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= SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max =

= SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max =

= SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max =

For the ironclad present at the Battle of Lissa of the same name , see SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( 1865 ) .

For the ironclad present at the Battle of Lissa of the same name , see SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( 1865 ) .

For the ironclad present at the Battle of Lissa of the same name , see SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( 1865 ) .

SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( German : " His Majesty 's ship Archduke Ferdinand Max " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1902 . The second ship of the Erzherzog Karl class , she was launched on 3 October 1903 . She was assigned to the III Battleship Division .

SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( German : " His Majesty <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>ship Archduke Ferdinand Max " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1902 . The second ship of the Erzherzog Karl class , she was launched on 3 October 1903 . She was assigned to the III Battleship Division .

SMS Erzherzog Ferdinand Max ( German : " His Majesty ship Archduke Ferdinand Max " ) was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in 1902 . da second ship of the Erzherzog Karl class , she was launched on 3 October 1903 . She was assigned to tdaIII Battleship Division .

For most of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max remained in her home port of Pola , in present @-@ day Croatia , except for four engagements . In 1914 , she formed part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian flotilla sent to protect the escape of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau from the British @-@ held Mediterranean ; she advanced as far as Brindisi before being recalled to her home port . Her sole combat engagement occurred in late May 1915 , when she participated in the bombardment of the Italian port city of Ancona . She also took part in suppressing a major mutiny among the crew members of several armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro between 1 – 3 February 1918 . She also attempted to break through the Otranto Barrage in June of that year , but had to retreat when the dreadnought SMS Szent István was sunk . After the war , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was awarded to the United Kingdom as a war prize in 1920 .

For most of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max remained in her home port of Pola , in present @-@ day Croatia , except for four engagements . In 1914 , she formed part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian flotilla sent to protect the escape of the German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau from the British @-@ held Mediterranean ; she advanced as far as Brindisi before being recalled to her home port . Her sole combat engagement occurred in late May 1915 , when she participated in the bombardment of the Italian port city of Ancona . She also took part in suppressing a major mutiny among the crew members of several armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro between 1 – 3 February 1918 . She also attempted to break through the Otranto Barrage in June of that year , but had to retreat when the dreadnought SMS Szent István was sunk . After the war , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was awarded to the United Kingdom as a war prize in 1920 .

For most of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max remained in her home port of Pola , in present @-@ day Croatia , except for four engagements . In 1914 , she formed part of the Austro @-@ Hungarian flotilla sent to protect the escape of da German ships SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau from tdaBritish @-@ held Mediterranean ; she advanced as far as Brindisi before bein recalled to her home port . Her sole combat engagement occurred in late May 1915 , when she participated in the bombardment of thdatalian port city of Ancona . She also took part in suppressing a major mutiny among thedaew members of several armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro between 1 – 3 February 1918 . She also attempted to break through the daanto Barrage in June of dat year , but had to retreat when the ddadnought SMS Szent István was sunk . After the war , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was awarded to the United Kingdom as a war prize in 1920 .

= = Design = =

= = Design = =

= = Design = =

Erzherzog Ferdinand Max displaced 10 @,@ 472 long tons ( 10 @,@ 640 t ) . She was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 2 m ) long , had a beam of 71 feet 5 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She was manned by 700 men . She and her sisters were the last and largest pre @-@ dreadnought class built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , surpassing the Habsburg class by approximately 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 968 long tons ) . She was propelled by two two @-@ shaft , four cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines . On trials , they developed 18 @,@ 000 ihp ( 13 @,@ 423 kW ) , which propelled the ship at a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) .

Erzherzog Ferdinand Max displaced 10 @,@ 472 long tons ( 10 @,@ 640 t ) . She was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 2 m ) long , had a beam of 71 feet 5 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She was manned by 700 men . She and her sisters <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> the last and largest pre @-@ dreadnought class built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , surpassing the Habsburg class by approximately 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 968 long tons ) . She was propelled by two two @-@ shaft , four cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines . On trials , they developed 18 @,@ 000 ihp ( 13 @,@ 423 kW ) , which propelled the ship at a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) .

Erzherzog Ferdinand Max displaced 10 @,@ 472 long tons ( 10 @,@ 640 t ) . She was 414 feet 2 inches ( 126 @.@ 2 m ) long , had a beam of 71 feet 5 inches ( 21 @.@ 8 m ) and a draft of 24 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) . She was manned by 700 men . She and her sisters was da last and largest pre @-@ dreadnought class built by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , surpassing the Habsburg class by approximately 2 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 968 long tons ) . She was propelled by two 2 @-@ shaft , four cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines . On trials , they developed 18 @,@ 000 ihp ( 13 @,@ 423 kW ) , which propelled the ship at a speed of 20 @.@ 5 knots ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) .

Erzherzog Ferdinand Max carried a primary armament of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin turrets on the centerline . These guns were an Austro @-@ Hungarian replica of the British 24 cm / 40 ( 9 @.@ 4 " ) Krupp C / 94 , which was used on the Habsburgs . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 19 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) / 42 caliber guns , also made by Škoda , mounted in eight single casemates on either wing of the ship and two twin turrets on the centerline. shell 20 @,@ 000 metres ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation with a muzzle velocity of 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The gun weighed 12 @.@ 1 tons and could fire three rounds per minute.The ships had a tertiary armament for protection against torpedo boats in the form of the 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 45 caliber gun , also manufactured by Škoda . Anti @-@ aircraft and airship protection was covered by the four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Vickers anti @-@ aircraft guns on the ship bought from Britain in 1910 and mounted onto Erzherzog Karl . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was also fitted with two above water 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , although rarely used .

Erzherzog Ferdinand Max carried a primary armament of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin turrets on the centerline . These guns <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> an Austro @-@ Hungarian replica of the British 24 cm / 40 ( 9 @.@ 4 " ) Krupp C / 94 , which was used on the Habsburgs . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 19 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) / 42 caliber guns , also made by Škoda , mounted in eight single casemates on either wing of the ship and two twin turrets on the centerline. shell 20 @,@ 000 metres ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation with a muzzle velocity of 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . The gun weighed 12 @.@ 1 tons and could fire three rounds per minute.The ships had a tertiary armament for protection against torpedo boats in the form of the 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 45 caliber gun , also manufactured by Škoda . Anti @-@ aircraft and airship protection was covered by the four 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Vickers anti @-@ aircraft guns on the ship bought from Britain in 1910 and mounted onto Erzherzog Karl . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was also fitted with two above water 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , although rarely used .

Erzherzog Ferdinand Max carried a primary armament of four 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) / 40 caliber guns in two twin turrets on da centerline . These guns was an Austro @-@ Hungarian replica of tdaBritish 24 cm / 40 ( 9 @.@ 4 " ) Krupp C / 94 , which was used on the Habsburgs . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 19 @-@ centimeter ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) / 42 caliber guns , also made by Škoda , mounted in eight single casemates on either wing of thdahip and two twin turrets on the centerline. shell 20 @,@ 000 metres ( 22 @,@ 000 yd ) at maximum elevation with a muzzle velocity of 800 metres per second ( 2 @,@ 600 ft / s ) . Thedan weighed 12 @.@ 1 tons and could fire three rounds per minute.The daps had a tertiary armament fir protection against torpedo boats in the fda of the 6 @.@ 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) / 45 caliber gun , also manufactured by Škoda . Anti @-@ aircraft and airship protection was covered by the 4 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Vickers anti @-@ aircraft guns on the shdabought from Britain in 1910 and mounted onto Erzherzog Karl . Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was also fitted with 2 above water 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes , although rarely used .

= = Service history = =

= = Service history = =

= = Service history = =

At the outbreak of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was in the III division of the Austrian @-@ Hungarian battle @-@ fleet . She was mobilized on the eve of the war along with the remainder of the fleet to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships were attempting to break out of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops , and make their way to Turkey . The breakout succeeded . When the flotilla had advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships were recalled . In company with other units of the Austro Hungarian navy , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max took a minor part in the bombardment of Ancona on 24 May 1915 . There she and her sisters expended 24 rounds of 240 mm armor @-@ piercing shells at signal and semaphore stations as well as 74 rounds of 190 mm shells aimed at Italian gun @-@ batteries and other port installations .

At the outbreak of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was in the III division of the Austrian @-@ Hungarian battle @-@ fleet . She was mobilized on the eve of the war along with the remainder of the fleet to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . The two German ships <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> attempting to break out of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops , and make their way to Turkey . The breakout succeeded . When the flotilla <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>had</mark></a> advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> recalled . In company with other units of the Austro Hungarian navy , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max took a minor part in the bombardment of Ancona on 24 May 1915 . There she and her sisters expended 24 rounds of 240 mm armor @-@ piercing shells at signal and semaphore stations as well as 74 rounds of 190 mm shells aimed at Italian gun @-@ batteries and other port installations .

At the outbreak of World War I , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was in the III division of the Austrian @-@ Hungarian battle @-@ fleet . She was mobilized on the eve of da war along wit the remainder of the fleet to support the flight of SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . Tdatwo German ships was attempting to break out of Messina , which was surrounded by British troops , and make their way to Turkey . The breakout succeeded . When the flotilla done advanced as far south as Brindisi in south eastern Italy , the Austro @-@ Hungarian ships was recalled . In company with other units of the Austro Hungarian navy , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max took a minor part in thdaombardment of Ancona on 24 May 1915 . There she and her sisters expended 24 rounds of 240 mm armor @-@ piercing shells at signal and semaphore stations as well as 74 rounds of 190 mm shells aimed at Italian gun @-@ batteries and other port installations .

A major mutiny among crews of the armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro , including Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI , began on 1 February 1918 . Two days later , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters arrived in the port and assisted with the suppression of the mutiny . Following the restoration of order in the naval base , the armored cruisers Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI were decommissioned and Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters were stationed in Cattaro in their place . On the morning of 11 June , Admiral Miklos Horthy planned a major assault on the Otranto Barrage ; the three Erzherzog Karls and the four Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships were to provide support for the Novara @-@ class cruisers on an assault on the Allied defenses at the Strait of Otranto . The plan was intended to replicate the success of the raid conducted one year earlier . Horthy 's plan was to destroy the blockading fleet by luring Allied ships to the cruisers and lighter ships , which were protected from the heavier guns of the battleships , including the guns of the Erzherzog Karl class . However , on the morning of 10 June , the dreadnought Szent István was torpedoed and sunk by an Italian torpedo boat . Horthy felt that the element of surprise had been compromised , and therefore called off the operation . This was to be the last military action Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was to take part in , and she and her sisters spent the rest of their career in port .

A major mutiny among crews of the armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro , including Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI , began on 1 February 1918 . Two days later , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters arrived in the port and assisted with the suppression of the mutiny . Following the restoration of order in the naval base , the armored cruisers Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> decommissioned and Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> stationed in Cattaro in their place . On the morning of 11 June , Admiral Miklos Horthy planned a major assault on the Otranto Barrage ; the three Erzherzog Karls and the four Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> to provide support for the Novara @-@ class cruisers on an assault on the Allied defenses at the Strait of Otranto . The plan was intended to replicate the success of the raid conducted one year earlier . Horthy <a href='null_genetive' title='4'><mark>'s</mark></a>plan was to destroy the blockading fleet by luring Allied ships to the cruisers and lighter ships , which <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> protected from the heavier guns of the battleships , including the guns of the Erzherzog Karl class . However , on the morning of 10 June , the dreadnought Szent István was torpedoed and sunk by an Italian torpedo boat . Horthy felt that the element of surprise <a href='been_done' title='6'><mark>had</mark></a> been compromised , and therefore called off the operation . This was to be the last military action Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was to take part in , and she and her sisters spent the rest of their career in port .

A major mutiny among crews of the armored cruisers stationed in Cattaro , including Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI , began on 1 February 1918 . Two days later , Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters arrived in the port and assisted witt the suppression of da mutiny . Following tdarestoration of order in the naval base , the armored cruisers Sankt Georg and Kaiser Karl VI was decommissioned and Erzherzog Ferdinand Max and her sisters was stationed in Cattaro in their place . On the morning of 11 June , Admiral Miklos Horthy planned a major assault on thdatranto Barrage ; the three Erzherzog Karls and the 4 Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships was to provide support for thedavara @-@ class cruisers on an assault on the Allied defenses at the Strait of Otranto . The plan was intended to replicate the dacess of the raid conducted one year earlier . Horthy plan was to destroy the blockading fleet by luring Allied ships to the cdasers and lighter ships , which was protected from the hedaer guns of the battleships , including the gundaf the Erzhdaog Karl class . However , on the mornidaof 10 June , the dreadnought Szent István was torpedoed and sunk by an Italian torpedo boat . Horthy felt that the element of surprise done been compromised , and therefore called off the operation . dis was to b the last military action Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was to take part in , and she and her sisters spent the rest of their career in port .

