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13. AMINES â LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
Q. 1. Explain the following:
(i) Aniline dissolves in aqueous HCl.
(ii) Amines are stronger bases than ammonia.
(iii) Aniline is a weak base than ethylamine.
(iv) The amino group in ethylamine is basic whereas that in acetamide is not basic.
(v) Cyclo hexylamine is a stronger base than aniline.
Ansâ (i) The solubility of C6H5NH2 in dil. HCl is due to the formation of water soluble salt.
C6H5NH2 + H3+ + Clâ â C6H5NH3+Clâ + H2O Anilinium chloride
(ii) Amines have electron repelling group which increase the electron density on nitrogen, while ammonia has no such group.
(iii) In aniline the electron pair of nitrogen atom is delocalised due to resonance and hence lesser available for protonation while ethylamine does not undergo resonance.
(iv) In amides the lone pair of electrons on nitrogen atom is delocalised and hence less available for protonation than in amines where no resonance is possible and thus
acetamide is a weaker base than ethylamine.
(v) Aniline is weaker base than cyclohexylamine because of resonance while there is no resonance in cyclohexylamine.
Q. 2. (i) Write str amines corresponding to t C4H11N.
(ii) Write IUPAC names of
(iii) What type of isomeri different pairs of amines?
Ansâ Eight isomeric amines are Possible
Q. 3. Arrange the following in increasing order of their basic strength:
(i) C2H5NH2, C6H5NH2, NH3, C6H5CH2NH2 and (C2H5)2NH
(ii) C2H5NH2, (C2H5)2NH, (C2H5)3N, C6H5-NH2
(iii) CH3NH2, (CH3)2 NH, (CH3)3N, C6H5NH2, C6H5 CH2NH2
Ansâ (i) (C2H5)2NH > C2H5NH2 > C6H5CH2NH2 > NH3 > C6H5NH2
(ii) (C2H3)2NH > (C2H5)3N > C2H5NH2 > C6H5NH2
(iii) (CH3)2NH > CH3NH2 > (CH3)3N > C6H5CH2NH2 > C6H5NH2
Q. 4. Write common name of the following compounds :
Ansâ (i) o-amine benzoic acid.
(ii) p-methoxy aniline (or p-anisidine).
(iv) Sec-butyl dimethy lamine.
Q. 5. Explain the following reactions by taking one suitable example in each case :
(i) Hoffmanâs bromamide reaction
(ii) Gattermannâs reaction
(iii) Carbylamine reaction
(v) Coupling reaction
(viii) Gabriel phthalimide synthesis
Ansâ (i) Hoffmanâs Bromamide Reaction : When an amide (aliphatic or aromatic) is treated with bromine in alkali solution, it is converted to a paimary amine that has one carbon atom less than the starting amide.
RCONH2 RNH2 + Na2CO3 + 2NaBr + 2H2O Aliphatic Amide
C6H5CONH2 C6H5NH2 + Na2CO3 + 2NaBr + 2H2O
Aromatic amide Aniline
This reaction is extremely useful for stepping down (or descending) homologous series.
(ii) Gattermannâs reaction: When benzene ring and diazonium salt is treated with Cu/HCl or Cu/HBr, chlorobenzene or bromobenzene is formed. The yield is about 40%.
(iii) carbylamine reaction : Both aliphatic and aromatic primary amines when warmed with chloroform and an alcoholic solution of KOH produce isocyanides or carylamines which have an unpleasant odour.
R-NH2 + CHCl3 + 3 KOH (alc.) R-N C
.1° amine +3KCl + 3 H2O
In contrast, secondary and tertiery amines (both aliphatic and aromatic) do not give this test.
(iv) Diazotisation : The reaction of converting aromatic primary amines into diazonium salts with a cold (273-278K) solution of nitrous acid is called diazotisation.
(v) Coupling Reaction : Arenediazonium salts react with highly reactive (i.e., electron-rich) aromatic compounds such as phenols and amines to form brightly coloured azo compounds.
Ar â N = N â Ar.
(vi) Ammonolysis : Reactions of an alkyl halide (R â X) with an alcoholic solution of ammonia giving a mixture of 1°, 2°, 3° amines and quaternary salt is called ammonolysis.
R â X + HNH2 R â NH2 + HX
If R â X is used in excess, a mixture of 1°, 2°, 3° amines along with some quarternary ammonium salts is obtained.
It is a typical nucleophilic substitution reaction.
