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Which researcher would be interested in investigating why some people are motivated to look for their "purpose" in life, seeking meaning for their lives beyond materialistic concerns?

['(A)Carl Lange', '(B)Alfred Kinsey', '(C)Abraham Maslow', '(D)William James', '(E)Walter Cannon']

(E)Homeostasis is an internally balanced state without physiological deficits (like hunger) that create drives. Self-actualization, choice A, is a motivation concept. However, it is not related to the concept of internal balance described in this scenario. Reciprocal determinism, choice B, refers to Bandura’s theory about how past experiences and the social environment influence behaviors. Social facilitation, choice C, is a concept from social psychology. It states that sometimes the presence of other people can enhance our performance. Transduction, choice D, is a concept from sensation and perception research. Transduction occurs when energy or chemicals from the outside world are changed into neural impulses.

Two researchers independently developed a very original idea about how humans experience emotions—that our bodies change before we are consciously aware of what emotion we are experiencing. Since each researcher developed the theory separately around the same time, the theory shares both their names. Which two researchers developed this theory?

['(A)Carl Lange and William James', '(B)Virginia Johnson and William Masters', '(C)Philip Bard and Walter Cannon', '(D)Henry Murray and Abraham Maslow', '(E)B.F. Skinner and John Watson']

(C)Set-point theory maintains that our brains have a set point of weight that our brains interpret as the balanced point. If we are below this weight, set-point theory states that our brains will increase hunger motivation. If we are above the set point, the theory states that our brains will decrease hunger impulses. This psychological concept might help the roommate in the scenario find research about how to change habits safely that promote long-term weight loss, which the cabbage soup diet is unlikely to do. Instinct, choice A, is a motivation concept that is not likely to be helpful. Instincts cannot be changed. Id, choice B, is a concept from Freud that some would argue is related to hunger. However, talking about the id isn’t likely to be helpful. Refractory period (choice D) and amygdala (choice E) are not related to hunger.

Which researcher attempted to uncover the sexual behaviors of Americans by carefully surveying a representative, nationwide sample?

['(A)Carl Lange', '(B)Alfred Kinsey', '(C)Abraham Maslow', '(D)William James', '(E)Walter Cannon']

(D)The hypothalamus controls several basic physiological functions: feeding, the fight/flight response, and mating. All of CMOT’s behaviors relate to these four basic functions. So, his hypothalamus may be malfunctioning. If CMOT’s brainstem, choice A, was malfunctioning, he would be experiencing much more dire symptoms. Since the brainstem controls basic life support functions, CMOT might not be able to breathe on his own. The amygdala, choice B, is associated with strong emotions (including fighting) but not with the other symptoms listed. Fungiform papillae, choice C, are bumps on the tongue with taste buds on the upper surface. Transduction, choice E, is a concept from sensation and perception research. Transduction occurs when energy or chemicals from the outside world are changed into neural impulses.

Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer uncovered a potential resolution to the principal disagreement between the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion. What was this resolution?

['(A)Emotional experiences turn out to be more meaningful and memorable than experiences that are primarily cognitive.', '(B)Men are more emotional than women, but cultural norms cause men to underestimate their emotional experiences.', '(C)Humans experience physiological reactions before our conscious experience of an emotion.', '(D)Our cognitive interpretation of a physiological response produces the experience we interpret as emotion.', '(E)Physiological reactions result from past conditioning experiences based on emotional experiences.']

(B)Achievement motivation theory describes a person’s desire to master tasks and problem solve. It is likely that this intrinsic desire to master skills may be correlated with long-term success in school. In addition, achievement motivation would be much more difficult to measure (operationally define) than the variables in choices A and D (grade point average and attitude toward school). Choice C, extrinsic motivation, is often important in school. However, extrinsic motivations are less effective long term than intrinsic motivations. Choice E, psychosocial maturational stage, refers to Erikson’s psychosocial developmental stage theory.

Which researcher established that some emotional responses do not involve any cognitive interpretation?

['(A)Philip Bard', '(B)Albert Bandura', '(C)Robert Zajonc', '(D)Daniel Kahneman', '(E)Robert Garcia']

(A)Two-factor theory explains that our experience of emotions depends on a combination of how we label an experience and our physiological response. If we are in an emotionally stressful situation and for some reason our physiological reaction is heightened (perhaps because of medication, as in this scenario), we will “feel” the emotion more deeply. This is sometimes called the spillover effect. The James-Lange theory, Cannon-Bard theory, and Yerkes-Dodson theory (choices B, D, and E) are motivation theories but don’t help explain the experience described in the scenario. Drive reduction theory (choice C) is a motivation theory, not an emotion theory.

Researchers are interested in designing an experiment to determine what variables are most effective at establishing homeostasis. Which of the following is a likely operational definition for the dependent variable in their experiment? (A)A personality test based on trait theory (B)Reaction time instruments, specifically hand-eye coordination devices (C)Self-report instruments designed to assess either intrinsic or extrinsic motivations (D)Scans from an fMRI that can detect whether physiological responses occur before emotions or vice versa (E)Physiological instruments (such as blood pressure and respiration sensors) 413.Which of the following research methods would be most useful if a researcher wanted to investigate which intrinsic motivations are most common among elementary school teachers?

['(A)Experiment', '(B)Self-report (survey)', '(C)Correlation', '(D)Naturalistic observation', '(E)Empirical (data based)']

(E)Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory predicts that people are motivated to satisfy needs in a specific order: physiological needs, safety needs, love and belongingness, self-esteem, and finally self-actualization. (A top level of self-transcendence is sometimes included.) Mr. Gassama’s heroic act put his physiological and safety needs at risk. So, Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory might struggle to explain Mr. Gassama’s motivation more than the other motivation theories. Intrinsic motivation (choice A), achievement motivation (choice B), and extrinsic motivation (choice C) might all explain Mr. Gassama’s heroism because of his internal drives or the possibility of external rewards. Choice D, altruism, is a synonym for a selfless act, not a motivation theory.

A researcher is testing the hypothesis "People who have high achievement motivation are more productive at work." Why might the researcher NOT use random assignment?

['(A)Random assignment cannot be used because people with high achievement motivation will be assigned to one group and those with low achievement motivation will be assigned to the other group.', '(B)It is more important to use the double-blind technique than random assignment in this study because there is a greater risk for experimenter bias than for subject bias.', '(C)Random assignment is used in quasi-experiments. True experiments require random sampling, not random assignment.', '(D)The statistical techniques required for random assignment cannot be used with a subjective variable like achievement motivation because greater quantitative precision is required.', '(E)Random assignment requires that every member of a population has an equal chance of being chosen as a participant.']

(C)Later in his career, Abraham Maslow became interested in something he called self-transcendence, which refers to the motivation to seek meanings in our lives that are “beyond the self.” Carl Lange (choice A) and William James (choice D) are associated with the James-Lange theory of emotion. Alfred Kinsey, choice B, was involved in sexual response research. Walter Cannon, choice E, developed the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion along with Philip Bard.

A university's Ethics Review Board denies a researcher permission for a study investigating the lower levels of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. What is the most likely reason for this denial?

["(A)The researchers were probably guilty of coercing participants because Maslow's hierarchy of needs is such a popular motivation theory.", '(B)The Ethics Review Board probably objected to the researcher using an outdated motivation theory.', '(C)One of the ethical requirements for research is that participants need to be fully informed about the nature of the research, and that would not be possible with this study.', '(D)The lower levels of the hierarchy of needs involve basic needs and safety, and the proposed research may have involved too much risk.', '(E)Nonhuman animals are typically used for this type of research, and the ethical considerations for research with nonhuman animals are complex.']

(A)Carl Lange and William James are credited with the James-Lange theory, which states that physiological changes precede our cognitive awareness of emotion. The researchers listed in choice B, Virginia Johnson and William Masters, investigated the human sexual response cycle. Philip Bard and Walter Cannon, choice C, established a theory that directly contradicts the James-Lange theory. The researchers in choice D, Henry Murray and Abraham Maslow, each investigated motivation but not the research described in this question. B. F. Skinner and John Watson, choice E, were behavioral researchers, not motivation researchers.

Professor Worblehat wants to research how stress impacts the refractory period in young adults. Which of the following research methods is Professor Worblehat least likely to use?

['(A)Focus group', '(B)Interview', '(C)Naturalistic observation', '(D)Survey', '(E)Qualitative analysis']

(B)Alfred Kinsey developed a carefully worded survey about sexual habits and sent it to a nationwide, representative sample. Results of the survey helped describe both common and uncommon sexual habits of Americans for the first time. The other researchers mentioned in choices A, C, D, and E (Carl Lange, Abraham Maslow, William James, and Walter Cannon) were all motivation researchers but were not involved in sexual behavior research.

Explanations for the overjustification effect involve which psychological perspective and which term from motivation theory?

['(A)Cognitive perspective and instinct', '(B)Sociocultural perspective and set point', '(C)Humanism and two-factor theory', '(D)Structuralism and achievement motivation', '(E)Behaviorism and intrinsic motivation']

(D)The principal disagreement between the James-Lange and Cannon-Bard theories of emotion are whether physiological responses occur before our conscious awareness of an emotion (James-Lange) or after (Cannon-Bard). Schachter and Singer’s research indicates that an emotional experience is a combination of a physiological response and our cognitive interpretation of that physiological response. Choices A, B, and E are statements that are not relevant to Schachter and Singer’s research. Choice C is a description of the James-Lange theory of emotion.

Researchers from which psychological perspective might be most interested in research indicating that drive reduction theory predicts human behaviors better than a cognition-based theory, like achievement motivation?

['(A)Sociocultural perspective', '(B)Behaviorism perspective', '(C)Evolutionary perspective', '(D)Biological perspective', '(E)Behavioral-genetics perspective']

(C)Robert Zajonc demonstrated that some emotional responses occur without any conscious awareness of the experience. These “priming” experiments indicate that we can experience an emotion (such as liking something) because of experiences that occurred too quickly for us to be consciously aware of them. Philip Bard’s (choice A) emotion theory (with Walter Cannon) argued that cognitive interpretation was central to emotional experiences and occurred before physiological reactions. Albert Bandura, Daniel Kahneman, and Robert Garcia (choices B, D, and E) were not emotion researchers.

Motivation researchers investigating hunger include the following statement in the conclusion section of a journal article: "Hunger results almost exclusively from impulses originating in different areas in the hypothalamus, which determine an individual's set point. Efforts to exert conscious control over this process are not likely to succeed." Which of the following statements accurately summarizes this statement?

['(A)The article disproves homeostasis theory, which predicts that our cognitions about food impact hunger significantly.', '(B)The article emphasizes the primacy of biology and the reduced role of cognitive psychology.', "(C)These researchers believe that humanistic theory, like Maslow's hierarchy of needs, best explains hunger motivation.", '(D)The research from this journal article must prove that the hypothalamus contradicts set-point theory.', '(E)Data in the article most likely comes from an fMRI machine, which measures cognitions rather than just brain impulses.']