Near the end of World War I , the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships were handed over to the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs but Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was later transferred to Great Britain as a war reparation . She was later broken up for scrap in 1921 .

Near the end of World War I , the Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> handed over to the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs but Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was later transferred to Great Britain as a war reparation . She was later broken up for scrap in 1921 .

Near the end of World War I , da Erzherzog Karl @-@ class battleships was handed ova to the newly formed State of Slovenes , Croats and Serbs but Erzherzog Ferdinand Max was later transferred to Great Britain as a war reparation . She was later broken up for scrap in 1921 .

= Ancient Egyptian deities =

= Ancient Egyptian deities =

= Ancient Egyptian deities =

Ancient Egyptian deities are the gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient Egypt . The beliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed the core of ancient Egyptian religion , which emerged sometime in prehistory . Deities represented natural forces and phenomena , and the Egyptians supported and appeased them through offerings and rituals so that these forces would continue to function according to maat , or divine order . After the founding of the Egyptian state around 3100 BC , the authority to perform these tasks was controlled by the pharaoh , who claimed to be the gods ' representative and managed the temples where the rituals were carried out .

Ancient Egyptian deities <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>are</mark></a>the gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient Egypt . The beliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed the core of ancient Egyptian religion , which emerged sometime in prehistory . Deities represented natural forces and phenomena , and the Egyptians supported and appeased them through offerings and rituals so that these forces would continue to function according to maat , or divine order . After the founding of the Egyptian state around 3100 BC , the authority to perform these tasks was controlled by the pharaoh , <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>who</mark></a>claimed to be the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>representative and managed the temples where the rituals <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> carried out .

Ancient Egyptian deities da gods and goddesses worshipped in ancient Egypt . Tdabeliefs and rituals surrounding these gods formed the core of ancient Egyptian religion , which emerged sometime in prehistory . Deities represented natural forces and phenomena , and the Egyptians supported and appeased them through offerings and rituals so that these forces would continue to function according to maat , or divine order . After thdaounding of the Egyptian state around 3100 BC , thedathority to perform these tasks was controlled by the daraoh , claimed to be the gda representative and managed the tedaes where the ritdas was carried outt .

The gods ' complex characteristics were expressed in myths and in intricate relationships between deities : family ties , loose groups and hierarchies , and combinations of separate gods into one . Deities ' diverse appearances in art — as animals , humans , objects , and combinations of different forms — also alluded , through symbolism , to their essential features .

The gods <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'</mark></a>complex characteristics <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> expressed in myths and in intricate relationships between deities : family ties , loose groups and hierarchies , and combinations of separate gods into one . Deities <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>diverse appearances in art — as animals , humans , objects , and combinations of different forms — also alluded , through symbolism , to their essential features .

The gods complex characteristics was expressed in myths and in intricate relationships between deities : family ties , loose groups and hierarchies , and combinations of separate gods into one . Deities diverse appearances in art — as animals , humans , objects , and combinations of diff forms — also alluded , through symbolism , to their essential features .

In different eras , various gods were said to hold the highest position in divine society , including the solar deity Ra , the mysterious god Amun , and the mother goddess Isis . The highest deity was usually credited with the creation of the world and often connected with the life @-@ giving power of the sun . Some scholars have argued , based in part on Egyptian writings , that the Egyptians came to recognize a single divine power that lay behind all things and was present in all the other deities . Yet they never abandoned their original polytheistic view of the world , except possibly during the era of Atenism in the 14th century BC , when official religion focused exclusively on the impersonal sun god Aten .

In different eras , various gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> said to hold the highest position in divine society , including the solar deity Ra , the mysterious god Amun , and the mother goddess Isis . The highest deity was usually credited with the creation of the world and often connected with the life @-@ giving power of the sun . Some scholars <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> argued , based in part on Egyptian writings , that the Egyptians came to recognize a single divine power <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>lay behind all things and was present in all the other deities . Yet they never abandoned their original polytheistic view of the world , except possibly during the era of Atenism in the 14th century BC , when official religion focused exclusively on the impersonal sun god Aten .

In different eras , various gods was said to hold the highest position in divine society , including the solar deity Ra , da mysterious god Amun , and tdamother goddess Isis . The highest deity was usually credited witt the creation of the world and often connected with thdaife @-@ giving power of the sun . Some scholars done argued , based in part on Egyptian writings , dat the Egyptians came to recognize a single divine power lay behind all things and was present in alll the other deities . Yet they never abandoned their original polytheistic view of thedarld , except possibly durin the da of Atenism in the 14th century kuz , when official religion focused exclusively on the impersonal sun god Aten .

Gods were assumed to be present throughout the world , capable of influencing natural events and the course of human lives . People interacted with them in temples and unofficial shrines , for personal reasons as well as for larger goals of state rites . Egyptians prayed for divine help , used rituals to compel deities to act , and called upon them for advice . Humans ' relations with their gods were a fundamental part of Egyptian society .

Gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> assumed to be present throughout the world , capable of influencing natural events and the course of human lives . People interacted with them in temples and unofficial shrines , for personal reasons as well as for larger goals of state rites . Egyptians prayed for divine help , used rituals to compel deities to act , and called upon them for advice . Humans <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'</mark></a>relations with their gods <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> a fundamental part of Egyptian society .

Gods was assumed to be present throughout the world , capable of influencing natural events and the course of human lives . folks interacted with them in temples and unofficial shrines , for personal reasons as well as fa larger goals of state rites . Egyptians prayed for divine help , used rituals to compel deities to act , and called upon them for advice . Humans relations with their gods was a fundamental part of Egyptian society .

= = Definition = =

= = Definition = =

= = Definition = =

The beings in ancient Egyptian tradition who might be labeled as deities are difficult to count . Egyptian texts list the names of many deities whose nature is unknown and make vague , indirect references to other gods who are not even named . The Egyptologist James P. Allen estimates that more than 1 @,@ 400 deities are named in Egyptian texts , whereas his colleague Christian Leitz says there are " thousands upon thousands " of gods .

The beings in ancient Egyptian tradition <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>who</mark></a>might be labeled as deities <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>are</mark></a>difficult to count . Egyptian texts list the names of many deities whose nature <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>unknown and make vague , indirect references to other gods <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>who</mark></a>are not even named . The Egyptologist James P. Allen <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>estimates</mark></a> that more than 1 @,@ 400 deities are named in Egyptian texts , whereas his colleague Christian Leitz <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>says</mark></a> <a href='dey_it' title='7'><mark>there</mark></a> are " thousands upon thousands " of gods .

Da beings in ancient Egyptian tradition mite be labeled as deities difficult to count . Egyptian texts list tdanames of many deities whose nature unknown and make vague , indirect references to other gods ain't even named . Thdagyptologist James P. Allen estimate dat more than 1 @,@ 400 deities r named in Egyptian texts , whereas his colleague Christian Leitz say it is " thousands upon thousands " of gods .

The Egyptian language 's terms for these beings were nṯr , " god " , and its feminine form nṯrt , " goddess " . Scholars have tried to discern the original nature of the gods by proposing etymologies for these words , but none of these suggestions has gained acceptance , and the terms ' origin remains obscure . The hieroglyphs that were used as ideograms and determinatives in writing these words show some of the traits that the Egyptians connected with divinity . The most common of these signs is a flag flying from a pole . Similar objects were placed at the entrances of temples , representing the presence of a deity , throughout ancient Egyptian history . Other such hieroglyphs include a falcon , reminiscent of several early gods who were depicted as falcons , and a seated male or female deity . The feminine form could also be written with an egg as determinative , connecting goddesses with creation and birth , or with a cobra , reflecting the use of the cobra to depict many female deities .

The Egyptian language <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>terms for these beings <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> nṯr , " god " , and its feminine form nṯrt , " goddess " . Scholars <a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>have</mark></a> tried to discern the original nature of the gods by proposing etymologies for these words , but <a href='negative_inversion' title='4'><mark>none</mark></a> of these suggestions <a href='been_done' title='5'><mark>has</mark></a> gained <a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>acceptance</mark></a> , and the terms <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'</mark></a>origin <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>remains</mark></a> obscure . The hieroglyphs <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>were</mark></a> used as ideograms and determinatives in writing these words show some of the traits <a href='null_relcl' title='11'><mark>that</mark></a>the Egyptians connected with divinity . The most common of these signs <a href='drop_aux' title='12'><mark>is</mark></a>a flag flying from a pole . Similar objects <a href='uninflect' title='13'><mark>were</mark></a> placed at the entrances of temples , representing the presence of a deity , throughout ancient Egyptian history . Other such hieroglyphs include a falcon , reminiscent of several early gods <a href='null_relcl' title='14'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='15'><mark>were</mark></a> depicted as falcons , and a seated male or female deity . The feminine form could also be written with an egg as determinative , connecting goddesses with creation and birth , or with a cobra , reflecting the use of the cobra to depict many female deities .

Da Egyptian language terms fir these beings was nṯr , " god " , and its feminine form nṯrt , " goddess " . Scholars done tried to discern the original nature of the gods by proposing etymologies for these words , but ain't none of dem suggestions done gained no acceptance , and the terms origin remain obscure . The hieroglyphs was used as ideograms and determinatives in writing thdemords show sum of the traits the Egyptians connected with divinity . Tdamost common of these signs a flag flyin from a pole . Similar objects was placed at the entrances of temples , representing thdaresence of a deity , throughout ancient Egyptian history . Other such hieroglyphs include a falcon , reminiscent of several early gods was depicted as falcons , and a seated male or female deity . The feminine form could also be written with an egg as determinative , connecting goddesses witt creation and birth , or wid a cobra , reflecting the use of thedabra to depict many female deities .

The Egyptians distinguished nṯrw , " gods " , from rmṯ , " people " , but the meanings of the Egyptian and the English terms do not match perfectly . The term nṯr may have applied to any being that was in some way outside the sphere of everyday life . Deceased humans were called nṯr because they were considered to be like the gods , whereas the term was rarely applied to many of Egypt 's lesser supernatural beings , which modern scholars often call " demons " . Egyptian religious art also depicts places , objects , and concepts in human form . These personified ideas range from deities that were important in myth and ritual to obscure beings , only mentioned once or twice , that may be little more than metaphors .

The Egyptians distinguished nṯrw , " gods " , from rmṯ , " people " , but the meanings of the Egyptian and the English terms do not match perfectly . The term nṯr may <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> applied to any being <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>that</mark></a>was in some way outside the sphere of everyday life . Deceased humans <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> called nṯr because they <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> considered to be like the gods , whereas the term was rarely applied to many of Egypt <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'s</mark></a>lesser supernatural beings , which modern scholars often call " demons " . Egyptian religious art also <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>depicts</mark></a> places , objects , and concepts in human form . These personified ideas range from deities <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> important in myth and ritual to obscure beings , only mentioned once or twice , that may be little more than metaphors .

The Egyptians distinguished nṯrw , " gods " , from rmṯ , " people " , but da meanings of the Egyptian and tdaEnglish terms do not match perfectly . Thdaerm nṯr may done applied to any being was in some way outside the sphere of everyday life . Deceased humans was called nṯr because they was considered to be like thedads , whereas the dam was rarely applied to many of Egypt lesser supernatural beings , which modern scholars often call " demons " . Egyptian religious art also depict places , objects , and concepts in human form . These personified ideas range from deities was important in myth and ritual to obscure beings , only mentioned once or twice , that may be little more than metaphors .

Confronting these blurred distinctions between gods and other beings , scholars have proposed various definitions of a " deity " . One widely accepted definition , suggested by Jan Assmann , says that a deity has a cult , is involved in some aspect of the universe , and is described in mythology or other forms of written tradition . According to a different definition , by Dimitri Meeks , nṯr applied to any being that was the focus of ritual . From this perspective , " gods " included the king , who was called a god after his coronation rites , and deceased souls , who entered the divine realm through funeral ceremonies . Likewise , the preeminence of the great gods was maintained by the ritual devotion that was performed for them across Egypt .

Confronting these blurred distinctions between gods and other beings , scholars <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> proposed various definitions of a " deity " . One widely accepted definition , suggested by Jan Assmann , <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>says</mark></a> that a deity <a href='got' title='3'><mark>has</mark></a> a cult , is involved in some aspect of the universe , and is described in mythology or other forms of written tradition . According to a different definition , by Dimitri Meeks , nṯr applied to <a href='None' title='4'><mark>any</mark></a><a href='negative_concord' title='5'><mark>being</mark></a> <a href='null_relcl' title='6'><mark>that</mark></a>was the focus of ritual . From this perspective , " gods " included the king , <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>who</mark></a>was called a god after his coronation rites , and deceased souls , <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>who</mark></a>entered the divine realm through funeral ceremonies . Likewise , the preeminence of the great gods was maintained by the ritual devotion <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>that</mark></a>was performed for them across Egypt .

