houses. Among these homes are a number of kit houses built in the early 20th century. Contemporary-style houses are farther from the downtown district. Surrounding the University of Michigan campus are houses and apartment complexes occupied primarily by student renters. Tower Plaza, a 26-story condominium building located between the University of Michigan campus and downtown, is the tallest building in Ann Arbor. The 19th-century buildings and streetscape of the Old West Side neighborhood have been preserved virtually intact; in 1972, the district was listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and it is further protected by city ordinances and a nonprofit preservation group.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and cityscape", "target_page_ids": [ 1599894, 40703285, 6686345, 64065 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 128, 145 ], [ 182, 192 ], [ 412, 423 ], [ 714, 750 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor has a typically Midwestern humid continental climate (Köppen Dfa), which is influenced by the Great Lakes. There are four distinct seasons: winters are cold and snowy, with average highs around . Summers are warm to hot and humid, with average highs around and with slightly more precipitation. Spring and autumn are transitional between the two. The area experiences lake effect weather, primarily in the form of increased cloudiness during late fall and early winter. The monthly daily average temperature in July is , while the same figure for January is . Temperatures reach or exceed on 10 days, and drop to or below on 4.6 nights. Precipitation tends to be the heaviest during the summer months, but most frequent during winter. Snowfall, which normally occurs from November to April but occasionally starts in October, averages per season. The lowest recorded temperature was on February 11, 1885, and the highest recorded temperature was on July 24, 1934.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Geography and cityscape", "target_page_ids": [ 104697, 1225918, 484254, 12010, 43864 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 36 ], [ 37, 62 ], [ 64, 70 ], [ 104, 115 ], [ 380, 391 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of the 2020 U.S. Census, there were 123,851 people and 49,948 households residing in the city. The population density was 4,435.9 people per square mile (1,712.3/km), making it less densely populated than Detroit proper and its inner-ring suburbs like Oak Park and Ferndale, but more densely populated than outer-ring suburbs like Livonia and Troy. The racial makeup of the city was 67.6% White, 6.8% Black, 0.2% Native American, 15.7% Asian, 0.1% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 1.8% from other races, and 7.9% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race made up 5.5% of the population. Ann Arbor has a small population of Arab Americans, including students as well as local Lebanese and Palestinians.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 118777, 95878, 124387, 118798, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 159432, 6409741, 38626616 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 255, 263 ], [ 268, 276 ], [ 334, 341 ], [ 346, 350 ], [ 392, 397 ], [ 404, 409 ], [ 416, 431 ], [ 439, 444 ], [ 451, 486 ], [ 498, 509 ], [ 544, 552 ], [ 556, 562 ], [ 653, 667 ], [ 705, 713 ], [ 718, 730 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As of the 2010 U.S. Census, there were 113,934 people, 20,502 families, and 47,060 households residing in the city. The population density was 4,093.9 people per square mile (1,580.7/km). The racial makeup of the city was 73.0% White (70.4% non-Hispanic White), 7.7% Race and ethnicity in the United States Census, 0.3% Native American, 14.4% Asian, 0.0% Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander, 1.0% from other races, and 3.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino residents of any race made up 4.1% of the population.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285, 273285 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 233 ], [ 267, 313 ], [ 320, 335 ], [ 343, 348 ], [ 355, 390 ], [ 402, 413 ], [ 448, 456 ], [ 460, 466 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2013, Ann Arbor had the second-largest community of Japanese citizens in the state of Michigan, at 1,541; this figure trailed only that of Novi, which had 2,666 Japanese nationals.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 186932, 118775 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 63 ], [ 142, 146 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2010, out of 47,060 households, 43.6% were family households, 20.1% had individuals under the age of 18 living in them, and 17.0% had individuals over age 65 living in them. Of the 20,502 family households, 19.2% included children under age 18, 34.2% were husband-wife families (estimates did not include same-sex married couples), and 7.1% had a female householder with no husband present. The average household size was 2.17 people, and the average family size was 2.85 people. The median age was 27.8; 14.4% of the population was under age 18, and 9.3% was age 65 or older.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "According to the 2012–2016 American Community Survey estimates, the median household income was $57,697, and the median family income was $95,528. Males over age 25 and with earnings had a median income of $51,682, versus $39,203 for females. The per capita income for the city was $37,158. Nearly a quarter (23.4%) of people and 6.7% of families had incomes below the poverty level.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Demographics", "target_page_ids": [ 592043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The University of Michigan shapes Ann Arbor's economy significantly. It employs about 30,000 workers, including about 12,000 in the medical center. Other employers are drawn to the area by the university's research and development money, and by its graduates. High tech, health services and biotechnology are other major components of the city's economy; numerous medical offices, laboratories, and associated companies are located in the city. Automobile manufacturers, such as General Motors and Visteon, also employ residents.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 525028, 4502, 163778, 12102, 1710528 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 260, 269 ], [ 291, 304 ], [ 445, 469 ], [ 479, 493 ], [ 498, 505 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "High tech companies have located in the area since the 1930s, when International Radio Corporation introduced the first mass-produced AC/DC radio (the Kadette, in 1931) as well as the first pocket radio (the Kadette Jr., in 1933). The Argus camera company, originally a subsidiary of International Radio, manufactured cameras in Ann Arbor from 1936 to the 1960s. Current firms include Arbor Networks (provider of Internet traffic engineering and security systems), Arbortext (provider of XML-based publishing software), JSTOR (the digital scholarly journal archive), MediaSpan (provider of software and online services for the media industries), Truven Health Analytics, and ProQuest, which includes UMI. Ann Arbor Terminals manufactured a video-display terminal called the Ann Arbor Ambassador during the 1980s. Barracuda Networks, which provides networking, security, and storage products based on network appliances and cloud services, opened an engineering office in Ann Arbor in 2008 on Depot St. and currently occupies the building previously used as the Borders headquarters on Maynard Street. Duo Security, a cloud-based access security provider protecting thousands of organizations worldwide through two-factor authentication, is headquartered in Ann Arbor. It was formerly a unicorn and continues to be headquartered in Ann Arbor after its acquisition by Cisco Systems. In November 2021, semiconductor test equipment company KLA Corporation opened a new North American headquarters in Ann Arbor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 45630591, 3742982, 27855154, 20730728, 216262, 11836324, 218672, 218672, 2964515, 90122, 45538011, 51746, 3168991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 98 ], [ 235, 255 ], [ 385, 399 ], [ 465, 474 ], [ 520, 525 ], [ 646, 669 ], [ 675, 683 ], [ 700, 703 ], [ 813, 831 ], [ 1061, 1068 ], [ 1286, 1293 ], [ 1366, 1379 ], [ 1436, 1451 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Websites and online media companies in or near the city include All Media Guide, the Weather Underground, and Zattoo. Ann Arbor is the home to Internet2 and the Merit Network, a not-for-profit research and education computer network. Both are located in the South State Commons 2 building on South State Street, which once housed the Michigan Information Technology Center Foundation. The city is also home to a secondary office of Google's AdWords program—the company's primary revenue stream. The recent surge in companies operating in Ann Arbor has led to a decrease in its office and flex space vacancy rates. As of December 31, 2012, the total market vacancy rate for office and flex space is 11.80%, a 1.40% decrease in vacancy from one year previous, and the lowest overall vacancy level since 2003. The office vacancy rate decreased to 10.65% in 2012 from 12.08% in 2011, while the flex vacancy rate decreased slightly more, with a drop from 16.50% to 15.02%.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 2848526, 1982519, 5912818, 343251, 21775906, 879962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 79 ], [ 85, 104 ], [ 110, 116 ], [ 143, 152 ], [ 161, 174 ], [ 441, 448 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Pfizer, once the city's second largest employer, operated a large pharmaceutical research facility on the northeast side of Ann Arbor. On January 22, 2007, Pfizer announced it would close operations in Ann Arbor by the end of 2008. The facility was previously operated by Warner-Lambert and, before that, Parke-Davis. In December 2008, the University of Michigan Board of Regents approved the purchase of the facilities, and the university anticipates hiring 2,000 researchers and staff during the next 10 years. It is now known as North Campus Research Complex. The city is the home of other research and engineering centers, including those of Lotus Engineering, General Dynamics and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Other research centers sited in the city are the United States Environmental Protection Agency's National Vehicle and Fuel Emissions Laboratory and the Toyota Technical Center. The city is also home to National Sanitation Foundation International (NSF International), the nonprofit non-governmental organization that develops generally accepted standards for a variety of public health related industries and subject areas.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 62304, 28234803, 1421463, 169562, 52108, 37876, 58666, 30984, 30871962 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 6 ], [ 272, 286 ], [ 305, 316 ], [ 646, 663 ], [ 665, 681 ], [ 690, 737 ], [ 795, 840 ], [ 898, 921 ], [ 994, 1011 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Borders Books, started in Ann Arbor, was opened by brothers Tom and Louis Borders in 1971 with a stock of used books. The Borders chain was based in the city, as was its flagship store until it closed in September 2011. Domino's Pizza's headquarters is near Ann Arbor on Domino's Farms, a Frank Lloyd Wright-inspired complex just northeast of the city. Another Ann Arbor-based company is Zingerman's Delicatessen, which serves sandwiches and has developed businesses under a variety of brand names. Zingerman's has grown into a family of companies which offers a variety of products (bake shop, mail order, creamery, coffee) and services (business education). Flint Ink Corp., another Ann Arbor-based company, was the world's largest privately held ink manufacturer until it was acquired by Stuttgart-based XSYS Print Solutions in October 2005. Avfuel, a global supplier of aviation fuels and services, is also headquartered in Ann Arbor. Aastrom Biosciences, a publicly traded company that develops stem cell treatments for cardiovascular diseases, is also headquartered in Ann Arbor.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 90122, 794480, 794480, 10683, 3330354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 13 ], [ 220, 234 ], [ 271, 285 ], [ 290, 308 ], [ 389, 413 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Many cooperative enterprises were founded in the city; among those that remain are the People's Food Co-op and the Inter-Cooperative Council at the University of Michigan, a student housing cooperative founded in 1937. There are also three cohousing communities—Sunward, Great Oak, and Touchstone—located immediately to the west of the city limits.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Economy", "target_page_ids": [ 89313, 1964976, 7680285, 207009, 3581730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 16 ], [ 115, 170 ], [ 174, 201 ], [ 240, 249 ], [ 262, 269 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several performing arts groups and facilities are on the University of Michigan's campus, as are museums dedicated to art, archaeology, and natural history and sciences. Founded in 1879, the University Musical Society is an independent performing arts organization that presents over 60 events each year, bringing international artists in music, dance, and theater. Since 2001 Shakespeare in the Arb has presented one play by Shakespeare each June, in a large park near downtown. Regional and local performing arts groups not associated with the university include the Ann Arbor Civic Theatre, the Arbor Opera Theater, the Ann Arbor Symphony Orchestra, the Ann Arbor Ballet Theater, the Ann Arbor Civic Ballet (established in 1954 as Michigan's first chartered ballet company), The Ark, and Performance Network Theatre. Another unique piece of artistic expression in Ann Arbor is the fairy doors. These small portals are examples of installation art and can be found throughout the downtown area.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2344047, 18951655, 11996406, 46929100, 7396055, 3374378, 15656579, 29628944, 148099 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 104 ], [ 123, 134 ], [ 191, 217 ], [ 377, 399 ], [ 623, 651 ], [ 778, 785 ], [ 791, 818 ], [ 884, 895 ], [ 933, 949 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ann Arbor Hands-On Museum is located in a renovated and expanded historic downtown fire station. Multiple art galleries exist in the city, notably in the downtown area and around the University of Michigan campus. Aside from a large restaurant scene in the Main Street, South State Street, and South University Avenue areas, Ann Arbor ranks first among U.S. cities in the number of booksellers and books sold per capita. The Ann Arbor District Library maintains four branch outlets in addition to its main downtown building. The city is also home to the Gerald R. Ford Presidential Library.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2633871, 16439338, 3749491 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 29 ], [ 429, 455 ], [ 558, 593 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Several annual events—many of them centered on performing and visual arts—draw visitors to Ann Arbor. One such event is the Ann Arbor Art Fairs, a set of four concurrent juried fairs held on downtown streets. Scheduled on Thursday through Sunday of the third week of July, the fairs draw upward of half a million visitors. Another is the Ann Arbor Film Festival, held during the third week of March, which receives more than 2,500 submissions annually from more than 40 countries and serves as one of a handful of Academy Award–qualifying festivals in the United States.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 5738442, 1612435 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 124, 143 ], [ 338, 361 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor has a long history of openness to marijuana, given Ann Arbor's decriminalization of cannabis, the large number of medical marijuana dispensaries in the city (one dispensary, called People's Co-op, was directly across the street from Michigan Stadium until zoning forced it to move one mile to the west), the large number of pro-marijuana residents, and the annual Hash Bash: an event that is held on the first Saturday of April. Until (at least) the successful passage of Michigan's medical marijuana law, the event had arguably strayed from its initial intent, although for years, a number of attendees have received serious legal responses due to marijuana use on University of Michigan property, which does not fall under the city's progressive and compassionate ticketing program.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1481886, 175440, 926381, 3913932 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 94, 102 ], [ 124, 141 ], [ 243, 259 ], [ 374, 383 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor is a major center for college sports, most notably at the University of Michigan. Several well-known college sports facilities exist in the city, including Michigan Stadium, the largest American football stadium in the world and the third-largest stadium of any kind in the world. Michigan Stadium has a capacity of 107,601, with the final \"extra\" seat said to be reserved for and in honor of former athletic director and Hall of Fame football coach Fitz Crisler. The stadium was completed in 1927 and cost more than $950,000 to build. The stadium is colloquially known as \"The Big House\" due to its status as the largest American football stadium. Crisler Center and Yost Ice Arena play host to the school's basketball (both men's and women's) and ice hockey teams, respectively. Concordia University, a member of the NAIA, also fields sports teams.