(E)Homeostasis is an internally balanced state without physiological deficits (like hunger) that create drives. Since homeostasis appears to be the dependent variable in this experiment, the operational definition would need to be a way to measure this balanced internal state. Physiological instruments, such as blood pressure and respiration sensors, might be able to measure homeostasis. The rest of the choices (choices A, B, C, and D) are not ways to measure homeostasis.

Which theory of emotion argues that human emotional experiences are inevitably the product of a combination of the cognitive and biological perspectives?

['(A)Display rules', '(B)Yerkes-Dodson law', '(C)Two-factor theory', '(D)Top-down processing', '(E)Drive reduction theory']

(B)Intrinsic motivations are, by definition, personal and internal. The primary way researchers investigate intrinsic motivations is to ask people about their intrinsic motivations. A careful survey with a sample of elementary school teachers could provide data to help answer these questions. This research method is called a self-report or a survey. An experiment (choice A), a correlation (choice C), and a naturalistic observation (choice D) cannot be used for this research question because intrinsic motivations cannot be observed. Choice E, empirical (data based), is not a specific research method. All psychological research is empirical (data based).

How would you check to see whether this personality test is reliable?

['(A)Check the results of this test against a separate, reliable personality test.', '(B)Have many people take the test repeatedly to see if they choose the same box each time.', "(C)Ask a random sample of people to take the test to see if it's statistically significant.", '(D)After volunteers take the test, interview them to see how accurate the test is.', '(E)If the test is reliable, people should get different results each time based on their changing moods.']

(A)Since achievement motivation is not a variable that a researcher can manipulate, the researcher would first need to measure achievement motivation in the sample. Then the researcher would have to assign participants with high achievement motivation to one group and those with low achievement motivation to another group. As a result, this would be a quasi-experiment rather than a true experiment. Choice B is incorrect because the double-blind technique is not related to random assignment. Choices C and D include statements that are factually incorrect about experimental design and statistics. Choice E is a definition of random sampling, not random assignment.

How would you check to see whether this personality test is valid?

['(A)Examine a large number of results from volunteers and use inferential statistics to check test validity.', '(B)After many people take the test, check to see if they get the same results each time.', '(C)Perform a factor analysis.', '(D)Correlate results of this test with a different personality test that is known to be valid.', '(E)Check to make sure the personality theory that the test is based on is valid.']

(D)Maslow’s hierarchy of needs begins with physiological needs, and the next level is safety needs. Therefore, the most likely reason for the denial from the Ethics Review Board is that the research puts these basic needs at risk. There is no indication that this research inevitably involves coercion (choice A), outdated theory (choice B), lack of informed consent (choice C), or nonhuman animals (choice E).

This personality test is probably based on which personality theory?

['(A)Psychodynamic theory', '(B)Projection theory', '(C)Reciprocal determinism', '(D)Locus of control', '(E)Trait theory']

(C)The refractory period is part of the sexual response cycle. Studying this element using naturalistic observation would obviously be an unacceptable intrusion into people’s privacy. (Using naturalistic observation would also be very awkward for both researchers and participants!) The research methods listed in choices A, B, and D (focus group, interview, and survey) involve asking participants about their sexual response cycle, which is a more realistic alternative to naturalistic observation. Choice E, qualitative analysis, can be used with any research method.

Which of the following is the most accurate evaluation of this personality test?

['(A)It is a projective test that may reveal unconscious stressors or anxieties.', '(B)The test is likely to be valid, but its reliability would have to be checked carefully.', '(C)This personality test is likely to be reliable but not valid.', '(D)All tests shared through social media are unreliable and invalid.', '(E)Valid personality tests necessarily involve scenarios and more elaborate questions.']

(E)The overjustification effect occurs when someone receives a positive reinforcement (behaviorism) for a behavior that he or she is already intrinsically motivated to perform. This reward may result in a decrease in the person’s intrinsic motivation for the behavior. Choices A, B, C, and D all include psychological perspectives and terms from motivation theories, but none of the terms are relevant to the overjustification effect.

Which personality theory traces personality characteristics to unconscious influences?

['(A)Psychoanalytic', '(B)Trait', '(C)Cognitive', '(D)Psychosexual', '(E)Reciprocal determinism']

(D)Drive reduction theory involves biological drives produced by physiological needs/deficits. Researchers with a biological perspective (biopsychologists) would be most interested in these biological drives and how these drives might explain motivation better than cognitions. The sociocultural (choice A), behaviorism (choice B), evolutionary (choice C), and behavioral-genetics (choice E) perspectives would not be specifically more interested in why drive reduction theory explains behaviors better than does a cognitive-based motivation theory.

Psychoanalysts would be most likely to use which of the following terms in their work? (A)Extroversion, conscientiousness, neuroticism (B)Reliability, validity, factor analysis (C)MMPI, MBTI, IQ (D)Id, unconscious, ego, defense mechanisms (E)Learned helplessness, reciprocal determinism, collectivism 427.Which part of the unconscious mind did Freud think was most responsible for our most basic impulses, such as greed or sex?

['(A)Id', '(B)Oedipal', '(C)Ego', '(D)Psychosexual', '(E)Superego']

(B)Concluding that hunger is almost exclusively a biological process and that cognition (“conscious control”) has little impact argues for the primacy of biology over cognitive psychology. Choice A is incorrect because it argues that cognition is a major factor in hunger, which contradicts the statement in the question. Choice C references humanism, which is not relevant to this statement. Choices D and E assume details about the research in the journal article, and these assumptions are not justified. In addition, choice E includes an incorrect statement about fMRI data.

Which part of the unconscious mind did Freud think was most responsible for "moral thinking," referred to as conscience?

['(A)Id', '(B)Postconventional', '(C)Ego', '(D)Formal operational', '(E)Superego']

(C)Two-factor theory explains that our experience of emotions depends on a combination of how we label an experience (cognitive perspective) and our physiological response (biological perspective). Display rules (choice A), Yerkes-Dodson law (choice B), top-down processing (choice D), and drive reduction theory (choice E) are not theories of emotion. Display rules are related to emotions and how emotions are physically expressed. However, display rules are not inevitably the product of a combination of the cognitive and biological perspectives.

Which part of the unconscious mind did Freud think was most responsible for negotiating compromises between our animalistic impulses and our "higher self" that wants to act morally?

['(A)Id', '(B)Working memory', '(C)Ego', '(D)Medulla', '(E)Superego']

(B)Reliability refers to the consistency of a psychological instrument—whether the same respondent gets similar results each time the test is taken. One way to determine the reliability of a personality test is to ask a group of people to take the test repeatedly to see if they get similar results each time. Choices A and C are validity checks, not reliability checks. Choices D and E are factually incorrect.

What is the most important difference between psychoanalysis and psychotherapy?

['(A)Psychotherapy is performed by psychiatrists. Psychoanalysis is performed by any trained clinical psychologist.', '(B)Psychotherapists often use a variety of therapeutic approaches. Psychoanalysts primarily use the psychodynamic perspective.', '(C)Psychoanalysis is usually more effective for anxiety and mood disorders. Psychotherapy is more effective for dissociative and schizophrenic disorders.', '(D)Psychoanalysis is the overall category. Psychotherapy is a specific kind of psychoanalysis.', '(E)Therapy that involves psychoactive medication is called psychotherapy. Therapy that does not involve medication is called psychoanalysis.']

(D)A test is valid to the extent that it actually measures what it was designed to measure. One way to check the validity of a personality test is to check the results against another personality test that is known to be valid. Choices A and C refer to statistical procedures, which would not help determine validity. Choice B is a reliability check, not a validity check. Choice E is somewhat true—valid psychological instruments should be based on psychological theories. However, checking the underlying theory would not guarantee the validity of a personality test.

What is the primary difference between projective and trait theory personality tests?

['(A)Projective tests tend to be more reliable and valid than trait theory personality tests.', '(B)Projective tests are developed based on research of different categories of personality types. Trait theory tests are empirically derived.', '(C)Both types of tests try to measure personality. Trait theory tests are based on qualitative analysis, and projective tests use quantitative analysis.', '(D)Projective tests try to reveal unconscious influences. Trait theory tests try to measure specific personality characteristics.', '(E)Trait tests rely on self-report measures. Projective tests do not.']

(E)Trait theorists believe that human personalities can be explained by describing a set of traits, or patterns of thinking and behaving, that are stable across different contexts. This personality test must be a trait theory test because respondents are asked to choose which words in the boxes best describe them and because the test designers must believe that the words people choose align with underlying personality traits. Psychodynamic theory (choice A), projection theory (choice B), reciprocal determinism (choice C), and locus of control (choice D) do not have any obvious connection to this personality test.

A personality test asks respondents to look at a series of ambiguous visual images and explain what the image reminds the respondent of or what the respondent sees. What personality test is probably being administered?

['(A)Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)', '(B)Intelligence Quotient (IQ)', '(C)Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (D)Big five trait theory test', '(E)Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)']

(C)This personality test is likely to be reliable; a person is likely to choose the same box each time he or she takes this test. Reliability is a necessary condition for validity. Just because a test is reliable, though, does not mean the test is valid. This personality test is not likely to measure anything about personality because human personalities are complex. Choice A is incorrect because this is not a projective test. Choice B is incorrect because this test is not likely to measure personality after asking people simply to choose 1 out of 9 boxes. Choice D is often true; we should think critically about psychological information shared via social media. However, this choice is an overstatement. Choice E is nearly correct, but valid personality tests do not have to include scenarios.

What would a researcher conclude about a personality test that returns different results each time a specific person takes the test?

['(A)The test is not reliable and not valid.', '(B)The test is not reliable but may be valid.', '(C)The test is not valid but may be reliable.', '(D)The test is not reliable, and more evidence is needed to determine validity.', '(E)The test is not valid, and more evidence is needed to determine reliability.']

(A)Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality—psychoanalytic theory—described the influences of unconscious stresses and anxieties on thinking and behavior. Trait (choice B) and reciprocal determinism (choice E) are personality theories. However, they do not use the unconscious in their explanations. Cognitive (choice C) is a psychological perspective, not a personality theory. The psychosexual theory of development (choice D) is related to the psychoanalytic perspective but is not a personality theory.

Which of the following statements is true about the relationship between reliability and validity?

['(A)Validity is a necessary but not sufficient condition for reliability.', '(B)Reliability is subjective, but validity is objective and empirically measurable.', '(C)A personality test must be reliable in order to be considered valid.', '(D)The theoretical basis for a test establishes its validity, while the results may establish reliability.', '(E)In order to be considered reliable, a test must be valid.']

(D)Psychoanalysts search for unconscious influences on thinking and behavior. The terms mentioned in choice D all relate to the supposed unconscious mind. Choice A lists traits from personality trait theory tests. The terms shown in choice B are statistical terms used by psychometricians. The acronyms in choice C refer to different personality and aptitude tests. The terms in choice E are related to personality but are not relevant to psychoanalysis.