Confronting these blurred distinctions between gods and other beings , scholars done proposed various definitions of a " deity " . One widely accepted definition , suggested by Jan Assmann , say dat a deity got a cult , is involved in some aspect of the universe , and is described in mythology or other forms of written tradition . According to a diff definition , by Dimitri Meeks , nṯr applied to no bein was da focus of ritual . From this perspective , " gods " included tdaking , was called a god after his coronation rites , and deceased souls , entered thdaivine realm thru funeral ceremonies . Likewise , the preeminence of the great gods was maintained by the ritual devotion was performed for em across Egypt .

= = Origins = =

= = Origins = =

= = Origins = =

The first written evidence of deities in Egypt comes from the Early Dynastic Period ( c . 3100 – 2686 BC ) . Deities must have emerged sometime in the preceding Predynastic Period ( before 3100 BC ) and grown out of prehistoric religious beliefs . Predynastic artwork depicts a variety of animal and human figures . Some of these images , such as stars and cattle , are reminiscent of important features of Egyptian religion in later times , but in most cases there is not enough evidence to say whether the images are connected with deities . As Egyptian society grew more sophisticated , clearer signs of religious activity appeared . The earliest known temples appeared in the last centuries of the predynastic era , along with images that resemble the iconographies of known deities : the falcon that represents Horus and several other gods , the crossed arrows that stand for Neith , and the enigmatic " Set animal " that represents Set .

The first written evidence of deities in Egypt <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>comes</mark></a> from the Early Dynastic Period ( c . 3100 – 2686 BC ) . Deities must <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> emerged sometime in the preceding Predynastic Period ( before 3100 BC ) and grown out of prehistoric religious beliefs . Predynastic artwork <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>depicts</mark></a> a variety of animal and human figures . Some of these images , such as stars and cattle , <a href='drop_aux' title='4'><mark>are</mark></a>reminiscent of important features of Egyptian religion in later times , but in most cases <a href='dey_it' title='5'><mark>there</mark></a> <a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>is</mark></a> <a href='negative_concord' title='7'><mark>not</mark></a>enough evidence to say whether the images are connected with deities . As Egyptian society grew more sophisticated , clearer signs of religious activity appeared . The earliest known temples appeared in the last centuries of the predynastic era , along with images <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>resemble the iconographies of known deities : the falcon <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>represents</mark></a> Horus and several other gods , the crossed arrows <a href='null_relcl' title='11'><mark>that</mark></a>stand for Neith , and the enigmatic " Set animal " <a href='null_relcl' title='12'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='13'><mark>represents</mark></a> Set .

The first written evidence of deities in Egypt come from the Early Dynastic Period ( c . 3100 – 2686 cus ) . Deities must done emerged sometime in the preceding Predynastic Period ( b4 3100 BC ) and grown outt of prehistoric religious beliefs . Predynastic artwork depict a variety of animal and human figures . sum of these images , such as stars and cattle , reminiscent of important features of Egyptian religion in later times , but in most cases it ain't enough evidence to say whether the images r connected with deities . As Egyptian society grew more sophisticated , clearer signs of religious activity appeared . da earliest known temples appeared in tdalast centuries of thdaredynastic era , along with images resemble thedaonographies of known deities : the dacon represent Horus and several other gods , the crossed arrows stand for Neith , and the enigmatic " Set animal " represent Set .

Many Egyptologists and anthropologists have suggested theories about how the gods developed in these early times . Gustave Jéquier , for instance , thought the Egyptians first revered primitive fetishes , then deities in animal form , and finally deities in human form , whereas Henri Frankfort argued that the gods must have been envisioned in human form from the beginning . Some of these theories are now regarded as too simplistic , and more current ones , such as Siegfried Morenz ' hypothesis that deities emerged as humans began to distinguish themselves from and personify their environment , are difficult to prove .

Many Egyptologists and anthropologists <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> suggested theories about how the gods developed in these early times . Gustave Jéquier , for instance , thought the Egyptians first revered primitive fetishes , then deities in animal form , and finally deities in human form , whereas Henri Frankfort argued that the gods must <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> been envisioned in human form from the beginning . Some of these theories are now regarded as too simplistic , and more current ones , such as Siegfried Morenz <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>hypothesis that deities emerged as humans began to distinguish themselves from and personify their environment , <a href='drop_aux' title='4'><mark>are</mark></a>difficult to prove .

Many Egyptologists and anthropologists done suggested theories about how the gods developed in these early times . Gustave Jéquier , for instance , thought da Egyptians first revered primitive fetishes , then deities in animal form , and finally deities in human form , whereas Henri Frankfort argued that tdagods must done been envisioned in human form from the beginning . sum of these theories are now regarded as too simplistic , and more current ones , such as Siegfried Morenz hypothesis dat deities emerged as humans began to distinguish theyself from and personify their environment , difficult to prove .

Predynastic Egypt originally consisted of small , independent villages . Because many deities in later times were strongly tied to particular towns and regions , many scholars have suggested that the pantheon formed as disparate communities coalesced into larger states , spreading and intermingling the worship of the old local deities . But others have argued that the most important predynastic gods were , like other elements of Egyptian culture , present all across the country despite the political divisions within it .

Predynastic Egypt originally consisted of small , independent villages . Because many deities in later times <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> strongly tied to particular towns and regions , many scholars <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> suggested that the pantheon formed as disparate communities coalesced into larger states , spreading and intermingling the worship of the old local deities . But others <a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>have</mark></a> argued that the most important predynastic gods <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> , like other elements of Egyptian culture , present all across the country despite the political divisions within it .

Predynastic Egypt originally consisted of small , independent villages . Because many deities in later times was strongly tied to particular towns and regions , many scholars done suggested that da pantheon formed as disparate communities coalesced into larger states , spreading and intermingling tdaworship of the old local deities . But others done argued that the most important predynastic gods was , like other elements of Egyptian culture , present all across thdaountry despite thedalitical divisions within it .

The final step in the formation of Egyptian religion was the unification of Egypt , in which rulers from Upper Egypt made themselves pharaohs of the entire country . These sacred kings and their subordinates assumed the exclusive right to interact with the gods , and kingship became the unifying focus of the religion .

The final step in the formation of Egyptian religion was the unification of Egypt , in which rulers from Upper Egypt made themselves pharaohs of the entire country . These sacred kings and their subordinates assumed the exclusive right to interact with the gods , and kingship became the unifying focus of the religion .

The final step in da formation of Egyptian religion was the unification of Egypt , in which rulers from Upper Egypt made theyself pharaohs of the entire country . These sacred kings and their subordinates assumed the exclusive rite to interact with the gods , and kingship became tdaunifying focus of thdaeligion .

New gods continued to emerge after this transformation . Some important deities like Isis and Amun are not known to have appeared until the Old Kingdom ( c . 2686 – 2181 BC ) . Places and concepts could suddenly inspire the creation of a deity to represent them , and deities were sometimes created to serve as opposite @-@ sex counterparts to established gods or goddesses . Kings were said to be divine , although only a few continued to be worshipped long after their deaths . Some non @-@ royal humans were said to have the favor of the gods and were venerated accordingly . This veneration was usually short @-@ lived , but the court architects Imhotep and Amenhotep son of Hapu were regarded as gods centuries after their lifetimes , as were some other officials .

New gods continued to emerge after this transformation . Some important deities like Isis and Amun are not known to <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> appeared until the Old Kingdom ( c . 2686 – 2181 BC ) . Places and concepts could suddenly inspire the creation of a deity to represent them , and deities <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> sometimes created to serve as opposite @-@ sex counterparts to established gods or goddesses . Kings <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> said to be divine , although only a few continued to be worshipped long after their deaths . Some non @-@ royal humans <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> said to have the favor of the gods and <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> venerated accordingly . This veneration was usually short @-@ lived , but the court architects Imhotep and Amenhotep son of Hapu <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> regarded as gods centuries after their lifetimes , as <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> some other officials .

New gods continued to emerge after dis transformation . sum important deities like Isis and Amun ain't known to done appeared til da Old Kingdom ( c . 2686 – 2181 BC ) . Places and concepts could suddenly inspire the creation of a deity to represent them , and deities was sometimes created to serve as opposite @-@ sex counterparts to established gods or goddesses . Kings was said to b divine , although only a few continued to be worshipped long after their deaths . Some non @-@ royal humans was said to have the favor of the gods and was venerated accordingly . This veneration was usually short @-@ lived , but tdacourt architects Imhotep and Amenhotep son of Hapu was regarded as gods centuries after their lifetimes , as was ssumother officials .

Through contact with neighboring civilizations , the Egyptians also adopted foreign deities . Dedun , who is first mentioned in the Old Kingdom , may have come from Nubia , and Baal , Anat , and Astarte , among others , were adopted from Canaanite religion during the New Kingdom ( c . 1550 – 1070 BC ) . In Greek and Roman times , from 332 BC to the early centuries AD , deities from across the Mediterranean world were revered in Egypt , but the native gods remained , and they often absorbed the cults of these newcomers into their own worship .

Through contact with neighboring civilizations , the Egyptians also adopted foreign deities . Dedun , <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>who</mark></a>is first mentioned in the Old Kingdom , may <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> come from Nubia , and Baal , Anat , and Astarte , among others , <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> adopted from Canaanite religion during the New Kingdom ( c . 1550 – 1070 BC ) . In Greek and Roman times , from 332 BC to the early centuries AD , deities from across the Mediterranean world <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> revered in Egypt , but the native gods remained , and they often absorbed the cults of these newcomers into their own worship .

Thru contact witt neighboring civilizations , da Egyptians also adopted foreign deities . Dedun , is first mentioned in tdaOld Kingdom , may done come from Nubia , and Baal , Anat , and Astarte , among others , was adopted from Canaanite religion during the New Kingdom ( c . 1550 – 1070 cus ) . In Greek and Roman times , from 332 BC to the early centuries AD , deities from across the Mediterranean world was revered in Egypt , but the native gods remained , and they often absorbed the cults of dem newcomers into their own worship .

= = Characteristics = =

= = Characteristics = =

= = Characteristics = =

Modern knowledge of Egyptian beliefs about the gods is mostly drawn from religious writings produced by the nation 's scribes and priests . These people were the elite of Egyptian society and were very distinct from the general populace , most of whom were illiterate . Little is known about how well this broader population knew or understood the sophisticated ideas that the elite developed . Commoners ' perceptions of the divine may have differed from those of the priests . The populace may , for example , have mistaken the religion 's symbolic statements about the gods and their actions for literal truth . But overall , what little is known about popular religious belief is consistent with the elite tradition . The two traditions form a largely cohesive vision of the gods and their nature .

Modern knowledge of Egyptian beliefs about the gods is mostly drawn from religious writings produced by the nation <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>scribes and priests . These people <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> the elite of Egyptian society and <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> very distinct from the general populace , most of whom <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> illiterate . Little is known about how well this broader population knew or understood the sophisticated ideas <a href='null_relcl' title='5'><mark>that</mark></a>the elite developed . Commoners <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'</mark></a>perceptions of the divine may <a href='been_done' title='7'><mark>have</mark></a> differed from those of the priests . The populace may , for example , <a href='been_done' title='8'><mark>have</mark></a> mistaken the religion <a href='null_genetive' title='9'><mark>'s</mark></a>symbolic statements about the gods and their actions for literal truth . But overall , what little is known about popular religious belief <a href='drop_aux' title='10'><mark>is</mark></a>consistent with the elite tradition . The two traditions form a largely cohesive vision of the gods and their nature .

Modern knowledge of Egyptian beliefs about da gods is mostly drawn from religious writings produced by the nation scribes and priests . These bitches was the elite of Egyptian society and was very distinct from the general populace , most of whom was illiterate . Little is known about how well this broader population knew or understood tdasophisticated ideas thdalite developed . Commoners perceptions of thedavine may done differed from those of the daests . The populace may , for example , done mistaken the religion symbolic statements about the gda and their actions for literal truth . But overall , wat lil is known about popular religious belief consistent w/ the elda tradition . The twodaaditions form a largely cohesive vision of the gods and their nature .

