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= SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max =
= SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max =
= SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max =
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For the ironclad present at the Battle of Lissa of the same name , see SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( 1865 ) .
For the ironclad present at the Battle of Lissa of the same name , see SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( 1865 ) .
For the ironclad present at da Battle of Lissa of the same name , see SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( 1865 ) .
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SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( German : " His Majesty 's ship Archduke Ferdinand Max " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1902 . The second ship of the Erzherzog Karl class , she was launched on 3 October 1903 . She was assigned to the III Battleship Division .
SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( German : " His Majesty <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>ship Archduke Ferdinand Max " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1902 . The second ship of the Erzherzog Karl class , she was launched on 3 October 1903 . She was assigned to the III Battleship Division .
SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( German : " His Majesty ship Archduke Ferdinand Max " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1902 . The second ship of the Erzherzog Karl class , she was launched on 3 October 1903 . She was assigned to the III Battleship Division .
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For most of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max remained in her home port of Pola , in present @-@ day Croatia , except for four engagements . In 1914 , she formed part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian flotilla sent to protect the escape of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau from the British @-@ held Mediterranean ; she advanced as far as Brindisi before being recalled to her home port . Her sole combat engagement occurred in late May 1915 , when she participated in the bombardment of the Italian port city of Ancona . She also took part in suppressing a major mutiny among the crew members of several armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro between 1 – 3 February 1918 . She also attempted to break through the Otranto Barrage in June of that year , but had to retreat when the dreadnought SMS Szent István was sunk . After the war , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was awarded to the United Kingdom as a war prize in 1920 .
For most of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max remained in her home port of Pola , in present @-@ day Croatia , except for four engagements . In 1914 , she formed part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian flotilla sent to protect the escape of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau from the British @-@ held Mediterranean ; she advanced as far as Brindisi before being recalled to her home port . Her sole combat engagement occurred in late May 1915 , when she participated in the bombardment of the Italian port city of Ancona . She also took part in suppressing a major mutiny among the crew members of several armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro between 1 – 3 February 1918 . She also attempted to break through the Otranto Barrage in June of that year , but had to retreat when the dreadnought SMS Szent István was sunk . After the war , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was awarded to the United Kingdom as a war prize in 1920 .
For most of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max remained in her home port of Pola , in present @-@ day Croatia , except fir four engagements . In 1914 , she formed part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian flotilla sent to protect the escape of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau from the British @-@ held Mediterranean ; she advanced as far as Brindisi before being recalled to her home port . Her sole combat engagement occurred in late May 1915 , when she participated in da bombardment of the Italian port city of Ancona . She also took part in suppressing a major mutiny among the crew members of several armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro between 1 – 3 February 1918 . She also attempted to break through the Otranto Barrage in June of that year , but had to retreat when tdadreadnought SMS Szent István was sunk . After thdaar , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was awarded to thedaited Kingdom as a war prize in 1920 .
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= = Design = =
= = Design = =
= = Design = =
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Erzherzog Ferdinand Max displaced 10 @,@ 472 long tons ( 10 @,@ 640 t ) . She was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 2 m ) long , had a beam of 71 feet 5 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She was manned by 700 men . She and her sisters were the last and largest pre @-@ dreadnought class built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , surpassing the Habsburg class by approximately 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 968 long tons ) . She was propelled by two two @-@ shaft , four cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines . On trials , they developed 18 @,@ 000 ihp ( 13 @,@ 423 kW ) , which propelled the ship at a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max displaced 10 @,@ 472 long tons ( 10 @,@ 640 t ) . She was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 2 m ) long , had a beam of 71 feet 5 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She was manned by 700 men . She and her sisters <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> the last and largest pre @-@ dreadnought class built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , surpassing the Habsburg class by approximately 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 968 long tons ) . She was propelled by two two @-@ shaft , four cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines . On trials , they developed 18 @,@ 000 ihp ( 13 @,@ 423 kW ) , which propelled the ship at a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max displaced 10 @,@ 472 long tons ( 10 @,@ 640 t ) . She was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 2 m ) long , had a beam of 71 feet 5 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She was manned by 700 men . She and her sisters was the last and largest pre @-@ dreadnought class built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , surpassing the Habsburg class by approximately 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 968 long tons ) . She was propelled by 2 two @-@ shaft , four cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines . On trials , they developed 18 @,@ 000 ihp ( 13 @,@ 423 kW ) , which propelled the ship at a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) .
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Erzherzog Ferdinand Max carried a primary armament of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin turrets on the centerline . These guns were an Austro @-@ Hungarian replica of the British 24 cm / 40 ( 9 @.@ 4 " ) Krupp C / 94 , which was used on the Habsburgs . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 19 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) / 42 caliber guns , also made by Škoda , mounted in eight single casemates on either wing of the ship and two twin turrets on the centerline. shell 20 @,@ 000 metres ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation with a muzzle velocity of 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The gun weighed 12 @.@ 1 tons and could fire three rounds per minute.The ships had a tertiary armament for protection against torpedo boats in the form of the 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 45 caliber gun , also manufactured by Škoda . Anti @-@ aircraft and airship protection was covered by the four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Vickers anti @-@ aircraft guns on the ship bought from Britain in 1910 and mounted onto Erzherzog Karl . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was also fitted with two above water 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , although rarely used .
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max carried a primary armament of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin turrets on the centerline . These guns <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> an Austro @-@ Hungarian replica of the British 24 cm / 40 ( 9 @.@ 4 " ) Krupp C / 94 , which was used on the Habsburgs . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 19 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) / 42 caliber guns , also made by Škoda , mounted in eight single casemates on either wing of the ship and two twin turrets on the centerline. shell 20 @,@ 000 metres ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation with a muzzle velocity of 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The gun weighed 12 @.@ 1 tons and could fire three rounds per minute.The ships had a tertiary armament for protection against torpedo boats in the form of the 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 45 caliber gun , also manufactured by Škoda . Anti @-@ aircraft and airship protection was covered by the four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Vickers anti @-@ aircraft guns on the ship bought from Britain in 1910 and mounted onto Erzherzog Karl . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was also fitted with two above water 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , although rarely used .
Erzherzog Ferdinand Max carried a primary armament of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) / 40 caliber guns in 2 twin turrets on the centerline . These guns was an Austro @-@ Hungarian replica of the British 24 cm / 40 ( 9 @.@ 4 " ) Krupp C / 94 , which was used on the Habsburgs . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 19 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) / 42 caliber guns , also made by Škoda , mounted in eight single casemates on either wing of da ship and two twin turrets on tdacenterline. shell 20 @,@ 000 metres ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation w/ a muzzle velocity of 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The gun weighed 12 @.@ 1 tons and could fire three rounds per minute.The ships had a tertiary armament for protection against torpedo boats in the form of the 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 45 caliber gun , also manufactured by Škoda . Anti @-@ aircraft and airship protection was covered by the four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Vickers anti @-@ aircraft guns on the ship bought from Britain in 1910 and mounted onto Erzherzog Karl . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was also fitted with tw2bove water 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , although rarely used .
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= = Service history = =
= = Service history = =
= = Service history = =
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At the outbreak of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was in the III division of the Austrian @-@ Hungarian battle @-@ fleet . She was mobilized on the eve of the war along with the remainder of the fleet to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships were attempting to break out of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops , and make their way to Turkey . The breakout succeeded . When the flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were recalled . In company with other units of the Austro Hungarian navy , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max took a minor part in the bombardment of Ancona on 24 May 1915 . There she and her sisters expended 24 rounds of 240 mm armor @-@ piercing shells at signal and semaphore stations as well as 74 rounds of 190 mm shells aimed at Italian gun @-@ batteries and other port installations .
At the outbreak of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was in the III division of the Austrian @-@ Hungarian battle @-@ fleet . She was mobilized on the eve of the war along with the remainder of the fleet to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> attempting to break out of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops , and make their way to Turkey . The breakout succeeded . When the flotilla <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>had</mark></a> advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> recalled . In company with other units of the Austro Hungarian navy , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max took a minor part in the bombardment of Ancona on 24 May 1915 . There she and her sisters expended 24 rounds of 240 mm armor @-@ piercing shells at signal and semaphore stations as well as 74 rounds of 190 mm shells aimed at Italian gun @-@ batteries and other port installations .
At the outbreak of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was in the III division of da Austrian @-@ Hungarian battle @-@ fleet . She was mobilized on tdaeve of the war along wid the remainder of the fleet to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships was attempting to break outt of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops , and make their way to Turkey . The breakout succeeded . When the flotilla done advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships was recalled . In company wwidother units of the Austro Hungarian navy , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max took a minor part in the bombardment of Ancona on 24 May 1915 . There she and her sisters expended 24 rounds of 240 mm armor @-@ piercing shells at signal and semaphore stations as well as 74 rounds of 190 mm shells aimed at Italian gun @-@ batteries and other port installations .
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A major mutiny among crews of the armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro , including Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI , began on 1 February 1918 . Two days later , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters arrived in the port and assisted with the suppression of the mutiny . Following the restoration of order in the naval base , the armored cruisers Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI were decommissioned and Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters were stationed in Cattaro in their place . On the morning of 11 June , Admiral Miklos Horthy planned a major assault on the Otranto Barrage ; the three Erzherzog Karls and the four Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships were to provide support for the Novara @-@ class cruisers on an assault on the Allied defenses at the Strait of Otranto . The plan was intended to replicate the success of the raid conducted one year earlier . Horthy 's plan was to destroy the blockading fleet by luring Allied ships to the cruisers and lighter ships , which were protected from the heavier guns of the battleships , including the guns of the Erzherzog Karl class . However , on the morning of 10 June , the dreadnought Szent István was torpedoed and sunk by an Italian torpedo boat . Horthy felt that the element of surprise had been compromised , and therefore called off the operation . This was to be the last military action Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was to take part in , and she and her sisters spent the rest of their career in port .
A major mutiny among crews of the armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro , including Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI , began on 1 February 1918 . Two days later , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters arrived in the port and assisted with the suppression of the mutiny . Following the restoration of order in the naval base , the armored cruisers Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> decommissioned and Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> stationed in Cattaro in their place . On the morning of 11 June , Admiral Miklos Horthy planned a major assault on the Otranto Barrage ; the three Erzherzog Karls and the four Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> to provide support for the Novara @-@ class cruisers on an assault on the Allied defenses at the Strait of Otranto . The plan was intended to replicate the success of the raid conducted one year earlier . Horthy <a href='null_genetive' title='4'><mark>'s</mark></a>plan was to destroy the blockading fleet by luring Allied ships to the cruisers and lighter ships , which <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> protected from the heavier guns of the battleships , including the guns of the Erzherzog Karl class . However , on the morning of 10 June , the dreadnought Szent István was torpedoed and sunk by an Italian torpedo boat . Horthy felt that the element of surprise <a href='been_done' title='6'><mark>had</mark></a> been compromised , and therefore called off the operation . This was to be the last military action Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was to take part in , and she and her sisters spent the rest of their career in port .
A major mutiny among crews of the armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro , including Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI , began on 1 February 1918 . Two dayz later , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters arrived in the port and assisted with da suppression of tdamutiny . Following the restoration of order in the naval base , the armored cruisers Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI was decommissioned and Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters was stationed in Cattaro in their place . On the morning of 11 June , Admiral Miklos Horthy planned a major assault on the Otranto Barrage ; thdahree Erzherzog Karls and the 4 Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships was to provide support fir the Novara @-@ class cruisers on an assault on the Allied defenses at the Strait of Otranto . Thedaan was intended to replicate the success of the raid conducted one year earlier . Horthy plan was to destroy the blockading fleet by luring Allied ships to the daisers and lighter ships , which was protected from the heavier guns of the bdaleships , including the guns of the Erzherzog Karl class . However , on the mornin of 10 June , the dreadnought Szent István was torpedoed and sunk by an Italian torpedo boat . Horthy felt that the element of surprise done been compromised , and therefore called off the operation . dis was to b the last military action Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was to take part in , and she and her sisters spent the rest of their career in port .
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Near the end of World War I , the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships were handed over to the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs but Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was later transferred to Great Britain as a war reparation . She was later broken up for scrap in 1921 .
Near the end of World War I , the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> handed over to the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs but Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was later transferred to Great Britain as a war reparation . She was later broken up for scrap in 1921 .
Near the end of World War I , the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships was handed over to the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs but Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was later transferred to Great Britain as a war reparation . She was later broken up for scrap in 1921 .
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= Ancient Egyptian deities =
= Ancient Egyptian deities =
= Ancient Egyptian deities =
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Ancient Egyptian deities are the gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient Egypt . The beliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed the core of ancient Egyptian religion , which emerged sometime in prehistory . Deities represented natural forces and phenomena , and the Egyptians supported and appeased them through offerings and rituals so that these forces would continue to function according to maat , or divine order . After the founding of the Egyptian state around 3100 BC , the authority to perform these tasks was controlled by the pharaoh , who claimed to be the gods ' representative and managed the temples where the rituals were carried out .
Ancient Egyptian deities <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>are</mark></a>the gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient Egypt . The beliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed the core of ancient Egyptian religion , which emerged sometime in prehistory . Deities represented natural forces and phenomena , and the Egyptians supported and appeased them through offerings and rituals so that these forces would continue to function according to maat , or divine order . After the founding of the Egyptian state around 3100 BC , the authority to perform these tasks was controlled by the pharaoh , <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>who</mark></a>claimed to be the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>representative and managed the temples where the rituals <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> carried out .
Ancient Egyptian deities the gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient Egypt . The beliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed da core of ancient Egyptian religion , which emerged sometime in prehistory . Deities represented natural forces and phenomena , and tdaEgyptians supported and appeased them through offerings and rituals soo that dem forces would continue to function according to maat , or divine order . After the founding of the Egyptian state around 3100 BC , the authority to perform thdeseasks was controlled by the pharaoh , claimed to b thdaods representative and managed the temples where the rituals was carried out .
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The gods ' complex characteristics were expressed in myths and in intricate relationships between deities : family ties , loose groups and hierarchies , and combinations of separate gods into one . Deities ' diverse appearances in art — as animals , humans , objects , and combinations of different forms — also alluded , through symbolism , to their essential features .
The gods <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'</mark></a>complex characteristics <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> expressed in myths and in intricate relationships between deities : family ties , loose groups and hierarchies , and combinations of separate gods into one . Deities <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>diverse appearances in art — as animals , humans , objects , and combinations of different forms — also alluded , through symbolism , to their essential features .
The gods complex characteristics was expressed in myths and in intricate relationships between deities : family ties , loose groups and hierarchies , and combinations of separate gods into one . Deities diverse appearances in art — as animals , humans , objects , and combinations of diff forms — also alluded , through symbolism , to their essential features .
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In different eras , various gods were said to hold the highest position in divine society , including the solar deity Ra , the mysterious god Amun , and the mother goddess Isis . The highest deity was usually credited with the creation of the world and often connected with the life @-@ giving power of the sun . Some scholars have argued , based in part on Egyptian writings , that the Egyptians came to recognize a single divine power that lay behind all things and was present in all the other deities . Yet they never abandoned their original polytheistic view of the world , except possibly during the era of Atenism in the 14th century BC , when official religion focused exclusively on the impersonal sun god Aten .
In different eras , various gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> said to hold the highest position in divine society , including the solar deity Ra , the mysterious god Amun , and the mother goddess Isis . The highest deity was usually credited with the creation of the world and often connected with the life @-@ giving power of the sun . Some scholars <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> argued , based in part on Egyptian writings , that the Egyptians came to recognize a single divine power <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>lay behind all things and was present in all the other deities . Yet they never abandoned their original polytheistic view of the world , except possibly during the era of Atenism in the 14th century BC , when official religion focused exclusively on the impersonal sun god Aten .
In different eras , various gods was said to hold the highest position in divine society , including the solar deity Ra , the mysterious god Amun , and the mother goddess Isis . The highest deity was usually credited with da creation of the world and often connected with tdalife @-@ giving power of the sun . Some scholars done argued , based in part on Egyptian writings , that the Egyptians came to recognize a single divine power lay behind alll things and was present in all the other deities . Yet they never abandoned their original polytheistic view of the world , except possibly durin the era of Atenism in thda4th century cus , when official religion focused exclusively on thedapersonal sun god Aten .
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Gods were assumed to be present throughout the world , capable of influencing natural events and the course of human lives . People interacted with them in temples and unofficial shrines , for personal reasons as well as for larger goals of state rites . Egyptians prayed for divine help , used rituals to compel deities to act , and called upon them for advice . Humans ' relations with their gods were a fundamental part of Egyptian society .
Gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> assumed to be present throughout the world , capable of influencing natural events and the course of human lives . People interacted with them in temples and unofficial shrines , for personal reasons as well as for larger goals of state rites . Egyptians prayed for divine help , used rituals to compel deities to act , and called upon them for advice . Humans <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'</mark></a>relations with their gods <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> a fundamental part of Egyptian society .
Gods was assumed to b present throughout da world , capable of influencing natural events and the course of human lives . ppl interacted with em in temples and unofficial shrines , for personal reasons as well as fir larger goals of state rites . Egyptians prayed for divine help , used rituals to compel deities to act , and called upon them for advice . Humans relations w their gods was a fundamental part of Egyptian society .
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= = Definition = =
= = Definition = =
= = Definition = =
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The beings in ancient Egyptian tradition who might be labeled as deities are difficult to count . Egyptian texts list the names of many deities whose nature is unknown and make vague , indirect references to other gods who are not even named . The Egyptologist James P. Allen estimates that more than 1 @,@ 400 deities are named in Egyptian texts , whereas his colleague Christian Leitz says there are " thousands upon thousands " of gods .
The beings in ancient Egyptian tradition <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>who</mark></a>might be labeled as deities <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>are</mark></a>difficult to count . Egyptian texts list the names of many deities whose nature <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>unknown and make vague , indirect references to other gods <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>who</mark></a>are not even named . The Egyptologist James P. Allen <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>estimates</mark></a> that more than 1 @,@ 400 deities are named in Egyptian texts , whereas his colleague Christian Leitz <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>says</mark></a> <a href='dey_it' title='7'><mark>there</mark></a> are " thousands upon thousands " of gods .
Da beings in ancient Egyptian tradition might be labeled as deities difficult to count . Egyptian txts list the names of many deities whose nature unknown and make vague , indirect references to other gods ain't even named . The Egyptologist James P. Allen estimate that more than 1 @,@ 400 deities are named in Egyptian ttxt, whereas his colleague Christian Leitz say it is " thousands upon thousands " of gods .
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The Egyptian language 's terms for these beings were nṯr , " god " , and its feminine form nṯrt , " goddess " . Scholars have tried to discern the original nature of the gods by proposing etymologies for these words , but none of these suggestions has gained acceptance , and the terms ' origin remains obscure . The hieroglyphs that were used as ideograms and determinatives in writing these words show some of the traits that the Egyptians connected with divinity . The most common of these signs is a flag flying from a pole . Similar objects were placed at the entrances of temples , representing the presence of a deity , throughout ancient Egyptian history . Other such hieroglyphs include a falcon , reminiscent of several early gods who were depicted as falcons , and a seated male or female deity . The feminine form could also be written with an egg as determinative , connecting goddesses with creation and birth , or with a cobra , reflecting the use of the cobra to depict many female deities .