Which of the following phrases is the best explanation of this statement? "Reliability is a necessary condition but is not a sufficient condition for validity."

['(A)Conditions for reliability depend on a statistical analysis of validity.', '(B)If a test is not valid, its reliability, or consistency of results, must be examined. However, if a test is valid, its reliability can be assumed.', '(C)An analysis of reliability is predicated on assumptions about validity.', '(D)If a test does not deliver consistent results, the test is not valid. Just because a test is reliable does not mean that it is valid.', '(E)The relationship between reliability and validity is reciprocal. An increase in validity causes an increase in reliability and vice versa.']

(A)Freud believed that the unconscious mind is governed by a combination of three different elements: the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud thought that the id expresses animalistic, base impulses like greed and sexual impulses. Oedipal (choice B) is used in other parts of psychodynamic theory but is not the correct choice to this specific question. The ego (choice C) is one of Freud’s three elements. However, he thought that the ego negotiates and tries to find compromises between the id and the superego. Psychosexual (choice D) is used in other parts of psychodynamic theory but is not the correct choice to this specific question. The superego (choice E) is another one of Freud’s three elements. However, he thought that the superego expresses our moralistic reasoning and conscience.

Which of the following personality tests is considered to be most valid?

['(A)Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)', '(B)Kohlberg theory test', '(C)Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI) (D)Rorschach theory test', '(E)Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)']

(E)Freud believed that the unconscious mind was governed by a combination of three different elements: the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud thought that the superego expresses our moralistic reasoning and conscience. The id (choice A) is one of Freud’s three elements. However, he thought that it expresses animalistic, base impulses like greed and sexual impulses. Postconventional (choice B) is part of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning. The ego (choice C) is another one of Freud’s three elements. However, it negotiates and tries to find compromises between the id and the superego. Formal operational (choice D) is a stage in Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory.

Which of the following options lists the most agreed upon, and research supported, set of personality traits?

['(A)Introversion/extroversion, sensing/intuition, thinking/feeling, judging/perceiving', '(B)Extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, neuroticism, openness', '(C)Id, ego, superego', '(D)Internal locus of control, external locus of control, individualism, collectivism', '(E)Personal factors, the environment, behavior']

(C)Freud believed that the unconscious mind was governed by a combination of three different elements: the id, the ego, and the superego. Freud thought that the ego negotiates and tries to find compromises between the id (animalistic impulses) and the superego (“higher self”). The id (choice A) is one of Freud’s three elements. However, he thought that the id expresses animalistic, base impulses like greed and sexual impulses. Working memory (choice B) is a part of cognitive/memory psychology theory but is not relevant to a question about psychodynamic theory. The medulla (choice D) is a brain structure, which is not relevant to this question. The superego (choice E) is another one of Freud’s three elements. However, he thought that the superego expresses our moralistic reasoning and conscience.

Which of the following is the underlying assumption behind the trait theory of personality?

["(A)Personality traits are revealed by Jung's work on the collective unconscious, which accurately described the different elements of personality through opposing dichotomies.", '(B)Human thinking and behavior are influenced by past experiences and stresses that we may repress out of our conscious mind but that still affect our current choices and actions.', '(C)Our consistent patterns of thinking and feeling are highly individualistic, and personality trait categories vary between cultures and across time.', '(D)Trait theory tests reveal an underlying aptitude and mental capacity that are related to problem solving and neural speed.', '(E)Human personalities can be categorized into useful groups of characteristics, which are descriptions of ways of thinking/feeling that are consistent across contexts.']

(B)Psychotherapy refers to any kind of psychological treatment of a psychological disorder other than medical interventions. Psychoanalysis is a tradition of psychotherapy based on Freud’s theory of the unconscious mind (psychodynamic perspective). Choices A, C, and E are factually incorrect. Choice D is almost correct, but the reverse is true. Psychotherapy is the overall category, and psychoanalysis is a specific kind of psychotherapy.

Which personality theory predicts that our characteristic patterns of feeling and behaving result from the interactions among what we learned from past experiences, our internal thoughts/feelings, and environmental influences?

['(A)Reciprocal determinism', '(B)Person-environment interaction', '(C)Behavior genetics', '(D)Sociocultural dynamics', '(E)Collective unconscious']

(D)The theory behind projective personality tests is based on the idea that people will reveal unconscious beliefs by interpreting open-ended stimuli (like inkblots or visual images). Establishing reliability and validity for projective tests (choice A) are more difficult. Choices B and C are factually incorrect. Both types of tests are “self-report” measures, which means they are based on respondents’ self-reports. Therefore, choice E is incorrect.

If you wanted to determine whether a trait personality test was valid, which statistical technique would be most useful?

['(A)Measures of central tendency', '(B)Inferential statistics', '(C)Factor analysis', '(D)Qualitative analysis', '(E)Double-blind technique']

(E)The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) asks respondents to “fill in the story” behind a series of visual images (drawings, paintings, and so on). The theory behind this test, like all projective personality tests, is based on the idea that people will reveal their unconscious beliefs by interpreting open-ended pictures. The MBTI—Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (choice A), MMPI—Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (choice C), and Big Five trait theory test (choice D) are all trait-based personality tests. Note that many researchers feel the MBTI does not meet validity requirements for a trait theory test. IQ—intelligence quotient (choice B) is an intellectual aptitude test.

You are nervous about your job interview with the Discworld Company because you really want this job. You receive an e-mail asking you to report to the human resources department to participate in a personality test to determine if you are a good match for the company. During the test, you are asked to look at a series of ambiguous visual images and explain what you see or what the image reminds you of. What personality test did you probably participate in, and was it appropriate for the company to require this test?

['(A)MBTI. Yes, it was appropriate because the MBTI can reveal leadership skills.', '(B)IQ. No, it was not appropriate because intelligence testing is not allowed by most human resources departments.', '(C)MMPI. Yes, it was appropriate because the MMPI is an empirically validated test.', '(D)Big Five. Yes, it was appropriate because the Big Five personality traits have been established by many research studies.', '(E)TAT. No, it was not appropriate because the hiring process is not a valid use of a projective test.']

(A)If a personality test returns different results each time a person takes the test, the test is, by definition, not reliable. A personality test must be reliable (returning consistent results) in order to be valid since personality is supposed to be a relatively stable, unchanging pattern of thinking and behaving. Since reliability is a necessary condition for validity, choices B and C are incorrect. Choices D and E are incorrect because if a researcher knows that a test is not reliable, no further evidence is needed in order to determine the test’s validity.

Professor Bleedwell gathers the following data from participants who take the same personality test twice. Participant Number Test Result Day 1 Test Result Day 2 P1 Extrovert/agreeable/open Introvert/agreeable/closed P2 Introvert/not agreeable/closed Introvert/agreeable/open P3 Extrovert/not agreeable/open Introvert/agreeable/closed P4 Introvert/agreeable/open Introvert/agreeable/closed P5 Introvert/not agreeable/closed Extrovert/not agreeable/open What can you conclude about this personality test based on these data?

['(A)The test may be valid but is not consistent.', '(B)Professor Bleedwell used a projective test in this research.', '(C)These participants have highly variable personalities.', "(D)The data indicate that the test isn't highly reliable.", '(E)Professor Bleedwell should use a factor analysis to confirm these results.']

(C)Personality tests must be reliable (return consistent results) in order to be valid since personality is supposed to be a relatively stable, unchanging pattern of thinking and behaving. In this way, reliability is a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for validity. Therefore, choice A is incorrect. Both reliability and validity must be established by empirical results. So, choices B and D are therefore incorrect. Choice E is incorrect because it is the opposite of the correct choice. A test must be reliable for it to be considered valid, not vice versa.

Dr. Bleakly is treating her client Rupert for a dissociative disorder. Dr. Bleakly encourages Rupert to say the first things that come to his mind and not censor himself. Dr. Bleakly reads a list of words, and Rupert tries to say the first thing that comes to mind. What technique is Dr. Bleakly using?

['(A)Reciprocal determinism', '(B)Free association', '(C)Introspection', '(D)Internal locus', '(E)Functionalism']

(D)The phrase in the question indicates that for a test to be valid, it must first be reliable (“a necessary condition”). Even though a test is reliable, other evidence is still needed to establish its validity (“a sufficient condition”). Choices A and C communicate inaccurate information about how validity is analyzed. Choices B and E inaccurately describe the “necessary but not sufficient” element of the statement in the question.

W. M. Arthur, a famous poet, has trouble controlling his temper. Often, he will get very angry while at the coffee house because he is frustrated with his writing. When he gets home, he will yell at his family. Which of the following is most relevant to this scenario?

['(A)Displacement', '(B)Regression', '(C)Denial', '(D)Dissociation', '(E)Reaction formation']

(C)The MMPI (Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory) is an empirically derived (based on evidence from the past) personality test that is well established by researchers to be reliable and valid. The MBTI—Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (choice A) is based on Jungian personality archetypes, and researchers debate the reliability and validity of this instrument. Choice B, Kohlberg theory test, refers to Lawrence Kohlberg, who studied moral development, not personality. Rorschach theory test (choice D) and Thematic Apperception Test (choice E) refer to projective personality tests, which are difficult to confirm in reliability and validity tests.

Ms. Humpeding is feeling extreme stress because her solo choral performance occurs in three days. One night, the stress starts to overwhelm her. She tucks herself into bed with the blanket she used as a child and sucks her thumb to try to calm down. Which of the following is most relevant to this scenario?

['(A)Projection', '(B)Regression', '(C)Denial', '(D)Dissociation', '(E)Reaction formation']

(B)This choice lists the Big Five personality traits, which are the most supported set of personality traits (based on empirical data and techniques such as factor analysis). Choice A lists the dichotomies of the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) test, which is not well supported by research. Choice C lists the elements of Freud’s conception of the unconscious mind. Choice D lists terms related to personality theory but are not elements of a trait theory test. Choice E lists elements of Bandura’s reciprocal determinism theory.

Your roommate rushes back into your dorm room after a psychology lecture and says, "I knew it! Freud and all the neo-Freudians are full of it! There's no current empirical evidence that supports any of their claims about the supposed unconscious mind!" Which of the following areas of research might change your roommate's opinion?

['(A)Free association', '(B)Trait theory', '(C)Priming', '(D)Dream analysis', '(E)Reliability']

(E)Trait theorists believe that our personalities, which are ways of thinking/feeling that are consistent across contexts, can be explained by sets of traits or characteristics. These characteristics are useful categories for describing different aspects of personality. Not all (or many) trait theorists use Jung’s theory (choice A). Choice B is a better description of Freud’s theory of the unconscious. Aspects of choice C are true; many trait theorists research trait theory across different cultures. However, the statement in this choice does not describe the underlying assumption behind trait theory. Choice D describes IQ testing and theory.

Your artist friend Frida asks you, "Is there anything in all that psychology research that might help me with my art? Maybe anything about symbols I could use in my paintings that a lot of different people might react to?" Which of the following concepts would you choose to share with Frida?