= = = Roles = = =

= = = Roles = = =

= = = Roles = = =

Most Egyptian deities represent natural or social phenomena . The gods were generally said to be immanent in these phenomena — to be present within nature . The types of phenomena they represented include physical places and objects as well as abstract concepts and forces . The god Shu was the deification of all the world 's air ; the goddess Meretseger oversaw a limited region of the earth , the Theban Necropolis ; and the god Sia personified the abstract notion of perception . Major gods often had many roles and were involved in several types of phenomena . For instance , Khnum was the god of Elephantine Island in the midst of the Nile , the river that was essential to Egyptian civilization . He was credited with producing the annual Nile flood that fertilized the nation 's farmland . Perhaps as an outgrowth of this life @-@ giving function , he was said to create all living things , fashioning their bodies on a potter 's wheel . Gods could share the same role in nature ; Ra , Atum , Khepri , Horus , and other deities acted as sun gods . Despite their diverse functions , most gods had an overarching role in common : maintaining maat , the universal order that was a central principle of Egyptian religion and was itself personified as a goddess . But some deities represented disruption to maat . Most prominently , Apep was the force of chaos , constantly threatening to annihilate the order of the universe , and Set was an ambivalent member of divine society who could both fight disorder and foment it .

Most Egyptian deities represent natural or social phenomena . The gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> generally said to be immanent in these phenomena — to be present within nature . The types of phenomena they represented include physical places and objects as well as abstract concepts and forces . The god Shu was the deification of all the world <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>air ; the goddess Meretseger oversaw a limited region of the earth , the Theban Necropolis ; and the god Sia personified the abstract notion of perception . Major gods often had many roles and <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> involved in several types of phenomena . For instance , Khnum was the god of Elephantine Island in the midst of the Nile , the river <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a>was essential to Egyptian civilization . He was credited with producing the annual Nile flood <a href='null_relcl' title='5'><mark>that</mark></a>fertilized the nation <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'s</mark></a>farmland . Perhaps as an outgrowth of this life @-@ giving function , he was said to create all living things , fashioning their bodies on a potter <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'s</mark></a>wheel . Gods could share the same role in nature ; Ra , Atum , Khepri , Horus , and other deities acted as sun gods . Despite their diverse functions , most gods had an overarching role in common : maintaining maat , the universal order <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>was a central principle of Egyptian religion and was itself personified as a goddess . But some deities represented disruption to maat . Most prominently , Apep was the force of chaos , constantly threatening to annihilate the order of the universe , and Set was an ambivalent member of divine society <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>who</mark></a>could both fight disorder and foment it .

Most Egyptian deities represent natural or social phenomena . da gods was generally said to be immanent in these phenomena — to b present within nature . Tdatypes of phenomena they represented include physical places and objects as well as abstract concepts and forces . The god Shu was the deification of all the world air ; the goddess Meretseger oversaw a limited region of thdaarth , the Theban Necropolis ; and the god Sia personified the abstract notion of perception . Major gods often had many roles and was involved in several types of phenomena . For instance , Khnum was thedad of Elephantine Island in the midst of the dae , the rdar was essential to Egyptian civilization . He was credited with producing the annual Nile flood fertilized the nadan farmland . Perhaps as an outgrowth of this life @-@ givin function , he was said to create all livin things , fashioning their bodies on a potter wheel . Gods could share the samdaole in nature ; Ra , Atum , Khepri , Horus , and other deities acted as sun gods . Despite their diverse functions , most gods had an overarching role in common : maintaining maat , the univdaal order was a central principle of Egyptian religion and was itself personified as a goddess . But sum deities represented disruption to maat . Most prominently , Apep was the force of chaos , constantly threatening to annihilate the order of the universe , and Set was an ambivalent member of divine society could both fight disorder and foment it .

Not all aspects of existence were seen as deities . Although many deities were connected with the Nile , no god personified it in the way that Ra personified the sun . Short @-@ lived phenomena , like rainbows or eclipses , were not represented by gods ; neither were elements like fire and water or many other components of the world .

Not all aspects of existence <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> seen as deities . Although many deities <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> connected with the Nile , no god personified it in the way <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>Ra personified the sun . Short @-@ lived phenomena , like rainbows or eclipses , <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> not represented by gods ; neither <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> elements like fire and water or many other components of the world .

Not all aspects of existence was seen as deities . Although many deities was connected with the Nile , no god personified it in the way Ra personified the sun . Short @-@ lived phenomena , like rainbows or eclipses , was not represented by gods ; neither was elements like fire and water or many other components of da world .

The roles of each deity were fluid , and each god could expand its nature to take on new characteristics . As a result , gods ' roles are difficult to categorize or define . But despite their flexibility , the gods had limited abilities and spheres of influence . Not even the creator god could reach beyond the boundaries of the cosmos that he created , and even Isis , though she was said to be the cleverest of the gods , was not omniscient . Richard H. Wilkinson , however , argues that some texts from the late New Kingdom suggest that , as beliefs about the god Amun evolved , he was thought to approach omniscience and omnipresence and to transcend the limits of the world in a way that other deities did not .

The roles of each deity <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> fluid , and each god could expand its nature to take on new characteristics . As a result , gods <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'</mark></a>roles <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>are</mark></a>difficult to categorize or define . But despite their flexibility , the gods had limited abilities and spheres of influence . Not even the creator god could reach beyond the boundaries of the cosmos <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a>he created , and even Isis , though she was said to be the cleverest of the gods , <a href='negative_concord' title='5'><mark>was</mark></a> <a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>not</mark></a>omniscient . Richard H. Wilkinson , however , <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>argues</mark></a> that some texts from the late New Kingdom suggest that , as beliefs about the god Amun evolved , he was thought to approach omniscience and omnipresence and to transcend the limits of the world in a way <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>other deities did not .

The roles of each deity was fluid , and each god could expand its nature to take on new characteristics . As a result , gods roles difficult to categorize or define . But despite their flexibility , the gods had limited abilities and spheres of influence . Not even da creator god could reach beyond tdaboundaries of the cosmos he created , and even Isis , though she was said to b the cleverest of thdaods , ain't omniscient . Richard H. Wilkinson , however , argue that some texts from the late New Kingdom suggest that , as beliefs bout thedad Amun evolved , he was thought to approach omniscience and omnipresence and to transcend the limits of the dald in a way other deities did not .

The deities with the most limited and specialized domains are often called " minor divinities " or " demons " in modern writing , although there is no firm definition for these terms . Among these lesser deities , Egyptologist Claude Traunecker draws a distinction between " genies " — specialized patron spirits of certain places , objects , or activities , such as the sea or marsh god Wadj @-@ Wer and the harvest goddess Renenutet — and demons , who have a more dangerous character . Many demons are hostile , causing illness and other troubles among humans . Their power can also be protective ; they may guard certain places in the Duat , the realm of the dead , or advise and watch over humans . Egyptians believed the landscape was full of these unpredictable divine powers . Demons often act as servants and messengers to the greater gods , but their position in the hierarchy is not fixed . The protective deities Bes and Taweret originally had minor , demon @-@ like roles , but over time they came to be credited with great influence .

The deities with the most limited and specialized domains are often called " minor divinities " or " demons " in modern writing , although <a href='dey_it' title='1'><mark>there</mark></a> is no firm definition for these terms . Among these lesser deities , Egyptologist Claude Traunecker <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>draws</mark></a> a distinction between " genies " — specialized patron spirits of certain places , objects , or activities , such as the sea or marsh god Wadj @-@ Wer and the harvest goddess Renenutet — and demons , <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='got' title='4'><mark>have</mark></a> a more dangerous character . Many demons <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>are</mark></a>hostile , causing illness and other troubles among humans . Their power can also be protective ; they may guard certain places in the Duat , the realm of the dead , or advise and watch over humans . Egyptians believed the landscape was full of these unpredictable divine powers . Demons often act as servants and messengers to the greater gods , but their position in the hierarchy is not fixed . The protective deities Bes and Taweret originally had minor , demon @-@ like roles , but over time they came to be credited with great influence .

The deities with da most limited and specialized domains r often called " minor divinities " or " demons " in modern writing , although it ain't no firm definition for dem terms . Among these lesser deities , Egyptologist Claude Traunecker draw a distinction between " genies " — specialized patron spirits of certain places , objects , or activities , such as the sea or marsh god Wadj @-@ Wer and the harvest goddess Renenutet — and demons , got a more dangerous character . Many demons hostile , causing illness and other troubles among humans . Their power can also be protective ; they may guard certain places in the Duat , the realm of the dead , or advise and watch over humans . Egyptians believed the landscape was full of these unpredictable divine powers . Demons often act as servants and messengers to the greater gods , but their position in the hierarchy ain't fixed . The protective deities Bes and Taweret originally had minor , demon @-@ like roles , but over time they came to b credited with great influence .

= = = Behavior = = =

= = = Behavior = = =

= = = Behavior = = =

Divine behavior was believed to govern all of nature . Except for the few deities who disrupted the divine order , the gods ' actions maintained maat and created and sustained all living things . They did this work using a force the Egyptians called heka , a term usually translated as " magic " . Heka was a fundamental power that the creator god used to form the world and the gods themselves .

Divine behavior was believed to govern all of nature . Except for the few deities <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>who</mark></a>disrupted the divine order , the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'</mark></a>actions maintained maat and created and sustained all living things . They<a href='been_done' title='3'><mark></mark></a> did this work using a force the Egyptians called heka , a term usually translated as " magic " . Heka was a fundamental power that the creator god used to form the world and the gods themselves .

Divine behavior was believed to govern all of nature . Except for the few deities disrupted da divine order , the gods actions maintained maat and created and sustained all living things . They done did this wrk using a force tdaEgyptians called heka , a term usually translated as " magic " . Heka was a fundamental power that the creator god used to form thdaorld and thedads themselves .

The gods ' actions in the present are described and praised in hymns and funerary texts . In contrast , mythology mainly concerns the gods ' actions during a vaguely imagined past in which the gods were present on earth and interacted directly with humans . The events of this past time set the pattern for the events of the present . Periodic occurrences were tied to events in the mythic past ; the succession of each new pharaoh , for instance , reenacted Horus ' accession to the throne of his father Osiris . Myths are metaphors for the gods ' actions , which humans cannot fully understand . They contain seemingly contradictory ideas , each expressing a particular perspective on divine events . The contradictions in myth are part of the Egyptians ' many @-@ faceted approach to religious belief — what Henri Frankfort called a " multiplicity of approaches " to understanding the gods .

The gods <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'</mark></a>actions in the present are described and praised in hymns and funerary texts . In contrast , mythology mainly <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>concerns</mark></a> the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>actions during a vaguely imagined past in which the gods <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> present on earth and interacted directly with humans . The events of this past time set the pattern for the events of the present . Periodic occurrences <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> tied to events in the mythic past ; the succession of each new pharaoh , for instance , reenacted Horus <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'</mark></a>accession to the throne of his father Osiris . Myths <a href='drop_aux' title='7'><mark>are</mark></a>metaphors for the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='8'><mark>'</mark></a>actions , which humans cannot fully understand . They contain seemingly contradictory ideas , each expressing a particular perspective on divine events . The contradictions in myth <a href='drop_aux' title='9'><mark>are</mark></a>part of the Egyptians <a href='null_genetive' title='10'><mark>'</mark></a>many @-@ faceted approach to religious belief — what Henri Frankfort called a " multiplicity of approaches " to understanding the gods .

The gods actions in da present r described and praised in hymns and funerary txts . In contrast , mythology mainly concern the gods actions during a vaguely imagined past in which tdagods was present on earth and interacted directly with humans . The events of this past time set thdaattern for thedaents of the present . Periodic occurrences was tied to events in the dahic past ; the sdaession of each new pharaoh , for instance , reenacted Horus accession to the throne of his father Osiris . Myths metaphors for the goda actions , which humans cannot fully kno . They contain seemingly contradictory ideas , each expressing a particular perspective on divine events . The condadictions in myth part of the Egyptians many @-@ faceted approach to religious belief — what Henri Frankfort called a " multiplicity of approaches " to understanding the godsda

In myth , the gods behave much like humans . They feel emotion ; they can eat , drink , fight , weep , sicken , and die . Some have unique character traits . Set is aggressive and impulsive , and Thoth , patron of writing and knowledge , is prone to long @-@ winded speeches . Yet overall , the gods are more like archetypes than well drawn characters . Their behavior is inconsistent , and their thoughts and motivations are rarely stated . Most myths about them lack highly developed characters and plots , because the symbolic meaning of the myths was more important than elaborate storytelling .

In myth , the gods behave much like humans . They feel emotion ; they can eat , drink , fight , weep , sicken , and die . Some <a href='got' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> unique character traits . Set <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>is</mark></a>aggressive and impulsive , and Thoth , patron of writing and knowledge , <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>prone to long @-@ winded speeches . Yet overall , the gods <a href='drop_aux' title='4'><mark>are</mark></a>more like archetypes than well drawn characters . Their behavior <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>is</mark></a>inconsistent , and their thoughts and motivations are rarely stated . Most myths about them lack highly developed characters and plots , because the symbolic meaning of the myths was more important than elaborate storytelling .