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 926381, 18951490, 10360273, 1570823, 1566166, 1570779, 14291424, 38738935, 22165661, 1268815, 393991 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 166, 182 ], [ 196, 213 ], [ 243, 264 ], [ 460, 472 ], [ 659, 673 ], [ 678, 692 ], [ 736, 741 ], [ 746, 753 ], [ 759, 769 ], [ 791, 811 ], [ 829, 833 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor is represented in the NPSL by semi-pro soccer team AFC Ann Arbor, a club founded in 2014 who call themselves The Mighty Oak.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3842324, 43658431 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 32, 36 ], [ 61, 74 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A person from Ann Arbor is called an \"Ann Arborite\", and many long-time residents call themselves \"townies\". The city itself is often called \"A²\" (\"A-squared\") or \"A2\" (\"A two\") or \"AA\", \"The Deuce\" (mainly by Chicagoans), and \"Tree Town\". With tongue-in-cheek reference to the city's liberal political leanings, some occasionally refer to Ann Arbor as \"The People's Republic of Ann Arbor\" or \"25 square miles surrounded by reality\", the latter phrase being adapted from Wisconsin Governor Lee Dreyfus's description of Madison, Wisconsin. In A Prairie Home Companion broadcast from Ann Arbor, Garrison Keillor described Ann Arbor as \"a city where people discuss socialism, but only in the fanciest restaurants.\" Ann Arbor sometimes appears on citation indexes as an author, instead of a location, often with the academic degree MI, a misunderstanding of the abbreviation for Michigan.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 515346, 2477895, 57863, 61194, 12743, 423362, 167241 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 260 ], [ 490, 501 ], [ 519, 537 ], [ 542, 566 ], [ 593, 609 ], [ 743, 757 ], [ 812, 827 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2011 the popular funk group Vulfpeck was founded in a basement in Ann Arbor.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Culture", "target_page_ids": [ 36225, 10778, 42767783, 568963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 7 ], [ 20, 24 ], [ 31, 39 ], [ 57, 65 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor has a council-manager form of government. The City Council has 11 voting members: the mayor and 10 city council members. Two city council members are elected from each of the city's five wards. The mayor and council serve four-year terms. The mayor and one council member from each ward are elected in mid-term election years, and the other five council members are elected in the alternate even-numbered years. The mayor is elected citywide. Approved by City voters in November 2016, and effective with the mayoral election of November 2018, the term of office of mayor will be extended from two years to four years. The mayor is the presiding officer of the City Council and has the power to appoint all Council committee members as well as board and commission members, with the approval of the City Council. The current mayor of Ann Arbor is Christopher Taylor, a Democrat who was elected as mayor in 2014. Day-to-day city operations are managed by a city administrator chosen by the city council.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law and government", "target_page_ids": [ 159517, 45630683, 5043544, 159524 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 31 ], [ 856, 874 ], [ 878, 886 ], [ 965, 983 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor holds mayoral elections to 4-year terms concurrent with the Gubernatorial election.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law and government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Until 2017, City Council held annual elections in which half of the seats (one from each ward) were elected to 2-year terms. These elections were staggered, with each ward having one of their seats up for election in odd years and their other seat up for election in even years. Beginning in 2018 the City Council has had staggered elections to 4-year terms in even years. This means that half of the members (one from each ward) are elected in presidential election years, while the other half are elected in mid-term election years. To facilitate this change in scheduling, the 2017 election elected members to terms that lasted 3-years.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law and government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In 1960, Ann Arbor voters approved a $2.3 million bond issue to build the current city hall, which was designed by architect Alden B. Dow. The City Hall opened in 1963. In 1995, the building was renamed the Guy C. Larcom, Jr. Municipal Building in honor of the longtime city administrator who championed the building's construction.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law and government", "target_page_ids": [ 60737, 4354601 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 60 ], [ 125, 137 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor is part of Michigan's 12th congressional district, represented in Congress by Representative Debbie Dingell, a Democrat. On the state level, the city is part of the 18th district in the Michigan Senate, represented by Democrat Rebekah Warren. In the Michigan House of Representatives, representation is split between the 55th district (northern Ann Arbor, part of Ann Arbor Township, and other surrounding areas, represented by Democrat Adam Zemke), the 53rd district (most of downtown and the southern half of the city, represented by Democrat Yousef Rabhi) and the 52nd district (southwestern areas outside Ann Arbor proper and western Washtenaw County, represented by Democrat Donna Lasinski).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law and government", "target_page_ids": [ 6126904, 31756, 19468510, 15300246, 668172, 22377364, 668180, 39770181, 55574830, 59660994 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 59 ], [ 76, 84 ], [ 88, 102 ], [ 103, 117 ], [ 196, 211 ], [ 237, 251 ], [ 260, 293 ], [ 447, 457 ], [ 555, 567 ], [ 690, 704 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As the county seat of Washtenaw County, the Washtenaw County Trial Court (22nd Circuit Court) is located in Ann Arbor at the Washtenaw County Courthouse on Main Street. This court has countywide general jurisdiction and has two divisions: the Civil/Criminal (criminal and civil matters) and the Family Division (which includes Juvenile Court, Friend of the Court, and Probate Court sections). Seven judges serve on the court.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law and government", "target_page_ids": [ 51509, 95030, 3526396, 21351321, 42359429, 2405965, 1632880, 18012669 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 18 ], [ 22, 38 ], [ 195, 215 ], [ 259, 267 ], [ 272, 285 ], [ 327, 341 ], [ 343, 362 ], [ 368, 381 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor also has a local state district court (15th District Court), which serves only the City of Ann Arbor. In Michigan, the state district courts are limited jurisdiction courts which handle traffic violations, civil cases with claims under $25,000, landlord-tenant matters, and misdemeanor crimes.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law and government", "target_page_ids": [ 3158558, 695974, 24680643, 20583 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 155, 175 ], [ 196, 213 ], [ 255, 270 ], [ 284, 295 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ann Arbor Federal Building (attached to a post office) on Liberty Street serves as one of the courthouses for the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Michigan and Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law and government", "target_page_ids": [ 58609, 1441787, 428328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 98, 108 ], [ 118, 174 ], [ 179, 217 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Progressive politics have been particularly strong in municipal government since the 1960s. Voters approved charter amendments that have lessened the penalties for possession of marijuana (1974), and that aim to protect access to abortion in the city should it ever become illegal in the State of Michigan (1990). In 1974, Kathy Kozachenko's victory in an Ann Arbor city-council race made her the country's first openly homosexual candidate to win public office. In 1975, Ann Arbor became the first U.S. city to use instant-runoff voting for a mayoral race. Adopted through a ballot initiative sponsored by the local Human Rights Party, which feared a splintering of the liberal vote, the process was repealed in 1976 after use in only one election. As of April 2021, Democrats hold the mayorship and all ten council seats. Nationally, Ann Arbor is located in Michigan's 12th congressional district, represented by Democrat Debbie Dingell.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law and government", "target_page_ids": [ 2304236, 1898910, 20089569, 2297714, 5043544, 6126904, 5043544, 15300246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 137, 159 ], [ 323, 339 ], [ 516, 537 ], [ 617, 635 ], [ 768, 777 ], [ 860, 898 ], [ 915, 923 ], [ 924, 938 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2015, Ann Arbor was ranked 11th safest among cities in Michigan with a population of over 50,000. It ranked safer than cities such as Royal Oak, Livonia, Canton and Clinton Township. The level of most crimes in Ann Arbor has fallen significantly in the past 20 years. In 1995 there were 294 aggravated assaults, 132 robberies and 43 rapes while in 2015 there were 128 aggravated assaults, 42 robberies and 58 rapes (under the revised definition).", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law and government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor's crime rate was below the national average in 2000. The violent crime rate was further below the national average than the property crime rate; the two rates were 48% and 11% lower than the U.S. average, respectively.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Law and government", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Public schools are part of the Ann Arbor Public Schools (AAPS) district. AAPS has one of the country's leading music programs. In September 2008, 16,539 students had been enrolled in the Ann Arbor Public Schools. Notable schools include Pioneer, Huron, Skyline, and Community high schools, and Ann Arbor Open School. The district has a preschool center with both free and tuition-based programs for preschoolers in the district. The University High School, a \"demonstration school\" with teachers drawn from the University of Michigan's education program, was part of the school system from 1924 to 1968.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 471603, 22431475, 4538080, 5369809, 9883562, 1268855, 22431475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 14 ], [ 31, 55 ], [ 237, 244 ], [ 246, 251 ], [ 253, 260 ], [ 266, 275 ], [ 294, 315 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor is home to several private schools, including Emerson School, the Father Gabriel Richard High School, Rudolf Steiner School of Ann Arbor, Clonlara School, Michigan Islamic Academy, and Greenhills School, a prep school. The city is also home to several charter schools such as Central Academy (Michigan) (PreK-12) of the Global Educational Excellence (GEE) charter school company, and Honey Creek Community School.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 11492084, 7396136, 48428036, 7604154, 331693, 47686714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 76, 110 ], [ 148, 163 ], [ 165, 189 ], [ 195, 212 ], [ 262, 277 ], [ 330, 359 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The University of Michigan dominates the city of Ann Arbor, providing the city with its distinctive college-town character. University buildings are located in the center of the city and the campus is directly adjacent to the State Street and South University downtown areas.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 31740, 877011 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 26 ], [ 100, 112 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Other local colleges and universities include Concordia University Ann Arbor, a Lutheran liberal-arts institution, and Cleary University, a private business school. Washtenaw Community College is located in neighboring Ann Arbor Township. In 2000, the Ave Maria School of Law, a Roman Catholic law school established by Domino's Pizza founder Tom Monaghan, opened in northeastern Ann Arbor, but the school moved to Ave Maria, Florida in 2009, and the Thomas M. Cooley Law School acquired the former Ave Maria buildings for use as a branch campus.", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "Education", "target_page_ids": [ 1268815, 158300, 5668978, 3426545, 119220, 3180525, 794480, 1526241, 2584196, 30874765 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 76 ], [ 80, 88 ], [ 119, 136 ], [ 165, 192 ], [ 219, 237 ], [ 252, 275 ], [ 320, 334 ], [ 343, 355 ], [ 415, 433 ], [ 451, 478 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ann Arbor News, owned by the Michigan-based Booth Newspapers chain, was the major newspaper serving Ann Arbor and the rest of Washtenaw County. The newspaper ended its 174-year daily print run in 2009, due to economic difficulties and began producing two printed editions a week under the name AnnArbor.com, It resumed using its former name in 2013. It also produces a daily digital edition named Mlive.com. Another Ann Arbor-based publication that has ceased production was the Ann Arbor Paper, a free monthly. Ann Arbor has been said to be the first significant city to lose its only daily paper. The Ann Arbor Chronicle, an online newspaper, covered local news, including meetings of the library board, county commission, and DDA until September 3, 2014.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 12691654, 2146876 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ], [ 48, 64 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Current publications in the city include the Ann Arbor Journal (A2 Journal), a weekly community newspaper; the Ann Arbor Observer, a free monthly local magazine; and Current, a free entertainment-focused alt-weekly. The Ann Arbor Business Review covers local business in the area. Car and Driver magazine and Automobile Magazine are also based in Ann Arbor. The University of Michigan is served by many student publications, including the independent Michigan Daily student newspaper, which reports on local, state, and regional issues in addition to campus news.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 15647675, 13251930, 1318140, 8731159, 988278, 1183732, 1578061, 1168956 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 86, 105 ], [ 111, 129 ], [ 204, 214 ], [ 220, 245 ], [ 281, 295 ], [ 309, 328 ], [ 451, 465 ], [ 466, 483 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Four major AM radio stations based in or near Ann Arbor are WAAM 1600, a conservative news and talk station; WLBY 1290, a business news and talk station; WDEO 990, Catholic radio; and WTKA 1050, which is primarily a sports station. The city's FM stations include NPR affiliate WUOM 91.7; country station WWWW 102.9; and adult-alternative station WQKL 107.1. Freeform station WCBN-FM 88.3 is a local community radio/college radio station operated by the students of the University of Michigan featuring noncommercial, eclectic music and public-affairs programming. The city is also served by public and commercial radio broadcasters in Ypsilanti, the Lansing/Jackson area, Detroit, Windsor, and Toledo.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 1140, 2920827, 7730030, 9488745, 7908856, 10835, 29697232, 2905573, 3796403, 6270634, 2479062, 654173 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 11, 13 ], [ 60, 64 ], [ 109, 113 ], [ 154, 158 ], [ 184, 188 ], [ 243, 245 ], [ 263, 266 ], [ 277, 281 ], [ 304, 308 ], [ 346, 350 ], [ 375, 382 ], [ 415, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor is part of the Detroit television market. WPXD channel 31, the owned-and-operated Detroit outlet of the ION Television network, is licensed to the city. Until its sign-off on August 31, 2017, WHTV channel 18, a MyNetworkTV-affiliated station for the Lansing market, was broadcast from a transmitter in Lyndon Township, west of Ann Arbor. Community Television Network (CTN) is a city-provided cable television channel with production facilities open to city residents and nonprofit organizations. Detroit and Toledo-area radio and television stations also serve Ann Arbor, and stations from Lansing and Windsor, Ontario, can be seen in parts of the area.", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "Media", "target_page_ids": [ 2622198, 77887, 1594637, 4162621, 18538, 119229 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 52, 56 ], [ 114, 136 ], [ 202, 206 ], [ 221, 232 ], [ 260, 267 ], [ 312, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The University of Michigan Medical Center, the only teaching hospital in the city, took the number 1 slot in U.S. News & World Report for best hospital in the state of Michigan, as of 2015. The University of Michigan Health System (UMHS) includes University Hospital, C.S. Mott Children's Hospital and Women's Hospital in its core complex. UMHS also operates out-patient clinics and facilities throughout the city. The area's other major medical centers include a large facility operated by the Department of Veterans Affairs in Ann Arbor, and Saint Joseph Mercy Hospital in nearby Superior Township.