['(A)The big five', '(B)Reciprocal determinism', '(C)Structuralism', '(D)Social facilitation', '(E)Collective unconscious']

(A)Bandura’s theory of reciprocal determinism explained our personalities through the interactions among three elements: what we’ve learned from past experiences, our internal feelings and cognitive interpretations of events, and the environmental influences within which we are acting. Choices B and D are not personality theories. Choice C is a psychological perspective. Choice E is not related to the three elements mentioned in the stem of the question.

The Dorfl Corporation contracted with a psychometric consultant to develop a test for job applicants. The test is supposed to predict which employees will be the most productive. The president of the Dorfl Corporation proposes that the company give the new test to current employees who are known to be very productive. What psychological principle of the test does the president want to investigate?

['(A)Reliability', '(B)Accuracy', '(C)Correlation', '(D)Validity', '(E)Generalization']

(C)The statistical process of factor analysis can determine whether a set of items on a personality test all actually measure the same personality trait. The statistical methods mentioned in choice A (measures of central tendency) and choice B (inferential statistics) might be involved when a researcher investigates the validity of a personality test. However, these methods are not uniquely suited to this process. (Measures of central tendency and inferential statistics are involved in almost every quantitative psychological study.) Qualitative analysis (choice D) refers to research that analyzes words rather than numbers. This technique does not apply to this question. The double-blind technique (choice E) is a detail from research methodology, not a statistical technique.

Agnes has lived all over the world and speaks multiple languages. She finds a personality test that has been translated into three of the languages she speaks and takes the test in each of those languages. Agnes gets different results each time she takes the test in a different language. What psychological principle is most relevant to Agnes's experience?

['(A)Reliability', '(B)Trait theory', '(C)Validity', '(D)Inferential statistics', '(E)Descriptive statistics']

(E)The Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) asks respondents to “fill in the story” behind a series of visual images (drawings, paintings, and so on). The theory behind this test, like all projective personality tests, is based on the idea that people will reveal their unconscious beliefs by interpreting open-ended pictures. Obviously basing a hiring decision on a test that depends on revealing the unconscious mind isn’t the best policy. The MBTI—Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (choice A), MMPI—Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (choice C), and Big Five (choice D) are all trait-based personality tests. These tests may or may not be useful during a hiring decision, but they are not the projective test described in the question. Note that many researchers feel the MBTI does not meet validity requirements for a trait theory test. An IQ—Intelligence Quotient—test (choice B) is an intellectual aptitude test, not the projective test described in the question.

You are studying psychology in college. During one of your phone calls home, your father says, "Don't take those psychologists too seriously! They think our whole personality can be described by numbers instead of actually talking to the person and figuring out what makes them tick!" Which personality theory should you tell your father about in order to change his mind?

['(A)Collective unconscious', '(B)Trait theory', '(C)Behaviorism', '(D)Reciprocal determinism', '(E)Psychosexual stages']

(D)Since each of the participants received a different result on day 2 than each of them did on day 1, this personality test is not reliable. Choice A is incorrect because a personality test cannot be valid if it is not reliable. Nothing indicates that the research involves a projective test (choice B) or needs to use factor analysis (choice E). Choice C is incorrect because personality is defined as a relatively stable set of traits over time, especially over two days.

Professor Magpyr is excited because his team's journal article was accepted for publication. The article describes how the team developed the Magpyr Personality Test by field testing hundreds of statements about identity until they had accurate statistics that indicated which items successfully measure several personality traits. What can you conclude about the Magpyr Personality Test?

['(A)It is a projective test.', '(B)Professor Magpyr is a humanistic researcher.', '(C)It was empirically derived.', '(D)The research team used correlational techniques.', '(E)It measures the big five personality traits.']

(B)Psychoanalysts use the technique of free association (speaking whatever comes to mind, especially in response to a list of single word cues) to help clients reveal unconscious desires and conflicts. Reciprocal determinism (choice A) is Bandura’s personality theory. Introspection (choice C) and functionalism (choice E) are historical references to earlier psychology theories and techniques. If someone has an internal locus (choice D), he or she has the sense of being in control of what happens to him or her.

You attend a lecture about literary theory in the 1900s. The speaker argues that authors of this era were obsessed with "internal competing forces" within their characters. The speaker claims that symbols in the novels reveal how each character deals with inner voices representing selfishness, moral conscience, and compromise. Which list of personality vocabulary is most relevant to the speaker's argument?

['(A)Past experiences, internal feelings, cognitive interpretations', '(B)Id, ego, superego', '(C)Big five traits', '(D)Reliability, validity, factor analysis', '(E)Internal, external, inherent locus of control']

(A)Displacement occurs when we unknowingly misapply our strong feelings (such as anger) on another target instead of the actual person or situation causing the strong feelings. Regression (choice B), denial (choice C), dissociation (choice D), and reaction formation (choice E) are all defense mechanisms that do not help explain W. M. Arthur’s angry behaviors.

Which psychological perspective grew out of the personality theories of Sigmund Freud?

['(A)Trait theory', '(B)Humanistic perspective', '(C)Reciprocal determinism', '(D)Collectivism and individualism theory', '(E)Psychodynamic perspective']

(B)Regression occurs when we unconsciously seek stress-relieving behaviors that we used when we were children, such as holding comfort objects and thumb sucking. Projection (choice A), denial (choice C), dissociation (choice D), and reaction formation (choice E) are all defense mechanisms that do not help explain Ms. Humpeding’s stress-relief behaviors.

Which personality researcher is the most likely source for a quote like this: "Behavior, interpersonal factors, and environmental influences all combine in reciprocal relationships to produce our personalities"?

['(A)Albert Bandura', '(B)Abraham Maslow', '(C)Gordon Allport', '(D)Carl Jung', '(E)Karen Horney']

(C)Priming research indicates that stimuli that are presented too quickly for our conscious minds to perceive may still have some influence on our later attitudes. This means that there may be an unconscious mind, or at least a level of our consciousness that we are not aware of. Free association (choice A) and dream analysis (choice D) relate to Freudian psychoanalytic theory but are not empirical evidence for the unconscious mind. Trait theory (choice B) and reliability (choice E) do not relate to the unconscious mind.

Which researcher would be most interested in research that grouped all the words in a dictionary associated with personality into five or ten large, unique categories?

['(A)Albert Bandura', '(B)Alfred Adler', '(C)Gordon Allport', '(D)Carl Jung', '(E)Sigmund Freud']

(E)Carl Jung’s ideas about the collective unconscious might be interesting to Frida because Jung thought that every person responds to certain symbols. Jung believed we are all connected to the “collective unconscious mind” where these symbols reside. The big five (choice A) refers to the personality traits that have been empirically validated. These would not be useful for Frida’s paintings. Reciprocal determinism (choice B) references Bandura’s overall theory of personality, which is not likely to help Frida’s art. Structuralism (choice C) and social facilitation (choice D) do not relate to personality and are not related to symbols or other concepts that help answer Frida’s question.

Carl Rogers might be most interested in a personality test that assesses which of the following?

['(A)The big five personality traits', '(B)Repressed conflicts in the unconscious through projection (C)Characteristic patterns of thinking and behavior that persist across contexts (D)Differences between the ideal self and the actual self (E)Clusters of personality traits based on factor analysis']

(D)A valid test measures what it is designed to measure. In this scenario, the test is designed to measure employee productivity. The corporation president wants to investigate whether the test results are accurate by testing current employees. Reliability (choice A) refers to the consistency of test results. Accuracy (choice B) is a general term. However, the correct choice—validity (choice D)—is a better, more specific choice for this scenario. Correlation (choice C) is a statistical technique. Generalization (choice E) is a term from psychological research referring to whether findings from a specific sample can be generalized to the population.

A researcher is interested in validating her new trait theory personality test by comparing results from 100 randomly chosen test takers with results on the big five personality test from the same participants. The researcher finds that results from her test predict results on the big five personality test. What analytic technique did this researcher most likely use?

['(A)Experiment', '(B)Correlation', '(C)Inferential statistics', '(D)Descriptive statistics', '(E)Factor analysis']

(A)Reliability refers to the consistency of test results. Since personality is supposed to be relatively stable over time, personality tests should return similar results each time. Trait theory (choice B) assumes that personalities can be described by categorizing personalities into a set of traits. Validity (choice C) is an indication of whether or not a test measures what it intends to measure. Inferential statistics (choice D) and descriptive statistics (choice E) are different kinds of statistical analysis. They might be useful in research into personality tests but are not specifically relevant to Agnes’s experience.

Consider this hypothesis: "Results on personality tests are impacted by sleep deprivation." Which of the following would be the most useful tool to define the dependent variable operationally when researching this hypothesis?

['(A)A trait theory personality test', '(B)Data on the sleep habits of participants', '(C)Self-report data indicating that tiredness impacts how we react (D)A group of participants who are sleep deprived', '(E)A random sample of college students who are willing to participate in the study 459.Which of the following hypotheses uses one of the big five personality traits as the independent variable?', '(A)Men are more likely to have high levels of neuroticism than are women.', '(B)Openness scores are highly correlated with extraversion scores.', '(C)Social skills development training can significantly impact extraversion scores on personality tests.', '(D)Rural individuals score higher on conscientiousness than do urban individuals.', '(E)The level of extraversion in individuals impacts the number of friends they have at age 50.']

(D)Bandura’s theory of reciprocal determinism explains our personalities through the interactions among three elements: what we’ve learned from past experiences, our internal feelings and cognitive interpretations of events, and the environmental influences within which we are acting. Collective unconscious (choice A) and psychosexual stages (choice E) would not be useful in the conversation with your father because they rely on the theory of the unconscious mind, which is not relevant to your father’s objections. Trait theory (choice B) may be the theory that your father objects to due to its tendency to reduce personality to “numbers.” Behaviorism (choice C) is a psychological perspective that would not effectively respond to your father’s argument in this scenario.

Which psychological perspectives are most related to Bandura's reciprocal determinism personality theory?

['(A)Cognitive, psychodynamic, sociocultural', '(B)Structuralism, functionalism, empiricism', '(C)Behaviorism, humanism, positive psychology', '(D)Behavior genetics, evolutionary, biological', '(E)Biological, cognitive, behaviorism']

(C)The process described in the scenario is an empirical process: using evidence from the past (in this case, data from the field test) to develop the test. Nothing in the scenario implies that the test is projective (choice A). A projective test involves asking people to interpret ambiguous stimuli (such as inkblots or open-ended images) that may reveal the unconscious mind. Nothing in the scenario indicates that Professor Magpyr uses the humanistic perspective (choice B). The researchers may have used correlational techniques (choice D), but nothing in the scenario implies that this is inevitable. There is no guarantee that the Magpyr Personality Test uses the big five personality traits (choice E). In fact, these are very commonly used personality traits for empirically derived tests, but using other traits is possible.

Which of the following terms would a psychodynamic personality theorist most likely use?