(vii) Acetylation : The replacement of an active hydrogen of alcohols, phenols or amines with an acyl group (RCO) to form the corresponding esters or amides is called acetylation. Acetylation is carried out in the presence of a base like pyridine, dimethylaniline etc. by acetyl chloride or acetic anhydride.
CH3COCl + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5+ HCl
Acetyl chloride ethanol Ethyl acetate
.(CH3CO)2O + C2H5NH2 â CH3CONHCH2CH3 + CH3COOH
Acetic Ethylamine N-Ãthylacetamide anhydride
(viii) Gabrielâs phthalmide synthesis : In this reaction phthalimide is converted into its potassium salt by treating it with alcoholic KOH. Then potassium phthalimide is heated with an alkyl halide to yield on N alkyl phthalimide which is hydrolysed to phthalic acid and a primary amine by heating with HCl or KOH solution. This synthesis is very useful for the preparation of pure aliphatic primary amines.
Q. 6. How is anilline prepared commercially ? Describe carbylamine test for primary amines.
Ansâ Aniline is prepared commercially by the reduction of nitrobenzene using iron and hydrochloric
Fe + 2HCl â FeCl2 + 2H] Ã 3
C6H5NO2 + 6H â C6H5NH2 + 2H2O
C6H5NO2 + 3Fe + 6HCl + C6H5NH2 + 3FeCl2 + 2H2O
Because of the presence of hydrochloric acid in the reaction mixture actually aniline hydrochloride (C6H5NH3 + Clâ) is obtained. This on treatment with aqueous soudium carbonate gives aniline.
Q. 7. Write IUPAC name of following and classify them into primary, secondary and tertiary amines :
(i) (CH3)2 CHNH2
(iv) (CH3)3 CNH2
Ansâ (i) (CH3)2 CHNH2 : 1-amino-1-methyl propane (primary)
(ii) CH3 (CH2)2 NH2
1-amino propane (primary)
methyl isopropyl amine (secondary)
(iv) (CH3)3 CNH2
N-Methyl benzenamine (secondary)
(vi) (CH3CH2)2 NCH3
Diethyl methyl amine (tertiary)
(vii) m-Br CGH NH2
3-isobromo aniline (primary)
Q. 8. How will you prepare :
(i) Benzylamine by Gabriel Pthalimide synthesis.
(ii) Benzylamine from benzene ?
Class 12th Chemistry Long Type Question
|S.N||CHEMISTRY LONG TYPE QUESTION 2022|
|6||GENERAL PRINCIPLES AND PROCESSES OF ISOLATION OF ELEMENTS|
|7||THE P-BLOCK ELEMENTS|
|8||THE D- AND f-BLOCK ELEMENTS|
|10||HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES|
|11||ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERS|
|12||ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS|
|16||CHEMISTRY IN EVERYDAY LIFE|
|17||DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PAIR| |
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This document has been prepared by the IASC Task Force (until 2003, known as the IASC Reference Group) on Humanitarian Action and Human Rights as a complement to Growing the Sheltering Tree, a collection of field practices in promoting and protecting rights by humanitarian actors issued by the Task Force in September 2002.
The text seeks to respond to questions commonly asked by humanitarian workers on the legal framework that serves as a basis for assistance and protection activities in situations of armed conflict. It sets out the relevant international instruments and offers examples of their provisions and application by responding to the following questions:
What is the international legal framework applicable in armed conflicts?
What are the sources of international law?
What is âprotectionâ?
Does international law provide specific protection for women or children?
What is international humanitarian law?
What instruments make up international humanitarian law?
What is the difference between the Geneva Conventions and their Additional Protocols in terms of application?
What are the basic rules of international humanitarian law?
What kinds of acts are prohibited in armed conflicts?
What is international human rights law?
What is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights?
What are the major international human rights instruments?
Is human rights law also applicable in armed conflicts?
What kin ds of human rights are commonly violated in an armed conflict?
What is international refugee law?
What are the instruments of international refugee law?
Who is a " refugee " ?
How is refugee status determined when thousands of civilians are fleeing an armed conflict?
Are internally displaced persons protected by international law?
Do non-state actors have obligations under international humanitarian, human rights and refugee law?
What are the rules on humanitarian assistance in armed conflict?
What is the protection under international law of humanitarian and other personnel?
How do the three bodies of law apply in practice?
How are the three bodies of law implemented?...nationally? ...internationally? ...regionally?