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Health, environment, and utilities", "target_page_ids": [ 3039777, 449826, 18859, 70922, 119237 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 41 ], [ 109, 133 ], [ 168, 176 ], [ 495, 525 ], [ 582, 599 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city provides sewage disposal and water supply services, with water coming from the Huron River and groundwater sources. There are two water-treatment plants, one main and three outlying reservoirs, four pump stations, and two water towers. These facilities serve the city, which is divided into five water districts. The city's water department also operates four dams along the Huron River—Argo, Barton, Geddes, and Superior—of which Barton and Superior provide hydroelectric power. The city also offers waste management services, with Recycle Ann Arbor handling recycling service. Other utilities are provided by private entities. Electrical power and gas are provided by DTE Energy. AT&T Inc. is the primary wired telephone service provider for the area. Cable TV service is primarily provided by Comcast.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Health, environment, and utilities", "target_page_ids": [ 635473, 214701, 851965, 44958, 64145807, 68709026, 64068443, 63720729, 381399, 31275635, 3270043, 22131, 2651392, 17555269, 7587, 303749 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 99 ], [ 139, 154 ], [ 208, 221 ], [ 231, 242 ], [ 396, 400 ], [ 402, 408 ], [ 410, 416 ], [ 422, 430 ], [ 468, 487 ], [ 542, 559 ], [ 638, 654 ], [ 659, 662 ], [ 679, 689 ], [ 691, 700 ], [ 763, 771 ], [ 805, 812 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A plume of the industrial solvent dioxane is migrating under the city from the contaminated Gelman Sciences, Inc. property on the westside of Ann Arbor. It's currently detected at 0.039 ppb. The Gelman plume is a potential threat to one of the City of Ann Arbor's drinking water sources, the Huron River, which flows through downtown Ann Arbor.", "section_idx": 9, "section_name": "Health, environment, and utilities", "target_page_ids": [ 1572944 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 34, 41 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The streets in downtown Ann Arbor conform to a grid pattern, though this pattern is less common in the surrounding areas. Major roads branch out from the downtown district like spokes on a wheel to the highways surrounding the city. The city is belted by three freeways: I-94, which runs along the southern and western portion of the city; U.S. Highway 23 (US23), which primarily runs along the eastern edge of Ann Arbor; and M-14, which runs along the northern edge of the city. Other nearby highways include US 12 (Michigan Ave.), M-17 (Washtenaw Ave.), and M-153 (Ford Rd.). Several of the major surface arteries lead to the I-94/M-14 interchange in the west, US 23 in the east, and the city's southern areas. The city also has a system of bike routes and paths and includes the nearly complete Washtenaw County Border-to-Border Trail.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 129332, 8713047, 12823760, 844813, 8982314, 1603713, 2247587, 714991, 28833772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 59 ], [ 271, 275 ], [ 340, 355 ], [ 426, 430 ], [ 510, 515 ], [ 533, 537 ], [ 560, 565 ], [ 759, 763 ], [ 815, 837 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Ann Arbor Area Transportation Authority (AAATA), which brands itself as \"TheRide\", operates public bus services throughout the city and nearby Ypsilanti. The AATA operates Blake Transit Center on Fourth Ave. in downtown Ann Arbor, and the Ypsilanti Transit Center. A separate zero-fare bus service operates within and between the University of Michigan campuses. Since April 2012, route 98 (the \"AirRide\") connects to Detroit Metro Airport a dozen times a day. There are also limited-stop bus services between Ann Arbor and Chelsea as well as Canton. These two routes, 91 and 92 respectively, are known as the \"ExpressRide\".", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 2053797, 4146, 30383880, 11163017, 294538, 119223, 119246 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 43 ], [ 103, 106 ], [ 147, 156 ], [ 280, 289 ], [ 423, 444 ], [ 529, 536 ], [ 548, 554 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Greyhound Lines provides intercity bus service. The Michigan Flyer, a service operated by Indian Trails, cooperates with AAATA for their AirRide and additionally offers bus service to East Lansing. Megabus has direct service to Chicago, Illinois, while a bus service is provided by Amtrak for rail passengers making connections to services in East Lansing and Toledo, Ohio.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 443825, 2032384, 24910460, 19065327, 6886, 51928, 150544, 30849 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 15 ], [ 25, 46 ], [ 52, 66 ], [ 198, 205 ], [ 228, 245 ], [ 282, 288 ], [ 343, 355 ], [ 360, 372 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor Municipal Airport is a small, city-run general aviation airport located south of I-94. Detroit Metropolitan Airport, the area's large international airport, is about east of the city, in Romulus. Willow Run Airport east of the city near Ypsilanti serves freight, corporate, and general aviation clients.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 3664869, 12612, 294538, 1519705, 119277, 2254479, 30383880 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 27 ], [ 49, 65 ], [ 97, 125 ], [ 144, 165 ], [ 198, 205 ], [ 207, 225 ], [ 248, 257 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The city was a major rail hub, notably for freight traffic between Toledo and ports north of Chicago, Illinois, from 1878 to 1982; however, the Ann Arbor Railroad also provided passenger service from 1878 to 1950, going northwest to Frankfort and Elberta on Lake Michigan and southeast to Toledo. (In Elberta connections to ferries across the Lake could be made.) The city was served by the Michigan Central Railroad starting in 1837. The Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti Street Railway, Michigan's first interurban, served the city from 1891 to 1929.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 30849, 6886, 1245892, 117130, 117129, 17948, 30849, 1855690, 14473094, 393012 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 67, 73 ], [ 93, 110 ], [ 144, 162 ], [ 233, 242 ], [ 247, 254 ], [ 258, 271 ], [ 289, 295 ], [ 391, 416 ], [ 439, 477 ], [ 496, 506 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Amtrak, which provides service to the city at the Ann Arbor Train Station, operates the Wolverine train between Chicago and Pontiac, via Detroit. The present-day train station neighbors the city's old Michigan Central Depot, which was renovated as a restaurant in 1970.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "Transportation", "target_page_ids": [ 8207234, 7743396, 118786 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 73 ], [ 88, 97 ], [ 124, 131 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Ann Arbor has seven sister cities:", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 1155299 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Tübingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany (since 1965) The schools in Ann Arbor and Tübingen have regular exchanges.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 30061, 66401 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 9 ], [ 11, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Belize City, Belize (since 1967)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 172703 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hikone, Shiga, Japan (since 1969) The schools in Ann Arbor and Hikone have regular exchanges.", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 329102 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Peterborough, Ontario, Canada (since 1983)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 223578 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Juigalpa, Chontales, Nicaragua (since 1986)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 2392486 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 20 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dakar, Senegal (since 1997)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 44251 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Remedios, Cuba (since 2003)", "section_idx": 11, "section_name": "Sister cities", "target_page_ids": [ 8465067 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 15 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ann Arbor staging", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1871925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Ardis Publishing", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 17814215 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of people from Ann Arbor", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4526472 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 30 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Metro Detroit", "section_idx": 12, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 490908 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 14 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " City's official website", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Ann Arbor Area Convention and Visitor's Bureau", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Collection: \"Ann Arbor and the University of Michigan\" from the University of Michigan Museum of Art", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 5721292 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 100 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Materials on Ann Arbor's history from HathiTrust", "section_idx": 16, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [ 17895189 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 38, 48 ] ] } ]

[ "Ann_Arbor,_Michigan", "Populated_places_established_in_1824", "Academic_enclaves", "County_seats_in_Michigan", "Cities_in_Washtenaw_County,_Michigan", "Metro_Detroit", "1824_establishments_in_Michigan_Territory", "Geographical_articles_missing_image_alternative_text" ]

[ "Ann Arbor, Michigan", "Ann Arbor, MI" ]

[ { "plaintext": "The Act of Settlement is an Act of the Parliament of England that was passed in 1701 to settle the succession to the English and Irish crowns on Protestants only. This had the effect of deposing the descendants of Charles I (other than his Protestant granddaughter Princess (later Queen) Anne) as the next Protestant in line to the throne was the Electress Sophia of Hanover, a granddaughter of James VI and I. After her, the crowns would descend only to her non-Catholic heirs.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5713146, 6970425, 160904, 154671, 25814008, 7426, 46684, 784671, 27773, 269055, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 28, 60 ], [ 99, 109 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 129, 134 ], [ 145, 155 ], [ 214, 223 ], [ 288, 292 ], [ 347, 356 ], [ 357, 374 ], [ 395, 409 ], [ 463, 471 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Act of Supremacy 1558 had confirmed the Church of England's independence from Roman Catholicism under the English monarch. One of the principal factors causing the political crisis known as the Glorious Revolution of 1688 was the perceived assaults made on the Church of England by King James II, a Roman Catholic. James was deposed in favour of his Protestant elder daughter Mary II and her husband William III. The need for the Act of Settlement was prompted by the failure of William and Mary, as well as that of Mary's Protestant sisterthe future Queen Anne to produce any surviving children, and by the perceived threat posed by the pretensions to the throne by remaining Roman Catholic members of the House of Stuart. The line founded by Sophia of Hanover was the most junior surviving one amongst the descendants of King James I, but consisted of convinced Protestants willing to uphold the Church of England. As Sophia died on 8 June 1714, less than two months before the death of Queen Anne on 1 August 1714, it was Sophia's son who duly succeeded to the throne, as King George I, and started the Hanoverian dynasty in Britain.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 1054148, 5955, 606848, 12466, 5243711, 20709, 47387, 46684, 253174, 27773, 46852, 176558 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 25 ], [ 44, 61 ], [ 82, 99 ], [ 198, 217 ], [ 291, 299 ], [ 380, 387 ], [ 404, 415 ], [ 555, 565 ], [ 711, 726 ], [ 748, 765 ], [ 1079, 1092 ], [ 1110, 1128 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The act played a key role in the formation of the Kingdom of Great Britain. England and Scotland had shared a monarch since 1603, but had remained separately governed countries. The Scottish parliament was more reluctant than the English to abandon the House of Stuart, members of which had been Scottish monarchs long before they became English ones. ", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 158019, 721862, 2012548, 378033, 1049565, 160904 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 74 ], [ 101, 117 ], [ 182, 201 ], [ 230, 237 ], [ 296, 313 ], [ 338, 350 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Under the Act of Settlement anyone who became a Roman Catholic, or who married one, became disqualified to inherit the throne. The act also placed limits on both the role of foreigners in the British government and the power of the monarch with respect to the Parliament of England. Some of those provisions have been altered by subsequent legislation.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Along with the Bill of Rights 1689, the Act of Settlement remains today one of the main constitutional laws governing the succession not only to the throne of the United Kingdom, but to those of the other Commonwealth realms, whether by assumption or by patriation. The Act of Settlement cannot be altered in any realm except by that realm's own parliament and, by convention, only with the consent of all the other realms, as it touches on the succession to the shared crown.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 38867, 879986, 47063, 205142, 738613, 7830, 205142 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 15, 34 ], [ 122, 132 ], [ 149, 177 ], [ 205, 223 ], [ 254, 264 ], [ 365, 375 ], [ 463, 475 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the Perth Agreement in 2011, legislation amending the act came into effect across the Commonwealth realms on 26 March 2015, and removed the disqualification arising from marriage to a Roman Catholic. Other provisions of the amended act remain in effect.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 33605744 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the Glorious Revolution, the line of succession to the English throne was governed by the Bill of Rights 1689, which declared that the flight of James II from England to France during the revolution amounted to an abdication of the throne and that James's daughter Mary II and her husband/cousin, William III (William of Orange, who was also James's nephew), were James's successors. The Bill of Rights also provided that the line of succession would go through Mary's Protestant descendants by William and any possible future husband should she outlive him, then through Mary's sister Anne and her Protestant descendants, and then to the Protestant descendants of William III by a possible later marriage should he outlive Mary. During the debate, the House of Lords had attempted to append Sophia and her descendants to the line of succession, but the amendment failed in the Commons.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Original context", "target_page_ids": [ 12466, 38867, 5243711, 18951402, 20709, 47387, 46684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 33 ], [ 100, 119 ], [ 155, 163 ], [ 224, 234 ], [ 275, 282 ], [ 307, 318 ], [ 596, 600 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Mary II died childless in 1694, after which William III did not remarry. In 1700, Prince William, Duke of Gloucester, who was Anne's only child to survive infancy, died of smallpox at the age of 11. Thus, Anne was left as the only person in line to the throne. The Bill of Rights excluded Catholics from the throne, which ruled out James II and his children (as well as their descendants) sired after he converted to Catholicism in 1668. However, it did not provide for the further succession after Anne. Parliament thus saw the need to settle the succession on Sophia and her descendants, and thereby guarantee the continuity of the Crown in the Protestant line.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Original context", "target_page_ids": [ 1560672, 16829895 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 116 ], [ 172, 180 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With religion and lineage initially decided, the ascendancy of William of Orange in 1689 would also bring his partiality to his foreign favourites that followed. By 1701 English jealousy of foreigners was rampant, and action was considered necessary.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "Original context", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Act of Settlement provided that the throne would pass to the Electress Sophia of Hanover– a granddaughter of James VI and I and a niece of King Charles I– and her descendants, but it excluded \"for ever\" \"all and every Person and Persons who ... is are or shall be reconciled to or shall hold Communion with the See or Church of Rome or shall profess the Popish Religion or shall marry a Papist\". Thus, those who were Roman Catholics, and those who married Roman Catholics, were barred from ascending the throne. The Act did not even mention the concept of marriages involving heirs who were members of non-Christian faiths, because that would have been unthinkable in eighteenth century Great Britain.