['(A)Openness, extroversion, neuroticism', '(B)Reliability, validity, empirical data', '(C)Factor analysis, standard deviation, inferential statistics (D)Unconscious, superego, defense mechanisms', '(E)Reciprocal determinism, internal locus of control, external locus of control 462.Which of the following perspectives would be most interested in whether the big five personality traits are correlated with recall of stories, based on mood congruent memory?', '(A)Sociocultural', '(B)Cognitive', '(C)Behaviorism', '(D)Psychodynamic', '(E)Humanism']

(B)Freud believed that the unconscious mind was governed by the combination of three different elements: the id, the superego, and the ego. He claimed that the id expresses animalistic, base impulses like greed and sexual impulses. Freud stated that the superego expresses moralistic reasoning and conscience. Finally, he believed that the ego negotiates and tries to find compromises between the id and the superego. These three elements are like the speaker’s concepts of selfishness, moral conscience, and compromise. Choices A, C, D, and E all list terms that are not similar or relevant to the speaker’s literary argument.

SPEAKER SERIES: THE TRUTH ABOUT INSANITY THAT "THEY" DON'T WANT YOU TO KNOW!!! Come to the lively presentation by Dr. Ron Xenu—one of the leading authorities worldwide in the human thinking potentiality movement—tonight, February 29th, at the community center at 7:30. Dr. Xenu will discuss many of the facts he has discovered about so-called psychological disorders, including: •Efforts by so-called psychiatrists to keep adding disorders for every behavior and never eliminating any diagnosis •Facts the medical conglomerate suppress about ineffectiveness of psychological drugs •Environmental origins of all psychological disorders •The impact of creating labels for almost every behavior, even common, nonharmful behaviors •The sinister origins of psychology and psychiatry At the end of the talk, Dr. Xenu will sell his 17-part DVD series that will help you clear your mind and spirit. Credit cards are gladly accepted. Which of the following research findings might be most challenging for Dr. Xenu to explain?

['(A)Different parenting styles are correlated with different life outcomes and personality temperaments.', '(B)IQ scores are highly predictive of multiple variables later in life, including college graduation and career choices, indicating that environmental influences have less influence on adult outcomes.', '(C)The DSM-5 is based primarily on case study research and generally does not include empirical research findings.', '(D)If one identical twin develops symptoms of schizophrenia, the other twin has a 50% chance of also manifesting schizophrenic symptoms, no matter the environmental influences.', '(E)Stress is a major contributing factor when people exhibit symptoms of psychological disorders.']

(E)Freud established the psychodynamic perspective based on the idea that thinking and behavior are significantly influenced by repressed anxieties/stresses in the unconscious mind. None of the psychological theories listed in choices A, B, C, and D are associated with Freud. In fact, collectivism and individualism theory (choice D) is neither a personality theory nor a perspective.

Consider the criteria used to determine whether or not behaviors should be labeled as "psychologically disordered." Which answer below summarizes the criteria that might contradict Dr. Xenu's claims?

['(A)Causal, predictive, associative', '(B)Atypical, maladaptive, disturbing', '(C)Mood, anxiety, dissociative', '(D)Internal locus of control, external locus of control, disconnected locus of control (E)Socially facilitated, identity facilitated, environmentally facilitated']

(A)Albert Bandura’s theory of reciprocal determinism explains our personalities through the interactions among three elements: what we’ve learned from past experiences, our internal feelings and cognitive interpretations of events, and the environmental influences within which we are acting. Abraham Maslow (choice B) is associated with humanistic personality theories. Gordon Allport (choice C) is associated with trait theories of personality. Carl Jung (choice D) and Karen Horney (choice E) were both neo-Freudians.

According to the flyer, Dr. Xenu claims that disorders keep accumulating and none are ever eliminated. Which of the following statements is most true about how the number and categories of psychological disorder diagnoses have changed over time?

['(A)In the first edition of the DSM, psychiatrists decided that no more than 10 new diagnoses could be added in each future edition of the DSM.', '(B)The number of psychological diagnoses remains stable over time, with old diagnoses being removed as new diagnoses are added.', '(C)Many diagnoses in earlier versions of the DSM have been removed, and the categories have changed significantly among different editions of the DSM.', '(D)Many fewer psychological disorders are listed in the DSM now than in earlier editions because many disorders have been cured by new developments in psychoactive drugs.', "(E)The DSM doesn't technically list any labels for psychological disorders; it primarily describes behaviors and does not include labels used by the medical community."]

(C)One of the techniques that trait theorist Gordon Allport used to research personality was organizing hundreds of words from the dictionary that are associated with personality. Albert Bandura (choice A) is associated with reciprocal determinism theory. Choices B, D, and E are all researchers associated with psychodynamic theory.

When psychologists use the term maladaptive in the context of psychological disorders, what do they mean?

['(A)Behaviors that do not conform to the current cultural environment', '(B)Individuals who cannot adapt to new, stressful situations', "(C)Behaviors that interfere with or get in the way of a person's daily life", '(D)Behaviors that, statistically, are extremely unusual in their environment', '(E)Individuals who believe they have developed a malady or disease that will eventually incapacitate them 467.Which of the following statements is true regarding how homosexuality was treated by the psychological community in the past?', '(A)Homosexuality was never listed as a psychological disorder since it does not meet the criteria of being maladaptive.', '(B)Some psychiatrists argued that homosexuality should be included in the DSM, but research psychologists prevented it from being included.', "(C)Throughout its history, the psychological community considered homosexuality part of a person's identity rather than a disorder.", '(D)The term homosexuality has been included as part of the description of psychological disorders in every edition of the DSM.', '(E)Homosexuality was considered a psychological disorder for about two decades, from the 1950s through the early 1970s.']

(D)Humanistic psychologists like Carl Rogers were interested in human growth and potential. Rogers may have been interested in a personality test that examines an individual’s internal image of who he or she wants to be versus who he or she actually is because that difference might help a person become his or her ideal self. Choices A and E describe trait theory personality tests, not tests that would interest humanistic psychologists like Rogers. Choice B describes a test that would interest psychodynamic therapists. Choice C is a version of the definition of personality, not a description of a personality test.

Which of the following terms are associated with the medical model of psychological disorders?

['(A)Diagnosis, symptoms, treatment', '(B)Atypical, disturbing, maladaptive', '(C)Biopsychological, behavior genetics', '(D)Epigenetics, diathesis-stress model', '(E)Anxiety, mood, dissociative']

(B)The most likely technique this researcher would use is correlation—using a scatter plot to look at the relationship between scores on the new personality test with the big five personality test. This analysis could determine whether scores on one test predict scores on the other test. The scenario described is not an experiment (choice A). It does not contain an experimental group, a control group, or an independent variable. Inferential statistics (choice C) and descriptive statistics (choice D) are categories of statistics. These might be useful during the analysis, but correlation is a more specific and correct choice. Factor analysis (choice E) is often used during personality test development but would not be useful in the scenario described in this question.

Which of the following terms are associated with the biopsychosocial model of psychological disorders?

['(A)Anxiety, mood, dissociative', '(B)Epigenetics, diathesis-stress model', '(C)Internal locus of control, external locus of control', '(D)Biopsychological, behavior genetics', '(E)Physiological drives, psychological motivations']

(A)The dependent variable in this hypothesis is the results on personality tests, and the independent variable is sleep deprivation. The operational definition of the dependent variable is a way to measure the dependent variable. In this case, the only correct choice is a trait theory personality test. Choices B, C, and D refer to the independent variable. Choice E refers to sampling procedures.

A therapist who uses terms like cure, diagnosis, and symptoms is most likely using which of the following?

['(A)Biopsychosocial model', '(B)Classical model', '(C)Psychodynamic model', '(D)Medical model', '(E)Treatment model']

(E)This is the only choice that uses the big five personality traits as the independent variable. Remember that the independent variable causes changes in the dependent variable, which is the number of friends at age 50. The hypotheses in choices A, C, and D use the big five personality traits as a dependent variable. Choice B describes a correlational study without either a specific independent or specific dependent variable.

Therapists interested in epigenetics research and the influence of the diathesis-stress model on the development of psychological disorders are most likely using which model of psychological disorders?

['(A)Biopsychosocial model', '(B)Behavior genetics model', '(C)Humanistic model', '(D)Medical model', '(E)Cognitive-behavioral model']

(E)Bandura’s theory of reciprocal determinism explains our personalities through the interactions among three elements: what we’ve learned from past experiences (behaviorism), our internal feelings and cognitive interpretations of events (cognitive), and the biological influences upon our behavior. Choices A and C list psychological perspectives. However, these lists are not as close to Bandura’s theory as is the list in choice E. Choice B lists historical psychological perspectives along with the more current term, empiricism. Choice D lists three psychological perspectives that are related to the area of biological psychology, none of which are closely related to Bandura’s theory.

Which of the following statements best describes the purpose of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5)?

['(A)It describes the history of treatments that have been used for different mental illnesses and the relative effectiveness of the different treatments.', '(B)It is an overall guidebook for statistics related to psychological research, including guidelines for which statistics to use for different kinds of research questions.', '(C)It is used by researchers to report which physical and mental medical diagnoses are most common and which are no longer used.', '(D)It is used by mental health care professionals to decide which diagnostic labels should be used to describe psychological disorders.', '(E)It is the fifth edition of the most commonly used APA textbook for college-level classes about psychological disorders.']

(D)The psychodynamic perspective is a tradition of psychotherapy based on Freud’s theory of the unconscious mind, which involves the superego and defense mechanisms. Choice A references trait theory. Choices B and C are related to research about personality tests (how researchers establish the validity of personality tests). Choice E references Bandura’s theory of reciprocal determinism and locus of control theory.

What is the primary difference between the terms insanity and psychological disorder?

['(A)Psychological disorders are specific types of insanities.', '(B)Clinical psychologists treat psychological disorders, but insanity must be treated by psychiatrists.', '(C)Insanity is a legal term and is used in the context of the court system.', '(D)Psychological disorders are caused by environmental influences, while insanity is caused by genetic predispositions.', '(E)Insanities are specific kinds of psychological disorders and are more related to medical conditions than are psychological issues.']

(B)Cognitive psychologists investigate how we remember events and mentally interpret what happens around us. They also study how these cognitions impact our behaviors. These researchers would be interested in investigating how our memories of stories relate to personality traits. Choices A and C are psychological perspectives, but these perspectives would not be specifically interested in how we recall stories. Choices D and E are psychological perspectives. However, neither psychodynamic theory nor humanism are specifically related to the research mentioned in the question.

Which of the following issues is an important area of research related to the DSM?

['(A)Correlations between labels and categories', '(B)Reliability of diagnoses among practitioners', '(C)Statistically significant differences between diagnoses', '(D)Operational definitions of dependent variables', '(E)Historical accuracy of terminology']

(D)Identical twin studies, like the finding described in this choice, indicate that genetics play a significant role in schizophrenia. This finding contradicts one of the claims on Dr. Xenu’s poster: “Environmental origins of all psychological disorders.” Choices A and E argue for primarily environmental origins of psychological disorders, which does not contradict the claims on the poster. Choice B is not relevant to this situation. Choice C is incorrect information about the DSM.