The Egyptian language <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>terms for these beings <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> nṯr , " god " , and its feminine form nṯrt , " goddess " . Scholars <a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>have</mark></a> tried to discern the original nature of the gods by proposing etymologies for these words , but <a href='negative_inversion' title='4'><mark>none</mark></a> of these suggestions <a href='been_done' title='5'><mark>has</mark></a> gained <a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>acceptance</mark></a> , and the terms <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'</mark></a>origin <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>remains</mark></a> obscure . The hieroglyphs <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>were</mark></a> used as ideograms and determinatives in writing these words show some of the traits <a href='null_relcl' title='11'><mark>that</mark></a>the Egyptians connected with divinity . The most common of these signs <a href='drop_aux' title='12'><mark>is</mark></a>a flag flying from a pole . Similar objects <a href='uninflect' title='13'><mark>were</mark></a> placed at the entrances of temples , representing the presence of a deity , throughout ancient Egyptian history . Other such hieroglyphs include a falcon , reminiscent of several early gods <a href='null_relcl' title='14'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='15'><mark>were</mark></a> depicted as falcons , and a seated male or female deity . The feminine form could also be written with an egg as determinative , connecting goddesses with creation and birth , or with a cobra , reflecting the use of the cobra to depict many female deities .
Da Egyptian language terms fa dese beings was nṯr , " god " , and its feminine form nṯrt , " goddess " . Scholars done tried to discern the original nature of tdagods by proposing etymologies for these words , but ain't none of tdesesuggestions done gained no acceptance , and the terms origin remain obscure . The hieroglyphs was used as ideograms and determinatives in writing these words show some of the traits thdagyptians connected with divinity . Thedast common of these signs a flag flyin from a pole . Similar objects was placed at the entrances of temples , reppin the presence of a deity , throughout ancient Egyptian history . Other such hieroglyphs include a falcon , reminiscent of several early gods was depicted as falcons , and a seated male or female deity . The dainine form could also be written with an egg as determinative , connecting goddesses with creation and birth , or wit a cobra , reflecting the udaof the cobra to depict many female deities .
0
2
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1
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13
1
1
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3
29
6
The Egyptians distinguished nṯrw , " gods " , from rmṯ , " people " , but the meanings of the Egyptian and the English terms do not match perfectly . The term nṯr may have applied to any being that was in some way outside the sphere of everyday life . Deceased humans were called nṯr because they were considered to be like the gods , whereas the term was rarely applied to many of Egypt 's lesser supernatural beings , which modern scholars often call " demons " . Egyptian religious art also depicts places , objects , and concepts in human form . These personified ideas range from deities that were important in myth and ritual to obscure beings , only mentioned once or twice , that may be little more than metaphors .
The Egyptians distinguished nṯrw , " gods " , from rmṯ , " people " , but the meanings of the Egyptian and the English terms do not match perfectly . The term nṯr may <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> applied to any being <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>that</mark></a>was in some way outside the sphere of everyday life . Deceased humans <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> called nṯr because they <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> considered to be like the gods , whereas the term was rarely applied to many of Egypt <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'s</mark></a>lesser supernatural beings , which modern scholars often call " demons " . Egyptian religious art also <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>depicts</mark></a> places , objects , and concepts in human form . These personified ideas range from deities <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> important in myth and ritual to obscure beings , only mentioned once or twice , that may be little more than metaphors .
Da Egyptians distinguished nṯrw , " gods " , from rmṯ , " people " , but the meanings of the Egyptian and the English terms do not match perfectly . The term nṯr may done applied to any bein was in sum way outside the sphere of everyday life . Deceased humans was called nṯr because they was considered to be like tdagods , whereas the term was rarely applied to many of Egypt lesser supernatural beings , which modern scholars often call " demons " . Egyptian religious art also depict places , objects , and concepts in human form . These personified ideas range from deities was important in myth and ritual to obscure beings , only mentioned once or twice , that may be little more than metaphors .
0
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1
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12
4
Confronting these blurred distinctions between gods and other beings , scholars have proposed various definitions of a " deity " . One widely accepted definition , suggested by Jan Assmann , says that a deity has a cult , is involved in some aspect of the universe , and is described in mythology or other forms of written tradition . According to a different definition , by Dimitri Meeks , nṯr applied to any being that was the focus of ritual . From this perspective , " gods " included the king , who was called a god after his coronation rites , and deceased souls , who entered the divine realm through funeral ceremonies . Likewise , the preeminence of the great gods was maintained by the ritual devotion that was performed for them across Egypt .
Confronting these blurred distinctions between gods and other beings , scholars <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> proposed various definitions of a " deity " . One widely accepted definition , suggested by Jan Assmann , <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>says</mark></a> that a deity <a href='got' title='3'><mark>has</mark></a> a cult , is involved in some aspect of the universe , and is described in mythology or other forms of written tradition . According to a different definition , by Dimitri Meeks , nṯr applied to <a href='None' title='4'><mark>any</mark></a><a href='negative_concord' title='5'><mark>being</mark></a> <a href='null_relcl' title='6'><mark>that</mark></a>was the focus of ritual . From this perspective , " gods " included the king , <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>who</mark></a>was called a god after his coronation rites , and deceased souls , <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>who</mark></a>entered the divine realm through funeral ceremonies . Likewise , the preeminence of the great gods was maintained by the ritual devotion <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>that</mark></a>was performed for them across Egypt .
Confronting dese blurred distinctions between gods and other beings , scholars done proposed various definitions of a " deity " . One widely accepted definition , suggested by Jan Assmann , say dat a deity got a cult , is involved in sum aspect of the universe , and is described in mythology or other forms of written tradition . According to a different definition , by Dimitri Meeks , nṯr applied to no being was the focus of ritual . From this perspective , " gods " included the king , was called a god after his coronation rites , and deceased souls , entered the divine realm thru funeral ceremonies . Likewise , the preeminence of da great gods was maintained by the ritual devotion was performed for em across Egypt .
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1
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15
2
= = Origins = =
= = Origins = =
= = Origins = =
0
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0
0
The first written evidence of deities in Egypt comes from the Early Dynastic Period ( c . 3100 – 2686 BC ) . Deities must have emerged sometime in the preceding Predynastic Period ( before 3100 BC ) and grown out of prehistoric religious beliefs . Predynastic artwork depicts a variety of animal and human figures . Some of these images , such as stars and cattle , are reminiscent of important features of Egyptian religion in later times , but in most cases there is not enough evidence to say whether the images are connected with deities . As Egyptian society grew more sophisticated , clearer signs of religious activity appeared . The earliest known temples appeared in the last centuries of the predynastic era , along with images that resemble the iconographies of known deities : the falcon that represents Horus and several other gods , the crossed arrows that stand for Neith , and the enigmatic " Set animal " that represents Set .
The first written evidence of deities in Egypt <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>comes</mark></a> from the Early Dynastic Period ( c . 3100 – 2686 BC ) . Deities must <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> emerged sometime in the preceding Predynastic Period ( before 3100 BC ) and grown out of prehistoric religious beliefs . Predynastic artwork <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>depicts</mark></a> a variety of animal and human figures . Some of these images , such as stars and cattle , <a href='drop_aux' title='4'><mark>are</mark></a>reminiscent of important features of Egyptian religion in later times , but in most cases <a href='dey_it' title='5'><mark>there</mark></a> <a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>is</mark></a> <a href='negative_concord' title='7'><mark>not</mark></a>enough evidence to say whether the images are connected with deities . As Egyptian society grew more sophisticated , clearer signs of religious activity appeared . The earliest known temples appeared in the last centuries of the predynastic era , along with images <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>resemble the iconographies of known deities : the falcon <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>represents</mark></a> Horus and several other gods , the crossed arrows <a href='null_relcl' title='11'><mark>that</mark></a>stand for Neith , and the enigmatic " Set animal " <a href='null_relcl' title='12'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='13'><mark>represents</mark></a> Set .
The first written evidence of deities in Egypt come from da Early Dynastic Period ( c . 3100 – 2686 cus ) . Deities must done emerged sometime in the preceding Predynastic Period ( b4 3100 BC ) and grown outt of prehistoric religious beliefs . Predynastic artwork depict a variety of animal and human figures . sum of these images , such as stars and cattle , reminiscent of important features of Egyptian religion in later times , but in most cases it ain't enough evidence to say whether the images r connected with deities . As Egyptian society grew more sophisticated , clearer signs of religious activity appeared . The earliest known temples appeared in the last centuries of the predynastic era , along with images resemble the iconographies of known deities : the falcon represent Horus and several other gods , tdacrossed arrows stand for Neith , and the enigmatic " Set animal " represent Set .
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1
0
7
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4
20
4
Many Egyptologists and anthropologists have suggested theories about how the gods developed in these early times . Gustave Jéquier , for instance , thought the Egyptians first revered primitive fetishes , then deities in animal form , and finally deities in human form , whereas Henri Frankfort argued that the gods must have been envisioned in human form from the beginning . Some of these theories are now regarded as too simplistic , and more current ones , such as Siegfried Morenz ' hypothesis that deities emerged as humans began to distinguish themselves from and personify their environment , are difficult to prove .
Many Egyptologists and anthropologists <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> suggested theories about how the gods developed in these early times . Gustave Jéquier , for instance , thought the Egyptians first revered primitive fetishes , then deities in animal form , and finally deities in human form , whereas Henri Frankfort argued that the gods must <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> been envisioned in human form from the beginning . Some of these theories are now regarded as too simplistic , and more current ones , such as Siegfried Morenz <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>hypothesis that deities emerged as humans began to distinguish themselves from and personify their environment , <a href='drop_aux' title='4'><mark>are</mark></a>difficult to prove .
Many Egyptologists and anthropologists done suggested theories about how the gods developed in dese early times . Gustave Jéquier , for instance , thought da Egyptians first revered primitive fetishes , then deities in animal form , and finally deities in human form , whereas Henri Frankfort argued dat tdagods must done been envisioned in human form from thdaeginning . sum of tdemtheories r now regarded as too simplistic , and more current ones , such as Siegfried Morenz hypothesis tdatdeities emerged as humans began to distinguish themselves from and personify their environment , difficult to prove .
0
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1
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Predynastic Egypt originally consisted of small , independent villages . Because many deities in later times were strongly tied to particular towns and regions , many scholars have suggested that the pantheon formed as disparate communities coalesced into larger states , spreading and intermingling the worship of the old local deities . But others have argued that the most important predynastic gods were , like other elements of Egyptian culture , present all across the country despite the political divisions within it .
Predynastic Egypt originally consisted of small , independent villages . Because many deities in later times <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> strongly tied to particular towns and regions , many scholars <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> suggested that the pantheon formed as disparate communities coalesced into larger states , spreading and intermingling the worship of the old local deities . But others <a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>have</mark></a> argued that the most important predynastic gods <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> , like other elements of Egyptian culture , present all across the country despite the political divisions within it .
Predynastic Egypt originally consisted of small , independent villages . becuz many deities in later times was strongly tied to particular towns and regions , many scholars done suggested that da pantheon formed as disparate communities coalesced into larger states , spreading and intermingling tdaworship of the old local deities . But others done argued dat the most important predynastic gods was , like other elements of Egyptian culture , present all across thdaountry despite the political divisions within it .
0
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5
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9
2
The final step in the formation of Egyptian religion was the unification of Egypt , in which rulers from Upper Egypt made themselves pharaohs of the entire country . These sacred kings and their subordinates assumed the exclusive right to interact with the gods , and kingship became the unifying focus of the religion .
The final step in the formation of Egyptian religion was the unification of Egypt , in which rulers from Upper Egypt made themselves pharaohs of the entire country . These sacred kings and their subordinates assumed the exclusive right to interact with the gods , and kingship became the unifying focus of the religion .
The final step in the formation of Egyptian religion was the unification of Egypt , in which rulers from Upper Egypt made themselves pharaohs of the entire country . dese sacred kings and their subordinates assumed da exclusive rite to interact with the gods , and kingship became the unifying focus of the religion .
0
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0
3
0
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3
0
New gods continued to emerge after this transformation . Some important deities like Isis and Amun are not known to have appeared until the Old Kingdom ( c . 2686 – 2181 BC ) . Places and concepts could suddenly inspire the creation of a deity to represent them , and deities were sometimes created to serve as opposite @-@ sex counterparts to established gods or goddesses . Kings were said to be divine , although only a few continued to be worshipped long after their deaths . Some non @-@ royal humans were said to have the favor of the gods and were venerated accordingly . This veneration was usually short @-@ lived , but the court architects Imhotep and Amenhotep son of Hapu were regarded as gods centuries after their lifetimes , as were some other officials .
New gods continued to emerge after this transformation . Some important deities like Isis and Amun are not known to <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> appeared until the Old Kingdom ( c . 2686 – 2181 BC ) . Places and concepts could suddenly inspire the creation of a deity to represent them , and deities <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> sometimes created to serve as opposite @-@ sex counterparts to established gods or goddesses . Kings <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> said to be divine , although only a few continued to be worshipped long after their deaths . Some non @-@ royal humans <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> said to have the favor of the gods and <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> venerated accordingly . This veneration was usually short @-@ lived , but the court architects Imhotep and Amenhotep son of Hapu <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> regarded as gods centuries after their lifetimes , as <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> some other officials .
New gods continued to emerge after this transformation . Some important deities like Isis and Amun ain't known to done appeared till da Old Kingdom ( c . 2686 – 2181 BC ) . Places and concepts could suddenly inspire the creation of a deity to represent em , and deities was sometimes created to serve as opposite @-@ sex counterparts to established gods or goddesses . Kings was said to b divine , although only a few continued to be worshipped long after their deaths . sum non @-@ royal humans was said to have tdafavor of the gods and was venerated accordingly . This veneration was usually short @-@ lived , but thdaourt architects Imhotep and Amenhotep son of Hapu was regarded as gods centuries after their lifetimes , as was ssumother officials .
0
1
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0
9
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16
6
Through contact with neighboring civilizations , the Egyptians also adopted foreign deities . Dedun , who is first mentioned in the Old Kingdom , may have come from Nubia , and Baal , Anat , and Astarte , among others , were adopted from Canaanite religion during the New Kingdom ( c . 1550 – 1070 BC ) . In Greek and Roman times , from 332 BC to the early centuries AD , deities from across the Mediterranean world were revered in Egypt , but the native gods remained , and they often absorbed the cults of these newcomers into their own worship .
Through contact with neighboring civilizations , the Egyptians also adopted foreign deities . Dedun , <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>who</mark></a>is first mentioned in the Old Kingdom , may <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> come from Nubia , and Baal , Anat , and Astarte , among others , <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> adopted from Canaanite religion during the New Kingdom ( c . 1550 – 1070 BC ) . In Greek and Roman times , from 332 BC to the early centuries AD , deities from across the Mediterranean world <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> revered in Egypt , but the native gods remained , and they often absorbed the cults of these newcomers into their own worship .
Through contact with neighboring civilizations , the Egyptians also adopted foreign deities . Dedun , is first mentioned in da Old Kingdom , may done come from Nubia , and Baal , Anat , and Astarte , among others , was adopted from Canaanite religion during tdaNew Kingdom ( c . 1550 – 1070 BC ) . In Greek and Roman times , from 332 cuz to the early centuries AD , deities from across thdaediterranean world was revered in Egypt , but the native gods remained , and they often absorbed the cults of these newcomers into their own worship .
0
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1
8
2
= = Characteristics = =
= = Characteristics = =
= = Characteristics = =
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0
Modern knowledge of Egyptian beliefs about the gods is mostly drawn from religious writings produced by the nation 's scribes and priests . These people were the elite of Egyptian society and were very distinct from the general populace , most of whom were illiterate . Little is known about how well this broader population knew or understood the sophisticated ideas that the elite developed . Commoners ' perceptions of the divine may have differed from those of the priests . The populace may , for example , have mistaken the religion 's symbolic statements about the gods and their actions for literal truth . But overall , what little is known about popular religious belief is consistent with the elite tradition . The two traditions form a largely cohesive vision of the gods and their nature .
Modern knowledge of Egyptian beliefs about the gods is mostly drawn from religious writings produced by the nation <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>scribes and priests . These people <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> the elite of Egyptian society and <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> very distinct from the general populace , most of whom <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> illiterate . Little is known about how well this broader population knew or understood the sophisticated ideas <a href='null_relcl' title='5'><mark>that</mark></a>the elite developed . Commoners <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'</mark></a>perceptions of the divine may <a href='been_done' title='7'><mark>have</mark></a> differed from those of the priests . The populace may , for example , <a href='been_done' title='8'><mark>have</mark></a> mistaken the religion <a href='null_genetive' title='9'><mark>'s</mark></a>symbolic statements about the gods and their actions for literal truth . But overall , what little is known about popular religious belief <a href='drop_aux' title='10'><mark>is</mark></a>consistent with the elite tradition . The two traditions form a largely cohesive vision of the gods and their nature .
Modern knowledge of Egyptian beliefs abt the gods is mostly drawn from religious writings produced by the nation scribes and priests . dese people was da elite of Egyptian society and was very distinct from tdageneral populace , most of whom was illiterate . lil is known abboutow well this broader population knew or understood the sophisticated ideas thdalite developed . Commoners perceptions of thedavine may done differed from those of the daests . The populace may , fa example , done mistaken the religion symbolic statements about the gda and their actions for literal truth . But overall , what litlil known about popular religious belief consistent witt the elite tradition . The twdaraditions form a largely cohesive vision of the gods and their nature .
0
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14
0
0
3
1
24
3
= = = Roles = = =
= = = Roles = = =
= = = Roles = = =
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Most Egyptian deities represent natural or social phenomena . The gods were generally said to be immanent in these phenomena — to be present within nature . The types of phenomena they represented include physical places and objects as well as abstract concepts and forces . The god Shu was the deification of all the world 's air ; the goddess Meretseger oversaw a limited region of the earth , the Theban Necropolis ; and the god Sia personified the abstract notion of perception . Major gods often had many roles and were involved in several types of phenomena . For instance , Khnum was the god of Elephantine Island in the midst of the Nile , the river that was essential to Egyptian civilization . He was credited with producing the annual Nile flood that fertilized the nation 's farmland . Perhaps as an outgrowth of this life @-@ giving function , he was said to create all living things , fashioning their bodies on a potter 's wheel . Gods could share the same role in nature ; Ra , Atum , Khepri , Horus , and other deities acted as sun gods . Despite their diverse functions , most gods had an overarching role in common : maintaining maat , the universal order that was a central principle of Egyptian religion and was itself personified as a goddess . But some deities represented disruption to maat . Most prominently , Apep was the force of chaos , constantly threatening to annihilate the order of the universe , and Set was an ambivalent member of divine society who could both fight disorder and foment it .
Most Egyptian deities represent natural or social phenomena . The gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> generally said to be immanent in these phenomena — to be present within nature . The types of phenomena they represented include physical places and objects as well as abstract concepts and forces . The god Shu was the deification of all the world <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>air ; the goddess Meretseger oversaw a limited region of the earth , the Theban Necropolis ; and the god Sia personified the abstract notion of perception . Major gods often had many roles and <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> involved in several types of phenomena . For instance , Khnum was the god of Elephantine Island in the midst of the Nile , the river <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a>was essential to Egyptian civilization . He was credited with producing the annual Nile flood <a href='null_relcl' title='5'><mark>that</mark></a>fertilized the nation <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'s</mark></a>farmland . Perhaps as an outgrowth of this life @-@ giving function , he was said to create all living things , fashioning their bodies on a potter <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'s</mark></a>wheel . Gods could share the same role in nature ; Ra , Atum , Khepri , Horus , and other deities acted as sun gods . Despite their diverse functions , most gods had an overarching role in common : maintaining maat , the universal order <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>was a central principle of Egyptian religion and was itself personified as a goddess . But some deities represented disruption to maat . Most prominently , Apep was the force of chaos , constantly threatening to annihilate the order of the universe , and Set was an ambivalent member of divine society <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>who</mark></a>could both fight disorder and foment it .