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 27773, 269055, 7426, 13393, 606848 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 65, 92 ], [ 113, 127 ], [ 143, 157 ], [ 315, 318 ], [ 322, 336 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Act contained eight additional provisions that were to only come into effect upon the death of both William and Anne:", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The monarch \"shall join in communion with the Church of England\". This was intended to ensure the exclusion of a Roman Catholic monarch. Along with James II's perceived despotism, his religion was the main cause of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and of the previous linked religious and succession problems which had been resolved by the joint monarchy of William III and Mary II.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 5955, 12466, 47387, 20709 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 47, 64 ], [ 220, 239 ], [ 359, 370 ], [ 375, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " If a person not native to England comes to the throne, England will not wage war for \"any dominions or territories which do not belong to the Crown of England, without the consent of Parliament\". This would become relevant when a member of the House of Hanover ascended the British throne, as he would retain the territories of the Electorate of Hanover in what is now Lower Saxony (Germany), then part of the Holy Roman Empire. This provision has been dormant since Queen Victoria ascended the throne, because she did not inherit Hanover under the Salic Laws of the German-speaking states.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 176558, 821998, 18435, 13277, 47923, 77740 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 245, 261 ], [ 333, 354 ], [ 370, 382 ], [ 411, 428 ], [ 468, 482 ], [ 550, 559 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " No monarch may leave \"the dominions of England, Scotland, or Ireland\", without the consent of Parliament. This provision was repealed in 1716, at the request of George I who was also the Elector of Hanover and Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg within the Holy Roman Empire; because of this, and also for personal reasons, he wished to visit Hanover from time to time.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 407950, 23248387, 168432, 46852, 14056, 248957, 13277 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 40, 47 ], [ 49, 57 ], [ 62, 69 ], [ 162, 170 ], [ 188, 206 ], [ 219, 237 ], [ 249, 266 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " All government matters within the jurisdiction of the Privy Council were to be transacted there, and all council resolutions were to be signed by those who advised and consented to them. This was because Parliament wanted to know who was deciding policies, as sometimes councillors' signatures normally attached to resolutions were absent. This provision was repealed early in Queen Anne's reign, as many councillors ceased to offer advice and some stopped attending meetings altogether.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 4138935 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " No foreigner (\"no Person born out of the Kingdoms of England Scotland or Ireland or the Dominions thereunto belonging\"), even if naturalised or made a denizen (unless born of English parents), can be a Privy Councillor or a member of either House of Parliament, or hold \"any Office or Place of Trust, either Civill or Military, or to [sic] have any Grant of Lands, Tenements or Hereditaments from the Crown, to himself or to any other or others in Trust for him\". Subsequent nationality laws (today primarily the British Nationality Act 1981) made naturalised citizens the equal of those native born, and excluded Commonwealth and Irish citizens from the definition of foreigners, but otherwise this provision still applies. It has however been disapplied in particular cases by a number of other statutes.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 3196739, 1256815 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 152, 159 ], [ 515, 543 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " No person who has an office under the monarch, or receives a pension from the Crown, was to be a Member of Parliament. This provision was inserted to avoid unwelcome royal influence over the House of Commons. It remains in force, but with several exceptions. (As a side effect, this provision means that members of the Commons seeking to resign from parliament can get around the prohibition on resignation by obtaining a sinecure in the control of the Crown; while several offices have historically been used for this purpose, two are currently in use: appointments generally alternate between the stewardships of the Chiltern Hundreds and of the Manor of Northstead.)", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 192296, 248322, 528381, 1034869 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 381, 407 ], [ 423, 431 ], [ 620, 637 ], [ 649, 668 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Judges' commissions are valid quamdiu se bene gesserint (during good behaviour) and if they do not behave themselves, they can be removed only by both Houses of Parliament (or in other Commonwealth realms the one House of Parliament, depending on the legislature's structure.) This provision was the result of various monarchs influencing judges' decisions, and its purpose was to assure judicial independence. This patent was used prior to 1701 but did not prevent Charles I from removing Sir John Walter as Chief Baron of the Exchequer.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 59563, 238216, 7426, 12512505, 4136453 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 389, 410 ], [ 417, 423 ], [ 467, 476 ], [ 491, 506 ], [ 510, 538 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " That \"no Pardon under the Great Seal of England be pleadable to an Impeachment by the Commons in Parliament\". This meant in effect that no pardon by the monarch was to save someone from being impeached by the House of Commons.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Provisions", "target_page_ids": [ 847582, 15328 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 27, 48 ], [ 193, 202 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Tory administration that replaced the Whig Junto in 1699 took responsibility for steering the Act through Parliament. As a result, it passed with little opposition, although five peers voted against it in the House of Lords, including the Earl of Huntingdon, his brother-in-law the Earl of Scarsdale and three others. While many shared their opposition to a 'foreign' king, the general feeling was summed up as 'better a German prince than a French one.'", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Opposition", "target_page_ids": [ 428227, 3679705, 14018083, 18691682 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 8 ], [ 42, 52 ], [ 243, 261 ], [ 286, 303 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "For different reasons, various constitutionalists have praised the Act of Settlement: Henry Hallam called the Act \"the seal of our constitutional laws\" and David Lindsay Keir placed its importance above the Bill of Rights of 1689. Naamani Tarkow wrote: \"If one is to make sweeping statements, one may say that, save Magna Carta (more truly, its implications), the Act of Settlement is probably the most significant statute in English history\".", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Effects", "target_page_ids": [ 30874872, 214730, 28954290, 20958 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 31, 48 ], [ 86, 98 ], [ 156, 174 ], [ 316, 327 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Act of Settlement was, in many ways, the major cause of the union of Scotland with England and Wales to form the Kingdom of Great Britain. The Parliament of Scotland was not happy with the Act of Settlement and, in response, passed the Act of Security in 1704, through which Scotland reserved the right to choose its own successor to Queen Anne. Stemming from this, the Parliament of England decided that, to ensure the stability and future prosperity of Great Britain, full union of the two parliaments and nations was essential before Anne's death.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Effects", "target_page_ids": [ 2987, 158019, 2012548, 366887, 46684 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 69 ], [ 117, 141 ], [ 147, 169 ], [ 240, 255 ], [ 338, 348 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It used a combination of exclusionary legislation (the Alien Act 1705), politics, and bribery to achieve this within three years under the Act of Union 1707. This success was in marked contrast to the four attempts at political union between 1606 and 1689, which all failed owing to a lack of political will in both kingdoms. By virtue of Article II of the Treaty of Union, which defined the succession to the throne of Great Britain, the Act of Settlement became part of Scots law as well.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Effects", "target_page_ids": [ 872824, 260979, 2987, 3176284, 30876354 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 69 ], [ 86, 93 ], [ 139, 156 ], [ 357, 372 ], [ 472, 481 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In addition to excluding James II (who died a few months after the act received royal assent) and his Roman Catholic children (Prince James (The Old Pretender) and the Princess Royal), the Act also excluded the descendants of Princess Henrietta, the youngest sister of James II. Henrietta's daughter was Anne, Queen of Sardinia, a Roman Catholic, from whom descend all Jacobite pretenders after 1807.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Effects", "target_page_ids": [ 5243711, 61987, 15688542, 29512546, 7883410, 1427730 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 33 ], [ 127, 139 ], [ 168, 182 ], [ 235, 244 ], [ 304, 308 ], [ 369, 388 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the legitimate descendants of Charles I either childless (in the case of his two grand-daughters the late Queen Mary II and her successor Queen Anne) or Roman Catholic, Parliament's choice was limited to Sophia of Hanover, the Protestant daughter of the late Elizabeth of Bohemia, the only other child of King James I to have survived childhood. Elizabeth had borne nine children who reached adulthood, of whom Sophia was the youngest daughter. However in 1701 Sophia was the senior Protestant one, therefore with a legitimate claim to the English throne; Parliament passed over her Roman Catholic siblings, namely her sister Louise Hollandine of the Palatinate, and their descendants, who included Elizabeth Charlotte, Duchess of Orléans; Louis Otto, Prince of Salm, and his aunts; Anne Henriette, Princess of Condé, and Benedicta Henrietta, Duchess of Brunswick-Lüneburg.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Effects", "target_page_ids": [ 7426, 20709, 46684, 164676, 269055, 27773, 19843713, 946890, 8534537, 21020638, 26959854 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 35, 44 ], [ 117, 124 ], [ 149, 153 ], [ 264, 284 ], [ 310, 322 ], [ 416, 422 ], [ 631, 666 ], [ 704, 743 ], [ 745, 771 ], [ 788, 821 ], [ 827, 877 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since the Act's passing the most senior living member of the royal family to have married a Roman Catholic, and thereby to have been removed from the line of succession, is Prince Michael of Kent, who married Baroness Marie-Christine von Reibnitz in 1978; he was fifteenth in the line of succession at the time. He was restored to the line of succession in 2015 when the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 came into force, and became 34th in line.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Effects", "target_page_ids": [ 282603, 282899, 37918258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 173, 195 ], [ 209, 246 ], [ 371, 403 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The next most senior living descendant of the Electress Sophia who had been ineligible to succeed on this ground is George Windsor, Earl of St Andrews, the elder son of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, who married the Roman Catholic Sylvana Palma Tomaselli in 1988. His son, Lord Downpatrick, converted to Roman Catholicism in 2003 and is the most senior descendant of Sophia to be barred as a result of his religion. In 2008 his daughter, Lady Marina Windsor, also converted to Catholicism and was removed from the line of succession. More recently, Peter Phillips, the son of Anne, Princess Royal, and eleventh in line to the throne, married Autumn Kelly; Kelly had been brought up as a Roman Catholic, but she converted to Anglicanism prior to the wedding. Had she not done so, Phillips would have forfeited his place in the succession upon their marriage, only to have it restored in 2015.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Effects", "target_page_ids": [ 633305, 280893, 2667335, 1844111, 59839118, 386255, 125231, 12514412, 1214 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 150 ], [ 169, 196 ], [ 229, 252 ], [ 271, 287 ], [ 436, 455 ], [ 547, 561 ], [ 574, 594 ], [ 640, 652 ], [ 722, 733 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Excluding those princesses who have married into Roman Catholic royal families, such as Marie of Edinburgh, Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg and Princess Beatrice of Edinburgh, one member of the Royal Family (that is, with the style of Royal Highness) has converted to Roman Catholicism since the passage of the Act: the Duchess of Kent, wife of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent, who converted on 14 January 1994, but her husband did not lose his place in the succession because she was an Anglican at the time of their marriage.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "Effects", "target_page_ids": [ 807609, 317860, 763122, 651616, 381923, 280893 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 88, 106 ], [ 108, 138 ], [ 143, 173 ], [ 234, 248 ], [ 319, 334 ], [ 344, 371 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As well as being part of the law of the United Kingdom, the Act of Settlement was received into the laws of all the countries and territories over which the British monarch reigned. It remains part of the laws of the 15 Commonwealth realms and the relevant jurisdictions within those realms. In accordance with established convention, the Statute of Westminster 1931 and later laws, the Act of Settlement (along with the other laws governing the succession of the Commonwealth realms) may only be changed with the agreement of all the realms (and, in some federal realms, the constituent members of those federations).", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Present status", "target_page_ids": [ 205142, 29263 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 220, 239 ], [ 339, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Succession to the Crown Act 2013 changed many provisions of this act.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "Present status", "target_page_ids": [ 37918258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Challenges have been made against the Act of Settlement, especially its provisions regarding Roman Catholics and preference for males. However, changing the Act is a complex process, since the Act governs the shared succession of all the Commonwealth realms. The Statute of Westminster 1931 acknowledges by established convention that any changes to the rules of succession may be made only with the agreement of all of the states involved, with concurrent amendments to be made by each state's parliament or parliaments. Further, as the current monarch's eldest child and, in turn, his eldest child, are Anglican males, any change to the succession laws would have no immediate implications. Consequently, there was little public concern with the issues and debate had been confined largely to academic circles until the November 2010 announcement that Prince William was to marry. This raised the question of what would happen if he were to produce first a daughter and then a son.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 136535, 205142, 29263, 29620212 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 133 ], [ 238, 256 ], [ 263, 290 ], [ 854, 881 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Times reported on 6 November 1995 that Prince Charles had said on that day to Tony Blair and Paddy Ashdown that \"Catholics should be able to ascend to the British throne\". Ashdown claimed the Prince said: \"I really can't think why we can't have Catholics on the throne\". In 1998, during debate on a Succession to the Crown Bill, Junior Home Office Minister Lord Williams of Mostyn informed the House of Lords that the Queen had \"no objection to the Government's view that in determining the line of succession to the throne, daughters and sons should be treated in the same way.