Which of the following statements describes a technique used to assess the reliability of the DSM? (A)Comparing outcome research about treatment effectiveness based on past research (B)Including a false diagnostic label at random within each edition of the DSM in order to detect which practitioners may be misusing the manual (C)Assigning different editions of the DSM to different parts of the world and measuring which edition provides the most consistent diagnoses (D)Using the double-blind method to authenticate the validity of the inferential tests used in the DSM (E)Measuring how often different practitioners choose the same diagnostic label from the DSM for the same description of behaviors 476.Which of the following statements is most true about the relationship between psychological disorders and violent crime?

['(A)Individuals diagnosed with anxiety disorders are statistically more likely than those with mood disorders to be involved in violent crimes.', '(B)Psychological disorders that are treated with psychoactive drugs are likely to be associated with violence.', '(C)The term insanity is used in the context of the legal system, but lawyers do not use it to refer to psychological disorders that are associated with violence.', '(D)Mental health issues are not involved in most violent crimes, and most people diagnosed with psychological disorders do not commit violent crimes.', '(E)When socioeconomic class is included as a variable in studies about violent crime and mental health, researchers find that families with more wealth experience more issues.']

(B)Psychologists and psychiatrists use several criteria in order to determine whether behaviors may be symptomatic of a psychological disorder. Three common criteria used in this process are whether the behavior is common (atypical), whether it is an obstacle in the person’s life (maladaptive), and whether it is considered disturbing in that culture. Choices A, C, D, and E do not include specific criteria used in this process of diagnosing psychological disorders.

Which of the following kinds of psychological disorders are most commonly diagnosed?

['(A)Social anxiety disorders', '(B)Post-traumatic stress disorder', '(C)Depressive disorders', '(D)Antisocial personality disorder', '(E)Bipolar disorder']

(C)Over time, the psychological disorders listed in the DSM have changed. Many diagnoses (including homosexuality) have been removed as research and cultural attitudes have evolved. Choices A and B are inaccurate statements about the DSM and how diagnoses are added or removed. Choice D is incorrect because, although psychological medications are essential in alleviating the symptoms of many psychological disorders, psychoactive drugs don’t “cure” psychological disorders. Choice E is completely inaccurate about the purpose of the DSM. One of the major purposes of the DSM is to list diagnostic labels for the medical community.

When do the first symptoms of psychological disorders typically occur?

['(A)Symptoms usually first occur in late adolescence or early adulthood (before about age 25).', '(B)Some symptoms are usually evident in subtle ways soon after birth.', '(C)The symptoms typically appear after a person begins his or her career and assumes adult responsibilities.', '(D)The first symptoms typically occur after psychoactive drug use.', '(E)Symptoms almost always start later in life as hormonal influences lessen.']

(C)In the context of psychological disorders, a maladaptive behavior is an obstacle in a person’s life that gets in the way of daily living. Psychologists and psychiatrists use several criteria in order to determine whether behaviors may be symptomatic of a psychological disorder. Three common criteria used in this process are whether the behavior is common (atypical), whether it is an obstacle in the person’s life (maladaptive), and whether it is considered disturbing in that culture. Therefore, choice A (the third criterion) and choice D (atypical, the first criterion) are incorrect. The term maladaptive doesn’t have anything to do with a person’s ability to adapt. So, choice B is not correct. The term maladaptive also doesn’t have anything to do with the term malady, making choice E incorrect.

The terms generalized and free floating are most likely to be used by clinical psychologists in which context?

['(A)Depressive disorders', '(B)Anxiety disorders', '(C)Dissociative disorders', '(D)Schizophrenia', '(E)Phobias']

(E)The DSM listed homosexuality as a psychological disorder from 1952 through 1973. Psychologists during this era mistakenly believed that homosexuality was a set of disordered behaviors that should be treated to improve the lives of their clients. Research eventually led psychologists to conclude that homosexuality should be removed from the DSM. Choices A, B, C, and D are inaccurate descriptions of how psychological thinking evolved about homosexuality.

Which of the following are two of the most commonly diagnosed mood disorders?

['(A)Major depressive disorder and bipolar disorder', '(B)Phobias and obsessive-compulsive disorder', '(C)Post-traumatic stress disorder and reactive disorder', '(D)Somatic disorder and conversion disorder', '(E)Dissociative disorder and antisocial personality disorder']

(A)The medical model describes the causes, impacts, and treatments of psychological disorders using terminology from medicine and medical doctors. Other choices list terms related to psychological disorders but are not specifically associated with the medical model. Choice B lists some criteria used to determine whether behaviors may be related to psychological disorders. Choice C contains psychological perspectives. Choice D lists terms connected to the biopsychosocial model. Choice E contains different categories of psychological disorders.

Which of the following elements is shared by all the somatic disorders?

['(A)Neurological issues involving the soma, myelin sheath, and other neural structures', '(B)Symptoms expressed as physical issues, such as physical pain or disabilities', '(C)A combination of mood-and anxiety-related symptoms, usually instigated by high stress situations', "(D)Persistent feelings of being dissociated from one's body and physical self", '(E)Episodes of agnosia and synesthesia caused by deficiencies in neurotransmitter levels 482.Depressive disorders are often associated with imbalances with which of the following neurotransmitters?', '(A)Acetylcholine', '(B)Glutamate', '(C)Serotonin', '(D)Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA)', '(E)Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI)']

(B)Epigenetics and diathesis-stress model both refer to interactions between the environment and genetic predispositions, which are key components of the biopsychosocial model. Other choices list terms related to psychological disorders but are not specifically associated with the biopsychosocial model. Choice A lists different categories of psychological disorders. Choice C contains terms from cognitive psychological research. Choice D refers to two psychological perspectives. The terms in choice E are most relevant to motivation theories.

Which of the following is the most accurate statement about the relationship between environmental stresses and depressive disorders?

['(A)Psychological disorders are influenced much more by genetics than by environmental stresses.', '(B)Environmental stresses alter the genetic predisposition toward depressive episodes.', '(C)Depressive disorders, unlike other psychological disorders, are caused by environmental stresses.', '(D)Stresses related to life events often come before major depressive episodes.', '(E)Genetic factors predetermine which individuals will develop symptoms of depressive disorders.']

(D)The medical model describes the causes, impacts, and treatment of psychological disorders using terminology (like cure, diagnosis, and symptoms) from medicine and medical doctors. The biopsychosocial model, choice A, explains some aspects of psychological disorders. However, therapists using the biopsychosocial model are less likely to use the terms listed in the question. The classical model (choice B) and the treatment model (choice E) do not explain psychological disorders. The psychodynamic model, choice C, refers to a psychological perspective. It is not a model explaining psychological disorders.

Which of the following is a common negative symptom experienced by people diagnosed with schizophrenia?

['(A)Threatening, negative hallucinations', '(B)Disorganized, meaningless speech', '(C)Inappropriate, embarrassing emotional reactions', '(D)Delusions of persecution', '(E)A flat affect or lack of emotions']

(A)Epigenetics and the diathesis-stress model both refer to interactions between the environment and genetic predispositions, which are key components of the biopsychosocial model. The biopsychosocial model of psychological disorders focuses on the interactions among biological, psychological, and social influences when dealing with issues related to psychological disorders. The behavior genetics model (choice B) and the humanistic model (choice C) refer to psychological perspectives. Note that the behavior genetics perspective is similar in some ways to the biopsychosocial model, but behavior genetics doesn’t focus specifically on disorders. The medical model, choice D, is a model of psychological disorders. However, it is not specifically interested in either epigenetics or the diathesis-stress model. The cognitive-behavior model, choice E, is a common combination of treatment orientations but is not relevant to the situation described in the question.

How does the DSM categorize psychological disorders?

['(A)By similar symptoms and impacts on behaviors', '(B)According to when the disorder was first diagnosed historically', '(C)By which kind of treatment (cognitive, biological, and so on) is most recommended (D)During an annual national mental health conference of people diagnosed with that disorder (E)By the type of neurotransmitter causing the disorder']

(D)The DSM-5 is used by mental health care practitioners to identify which labels should be used for which psychological disorders. The DSM-5 lists symptomatic behaviors for each disorder and provides the most current diagnostic label for each. These labels are used for insurance and other official purposes. The descriptions in choices A, B, C, and E imply that the focus of the DSM-5 is more comprehensive than describing psychological disorders.

Two psychiatrists, Dr. Kellison and Dr. Bower, are discussing recent changes in the DSM. They wonder if the diagnostic criteria for a new disorder listed in this new edition are specific enough. They decide that they will each read the same set of published case studies and independently choose the diagnosis they think best fits each case study. Then Dr. Kellison and Dr. Bower will compare their choices to see if they match. What are Dr. Kellison and Dr. Bower trying to test about the DSM?

['(A)Validity', '(B)Accuracy', '(C)Reliability', '(D)Authenticity', '(E)Consistency']

(C)Insanity is used only in the context of the court system; it is a legal term used by lawyers and others during the trial process. In the context of psychological research and mental health care, the term psychological disorders is used. Choices A and E imply that psychological disorders and insanities are subcategories of each other, which is incorrect. Choices B and D are incorrect because they imply that the DSM is only a historical document and that the difference between the terms is related to the environment or to genetics.

Mr. Oleron's family reports that he is missing. A week later, Mr. Oleron is found is a neighboring town. He has no memory of how he got there, does not respond to his name, and seems generally confused and dazed. What category of disorder seems to fit Mr. Oleron's behaviors best?

['(A)Depressive', '(B)Dissociative', '(C)Anxiety', '(D)Schizophrenic', '(E)Somatic']

(B)Researchers often investigate whether different practitioners (anyone who uses the DSM) choose the same diagnosis for the same set of symptoms. In fact, this is one way to study the reliability of the DSM. Choices A and C describe statistical analyses that aren’t relevant to the context of the DSM. Choices D and E describe issues that aren’t relevant to the DSM.

Mr. Vimes has suffered from being sad for years. He was passed over for a promotion at work because of his drinking. He lost touch with his friends and family because he was reluctant to leave the house. Recently, Mr. Vimes started spending large amounts of money on clothes and gambling recklessly. He is now far more excited about life, but he hasn't been able to reconnect with his family or friends. What psychological disorder seems to fit Mr. Vimes's behaviors best?

['(A)Major depression', '(B)Somatic depression', '(C)Bipolar disorder', '(D)Antisocial personality disorder', '(E)Post-traumatic stress disorder']

(E)Researchers often field test diagnoses in the DSM by giving the same descriptions of behaviors to different psychologists/psychiatrists in order to determine whether they assign the same diagnostic labels. Choice A describes potentially interesting research, but it is not related to reliability issues. Choices B and C describe research studies that do not follow ethical standards for research. Choice D is a somewhat random collection of research method terminology.