What are " war crimes " and " crimes against humanity " ?
How do war crimes and crimes against humanity differ from " genocide " ?
How are individuals held accountable for crimes under international law? |
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Niobium is considered to be a critical and strategic commodity because of the metalâs specialized applications in defense, energy, high-tech industrial, and medical sectors. In addition, Niobium has no effective substitutes and the production of niobium is highly concentrated. In fact, current identified resources of niobium are located predominantly in Brazil (about 95 percent) and Canada (about 3.5 percent), with just three companies â Companhia Brasileira de Metalurgia e Mineracao (CBMM), Anglo American Niobio Brasil, and IAMGOLD Corp (of Canada) â together producing about 90% of the worldâs demand for niobium products.
The United States does not have a niobium mining industry because domestic resources are of low-grade, mineralogically complex, and mostly not commercially recoverable. The U.S., like many countries, is forced to import 100% of its niobium source materials for processing, except in the case where some small amounts of niobium are recovered from alloy scrap. In 2018, U.S. niobium consumption was up 27% over 2017, with increased demand linked to increased consumption of microalloyed steel, used in the manufacturing of cars, buildings, ships, cell phones, computers, superconducting magnets, high-tech devices, and refinery equipment.
The geographic concentration of niobium resources and production make their supply vulnerable to potential influence and disruption by civil unrest, environmental issues, market manipulation, natural disasters, and political changes. It cannot be disputed that trade wars and geopolitical tensions could limit the ability of the U.S. to secure necessary niobium resources in the future.
Beyond the basics above, what else should we know about niobium? Check out the 15 interesting facts below!
- In 1801, English chemist Charles Hatchett analysed a specimen of an unknown mineral from the collection of the British Museum in London and determined that this mineral contained a ânew earthâ. He named this element âcolumbiumâ.
- In 1809, British chemist William Hyde Wollaston analysed both columbium and tantalum mineral specimens and claimed that they were the same element. There was no dispute of this conclusion at that time.
- In 1844, Heinrich Rose was able to distinguish columbium from tantalum by observing differences in their valence states. He renamed columbium to âniobiumâ after Niobe, the daughter of Tantalus.
- The names âcolumbiumâ and âniobiumâ were both used to identify the element until 1949, when the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) officially adopted âniobiumâ as the name.
- Significant U.S. niobium mine production has not been reported since 1959.
- From 2014 to 2017, U.S. niobium import sources were: Brazil, 72%; Canada, 18%; Russia, 3%; Germany, 2%; and other, 5%.
- In May 2018, the U.S. Department of the Interior, in coordination with other executive branch agencies, published a list of 35 critical minerals (83 FR 23295), including niobium. This list was developed to serve as an initial focus, pursuant to Executive Order 13817, ââA Federal Strategy to Ensure Secure and Reliable Supplies of Critical Mineralsâ (82 FR 60835).
- Brazil is the worldâs leading supplier of niobium (about 90 percent); its major deposits occur in Late Cretaceous carbonatite complexes. These complexes were emplaced along deep-seated faults located along the southwestern border of the ancient (Archean) São Francisco craton. The Araxá deposit is the largest operating deposit; it has more than 460 million metric tons of weathered ore with a mean grade of 2.48 percent Nb2 O5.
- The leading producer of niobium outside of Brazil is the Niobec Mine in Quebec, Canada. This mine is the only operating underground niobium mine in the world. The Niobec Mine is hosted by the Saint-Honoré carbonatite complex dated at 650 mega-annum (Ma), which is covered by Paleozoic limestone and glacial deposits.
- Niobium is a lustrous, gray, ductile metal with a high melting point, relatively low density, and superconductor properties.
- Niobium does not occur naturally as a pure metal â it is primarily derived from the complex oxide minerals of the pyrochlore group ((Na,Ca,Ce)2 (Nb,Ti,Ta)2 (O,OH,F)7 ) and has an average abundance in the Earthâs crust of 8.0 parts per million (ppm).
- An alloy of tantalum, niobium, hafnium, zirconium and titanium has been shown to conduct electricity with zero resistance, or superconduct, from ambient pressure up to pressures similar to those that exist near the centre of the Earth. The material is a member of a new family of metal alloys known as high-entropy alloys (HEAs), which are composed of random atomic-scale mixtures of elements from the block of âtransition metalsâ on the periodic table.