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 39127, 125248, 3301347, 161628, 38293953, 216716, 13658 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ], [ 43, 57 ], [ 82, 92 ], [ 97, 110 ], [ 303, 331 ], [ 361, 384 ], [ 398, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In October 2011 the Australian federal government was reported to have reached an agreement with all of the states on potential changes to their laws in the wake of amendments to the Act of Settlement. The practice of the Australian states—for example, New South Wales and Victoria—has been, when legislating to repeal some imperial statutes so far as they still applied in Australia, to provide that imperial statutes concerning the royal succession remain in force.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 1222540, 4689096 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 20, 49 ], [ 104, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The legal process required at the federal level remains, theoretically, unclear. The Australian constitution, as was noted during the crisis of 1936, contains no power for the federal parliament to legislate with respect to the monarchy. Everything thus turns upon the status and meaning of clause 2 in the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act 1900, which provides: \"The provisions of this Act referring to the Queen shall extend to Her Majesty's heirs and successors in the sovereignty of the United Kingdom.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 18579518 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 85, 108 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Anne Twomey reviews three possible interpretations of the clause.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 67941366 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " First: it \"mandates that whoever is the sovereign of the United Kingdom is also, by virtue of this external fact, sovereign of Australia\"; accordingly, changes to British succession laws would have no effect on Australian law, but if the British amendment changed the sovereign, then the new sovereign of the United Kingdom would automatically become the new sovereign of Australia.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 4732795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 360, 382 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Second, it is \"merely an interpretative provision\", operating to ensure that references to \"the Queen\" in the Constitution are references to whoever may at the time be the incumbent of the \"sovereignty of the United Kingdom\" as determined with regard to Australia, following the Australia Act 1986, by Australian law.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 415365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 280, 298 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Or, third, it incorporates the United Kingdom rules of succession into the Commonwealth of Australia Constitution Act, which itself can now be altered only by Australia, according to the Australia Act 1986; in that way, the British rules of succession have been patriated to Australia and, with regard to Australia, are subject to amendment or repeal solely by Australian law.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 415365 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 188, 206 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "However, Twomey expresses confidence that, if the High Court of Australia were to be faced with the problems of covering clause 2, it would find some way to conclude that, with regard to Australia, the clause is subject solely to Australian law. Canadian scholar Richard Toporoski theorised in 1998 that \"if, let us say, an alteration were to be made in the United Kingdom to the Act of Settlement 1701, providing for the succession of the Crown... [i]t is my opinion that the domestic constitutional law of Australia or Papua New Guinea, for example, would provide for the succession in those countries of the same person who became Sovereign of the United Kingdom.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 314201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 73 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In practice, when legislating for the Perth Agreement (see below), the Australian governments took the approach of the states requesting, and referring power to, the federal government to enact the legislation on behalf of the states (under paragraph 51(xxxviii) of the Australian Constitution) and the Commonwealth of Australia.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "In Canada, where the Act of Settlement () is now a part of Canadian constitutional law, Tony O'Donohue, a Canadian civic politician, took issue with the provisions that exclude Roman Catholics from the throne, and which make the monarch of Canada the Supreme Governor of the Church of England, requiring him or her to be an Anglican. This, he claimed, discriminated against non-Anglicans, including Catholics, who are the largest faith group in Canada. In 2002, O'Donohue launched a court action that argued the Act of Settlement violated the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, but, the case was dismissed by the court. It found that, as the Act of Settlement is part of the Canadian constitution, the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, as another part of the same constitution, does not have supremacy over it. Also, the court noted that, while Canada has the power to amend the line of succession to the Canadian throne, the Statute of Westminster stipulates that the agreement of the governments of the fifteen other Commonwealth realms that share the Crown would first have to be sought if Canada wished to continue its relationship with these countries. An appeal of the decision was dismissed on 16 March 2005. Some commentators state that, as a result of this, any single provincial legislature could hinder any attempts to change this Act, and by extension, to the line of succession for the shared crown of all 16 Commonwealth realms. Others contend that that is not the case, and changes to the succession instituted by an Act of the Parliament of Canada \"[in accord] with the convention of symmetry that preserves the personal unity of the British and Dominion Crowns\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 5042916, 7411, 2067450, 56504, 611306, 5955, 2059023, 129190, 87446 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 9 ], [ 59, 86 ], [ 88, 102 ], [ 229, 246 ], [ 251, 292 ], [ 324, 332 ], [ 481, 495 ], [ 543, 582 ], [ 1547, 1567 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "With the announcement in 2007 of the engagement of Peter Phillips to Autumn Kelly, a Roman Catholic and a Canadian, discussion about the Act of Settlement was revived. Norman Spector called in The Globe and Mail for Prime Minister Stephen Harper to address the issue of the act's bar on Catholics, saying Phillips' marriage to Kelly would be the first time the provisions of the act would bear directly on Canada—Phillips would be barred from acceding to the Canadian throne because he married a Roman Catholic Canadian. (In fact, Lord St Andrews had already lost his place in the line of succession when he married the Roman Catholic Canadian Sylvana Palma Tomaselli in 1988. But St Andrews' place in the line of succession was significantly lower than Phillips'.) Criticism of the Act of Settlement due to the Phillips–Kelly marriage was muted when Autumn Kelly converted to Anglicanism shortly before her marriage, thus preserving her husband's place in the line of succession.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 39386, 386255, 12514412, 4786261, 234340, 24135, 241547, 633305, 2667335 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 47 ], [ 51, 65 ], [ 69, 81 ], [ 168, 182 ], [ 193, 211 ], [ 216, 230 ], [ 231, 245 ], [ 531, 546 ], [ 644, 667 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "From time to time there has been debate over repealing the clause that prevents Roman Catholics, or those who marry one, from ascending to the British throne. Proponents of repeal argue that the clause is a bigoted anachronism; Cardinal Winning, who was leader of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland, called the act an \"insult\" to Catholics. Cardinal Murphy-O'Connor, the leader of the Roman Catholic Church in England, pointed out that Prince William (later the Duke of Cambridge) \"can marry by law a Hindu, a Buddhist, anyone, but not a Roman Catholic.\" Opponents of repeal, such as Enoch Powell and Adrian Hilton, believe that it would lead to the disestablishment of the Church of England as the state religion if a Roman Catholic were to come to the throne. They also note that the monarch must swear to defend the faith and be a member of the Anglican Communion, but that a Roman Catholic monarch would, like all Roman Catholics, owe allegiance to the Pope. This would, according to opponents of repeal, amount to a loss of sovereignty for the Anglican Church.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 5599237, 26994, 1057462, 13677, 3267529, 38274, 909 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 228, 244 ], [ 293, 301 ], [ 344, 368 ], [ 504, 509 ], [ 513, 521 ], [ 587, 599 ], [ 851, 869 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "When in December 1978 there was media speculation that Prince Charles might marry a Roman Catholic, Powell defended the provision that excludes Roman Catholics from ascending the throne, stating his objection was not rooted in religious bigotry but in political considerations. He said a Roman Catholic monarch would mean the acceptance of a source of authority external to the realm and \"in the literal sense, foreign to the Crown-in-Parliament ... Between Roman Catholicism and royal supremacy there is, as Saint Thomas More concluded, no reconciliation.\" Powell concluded that a Roman Catholic crown would be the destruction of the Church of England because \"it would contradict the essential character of that church.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 125248, 441207, 367969, 30479 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 55, 69 ], [ 426, 445 ], [ 480, 495 ], [ 515, 526 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "He continued:", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "When Thomas Hobbes wrote that \"the Papacy is no other than the ghost of the deceased Roman Empire sitting crowned upon the grave thereof\", he was promulgating an enormously important truth. Authority in the Roman Church is the exertion of that imperium from which England in the 16th century finally and decisively declared its national independence as the alter imperium, the \"other empire\", of which Henry VIII declared \"This realm of England is an empire\" ... It would signal the beginning of the end of the British monarchy. It would portend the eventual surrender of everything that has made us, and keeps us still, a nation.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 29823, 25507, 14187 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 5, 18 ], [ 85, 97 ], [ 402, 412 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Scottish Parliament unanimously passed a motion in 1999 calling for the complete removal of any discrimination linked to the monarchy and the repeal of the Act of Settlement. The following year, The Guardian challenged the succession law in court, claiming that it violated the European Convention on Human Rights, which provides,", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 61188, 19344515, 9830 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 23 ], [ 199, 211 ], [ 282, 317 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The enjoyment of the rights and freedoms set forth in this Convention shall be secured without discrimination on any ground such as sex, race, colour, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, association with a national minority, property, birth, or other status.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "As the Convention nowhere lists the right to succeed to the Crown as a human right, the challenge was rejected.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Adrian Hilton, writing in The Spectator in 2003, defended the Act of Settlement as not \"irrational prejudice or blind bigotry\", but claimed that it was passed because \"the nation had learnt that when a Roman Catholic monarch is upon the throne, religious and civil liberty is lost.\" He points to the Pope's claiming universal jurisdiction, and Hilton argues that \"it would be intolerable to have, as the sovereign of a Protestant and free country, one who owes any allegiance to the head of any other state\" and contends that, if such situation came about, \"we will have undone centuries of common law.\" He said that because the Roman Catholic Church does not recognise the Church of England as an apostolic church, a Roman Catholic monarch who abided by their faith's doctrine would be obliged to view Anglican and Church of Scotland archbishops, bishops, and clergy as part of the laity and therefore \"lacking the ordained authority to preach and celebrate the sacraments.\" (Hilton noted that the Church of Scotland's Presbyterian polity does not include bishops or archbishops.) Hilton said a Roman Catholic monarch would be unable to be crowned by the Archbishop of Canterbury and notes that other European states have similar religious provisions for their monarchs: Denmark, Norway, and Sweden, whose constitutions compel their monarchs to be Lutherans; the Netherlands, which has a constitution requiring its monarchs be members of the Protestant House of Orange; and Belgium, which has a constitution that provides for the succession to be through Roman Catholic houses.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 64051, 3095943, 183316, 58926, 2345, 76972, 21241, 5058739, 23371382, 21148, 71920, 3343 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 26, 39 ], [ 651, 714 ], [ 816, 834 ], [ 1020, 1039 ], [ 1156, 1180 ], [ 1272, 1279 ], [ 1281, 1287 ], [ 1293, 1299 ], [ 1349, 1358 ], [ 1364, 1375 ], [ 1454, 1469 ], [ 1475, 1482 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In December 2004, a private member's bill—the Succession to the Crown Bill—was introduced in the House of Lords. The government, headed by Tony Blair, blocked all attempts to revise the succession laws, claiming it would raise too many constitutional issues and it was unnecessary at the time. In the British general election the following year, Michael Howard promised to work towards having the prohibition removed if the Conservative Party gained a majority of seats in the House of Commons, but the election was won by Blair's Labour Party. Four years later, plans drawn up by Chris Bryant were revealed that would end the exclusion of Catholics from the throne and end the doctrine of agnatic (male-preference) primogeniture in favour of absolute primogeniture, which governs succession solely on birth order and not on sex. The issue was raised again in January 2009, when a private member's bill to amend the Act of Succession was introduced in parliament.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 1260657, 3301347, 1847945, 161038, 32113, 19279158, 235641, 136535 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 46, 74 ], [ 139, 149 ], [ 301, 344 ], [ 346, 360 ], [ 424, 442 ], [ 531, 543 ], [ 581, 593 ], [ 716, 729 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In early 2011 Keith Vaz, a Labour Member of Parliament, introduced to the House of Commons at Westminster a private member's bill which proposed that the Act of Settlement be amended to remove the provisions relating to Roman Catholicism and change the primogeniture governing the line of succession to the British throne from agnatic to absolute cognatic. Vaz sought support for his project from the Canadian Cabinet and Prime Minister Stephen Harper, but the Office of the Prime Minister of Canada responded that the issue was \"not a priority for the government or for Canadians without further elaboration on the merits or drawbacks of the proposed reforms\". Stephenson King, Prime Minister of Saint Lucia, said he supported the idea and it was reported that the government of New Zealand did, as well. The Monarchist League of Canada said at the time to the media that it \"supports amending the Act of Settlement in order to modernize the succession rules.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 354040, 19279158, 208556, 136535, 136535, 24135, 241547, 3654615, 8402989, 466569, 2112789 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 27, 33 ], [ 108, 129 ], [ 327, 334 ], [ 338, 355 ], [ 422, 436 ], [ 437, 451 ], [ 461, 499 ], [ 662, 677 ], [ 679, 708 ], [ 810, 837 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Later the same year, the Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, Nick Clegg, announced that the government was considering a change in the law. At approximately the same time, it was reported that British Prime Minister David Cameron had written to each of the prime ministers of the other fifteen Commonwealth realms, asking for their support in changing the succession to absolute primogeniture and notifying them he would raise his proposals at that year's Commonwealth Heads of Government Meeting (CHOGM) in Perth, Australia. Cameron reportedly also proposed removing the restriction on successors being or marrying Roman Catholics; however, potential Roman Catholic successors would be required to convert to Anglicanism prior to acceding to the throne. In reaction to the letter and media coverage, Harper stated that, this time, he was \"supportive\" of what he saw as \"reasonable modernizations\".", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 728093, 419342, 23439402, 24355 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 70, 80 ], [ 225, 238 ], [ 453, 505 ], [ 517, 522 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "At CHOGM on 28 October 2011, the prime ministers of the other Commonwealth realms agreed to support Cameron's proposed changes to the Act. The bill put before the Parliament of the United Kingdom would act as a model for the legislation required to be passed in at least some of the other realms, and any changes would only first take effect if the Duke of Cambridge were to have a daughter before a son.