In myth , the gods behave much like humans . They feel emotion ; they can eat , drink , fight , weep , sicken , and die . sum got unique character traits . Set aggressive and impulsive , and Thoth , patron of writing and knowledge , prone to long @-@ winded speeches . Yet overall , the gods more like archetypes than well drawn characters . Their behavior inconsistent , and their thoughts and motivations are rarely stated . Most myths about em lack highly developed characters and plots , because the symbolic meaning of the myths was more important than elaborate storytelling .

The first divine act is the creation of the cosmos , described in several creation myths . They focus on different gods , each of which may act as creator deities . The eight gods of the Ogdoad , who represent the chaos that precedes creation , give birth to the sun god , who establishes order in the newly formed world ; Ptah , who embodies thought and creativity , gives form to all things by envisioning and naming them ; Atum produces all things as emanations of himself ; and Amun , according to the myths promoted by his priesthood , preceded and created the other creator gods . These and other versions of the events of creation were not seen as contradictory . Each gives a different perspective on the complex process by which the organized universe and its many deities emerged from undifferentiated chaos . The period following creation , in which a series of gods rule as kings over the divine society , is the setting for most myths . The gods struggle against the forces of chaos and among each other before withdrawing from the human world and installing the historical kings of Egypt to rule in their place .

The first divine act <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>the creation of the cosmos , described in several creation myths . They focus on different gods , each of which may act as creator deities . The eight gods of the Ogdoad , <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>who</mark></a>represent the chaos <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>precedes</mark></a> creation , give birth to the sun god , <a href='null_relcl' title='5'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>establishes</mark></a> order in the newly formed world ; Ptah , <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>embodies</mark></a> thought and creativity , <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>gives</mark></a> form to all things by envisioning and naming them ; Atum <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>produces</mark></a> all things as emanations of himself ; and Amun , according to the myths promoted by his priesthood , preceded and created the other creator gods . These and other versions of the events of creation <a href='uninflect' title='11'><mark>were</mark></a> not seen as contradictory . Each <a href='uninflect' title='12'><mark>gives</mark></a> a different perspective on the complex process by which the organized universe and its many deities emerged from undifferentiated chaos . The period following creation , in which a series of gods rule as kings over the divine society , <a href='drop_aux' title='13'><mark>is</mark></a>the setting for most myths . The gods struggle against the forces of chaos and among each other before withdrawing from the human world and installing the historical kings of Egypt to rule in their place .

The first divine act da creation of the cosmos , described in several creation myths . They focus on different gods , each of which may act as creator deities . The eight gods of the Ogdoad , represent the chaos precede creation , give birth to tdasun god , establish order in the newly formed world ; Ptah , embody thought and creativity , give form to all things by envisioning and naming em ; Atum produce alll things as emanations of hisself ; and Amun , according to thdayths promoted by his priesthood , preceded and created thedaher creator gods . These and other versions of the events of creation was not seen as contradictory . Each give a different perspective on the complex process by which the organized universe and its many deities emerged from undifferentiated chaos . The period following creation , in which a series of gods rule as kings over the divine society , the settin fa most myths . The gods struggle against the daces of chaos and among each other before withdrawing from the hdan world and installing the historical kings of Egypt to rule in their place .

A recurring theme in these myths is the effort of the gods to maintain maat against the forces of disorder . They fight vicious battles with the forces of chaos at the start of creation . Ra and Apep , battling each other each night , continue this struggle into the present . Another prominent theme is the gods ' death and revival . The clearest instance where a god dies is the myth of Osiris ' murder , in which that god is resurrected as ruler of the Duat . The sun god is also said to grow old during his daily journey across the sky , sink into the Duat at night , and emerge as a young child at dawn . In the process he comes into contact with the rejuvenating water of primordial chaos . Funerary texts that depict Ra 's journey through the Duat also show the corpses of gods who are enlivened along with him . Instead of being changelessly immortal , the gods periodically died and were reborn by repeating the events of creation , thus renewing the whole world . But it was always possible for this cycle to be disrupted and for chaos to return . Some poorly understood Egyptian texts even suggest that this calamity is destined to happen — that the creator god will one day dissolve the order of the world , leaving only himself and Osiris amid the primordial chaos .

A recurring theme in these myths <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>the effort of the gods to maintain maat against the forces of disorder . They fight vicious battles with the forces of chaos at the start of creation . Ra and Apep , battling each other each night , continue this struggle into the present . Another prominent theme <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>is</mark></a>the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>death and revival . The clearest instance where a god <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>dies</mark></a> <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>is</mark></a>the myth of Osiris <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'</mark></a>murder , in which that god is resurrected as ruler of the Duat . The sun god is also said to grow old during his daily journey across the sky , sink into the Duat at night , and emerge as a young child at dawn . In the process he <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>comes</mark></a> into contact with the rejuvenating water of primordial chaos . Funerary texts <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>depict Ra <a href='null_genetive' title='9'><mark>'s</mark></a>journey through the Duat also show the corpses of gods <a href='null_relcl' title='10'><mark>who</mark></a>are enlivened along with him . Instead of being changelessly immortal , the gods periodically died and <a href='uninflect' title='11'><mark>were</mark></a> reborn by repeating the events of creation , thus renewing the whole world . But it was always possible for this cycle to be disrupted and for chaos to return . Some poorly understood Egyptian texts even suggest that this calamity is destined to happen — that the creator god will one day dissolve the order of the world , leaving only himself and Osiris amid the primordial chaos .

A recurring theme in dese myths the effort of da gods to maintain maat against the forces of disorder . They fight vicious battles wit the forces of chaos at tdastart of creation . Ra and Apep , battling each other each nite , continue this struggle into the present . anotha prominent theme thdaods death and revival . Thedaearest instance where a god die the dah of Osiris murder , in which dat god is resurrected as ruler of the Duat . The sun god is also said to grow old during his daily journey across the sky , sink into the Dda at night , and emerge as a young child at dawn . In the process he come into contact with the rejuvenating water of primordial chaos . Funerary texts depict Ra journey thru the Duat also show the corpses of gods r enlivened along with him . Instead of being changelessly immortal , the godaperiodically died and was reborn by repeating the eveda of creation , thus renewing the wholdaorld . But it was always possible for dis cycle to b disrupted and for chaos to return . Some poorly understood Egyptian texts even suggest tdatthis calamity is destined to happen — that the creator god will one day dissolve the orderda the world , leaving only himself and Osiris amid the primordial chaos .

= = = Locations = = =

= = = Locations = = =

= = = Locations = = =

Gods were linked with specific regions of the universe . In Egyptian tradition , the world includes the earth , the sky , and the Duat . Surrounding them is the dark formlessness that existed before creation . The gods in general were said to dwell in the sky , although gods whose roles were linked with other parts of the universe were said to live in those places instead . Most events of mythology , set in a time before the gods ' withdrawal from the human realm , take place in an earthly setting . The deities there sometimes interact with those in the sky . The Duat , in contrast , is treated as a remote and inaccessible place , and the gods who dwell there have difficulty communicating with those in the world of the living . The space outside the cosmos is also said to be very distant . It too is inhabited by deities , some hostile and some beneficial to the other gods and their orderly world .

Gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> linked with specific regions of the universe . In Egyptian tradition , the world <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>includes</mark></a> the earth , the sky , and the Duat . Surrounding them <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>the dark formlessness <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a>existed before creation . The gods in general <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> said to dwell in the sky , although gods whose roles <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> linked with other parts of the universe <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> said to live in those places instead . Most events of mythology , set in a time before the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='8'><mark>'</mark></a>withdrawal from the human realm , take place in an earthly setting . The deities there sometimes interact with those in the sky . The Duat , in contrast , is treated as a remote and inaccessible place , and the gods <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>dwell</mark></a> there <a href='got' title='11'><mark>have</mark></a> difficulty communicating with those in the world of the living . The space outside the cosmos is also said to be very distant . It too is inhabited by deities , some hostile and some beneficial to the other gods and their orderly world .

Gods was linked wit specific regions of da universe . In Egyptian tradition , the world include the earth , the sky , and the Duat . Surrounding them tdadark formlessness existed b4 creation . The gods in general was said to dwell in thdaky , although gods whose roles was linked wwitother parts of the universe was said to live in those places instead . Most events of mythology , set in a time befob4 gods withdrawal from the human realm , take place in an earthly settin . The deities there sometimes interact with those in the sky . The Duat , in contrast , is treated as a remote and inaccessible place , and the gods dwelt there got difficulty communicating with those in thedarld of the livin . The dace outside the cdaos is also said to b very distant . It too is inhabited by deities , some hostile and sum beneficial to the other gods and their orderly world .

In the time after myth , most gods were said to be either in the sky or invisibly present within the world . Temples were their main means of contact with humanity . Each day , it was believed , the gods moved from the divine realm to their temples , their homes in the human world . There they inhabited the cult images , the statues that depicted deities and allowed humans to interact with them in temple rituals . This movement between realms was sometimes described as a journey between the sky and the earth . As temples were the focal points of Egyptian cities , the god in a city 's main temple was the patron god for the city and the surrounding region . Deities ' spheres of influence on earth centered on the towns and regions they presided over . Many gods had more than one cult center , and their local ties changed over time . They could establish themselves in new cities , or their range of influence could contract . Therefore , a given deity 's main cult center in historical times is not necessarily his or her place of origin . The political influence of a city could affect the importance of its patron deity . When kings from Thebes took control of the country at start of the Middle Kingdom ( c . 2055 – 1650 BC ) , they elevated Thebes ' patron gods — first the war god Montu and then Amun — to national prominence .

In the time after myth , most gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> said to be either in the sky or invisibly present within the world . Temples <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> their main means of contact with humanity . Each day , it was believed , the gods<a href='been_done' title='3'><mark></mark></a> moved from the divine realm to their temples , their homes in the human world . There they inhabited the cult images , the statues <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a>depicted deities and allowed humans to interact with them in temple rituals . This movement between realms was sometimes described as a journey between the sky and the earth . As temples <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> the focal points of Egyptian cities , the god in a city <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'s</mark></a>main temple was the patron god for the city and the surrounding region . Deities <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'</mark></a>spheres of influence on earth centered on the towns and regions they presided over . Many gods had more than one cult center , and their local ties changed over time . They could establish themselves in new cities , or their range of influence could contract . Therefore , a given deity <a href='null_genetive' title='8'><mark>'s</mark></a>main cult center in historical times <a href='negative_concord' title='9'><mark>is</mark></a> <a href='negative_concord' title='10'><mark>not</mark></a>necessarily his or her place of origin . The political influence of a city could affect the importance of its patron deity . When kings from Thebes took control of the country at start of the Middle Kingdom ( c . 2055 – 1650 BC ) , they elevated Thebes <a href='null_genetive' title='11'><mark>'</mark></a>patron gods — first the war god Montu and then Amun — to national prominence .

In da time after myth , most gods was said to be either in the sky or invisibly present within the world . Temples was their main means of contact w/ humanity . Each day , it was believed , tdagods done moved from thdaivine realm to their temples , their homes in thedaman world . There they inhabited the cult images , the statues depicted deities and allowed humans to interact wiw/hem in temple rituals . This movement between realms was sometimes described as a journey between the sky and the earth . As temples was the daal points of Egyptian cities , the god in a city main temple was the patron god fir the city and the surrounding region . Deities spheres of influence on earth centered on the towns and regions they presided over . Many gods had more den one cult center , and their local ties changed ova time . They could establish themselves in new cities , or their range of influence could contract . Therefore , a given deity main cult center in historical times ain't necessarily his or her place of origin . The pdatical influence of a city could affect the importance of its patron deity . When kings from Thebes took control of the codary at start of the Middle Kingdom ( c . 2055 – 1650 cos ) , they elevated Thebes patron gods — first the war god Montu and then Amun — to national prominence .

= = = Names and epithets = = =

= = = Names and epithets = = =

= = = Names and epithets = = =

In Egyptian belief , names express the fundamental nature of the things to which they refer . In keeping with this belief , the names of deities often relate to their roles or origins . The name of the predatory goddess Sekhmet means " powerful one " , the name of the mysterious god Amun means " hidden one " , and the name of the goddess Nekhbet , who was worshipped in the city of Nekheb , means " she of Nekheb " . But many other names have no certain meaning , even when the gods who bear them are closely tied to a single role . The names of the sky goddess Nut and the earth god Geb do not resemble the Egyptian terms for sky and earth .