- Niobium is widely used for body piercing, and when put through an anodizing process results in varying colors of jewelry without the use of toxic inks or dyes.
- Niobium nickel-, cobalt-, and iron-based superalloys are critical for high-temperature applications in jet engines, gas turbines, rocket subassemblies, turbocharger systems, and combustion equipment and find high demand in the aerospace industry. Not only that, but niobium alloys are used in manufacturing superconducting magnets for medical hardware such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) instruments. Niobium alloys are contained in the superconducting magnets used in particle accelerators such as the Large Hadron Collider in Europe.
- The steel industry uses nearly 80 percent of the worldâs produced niobium to manufacture high-strength steels. Niobium, a grain refiner and precipitation hardener, enhances the steelsâ mechanical strength, toughness, high-temperature strength, and corrosion resistance for use in pipelines, transportation, car and truck bodies, tool steels, ships hulls, railroad tracks, architectural and structural applications, and more. |
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In 1510 and the following years King Ferdinand ordered a number of Africans to be sent to that colony for the working of the mines.
In the outskirts is a village of Africans from the Sudan - a curious remnant of the forces collected by Ali Pasha.
In response to the imperial summons, five to six hundred bishops, all Eastern, except the Roman legates and two Africans, assembled in Chalcedon on the Sth of October 451.
We speak of the Saracen very much as we speak of the Norman; for of the Mussulman masters of Sicily very many must have been only artificial Arabs, Africans who had adopted the creed, language and manners of Arabia.
Demons, when they are regarded as spirits, may belong to either of the classes of spirits recognized by primitive animism; that is to say, they may be human, or non-human, separable souls, or discarnate spirits which have never inhabited a body; a sharp distinction is often drawn between these two classes, notably by the Melanesians, the West Africans and others; the Arab jinn, for example, are not reducible to modified human souls; at the same time these classes are frequently conceived as producing identical results, e.g. |
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Learn a little Ontario history as told through its plaques
The Cathedral of St. Peter-in-Chains
Photo by Alan L Brown - Posted December, 2010
Photo by contributor Wayne Adam - Posted December, 2010
Coordinates: N 44 18.320 W 78 19.647
The parish of St. Peter-in-Chains was established in 1826 to serve the large Irish Catholic population of the surrounding Robinson Settlement. This building, erected in 1837-1838 of stone from nearby Jackson's Creek, is one of the oldest remaining Catholic churches in Ontario. Reportedly designed by the Toronto architect James Chevette, it follows the modified Gothic Revival style popular in Upper Canada during the period. In 1882 when the Diocese of Peterborough was erected St. Peter's became a cathedral. Two years later it was extensively renovated and enlarged under its first Bishop, Jean Francois Jamot. Although altered on various occasions, most notably by the addition of a fifth bay to the nave in 1967, St. Peter-in-Chains has retained its original elegance and imposing form.
Related Ontario plaque
The Robinson Settlement 1825
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Yiddish Theater in the United States
During the Middle Ages and for most of the centuries since then, Ashkenazimâthe Yiddish-speaking Jews of central and Eastern Europeâproduced virtually no theater at all. Since ancient times, rabbinic Jewish tradition had disapproved of theater, for men and women alike. Moreover, it was specifically considered immodest for women to perform for men. Men were prohibited from hearing womenâs voices singing, and women were prohibited from dressing as men. Finally, unlike other Western cultures, in many of whose theaters men played womenâs roles up into early modern times, Jewish men were permitted to dress as women only as part of the topsy-turvy merrymaking of the Purim holiday. For that reason, it was only during Purim, in early spring, that lively amateur entertainments were produced, and even then women participated only as spectators. Professional Yiddish theater did not exist until 1876. Until then there were only groups of wandering acrobats, among whom, however, two womenâs names are recorded: Ruza and Feygele.
During the late-nineteenth-century Haskalah [Enlightenment] period, when Eastern European Ashkenazi culture was becoming more modern and cosmopolitan, some Yiddish plays were written to be read at home as sophisticated literary entertainment. The first recorded actual performance of one of these plays was organized in 1862 by Madame Slonimsky, wife of the new headmaster of the Zhitomer Academy for boys in Zhitomer, Poland. Her husbandâs students played all the roles. The play was Serkele, by Shlomo Etenger. The title role, a strong-willed female character, was played by a boy named Avrom [Abraham] Goldfaden, who grew up to establish the first professional Yiddish troupe.