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 72201 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 349, 366 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The British group Republic asserted that succession reform would not make the monarchy any less discriminatory. As it welcomed the gender equality reforms, the British newspaper The Guardian criticized the lack of a proposal to remove the ban on Catholics sitting on the throne, as did Alex Salmond, First Minister of Scotland, who pointed out that \"It is deeply disappointing that the reform [of the Act of Settlement of 1701] has stopped short of removing the unjustifiable barrier on a Catholic becoming monarch.\" On the subject, Cameron asserted: \"Let me be clear, the monarch must be in communion with the Church of England because he or she is the head of that Church.\"", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 10113509, 19344515, 21234593, 611306 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 18, 26 ], [ 178, 190 ], [ 286, 298 ], [ 654, 673 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The disqualification arising from marriage to a Roman Catholic was removed by the Succession to the Crown Act 2013.", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "Amendment proposals", "target_page_ids": [ 37918258 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 82, 114 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Jacobitism", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15925 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of British monarchs", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2811078 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 25 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Canadian monarchs", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10089348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 26 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of New Zealand monarchs", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 720425 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 29 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Australian monarchs", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 4732795 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Royal Succession Bills and Acts", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 38293953 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Succession to the British throne", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 879986 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 33 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Alternative successions of the English and British crown", "section_idx": 7, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 10073370 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 57 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Text of the Act of Settlement as originally passed, The Statutes at Large: vol X: 1696/7–1703 (1764), pp.357–60.", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Official text of the \"Act of Settlement 1700\" as currently in force in the Australian Capital Territory", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "British Monarchy web page on the Act of Settlement", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Image of original act from the Parliamentary Archives website", "section_idx": 10, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Australian_constitutional_law", "Constitution_of_Canada", "Constitutional_laws_of_England", "Constitution_of_the_United_Kingdom", "Acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England", "Acts_of_the_Parliament_of_England_still_in_force", "1701_in_law", "1701_in_England", "Monarchy_in_Canada", "Monarchy_in_Australia", "Monarchy_in_New_Zealand", "Succession_acts", "Succession_to_the_British_crown", "Succession_to_the_Canadian_Crown", "Law_about_religion_in_the_United_Kingdom", "History_of_Christianity_in_Canada", "History_of_Catholicism_in_England", "Anti-Catholicism_in_England", "Sophia_of_Hanover" ]

[]

[ { "plaintext": "Aircraft hijacking (also known as airplane hijacking, skyjacking, plane hijacking, plane jacking, air robbery, air piracy, or aircraft piracy, with the last term used within the special aircraft jurisdiction of the United States) is the unlawful seizure of an aircraft by an individual or a group. Dating from the earliest of hijackings, most cases involve the pilot being forced to fly according to the hijacker's demands. However, in rare cases, the hijackers have flown the aircraft themselves and used them in suicide attacksmost notably in the September 11 attacksand in several cases, planes have been hijacked by the official pilot or co-pilot; e.g., Germanwings Flight 9525.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 16392, 5785, 849, 66691, 18835454, 5058690, 46213006 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 207 ], [ 237, 245 ], [ 260, 268 ], [ 361, 366 ], [ 514, 529 ], [ 549, 569 ], [ 659, 682 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Unlike carjacking or sea piracy, an aircraft hijacking is not usually committed for robbery or theft. Individuals driven by personal gain often divert planes to destinations where they are not planning to go themselves. Some hijackers intend to use passengers or crew as hostages, either for monetary ransom or for some political or administrative concession by authorities. Various motives have driven such occurrences, such as demanding the release of certain high-profile individuals or for the right of political asylum (notably Flight ET 961), but sometimes a hijacking may have been affected by a failed private life or financial distress, as in the case of Aarno Lamminparras in the Oulu Aircraft Hijacking. Hijackings involving hostages have produced violent confrontations between hijackers and the authorities, during negotiation and settlement. In the case of Lufthansa Flight 181 and Air France Flight 139, the hijackers were not satisfied and showed no inclination to surrender, resulting in attempts by special forces to rescue passengers.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 362652, 50715, 146794, 524260, 1621432, 383735, 30543935, 22083, 3224573, 66856, 23489383 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 7, 17 ], [ 25, 31 ], [ 271, 278 ], [ 292, 307 ], [ 507, 523 ], [ 540, 546 ], [ 690, 713 ], [ 828, 839 ], [ 871, 891 ], [ 896, 917 ], [ 1017, 1031 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In most jurisdictions of the world, aircraft hijacking is punishable by life imprisonment or a long prison sentence. In most jurisdictions where the death penalty is a legal punishment, aircraft hijacking is a capital crime, including in China, India, Liberia and the U.S. states of Georgia and Mississippi.", "section_idx": 0, "section_name": "Introduction", "target_page_ids": [ 5902, 48830, 16949861 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 210, 223 ], [ 283, 290 ], [ 295, 306 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Airplane hijackings have occurred since the early days of flight. These can be classified in the following eras: 1929–1957, 1958–1979, 1980–2000 and 2001–present. Early incidents involved light planes, but this later involved passenger aircraft as commercial aviation became widespread.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 164468 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 248, 267 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1929 and 1957, there were fewer than 20 incidents of reported hijackings worldwide; several occurred in Eastern Europe.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 37403 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 112, 126 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "One of the first unconfirmed hijackings occurred in December 1929. J. Howard \"Doc\" DeCelles was flying a postal route for a Mexican firm, Transportes Aeras Transcontinentales, ferrying mail from San Luis Potosí to Torreon and then on to Guadalajara. A lieutenant named Saturnino Cedillo, the governor of the state of San Luis Potosí, ordered him to divert. Several other men were also involved, and through an interpreter, DeCelles had no choice but to comply. He was allegedly held captive for several hours under armed guard before being released.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 413170, 195856, 73209, 53572968 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 195, 210 ], [ 214, 221 ], [ 237, 248 ], [ 269, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first recorded aircraft hijack took place on February 21, 1931, in Arequipa, Peru. Byron Richards, flying a Ford Tri-Motor, was approached on the ground by armed revolutionaries. He refused to fly them anywhere during a 10-day standoff. Richards was informed that the revolution was successful and he could be freed in return for flying one of the men to Lima.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18952469, 536357, 85423 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 71, 79 ], [ 112, 126 ], [ 359, 363 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The following year, in September 1932, a Sikorsky S-38 with registration P-BDAD, still bearing the titles of Nyrba do Brasil was seized in the company's hangar by three men, who took a fourth as a hostage. Despite having no flying experience, they managed to take off. However, the aircraft crashed in São João de Meriti, killing the four men. Apparently, the hijack was related to the events of the Constitutionalist Revolution in São Paulo; it is considered to be the first hijack that took place in Brazil.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 961639, 10865079, 5853411, 7797745 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 41, 54 ], [ 109, 124 ], [ 302, 320 ], [ 400, 428 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On October 28, 1939, the first murder on a plane took place in Brookfield, Missouri, US. The victim was Carl Bivens, a flight instructor, who was teaching a man named Earnest P. \"Larry\" Pletch. While airborne in a Taylor Cub monoplane, Pletch shot Bivens twice in the back of the head. Pletch later told prosecutors, \"Carl was telling me I had a natural ability and I should follow that line\", adding, \"I had a revolver in my pocket and without saying a word to him, I took it out of my overalls and I fired a bullet into the back of his head. He never knew what struck him.\" The Chicago Daily Tribune stated it was one of the most spectacular crimes of the 20th century. Pletch pleaded guilty and was sentenced to life in prison. However, he was released on March 1, 1957, after serving 17 years, and lived until June 2001.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 122871, 3343984, 75127, 60961 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 63, 83 ], [ 214, 224 ], [ 225, 234 ], [ 580, 601 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 1942 near Malta, two New Zealanders, a South African and an Englishman achieved the first confirmed in-air hijack when they overpowered their captors aboard an Italian seaplane that was flying them to a prisoner-of-war camp. As they approached an Allied base, they were strafed by Supermarine Spitfires unaware of the aircraft's true operators and forced to land on the water. However, all on board survived to be picked up by a British boat.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1029985, 2198844, 26027181 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 206, 226 ], [ 250, 256 ], [ 284, 304 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the years following World War II, Philip Baum, an aviation security expert suggests that the development of a rebellious youth \"piggybacking on to any cause which challenged the status quo or acted in support of those deemed oppressed\", may have been a contributor to attacks against the aviation field. The first hijacking of a commercial flight occurred on the Cathay Pacific Miss Macao on July 16, 1948. After this incident and others in the 1950s, airlines recommended that flight crews comply with the hijackers' demands rather than risk a violent confrontation. There were also various hijacking incidents and assaults on planes in China and the Middle East.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 32927, 284770, 151575, 2266172, 5405 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 35 ], [ 53, 70 ], [ 366, 380 ], [ 381, 391 ], [ 641, 646 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The first hijacking of a flight for political reasons happened in Bolivia, affecting the airline Lloyd Aereo Boliviano on September 26, 1956. The DC-4 was carrying 47 prisoners who were being transported from Santa Cruz, Bolivia, to El Alto, in La Paz. A political group was waiting to take them to a concentration camp located in Carahuara de Carangas, Oruro. The 47 prisoners overpowered the crew and gained control of the aircraft while airborne and diverted the plane to Tartagal, Argentina. Prisoners took control of the aircraft and received instructions to again fly to Salta, Argentina, as the airfield in Tartagal was not big enough. Upon landing, they told the government of the injustice they were subjected to, and received political asylum.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 162436, 518813, 673987, 710455, 202725, 27242520, 592799, 12866711, 1621432 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 97, 118 ], [ 146, 150 ], [ 209, 228 ], [ 245, 251 ], [ 354, 359 ], [ 475, 494 ], [ 577, 593 ], [ 689, 698 ], [ 736, 752 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On October 22, 1956, French forces hijacked a Moroccan airplane carrying leaders of the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) during the ongoing Algerian War. The plane, which was carrying Ahmed Ben Bella, Hocine Aït Ahmed, and Mohamed Boudiaf, was destined to leave from Palma de Mallorca for Tunis where the FLN leaders were to conference with Prime Minister Habib Bourguiba, but French forces redirected the flight to occupied Algiers, where the FLN leaders were arrested.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 71573282, 403406, 82430, 410344, 1473414, 377267, 74592, 57659, 391488, 1644 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 21, 63 ], [ 97, 122 ], [ 148, 160 ], [ 193, 208 ], [ 210, 226 ], [ 232, 247 ], [ 276, 293 ], [ 298, 303 ], [ 365, 380 ], [ 434, 441 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1958 and 1967, there were approximately 40 hijackings worldwide. Beginning in 1958, hijackings from Cuba to other destinations started to occur; in 1961, hijackings from other destinations to Cuba became prevalent. The first happened on May 1, 1961, on a flight from Miami to Key West. The perpetrator, armed with a knife and gun, forced the captain to land in Cuba.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5042481, 53846, 109495 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 112 ], [ 275, 280 ], [ 284, 292 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Australia was relatively untouched by the threat of hijackings until July 19, 1960. On that evening, a 22-year-old Russian man attempted to divert Trans Australia Airlines Flight 408 to Darwin or Singapore. The crew were able to subdue the man after a brief struggle.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 15097453, 8408, 27318 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 147, 182 ], [ 186, 192 ], [ 196, 205 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "According to the FAA, in the 1960s, there were 100 attempts of hijackings involving U.S. aircraft: 77 successful and 23 unsuccessful. Recognizing the danger early, the FAA issued a directive on July 28, 1961, which prohibits unauthorized persons from carrying concealed firearms and interfering with crew member duties. The Federal Aviation Act of 1958 was amended to impose severe penalties for those seizing control of a commercial aircraft. Airlines could also refuse to transport passengers who were likely to cause danger. That same year, the FAA and Department of Justice created the Peace Officers Program which put trained marshals on flights. A few years later, on May 7, 1964, the FAA adopted a rule requiring that cockpit doors on commercial aircraft be kept locked at all times. ", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11186, 11966, 19304444, 52563, 1032478, 160878 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 168, 171 ], [ 270, 277 ], [ 324, 352 ], [ 556, 577 ], [ 590, 612 ], [ 725, 732 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In a five-year period (1968–1972) the world experienced 326 hijack attempts, or one every 5.6 days. The incidents were frequent and often just an inconvenience, which resulted in television shows creating parodies. Time magazine even ran a lighthearted comedy piece called \"What to Do When the Hijacker Comes\". Most incidents occurred in the United States. There were two distinct types: hijackings for transportation elsewhere and hijackings for extortion with the threat of harm.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 19508643, 31600, 162449 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 179, 194 ], [ 215, 228 ], [ 447, 456 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Between 1968 and 1972, there were 90 recorded transport attempts to Cuba. In contrast, there were 26 extortion attempts (see table on the right). The longest and first transcontinental (Los Angeles, Denver, New York, Bangor, Shannon and Rome) hijacking from the US started on 31 October 1969.