Most Egyptian deities represent natural or social phenomena . The gods was generally said to be immanent in these phenomena — to be present within nature . da types of phenomena they represented include physical places and objects as well as abstract concepts and forces . The god Shu was the deification of alll the world air ; the goddess Meretseger oversaw a limited region of tdaearth , the Theban Necropolis ; and thdaod Sia personified the abstract notion of perception . Major gods often had many roles and was involved in several types of phenomena . fa instance , Khnum was the god of Elephantine Island in the midst of the Nile , the river was essential to Egyptian civilization . He was credited with producing the annual Nile flood fertilized thedation farmland . Perhaps as an outgrowth of this life @-@ giving function , he was said to create all living things , fashioning their bodies on a potter wheel . Gods could share the same role in nature ; Ra , Atum , Khepri , Horus , and other deities acted as sun gods . Despite their diverse functions , most gods had an overarching role in common : maintaining maat , the universal order was a central principle of Egyptian religion and was itself personified as a goddess . But sum deities represented disruption to maat . Most prominently , Apep was the dace of chaos , constantly threatening to annihilate the odar of the universe , and Set was an ambivalent member of divine society could both fight disorder and foment it .
0
0
0
0
0
9
0
0
3
4
18
2
Not all aspects of existence were seen as deities . Although many deities were connected with the Nile , no god personified it in the way that Ra personified the sun . Short @-@ lived phenomena , like rainbows or eclipses , were not represented by gods ; neither were elements like fire and water or many other components of the world .
Not all aspects of existence <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> seen as deities . Although many deities <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> connected with the Nile , no god personified it in the way <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>Ra personified the sun . Short @-@ lived phenomena , like rainbows or eclipses , <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> not represented by gods ; neither <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> elements like fire and water or many other components of the world .
Not all aspects of existence was seen as deities . Although many deities was connected wit da Nile , no god personified it in the way Ra personified tdasun . Short @-@ lived phenomena , like rainbows or eclipses , was not represented by gods ; neither was elements like fire and water or many other components of the world .
0
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4
The roles of each deity were fluid , and each god could expand its nature to take on new characteristics . As a result , gods ' roles are difficult to categorize or define . But despite their flexibility , the gods had limited abilities and spheres of influence . Not even the creator god could reach beyond the boundaries of the cosmos that he created , and even Isis , though she was said to be the cleverest of the gods , was not omniscient . Richard H. Wilkinson , however , argues that some texts from the late New Kingdom suggest that , as beliefs about the god Amun evolved , he was thought to approach omniscience and omnipresence and to transcend the limits of the world in a way that other deities did not .
The roles of each deity <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> fluid , and each god could expand its nature to take on new characteristics . As a result , gods <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'</mark></a>roles <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>are</mark></a>difficult to categorize or define . But despite their flexibility , the gods had limited abilities and spheres of influence . Not even the creator god could reach beyond the boundaries of the cosmos <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a>he created , and even Isis , though she was said to be the cleverest of the gods , <a href='negative_concord' title='5'><mark>was</mark></a> <a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>not</mark></a>omniscient . Richard H. Wilkinson , however , <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>argues</mark></a> that some texts from the late New Kingdom suggest that , as beliefs about the god Amun evolved , he was thought to approach omniscience and omnipresence and to transcend the limits of the world in a way <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>other deities did not .
The roles of each deity was fluid , and each god could expand its nature to take on new characteristics . As a result , gods roles difficult to categorize or define . But despite their flexibility , da gods had limited abilities and spheres of influence . Not even the creator god could reach beyond tdaboundaries of thdaosmos he created , and even Isis , doe she was said to b thedaeverest of the das , ain't omniscient . Richard H. Wilkinson , however , argue dat sum texts from the late New Kingdom suggest that , as beliefs about the god Amun evolved , he was thought to approach omniscience and omnipresence and to transcend the ldats of the world in a way other deities did not .
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2
The deities with the most limited and specialized domains are often called " minor divinities " or " demons " in modern writing , although there is no firm definition for these terms . Among these lesser deities , Egyptologist Claude Traunecker draws a distinction between " genies " — specialized patron spirits of certain places , objects , or activities , such as the sea or marsh god Wadj @-@ Wer and the harvest goddess Renenutet — and demons , who have a more dangerous character . Many demons are hostile , causing illness and other troubles among humans . Their power can also be protective ; they may guard certain places in the Duat , the realm of the dead , or advise and watch over humans . Egyptians believed the landscape was full of these unpredictable divine powers . Demons often act as servants and messengers to the greater gods , but their position in the hierarchy is not fixed . The protective deities Bes and Taweret originally had minor , demon @-@ like roles , but over time they came to be credited with great influence .
The deities with the most limited and specialized domains are often called " minor divinities " or " demons " in modern writing , although <a href='dey_it' title='1'><mark>there</mark></a> is no firm definition for these terms . Among these lesser deities , Egyptologist Claude Traunecker <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>draws</mark></a> a distinction between " genies " — specialized patron spirits of certain places , objects , or activities , such as the sea or marsh god Wadj @-@ Wer and the harvest goddess Renenutet — and demons , <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='got' title='4'><mark>have</mark></a> a more dangerous character . Many demons <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>are</mark></a>hostile , causing illness and other troubles among humans . Their power can also be protective ; they may guard certain places in the Duat , the realm of the dead , or advise and watch over humans . Egyptians believed the landscape was full of these unpredictable divine powers . Demons often act as servants and messengers to the greater gods , but their position in the hierarchy is not fixed . The protective deities Bes and Taweret originally had minor , demon @-@ like roles , but over time they came to be credited with great influence .
The deities with the most limited and specialized domains are often called " minor divinities " or " demons " in modern writing , although it ain't no firm definition fir these terms . Among these lesser deities , Egyptologist Claude Traunecker draw a distinction between " genies " — specialized patron spirits of certain places , objects , or activities , such as da sea or marsh god Wadj @-@ Wer and tdaharvest goddess Renenutet — and demons , got a more dangerous character . Many demons hostile , causing illness and other troubles among humans . Their power can also be protective ; they may guard certain places in thdauat , thedaalm of the dad , or advise and watch over humans . Egyptians believed the landscape was full of these unpredictable divine powers . Demons often act as servants and messengers to the greater gods , but their position in the hierarchy ain't fixed . The protective deities Bes and Taweret originally had minor , demon @-@ like roles , but over time they came to be credited with great influence .
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1
= = = Behavior = = =
= = = Behavior = = =
= = = Behavior = = =
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Divine behavior was believed to govern all of nature . Except for the few deities who disrupted the divine order , the gods ' actions maintained maat and created and sustained all living things . They did this work using a force the Egyptians called heka , a term usually translated as " magic " . Heka was a fundamental power that the creator god used to form the world and the gods themselves .
Divine behavior was believed to govern all of nature . Except for the few deities <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>who</mark></a>disrupted the divine order , the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'</mark></a>actions maintained maat and created and sustained all living things . They<a href='been_done' title='3'><mark></mark></a> did this work using a force the Egyptians called heka , a term usually translated as " magic " . Heka was a fundamental power that the creator god used to form the world and the gods themselves .
Divine behavior was believed to govern all of nature . Except fir the few deities disrupted da divine order , tdagods actions maintained maat and created and sustained alll livin things . They been did this work using a force thdagyptians called heka , a term usually translated as " magic " . Heka was a fundamental power that thedaeator god used to form the world and the das themselves .
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8
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The gods ' actions in the present are described and praised in hymns and funerary texts . In contrast , mythology mainly concerns the gods ' actions during a vaguely imagined past in which the gods were present on earth and interacted directly with humans . The events of this past time set the pattern for the events of the present . Periodic occurrences were tied to events in the mythic past ; the succession of each new pharaoh , for instance , reenacted Horus ' accession to the throne of his father Osiris . Myths are metaphors for the gods ' actions , which humans cannot fully understand . They contain seemingly contradictory ideas , each expressing a particular perspective on divine events . The contradictions in myth are part of the Egyptians ' many @-@ faceted approach to religious belief — what Henri Frankfort called a " multiplicity of approaches " to understanding the gods .
The gods <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'</mark></a>actions in the present are described and praised in hymns and funerary texts . In contrast , mythology mainly <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>concerns</mark></a> the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>actions during a vaguely imagined past in which the gods <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> present on earth and interacted directly with humans . The events of this past time set the pattern for the events of the present . Periodic occurrences <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> tied to events in the mythic past ; the succession of each new pharaoh , for instance , reenacted Horus <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'</mark></a>accession to the throne of his father Osiris . Myths <a href='drop_aux' title='7'><mark>are</mark></a>metaphors for the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='8'><mark>'</mark></a>actions , which humans cannot fully understand . They contain seemingly contradictory ideas , each expressing a particular perspective on divine events . The contradictions in myth <a href='drop_aux' title='9'><mark>are</mark></a>part of the Egyptians <a href='null_genetive' title='10'><mark>'</mark></a>many @-@ faceted approach to religious belief — what Henri Frankfort called a " multiplicity of approaches " to understanding the gods .
The gods actions in the present r described and praised in hymns and funerary texts . In contrast , mythology mainly concern da gods actions during a vaguely imagined past in which tdagods was present on earth and interacted directly with humans . The events of dis past time set the pattern for the events of thdaresent . Periodic occurrences was tied to events in the mythic past ; thedaccession of each new pharaoh , fa instance , reenacted Horus accession to the daone of his father Osiris . Myths metaphors for the gods actions , which humans cannot fully understand . They contain seemingly contradictory ideas , each expressing a particular perspective on divine events . The contradictions in myth part of the Edatians many @-@ faceted approach to religious belief — what Henri Frankfort called a " multiplicity of approaches " to understanding the gods .
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9
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In myth , the gods behave much like humans . They feel emotion ; they can eat , drink , fight , weep , sicken , and die . Some have unique character traits . Set is aggressive and impulsive , and Thoth , patron of writing and knowledge , is prone to long @-@ winded speeches . Yet overall , the gods are more like archetypes than well drawn characters . Their behavior is inconsistent , and their thoughts and motivations are rarely stated . Most myths about them lack highly developed characters and plots , because the symbolic meaning of the myths was more important than elaborate storytelling .
In myth , the gods behave much like humans . They feel emotion ; they can eat , drink , fight , weep , sicken , and die . Some <a href='got' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> unique character traits . Set <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>is</mark></a>aggressive and impulsive , and Thoth , patron of writing and knowledge , <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>prone to long @-@ winded speeches . Yet overall , the gods <a href='drop_aux' title='4'><mark>are</mark></a>more like archetypes than well drawn characters . Their behavior <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>is</mark></a>inconsistent , and their thoughts and motivations are rarely stated . Most myths about them lack highly developed characters and plots , because the symbolic meaning of the myths was more important than elaborate storytelling .
In myth , da gods behave much like humans . They feel emotion ; they can eat , drink , fight , weep , sicken , and die . sum got unique character traits . Set aggressive and impulsive , and Thoth , patron of writing and knowledge , prone to long @-@ winded speeches . Yet overall , the gods more like archetypes than well drawn characters . Their behavior inconsistent , and their thoughts and motivations are rarely stated . Most myths bout em lack highly developed characters and plots , because the symbolic meaning of the myths was more important den elaborate storytelling .
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The first divine act is the creation of the cosmos , described in several creation myths . They focus on different gods , each of which may act as creator deities . The eight gods of the Ogdoad , who represent the chaos that precedes creation , give birth to the sun god , who establishes order in the newly formed world ; Ptah , who embodies thought and creativity , gives form to all things by envisioning and naming them ; Atum produces all things as emanations of himself ; and Amun , according to the myths promoted by his priesthood , preceded and created the other creator gods . These and other versions of the events of creation were not seen as contradictory . Each gives a different perspective on the complex process by which the organized universe and its many deities emerged from undifferentiated chaos . The period following creation , in which a series of gods rule as kings over the divine society , is the setting for most myths . The gods struggle against the forces of chaos and among each other before withdrawing from the human world and installing the historical kings of Egypt to rule in their place .
The first divine act <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>the creation of the cosmos , described in several creation myths . They focus on different gods , each of which may act as creator deities . The eight gods of the Ogdoad , <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>who</mark></a>represent the chaos <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>precedes</mark></a> creation , give birth to the sun god , <a href='null_relcl' title='5'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>establishes</mark></a> order in the newly formed world ; Ptah , <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>embodies</mark></a> thought and creativity , <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>gives</mark></a> form to all things by envisioning and naming them ; Atum <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>produces</mark></a> all things as emanations of himself ; and Amun , according to the myths promoted by his priesthood , preceded and created the other creator gods . These and other versions of the events of creation <a href='uninflect' title='11'><mark>were</mark></a> not seen as contradictory . Each <a href='uninflect' title='12'><mark>gives</mark></a> a different perspective on the complex process by which the organized universe and its many deities emerged from undifferentiated chaos . The period following creation , in which a series of gods rule as kings over the divine society , <a href='drop_aux' title='13'><mark>is</mark></a>the setting for most myths . The gods struggle against the forces of chaos and among each other before withdrawing from the human world and installing the historical kings of Egypt to rule in their place .
Da first divine act the creation of tdacosmos , described in several creation myths . They focus on different gods , each of which may act as creator deities . The eight gods of thdagdoad , represent the chaos precede creation , give birth to the sun god , establish order in the newly formed world ; Ptah , embody thought and creativity , give form to all things by envisioning and naming em ; Atum produce all things as emanations of himself ; and Amun , according to the myths promoted by his priesthood , preceded and created the other creator gods . These and other versions of the events of creation was not seen as contradictory . Each give a different perspective on thedamplex process by which the daanized universe and its many deities emerged from undifferentiated chaos . The period following creation , in which a series of gods rule as kings over the ddane society , the sedang fir most myths . The goddatruggle against the forcdaof chaos and among each other before withdrawing from the humandarld and installing the histordal kings of Egypt to rule in their place .
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A recurring theme in these myths is the effort of the gods to maintain maat against the forces of disorder . They fight vicious battles with the forces of chaos at the start of creation . Ra and Apep , battling each other each night , continue this struggle into the present . Another prominent theme is the gods ' death and revival . The clearest instance where a god dies is the myth of Osiris ' murder , in which that god is resurrected as ruler of the Duat . The sun god is also said to grow old during his daily journey across the sky , sink into the Duat at night , and emerge as a young child at dawn . In the process he comes into contact with the rejuvenating water of primordial chaos . Funerary texts that depict Ra 's journey through the Duat also show the corpses of gods who are enlivened along with him . Instead of being changelessly immortal , the gods periodically died and were reborn by repeating the events of creation , thus renewing the whole world . But it was always possible for this cycle to be disrupted and for chaos to return . Some poorly understood Egyptian texts even suggest that this calamity is destined to happen — that the creator god will one day dissolve the order of the world , leaving only himself and Osiris amid the primordial chaos .
A recurring theme in these myths <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>the effort of the gods to maintain maat against the forces of disorder . They fight vicious battles with the forces of chaos at the start of creation . Ra and Apep , battling each other each night , continue this struggle into the present . Another prominent theme <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>is</mark></a>the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>death and revival . The clearest instance where a god <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>dies</mark></a> <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>is</mark></a>the myth of Osiris <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'</mark></a>murder , in which that god is resurrected as ruler of the Duat . The sun god is also said to grow old during his daily journey across the sky , sink into the Duat at night , and emerge as a young child at dawn . In the process he <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>comes</mark></a> into contact with the rejuvenating water of primordial chaos . Funerary texts <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>depict Ra <a href='null_genetive' title='9'><mark>'s</mark></a>journey through the Duat also show the corpses of gods <a href='null_relcl' title='10'><mark>who</mark></a>are enlivened along with him . Instead of being changelessly immortal , the gods periodically died and <a href='uninflect' title='11'><mark>were</mark></a> reborn by repeating the events of creation , thus renewing the whole world . But it was always possible for this cycle to be disrupted and for chaos to return . Some poorly understood Egyptian texts even suggest that this calamity is destined to happen — that the creator god will one day dissolve the order of the world , leaving only himself and Osiris amid the primordial chaos .
A recurring theme in dese myths the effort of da gods to maintain maat against the forces of disorder . They fight vicious battles with the forces of chaos at the start of creation . Ra and Apep , battling each other each night , continue this struggle into tdapresent . anotha prominent theme the gods death and revival . Thdalearest instance where a god die thedath of Osiris murder , in which that god is resurrected as ruler of the dat . The sun god is also said to grow old during his daily journey across the sda, sink into the Dudaat night , and emerge as a young child at dawn . In the prodas he come into contact w the rejuvenating water of primordial chaos . Funerary txt depict Ra journey thru the Duat also show the corpses of gods r enlivened along with em . Instead of bein changelessly immortal , the godsdariodically died and was reborn by repeating the events of creation , thus renewing the wholedarld . But it was always possible fir dis cycle to be disrupted and fir chaos to return . Some poorly understood Egyptian texts even suggest dat tdiscalamity is destined to happen — that the creatodaod will one day dissolve the order of the world ,daaving only himself and Osiris amid the primordial chaos .
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= = = Locations = = =
= = = Locations = = =
= = = Locations = = =
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Gods were linked with specific regions of the universe . In Egyptian tradition , the world includes the earth , the sky , and the Duat . Surrounding them is the dark formlessness that existed before creation . The gods in general were said to dwell in the sky , although gods whose roles were linked with other parts of the universe were said to live in those places instead . Most events of mythology , set in a time before the gods ' withdrawal from the human realm , take place in an earthly setting . The deities there sometimes interact with those in the sky . The Duat , in contrast , is treated as a remote and inaccessible place , and the gods who dwell there have difficulty communicating with those in the world of the living . The space outside the cosmos is also said to be very distant . It too is inhabited by deities , some hostile and some beneficial to the other gods and their orderly world .
Gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> linked with specific regions of the universe . In Egyptian tradition , the world <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>includes</mark></a> the earth , the sky , and the Duat . Surrounding them <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>the dark formlessness <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a>existed before creation . The gods in general <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> said to dwell in the sky , although gods whose roles <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> linked with other parts of the universe <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> said to live in those places instead . Most events of mythology , set in a time before the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='8'><mark>'</mark></a>withdrawal from the human realm , take place in an earthly setting . The deities there sometimes interact with those in the sky . The Duat , in contrast , is treated as a remote and inaccessible place , and the gods <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>dwell</mark></a> there <a href='got' title='11'><mark>have</mark></a> difficulty communicating with those in the world of the living . The space outside the cosmos is also said to be very distant . It too is inhabited by deities , some hostile and some beneficial to the other gods and their orderly world .
Gods was linked with specific regions of the universe . In Egyptian tradition , da world include the earth , the sky , and tdaDuat . Surrounding em thdaark formlessness existed before creation . Thedads in general was said to dwell in the sky , although gods whose roles was linked with other parts of the universe was said to live in those places instead . Most events of mythology , set in a time b4 the gods withdrawal from the human realm , take place in an earthly settin . The deities dere sometimes interact w/ those in the sky . The Duat , in contrast , is treated as a remote and inaccessible place , and the das dwelt there got difficulty communicating with those in the wdad of the livin . The space outside the codas is also said to be very distant . It too is inhabited by deities , some hostile and some beneficial to the other gods and their orderly world .