Walter Plinge talks with his counselor about his recent emotional difficulties. "I just feel really frustrated all the time, and that's never going to change. I used to just get frustrated about work, but now it's all the time, and it affects everything I do in my life. I know I should just be able to snap out of it, but I can't. I think it's a part of my personality." Which list below describes the kinds of self-defeating cognitions Mr. Plinge is expressing?

['(A)Anxious, dissociated, depressed', '(B)Extroversion, neurotic, openness', '(C)Alarm, resistance, exhaustion', '(D)Stable, global, internal', '(E)Intimacy, passion, commitment']

(D)Psychological disorders, in general, are not usually associated with cases of violent crime; most crimes are not associated with mental health issues. In fact, most people who are diagnosed with psychological disorders are never associated with violent crime. Choices A, B, and E are factually incorrect statements. Choice C includes some correct information (for example, insanity is a legal term). However, the rest of this choice describes incorrect information about psychological disorders and violence.

"I was sure I was going to die," Mr. Lipwig told his doctor. "My heart was racing, I felt a huge weight on my chest, and I wondered if I was having a heart attack. But you're telling me there's nothing wrong with me?" What psychological disorder most closely matches Mr. Lipwig's experience?

['(A)Specific phobia', '(B)Generalized anxiety disorder', '(C)Post-traumatic stress disorder', '(D)Somatic symptom disorder', '(E)Panic disorder']

(C)About 9–10% of Americans are diagnosed with some kind of depressive disorder each year. Social anxiety disorders (choice A), post-traumatic stress disorder (choice B), antisocial personality disorder (choice D), and bipolar disorder (choice E) are all diagnosed at a far lower rate.

Some of Ms. Dinwiddie's friends referred her to the company's human resources department because they are worried about her. They noticed that Ms. Dinwiddie constantly checks the location of everything on her desk and moves any item that is "out of line." She gets very upset when anyone bumps her desk or even gets too close. Which of the following disorders might the company counselor talk about with Ms. Dinwiddie?

['(A)Obsessive-compulsive disorder', '(B)Panic disorder', '(C)Generalized anxiety disorder', '(D)Social anxiety disorder', '(E)Bipolar disorder']

(A)Research indicates that the first symptoms of most psychological disorders usually occur before age 25. Obviously, many instances occur of symptoms appearing at different ages. Choices B, C, D, and E are factually incorrect statements about how and when symptoms of psychological disorders usually begin.

Agnes's therapist reports that Agnes sometimes blacks out during therapy sessions and wakes up claiming to be "Perdita," not Agnes. When this occurs, "Perdita" speaks with a different voice and claims to be a different person than Agnes. Which psychological disorder do you think Agnes's therapist may consider diagnosing Agnes with?

['(A)Somatoform disorder', '(B)Dissociative identity disorder', '(C)Schizophrenia', '(D)Schizotypal personality disorder', '(E)Dissociative amnesia with fugue']

(B)Generalized anxiety disorder is a diagnostic label in the DSM. It is a type of anxiety disorder. The term free floating describes the feeling of anxiety experienced by some people who are diagnosed with generalized anxiety disorder. Their anxiety isn’t attached to anything specific; they just feel anxious. These terms are not likely to be used with depressive disorders (choice A), dissociative disorders (choice C), schizophrenia (choice D), and phobias (choice E).

You read a newspaper article about a local therapist who is being accused of misconduct. He is accused of improper therapy techniques with a client who eventually expressed different personalities during therapy. A review board examined notes and video of therapy sessions and concluded that this therapist used improper, leading questions and other techniques that led the client to manufacture personalities. What psychological diagnosis was the client probably diagnosed with?

['(A)Schizophrenia', '(B)Social anxiety disorder', '(C)Obsessive-compulsive disorder', '(D)Dissociative identity disorder', '(E)Antisocial personality disorder']

(A)The most commonly diagnosed psychological disorder is major depressive disorder. This is what some people think of when they say a person has been diagnosed with depression. Bipolar disorder is less commonly diagnosed. However, it is categorized as a depressive disorder because it includes two phases—a manic phase and a depressed phase. Choices B, D, and E all include diagnostic labels, but these labels are not categorized as depressive disorders. Note that antisocial personality disorder in choice E is more properly known as antisocial personality disorder. Choice C is incorrect because reactive disorder is not an actual diagnostic label.

A client named Jonathan Tetime is referred to a counselor by the court system for evaluation. Mr. Tetime started getting in trouble with law enforcement officials early in life. He is described in reports as having a "lack of remorse and no conscience." He compulsively lies and often steals small items from stores. As Mr. Tetime got older, he started to pick on younger children, tormenting them both physically and emotionally. Which psychological disorder do you think the counselor may consider diagnosing Mr. Tetime with?

['(A)Post-traumatic stress disorder', '(B)Dissociative identity disorder', '(C)Antisocial personality disorder', '(D)Bipolar disorder', '(E)Schizophrenia']

(B)All the somatic disorders (like conversion disorder and illness anxiety disorder) share the same characteristic: the symptoms of the disorders are experienced and perceived physically (as pain, a loss of physical capabilities, or similar). Choice A lists some parts of neural anatomy, which is not relevant to somatic disorders. Choice C references mood and anxiety disorders, which are not relevant to somatic disorders. Choice D is describing dissociative disorders. Choice E describes two symptoms that are not typically associated with any of the somatic disorders.

Myria's friends are worried about her because they feel she is too skinny. When they are eating together, sometimes Myria refuses to eat because she's "just not hungry." At other times, she eats a huge amount of food in one sitting. Myria often declines social invitations because she won't miss or alter her exercise regimen. She works out at least two hours a day, and her friends think that she may be exercising often more than that. Which psychological disorder might Myria's behaviors fit best?

['(A)Anorexia nervosa', '(B)Binge-eating disorder', '(C)Obsessive-compulsive disorder', '(D)Fugue disorder', '(E)Bulimia nervosa']

(C)Deficits in serotonin in the brain are commonly associated with mood/depression disorders. Acetylcholine (choice A), glutamate (choice B), and gamma-aminobutyric acid/GABA (choice D) are neurotransmitters not typically associated with mood/depression disorders. Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs), choice E, can be helpful in treating depression since SSRIs help the brain use available serotonin more efficiently.

Professor Keith is researching differences among how often different psychological diagnoses are used in different cultures. Which of the following diagnostic labels do you predict might vary the most among different countries?

['(A)Schizophrenia', '(B)Anorexia nervosa', '(C)Major depressive disorder', '(D)Bipolar disorder', "(E)Alzheimer's disease"]

(D)People who experience symptoms of depressive disorders often report that extremely stressful events occurred before they started experiencing these depressive symptoms. Depressive disorders are not caused exclusively by either genetics (choices A and E) or environmental stresses (choice C). Environmental stresses do not alter genetic predispositions (choice B).

Marco Soto was referred to a psychiatrist because he started reporting partial blindness after he witnessed a horrible traffic accident that involved some of his family members. Doctors can't find any physical cause for the blindness. Which of the following diagnoses do you predict the psychiatrist might investigate based on Marco's symptoms?

['(A)Conversion disorder', '(B)Illness anxiety disorder', '(C)Schizotypal personality disorder', '(D)Dissociative disorder', '(E)Catatonic schizophrenia']

(E)Negative symptoms of schizophrenia involve symptoms that are absences—a lack of emotions, a lack of typical movements/reactions, and so on. Choices A, B, C, and D all describe what may be positive symptoms of schizophrenia. Positive symptoms are those that are present (added), such as hallucinations, disturbances in speech, inappropriate emotional reactions, or delusions.

Researchers at a neuroscience lab announce that they uncovered a strong link between dopamine and the symptoms of a serious psychological disorder. This link was already known in the psychiatric community, but data from the neuroscience lab confirmed the connection. Which psychological disorder is the lab probably researching?

['(A)Generalized anxiety disorder', '(B)Schizophrenia', '(C)Conversion disorder', '(D)dissociative amnesia', '(E)Anorexia nervosa']

(A)The DSM groups psychological disorders with similar impacts on behavior into overall categories. The different depressive disorders listed in the DSM impact an individual’s mood and emotions in different ways. The DSM is not organized chronologically (choice B), based on a yearly conference (choice D), or due to the neurotransmitters associated with the disorder (choice E). Many disorders listed within a category may have similar recommended treatments, choice C, but that is not the main organizational scheme of the DSM.

Which of the following best describes Sigmund Freud's perspective on psychological disorders?

['(A)Psychological disorders are caused by a combination of genetic predisposition and environmental stresses.', '(B)The symptoms of psychological disorders are largely controlled by brain chemistry, but cultural influences determine how the disorders are expressed.', '(C)Most psychological disorders are caused by traumatic life events.', '(D)Behaviors associated with disorders result from unresolved unconscious conflicts and anxieties.', '(E)Freud viewed disorders using the medical model, using the traditional symptom and diagnosis model.']

(C)Reliability is a characteristic of any psychological instrument that describes the ability of that instrument to produce consistent results over time. If this new version of the DSM is highly reliable, psychiatrists should choose the same diagnostic label for the same descriptions of symptoms. Validity, choice A, is related to reliability. A psychological instrument must be reliable in order to be considered valid. However, reliability is the most accurate term for this scenario. Accuracy (choice B), authenticity (choice D), and consistency (choice E) are words that seem similar to the term reliability. However, reliability is the most accurate term for this idea in the context of psychological research and practice.

Which researcher investigated the influence of psychological labels on the ways people are treated, including psychiatric treatments?

['(A)Carl Jung', '(B)Sigmund Freud', '(C)David Rosenhan', '(D)Philippe Pinel', '(E)Aaron Beck']

(B)Dissociative disorders often involve people dissociating from their previous lives and identities. This may involve abandoning a previous identity and moving to a different city, seemingly developing new identities or personalities, or experiencing other disruptions in a person’s identity. Mr. Oleron’s behaviors are not depressive (choice A), anxiety (choice C), schizophrenic (choice D), or somatic (choice E).

Which of the following individuals argued early in the history of clinical psychology that individuals suffering from psychological disorders should be treated humanely rather than just be incarcerated and locked away?

['(A)Albert Ellis', '(B)Sigmund Freud', '(C)David Rosenhan', '(D)Philippe Pinel', '(E)John Watson']

(C)Depression symptoms that include at least one period of mania, which is a period of intense activity accompanied by behaviors like reckless spending and risk taking, are indicative of bipolar depression. Mr. Vimes’s initial symptoms were typical of major depression, choice A. Somatic depression, choice B, is not a diagnostic label. Antisocial personality disorder, choice D, does not fit Mr. Vimes’s behaviors. Post-traumatic stress disorder, choice E, is an anxiety disorder related to trauma (either long-term trauma or an acute traumatic event). However, trauma is not present in the scenario.

Which of the following is the best description of the independent variable in Rosenhan's thud study, which investigated the influence of psychological labels on the ways people are treated?