Goldfadenâs troupe, formed in Jassy, Romania, in 1876, was one manifestation of a general loosening of governmental restrictions on Jewish culture from the outside, as well as a loosening of traditional rabbinic restrictions from inside. The first company consisted of Goldfaden plus one actor. He soon hired a second actor, Sakher Goldstein, to play womenâs roles as well as menâs. Goldfadenâs wife, Paulina, served the enterprise as the translator of French and German popular plays into Yiddish.
Probably the first woman to perform on the Yiddish stage was Sara Segal, a sixteen-year-old seamstress with dark eyes and a sweet soprano voice. However, her mother refused permission until Goldstein, being the only unmarried company member, married her and took her along on their wandering life. She changed her name to the European-sounding Sophie, becoming Sophie Goldstein. Later, in New York, she married another actor, making her name Sophie Goldstein-Karp, or Sophia Karp. Karp was the first woman whose profession was Yiddish theater, and she was typical of the many hundreds who followed. She was an actor, known for glamour and charm. She occasionally participated in a venture as producer or even director as well as star. (Karp is said to have died of a theatrical dispute. In an effort to prove her claim on a certain theater, she refused to leave the building, even sleeping on the unheated stage, until she caught pneumonia and died.) But this was minor, and in fact women in Yiddish theater were primarily performers.
The Golubok company was the first to arrive in the United States, in 1882, at the start of the great wave of Jewish immigration. Their prima donna was a Madame Sara Krantsfeld. Sophie Karp and many other actors came shortly afterward. For a decade and more, most American Yiddish actors were immigrants, as were their audiences, but Yiddish theater was so new that many who were born in Europe made their debuts in the new land. Others started careers in the Old Country and then immigrated; by 1900, talent scouts were aggressively importing actors whose reputations had arrived at Ellis Island along with other news from home.
Most of the qualities associated with Yiddish actors were already clear in the 1880s. Theatergoers favored fiery temperament and emotionalism in drama, and âquicksilverâ energy in comedy, for female and male actors alike. As the theater acquired serious playwrights and discriminating audiences, truthfulness and sensitivity became highly valued. Types, in the styles of the period, included queenly lovers, strong heroines, glamorous villainesses, saucy soubrettes, and devoted mammas. And since music was interpolated in most shows, even including serious straight dramas, a good singing voice was also important.
From the beginning, many female actors married men in the theater community, and their names were and have remained linked in pairs with their husbandsâ. Eventually there came to be many actorsâ daughters as well. Often families played in the same company. Companies generally formed for a season, or for a tour, and touring companies moved not only around the United States but also back and forth to Eastern Europe and Russia. It was also not unusual to visit Western Europe, South America, or South Africa. On tour many actors took along their children, who soon learned to perform. The American capital of Yiddish theater was New York City, where at times as many as fourteen theaters were filled simultaneously, not counting vaudeville and cabaret. But there were also professional theaters in other cities around the country, such as Philadelphia, Detroit, and Providence.
Because the Yiddish public was passionate about theater, they generally were aware of actorsâ private lives, including romances, which were matters of comment in theater columns and critiques in the press. Although respectable families were not pleased if their daughters went on the stage, actors committed to intellectual or political ideals were highly respected by the intelligentsia, and for the community at large the presence of actors lent dash and style to café life. Actors, like other performers, customarily contracted for one night a season to be played for their own benefit. In this practice, not unique to Yiddish theater, the performer picked and cast the play. On these benefit nights, the house might be filled with an actorâs enthusiastic fans, and the box office take came to a significant yearly bonus. She might also receive gifts in addition to money profits.
In this early period began the long career of Bina Abramovich, who fifty years later was still known affectionately as the âmotherâ of Yiddish theater, both because she had always been there and because the roles she was associated with were folksy Old Country mammas. Pretty, lively Dina Stettin played with her husband Jacob Adler in London en route to America, and finished her career there married to Seymour Feinman, after which she became known as Dina Feinman. Regina Prager was known for her operatic singing and dignified carriage.
Bessie Thomashefsky met her husband, Boris, when she was a girl in Baltimore and he came there to start a Yiddish theater. Through her long, successful career, she played many roles, both comic and deeply dramatic, light and intense. She even played mischievous little boys. Her many enthusiastic fans extolled her acting as ânatural,â a term of particularly high praise.