0
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In the time after myth , most gods were said to be either in the sky or invisibly present within the world . Temples were their main means of contact with humanity . Each day , it was believed , the gods moved from the divine realm to their temples , their homes in the human world . There they inhabited the cult images , the statues that depicted deities and allowed humans to interact with them in temple rituals . This movement between realms was sometimes described as a journey between the sky and the earth . As temples were the focal points of Egyptian cities , the god in a city 's main temple was the patron god for the city and the surrounding region . Deities ' spheres of influence on earth centered on the towns and regions they presided over . Many gods had more than one cult center , and their local ties changed over time . They could establish themselves in new cities , or their range of influence could contract . Therefore , a given deity 's main cult center in historical times is not necessarily his or her place of origin . The political influence of a city could affect the importance of its patron deity . When kings from Thebes took control of the country at start of the Middle Kingdom ( c . 2055 – 1650 BC ) , they elevated Thebes ' patron gods — first the war god Montu and then Amun — to national prominence .
In the time after myth , most gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> said to be either in the sky or invisibly present within the world . Temples <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> their main means of contact with humanity . Each day , it was believed , the gods<a href='been_done' title='3'><mark></mark></a> moved from the divine realm to their temples , their homes in the human world . There they inhabited the cult images , the statues <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a>depicted deities and allowed humans to interact with them in temple rituals . This movement between realms was sometimes described as a journey between the sky and the earth . As temples <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> the focal points of Egyptian cities , the god in a city <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'s</mark></a>main temple was the patron god for the city and the surrounding region . Deities <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'</mark></a>spheres of influence on earth centered on the towns and regions they presided over . Many gods had more than one cult center , and their local ties changed over time . They could establish themselves in new cities , or their range of influence could contract . Therefore , a given deity <a href='null_genetive' title='8'><mark>'s</mark></a>main cult center in historical times <a href='negative_concord' title='9'><mark>is</mark></a> <a href='negative_concord' title='10'><mark>not</mark></a>necessarily his or her place of origin . The political influence of a city could affect the importance of its patron deity . When kings from Thebes took control of the country at start of the Middle Kingdom ( c . 2055 – 1650 BC ) , they elevated Thebes <a href='null_genetive' title='11'><mark>'</mark></a>patron gods — first the war god Montu and then Amun — to national prominence .
In the time after myth , most gods was said to b either in the sky or invisibly present within the world . Temples was their main means of contact w humanity . Each day , it was believed , the gods done moved from da divine realm to their temples , their homes in tdahuman world . There they inhabited thdault images , thedaatues depicted deities and allowed humans to interact witw/em in temple rituals . This movement between realms was sometimes described as a journey between the sky and the earth . As temples was the focal points of Egyptian cities , the god in a city main temple was the daron god for the city and the sdaounding region . Deities spheres of influence on earth centered on the towns and regions they presided ova . Many gods had more than one cult center , and their local ties changed oovatime . They could establish theyself in new cities , or their range of influence could contract . Therefore , a given deity main cult center in historical times ain't necessarily his or her place of origin . The political influence of a city could affect the importance of its patron deity . When kings from Thebes took control of the codary at start of the Midda Kingdom ( c . 2055 – 1650 cus ) , they elevated Thebes patron gods — first the war da Montu and then Amun — to national prominence .
0
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= = = Names and epithets = = =
= = = Names and epithets = = =
= = = Names and epithets = = =
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In Egyptian belief , names express the fundamental nature of the things to which they refer . In keeping with this belief , the names of deities often relate to their roles or origins . The name of the predatory goddess Sekhmet means " powerful one " , the name of the mysterious god Amun means " hidden one " , and the name of the goddess Nekhbet , who was worshipped in the city of Nekheb , means " she of Nekheb " . But many other names have no certain meaning , even when the gods who bear them are closely tied to a single role . The names of the sky goddess Nut and the earth god Geb do not resemble the Egyptian terms for sky and earth .
In Egyptian belief , names express the fundamental nature of the things to which they refer . In keeping with this belief , the names of deities often relate to their roles or origins . The name of the predatory goddess Sekhmet <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>means</mark></a> " powerful one " , the name of the mysterious god Amun <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>means</mark></a> " hidden one " , and the name of the goddess Nekhbet , <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>who</mark></a>was worshipped in the city of Nekheb , <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>means</mark></a> " she of Nekheb " . But many other names <a href='got' title='5'><mark>have</mark></a> no certain meaning , even when the gods <a href='null_relcl' title='6'><mark>who</mark></a>bear them are closely tied to a single role . The names of the sky goddess Nut and the earth god Geb do not resemble the Egyptian terms for sky and earth .
In Egyptian belief , names express da fundamental nature of the things to which they refer . In keepin wid this belief , tdanames of deities often relate to their roles or origins . Thdaame of the predatory goddess Sekhmet mean " powerful one " , thedame of the mysterious god Amun mean " hidden one " , and the name of the goddess Nekhbet , was worshipped in the city of Nekheb , mean " she of Nekheb " . But many other names got no certain meaning , even when the gods bear em are closely tied to a single role . The daes of the sdagoddess Nut and the earth god Geb do not resemble the Egyptian terms fa sky and earth .
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The Egyptians also devised false etymologies giving more meanings to divine names . A passage in the Coffin Texts renders the name of the funerary god Sokar as sk r , meaning " cleaning of the mouth " , to link his name with his role in the Opening of the Mouth ritual , while one in the Pyramid Texts says the name is based on words shouted by Osiris , connecting Sokar with the most important funerary deity .
The Egyptians also devised false etymologies giving more meanings to divine names . A passage in the Coffin Texts <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>renders</mark></a> the name of the funerary god Sokar as sk r , meaning " cleaning of the mouth " , to link his name with his role in the Opening of the Mouth ritual , while one in the Pyramid Texts <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>says</mark></a> the name is based on words shouted by Osiris , connecting Sokar with the most important funerary deity .
The Egyptians also devised false etymologies giving more meanings to divine names . A passage in the Coffin Texts render the name of da funerary god Sokar as sk r , meaning " cleaning of the mouth " , to link his name with his role in the Opening of tdaMouth ritual , while one in the Pyramid txt say the name is based on words shouted by Osiris , connecting Sokar with thdaost important funerary deity .
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The gods were believed to have many names . Among them were secret names that conveyed their true natures more profoundly than others . To know the true name of a deity was to have power over it . The importance of names is demonstrated by a myth in which Isis poisons the superior god Ra and refuses to cure him unless he reveals his secret name to her . Upon learning the name , she tells it to her son , Horus , and by learning it they gain greater knowledge and power .
The gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> believed to have many names . Among them <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> secret names <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>conveyed their true natures more profoundly than others . To know the true name of a deity was to have power over it . The importance of names is demonstrated by a myth in which Isis <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>poisons</mark></a> the superior god Ra and <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>refuses</mark></a> to cure him unless he <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>reveals</mark></a> his secret name to her . Upon learning the name , she <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>tells</mark></a> it to her son , Horus , and by learning it they gain greater knowledge and power .
The gods was believed to have many names . Among em was secret names conveyed their tru natures more profoundly than others . To kno the true name of a deity was to have power ova it . The importance of names is demonstrated by a myth in which Isis poison da superior god Ra and refuse to cure em unless he reveal his secret name to her . Upon learnin the name , she tell it to her son , Horus , and by llearninit they gain greater knowledge and power .
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In addition to their names , gods were given epithets , like " possessor of splendor " , " ruler of Abydos " , or " lord of the sky " , that describe some aspect of their roles or their worship . Because of the gods ' multiple and overlapping roles , deities can have many epithets — with more important gods accumulating more titles — and the same epithet can apply to many deities . Some epithets eventually became separate deities , as with Werethekau , an epithet applied to several goddesses meaning " great enchantress " , which came to be treated as an independent goddess . The host of divine names and titles expresses the gods ' multifarious nature .
In addition to their names , gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> given epithets , like " possessor of splendor " , " ruler of Abydos " , or " lord of the sky " , <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>that</mark></a>describe some aspect of their roles or their worship . Because of the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>multiple and overlapping roles , deities can have many epithets — with more important gods accumulating more titles — and the same epithet can apply to many deities . Some epithets eventually became separate deities , as with Werethekau , an epithet applied to several goddesses meaning " great enchantress " , which came to be treated as an independent goddess . The host of divine names and titles <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>expresses</mark></a> the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'</mark></a>multifarious nature .
In addition to their names , gods was given epithets , like " possessor of splendor " , " ruler of Abydos " , or " lord of da sky " , describe sum aspect of their roles or their worship . Because of tdagods multiple and overlapping roles , deities can have many epithets — wid more important gods accumulating more titles — and thdaame epithet can apply to many deities . Some epithets eventually became separate deities , as with Werethekau , an epithet applied to several goddesses meaning " great enchantress " , which came to be treated as an independent goddess . The host of divine names and titles express the gods multifarious nature .
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= = = Relationships = = =
= = = Relationships = = =
= = = Relationships = = =
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Egyptian deities are connected in a complex and shifting array of relationships . A god 's connections and interactions with other deities helped define its character . Thus Isis , as the mother and protector of Horus , was a great healer as well as the patroness of kings . Such relationships were the base material from which myths were formed .
Egyptian deities are connected in a complex and shifting array of relationships . A god <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>connections and interactions with other deities helped define its character . Thus Isis , as the mother and protector of Horus , was a great healer as well as the patroness of kings . Such relationships <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> the base material from which myths <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> formed .
Egyptian deities are connected in a complex and shifting array of relationships . A god connections and interactions with other deities helped define its character . Thus Isis , as da mother and protector of Horus , was a great healer as well as tdapatroness of kings . Such relationships was the base material from which myths was formed .
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Family relationships are a common type of connection between gods . Deities often form male and female pairs , reflecting the importance of procreation in Egyptian religious thought . Families of three deities , with a father , mother , and child , represent the creation of new life and the succession of the father by the child , a pattern that connects divine families with royal succession . Osiris , Isis , and Horus formed the quintessential family of this type . The pattern they set grew more widespread over time , so that many deities in local cult centers , like Ptah , Sekhmet , and their child Nefertum at Memphis and Amun , Mut , and Khonsu at Thebes , were assembled into family triads . Genealogical connections like these are changeable , in keeping with the multiple perspectives in Egyptian belief . Hathor , as a fertility goddess , could act as mother to any child god , including the child form of the sun god , although in other circumstances she was the sun god 's daughter .
Family relationships <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>are</mark></a>a common type of connection between gods . Deities often form male and female pairs , reflecting the importance of procreation in Egyptian religious thought . Families of three deities , with a father , mother , and child , represent the creation of new life and the succession of the father by the child , a pattern <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>connects</mark></a> divine families with royal succession . Osiris , Isis , and Horus formed the quintessential family of this type . The pattern they set grew more widespread over time , so that many deities in local cult centers , like Ptah , Sekhmet , and their child Nefertum at Memphis and Amun , Mut , and Khonsu at Thebes , <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> assembled into family triads . Genealogical connections like these <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>are</mark></a>changeable , in keeping with the multiple perspectives in Egyptian belief . Hathor , as a fertility goddess , could act as mother to any child god , including the child form of the sun god , although in other circumstances she was the sun god <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'s</mark></a>daughter .
Family relationships a common type of connection between gods . Deities often form male and female pairs , reflecting the importance of procreation in Egyptian religious thought . Families of three deities , with a father , mother , and child , represent da creation of new life and the succession of tdafather by the child , a pattern connect divine families with royal succession . Osiris , Isis , and Horus formed thdauintessential family of dis type . The pattern they set grew more widespread ova time , so that many deities in local cult centers , like Ptah , Sekhmet , and their child Nefertum at Memphis and Amun , Mut , and Khonsu at Thebes , was assembled into family triads . Genealogical connections like dese changeable , in keeping with the multiple perspectives in Egyptian belief . Hathor , as a fertility goddess , could act as mother to any child god , including thedaild form of the sun god , although in other circumstances she was the da god daughter .
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Other divine groups were composed of deities with interrelated roles , or who together represented a region of the Egyptian mythological cosmos . There were sets of gods for the hours of the day and night and for each nome ( province ) of Egypt . Some of these groups contain a specific , symbolically important number of deities . Paired gods can stand for opposite but interrelated concepts that are part of a greater unity . Ra , who is dynamic and light @-@ producing , and Osiris , who is static and shrouded in darkness , merge into a single god each night . Groups of three are linked with plurality in ancient Egyptian thought , and groups of four connote completeness . Rulers in the late New Kingdom promoted a particularly important group of three gods above all others : Amun , Ra , and Ptah . These deities stood for the plurality of all gods , as well as for their own cult centers ( the major cities of Thebes , Heliopolis , and Memphis ) and for many threefold sets of concepts in Egyptian religious thought . Sometimes Set , the patron god of the Nineteenth Dynasty kings and the embodiment of disorder within the world , was added to this group , which emphasized a single coherent vision of the pantheon .
Other divine groups <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> composed of deities with interrelated roles , or who together represented a region of the Egyptian mythological cosmos . <a href='dey_it' title='2'><mark>There</mark></a> <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> sets of gods for the hours of the day and night and for each nome ( province ) of Egypt . Some of these groups contain a specific , symbolically important number of deities . Paired gods can stand for opposite but interrelated concepts <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>are</mark></a>part of a greater unity . Ra , who <a href='drop_aux' title='6'><mark>is</mark></a>dynamic and light @-@ producing , and Osiris , <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='drop_aux' title='8'><mark>is</mark></a>static and shrouded in darkness , merge into a single god each night . Groups of three are linked with plurality in ancient Egyptian thought , and groups of four connote completeness . Rulers in the late New Kingdom promoted a particularly important group of three gods above all others : Amun , Ra , and Ptah . These deities stood for the plurality of all gods , as well as for their own cult centers ( the major cities of Thebes , Heliopolis , and Memphis ) and for many threefold sets of concepts in Egyptian religious thought . Sometimes Set , the patron god of the Nineteenth Dynasty kings and the embodiment of disorder within the world , was added to this group , which emphasized a single coherent vision of the pantheon .
Other divine groups was composed of deities wit interrelated roles , or who together represented a region of da Egyptian mythological cosmos . It was sets of gods fa the hours of tdaday and night and for each nome ( province ) of Egypt . sum of these groups contain a specific , symbolically important number of deities . Paired gods can stand for opposite but interrelated concepts part of a greater unity . Ra , who dynamic and light @-@ producing , and Osiris , static and shrouded in darkness , merge into a single god each night . Groups of three r linked with plurality in ancient Egyptian thought , and groups of four connote completeness . Rulers in thdaate New Kingdom promoted a particularly important group of three gods above alll others : Amun , Ra , and Ptah . dem deities stood ffathe plurality ofallll gods , as well as for their own cult centers ( the major cities of Thebes , Heliopolis , and Memphis ) and for many threefold sets of concepts in Egyptian religious thought . Sometimes Set , the patron god of the Nineteenth Dynasty kings and the embodiment of disorder within thedarld , was added to this group , which emphasized a single coherent vision of the pantheon .
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1
3
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12
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20
2
Nine , the product of three and three , represents a multitude , so the Egyptians called several large groups " enneads " , or sets of nine , even if they had more than nine members . The most prominent ennead was the Ennead of Heliopolis , an extended family of deities descended from the creator god Atum , which incorporates many important gods . The term " ennead " was often extended to include all of Egypt 's deities .
Nine , the product of three and three , <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>represents</mark></a> a multitude , so the Egyptians called several large groups " enneads " , or sets of nine , even if they had more than nine members . The most prominent ennead was the Ennead of Heliopolis , an extended family of deities descended from the creator god Atum , which <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>incorporates</mark></a> many important gods . The term " ennead " was often extended to include all of Egypt <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>deities .
Nine , the product of three and three , represent a multitude , so the Egyptians called several large groups " enneads " , or sets of nine , even if they had more den nine members . da most prominent ennead was the Ennead of Heliopolis , an extended fam of deities descended from tdacreator god Atum , which incorporate many important gods . The term " ennead " was often extended to include all of Egypt deities .
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This divine assemblage had a vague and changeable hierarchy . Gods with broad influence in the cosmos or who were mythologically older than others had higher positions in divine society . At the apex of this society was the king of the gods , who was usually identified with the creator deity . In different periods of Egyptian history , different gods were most frequently said to hold this exalted position . Horus was the most important god in the Early Dynastic Period , Ra rose to preeminence in the Old Kingdom , Amun was supreme in the New , and in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods , Isis was the divine queen and creator goddess . Newly prominent gods tended to adopt characteristics from their predecessors . Isis absorbed the traits of many other goddesses during her rise , and when Amun became the ruler of the pantheon , he was conjoined with Ra , the traditional king of the gods , to become a solar deity .
This divine assemblage had a vague and changeable hierarchy . Gods with broad influence in the cosmos or <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> mythologically older than others had higher positions in divine society . At the apex of this society was the king of the gods , <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>who</mark></a>was usually identified with the creator deity . In different periods of Egyptian history , different gods <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> most frequently said to hold this exalted position . Horus was the most important god in the Early Dynastic Period , Ra rose to preeminence in the Old Kingdom , Amun was supreme in the New , and in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods , Isis was the divine queen and creator goddess . Newly prominent gods tended to adopt characteristics from their predecessors . Isis absorbed the traits of many other goddesses during her rise , and when Amun became the ruler of the pantheon , he was conjoined with Ra , the traditional king of the gods , to become a solar deity .
Dis divine assemblage had a vague and changeable hierarchy . Gods with broad influence in the cosmos or was mythologically older than others had higher positions in divine society . At the apex of this society was the king of the gods , was usually identified with da creator deity . In diffrent periods of Egyptian history , different gods was most frequently said to hold tdisexalted position . Horus was tdamost important god in thdaarly Dynastic Period , Ra rose to preeminence in the Old Kingdom , Amun was supreme in the New , and in thedaolemaic and Roman periods , Isis was the daine queen and creator goddess . Newly prominent gods tended to adopt characteristics from their predecessors . Isis absorbed the traits of many other goddesses durin her rise , and when Amun became the rdar of the pantheon , he was conjoined w/ Ra , the traditional king of the gods , to become a solar deity .
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11
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2
15
2
= = = Manifestations and combinations = = =
= = = Manifestations and combinations = = =
= = = Manifestations and combinations = = =
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The gods were believed to manifest in many forms . The Egyptians had complex conception of the human soul , consisting of several parts . The spirits of the gods were composed of many of these same elements . The ba was the component of the human or divine soul that affected the world around it . Any visible manifestation of a god 's power could be called its ba ; thus , the sun was called the ba of Ra . A depiction of a deity was considered a ka , another component of its being , which acted as a vessel for that deity 's ba to inhabit . The cult images of gods that were the focus of temple rituals , as well as the sacred animals that represented certain deities , were believed to house divine bas in this way . Gods could be ascribed many bas and kas , which were sometimes given names representing different aspects of the god 's nature . Everything in existence was said to be one of the kas of Atum the creator god , who originally contained all things within himself , and one deity could be called the ba of another , meaning that the first god is a manifestation of the other 's power . Divine body parts could act as separate deities , like the Eye of Ra and Hand of Atum , both of which were personified as goddesses .
The gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> believed to manifest in many forms . The Egyptians had complex conception of the human soul , consisting of several parts . The spirits of the gods <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> composed of many of these same elements . The ba was the component of the human or divine soul <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>affected the world around it . Any visible manifestation of a god <a href='null_genetive' title='4'><mark>'s</mark></a>power could be called its ba ; thus , the sun was called the ba of Ra . A depiction of a deity was considered a ka , another component of its being , which acted as a vessel for that deity <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'s</mark></a>ba to inhabit . The cult images of gods <a href='null_relcl' title='6'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> the focus of temple rituals , as well as the sacred animals <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>represented certain deities , <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>were</mark></a> believed to house divine bas in this way . Gods could be ascribed many bas and kas , which <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>were</mark></a> sometimes given names representing different aspects of the god <a href='null_genetive' title='11'><mark>'s</mark></a>nature . Everything in existence was said to be one of the kas of Atum the creator god , <a href='null_relcl' title='12'><mark>who</mark></a>originally contained all things within himself , and one deity could be called the ba of another , meaning that the first god is a manifestation of the other <a href='null_genetive' title='13'><mark>'s</mark></a>power . Divine body parts could act as separate deities , like the Eye of Ra and Hand of Atum , both of which <a href='uninflect' title='14'><mark>were</mark></a> personified as goddesses .
The gods was believed to manifest in many forms . The Egyptians had complex conception of the human soul , consisting of several parts . The spirits of da gods was composed of many of these same elements . The ba was the component of the human or divine soul affected tdaworld around it . Any visible manifestation of a god power could be called its ba ; thus , the sun was called the ba of Ra . A depiction of a deity was considered a ka , another component of its being , which acted as a vessel fa that deity ba to inhabit . The cult images of gods was the focus of temple rituals , as well as the sacred animals represented certain deities , was believed to crib divine bas in this way . Gods could be ascribed many bas and kas , which was sometimes given names reppin different aspects of the god nature . Everything in existence was said to be one of thdaas of Atum the creator god , originally contained alll things within hisself , and one deity could b called the ba of anotha , meaning dat the first god is a manifestation of thedaher power . Divine body parts could act as separate deities , like the da of Ra and Hand of Atum , both of which was personified as goddesses .
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6
Nationally important deities gave rise to local manifestations , which sometimes absorbed the characteristics of older regional gods . Horus had many forms tied to particular places , including Horus of Nekhen , Horus of Buhen , and Horus of Edfu . Such local manifestations could be treated almost as separate beings . During the New Kingdom , one man was accused of stealing clothes by an oracle supposed to communicate messages from Amun of Pe @-@ Khenty . He consulted two other local oracles of Amun hoping for a different judgment . Gods ' manifestations also differed according to their roles . Horus could be a powerful sky god or vulnerable child , and these forms were sometimes counted as independent deities .
Nationally important deities gave rise to local manifestations , which sometimes absorbed the characteristics of older regional gods . Horus had many forms tied to particular places , including Horus of Nekhen , Horus of Buhen , and Horus of Edfu . Such local manifestations could be treated almost as separate beings . During the New Kingdom , one man was accused of stealing clothes by an oracle supposed to communicate messages from Amun of Pe @-@ Khenty . He consulted two other local oracles of Amun hoping for a different judgment . Gods <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'</mark></a>manifestations also differed according to their roles . Horus could be a powerful sky god or vulnerable child , and these forms <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> sometimes counted as independent deities .
Nationally important deities gave rise to local manifestations , which sometimes absorbed da characteristics of older regional gods . Horus had many forms tied to particular places , including Horus of Nekhen , Horus of Buhen , and Horus of Edfu . Such local manifestations could b treated almost as separate beings . durin the New Kingdom , one man was accused of stealing clothes by an oracle supposed to communicate messages from Amun of Pe @-@ Khenty . He consulted 2 other local oracles of Amun hopin fa a different judgment . Gods manifestations also differed according to their roles . Horus could be a powerful sky god or vulnerable child , and these forms was sometimes counted as independent deities .
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Gods were combined with each other as easily as they were divided . A god could be called the ba of another , or two or more deities could be joined into one god with a combined name and iconography . Local gods were linked with greater ones , and deities with similar functions were combined . Ra was connected with the local deity Sobek to form Sobek @-@ Ra ; with his fellow ruling god , Amun , to form Amun @-@ Ra ; with the solar form of Horus to form Ra @-@ Horakhty ; and with several solar deities as Horemakhet @-@ Khepri @-@ Ra @-@ Atum . On rare occasion , even deities of different sexes were joined in this way , producing combinations like Osiris @-@ Neith and Mut @-@ Min . This linking of deities is called syncretism . Unlike other situations for which this term is used , the Egyptian practice was not meant to fuse competing belief systems , although foreign deities could be syncretized with native ones . Instead , syncretism acknowledged the overlap between their roles , and extended the sphere of influence for each of them . Syncretic combinations were not permanent ; a god who was involved in one combination continued to appear separately and to form new combinations with other deities . But closely connected deities did sometimes merge . Horus absorbed several falcon gods from various regions , such as Khenty @-@ irty and Khenty @-@ khety , who became little more than local manifestations of him ; Hathor subsumed a similar cow goddess , Bat ; and an early funerary god , Khenti @-@ Amentiu , was supplanted by Osiris and Anubis .
Gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> combined with each other as easily as they <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> divided . A god could be called the ba of another , or two or more deities could be joined into one god with a combined name and iconography . Local gods <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> linked with greater ones , and deities with similar functions <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> combined . Ra was connected with the local deity Sobek to form Sobek @-@ Ra ; with his fellow ruling god , Amun , to form Amun @-@ Ra ; with the solar form of Horus to form Ra @-@ Horakhty ; and with several solar deities as Horemakhet @-@ Khepri @-@ Ra @-@ Atum . On rare occasion , even deities of different sexes <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> joined in this way , producing combinations like Osiris @-@ Neith and Mut @-@ Min . This linking of deities is called syncretism . Unlike other situations for which this term is used , the Egyptian practice was not meant to fuse competing belief systems , although foreign deities could be syncretized with native ones . Instead , syncretism acknowledged the overlap between their roles , and extended the sphere of influence for each of them . Syncretic combinations <a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> <a href='negative_concord' title='7'><mark>not</mark></a>permanent ; a god <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>who</mark></a>was involved in one combination continued to appear separately and to form new combinations with other deities . But closely connected deities did sometimes merge . Horus absorbed several falcon gods from various regions , such as Khenty @-@ irty and Khenty @-@ khety , <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>who</mark></a>became little more than local manifestations of him ; Hathor subsumed a similar cow goddess , Bat ; and an early funerary god , Khenti @-@ Amentiu , was supplanted by Osiris and Anubis .
Gods was combined with each other as easily as they was divided . A god could be called da ba of another , or two or more deities could be joined into one god w/ a combined name and iconography . Local gods was linked with greater ones , and deities wiwimilar functions was combined . Ra was connected with the local deity Sobek to form Sobek @-@ Ra ; with witfellow ruling god , Amun , to form Amun @-@ Ra ; with twidolar form of Horus to form Ra @-@ Horakhty ; and with sewidl solar deities as Horemakhet @-@ Khepri @-@ Ra @-@ Atum . On rare occasion , even deities of different sexes was joined in dis way , producing combinations like Osiris @-@ Neith and Mut @-@ Min . This linking of deities is called syncretism . Unlike other situations for which tdisterm is used , the Egyptian practice was not ment to fuse competing belief systems , although foreign deities could b syncretized with native ones . Instead , syncretism acknowledged the overlap between their roles , and extended tdasphere of influence fir each of em . Syncretic combinations ain't permanent ; a god was involved in one combination continued to appear separately and to form new combinations with other deities . But closely connected deities did sometimes merge . Horus absorbed several falcon gods from various regions , such as Khenty @-@ irty and Khenty @-@ khety , became little more than local manifestations of him ; Hathor subsumed a similar cow goddess , Bat ; and an early funerary god , Khenti @-@ Amentiu , was supplanted by Osiris and Anubis .
0
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2
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= = = The Aten and possible monotheism = = =
= = = The Aten and possible monotheism = = =
= = = The Aten and possible monotheism = = =
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In the reign of Akhenaten ( c . 1353 – 1336 BC ) in the mid @-@ New Kingdom , a single solar deity , the Aten , became the sole focus of the state religion . Akhenaten ceased to fund the temples of other deities and erased the gods ' names and images on monuments , targeting Amun in particular . This new religious system , sometimes called Atenism , differed dramatically from the polytheistic worship of many gods in all other periods . Whereas , in earlier times , newly important gods were integrated into existing religious beliefs , Atenism insisted on a single understanding of the divine that excluded the traditional multiplicity of perspectives . Yet Atenism may not have been full monotheism , which totally excludes belief in other deities . There is evidence suggesting that the general populace was still allowed to worship other gods in private . The picture is further complicated by Atenism 's apparent tolerance for some other deities , like Shu . For these reasons , the Egyptologist Dominic Montserrat suggested that Akhenaten may have been monolatrous , worshipping a single deity while acknowledging the existence of others . In any case , Atenism 's aberrant theology did not take root among the Egyptian populace , and Akhenaten 's successors returned to traditional beliefs .
In the reign of Akhenaten ( c . 1353 – 1336 BC ) in the mid @-@ New Kingdom , a single solar deity , the Aten , became the sole focus of the state religion . Akhenaten ceased to fund the temples of other deities and erased the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'</mark></a>names and images on monuments , targeting Amun in particular . This new religious system , sometimes called Atenism , differed dramatically from the polytheistic worship of many gods in all other periods . Whereas , in earlier times , newly important gods <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> integrated into existing religious beliefs , Atenism insisted on a single understanding of the divine <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>excluded the traditional multiplicity of perspectives . Yet Atenism may <a href='negative_concord' title='4'><mark>not</mark></a>have <a href='negative_concord' title='5'><mark>been</mark></a> full monotheism , which totally <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>excludes</mark></a> belief in other deities . <a href='dey_it' title='7'><mark>There</mark></a> is evidence suggesting that the general populace was still allowed to worship other gods in private . The picture <a href='drop_aux' title='8'><mark>is</mark></a>further complicated by Atenism <a href='null_genetive' title='9'><mark>'s</mark></a>apparent tolerance for some other deities , like Shu . For these reasons , the Egyptologist Dominic Montserrat suggested that Akhenaten may have been monolatrous , worshipping a single deity while acknowledging the existence of others . In <a href='None' title='10'><mark>any</mark></a><a href='negative_concord' title='11'><mark>case</mark></a> , Atenism <a href='null_genetive' title='12'><mark>'s</mark></a>aberrant theology did not take <a href='negative_concord' title='13'><mark>root</mark></a> among the Egyptian populace , and Akhenaten <a href='null_genetive' title='14'><mark>'s</mark></a>successors returned to traditional beliefs .
In the reign of Akhenaten ( c . 1353 – 1336 kuz ) in da mid @-@ New Kingdom , a single solar deity , the Aten , became tdasole focus of thdatate religion . Akhenaten ceased to fund thedamples of other deities and erased the das names and images on monuments , targeting Amun in particular . dis new religious system , sometimes called Atenism , differed dramatically from the pdatheistic worship of many gods in alll other periods . Whereas , in earlier times , newly important gods was integrated into existing religious beliefs , Atenism insisted on a single understanding of the didae excluded the traditional multiplicity of perspectives . Yet Atenism may have ain't full monotheism , which totally exclude belief in other deities . It is evidence suggesting that the general populace was still allowed to worship other gods in private . The picdarther complicated by Atenism apparent tolerance fir some other deities , like Shu . fir dem reasons , the Egyptologist Dominic Montserrat suggested that Akhenaten may have been monolatrous , worshipping a single deity while acknowledging the existence of others . In no case , Atenism aberrant theology did not take no root among the Egypdan populace , and Akhenaten successors returned to traditional beliefs .
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= = = Unity of the divine in traditional religion = = =
= = = Unity of the divine in traditional religion = = =
= = = Unity of the divine in traditional religion = = =
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Scholars have long debated whether traditional Egyptian religion ever asserted that the multiple gods were , on a deeper level , unified . Reasons for this debate include the practice of syncretism , which might suggest that all the separate gods could ultimately merge into one , and the tendency of Egyptian texts to credit a particular god with power that surpasses all other deities . Another point of contention is the appearance of the word " god " in wisdom literature , where the term does not refer to a specific deity or group of deities . In the early 20th century , for instance , E. A. Wallis Budge believed that Egyptian commoners were polytheistic , but knowledge of the true monotheistic nature of the religion was reserved for the elite , who wrote the wisdom literature . His contemporary James Henry Breasted thought Egyptian religion was instead pantheistic , with the power of the sun god present in all other gods , while Hermann Junker argued that Egyptian civilization had been originally monotheistic and became polytheistic in the course of its history .
Scholars <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> long debated whether traditional Egyptian religion ever asserted that the multiple gods <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> , on a deeper level , unified . Reasons for this debate include the practice of syncretism , which might suggest that all the separate gods could ultimately merge into one , and the tendency of Egyptian texts to credit a particular god with power <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>surpasses</mark></a> all other deities . Another point of contention <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>is</mark></a>the appearance of the word " god " in wisdom literature , where the term <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>does</mark></a> not refer to a specific deity or group of deities . In the early 20th century , for instance , E. A. Wallis Budge believed that Egyptian commoners <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> polytheistic , but knowledge of the true monotheistic nature of the religion was reserved for the elite , <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>who</mark></a>wrote the wisdom literature . His contemporary James Henry Breasted thought Egyptian religion was instead pantheistic , with the power of the sun god present in all other gods , while Hermann Junker argued that Egyptian civilization had been originally monotheistic and became polytheistic in the course of its history .
Scholars done long debated whether traditional Egyptian religion ever asserted that da multiple gods was , on a deeper level , unified . Reasons for dis debate include the practice of syncretism , which might suggest that alll the separate gods could ultimately merge into one , and the tendency of Egyptian texts to credit a particular god with power surpassallll other deities . Another point of contention the appearance of the word " god " in wisdom literature , where tdaterm do not refer to a specific deity or group of deities . In thdaarly 20th century , for instance , E. A. Wallis Budge believed dat Egyptian commoners was polytheistic , but knowledge of the tru monotheistic nature of the religion was reserved for the elite , wrote the wisdom literature . His contemporary James Henry Breasted thought Egyptian religion was instead pantheistic , with thedawer of the sun god present in all other gods , while Hermann Junker argued tdatEgyptian civilization had been originally monotheistic and became polytheistic in the darse of its history .
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In 1971 , Erik Hornung published a study rebutting these views . He points out that in any given period many deities , even minor ones , were described as superior to all others . He also argues that the unspecified " god " in the wisdom texts is a generic term for whichever deity the reader chooses to revere . Although the combinations , manifestations , and iconographies of each god were constantly shifting , they were always restricted to a finite number of forms , never becoming fully interchangeable in a monotheistic or pantheistic way . Henotheism , Hornung says , describes Egyptian religion better than other labels . An Egyptian could worship any deity at a particular time and credit it with supreme power in that moment , without denying the other gods or merging them all with the god that he or she focused on . Hornung concludes that the gods were fully unified only in myth , at the time before creation , after which the multitude of gods emerged from a uniform nonexistence .
In 1971 , Erik Hornung published a study rebutting these views . He <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>points</mark></a> out that in any given period many deities , even minor ones , <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> described as superior to all others . He also <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>argues</mark></a> that the unspecified " god " in the wisdom texts is a generic term for whichever deity the reader <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>chooses</mark></a> to revere . Although the combinations , manifestations , and iconographies of each god <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> constantly shifting , they <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> always restricted to a finite number of forms , never becoming fully interchangeable in a monotheistic or pantheistic way . Henotheism , Hornung <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>says</mark></a> , <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>describes</mark></a> Egyptian religion better than other labels . An Egyptian could worship any deity at a particular time and credit it with supreme power in that moment , without denying the other gods or merging them all with the god that he or she focused on . Hornung <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>concludes</mark></a> that the gods <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>were</mark></a> fully unified only in myth , at the time before creation , after which the multitude of gods emerged from a uniform nonexistence .
In 1971 , Erik Hornung published a study rebutting dem views . He point outt that in any given period many deities , even minor ones , was described as superior to all others . He also argue that the unspecified " god " in da wisdom texts is a generic term fa whichever deity tdareader claim to revere . Although the combinations , manifestations , and iconographies of each god was constantly shifting , they was always restricted to a finite number of forms , never becoming fully interchangeable in a monotheistic or pantheistic way . Henotheism , Hornung say , describe Egyptian religion better den other labels . An Egyptian could worship any deity at a particular time and credit it wid supreme power in that moment , without denying the other gods or merging em all with thdaod dat he or she focused on . Hornung conclude tdatthedads was fully unified only in myth , at the time before creation , after which the datitude of gods emerged from a uniform nonexistence .
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Hornung 's arguments have greatly influenced other scholars of Egyptian religion , but some still believe that at times the gods were more unified than he allows . Jan Assmann maintains that the notion of a single deity developed slowly through the New Kingdom , beginning with a focus on Amun @-@ Ra as the all @-@ important sun god . In his view , Atenism was an extreme outgrowth of this trend . It equated the single deity with the sun and dismissed all other gods . Then , in the backlash against Atenism , priestly theologians described the universal god in a different way , one that coexisted with traditional polytheism . The one god was believed to transcend the world and all the other deities , while at the same time , the multiple gods were aspects of the one . According to Assmann , this one god was especially equated with Amun , the dominant god in the late New Kingdom , whereas for the rest of Egyptian history the universal deity could be identified with many other gods . James P. Allen says that coexisting notions of one god and many gods would fit well with the " multiplicity of approaches " in Egyptian thought , as well as with the henotheistic practice of ordinary worshippers . He says that the Egyptians may have recognized the unity of the divine by " identifying their uniform notion of ' god ' with a particular god , depending on the particular situation . "
Hornung <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>arguments <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> greatly influenced other scholars of Egyptian religion , but some still believe that at times the gods <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> more unified than he <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>allows</mark></a> . Jan Assmann <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>maintains</mark></a> that the notion of a single deity developed slowly through the New Kingdom , beginning with a focus on Amun @-@ Ra as the all @-@ important sun god . In his view , Atenism was an extreme outgrowth of this trend . It equated the single deity with the sun and dismissed all other gods . Then , in the backlash against Atenism , priestly theologians<a href='been_done' title='6'><mark></mark></a> described the universal god in a different way , one <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>that</mark></a>coexisted with traditional polytheism . The one god was believed to transcend the world and all the other deities , while at the same time , the multiple gods <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> aspects of the one . According to Assmann , this one god was especially equated with Amun , the dominant god in the late New Kingdom , whereas for the rest of Egyptian history the universal deity could be identified with many other gods . James P. Allen <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>says</mark></a> that coexisting notions of one god and many gods would fit well with the " multiplicity of approaches " in Egyptian thought , as well as with the henotheistic practice of ordinary worshippers . He <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>says</mark></a> that the Egyptians may <a href='been_done' title='11'><mark>have</mark></a> recognized the unity of the divine by " identifying their uniform notion of ' god ' with a particular god , depending on the particular situation . "
Hornung arguments done greatly influenced other scholars of Egyptian religion , but some still believe dat at times da gods was more unified den he allow . Jan Assmann maintain that tdanotion of a single deity developed slowly thru thdaew Kingdom , beginning w a focus on Amun @-@ Ra as the all @-@ important sun god . In his view , Atenism was an extreme outgrowth of this trend . It equated the single deity with the sun and dismissed alll other gods . Then , in thedacklash against Atenism , priestly theologians been described the daversal god in a different way , one coexisted witwitaditional polytheism . The one god was believed to transcend the world and all the odar deities , while at the same time , the multiple gods was aspects of the one . According to Assmann , this one god was especially equated withw/n , the dodaant god in the late New Kingdom , whereas for the resdaf Egyptian history the univdaal deity could be identified with many other gods . James P. Allen say tdatcoexisting notions of one god and many gods would fit well with tw/ multiplicity of approaches " in Egyptian thought , as well as with the henotheistic practice of ordinary worshippers . He say that the Egyptians may done recognized the unityda the divine by " identifying their uniform notion of ' god ' with a particular god , depending on the particular situation . "
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= = Descriptions and depictions = =
= = Descriptions and depictions = =
= = Descriptions and depictions = =
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Egyptian writings describe the gods ' bodies in detail . They are made of precious materials ; their flesh is gold , their bones are silver , and their hair is lapis lazuli . They give off a scent that the Egyptians likened to the incense used in rituals . Some texts give precise descriptions of particular deities , including their height and eye color . Yet these characteristics are not fixed ; in myths , gods change their appearances to suit their own purposes . Egyptian texts often refer to deities ' true , underlying forms as " mysterious " . The Egyptians ' visual representations of their gods are therefore not literal . They symbolize specific aspects of each deity 's character , functioning much like the ideograms in hieroglyphic writing . For this reason , the funerary god Anubis is commonly shown in Egyptian art as a dog or jackal , a creature whose scavenging habits threaten the preservation of buried mummies , in an effort to counter this threat and employ it for protection . His black coloring alludes to the color of mummified flesh and to the fertile black soil that Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection .
Egyptian writings describe the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'</mark></a>bodies in detail . They are made of precious materials ; their flesh is gold , their bones are silver , and their hair <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>is</mark></a>lapis lazuli . They give off a scent <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>the Egyptians likened to the incense used in rituals . Some texts give precise descriptions of particular deities , including their height and eye color . Yet these characteristics are not fixed ; in myths , gods change their appearances to suit their own purposes . Egyptian texts often refer to deities <a href='null_genetive' title='4'><mark>'</mark></a>true , underlying forms as " mysterious " . The Egyptians <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'</mark></a>visual representations of their gods <a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>are</mark></a> therefore <a href='negative_concord' title='7'><mark>not</mark></a>literal . They symbolize specific aspects of each deity <a href='null_genetive' title='8'><mark>'s</mark></a>character , functioning much like the ideograms in hieroglyphic writing . For this reason , the funerary god Anubis is commonly shown in Egyptian art as a dog or jackal , a creature whose scavenging habits threaten the preservation of buried mummies , in an effort to counter this threat and employ it for protection . His black coloring <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>alludes</mark></a> to the color of mummified flesh and to the fertile black soil <a href='null_relcl' title='10'><mark>that</mark></a>Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection .
Egyptian writings describe da gods bodies in detail . They r made of precious materials ; their flesh is gold , their bones arrilver , and their hair lapis lazuli . They give off a scent the Egyptians likened to the incense used in rituals . Some txt give precise descriptions of particular deities , including their height and eye color . Yet dem characteristics ain't fixed ; in myths , gods change their appearances to suit their own purposes . Egyptian texts often refer to deities true , underlying forms as " mysterious " . The Egyptians visual representations of their gods ain't therefore literal . They symbolize specific aspects of each deity character , functioning much like tdaideograms in hieroglyphic writing . For dis reason , thdaunerary god Anubis is commonly shown in Egyptian art as a dog or jackal , a creature whose scavenging habits threaten the preservation of buried mummies , in an effort to counter this threat and employ it fir protection . His black coloring allude to thedalor of mummified flesh and to the datile black soil Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection .
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Most gods were depicted in several ways . Hathor could be a cow , cobra , lioness , or a woman with bovine horns or ears . By depicting a given god in different ways , the Egyptians expressed different aspects of its essential nature . The gods are depicted in a finite number of these symbolic forms , so that deities can often be distinguished from one another by their iconographies . These forms include men and women ( anthropomorphism ) , animals ( zoomorphism ) , and , more rarely , inanimate objects . Combinations of forms , such as gods with human bodies and animal heads , are common . New forms and increasingly complex combinations arose in the course of history . Some gods can only be distinguished from others if they are labeled in writing , as with Isis and Hathor . Because of the close connection between these goddesses , they could both wear the cow @-@ horn headdress that was originally Hathor 's alone .
Most gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> depicted in several ways . Hathor could be a cow , cobra , lioness , or a woman with bovine horns or ears . By depicting a given god in different ways , the Egyptians expressed different aspects of its essential nature . The gods are depicted in a finite number of these symbolic forms , so that deities can often be distinguished from one another by their iconographies . These forms include men and women ( anthropomorphism ) , animals ( zoomorphism ) , and , more rarely , inanimate objects . Combinations of forms , such as gods with human bodies and animal heads , <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>are</mark></a>common . New forms and increasingly complex combinations arose in the course of history . Some gods can only be distinguished from others if they are labeled in writing , as with Isis and Hathor . Because of the close connection between these goddesses , they could both wear the cow @-@ horn headdress <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>was originally Hathor 's alone .
Most gods was depicted in several ways . Hathor could b a cow , cobra , lioness , or a woman with bovine horns or ears . By depicting a given god in different ways , da Egyptians expressed different aspects of its essential nature . Tdagods are depicted in a finite number of these symbolic forms , so that deities can often be distinguished from one another by their iconographies . dese forms include men and women ( anthropomorphism ) , animals ( zoomorphism ) , and , more rarely , inanimate objects . Combinations of forms , such as gods with human bodies and animal heads , common . New forms and increasingly complex combinations arose in the course of history . Some gods can only be distinguished from others if they r labeled in writing , as with Isis and Hathor . Because of the close connection between these goddesses , they could both wear the cow @-@ horn headdress was originally Hathor 's alone .
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Certain features of divine images are more useful than others in determining a god 's identity . The head of a given divine image is particularly significant . In a hybrid image , the head represents the original form of the being depicted , so that , as the Egyptologist Henry Fischer put it , " a lion @-@ headed goddess is a lion @-@ goddess in human form , while a royal sphinx , conversely , is a man who has assumed the form of a lion . " Divine headdresses , which range from the same types of crowns used by human kings to large hieroglyphs worn on gods ' heads , are another important indicator . In contrast , the objects held in gods ' hands tend to be generic . Male deities hold was staffs , goddesses hold stalks of papyrus , and both sexes carry ankh signs , representing the Egyptian word for " life " , to symbolize their life @-@ giving power .
Certain features of divine images <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>are</mark></a>more useful than others in determining a god <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>identity . The head of a given divine image <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>particularly significant . In a hybrid image , the head <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>represents</mark></a> the original form of the being depicted , so that , as the Egyptologist Henry Fischer put it , " a lion @-@ headed goddess <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>is</mark></a>a lion @-@ goddess in human form , while a royal sphinx , conversely , <a href='drop_aux' title='6'><mark>is</mark></a>a man <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='been_done' title='8'><mark>has</mark></a> assumed the form of a lion . " Divine headdresses , which range from the same types of crowns used by human kings to large hieroglyphs worn on gods <a href='null_genetive' title='9'><mark>'</mark></a>heads , <a href='drop_aux' title='10'><mark>are</mark></a>another important indicator . In contrast , the objects held in gods <a href='null_genetive' title='11'><mark>'</mark></a>hands tend to be generic . Male deities hold was staffs , goddesses hold stalks of papyrus , and both sexes carry ankh signs , representing the Egyptian word for " life " , to symbolize their life @-@ giving power .
Certain features of divine images more useful than others in determining a god identity . The head of a given divine image particularly significant . In a hybrid image , the head represent the original form of the being depicted , soo that , as the Egyptologist Henry Fischer put it , " a lion @-@ headed goddess a lion @-@ goddess in human form , while a royal sphinx , conversely , a man done assumed da form of a lion . " Divine headdresses , which range from the same types of crowns used by human kings to large hieroglyphs worn on gods heads , anotha important indicator . In contrast , tdaobjects held in gods hands tend to b generic . Male deities hold was staffs , goddesses hold stalks of papyrus , and both sexes carry ankh signs , reppin thdagyptian word for " life " , to symbolize their life @-@ giving power .
0
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The forms in which the gods are shown , although diverse , are limited in many ways . Many creatures that are widespread in Egypt were never used in divine iconography , whereas a few , such as falcons , cobras , and cattle , can each represent many deities . Animals that were absent from Egypt in the early stages of its history were not used as divine images . For instance , the horse , which was only introduced in the Second Intermediate Period ( c . 1650 – 1550 BC ) , never represented a god . Similarly , the clothes worn by anthropomorphic deities in all periods changed little from the styles used in the Old Kingdom : a kilt , false beard , and often a shirt for male gods and a long , tight @-@ fitting dress for goddesses .
The forms in which the gods are shown , although diverse , are limited in many ways . Many creatures <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>are</mark></a>widespread in Egypt <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> never used in divine iconography , whereas a few , such as falcons , cobras , and cattle , can each represent many deities . Animals <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> absent from Egypt in the early stages of its history <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> not used as divine images . For <a href='negative_concord' title='7'><mark>instance</mark></a> , the horse , which was only introduced in the Second Intermediate Period ( c . 1650 – 1550 BC ) , never represented <a href='None' title='8'><mark>a</mark></a><a href='negative_concord' title='9'><mark>god</mark></a> . Similarly , the clothes worn by anthropomorphic deities in all periods<a href='been_done' title='10'><mark></mark></a> changed little from the styles used in the Old Kingdom : a kilt , false beard , and often a shirt for male gods and a long , tight @-@ fitting dress for goddesses .
The forms in which da gods r shown , although diverse , arrimited in many ways . Many creatures widespread in Egypt was never used in divine iconography , whereas a few , such as falcons , cobras , and cattle , can each represent many deities . Animals was absent from Egypt in the early stages of its history was not used as divine images . For no instance , the horse , which was only introduced in the Second Intermediate Period ( c . 1650 – 1550 BC ) , never represented no god . Similarly , the clothes worn by anthropomorphic deities in alll periods been changed little from the styles used in tdaOld Kingdom : a kilt , false beard , and often a shirt for male gods and a long , tight @-@ fitting dress fa goddesses .
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The basic anthropomorphic form varies . Child gods are depicted nude , as are some adult gods when their procreative powers are emphasized . Certain male deities are given heavy bellies and breasts , signifying either androgyny or prosperity and abundance . Whereas most male gods have red skin and most goddesses are yellow — the same colors used to depict Egyptian men and women — some are given unusual , symbolic skin colors . Thus the blue skin and paunchy figure of the god Hapi alludes to the Nile flood he represents and the nourishing fertility it brought . A few deities , such as Osiris , Ptah , and Min , have a " mummiform " appearance , with their limbs tightly swathed in cloth . Although these gods resemble mummies , the earliest examples predate the cloth @-@ wrapped style of mummification , and this form may instead hark back to the earliest , limbless depictions of deities .
The basic anthropomorphic form <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>varies</mark></a> . Child gods are depicted nude , as are some adult gods when their procreative powers are emphasized . Certain male deities are given heavy bellies and breasts , signifying either androgyny or prosperity and abundance . Whereas most male gods <a href='got' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> red skin and most goddesses are yellow — the same colors used to depict Egyptian men and women — some are given unusual , symbolic skin colors . Thus the blue skin and paunchy figure of the god Hapi <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>alludes</mark></a> to the Nile flood he <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>represents</mark></a> and the nourishing fertility it brought . A few deities , such as Osiris , Ptah , and Min , <a href='got' title='5'><mark>have</mark></a> a " mummiform " appearance , with their limbs tightly swathed in cloth . Although these gods resemble mummies , the earliest examples predate the cloth @-@ wrapped style of mummification , and this form may instead hark back to the earliest , limbless depictions of deities .
Da basic anthropomorphic form vary . Child gods r depicted nude , as are some adult gods when their procreative powers are emphasized . Certain male deities are given heavy bellies and breasts , signifying either androgyny or prosperity and abundance . Whereas most male gods got red skin and most goddesses are yellow — tdasame colors used to depict Egyptian men and women — some are given unusual , symbolic skin colors . Thus thdalue skin and paunchy figure of thedad Hapi allude to the Nile flood he represent and the nourishing fertility it brought . A few deities , such as Osiris , Ptah , and Min , got a " mummiform " appearance , with their limbs tightly swathed in cloth . Although these gods resemble mummies , the daliest examples predate the cdah @-@ wrapped style of mummification , and dis form may instead hark back to the earliest , limbless depictions of deities .
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= = Interactions with humans = =
= = Interactions with humans = =
= = Interactions with humans = =
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= = = Relationship with the pharaoh = = =
= = = Relationship with the pharaoh = = =
= = = Relationship with the pharaoh = = =
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In official writings , pharaohs are said to be divine , and they are constantly depicted in the company of the deities of the pantheon . Each pharaoh and his predecessors were considered the successors of the gods who had ruled Egypt in mythic prehistory . Living kings were equated with Horus and called the " son " of many deities , particularly Osiris and Ra ; deceased kings were equated with these elder gods . Pharaohs had their own mortuary temples where rituals were performed for them during their lives and after their deaths . But few pharaohs were worshipped as gods long after their lifetimes , and non @-@ official texts portray kings in a human light . For these reasons , scholars disagree about how genuinely most Egyptians believed the king to be a god . He may only have been considered divine when he was performing ceremonies .
In official writings , pharaohs are said to be divine , and they are constantly depicted in the company of the deities of the pantheon . Each pharaoh and his predecessors <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> considered the successors of the gods <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>had</mark></a> ruled Egypt in mythic prehistory . Living kings <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> equated with Horus and called the " son " of many deities , particularly Osiris and Ra ; deceased kings <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> equated with these elder gods . Pharaohs had their own mortuary temples where rituals <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> performed for them during their lives and after their deaths . But few pharaohs <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> worshipped as gods long after their lifetimes , and non @-@ official texts portray kings in a human light . For these reasons , scholars disagree about how genuinely most Egyptians believed the king to be a god . He may only <a href='been_done' title='8'><mark>have</mark></a> been considered divine when he was performing ceremonies .
In official writings , pharaohs r said to be divine , and they arronstantly depicted in the company of da deities of the pantheon . Each pharaoh and his predecessors was considered tdasuccessors of thdaods done ruled Egypt in mythic prehistory . Living kings was equated witt Horus and called the " son " of many deities , particularly Osiris and Ra ; deceased kings was equated wid dese elder gods . Pharaohs had their own mortuary temples where rituals was performed for them during their lives and after their deaths . But few pharaohs was worshipped as gods long after their lifetimes , and non @-@ official texts portray kings in a human light . fir tdesereasons , scholars disagree bou how genuinely most Egyptians believed the king to be a god . He may only done been considered divine when he was performing ceremonies .
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11
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However much it was believed , the king 's divine status was the rationale for his role as Egypt 's representative to the gods , as he formed a link between the divine and human realms . The Egyptians believed the gods needed temples to dwell in , as well as the periodic performance of rituals and presentation of offerings to nourish them . These things were provided by the cults that the king oversaw , with their priests and laborers . Yet , according to royal ideology , temple @-@ building was exclusively the pharaoh 's work , as were the rituals that priests usually performed in his stead . These acts were a part of the king 's fundamental role : maintaining maat . The king and the nation he represented provided the gods with maat so they could continue to perform their functions , which maintained maat in the cosmos so humans could continue to live .
However much it was believed , the king <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>divine status was the rationale for his role as Egypt <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>representative to the gods , as he formed a link between the divine and human realms . The Egyptians believed the gods needed temples to dwell in , as well as the periodic performance of rituals and presentation of offerings to nourish them . These things <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> provided by the cults <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a>the king oversaw , with their priests and laborers . Yet , according to royal ideology , temple @-@ building was exclusively the pharaoh <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'s</mark></a>work , as <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> the rituals <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>that</mark></a>priests usually performed in his stead . These acts <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> a part of the king <a href='null_genetive' title='9'><mark>'s</mark></a>fundamental role : maintaining maat . The king and the nation he represented provided the gods with maat so they could continue to perform their functions , which maintained maat in the cosmos so humans could continue to live .
However much it was believed , the king divine status was da rationale fa his role as Egypt representative to the gods , as he formed a link between the divine and human realms . TdaEgyptians believed thdaods needed temples to dwell in , as well as thedariodic performance of rituals and presentation of offerings to nourish them . These things was provided by the dats the king oversaw , with their priests and laborers . Yet , according to royal ideology , temple @-@ building was exclusively the pdaaoh work , as was the rituals priests usually performed in his stead . These acts was a part of the kida fundamental role : maintaining maat . The king and the nation he represented provided the gods with maat soo they could continue to perform their functions , which maintained maat in the cosmos so humans could continue to live .
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= = = Presence in the human world = = =
= = = Presence in the human world = = =
= = = Presence in da human world = = =
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Although the Egyptians believed their gods to be present in the world around them , contact between the human and divine realms was mostly limited to specific circumstances . In literature , gods may appear to humans in a physical form , but in real life the Egyptians were limited to more indirect means of communication .
Although the Egyptians believed their gods to be present in the world around them , contact between the human and divine realms was mostly limited to specific circumstances . In literature , gods may appear to humans in a physical form , but in real life the Egyptians <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> limited to more indirect means of communication .
Although the Egyptians believed their gods to be present in the world around them , txt between da human and divine realms was mostly limited to specific circumstances . In literature , gods may appear to humans in a physical form , but in real life tdaEgyptians was limited to more indirect means of communication .
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1
The ba of a god was said to periodically leave the divine realm to dwell in the images of that god . By inhabiting these images , the gods left their concealed state and took on a physical form . To the Egyptians , a place or object that was ḏsr — " sacred " — was isolated and ritually pure , and thus fit for a god to inhabit . Temple statues and reliefs , as well as particular sacred animals , like the Apis bull , served as divine intermediaries in this way . Dreams and trances provided a very different venue for interaction . In these states , it was believed , people could come close to the gods and sometimes receive messages from them . Finally , according to Egyptian afterlife beliefs , human souls pass into the divine realm after death . The Egyptians therefore believed that in death they would exist on the same level as the gods and fully understand their mysterious nature .
The ba of a god was said to periodically leave the divine realm to dwell in the images of that god . By inhabiting these images , the gods left their concealed state and took on a physical form . To the Egyptians , a place or object <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a>was ḏsr — " sacred " — was isolated and ritually pure , and thus fit for a god to inhabit . Temple statues and reliefs , as well as particular sacred animals , like the Apis bull , served as divine intermediaries in this way . Dreams and trances provided a very different venue for interaction . In these states , it was believed , people could come close to the gods and sometimes receive messages from them . Finally , according to Egyptian afterlife beliefs , human souls pass into the divine realm after death . The Egyptians therefore believed that in death they would exist on the same level as the gods and fully understand their mysterious nature .