['(A)The independent variable was the different ways the participants were treated after they faked their way into the mental health care hospitals.', '(B)There was no independent variable because the Rosenhan study was correlational research, examining how well a psychological diagnosis predicted the later treatment of patients.', "(C)Rosenhan's independent variable was the prediction that medical staff would continue to treat patients as if they were mentally ill even after their symptoms stopped.", '(D)The independent variable was identical to the dependent variable: the symptoms the participants faked in order to be admitted to the hospitals.', '(E)Rosenhan thought that psychological labels caused caregivers to react to people differently, so the independent variable in the study was the psychological labels.']

(D)People who are diagnosed with major depressive disorder commonly express self-defeating cognitions: thought patterns that reinforce their depressed thinking and behavior. Three common characteristics of self-defeating cognitions are that they are stable (the feeling that these thought patterns will last forever), global (the thought patterns affect everything in the person’s life), and internal (the individual is responsible for the cognitions). Choice A lists three categories of psychological disorders. Choice B lists three of the big five personality traits. Choice C lists the three stages of the stress cycle. Choice E are three elements of Sternberg’s triarchic theory of love.

Which of the following research descriptions might be useful to help investigate the reliability of diagnostic labels in the DSM?

["(A)Using a random sample of psychiatrists, providing the same descriptions of symptoms, and checking the labels each psychiatrist applies to the descriptions (B)A longitudinal study of individuals diagnosed with a specific disorder in order to determine if the label predicts the individual's long-term behavior (C)Gathering multiple points of data about individuals' behaviors in order to determine whether or not the label correlates with all the data points appropriate for the context (D)Using factor analysis in order to determine if the various factors are intercorrelated to acceptable levels (E)Using operational definitions to establish a true independent variable carefully in order to measure precisely the impact on the dependent variable 504.A researcher wants to determine whether the symptoms of major depression are alleviated by depriving individuals of sleep. Which of the following describes how the researcher might use random assignment in this study?", '(A)Randomly assign the dependent variable to at least half the sample group in order to determine whether or not the independent variable is effective.', '(B)Flip a coin to determine which individuals in the sample will participate in the sleep deprivation group and which will be in the other group.', '(C)Gather a list of individuals diagnosed with major depression, and use a random number table to determine who will participate in the study.', '(D)Operationally define half the group using a truly random procedure, such as a computer program.', '(E)Measure sleep deprivation at random intervals throughout the day and night across the entire sample.']

(E)People who suffer from panic disorder experience intense, terrifying episodes of anxiety that feel like an emergency medical situation. They are often convinced that they will die and/or that they are having a heart attack or some other emergency physical problem. Some people who are diagnosed with specific phobias (choice A) or with generalized anxiety disorder (choice B) may also experience panic attacks. However, no details in Mr. Lipwig’s description hint at those diagnoses. Post-traumatic stress disorder (choice C) and somatic symptom disorder (choice D) are not relevant to the panic attack described in the scenario.

A group of researchers carefully analyze video footage from a mental hospital that specializes in treating individuals with schizophrenia. The researchers gather data about these individuals' behaviors, tracking time stamps and sequences of behaviors carefully. Which of the following is being used in this study?

['(A)Case study', '(B)Experiment', '(C)Inferential statistics', '(D)Naturalistic observation', '(E)Correlation']

(A)Behaviors typical of Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) involve recurring unwanted thoughts and recurring unwanted behaviors that the individual feels compelled to perform. Ms. Dinwiddie’s repetitive checking of her desk and her out-of-proportion reactions to her colleagues may cause the company counselor to talk with her about OCD. Panic disorder (choice B), generalized anxiety disorder (choice C), social anxiety disorder (choice D), and bipolar disorder (choice E) do not involve repetitive checking or obsessive orderliness.

If a researcher wanted to ensure that her research on a psychiatric drug is double blind, what should the researcher do?

['(A)She should make sure that the participants are not aware of the hypothesis or to which group they have been assigned.', '(B)The population should be blind as to whether they might be selected for the sample, and the sample should be blind as to whether or not they were chosen from the population.', '(C)Neither the researcher nor the participants should know who is assigned to which group in the experiment.', '(D)When data from the study are analyzed, they need to be analyzed by impartial observers who are "double blind" to the purpose of the study and the data analysis details.', '(E)Participants in both the experimental group and the control group must be blind, or unaware of the independent variable in the study.']

(B)Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) is a controversial diagnosis involving clients who express additional personalities, often after experiencing severe trauma and sometimes during the process of therapy. Somatoform disorder, choice A, describes disorders that involve physical symptoms. Schizophrenia (choice C) and schizotypal personality disorder (choice D) refer to different diagnoses relating to a split from reality (schizophrenia), not multiple personalities. Dissociative amnesia with fugue, choice E, is also a dissociative disorder. However, it involves an individual abandoning his or her previous identity and often physically moving to a different place, often in a confused and disoriented state.

Research in which psychological perspective is most likely to produce useful results for individuals who are diagnosed with schizophrenia?

['(A)Humanism', '(B)Cognitive', '(C)Behaviorism', '(D)Biological', '(E)Sociocultural']

(D)Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID) is a controversial diagnosis involving clients who express additional personalities, often after experiencing severe trauma and sometimes during the process of therapy. Schizophrenia, choice A, involves hallucinations or delusions, not the development of multiple personalities. Social anxiety disorder, choice B, is an anxiety disorder associated with social situations. Obsessive-compulsive disorder (choice C) and antisocial personality disorder (choice E) are accurate psychological disorders but are not relevant to the scenario in the question.

A therapist who treats people with specific phobias by rewarding them each time they are around the object of their phobia is using which psychological perspective?

['(A)Sociocultural', '(B)Humanism', '(C)Cognitive', '(D)Biological', '(E)Behaviorism']

(C)Individuals who are eventually diagnosed with antisocial personality disorder often have a long history of disturbing behaviors, including violence, theft, and other socially unacceptable compulsive behaviors. Post-traumatic stress disorder, choice A, is not a psychological disorder that fits the description in the question well. Dissociative identity disorder, choice B, describes individuals who develop multiple personalities. Bipolar disorder (choice D) and schizophrenia (choice E) do not fit the symptoms listed in the scenario.

A therapist using the cognitive perspective might be most likely to treat clients with which of the following psychological disorders?

['(A)Schizophrenia', '(B)Major depression', '(C)Antisocial personality disorder', '(D)Dissociative identity disorder', '(E)Bipolar disorder']

(E)People who suffer from bulimia nervosa sometimes avoid eating. However, they sometimes binge on a large amount of food, which is then followed by a purge—using vomiting, laxatives, or excessive exercise. They feel compelled to get rid of the calories they ate. People with anorexia nervosa, choice A, try to avoid eating when possible. Those with binge-eating disorder, choice B, binge on food at times but do not purge. Obsessive-compulsive disorder, choice C, is an anxiety disorder and is not specific to eating behavior. Fugue disorder, choice D, is a dissociative disorder and is not specific to eating behavior.

Which of the following perspectives might be most interested in research regarding international case studies of bulimia?

['(A)Behaviorism', '(B)Cognitive', '(C)Humanism', '(D)Biological', '(E)Sociocultural']

(B)Eating disorders like anorexia nervosa may vary widely among cultures because eating disorders are influenced by cultural pressures about what body types are socially desirable. Schizophrenia (choice A), major depressive disorder (choice C), bipolar disorder (choice D), and Alzheimer’s disease (choice E) are highly influenced by genetic predispositions, so they are less likely to vary among countries.

Which of the following therapy techniques is best represented in the dialogue presented below? Therapist: Where would you like to begin? Patient: I have difficulty getting on subways. I am afraid of them. Therapist: What are you telling yourself? Patient: That I am in danger. Therapist: What's the danger? I travel on subways all the time, and I've never been hurt. Patient: I think the danger is in my head. If someone looks at me, I think they want to hurt me. Therapist: You are inventing the danger. What can you tell yourself when you are afraid on the subway? Patient: I can tell myself that my fear is irrational. There is lots of evidence that subways are very safe. If something happened, I would most likely be safe. Therapist: What can you tell yourself so you won't panic? Patient: That I am overreacting and being irrational. My thoughts are wrong. Therapist: Right. It's your belief. You can always change your beliefs.

['(A)Active listening', '(B)Free association', '(C)Rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT)', '(D)Counterconditioning', '(E)Eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR)']

(A)A conversion disorder often involves an individual experiencing a stressful, traumatic event followed by an unexplained severe physical symptom (such as blindness, paralysis, or other major physical deficit). Illness anxiety disorder, choice B, is a type of somatic disorder. However, it involves people interpreting symptoms of common illnesses as symptomatic of extremely serious diseases. Schizotypal personality disorder, choice C, dissociative disorder (choice D) and catatonic schizophrenia (choice E) are not applicable to the scenario in the question.

Which of the following individuals best demonstrates using an eclectic approach to therapy?

["(A)Emily: while expecting resistance during a session, she uses free association to bring insight to her patients' memories they have repressed since childhood.", '(B)Shannon: her use of active listening provides clients with an environment conducive to growth.', '(C)Jake: he uses systematic desensitization to help those with specific phobias.', '(D)Jill: she uses cognitive restructuring to alter illogical thinking patterns associated with depression.', '(E)Megan: she provides unconditional positive regard while focusing on changing illogical thinking and role playing more adaptive ways of behaving.']

(B)Research has established that there seems to be an excess of dopamine receptors in the brains of people diagnosed with schizophrenia. This research indicates that the brains of those with schizophrenia may overrespond to dopamine, and this may be connected to hallucinations and delusions. Generalized anxiety disorder (choice A), conversion disorder (choice C), dissociative amnesia (choice D), and anorexia nervosa (choice E) are not known to be connected to either dopamine underactivity or overactivity.

When traumatic experiences are pushed into the unconscious mind to protect the individual from experiencing anxiety, what has occurred?

['(A)Resistance', '(B)Free association', '(C)Active listening', '(D)Repression', '(E)Transference']

(D)Freud established the psychodynamic psychological perspective, which explains thinking and behavior in the context of unconscious conflicts and stresses. Freud would have explained psychological disorders using this perspective. Choices A and B describe the influences of biopsychological, cultural, and cognitive perspectives. Choices C and E are incorrect statements.

Which of the following is the therapeutic technique most associated with Sigmund Freud?

['(A)Aversive conditioning', '(B)Active listening', '(C)Cognitive restructuring', '(D)Psychoanalysis', '(E)Flooding']

(C)David Rosenhan executed the thud study, which involved psychology professors and graduate students pretending to have psychological disorders and getting themselves admitted to psychiatric hospitals. The study indicated that psychological labels strongly influenced how these people were treated, even after they stopped feigning any symptoms. Carl Jung (choice A) and Sigmund Freud (choice B) were not specifically interested in the influence of labels. Philippe Pinel (choice D) was an early advocate for the humane treatment of the mentally ill. Aaron Beck (choice E) developed cognitive therapies used in the treatment of depression.