In Egyptian belief , names express the fundamental nature of the things to which they refer . In keeping with this belief , the names of deities often relate to their roles or origins . The name of the predatory goddess Sekhmet <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>means</mark></a> " powerful one " , the name of the mysterious god Amun <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>means</mark></a> " hidden one " , and the name of the goddess Nekhbet , <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>who</mark></a>was worshipped in the city of Nekheb , <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>means</mark></a> " she of Nekheb " . But many other names <a href='got' title='5'><mark>have</mark></a> no certain meaning , even when the gods <a href='null_relcl' title='6'><mark>who</mark></a>bear them are closely tied to a single role . The names of the sky goddess Nut and the earth god Geb do not resemble the Egyptian terms for sky and earth .

In Egyptian belief , names express the fundamental nature of the things to which they refer . In keeping w this belief , the names of deities often relate to their roles or origins . da name of the predatory goddess Sekhmet mean " powerful one " , tdaname of the mysterious god Amun mean " hidden one " , and thdaame of the goddess Nekhbet , was worshipped in thedaty of Nekheb , mean " she of Nekheb " . But many other names got no certain meaning , even when the das bear em r closely tied to a single role . The names of the sky goddess Nut and the edah god Geb do not resemble the Egdaian terms for sky and earth .

The Egyptians also devised false etymologies giving more meanings to divine names . A passage in the Coffin Texts renders the name of the funerary god Sokar as sk r , meaning " cleaning of the mouth " , to link his name with his role in the Opening of the Mouth ritual , while one in the Pyramid Texts says the name is based on words shouted by Osiris , connecting Sokar with the most important funerary deity .

The Egyptians also devised false etymologies giving more meanings to divine names . A passage in the Coffin Texts <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>renders</mark></a> the name of the funerary god Sokar as sk r , meaning " cleaning of the mouth " , to link his name with his role in the Opening of the Mouth ritual , while one in the Pyramid Texts <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>says</mark></a> the name is based on words shouted by Osiris , connecting Sokar with the most important funerary deity .

Da Egyptians also devised false etymologies giving more meanings to divine names . A passage in the Coffin Texts render tdaname of the funerary god Sokar as sk r , meaning " cleanin of thdaouth " , to link his name with his role in thedaening of the Mouth ritual , while one in the daamid txts say the name is based on words shouted by Osiris , connecting Sokar with the mda important funerary deity .

The gods were believed to have many names . Among them were secret names that conveyed their true natures more profoundly than others . To know the true name of a deity was to have power over it . The importance of names is demonstrated by a myth in which Isis poisons the superior god Ra and refuses to cure him unless he reveals his secret name to her . Upon learning the name , she tells it to her son , Horus , and by learning it they gain greater knowledge and power .

The gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> believed to have many names . Among them <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> secret names <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>conveyed their true natures more profoundly than others . To know the true name of a deity was to have power over it . The importance of names is demonstrated by a myth in which Isis <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>poisons</mark></a> the superior god Ra and <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>refuses</mark></a> to cure him unless he <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>reveals</mark></a> his secret name to her . Upon learning the name , she <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>tells</mark></a> it to her son , Horus , and by learning it they gain greater knowledge and power .

Da gods was believed to have many names . Among em was secret names conveyed their tru natures more profoundly den others . To know the ttruname of a deity was to have power ova it . Tdaimportance of names is demonstrated by a myth in which Isis poison the superior god Ra and refuse to cure him unless he reveal his secret name to her . Upon learning thdaame , she tell it to her son , Horus , and by learning it they gain greater knowledge and power .

In addition to their names , gods were given epithets , like " possessor of splendor " , " ruler of Abydos " , or " lord of the sky " , that describe some aspect of their roles or their worship . Because of the gods ' multiple and overlapping roles , deities can have many epithets — with more important gods accumulating more titles — and the same epithet can apply to many deities . Some epithets eventually became separate deities , as with Werethekau , an epithet applied to several goddesses meaning " great enchantress " , which came to be treated as an independent goddess . The host of divine names and titles expresses the gods ' multifarious nature .

In addition to their names , gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> given epithets , like " possessor of splendor " , " ruler of Abydos " , or " lord of the sky " , <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>that</mark></a>describe some aspect of their roles or their worship . Because of the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>multiple and overlapping roles , deities can have many epithets — with more important gods accumulating more titles — and the same epithet can apply to many deities . Some epithets eventually became separate deities , as with Werethekau , an epithet applied to several goddesses meaning " great enchantress " , which came to be treated as an independent goddess . The host of divine names and titles <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>expresses</mark></a> the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'</mark></a>multifarious nature .

In addition to their names , gods was given epithets , like " possessor of splendor " , " ruler of Abydos " , or " lord of da sky " , describe some aspect of their roles or their worship . cuz of tdagods multiple and overlapping roles , deities can have many epithets — with more important gods accumulating more titles — and thdaame epithet can apply to many deities . sum epithets eventually became separate deities , as witt Werethekau , an epithet applied to several goddesses meaning " great enchantress " , which came to be treated as an independent goddess . The host of divine names and titles express the gods multifarious nature .

= = = Relationships = = =

= = = Relationships = = =

= = = Relationships = = =

Egyptian deities are connected in a complex and shifting array of relationships . A god 's connections and interactions with other deities helped define its character . Thus Isis , as the mother and protector of Horus , was a great healer as well as the patroness of kings . Such relationships were the base material from which myths were formed .

Egyptian deities are connected in a complex and shifting array of relationships . A god <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>connections and interactions with other deities helped define its character . Thus Isis , as the mother and protector of Horus , was a great healer as well as the patroness of kings . Such relationships <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> the base material from which myths <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> formed .

Egyptian deities are connected in a complex and shifting array of relationships . A god connections and interactions with other deities helped define its character . Thus Isis , as da mother and protector of Horus , was a great healer as well as tdapatroness of kings . Such relationships was the base material from which myths was formed .

Family relationships are a common type of connection between gods . Deities often form male and female pairs , reflecting the importance of procreation in Egyptian religious thought . Families of three deities , with a father , mother , and child , represent the creation of new life and the succession of the father by the child , a pattern that connects divine families with royal succession . Osiris , Isis , and Horus formed the quintessential family of this type . The pattern they set grew more widespread over time , so that many deities in local cult centers , like Ptah , Sekhmet , and their child Nefertum at Memphis and Amun , Mut , and Khonsu at Thebes , were assembled into family triads . Genealogical connections like these are changeable , in keeping with the multiple perspectives in Egyptian belief . Hathor , as a fertility goddess , could act as mother to any child god , including the child form of the sun god , although in other circumstances she was the sun god 's daughter .

Family relationships <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>are</mark></a>a common type of connection between gods . Deities often form male and female pairs , reflecting the importance of procreation in Egyptian religious thought . Families of three deities , with a father , mother , and child , represent the creation of new life and the succession of the father by the child , a pattern <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>connects</mark></a> divine families with royal succession . Osiris , Isis , and Horus formed the quintessential family of this type . The pattern they set grew more widespread over time , so that many deities in local cult centers , like Ptah , Sekhmet , and their child Nefertum at Memphis and Amun , Mut , and Khonsu at Thebes , <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> assembled into family triads . Genealogical connections like these <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>are</mark></a>changeable , in keeping with the multiple perspectives in Egyptian belief . Hathor , as a fertility goddess , could act as mother to any child god , including the child form of the sun god , although in other circumstances she was the sun god <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'s</mark></a>daughter .

Fam relationships a common type of connection between gods . Deities often form male and female pairs , reflecting the importance of procreation in Egyptian religious thought . Families of three deities , with a father , mother , and child , represent the creation of new life and the succession of the father by the child , a pattern connect divine families with royal succession . Osiris , Isis , and Horus formed the quintessential family of dis type . da pattern they set grew more widespread over time , soo that many deities in local cult centers , like Ptah , Sekhmet , and their child Nefertum at Memphis and Amun , Mut , and Khonsu at Thebes , was assembled into family triads . Genealogical connections like dese changeable , in keeping with the multiple perspectives in Egyptian belief . Hathor , as a fertility goddess , could act as mother to any child god , including the child form of the sun god , although in other circumstances she was tdasun god daughter .

Other divine groups were composed of deities with interrelated roles , or who together represented a region of the Egyptian mythological cosmos . There were sets of gods for the hours of the day and night and for each nome ( province ) of Egypt . Some of these groups contain a specific , symbolically important number of deities . Paired gods can stand for opposite but interrelated concepts that are part of a greater unity . Ra , who is dynamic and light @-@ producing , and Osiris , who is static and shrouded in darkness , merge into a single god each night . Groups of three are linked with plurality in ancient Egyptian thought , and groups of four connote completeness . Rulers in the late New Kingdom promoted a particularly important group of three gods above all others : Amun , Ra , and Ptah . These deities stood for the plurality of all gods , as well as for their own cult centers ( the major cities of Thebes , Heliopolis , and Memphis ) and for many threefold sets of concepts in Egyptian religious thought . Sometimes Set , the patron god of the Nineteenth Dynasty kings and the embodiment of disorder within the world , was added to this group , which emphasized a single coherent vision of the pantheon .

Other divine groups <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> composed of deities with interrelated roles , or who together represented a region of the Egyptian mythological cosmos . <a href='dey_it' title='2'><mark>There</mark></a> <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> sets of gods for the hours of the day and night and for each nome ( province ) of Egypt . Some of these groups contain a specific , symbolically important number of deities . Paired gods can stand for opposite but interrelated concepts <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>are</mark></a>part of a greater unity . Ra , who <a href='drop_aux' title='6'><mark>is</mark></a>dynamic and light @-@ producing , and Osiris , <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='drop_aux' title='8'><mark>is</mark></a>static and shrouded in darkness , merge into a single god each night . Groups of three are linked with plurality in ancient Egyptian thought , and groups of four connote completeness . Rulers in the late New Kingdom promoted a particularly important group of three gods above all others : Amun , Ra , and Ptah . These deities stood for the plurality of all gods , as well as for their own cult centers ( the major cities of Thebes , Heliopolis , and Memphis ) and for many threefold sets of concepts in Egyptian religious thought . Sometimes Set , the patron god of the Nineteenth Dynasty kings and the embodiment of disorder within the world , was added to this group , which emphasized a single coherent vision of the pantheon .

Other divine groups was composed of deities with interrelated roles , or who together represented a region of the Egyptian mythological cosmos . It was sets of gods for da hours of the day and night and fa each nome ( province ) of Egypt . Some of these groups contain a specific , symbolically important number of deities . Paired gods can stand for opposite but interrelated concepts part of a greater unity . Ra , who dynamic and light @-@ producing , and Osiris , static and shrouded in darkness , merge into a single god each night . Groups of three r linked w/ plurality in ancient Egyptian thought , and groups of four connote completeness . Rulers in the late New Kingdom promoted a particularly important group of three gods above all others : Amun , Ra , and Ptah . These deities stood for tdaplurality of alll gods , as well as for their own cult centers ( the major cities of Thebes , Heliopolis , and Memphis ) and ffirmany threefold sets of concepts in Egyptian religious thought . Sometimes Set , the patron god of thdaineteenth Dynasty kings and thedabodiment of disorder within the world , was added to this group , which emphasized a single coherent vision of the pantheon .

Nine , the product of three and three , represents a multitude , so the Egyptians called several large groups " enneads " , or sets of nine , even if they had more than nine members . The most prominent ennead was the Ennead of Heliopolis , an extended family of deities descended from the creator god Atum , which incorporates many important gods . The term " ennead " was often extended to include all of Egypt 's deities .

Nine , the product of three and three , <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>represents</mark></a> a multitude , so the Egyptians called several large groups " enneads " , or sets of nine , even if they had more than nine members . The most prominent ennead was the Ennead of Heliopolis , an extended family of deities descended from the creator god Atum , which <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>incorporates</mark></a> many important gods . The term " ennead " was often extended to include all of Egypt <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>deities .

Nine , da product of three and three , represent a multitude , so the Egyptians called several bigass groups " enneads " , or sets of nine , even if they had more than nine members . Tdamost prominent ennead was thdannead of Heliopolis , an extended family of deities descended from the creator god Atum , which incorporate many important gods . The term " ennead " was often extended to include all of Egypt deities .

This divine assemblage had a vague and changeable hierarchy . Gods with broad influence in the cosmos or who were mythologically older than others had higher positions in divine society . At the apex of this society was the king of the gods , who was usually identified with the creator deity . In different periods of Egyptian history , different gods were most frequently said to hold this exalted position . Horus was the most important god in the Early Dynastic Period , Ra rose to preeminence in the Old Kingdom , Amun was supreme in the New , and in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods , Isis was the divine queen and creator goddess . Newly prominent gods tended to adopt characteristics from their predecessors . Isis absorbed the traits of many other goddesses during her rise , and when Amun became the ruler of the pantheon , he was conjoined with Ra , the traditional king of the gods , to become a solar deity .