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Eastern Air Lines Shuttle flight 1320 on May 17, 1970, witnessed the first fatality in the course of a U.S. highjacking.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Incidents also became problematic outside of the U.S. For instance, in 1968, El Al Flight 426 was seized by Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) militants on 23 July, an incident which lasted 40 days, making it one of the longest. This record was later beaten in 1999.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 22404276, 39490756 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 77, 93 ], [ 108, 153 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a result of the evolving threat, President Nixon issued a directive in 1970 to promote security at airports, electronic surveillance and multilateral agreements for tackling the problem.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25473 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 51 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) issued a report on aircraft hijacking in July 1970. Beginning in 1969 until the end of June 1970, there were 118 incidents of unlawful seizure of aircraft and 14 incidents of sabotage and armed attacks against civil aviation. This involved airlines of 47 countries and more than 7,000 passengers. In this period, 96 people were killed and 57 were injured as a result of hijacking, sabotage and armed attacks.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 14985 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 45 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The ICAO stated that this is not isolated to one nation or one region, but a worldwide issue to the safe growth of international civil aviation. Incidents also became notoriousin 1971, a man known as D. B. Cooper hijacked a plane and extorted US$200,000 in ransom before parachuting over Oregon. He was never identified.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 18575446, 8799 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 129, 143 ], [ 200, 212 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On August 20, 1971, a Pakistan Air Force T-33 military plane was hijacked prior the Indo-Pakistani war of 1971 in Karachi. Lieutenant Matiur Rahman attacked Officer Rashid Minhas and attempted to land in India. Minhas deliberately crashed the plane into the ground near Thatta to prevent the diversion.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 377433, 359127, 464071, 17123, 578195, 2356824, 578202, 377695, 2157388 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 40 ], [ 41, 45 ], [ 84, 110 ], [ 114, 121 ], [ 123, 133 ], [ 134, 147 ], [ 157, 164 ], [ 165, 178 ], [ 270, 276 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Countries around the world continued their efforts to tackle crimes committed on-board planes. The Tokyo Convention, drafted in 1958, established an agreement between signatories that the \"state in which the aircraft is registered is competent to exercise jurisdiction over crimes committed on board that aircraft while it is in flight\". While the Convention does not make hijacking an international crime, it does contain provisions which obligate the country in which a hijacked aircraft lands to restore the aircraft to its responsible owner, and allow the passengers and crew to continue their journey. The Convention came into force in December 1969.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 25087628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 99, 115 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "A year later, in December 1970, the Hague Convention was drafted which punishes hijackers, enabling each state to prosecute a hijacker if that state does not extradite them, and to deprive them from asylum from prosecution.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 39472437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 36, 52 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On December 5, 1972, the FAA issued emergency rules requiring all passengers and their carry-on baggage to be screened. Airports slowly implemented walk-through metal detectors, hand-searches and X-ray machines, to prohibit weapons and explosive devices. These rules came into effect on January 5, 1973, and were welcomed by most of the public. In 1974, Congress enacted a statute which provided for the death penalty for acts of aircraft piracy resulting in death. Between 1968 and 1977, there were approximately 41 hijackings per year.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 11186, 83060, 34197 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 25, 28 ], [ 161, 176 ], [ 196, 201 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "By 1980, airport screening and greater cooperation from the international community led to fewer successful hijackings; the number of events had significantly dropped below the 1968 level. Between 1978 and 1988, there were roughly 26 incidents of hijackings a year. A new threat emerged in the 1980s: organised terrorists destroying aircraft to draw attention. For instance, terrorist groups were responsible for the bombing of Air India Flight 182 over the Irish coast. In 1988, Pan Am Flight 103 was bombed flying over Scotland. Terrorist activity which included hijack attempts in the Middle East were also a cause of concern.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 30636, 371568, 5409919 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 301, 321 ], [ 428, 448 ], [ 480, 497 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "During the 1990s, there was relative peace in the United States airspace as the threat of domestic hijacking was seen as a distant memory. Globally, however, hijackings still persisted. Between 1993 and 2003, the highest number of hijackings occurred in 1993 (see table below). This number can be attributed to events in China where hijackers were trying to gain political asylum in Taiwan. Europe and the rest of East Asia were not immune either. On December 26, 1994, Air France Flight 8969 with 172 passengers and crew was hijacked after leaving Algiers. Authorities believed that the goal was to crash the plane into the Eiffel Tower. On June 21, 1995, All Nippon Airways Flight 857 was hijacked by a man claiming to be a member of the Aum Shinrikyo religious cult, demanding the release of its imprisoned leader Shoko Asahara. The incident was resolved when the police stormed the plane.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 5405, 19605700, 265494, 1644, 9232, 53799114, 34267361, 98970 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 321, 326 ], [ 414, 423 ], [ 470, 492 ], [ 549, 556 ], [ 625, 637 ], [ 657, 686 ], [ 740, 753 ], [ 817, 830 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On October 17, 1996, the first hijacking that was brought to an end while airborne was carried out by four operatives of the Austrian special law enforcement unit Cobra on a Russian Aeroflot flight from Malta to Lagos, Nigeria, aboard a Tupolev Tu-154. The operatives escorted inmates detained for deportation to their homelands and were equipped with weapons and gloves. On 12 April 1999, six ELN members hijacked a Fokker 50 of Avianca Flight 9463, flying from Bucaramanga to Bogotá. Many hostages were held for more than a year, and the last hostage was finally freed 19 months after the hijacking.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 26964606, 18661715, 2772437, 25391, 89659, 19137, 85232, 21383, 229917, 822032, 1528661, 82195, 747209, 211271 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 132 ], [ 134, 162 ], [ 163, 168 ], [ 174, 181 ], [ 182, 190 ], [ 203, 208 ], [ 212, 217 ], [ 219, 226 ], [ 237, 251 ], [ 394, 397 ], [ 417, 426 ], [ 430, 437 ], [ 463, 474 ], [ 478, 484 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "On September 11, 2001, four airliners were hijacked by 19 Al-Qaeda extremists: American Airlines Flight 11, United Airlines Flight 175, American Airlines Flight 77 and United Airlines Flight 93. The first two planes were deliberately crashed into the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center and the third was crashed into The Pentagon building. The fourth crashed in a field in Stonycreek Township near Shanksville, Pennsylvania after crew and passengers attempted to overpower the hijackers. Authorities believe that the intended target was the U.S. Capitol. In total, 2,996 people perished and more than 6,000 were injured in the attacks, making the hijackings the deadliest in modern history.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 1921, 428002, 17655420, 31974, 1902, 31978, 45645094, 20740978, 133822, 133818, 31979, 19952110 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 58, 66 ], [ 67, 76 ], [ 79, 106 ], [ 108, 134 ], [ 136, 163 ], [ 168, 193 ], [ 270, 288 ], [ 320, 332 ], [ 376, 395 ], [ 401, 426 ], [ 544, 556 ], [ 568, 580 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Following the attacks, the U.S. government formed the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) to handle airport screening at U.S. airports. Government agencies around the world tightened their airport security, procedures and intelligence gathering. Until the September 11 attacks, there had never been an incident whereby a passenger aircraft was used as a weapon of mass destruction. The 9/11 Commission report stated that it was always assumed that a \"hijacking would take the traditional form\"; therefore, airline crews never had a contingency plan for a suicide-hijacking. As Patrick Smith, an airline pilot, summarizes:", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 172933, 353496 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 54, 92 ], [ 395, 410 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Throughout the mid-2000s, hijackings still occurred but there were much fewer incidents and casualties. The number of incidents had been declining, even before the September 11 attacks. One notable incident in 2006 was the hijacking of Turkish Airlines Flight 1476, flying from Tirana to Istanbul, which was seized by a man named Hakan Ekinci. The aircraft, with 107 passengers and 6 crew, made distress calls to air traffic control and the plane was escorted by military aircraft before landing safely at Brindisi, Italy. In 2007, several incidents occurred in the Middle East and Northern Africa; hijackers in one of these incidents claimed to be affiliated with Al-Qaeda. Towards the end of the decade, AeroMexico experienced its first terror incident when Flight 576 was hijacked by a man demanding to speak with President Calderón.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 7276105, 31075, 3391396, 48563, 392267, 21714, 1921, 84578, 24288394, 24356889, 1976348 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 236, 264 ], [ 278, 284 ], [ 288, 296 ], [ 413, 432 ], [ 506, 514 ], [ 582, 597 ], [ 665, 673 ], [ 706, 716 ], [ 760, 770 ], [ 817, 826 ], [ 827, 835 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Since 2010, the Aviation Safety Network estimates there have been 15 hijackings worldwide with three fatalities. This is a considerably lower figure than in previous decades which can be attributed to greater security enhancements and awareness of September 11–style attacks. On June 29, 2012, an attempt was made to hijack Tianjin Airlines Flight GS7554 from Hotan to Ürümqi in China. More recently was the 2016 hijacking of EgyptAir Flight MS181, involving an Egyptian man who claimed to have a bomb and ordered the plane to land in Cyprus. He surrendered several hours later, after freeing the passengers and crew.", "section_idx": 1, "section_name": "History", "target_page_ids": [ 21657347, 36349801, 720040, 199155, 319357, 49982289, 5593 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 39 ], [ 324, 354 ], [ 360, 365 ], [ 369, 375 ], [ 426, 434 ], [ 435, 447 ], [ 535, 541 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As a result of the large number of U.S.–Cuba hijackings in the late 1960s to early 1970s, international airports introduced screening technology such as metal detectors, X-ray machines and explosive detection tools. In the U.S, these rules were enforced starting from January 1973 and were eventually copied around the world. These security measures did make hijacking a \"higher-risk proposition\" and deter criminals in later decades. Until September 2001, the FAA set and enforced a \"layered\" system of defense: hijacking intelligence, passenger pre-screening, checkpoint screening and on-board security. The idea was that if one layer were later to fail, another would be able stop a hijacker from boarding a plane. However, the 9/11 Commission found that this layered approach was flawed and unsuitable to prevent the September 11 attacks. The U.S Transportation Security Administration has since strengthened this approach, with a greater emphasis on intelligence sharing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Countermeasures", "target_page_ids": [ 34197, 3620303, 11186, 353496, 172933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 170, 175 ], [ 189, 208 ], [ 461, 464 ], [ 731, 746 ], [ 851, 889 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the history of hijackings, most incidents involved planes being forced to land at a certain destination with demands. As a result, commercial airliners adopted a \"total compliance\" rule which taught pilots and cabin crew to comply with the hijackers' demands. Crews advise passengers to sit quietly to increase their chances of survival. The ultimate goal is to land the plane safely and let the security forces handle the situation. The FAA suggested that the longer a hijacking persisted, the more likely it would end peacefully with the hijackers reaching their goal. Although total compliance is still relevant, the events of September 11 changed this paradigm as this technique cannot prevent a suicide hijacking.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Countermeasures", "target_page_ids": [ 173394, 7378204, 11186 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 213, 223 ], [ 399, 414 ], [ 441, 444 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "It is now evident that each hijacking situation needs to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. Cabin crew, now aware of the severe consequences, have a greater responsibility for maintaining control of their aircraft. Most airlines also give crew members training in self-defense tactics. Ever since the 1970s, crew are taught to be vigilant for suspicious behaviour. For example, passengers who have no carry-on luggage, or are standing next to the cockpit door with fidgety movements. There have been various incidents when crew and passengers intervened to prevent attacks: on December 22, 2001, Richard Reid attempted to ignite explosives on American Airlines Flight 63. In 2009, on Northwest Flight 253, Umar Farouk Abdulmutallab attempted to detonate explosives sewn into his underwear. In 2012, the attempted hijacking of Tianjin Airlines Flight 7554 was stopped when cabin crew placed a trolley in-front of the cockpit door and asked passengers for help.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Countermeasures", "target_page_ids": [ 176943, 346668, 25558793, 25565709, 36349801 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 599, 611 ], [ 646, 673 ], [ 687, 707 ], [ 709, 734 ], [ 829, 857 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the September 11 attacks, crew on one of the hijacked planes went beyond their scope of training by informing the airline ground crew about the events on board. In separate phone calls, Amy Sweeney and Betty Ong provided information on seat numbers of the attackers and passenger injuries. This helped authorities identify them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Countermeasures", "target_page_ids": [ 1001917, 20619, 514310 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 125, 136 ], [ 189, 200 ], [ 205, 214 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "As early as 1964, the FAA required cockpit doors on commercial aircraft be kept locked during flight. In 2002, U.S. Congress passed the Arming Pilots Against Terrorism Act, allowing pilots at U.S. airlines to carry guns in the cockpit. Since 2003, these pilots are known as Federal Flight Deck Officers. It is estimated that one in 10 of the 125,000 commercial pilots are trained and armed. Also in 2002, aircraft manufacturers such as Airbus introduced a reinforced cockpit door which is resistant to gunfire and forced entry. Shortly afterwards, the FAA required operators of more than 6,000 aircraft to install tougher cockpit doors by April 9, 2003. Rules were also tightened to restrict cockpit access and make it easier for pilots to lock the doors. In 2015, Germanwings Flight 9525 was seized by the co-pilot and deliberately crashed, while the captain was out. The captain was unable to re-enter the cockpit, because the airline had already reinforced the cockpit door. The European Aviation Safety Agency issued a recommendation for airlines to ensure that at least two people, one pilot and a member of cabin crew, occupy the cockpit during flight. The FAA in the United States enforce a similar rule.