Da ba of a god was said to periodically leave tdadivine realm to dwell in the images of that god . By inhabiting these images , the gods left their concealed state and took on a physical form . To the Egyptians , a place or object was ḏsr — " sacred " — was isolated and ritually pure , and thus fit for a god to inhabit . Temple statues and reliefs , as well as particular sacred animals , like thdapis bull , served as divine intermediaries in this way . Dreams and trances provided a very different venue for interaction . In these states , it was believed , people could come close to thedads and sometimes receive messages from em . Finally , according to Egyptian afterlife beliefs , human souls pass into the divine realm after death . The daptians therefore believed that in death they would exist on the sda level as the godaand fully understand their mysterious nature .
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8
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Temples , where the state rituals were carried out , were filled with images of the gods . The most important temple image was the cult statue in the inner sanctuary . These statues were usually less than life @-@ size , and made of the same precious materials that were said to form the gods ' bodies . Many temples had several sanctuaries , each with a cult statue representing one of the gods in a group such as a family triad . The city 's primary god was envisioned as its lord , employing many of the residents as servants in the divine household that the temple represented . The gods residing in the temples of Egypt collectively represented the entire pantheon . But many deities — including some important gods as well as those that were minor or hostile — were never given temples of their own , although some were represented in the temples of other gods .
Temples , where the state rituals <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> carried out , <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> filled with images of the gods . The most important temple image was the cult statue in the inner sanctuary . These statues <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> usually less than life @-@ size , and made of the same precious materials <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> said to form the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'</mark></a>bodies . Many temples<a href='been_done' title='7'><mark></mark></a> had several sanctuaries , each with a cult statue representing one of the gods in a group such as a family triad . The city <a href='null_genetive' title='8'><mark>'s</mark></a>primary god was envisioned as its lord , employing many of the residents as servants in the divine household <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>that</mark></a>the temple represented . The gods residing in the temples of Egypt collectively represented the entire pantheon . But many deities — including some important gods as well as those <a href='null_relcl' title='10'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='11'><mark>were</mark></a> minor or hostile — <a href='uninflect' title='12'><mark>were</mark></a> never given <a href='negative_concord' title='13'><mark>temples</mark></a> of their own , although some <a href='uninflect' title='14'><mark>were</mark></a> represented in the temples of other gods .
Temples , where the state rituals was carried out , was filled with images of the gods . The most important temple image was the cult statue in the inner sanctuary . These statues was usually less than life @-@ size , and made of the same precious materials was said to form the gods bodies . Many temples been had several sanctuaries , each wit a cult statue representing one of the gods in a group such as a family triad . The city primary god was envisioned as its lord , employing many of the residents as servants in the divine household the temple represented . da gods residing in tdatemples of Egypt collectively represented the entire pantheon . But many deities — including sum important gods as well as those was minor or hostile — was never given no temples of their own , although some was represented in the temples of other gods .
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0
4
1
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2
3
18
7
To insulate the sacred power in the sanctuary from the impurities of the outside world , the Egyptians enclosed temple sanctuaries and greatly restricted access to them . People other than kings and high priests were thus denied contact with cult statues . The only exception was during festival processions , when the statue was carried out of the temple but still enclosed in a portable shrine . People did have less direct means of interaction . The more public parts of temples often incorporated small places for prayer , from doorways to freestanding chapels near the back of the temple building . Communities also built and managed small chapels for their own use , and some families had shrines inside their homes . Despite the gulf that separated humanity from the divine , the Egyptians were surrounded by opportunities to approach their gods .
To insulate the sacred power in the sanctuary from the impurities of the outside world , the Egyptians enclosed temple sanctuaries and greatly restricted access to them . People other than kings and high priests <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> thus denied contact with cult statues . The only exception was during festival processions , when the statue was carried out of the temple but still enclosed in a portable shrine . People did have less direct means of interaction . The more public parts of temples often incorporated small places for prayer , from doorways to freestanding chapels near the back of the temple building . Communities also built and managed small chapels for their own use , and some families had shrines inside their homes . Despite the gulf <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>that</mark></a>separated humanity from the divine , the Egyptians <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> surrounded by opportunities to approach their gods .
To insulate the sacred power in the sanctuary from da impurities of the outside world , the Egyptians enclosed temple sanctuaries and greatly restricted access to them . People other than kings and high priests was thus denied txt with cult statues . Tdaonly exception was durin festival processions , when thdatatue was carried out of thedample but still enclosed in a portable shrine . folks did have less direct means of interaction . The dae public parts of temples often incorporated small places for prayer , from doorways to freestanding chapels near the bda of the tedae building . Communities also built and managed small chapels for their own use , and some families had shrines inside their homes . Despite the gulf separated humanity from the divda , the Egypdans was surrounded by opportunities to approach their gods .
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12
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1
15
2
= = = Intervention in human lives = = =
= = = Intervention in human lives = = =
= = = Intervention in human lives = = =
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Egyptian gods were involved in human lives as well as in the overarching order of nature . This divine influence applied mainly to Egypt , as foreign peoples were traditionally believed to be outside the divine order . But in the New Kingdom , when other nations were under Egyptian control , foreigners were said to be under the sun god 's benign rule in the same way that Egyptians were .
Egyptian gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> involved in human lives as well as in the overarching order of nature . This divine influence applied mainly to Egypt , as foreign peoples <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> traditionally believed to be outside the divine order . But in the New Kingdom , when other nations <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> under Egyptian control , foreigners <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> said to be under the sun god <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'s</mark></a>benign rule in the same way <a href='null_relcl' title='6'><mark>that</mark></a>Egyptians <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> .
Egyptian gods was involved in human lives as well as in the overarching order of nature . This divine influence applied mainly to Egypt , as foreign peoples was traditionally believed to b outside the divine order . But in da New Kingdom , when other nations was under Egyptian control , foreigners was said to be under the sun god benign rule in the same way Egyptians was .
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1
1
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5
Thoth , as the overseer of time , was said to allot fixed lifespans to both humans and gods . Other gods were also said to govern the length of human lives , including Meskhenet , who presided over birth , and Shai , the personification of fate . Thus the time and manner of death was the main meaning of the Egyptian concept of fate , although to some extent these deities governed other events in life as well . Several texts refer to gods influencing or inspiring human decisions , working through a person 's " heart " — the seat of emotion and intellect in Egyptian belief . Deities were also believed to give commands , instructing the king in the governance of his realm and regulating the management of their temples . Egyptian texts rarely mention direct commands given to private persons , and these commands never evolved into a set of divinely enforced moral codes . Morality in ancient Egypt was based on the concept of maat , which , when applied to human society , meant that everyone should live in an orderly way that did not interfere with the well @-@ being of other people . Because deities were the upholders of maat , morality was connected with them . For example , the gods judged humans ' moral righteousness after death , and by the New Kingdom , a verdict of innocence in this judgment was believed to be necessary for admittance into the afterlife . But in general , morality was based on practical ways to uphold maat in daily life , rather than on strict rules that the gods laid out .
Thoth , as the overseer of time , was said to allot fixed lifespans to both humans and gods . Other gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> also said to govern the length of human lives , including Meskhenet , <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>who</mark></a>presided over birth , and Shai , the personification of fate . Thus the time and manner of death was the main meaning of the Egyptian concept of fate , although to some extent these deities governed other events in life as well . Several texts refer to gods influencing or inspiring human decisions , working through a person <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>" heart " — the seat of emotion and intellect in Egyptian belief . Deities <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> also believed to give commands , instructing the king in the governance of his realm and regulating the management of their temples . Egyptian texts rarely mention direct commands given to private persons , and these commands never evolved into <a href='None' title='5'><mark>a</mark></a><a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>set</mark></a> of divinely enforced moral codes . Morality in ancient Egypt was based on the concept of maat , which , when applied to human society , meant that everyone should live in an orderly way <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>that</mark></a>did not interfere with the well @-@ being of other people . Because deities <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> the upholders of maat , morality was connected with them . For example , the gods judged humans <a href='null_genetive' title='9'><mark>'</mark></a>moral righteousness after death , and by the New Kingdom , a verdict of innocence in this judgment was believed to be necessary for admittance into the afterlife . But in general , morality was based on practical ways to uphold maat in daily life , rather than on strict rules that the gods laid out .
Thoth , as the overseer of time , was said to allot fixed lifespans to both humans and gods . Other gods was also said to govern da length of human lives , including Meskhenet , presided ova birth , and Shai , tdapersonification of fate . Thus thdaime and manner of death was the main meaning of the Egyptian concept of fate , although to sum extent dese deities governed other events in life as well . Several texts refer to gods influencing or inspiring human decisions , workin through a person " heart " — the seat of emotion and intellect in Egyptian belief . Deities was also believed to give commands , instructing thedang in the governance of his realm and regulating the management of their temples . Egyptian texts rarely mention direct commands given to private persons , and tdesecommands never evolved into no set of divinely enforced moral codes . Morality in ancient Egypt was based on the concept of maat , which , when applied to human society , meant dat every1 should live in an orderly way did not interfere w the dal @-@ being of other people . Because deities was the upholders of maat , morality was connected with them . For example , the gods judged humans moral righteousness after death , and by the NdaKingdom , a verdict of innocence in this judgment was believed to b necessary for admittance into the afterlife . But in general , morality was based on practical ways to uphold maat in daily life , rather than on strict rules that the godalaid out .
0
0
0
0
0
16
1
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2
2
24
3
Humans had free will to ignore divine guidance and the behavior required by maat , but by doing so they could bring divine punishment upon themselves . A deity carried out this punishment using its ba , the force that manifested the god 's power in the human world . Natural disasters and human ailments were seen as the work of angry divine bas . Conversely , the gods could cure righteous people of illness or even extend their lifespans . Both these types of intervention were eventually represented by deities : Shed , who emerged in the New Kingdom to represent divine rescue from harm , and Petbe , an apotropaic god from the late eras of Egyptian history who was believed to avenge wrongdoing .
Humans had free will to ignore divine guidance and the behavior required by maat , but by doing so they could bring divine punishment upon themselves . A deity carried out this punishment using its ba , the force <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a>manifested the god <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>power in the human world . Natural disasters and human ailments <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> seen as the work of angry divine bas . Conversely , the gods could cure righteous people of illness or even extend their lifespans . Both these types of intervention <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> eventually represented by deities : Shed , <a href='null_relcl' title='5'><mark>who</mark></a>emerged in the New Kingdom to represent divine rescue from harm , and Petbe , an apotropaic god from the late eras of Egyptian history <a href='null_relcl' title='6'><mark>who</mark></a>was believed to avenge wrongdoing .
Humans had free will to ignore divine guidance and da behavior required by maat , but by doin soo they could bring divine punishment upon themselves . A deity carried out this punishment usin its ba , the force manifested the god power in the human world . Natural disasters and human ailments was seen as tdawork of angry divine bas . Conversely , the gods could cure righteous people of illness or even extend their lifespans . Both these types of intervention was eventually represented by deities : Shed , emerged in thdaew Kingdom to represent divine rescue from harm , and Petbe , an apotropaic god from the late eras of Egyptian history was believed to avenge wrongdoing .
0
0
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0
0
6
0
0
1
3
12
2
Egyptian texts take different views on whether the gods are responsible when humans suffer unjustly . Misfortune was often seen as a product of isfet , the cosmic disorder that was the opposite of maat , and therefore the gods were not guilty of causing evil events . Some deities who were closely connected with isfet , such as Set , could be blamed for disorder within the world without placing guilt on the other gods . But some writings do accuse the deities of causing human misery , while others give theodicies in the gods ' defense . Beginning in the Middle Kingdom , several texts connected the issue of evil in the world with a myth in which the creator god fights a human rebellion against his rule and then withdraws from the earth . Because of this human misbehavior , the creator is distant from his creation , allowing suffering to exist . New Kingdom writings do not question the just nature of the gods as strongly as those of the Middle Kingdom . They emphasize humans ' direct , personal relationships with deities and the gods ' power to intervene in human events . People in this era put faith in specific gods who they hoped would help and protect them through their lives . As a result , upholding the ideals of maat grew less important than gaining the gods ' favor as a way to guarantee a good life . Even the pharaohs were regarded as dependent on divine aid , and after the New Kingdom came to an end , government was increasingly influenced by oracles communicating the gods ' will .
Egyptian texts take different views on whether the gods are responsible when humans suffer unjustly . Misfortune was often seen as a product of isfet , the cosmic disorder <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a>was the opposite of maat , and therefore the gods <a href='negative_concord' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> <a href='negative_concord' title='3'><mark>not</mark></a>guilty of causing evil events . Some deities <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> closely connected with isfet , such as Set , could be blamed for disorder within the world without placing guilt on the other gods . But some writings do accuse the deities of causing human misery , while others give theodicies in the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'</mark></a>defense . Beginning in the Middle Kingdom , several texts connected the issue of evil in the world with a myth in which the creator god <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>fights</mark></a> a human rebellion against his rule and then <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>withdraws</mark></a> from the earth . Because of this human misbehavior , the creator <a href='drop_aux' title='9'><mark>is</mark></a>distant from his creation , allowing suffering to exist . New Kingdom writings do not question the just nature of the gods as strongly as those of the Middle Kingdom . They emphasize humans <a href='null_genetive' title='10'><mark>'</mark></a>direct , personal relationships with deities and the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='11'><mark>'</mark></a>power to intervene in human events . People in this era put faith in specific gods who they hoped would help and protect them through their lives . As a result , upholding the ideals of maat grew less important than gaining the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='12'><mark>'</mark></a>favor as a way to guarantee a good life . Even the pharaohs <a href='uninflect' title='13'><mark>were</mark></a> regarded as dependent on divine aid , and after the New Kingdom came to an end , government was increasingly influenced by oracles communicating the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='14'><mark>'</mark></a>will .
Egyptian txt take different views on whether da gods are responsible when humans suffer unjustly . Misfortune was often seen as a product of isfet , tdacosmic disorder was the opposite of maat , and therefore the gods ain't guilty of causing evil events . sum deities was closely connected wid isfet , such as Set , could b blamed fa disorder within thdaorld without placing guilt on thedaher gods . But some writings do accuse the daties of causing human misery , while others give theodicies in the gods defense . Beginning in the Middle Kingdom , several texts connected the idae of evil in the world with a myth in which the crdaor god fight a human rebellion against his rule and then withdraw from the earth . Because of this human misbehavior , the creator distant from his creation , allowing suffering to exist . New Kingdom writings do not question the just nature of the gods as strongly as those of the Middle Kingdom . They emphasize humans direct , personal relationships with deities and the goddapower to intervene in human events . dudes in this era put faith in specific gods who they hoped would help and protect them through their lives . As a result , upholding the ideadaof maat grew less important than gaining the gods favor as a way to guarantee a good life . Even the pharaohs was regarded as dependent on divine aid , and after the New Kdadom came to an end , government was increasingly influenced by oracles communicating the gods will .
0
0
0
1
0
16
2
0
5
2
31
5
= = = Worship = = =
= = = Worship = = =
= = = Worship = = =
0
0
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0
0
0
0
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0
0
0
0
Official religious practices , which maintained maat for the benefit of all Egypt , were related to , but distinct from , the religious practices of ordinary people , who sought the gods ' help for their personal problems .
Official religious practices , which maintained maat for the benefit of all Egypt , <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> related to , but distinct from , the religious practices of ordinary people , <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>who</mark></a>sought the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>help for their personal problems .
Official religious practices , which maintained maat fir the benefit of all Egypt , was related to , but distinct from , the religious practices of ordinary people , sought da gods help fir their personal problems .
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
1
1
6
1
Official religion involved a variety of rituals , based in temples . Some rites were performed every day , whereas others were festivals , taking place at longer intervals and often limited to a particular temple or deity . The gods received their offerings in daily ceremonies , in which their statues were clothed , anointed , and presented with food as hymns were recited in their honor . These offerings , in addition to maintaining maat for the gods , celebrated deities ' life @-@ giving generosity and encouraged them to remain benevolent rather than vengeful .
Official religion involved a variety of rituals , based in temples . Some rites <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> performed every day , whereas others <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> festivals , taking place at longer intervals and often limited to a particular temple or deity . The gods received their offerings in daily ceremonies , in which their statues <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> clothed , anointed , and presented with food as hymns <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> recited in their honor . These offerings , in addition to maintaining maat for the gods , celebrated deities <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'</mark></a>life @-@ giving generosity and encouraged them to remain benevolent rather than vengeful .
Official religion involved a variety of rituals , based in temples . Some rites was performed every day , whereas others was festivals , taking place at longer intervals and often limited to a particular temple or deity . The gods received their offerings in daily ceremonies , in which their statues was clothed , anointed , and presented witt food as hymns was recited in their honor . These offerings , in addition to maintaining maat fa the gods , celebrated deities life @-@ givin generosity and encouraged em to remain benevolent rather than vengeful .
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
1
0
9
4
Festivals often involved a ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a barque @-@ shaped shrine . These processions served various purposes . In Roman times , when local deities of all kinds were believed to have power over the Nile inundation , processions in many communities carried temple images to the riverbanks so the gods could invoke a large and fruitful flood . Processions also traveled between temples , as when the image of Hathor from Dendera Temple visited her consort Horus at the Temple of Edfu . Rituals for a god were often based in that deity 's mythology . Such rituals were meant to be repetitions of the events of the mythic past , renewing the beneficial effects of the original events . In the Khoiak festival in honor of Osiris , his death and resurrection were ritually reenacted at a time when crops were beginning to sprout . The returning greenery symbolized the renewal of the god 's own life .
Festivals often involved a ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a barque @-@ shaped shrine . These processions served various purposes . In Roman times , when local deities of all kinds <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> believed to have power over the Nile inundation , processions in many communities carried temple images to the riverbanks so the gods could invoke a large and fruitful flood . Processions also traveled between temples , as when the image of Hathor from Dendera Temple visited her consort Horus at the Temple of Edfu . Rituals for a god <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> often based in that deity <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>mythology . Such rituals <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> meant to be repetitions of the events of the mythic past , renewing the beneficial effects of the original events . In the Khoiak festival in honor of Osiris , his death and resurrection <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> ritually reenacted at a time when crops <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> beginning to sprout . The returning greenery symbolized the renewal of the god <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'s</mark></a>own life .
Festivals often involved a ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a barque @-@ shaped shrine . These processions served various purposes . In Roman times , when local deities of alll kinds was believed to have power ova da Nile inundation , processions in many communities carried temple images to tdariverbanks so thdaods could invoke a bigass and fruitful flood . Processions also traveled between temples , as when the image of Hathor from Dendera Temple visited her consort Horus at the Temple of Edfu . Rituals fir a god was often based in that deity mythology . Such rituals was meant to b repetitions of thedaents of the mythic past , renewing the beneficial effects of the original events . In the daiak festival in honor of Osiris , his death and resurrection was ritually reenacted at a time when crops was beginning to sprout . The returning greenery symbolized the rdawal of the godaown life .
0
0
0
0
0
12
0
0
2
0
19
5
Personal interaction with the gods took many forms . People who wanted information or advice consulted oracles , run by temples , that were supposed to convey gods ' answers to questions . Amulets and other images of protective deities were used to ward off the demons that might threaten human well @-@ being or to impart the god 's positive characteristics to the wearer . Private rituals invoked the gods ' power to accomplish personal goals , from healing sickness to cursing enemies . These practices used heka , the same force of magic that the gods used , which the creator was said to have given to humans so they could fend off misfortune . The performer of a private rite often took on the role of a god in a myth , or even threatened a deity , to involve the gods in accomplishing the goal . Such rituals coexisted with private offerings and prayers , and all three were accepted means of obtaining divine help .