This divine assemblage had a vague and changeable hierarchy . Gods with broad influence in the cosmos or <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> mythologically older than others had higher positions in divine society . At the apex of this society was the king of the gods , <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>who</mark></a>was usually identified with the creator deity . In different periods of Egyptian history , different gods <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> most frequently said to hold this exalted position . Horus was the most important god in the Early Dynastic Period , Ra rose to preeminence in the Old Kingdom , Amun was supreme in the New , and in the Ptolemaic and Roman periods , Isis was the divine queen and creator goddess . Newly prominent gods tended to adopt characteristics from their predecessors . Isis absorbed the traits of many other goddesses during her rise , and when Amun became the ruler of the pantheon , he was conjoined with Ra , the traditional king of the gods , to become a solar deity .

This divine assemblage had a vague and changeable hierarchy . Gods w/ broad influence in the cosmos or was mythologically older than others had higher positions in divine society . At the apex of this society was da king of the gods , was usually identified with the creator deity . In diff periods of Egyptian history , different gods was most frequently said to hold dis exalted position . Horus was the most important god in tdaEarly Dynastic Period , Ra rose to preeminence in the Old Kingdom , Amun was supreme in the New , and in thdatolemaic and Roman periods , Isis was thedavine queen and creator goddess . Newly prominent gods tended to adopt characteristics from their predecessors . Isis absorbed the traits of many other goddesses during her rise , and when Amun became the daer of the pdaheon , he was conjoined with Ra , the traditional king of the gods , to become a solar deity .

= = = Manifestations and combinations = = =

= = = Manifestations and combinations = = =

= = = Manifestations and combinations = = =

The gods were believed to manifest in many forms . The Egyptians had complex conception of the human soul , consisting of several parts . The spirits of the gods were composed of many of these same elements . The ba was the component of the human or divine soul that affected the world around it . Any visible manifestation of a god 's power could be called its ba ; thus , the sun was called the ba of Ra . A depiction of a deity was considered a ka , another component of its being , which acted as a vessel for that deity 's ba to inhabit . The cult images of gods that were the focus of temple rituals , as well as the sacred animals that represented certain deities , were believed to house divine bas in this way . Gods could be ascribed many bas and kas , which were sometimes given names representing different aspects of the god 's nature . Everything in existence was said to be one of the kas of Atum the creator god , who originally contained all things within himself , and one deity could be called the ba of another , meaning that the first god is a manifestation of the other 's power . Divine body parts could act as separate deities , like the Eye of Ra and Hand of Atum , both of which were personified as goddesses .

The gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> believed to manifest in many forms . The Egyptians had complex conception of the human soul , consisting of several parts . The spirits of the gods <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> composed of many of these same elements . The ba was the component of the human or divine soul <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>affected the world around it . Any visible manifestation of a god <a href='null_genetive' title='4'><mark>'s</mark></a>power could be called its ba ; thus , the sun was called the ba of Ra . A depiction of a deity was considered a ka , another component of its being , which acted as a vessel for that deity <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'s</mark></a>ba to inhabit . The cult images of gods <a href='null_relcl' title='6'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> the focus of temple rituals , as well as the sacred animals <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>represented certain deities , <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>were</mark></a> believed to house divine bas in this way . Gods could be ascribed many bas and kas , which <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>were</mark></a> sometimes given names representing different aspects of the god <a href='null_genetive' title='11'><mark>'s</mark></a>nature . Everything in existence was said to be one of the kas of Atum the creator god , <a href='null_relcl' title='12'><mark>who</mark></a>originally contained all things within himself , and one deity could be called the ba of another , meaning that the first god is a manifestation of the other <a href='null_genetive' title='13'><mark>'s</mark></a>power . Divine body parts could act as separate deities , like the Eye of Ra and Hand of Atum , both of which <a href='uninflect' title='14'><mark>were</mark></a> personified as goddesses .

The gods was believed to manifest in many forms . da Egyptians had complex conception of tdahuman soul , consisting of several parts . The spirits of the gods was composed of many of dese same elements . The ba was thdaomponent of thedaman or divine soul affected the dald around it . Any visible manifestation of a god power could be called its ba ; thus , the sdawas called the bada Ra . A depiction of a deity was considered a ka , anotha component of its bein , which acted as a vessel fir that deity ba to inhabit . The culdamages of gods was the focus of temple rituals , as well as the sacred animals represented certain deities , was believed to house divine bas in this way . Gods could be ascribed many bas and kas , which was sometimes given names reppin diffrent aspects of the god dature . Everything in existence was said to b one of the kas of Atum the creator god , originally contained all things within hisself , and one deity could be called the ba ofdaother , meaning dat the first god is a manifestation of the other power . Divine body parts could act as separate deities , like the Eye ofda and Hand of Atum , both of which was personified as goddesses .

Nationally important deities gave rise to local manifestations , which sometimes absorbed the characteristics of older regional gods . Horus had many forms tied to particular places , including Horus of Nekhen , Horus of Buhen , and Horus of Edfu . Such local manifestations could be treated almost as separate beings . During the New Kingdom , one man was accused of stealing clothes by an oracle supposed to communicate messages from Amun of Pe @-@ Khenty . He consulted two other local oracles of Amun hoping for a different judgment . Gods ' manifestations also differed according to their roles . Horus could be a powerful sky god or vulnerable child , and these forms were sometimes counted as independent deities .

Nationally important deities gave rise to local manifestations , which sometimes absorbed the characteristics of older regional gods . Horus had many forms tied to particular places , including Horus of Nekhen , Horus of Buhen , and Horus of Edfu . Such local manifestations could be treated almost as separate beings . During the New Kingdom , one man was accused of stealing clothes by an oracle supposed to communicate messages from Amun of Pe @-@ Khenty . He consulted two other local oracles of Amun hoping for a different judgment . Gods <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'</mark></a>manifestations also differed according to their roles . Horus could be a powerful sky god or vulnerable child , and these forms <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> sometimes counted as independent deities .

Nationally important deities gave rise to local manifestations , which sometimes absorbed the characteristics of older regional gods . Horus had many forms tied to particular places , including Horus of Nekhen , Horus of Buhen , and Horus of Edfu . Such local manifestations could b treated almost as separate beings . During the New Kingdom , one man was accused of stealing clothes by an oracle supposed to communicate messages from Amun of Pe @-@ Khenty . He consulted 2 other local oracles of Amun hoping for a different judgment . Gods manifestations also differed according to their roles . Horus could bba powerful sky god or vulnerable child , and these forms was sometimes counted as independent deities .

Gods were combined with each other as easily as they were divided . A god could be called the ba of another , or two or more deities could be joined into one god with a combined name and iconography . Local gods were linked with greater ones , and deities with similar functions were combined . Ra was connected with the local deity Sobek to form Sobek @-@ Ra ; with his fellow ruling god , Amun , to form Amun @-@ Ra ; with the solar form of Horus to form Ra @-@ Horakhty ; and with several solar deities as Horemakhet @-@ Khepri @-@ Ra @-@ Atum . On rare occasion , even deities of different sexes were joined in this way , producing combinations like Osiris @-@ Neith and Mut @-@ Min . This linking of deities is called syncretism . Unlike other situations for which this term is used , the Egyptian practice was not meant to fuse competing belief systems , although foreign deities could be syncretized with native ones . Instead , syncretism acknowledged the overlap between their roles , and extended the sphere of influence for each of them . Syncretic combinations were not permanent ; a god who was involved in one combination continued to appear separately and to form new combinations with other deities . But closely connected deities did sometimes merge . Horus absorbed several falcon gods from various regions , such as Khenty @-@ irty and Khenty @-@ khety , who became little more than local manifestations of him ; Hathor subsumed a similar cow goddess , Bat ; and an early funerary god , Khenti @-@ Amentiu , was supplanted by Osiris and Anubis .

Gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> combined with each other as easily as they <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> divided . A god could be called the ba of another , or two or more deities could be joined into one god with a combined name and iconography . Local gods <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> linked with greater ones , and deities with similar functions <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> combined . Ra was connected with the local deity Sobek to form Sobek @-@ Ra ; with his fellow ruling god , Amun , to form Amun @-@ Ra ; with the solar form of Horus to form Ra @-@ Horakhty ; and with several solar deities as Horemakhet @-@ Khepri @-@ Ra @-@ Atum . On rare occasion , even deities of different sexes <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> joined in this way , producing combinations like Osiris @-@ Neith and Mut @-@ Min . This linking of deities is called syncretism . Unlike other situations for which this term is used , the Egyptian practice was not meant to fuse competing belief systems , although foreign deities could be syncretized with native ones . Instead , syncretism acknowledged the overlap between their roles , and extended the sphere of influence for each of them . Syncretic combinations <a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> <a href='negative_concord' title='7'><mark>not</mark></a>permanent ; a god <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>who</mark></a>was involved in one combination continued to appear separately and to form new combinations with other deities . But closely connected deities did sometimes merge . Horus absorbed several falcon gods from various regions , such as Khenty @-@ irty and Khenty @-@ khety , <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>who</mark></a>became little more than local manifestations of him ; Hathor subsumed a similar cow goddess , Bat ; and an early funerary god , Khenti @-@ Amentiu , was supplanted by Osiris and Anubis .

Gods was combined with each other as easily as they was divided . A god could b called the ba of anotha , or 2 or more deities could be joined into one god witt a combined name and iconography . Local gods was linked with greater ones , and deities with similar functions was combined . Ra was connected with the local deity Sobek to form Sobek @-@ Ra ; witt his fellow ruling god , Amun , to form Amun @-@ Ra ; with the solar form of Horus to form Ra @-@ Horakhty ; and with several solar deities as Horemakhet @-@ Khepri @-@ Ra @-@ Atum . On rare occasion , even deities of different sexes was joined in this way , producing combinations like Osiris @-@ Neith and Mut @-@ Min . dis linking of deities is called syncretism . Unlike other situations for which tdisterm is used , the Egyptian practice was not ment to fuse competing belief systems , although foreign deities could be syncretized w native ones . Instead , syncretism acknowledged da overlap between their roles , and extended the sphere of influence for each of them . Syncretic combinations ain't permanent ; a god was involved in one combination continued to appear separately and to form new combinations with other deities . But closely connected deities did sometimes merge . Horus absorbed several falcon gods from various regions , such as Khenty @-@ irty and Khenty @-@ khety , became lil more den local manifestations of him ; Hathor subsumed a similar cow goddess , Bat ; and an early funerary god , Khenti @-@ Amentiu , was supplanted by Osiris and Anubis .

= = = The Aten and possible monotheism = = =

= = = The Aten and possible monotheism = = =

= = = The Aten and possible monotheism = = =

In the reign of Akhenaten ( c . 1353 – 1336 BC ) in the mid @-@ New Kingdom , a single solar deity , the Aten , became the sole focus of the state religion . Akhenaten ceased to fund the temples of other deities and erased the gods ' names and images on monuments , targeting Amun in particular . This new religious system , sometimes called Atenism , differed dramatically from the polytheistic worship of many gods in all other periods . Whereas , in earlier times , newly important gods were integrated into existing religious beliefs , Atenism insisted on a single understanding of the divine that excluded the traditional multiplicity of perspectives . Yet Atenism may not have been full monotheism , which totally excludes belief in other deities . There is evidence suggesting that the general populace was still allowed to worship other gods in private . The picture is further complicated by Atenism 's apparent tolerance for some other deities , like Shu . For these reasons , the Egyptologist Dominic Montserrat suggested that Akhenaten may have been monolatrous , worshipping a single deity while acknowledging the existence of others . In any case , Atenism 's aberrant theology did not take root among the Egyptian populace , and Akhenaten 's successors returned to traditional beliefs .