Starting in 1890, some actors were known not only for their work in popular theater but also in association with the playwright Jacob Gordin, whose literary repertory dominated the more intellectually ambitious Yiddish theater between roughly 1890 and 1905. Among Gordinâs political causes was womenâs rights, and among his dramatic talents was writing juicy roles, often with certain stars in mind. Gordin was the first, though certainly not the last, professional Yiddish dramatist to create thoughtful and intelligent female characters. Keni Liptzin, bertha kalich, and Sara Adler remained permanently associated with Gordin roles.
Keni or Kenia Liptzin ran away from home to join one of Goldfadenâs earliest troupes and played in many companies in Eastern Europe and London before she settled in New York and encountered Gordin. Tiny and elegant, she was known for her uncompromising high standards for Yiddish literary repertoire. She was able to play only those plays she respected because she was married to a successful publisher, making her perhaps the only Yiddish theater producer ever who could be financially independent of whether or not her vehicles sold tickets. The role she was best known for was Gordinâs Mirele Efros; or, The Jewish Queen Lear. This tells the story of a woman who loses everything to a scheming daughter-in-law and to her own pride. When the Polish Yiddish star Esther Rachel Kaminska toured in New York in that same role, the Yiddish press called it a duel of rival champions.
Bertha Kalich began as a chorus lovely in Lemberg, Poland, and though she also played on the non-Yiddish Polish stage, talent scouts soon brought her to America. She was known for her grace and femininity. Gordin is supposed to have written his popular play of thwarted love, The Kreutzer Sonata, because once, as he sat in her dressing room, she flirted with him, brushing her long dark hair and coaxing, âWrite a play for my hair.â She subsequently played the role in English translation on Broadway. She also created the female lead in his Sappho, a photographer who dares to bear a child out of wedlock because the father turns out to be unworthy, and in God, Man, and Devil, an unhappy wife. She played for many years in Yiddish and English even after she became totally blind.
For Sara Adler, Gordin wrote Without a Home. Adler, who began her career as Sara Heine-Haimovitch, rose to fame while married to Jacob Adler. Her fiery temperament delighted her many fans, onstage and off, and she remained a starâpossibly the most successful of her generationâfor many years. Her daughters Frances, Julia, and Stella Adler all became actors; Stella soon transferred to the English-language stage, where she was an influential performer and teacher.
Yiddish theater participated in the art theater movement in the United States, as well as in Western Europe and Russia. In 1917, New York acquired the Yiddish Art Theater, organized by Maurice Schwartz, and the following year the Jewish Art Theater organized by Jacob Ben-Ami. There were others in the New York area and elsewhere. Several actors were associated with this movement, which emphasized text, direction, and ensemble work as opposed to the star system. Celia Adler, raised in traditional Yiddish theater and known for her delicacy and vulnerability, was an enthusiastic reformer, later recalling the period as a âgolden era.â So was the glamorous Berta Gersten.
The popular theater in the first half of the twentieth century had many skilled and energetic female performers in a variety of styles. The following are some of the best known. Nellie Casman sang and recorded songs, some of which (like âYoslâ) she wrote herself. Jennie Goldstein starred in tearjerkers and later turned to comedies. Henrietta Jacobson and Yetta Zwerling were popular comediennes. Anna Appel and Malvina Lobel were known in dramas. Vera Rosanka billed herself as the Jewish Gypsy. Clara Young was a frilly coquette. Molly Picon, whose mother sewed costumes backstage, began in English-language vaudeville. Her husband, Jacob Kalich, groomed her for stardomâeven tutoring her in Yiddishâand helped make her the darling of Yiddish musical theater, cabaret, and films. She was especially popular in gamin roles, even boy roles such as Yankl, the mischievous yeshiva student. Picon ended her career back on the English-language stage, playing in American musical comedies.
By mid-century, new names drew audiences to the theaters. Mina Bern played kleynkunst, charming musical revues that included art songs and scenes of literary value, with her husband, Ben Bonus. Clever Reizl Bozyk, who was actually born onstage on her motherâs benefit night, performed with her husband, Max, and alone, and in old age was highly praised for her role in the Hollywood film Crossing Delancey written by Susan Sandler. Dina Halpern acted and also gave solo literary performances known as âword concerts.â Betty and Jacob Jacobs were a perennial song-and-dance duo. Miriam Kressyn played Yiddish dramas and musicals and in films. Shifra Lerer, trained in Argentinean theater, acted with her husband, Ben Zion Vitler, and appeared in Yiddish films. Lillian Lux, with her husband, Pesach Burstein, and son, Mike Burstyn, had her biggest international success in The Megile of Itsik Manger.