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Countermeasures", "target_page_ids": [ 11186, 31756, 4382434, 26220236, 46213006, 909111 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 22, 25 ], [ 111, 124 ], [ 274, 301 ], [ 436, 442 ], [ 765, 788 ], [ 982, 1013 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Some countries operate a marshal service, which puts members of law enforcement on high-risk flights based on intelligence. Their role is to keep passengers safe, by preventing hijackings and other criminal acts committed on a plane. Federal marshals in the U.S. are required to identify themselves before boarding a plane; marshals of other countries often are not. According to the Congressional Research Service, the budget for the U.S. Federal Air Marshal Service was US$719 million in 2007. Marshals often sit as regular passengers, at the front of the plane to allow observation of the cockpit. Despite the expansion of the marshal service, they cannot be on every plane, and they rarely face a real threat on a flight. Critics have questioned the need for them.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Countermeasures", "target_page_ids": [ 18486, 1032478, 370772 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 64, 79 ], [ 234, 250 ], [ 384, 414 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "There is no generic or set of rules for handling a hijacking situation. Air traffic controllers are expected to exercise their best judgement and expertise when dealing with the apparent consequences of an unlawful interference or hijack. Depending on the jurisdiction, the controller will inform authorities, such as the military, who will escort the hijacked plane. Controllers are expected to keep communications to a minimum and clear the runway for a possible landing.", "section_idx": 2, "section_name": "Countermeasures", "target_page_ids": [ 242294, 165094 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 72, 94 ], [ 443, 449 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In January 2005, a federal law came into force in Germany, called the Luftsicherheitsgesetz, which allows \"direct action by armed force\" against a hijacked aircraft to prevent a September 11–style attack. However, in February 2006 the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany struck down these provisions of the law, stating such preventive measures were unconstitutional and would essentially be state-sponsored murder, even if such an act would save many more lives on the ground. The main reason behind this decision was that the state would effectively be killing innocent hostages in order to avoid a terrorist attack. The Court also ruled that the Minister of Defense is constitutionally not entitled to act in terrorism matters, as this is the duty of the state and federal police forces. President of Germany Horst Köhler urged judicial review of the constitutionality of the Luftsicherheitsgesetz after he signed it into law in 2005.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislation for downing hijacked aircraft", "target_page_ids": [ 11867, 10408733, 34781059, 337660, 60567, 190448 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 50, 57 ], [ 70, 91 ], [ 235, 274 ], [ 653, 672 ], [ 795, 815 ], [ 816, 828 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "India published its new anti-hijacking policy in August 2005. The policy came into force after approval from the Cabinet Committee on Security (CCS). The main points of the policy are:", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislation for downing hijacked aircraft", "target_page_ids": [ 36575610 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 113, 142 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Any attempt to hijack will be considered an act of aggression against the country and will prompt a response fit for an aggressor.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislation for downing hijacked aircraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hijackers, if captured alive, will be put on trial, convicted, and sentenced to death.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislation for downing hijacked aircraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " Hijackers will be engaged in negotiations only to bring the incident to an end, to comfort passengers and to prevent loss of lives.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislation for downing hijacked aircraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The hijacked plane will be shot down if it is deemed to become a missile heading for strategic targets.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislation for downing hijacked aircraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " The hijacked plane will be escorted by armed fighter aircraft and will be forced to land.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislation for downing hijacked aircraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " A hijacked grounded plane will not be allowed to take off under any circumstance.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislation for downing hijacked aircraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "Prior to the September 11 attacks, countermeasures were focused on \"traditional\" hijackings. As such, there were no specific rules for handling suicide hijackings, where aircraft would be used as a weapon. Moreover, military response at the time consisted of multiple uncoordinated units, each with its own set of rules of engagement with no unified command structure. Soon after the attacks, however, new rules of engagement were introduced, authorizing the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD)the Air Force command tasked with protecting U.S. airspaceto shoot down hijacked commercial airliners if necessary. In 2003, the military stated that fighter pilots exercise this scenario several times a week.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislation for downing hijacked aircraft", "target_page_ids": [ 5058690, 42905, 32090, 1225714 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 13, 33 ], [ 459, 499 ], [ 511, 520 ], [ 672, 680 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Poland and Russia are among other countries that have had laws or directives for shooting down hijacked planes. However, in September 2008 the Polish Constitutional Court ruled that the Polish rules were unconstitutional, and voided them.", "section_idx": 3, "section_name": "Legislation for downing hijacked aircraft", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Convention on Offences and Certain Other Acts Committed on Board Aircraft, known as the Tokyo Convention, is an international treaty which entered force on December 4, 1969. , it has been ratified by 186 parties. Article 11 of the Tokyo Convention states the following:", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "International law", "target_page_ids": [ 30432, 25087628 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 116, 136 ], [ 235, 251 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The signatories agree that if there is unlawful takeover of an aircraft, or a threat of it on their territory, then they will take all necessary measures to regain or keep control over an aircraft. The captain can also disembark a suspected person on the territory of any country, where the aircraft lands, and that country must agree to it, as stated in Articles 8 and 12 of the convention.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "International law", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Seizure of Aircraft (known as the Hague Convention) went into effect on October 14, 1971. , the convention has 185 signatories.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "International law", "target_page_ids": [ 39472437 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 4, 66 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Montreal Convention is a multilateral treaty adopted by a diplomatic meeting of ICAO member states in 1999. It amended important provisions of the Warsaw Convention's regime concerning compensation for the victims of air disasters.", "section_idx": 4, "section_name": "International law", "target_page_ids": [ 9573984, 14985, 55670 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 29, 48 ], [ 84, 88 ], [ 151, 168 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1997 Hollywood film Air Force One is based on the fictional hijacking of Air Force One.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 238810, 148475 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 24, 37 ], [ 77, 90 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Hijacking is a central theme in the Turbulence movie trilogy.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2472440 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 37, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Impossible 2, one of the film's antagonists hijacks a plane at the start of the movie. ", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": "The 2006 film United 93 is based on the real events onboard United Airlines Flight 93 one of the four airlines hijacked during the September 11 attacks.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3634311, 31978 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 23 ], [ 60, 85 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2012 film The Dark Knight Rises features an opening sequence of hijacking and crashing an aircraft for the purpose of kidnapping a man and faking his death.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 29075630 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The film Con Air features a U.S. Marshals aircraft being hijacked by the maximum-security prisoners on board.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 559847 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 9, 16 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " The Uli Derickson Story was a made-for-TV film based on the actual hijacking of TWA Flight 847, as seen through the eyes of the chief flight attendant Uli Derickson.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 512123, 1544005 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 81, 95 ], [ 152, 165 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Passenger 57 depicts an airline security expert trapped on a passenger jet when terrorists seize control.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2202963 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 12 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Executive Decision depicts a Boeing 747 carrying 400 passengers being hijacked by Algerian terrorists, and U.S. marine and Army special forces use a reconnaissance aircraft to re-take the plane.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 67422 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "Skyjacked is a 1972 film about a crazed Vietnam War veteran hijacking an airliner, demanding to be taken to the Soviet Union.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3099586 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 0, 9 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 1986 film The Delta Force depicted a Special Forces squad tasked with retaking a plane hijacked by Lebanese terrorists, loosely based on the hijacking of TWA Flight 847.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2168783, 512123 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 29 ], [ 158, 172 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2004 film The Assassination of Richard Nixon, based on a true incident, depicts a disillusioned tire salesman who attempts to hijack a plane in 1974 and crash it into the White House. His attempt failed and he was mortally wounded by an airport policeman. He killed himself before police stormed the plane.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 1584494, 33057 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 48 ], [ 175, 186 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2006 film Snakes On a Plane is a fictional story about aircraft piracy through the in-flight release of venomous snakes.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 2826890 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In Harold and Kumar 2, two U.S. Air Marshals subdue Harold and Kumar on board a plane after mistaking them for terrorists.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 3412648, 1032478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 3, 21 ], [ 32, 43 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2011 film Payanam is a movie entirely based on the negotiations and rescue operations done by the Indian security forces in response to a flight hijacking incident.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 29215207 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 21 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In the 2013 video game Grand Theft Auto V the player is tasked with hijacking a cargo plane carrying a large shipment of weapons by crashing a crop duster into the cargo bay mid-flight and fighting to seize control of the aircraft. The cargo plane is later shot down by the US Air Force, requiring the player to bail out.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 31795249, 2375692, 1699025, 32090 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 23, 41 ], [ 80, 91 ], [ 143, 154 ], [ 274, 286 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2014 film Non-Stop depicts an aircraft hijacking.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 37900503 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 22 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The Indian film Neerja is based on the hijacking of Pan Am Flight 73 in Karachi.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 46773587, 452290 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 16, 22 ], [ 52, 68 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "In 2016, German television broadcast the film \"Terror – Ihr Urteil\" (\"Terror – Your Judgement\"), in which a Bundeswehr military pilot shoots down a hijacked passenger plane with 164 people on board that was heading towards a stadium filled with 70,000 people. Following the broadcast, a public vote was called for in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, and 86.9% of viewers voted that the pilot was not guilty of murder.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 288188 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 108, 118 ] ] }, { "plaintext": "The 2019 film 7500 depicts the struggle of a pilot to land an aircraft and maintain control of its cockpit during a hijacking.", "section_idx": 5, "section_name": "In popular culture", "target_page_ids": [ 57467108 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 14, 18 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Air pirate", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 47197116 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 11 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Airport security", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 284770 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 17 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Canadian Air Transport Security Authority", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2631316 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 42 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Dymshits–Kuznetsov hijacking affair", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2567305 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 36 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " El Al", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 101594 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 6 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Federal Air Marshal Service", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 1032478 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Federal Bureau of Investigation", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 11127 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 32 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Federal crime in the United States", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 19083841 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 35 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of aircraft hijackings", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 15789615 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 28 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " List of Cuba–United States aircraft hijackings", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 5971019 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 47 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Palestinian political violence", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 2646043 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 31 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Terrorism", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 30636 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 10 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " Transportation Security Administration (TSA)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 172933 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 39 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS)", "section_idx": 6, "section_name": "See also", "target_page_ids": [ 58236 ], "anchor_spans": [ [ 1, 46 ] ] }, { "plaintext": " \"The First Hijacking Myth\" at Fortnight Journal", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] }, { "plaintext": " \"America's first highjacking\" at A Blast From the Past", "section_idx": 8, "section_name": "External links", "target_page_ids": [], "anchor_spans": [] } ]

[ "Aircraft_hijacking", "Aircraft_hijackings", "Aviation_risks", "Aviation_security", "Terrorism_tactics" ]

[ "aircraft piracy", "skyjacking", "aviation piracy", "airliner hijacking", "hijacking of an aircraft", "hijack" ]