Personal interaction with the gods took many forms . People <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>who</mark></a>wanted information or advice consulted oracles , run by temples , that <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> supposed to convey gods <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>answers to questions . Amulets and other images of protective deities <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> used to ward off the demons <a href='null_relcl' title='5'><mark>that</mark></a>might threaten human well @-@ being or to impart the god <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'s</mark></a>positive characteristics to the wearer . Private rituals invoked the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'</mark></a>power to accomplish personal goals , from healing sickness to cursing enemies . These practices used heka , the same force of magic <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>the gods used , which the creator was said to <a href='been_done' title='9'><mark>have</mark></a> given to humans so they could fend off misfortune . The performer of a private rite often took on the role of a god in a myth , or even threatened a deity , to involve the gods in accomplishing the goal . Such rituals coexisted with private offerings and prayers , and all three <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>were</mark></a> accepted means of obtaining divine help .
Personal interaction wit da gods took many forms . People wanted information or advice consulted oracles , run by temples , that was supposed to convey gods answers to questions . Amulets and other images of protective deities was used to ward off the demons mite threaten human well @-@ being or to impart the god positive characteristics to the wearer . Private rituals invoked the gods power to accomplish personal goals , from healing sickness to cursing enemies . dem practices used heka , the same force of magic the gods used , which the creator was said to done given to humans soo they could fend offf misfortune . Tdaperformer of a private rite often took on the role of a god in a myth , or even threatened a deity , to involve the gods in accomplishing thdaoal . Such rituals coexisted ww/private offerings and prayers , and all three was accepted means of obtaining divine help .
0
1
0
0
0
9
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3
3
19
3
Prayer and private offerings are generally called " personal piety " : acts that reflect a close relationship between an individual and a god . Evidence of personal piety is scant before the New Kingdom . Votive offerings and personal names , many of which are theophoric , suggest that commoners felt some connection between themselves and their gods . But firm evidence of devotion to deities became visible only in the New Kingdom , reaching a peak late in that era . Scholars disagree about the meaning of this change — whether direct interaction with the gods was a new development or an outgrowth of older traditions . Egyptians now expressed their devotion through a new variety of activities in and around temples . They recorded their prayers and their thanks for divine help on stelae . They gave offerings of figurines that represented the gods they were praying to , or that symbolized the result they desired ; thus a relief image of Hathor and a statuette of a woman could both represent a prayer for fertility . Occasionally , a person took a particular god as a patron , dedicating his or her property or labor to the god 's cult . These practices continued into the latest periods of Egyptian history . These later eras saw more religious innovations , including the practice of giving animal mummies as offerings to deities depicted in animal form , such as the cat mummies given to the feline goddess Bastet . Some of the major deities from myth and official religion were rarely invoked in popular worship , but many of the great state gods were important in popular tradition .
Prayer and private offerings are generally called " personal piety " : acts <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a>reflect a close relationship between an individual and a god . Evidence of personal piety <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>is</mark></a>scant before the New Kingdom . Votive offerings and personal names , many of which <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>are</mark></a>theophoric , suggest that commoners felt some connection between themselves and their gods . But firm evidence of devotion to deities became visible only in the New Kingdom , reaching a peak late in that era . Scholars disagree about the meaning of this change — whether direct interaction with the gods was a new development or an outgrowth of older traditions . Egyptians now expressed their devotion through a new variety of activities in and around temples . They recorded their prayers and their thanks for divine help on stelae . They gave offerings of figurines <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a>represented the gods they <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> praying to , or that symbolized the result they desired ; thus a relief image of Hathor and a statuette of a woman could both represent a prayer for fertility . Occasionally , a person took a particular god as a patron , dedicating his or her property or labor to the god <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'s</mark></a>cult . These practices continued into the latest periods of Egyptian history . These later eras saw more religious innovations , including the practice of giving animal mummies as offerings to deities depicted in animal form , such as the cat mummies given to the feline goddess Bastet . Some of the major deities from myth and official religion <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> rarely invoked in popular worship , but many of the great state gods <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> important in popular tradition .
Prayer and private offerings r generally called " personal piety " : acts reflect a close relationship between an individual and a god . Evidence of personal piety scant before the New Kingdom . Votive offerings and personal names , many of which theophoric , suggest that commoners felt sum connection between themselves and their gods . But firm evidence of devotion to deities became visible only in da New Kingdom , reaching a peak late in that era . Scholars disagree bout the meaning of this change — whether direct interaction with the gods was a new development or an outgrowth of older traditions . Egyptians now expressed their devotion through a new variety of activities in and around temples . They recorded their prayers and their thanks for divine help on stelae . They gave offerings of figurines represented tdagods they was praying to , or that symbolized the result they desired ; thus a relief image of Hathor and a statuette of a woman could both represent a prayer fir fertility . Occasionally , a person took a particular god as a patron , dedicating his or her property or labor to thdaod cult . These practices continued into thedatest periods of Egyptian history . dem later eras saw more religious innovations , including the practice of givin animal mummies as offerings to deities depicted in animal form , such as the cat mummies given to the feline goddess Bastet . Ssumof the daor deities from myth and official religion was rarely invoked in popular worship , but many of the gdat state gods was important in popular tradition .
0
0
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2
0
13
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1
2
21
3
The worship of some Egyptian gods spread to neighboring lands , especially to Canaan and Nubia during the New Kingdom , when those regions were under pharaonic control . In Canaan , the exported deities , including Hathor , Amun , and Set , were often syncretized with native gods , who in turn spread to Egypt . The Egyptian deities may not have had permanent temples in Canaan , and their importance there waned after Egypt lost control of the region . In contrast , many temples to the major Egyptian gods and deified pharaohs were built in Nubia . After the end of Egyptian rule there , the imported gods , particularly Amun and Isis , were syncretized with local deities and remained part of the religion of Nubia 's independent Kingdom of Kush . These gods were incorporated into the Nubian ideology of kingship much as they were in Egypt , so that Amun was considered the divine father of the king and Isis and other goddesses were linked with the Nubian queen , the kandake . Some deities reached farther . Taweret became a goddess in Minoan Crete , and Amun 's oracle at Siwa Oasis was known to and consulted by people across the Mediterranean region .
The worship of some Egyptian gods spread to neighboring lands , especially to Canaan and Nubia during the New Kingdom , when those regions <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> under pharaonic control . In Canaan , the exported deities , including Hathor , Amun , and Set , <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> often syncretized with native gods , <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>who</mark></a>in turn spread to Egypt . The Egyptian deities may not <a href='been_done' title='4'><mark>have</mark></a> had permanent temples in Canaan , and their importance there waned after Egypt lost control of the region . In contrast , many temples to the major Egyptian gods and deified pharaohs <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> built in Nubia . After the end of Egyptian rule there , the imported gods , particularly Amun and Isis , <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> syncretized with local deities and remained part of the religion of Nubia <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'s</mark></a>independent Kingdom of Kush . These gods <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> incorporated into the Nubian ideology of kingship much as they <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>were</mark></a> in Egypt , so that Amun was considered the divine father of the king and Isis and other goddesses <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>were</mark></a> linked with the Nubian queen , the kandake . Some deities reached farther . Taweret became a goddess in Minoan Crete , and Amun <a href='null_genetive' title='11'><mark>'s</mark></a>oracle at Siwa Oasis was known to and consulted by people across the Mediterranean region .
The worship of sum Egyptian gods spread to neighboring lands , especially to Canaan and Nubia during da New Kingdom , when those regions was under pharaonic control . In Canaan , tdaexported deities , including Hathor , Amun , and Set , was often syncretized wit native gods , in turn spread to Egypt . Thdagyptian deities may not done had permanent temples in Canaan , and their importance there waned after Egypt lost control of thedagion . In contrast , many temples to the major Egyptian gods and deified pharaohs was built in Nubia . After the da of Egyptian rule there , the idarted gods , particularly Amun and Isis , was syncretized with local deities and remained part of the religion of Nubia independent Kingdom of Kush . These gods was incorporated into the Nubian ideology of kingship much as they was in Egypt , soo that Amun was considered the didae father of the king and Isis and other goddesses was linked with the Nubian queen , the kandake . Some deities reached farther . Taweret became a goddess in Minoan Crete , and Amun oracle at Siwa Oasis was known to and consulted by people across the Meddarranean region .
0
1
0
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0
11
0
0
2
1
22
7
Under the Greek Ptolemaic Dynasty and then Roman rule , Greeks and Romans introduced their own deities to Egypt . These newcomers equated the Egyptian gods with their own , as part of the Greco @-@ Roman tradition of interpretatio graeca . But the worship of the native gods was not swallowed up by that of foreign ones . Instead , Greek and Roman gods were adopted as manifestations of Egyptian ones . Egyptian cults sometimes incorporated Greek language , philosophy , iconography , and even temple architecture . Meanwhile , the cults of several Egyptian deities — particularly Isis , Osiris , Anubis , the form of Horus named Harpocrates , and the fused Greco @-@ Egyptian god Serapis — were adopted into Roman religion and spread across the Roman Empire . Roman emperors , like Ptolemaic kings before them , invoked Isis and Serapis to endorse their authority , inside and outside Egypt . In the empire 's complex mix of religious traditions , Thoth was transmuted into the legendary esoteric teacher Hermes Trismegistus , and Isis , who was venerated from Britain to Mesopotamia , became the focus of a Greek @-@ style mystery cult . Isis and Hermes Trismegistus were both prominent in the Western esoteric tradition that grew from the Roman religious world .
Under the Greek Ptolemaic Dynasty and then Roman rule , Greeks and Romans introduced their own deities to Egypt . These newcomers equated the Egyptian gods with their own , as part of the Greco @-@ Roman tradition of interpretatio graeca . But the worship of the native gods was not swallowed up by that of foreign ones . Instead , Greek and Roman gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> adopted as manifestations of Egyptian ones . Egyptian cults sometimes incorporated Greek language , philosophy , iconography , and even temple architecture . Meanwhile , the cults of several Egyptian deities — particularly Isis , Osiris , Anubis , the form of Horus named Harpocrates , and the fused Greco @-@ Egyptian god Serapis — <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> adopted into Roman religion and spread across the Roman Empire . Roman emperors , like Ptolemaic kings before them , invoked Isis and Serapis to endorse their authority , inside and outside Egypt . In the empire <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>complex mix of religious traditions , Thoth was transmuted into the legendary esoteric teacher Hermes Trismegistus , and Isis , <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>who</mark></a>was venerated from Britain to Mesopotamia , became the focus of a Greek @-@ style mystery cult . Isis and Hermes Trismegistus <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> both prominent in the Western esoteric tradition <a href='null_relcl' title='6'><mark>that</mark></a>grew from the Roman religious world .
Under da Greek Ptolemaic Dynasty and then Roman rule , Greeks and Romans introduced their own deities to Egypt . dese newcomers equated tdaEgyptian gods with their own , as part of the Greco @-@ Roman tradition of interpretatio graeca . But thdaorship of thedative gods was not swallowed up by that of foreign ones . Instead , Greek and Roman gods was adopted as manifestations of Egyptian ones . Egyptian cults sometimes incorporated Greek language , philosophy , iconography , and even temple architecture . Meanwhile , the cults of several Egyptian deities — particularly Isis , Osiris , Anubis , the dam of Horus named Harpocrates , and the fused Greco @-@ Egyptian god Serapis — was adopted into Roman religion and spread across the Roman Empire . Roman emperors , like Ptolemaic kings before them , invoked Isis and Serapis to endorse their authority , inside and outside Egypt . In the empire complex mix of religious traditions , Thoth was transmuted into the ldandary esoteric teacher Hermes Trismegistus , and Isis , was venerated from Britain to Mesopotamia , became the focus of a Greek @-@ style mystery cult . Isis and Hermes Trismegistus was both prominent in the Western esoteric tradition grew from the Roman religious world .
0
0
0
0
0
7
0
0
1
2
13
3
Temples and cults in Egypt itself declined as the Roman economy deteriorated in the third century AD , and beginning in the fourth century , Christians suppressed the veneration of Egyptian deities . The last formal cults , at Philae , died out in the fifth or sixth century . Most beliefs surrounding the gods themselves disappeared within a few hundred years , remaining in magical texts into the seventh and eighth centuries . But many of the practices involved in their worship , such as processions and oracles , were adapted to fit Christian ideology and persisted as part of the Coptic Church . Given the great changes and diverse influences in Egyptian culture since that time , scholars disagree about whether any modern Coptic practices are descended from those of pharaonic religion . But many festivals and other traditions of modern Egyptians , both Christian and Muslim , resemble the worship of their ancestors ' gods .
Temples and cults in Egypt itself declined as the Roman economy deteriorated in the third century AD , and beginning in the fourth century , Christians suppressed the veneration of Egyptian deities . The last formal cults , at Philae , died out in the fifth or sixth century . Most beliefs surrounding the gods themselves disappeared within a few hundred years , remaining in magical texts into the seventh and eighth centuries . But many of the practices involved in their worship , such as processions and oracles , <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> adapted to fit Christian ideology and persisted as part of the Coptic Church . Given the great changes and diverse influences in Egyptian culture since that time , scholars disagree about whether any modern Coptic practices are descended from those of pharaonic religion . But many festivals and other traditions of modern Egyptians , both Christian and Muslim , resemble the worship of their ancestors <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'</mark></a>gods .
Temples and cults in Egypt itself declined as the Roman economy deteriorated in da third century AD , and beginning in tdafourth century , Christians suppressed the veneration of Egyptian deities . Thdaast formal cults , at Philae , died outt in thedafth or sixth century . Most beliefs surrounding the gods themselves disappeared within a few hunnit years , remaining in magical texts into the seventh and eighth centuries . But many of the practices involved in their worship , such as processions and oracles , was adapted to fit Christian ideology and persisted as part of the Coptic Church . Given the great changes and diverse influences in Egyptian culture since that time , scholars disagree bout whether any modern Coptic practices r descended from those of pharaonic religion . But many festivals and other traditions of modern Egyptians , both Christian and Muslim , resemble the worship of their ancestors gods .
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
1
0
10
1
= South of Heaven =
= South of Heaven =
= South of Heaven =
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South of Heaven is the fourth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on July 5 , 1988 , the album was the band 's second collaboration with record producer Rick Rubin , whose production skills on Slayer 's previous album Reign in Blood had helped the band 's sound evolve .
South of Heaven <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>the fourth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on July 5 , 1988 , the album was the band <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>second collaboration with record producer Rick Rubin , whose production skills on Slayer <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>previous album Reign in Blood <a href='been_done' title='4'><mark>had</mark></a> helped the band <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'s</mark></a>sound evolve .
South of Heaven the fourth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on July 5 , 1988 , da mixtape was tdaband second collaboration with record producer Rick Rubin , whose production skills on Slayer previoumixtapeum Reign in Blood done helped thdaand sound evolve .
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South of Heaven was Slayer 's second album to enter the Billboard 200 , and its last to be released by Def Jam Recordings , although the album became an American Recordings album after Rick Rubin ended his partnership with Russell Simmons . It was one of only two Def Jam titles to be distributed by Geffen Records through Warner Bros. Records because of original distributor Columbia Records ' refusal to release work by the band . The release peaked at number 57 and in 1992 was awarded a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America .
South of Heaven was Slayer <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>second album to enter the Billboard 200 , and its last to be released by Def Jam Recordings , although the album became an American Recordings album after Rick Rubin ended his partnership with Russell Simmons . It was one of only two Def Jam titles to be distributed by Geffen Records through Warner Bros. Records because of original distributor Columbia Records <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'</mark></a>refusal to release work by the band . The release peaked at number 57 and in 1992 was awarded a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America .
South of Heaven was Slayer second album to enter da Billboard 200 , and its last to be released by Def Jam Recordings , although the album became an American Recordings mixtape after Rick Rubin ended his partnership w/ Russell Simmons . It was one of only two Def Jam titles to b distributed by Geffen Records thru Warner Bros. Records b/c of original distributor Columbia Records refusal to release work by the band . The release peaked at number 57 and in 1992 was awarded a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America .
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In order to offset the pace of the group 's previous album , Slayer deliberately slowed down the album 's tempo . In contrast to their previous albums , the band utilized undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocals . While some critics praised this musical change , others — more accustomed to the style of earlier releases — were disappointed . The songs " Mandatory Suicide " and the title track , however , have become permanent features of the band 's live setlist .
In order to offset the pace of the group <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>previous album , Slayer deliberately slowed down the album <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>tempo . In contrast to their previous albums , the band utilized undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocals . While some critics praised this musical change , others — more accustomed to the style of earlier releases — <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> disappointed . The songs " Mandatory Suicide " and the title track , however , <a href='been_done' title='4'><mark>have</mark></a> become permanent features of the band <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'s</mark></a>live setlist .
In order to offset da pace of the group previous album , Slayer deliberately slowed down the album tempo . In contrast to their previous albums , tdaband utilized undistorted guitars and toned @-@ downn vocals . While sum critics praised dis musical change , others — more accustomed to the style of earlier releases — was disappointed . The songs " Mandatory Suicide " and thdaitle track , however , done become permanent features of thedand live setlist .
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= = Background = =
= = Background = =
= = Background = =
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South of Heaven was recorded in Los Angeles , California with Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin . PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand observed that Rubin 's production " shoves [ Dave ] Lombardo 's drumming right up front in the mix . " Guitarist Jeff Hanneman has since said that South of Heaven was the only album the band members discussed before writing the music . Aware that they " couldn 't top Reign in Blood " , and that whatever they recorded would be " compared to that album " , he believed they " had to slow down " , something Slayer had never done on albums before , or since . Guitarist Kerry King cited the need to " keep people guessing " as another reason for the musical shift . " In order to contrast the aggressive assault put forth on Reign in Blood , Slayer consciously slowed down the tempo of the album as a whole " , according to Slayer 's official biography . " They also added elements like undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocal styles not heard on previous albums . "
South of Heaven was recorded in Los Angeles , California with Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin . PopMatters <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>reviewer</mark></a> Adrien Begrand observed that Rubin <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>production " shoves [ Dave ] Lombardo <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>drumming right up front in the mix . " Guitarist Jeff Hanneman <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>has</mark></a> since said that South of Heaven was the only album the band members discussed before writing the music . Aware that they " couldn 't top Reign in Blood " , and that whatever they recorded would be " compared to that album " , he<a href='been_done' title='5'><mark></mark></a> believed they " had to slow down " , something Slayer had never done on <a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>albums</mark></a> before , or since . Guitarist Kerry King cited the need to " keep people guessing " as another reason for the musical shift . " In order to contrast the aggressive assault put forth on Reign in Blood , Slayer consciously slowed down the tempo of the album as a whole " , according to Slayer <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'s</mark></a>official biography . " They also added elements like undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocal styles not heard on previous albums . "
South of Heaven was recorded in Los Angeles , California w Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin . PopMatters review Adrien Begrand observed that Rubin production " shoves [ Dave ] Lombardo drumming rite up front in da mix . " Guitarist Jeff Hanneman have since said dat South of Heaven was the only album tdaband members discussed b4 writing the music . Aware that they " couldn 't top Reign in Blood " , and that whatever they recorded would be " compared to that album " , he done believed they " had to slow down " , something Slayer had never done on no albums befob4r since . Guitarist Kerry King cited thdaotta " keep people guessing " as another reason fir the musical shift . " In order to contrast the aggressive assault put forth on Reign in Blood , Slayer consciously slowed down thedampo of the album as a whole " , according to Slayer official biography . " They also added elements like undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocal styles not heard on previous albums . "
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11
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3
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2