A number of these actors also appeared in one or more of the Yiddish films made in the United States, though film acting was generally less respected than stage productions. Some are better remembered for their film work than from stage appearances: Helen Beverly, Judith Abarbanel, Gertrude Bullman, Lucy Gehrman, Lila Lee, Lucy Levine, Miriam Riselle, Mae Simon, and Florence Weiss. Yiddish radio programs were widespread and popular; Esther Field was a prominent personality. With her husband, Seymour Rechzeit, Miriam Kressyn presented a long-running series of radio shows evoking the history of the Yiddish theater.
There was another venue for Yiddish performance: the resorts of the Catskills. The most famous was Grossingerâs, run by the hotel keeper Jennie Grossinger. Here Yiddish performers did their routines in a mixture of Yiddish and English for increasingly assimilated audiences. There were also opportunities to perform at summer camps like Nit Gedayget.
By the 1970s and 1980s there were a number of new women on the professional Yiddish stage in America. Ida Kaminska, the intelligent and dignified daughter of Esther Rachel Kaminska, spent some years heading her own company here between the time she left Poland and settled permanently in Israel. Just as she performed alongside her famous mother, so her daughter Ruth Kaminska in turn performed alongside her.
Mary Soreanu, born in Romania and based in Israel, spent a number of seasons in New York starring in light musical vehicles designed to show off her strong voice, easy good humor, and good looks. Rita Karen Karpinovitch, trained in the Moscow Art Theater, gave âword concerts.â Vivacious American-born Eleanor Reissa understudied Soreanu early in her career but went on to star in Yiddish, English, and bilingual shows, and to choreograph them as well. Besides her stage appearances here, dark-voiced Raquel Yossiffon has taught university courses about Yiddish theater in Israel. Other young performers of the 1980s and 1990s included Joanne Borts, Adrienne Cooper, Shira Flam, Rosalie Gerut, Ibi Kaufman, and Suzanne Toren.
Amateur theater groups have always been active in Yiddish cultural communities, encouraging new dramatists and providing social cohesiveness. Many were associated with political or social positions, and many provided a congenial venue for artistically ambitious Yiddish dramas. Chayele Ash and Dina Halpern were professional actors who organized and sustained such groups. But there were many unknown heroic women who gave enormous time and energy to organize and sustain these theaters. At the moment, the major established Yiddish theater company in the United States is the Folksbiene, in New York City. The oldest continuously performing Yiddish theater company in the world, the Folksbiene was amateur through most of its years, though it now employs professional artists as well, among whom was Zypora Spaisman (1916â2002), who for fifty years produced and acted in forty-three consecutive productions at the theater.
Women in professional Yiddish theater have been almost exclusively performers. In the early period, when male stars often headed their own companies, it was rare for women to do so. Keni Liptzin was a major exception, but she was subsidized by her husband; Bessie Thomashefsky, Sara Adler, and Jennie Goldstein were also intermittently company heads, as was Ida Kaminska. Playwrights and songwriters created vehicles for the well-known female performers, but although Molly Picon wrote songs, women rarely wrote their own material; there were no professional women writers or directors. Rose Pivar worked in the Hebrew Actors Union administrative office, and other women were active in the Hebrew Actors Guild. More recently, Renee Solomon served as musical director and piano accompanist for many productions, and Ruth Vool handled theater business as well as performing. Bessie White translated several volumes of Yiddish short plays. Celia Adler and Bessie Thomashefsky wrote their memoirs.
There are women connected with professional Yiddish theater in creative capacities other than performing. Miriam Hoffman has created several plays. The best known are Songs of Paradise, with cowriter Rena Berkowicz Borow and composer Rosalie Gerut, and A Rendezvous with God, about the poet Itsik Manger. Hoffman is the executive director of the Joseph Papp Jewish Theater and teaches Yiddish language at Columbia University. Miriam Kressyn adapted a number of classics for contemporary productions and wrote lyrics for them. Bryna Wasserman Turetsky adapted Mirele Efros for productions at the Folksbiene and the Saidye Bronfman Centre in Montreal. Rina Elisha and Bryna Wasserman Turetsky directed Folksbiene productions. Eleanor Reissa won a Tony for choreographing the bilingual Those Were the Days. Joan Micklin Silver produced the Hollywood feature films Crossing Delancey and Hester Street; the latter, based on the Yiddish story Yekl, incorporated a great deal of Yiddish dialogue. Tova Ronni, of the Folksbieneâs board, organized the installation of devices for simultaneous translationâan innovation that has helped the Folksbiene continue to draw audiences. The United States has also seen numerous tours by the Yiddish Theatre of the Saidye Bronfman Centre of Montreal, founded and directed by Dora Wasserman, who when she suffered a stroke was succeeded by her daughter Bryna Turetsky.
Women have also been active historians of the Yiddish theater. Diane Cypkin, besides performing in Yiddish theater, was curator of the Yiddish theater collection of the Museum of the City of New York. Sharon Pucker Rivo is executive director of the National Center for Jewish Film, which has rescued, preserved, and made available to viewers more Yiddish films than any other institution. Faina Burko has written a major study of the Moscow Yiddish Art Theater, and Edna Nahshon has chronicled the left-wing avant-garde theater ARTEF. Nahma Sandrow translates Yiddish plays, and created several original shows out of Yiddish theater material. Lulla Rosenfeld wrote a biography of her grandfather, Jacob Adler. Evelyn Torton Beck wrote about the influence of Yiddish theater on Franz Kafkaâs work. The scholar Ruth Wisse taught a course in Yiddish theater at Harvard University.
Women have always been important as Yiddish theater audiences. In the early sweatshop days, working girls spent hard-earned pennies for tickets. Girls went to the theater in friendly groups or on dates. It was the custom for fraternal organizations to buy out a performance and sell tickets to raise money, and women often went to such performances in order to meet people from back home in the Old Country. Mothers could bring along their children, with picnic lunches to keep them fed during long matinees. Dramas of life in America provided them with ways to learn about the new country and try out, vicariously, new ways to cope. Translations of world classics or of Broadway hits were glimpses of the outside world. Escapist operettas and comedies offered relief from the hardships of immigration and poverty. And womenâs tastes influenced the theater world. Actors whom women found handsome played leading roles; there are many tales of women swooning in the aisles and running after Adler or Thomashefsky. Actors whom women admired, whose styles they copied, became stars and remained stars long past their youth. Now, as Yiddish theater is attenuated, the loyalties and memories of women are important for its survival.
For a detailed overview of Yiddish theater see Vagabond Stars: A World History of Yiddish Theater, by Nahma Sandrow (1977). The volume includes an extensive bibliography of sources in both Yiddish and English. |
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The United Kingdom is rolling out its seventh and eighth Covid shots as it continues to grapple with the endemic coronavirus strains circulating in the population.
But unlike the United States, which continues to push Covid shots for the entire population like an annual flu vaccine, the U.K. is not recommending them for healthy under-50s.
The Joint Committee on Vaccination and Immunisation (JCVI), recently warned that an emergency vaccine response may be required if a new variant with âclinically significant biological differencesâ emerges in the future. However, none of the predominant strains, namely, the Kraken and Orthrus, warrant such an emergency rollout at this time, the committee has concluded.
The JCVI said that the autumn 2023 Covid booster campaign, the seventh in the series of Covid shots thus far, should be expressly offered to those âat higher risk of severe Covid.â The winter boosters would represent the eighth shot in the series.
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During the U.K.âs last autumn booster campaign, the Covid shots were offered to over-50s, residents and staff at nursing homes, and frontline health workers.
The booster shots were also offered to five to 49-year-olds who are in a clinical risk group, such as being immunosuppressed or who live with an immunosuppressed person (despite the jabs failing to prevent infection and transmission).
The first booster campaign will be closed to people under 50 years old, beginning on February 12th.
The JCVIâs recommendations come âas the transition continues away from a pandemic emergency response towards pandemic recovery.â
The Food and Drug Administration, however, is seeking to normalize Covid shots for the U.S. population as an annual routine, even for healthy children and young adults.
In a briefing document published Monday, the FDA said the vaccines will probably need an annual update as the virus evolves. The FDA would select the Covid strain for the vaccine in the spring and then roll out âboostersâ for a fall vaccination campaign.
While most people would receive one shot to purportedly restore protection against the virus, older adults and immunocompromised may need two doses, according to the proposed vaccination schedule. Young children who have received only one shot previously would also get two doses, despite being at slim statistical risk from Covid and regardless of natural immunity antibodies.
Big Tech âBloodlettingâ Continues: Microsoftâs Worst Earnings In Years Leads to Mass Layoffs
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