In the reign of Akhenaten ( c . 1353 – 1336 BC ) in the mid @-@ New Kingdom , a single solar deity , the Aten , became the sole focus of the state religion . Akhenaten ceased to fund the temples of other deities and erased the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'</mark></a>names and images on monuments , targeting Amun in particular . This new religious system , sometimes called Atenism , differed dramatically from the polytheistic worship of many gods in all other periods . Whereas , in earlier times , newly important gods <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> integrated into existing religious beliefs , Atenism insisted on a single understanding of the divine <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>excluded the traditional multiplicity of perspectives . Yet Atenism may <a href='negative_concord' title='4'><mark>not</mark></a>have <a href='negative_concord' title='5'><mark>been</mark></a> full monotheism , which totally <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>excludes</mark></a> belief in other deities . <a href='dey_it' title='7'><mark>There</mark></a> is evidence suggesting that the general populace was still allowed to worship other gods in private . The picture <a href='drop_aux' title='8'><mark>is</mark></a>further complicated by Atenism <a href='null_genetive' title='9'><mark>'s</mark></a>apparent tolerance for some other deities , like Shu . For these reasons , the Egyptologist Dominic Montserrat suggested that Akhenaten may have been monolatrous , worshipping a single deity while acknowledging the existence of others . In <a href='None' title='10'><mark>any</mark></a><a href='negative_concord' title='11'><mark>case</mark></a> , Atenism <a href='null_genetive' title='12'><mark>'s</mark></a>aberrant theology did not take <a href='negative_concord' title='13'><mark>root</mark></a> among the Egyptian populace , and Akhenaten <a href='null_genetive' title='14'><mark>'s</mark></a>successors returned to traditional beliefs .

In the reign of Akhenaten ( c . 1353 – 1336 cos ) in the mid @-@ New Kingdom , a single solar deity , da Aten , became the sole focus of the state religion . Akhenaten ceased to fund the temples of other deities and erased the gods names and images on monuments , targeting Amun in particular . This new religious system , sometimes called Atenism , differed dramatically from tdapolytheistic worship of many gods in all other periods . Whereas , in earlier times , newly important gods was integrated into existing religious beliefs , Atenism insisted on a single understanding of thdaivine excluded thedaaditional multiplicity of perspectives . Yet Atenism may have ain't full monotheism , which totally exclude belief in other deities . It is evidence suggesting that the daeral populace was still allowed to worship other gods in private . The pic further complicated by Atenism apparent tolerance for some other deities , like Shu . For dem reasons , the Edatologist Dominic Montserrat suggested dat Akhenaten may have been monolatrous , worshipping a single deity while acknowledging the existence of others . In no case , Atenism aberrant theology did not take no root among the Egyptian populace , and Akhenaten successors returned to traditional beliefs .

= = = Unity of the divine in traditional religion = = =

= = = Unity of the divine in traditional religion = = =

= = = Unity of the divine in traditional religion = = =

Scholars have long debated whether traditional Egyptian religion ever asserted that the multiple gods were , on a deeper level , unified . Reasons for this debate include the practice of syncretism , which might suggest that all the separate gods could ultimately merge into one , and the tendency of Egyptian texts to credit a particular god with power that surpasses all other deities . Another point of contention is the appearance of the word " god " in wisdom literature , where the term does not refer to a specific deity or group of deities . In the early 20th century , for instance , E. A. Wallis Budge believed that Egyptian commoners were polytheistic , but knowledge of the true monotheistic nature of the religion was reserved for the elite , who wrote the wisdom literature . His contemporary James Henry Breasted thought Egyptian religion was instead pantheistic , with the power of the sun god present in all other gods , while Hermann Junker argued that Egyptian civilization had been originally monotheistic and became polytheistic in the course of its history .

Scholars <a href='been_done' title='1'><mark>have</mark></a> long debated whether traditional Egyptian religion ever asserted that the multiple gods <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> , on a deeper level , unified . Reasons for this debate include the practice of syncretism , which might suggest that all the separate gods could ultimately merge into one , and the tendency of Egyptian texts to credit a particular god with power <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>surpasses</mark></a> all other deities . Another point of contention <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>is</mark></a>the appearance of the word " god " in wisdom literature , where the term <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>does</mark></a> not refer to a specific deity or group of deities . In the early 20th century , for instance , E. A. Wallis Budge believed that Egyptian commoners <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> polytheistic , but knowledge of the true monotheistic nature of the religion was reserved for the elite , <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>who</mark></a>wrote the wisdom literature . His contemporary James Henry Breasted thought Egyptian religion was instead pantheistic , with the power of the sun god present in all other gods , while Hermann Junker argued that Egyptian civilization had been originally monotheistic and became polytheistic in the course of its history .

Scholars done long debated whether traditional Egyptian religion ever asserted that da multiple gods was , on a deeper level , unified . Reasons for this debate include the practice of syncretism , which mite suggest that all the separate gods could ultimately merge into one , and the tendency of Egyptian texts to credit a particular god with power surpass all other deities . anotha point of contention tdaappearance of the word " god " in wisdom literature , where the term do not refer to a specific deity or group of deities . In the early 20th century , for instance , E. A. Wallis Budge believed that Egyptian commoners was polytheistic , but knowledge of the tru monotheistic nature of the religion was reserved fa the elite , wrote the wisdom literature . His contemporary James Henry Breasted thought Egyptian religion was instead pantheistic , wit thdaower of thedan god present in alll other gods , while Hermann Junker argued that Egyptian civilization had been originally monotheistic and became polytheistic in the course of its history .

In 1971 , Erik Hornung published a study rebutting these views . He points out that in any given period many deities , even minor ones , were described as superior to all others . He also argues that the unspecified " god " in the wisdom texts is a generic term for whichever deity the reader chooses to revere . Although the combinations , manifestations , and iconographies of each god were constantly shifting , they were always restricted to a finite number of forms , never becoming fully interchangeable in a monotheistic or pantheistic way . Henotheism , Hornung says , describes Egyptian religion better than other labels . An Egyptian could worship any deity at a particular time and credit it with supreme power in that moment , without denying the other gods or merging them all with the god that he or she focused on . Hornung concludes that the gods were fully unified only in myth , at the time before creation , after which the multitude of gods emerged from a uniform nonexistence .

In 1971 , Erik Hornung published a study rebutting these views . He <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>points</mark></a> out that in any given period many deities , even minor ones , <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> described as superior to all others . He also <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>argues</mark></a> that the unspecified " god " in the wisdom texts is a generic term for whichever deity the reader <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>chooses</mark></a> to revere . Although the combinations , manifestations , and iconographies of each god <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> constantly shifting , they <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> always restricted to a finite number of forms , never becoming fully interchangeable in a monotheistic or pantheistic way . Henotheism , Hornung <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>says</mark></a> , <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>describes</mark></a> Egyptian religion better than other labels . An Egyptian could worship any deity at a particular time and credit it with supreme power in that moment , without denying the other gods or merging them all with the god that he or she focused on . Hornung <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>concludes</mark></a> that the gods <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>were</mark></a> fully unified only in myth , at the time before creation , after which the multitude of gods emerged from a uniform nonexistence .

In 1971 , Erik Hornung published a study rebutting dese views . He point out that in any given period many deities , even minor ones , was described as superior to alll others . He also argue that the unspecified " god " in the wisdom texts is a generic term fa whichever deity da reader claim to revere . Although tdacombinations , manifestations , and iconographies of each god was constantly shifting , they was always restricted to a finite number of forms , never becoming fully interchangeable in a monotheistic or pantheistic way . Henotheism , Hornung say , describe Egyptian religion better den other labels . An Egyptian could worship any deity at a particular time and credit it with supreme power in that moment , without denying the other gods or merging em all with thdaod dat he or she focused on . Hornung conclude that the gods was fully unified only in myth , at the time b4 creation , after which the multitude of gods emerged from a uniform nonexistence .

Hornung 's arguments have greatly influenced other scholars of Egyptian religion , but some still believe that at times the gods were more unified than he allows . Jan Assmann maintains that the notion of a single deity developed slowly through the New Kingdom , beginning with a focus on Amun @-@ Ra as the all @-@ important sun god . In his view , Atenism was an extreme outgrowth of this trend . It equated the single deity with the sun and dismissed all other gods . Then , in the backlash against Atenism , priestly theologians described the universal god in a different way , one that coexisted with traditional polytheism . The one god was believed to transcend the world and all the other deities , while at the same time , the multiple gods were aspects of the one . According to Assmann , this one god was especially equated with Amun , the dominant god in the late New Kingdom , whereas for the rest of Egyptian history the universal deity could be identified with many other gods . James P. Allen says that coexisting notions of one god and many gods would fit well with the " multiplicity of approaches " in Egyptian thought , as well as with the henotheistic practice of ordinary worshippers . He says that the Egyptians may have recognized the unity of the divine by " identifying their uniform notion of ' god ' with a particular god , depending on the particular situation . "

Hornung <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>arguments <a href='been_done' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> greatly influenced other scholars of Egyptian religion , but some still believe that at times the gods <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> more unified than he <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>allows</mark></a> . Jan Assmann <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>maintains</mark></a> that the notion of a single deity developed slowly through the New Kingdom , beginning with a focus on Amun @-@ Ra as the all @-@ important sun god . In his view , Atenism was an extreme outgrowth of this trend . It equated the single deity with the sun and dismissed all other gods . Then , in the backlash against Atenism , priestly theologians<a href='been_done' title='6'><mark></mark></a> described the universal god in a different way , one <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>that</mark></a>coexisted with traditional polytheism . The one god was believed to transcend the world and all the other deities , while at the same time , the multiple gods <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> aspects of the one . According to Assmann , this one god was especially equated with Amun , the dominant god in the late New Kingdom , whereas for the rest of Egyptian history the universal deity could be identified with many other gods . James P. Allen <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>says</mark></a> that coexisting notions of one god and many gods would fit well with the " multiplicity of approaches " in Egyptian thought , as well as with the henotheistic practice of ordinary worshippers . He <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>says</mark></a> that the Egyptians may <a href='been_done' title='11'><mark>have</mark></a> recognized the unity of the divine by " identifying their uniform notion of ' god ' with a particular god , depending on the particular situation . "

Hornung arguments done greatly influenced other scholars of Egyptian religion , but some still believe dat at times da gods was more unified den he allow . Jan Assmann maintain that the notion of a single deity developed slowly through the New Kingdom , beginning with a focus on Amun @-@ Ra as tdaall @-@ important sun god . In his view , Atenism was an extreme outgrowth of dis trend . It equated the single deity with the sun and dismissed all other gods . Then , in the backlash against Atenism , priestly theologians been described the universal god in a different way , one coexisted wid traditional polytheism . The one god was believed to transcend thdaorld and alll the other deities , while at the same time , the multiple gods was aspects of thedae . According to Assmann , this one god was especially equated ww/Amun , the dominant god in the late New Kingdom , whereas fir the rest of Egyptian history the universal deity could be identified witwitny other gods . James P. Allen say that coexisting notions of one god and many gods would fit well withw " multiplicity of approaches " in Egyptian thought , as well as with the daotheistic practice of ordinary worshippers . He say tdatthe Edatians may done recognized the unity of the divine by " identifying their uniform notion of ' god ' with a widicular god , depending on the particular situation . "

= = Descriptions and depictions = =

= = Descriptions and depictions = =

= = Descriptions and depictions = =

Egyptian writings describe the gods ' bodies in detail . They are made of precious materials ; their flesh is gold , their bones are silver , and their hair is lapis lazuli . They give off a scent that the Egyptians likened to the incense used in rituals . Some texts give precise descriptions of particular deities , including their height and eye color . Yet these characteristics are not fixed ; in myths , gods change their appearances to suit their own purposes . Egyptian texts often refer to deities ' true , underlying forms as " mysterious " . The Egyptians ' visual representations of their gods are therefore not literal . They symbolize specific aspects of each deity 's character , functioning much like the ideograms in hieroglyphic writing . For this reason , the funerary god Anubis is commonly shown in Egyptian art as a dog or jackal , a creature whose scavenging habits threaten the preservation of buried mummies , in an effort to counter this threat and employ it for protection . His black coloring alludes to the color of mummified flesh and to the fertile black soil that Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection .

Egyptian writings describe the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'</mark></a>bodies in detail . They are made of precious materials ; their flesh is gold , their bones are silver , and their hair <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>is</mark></a>lapis lazuli . They give off a scent <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>the Egyptians likened to the incense used in rituals . Some texts give precise descriptions of particular deities , including their height and eye color . Yet these characteristics are not fixed ; in myths , gods change their appearances to suit their own purposes . Egyptian texts often refer to deities <a href='null_genetive' title='4'><mark>'</mark></a>true , underlying forms as " mysterious " . The Egyptians <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'</mark></a>visual representations of their gods <a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>are</mark></a> therefore <a href='negative_concord' title='7'><mark>not</mark></a>literal . They symbolize specific aspects of each deity <a href='null_genetive' title='8'><mark>'s</mark></a>character , functioning much like the ideograms in hieroglyphic writing . For this reason , the funerary god Anubis is commonly shown in Egyptian art as a dog or jackal , a creature whose scavenging habits threaten the preservation of buried mummies , in an effort to counter this threat and employ it for protection . His black coloring <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>alludes</mark></a> to the color of mummified flesh and to the fertile black soil <a href='null_relcl' title='10'><mark>that</mark></a>Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection .

Egyptian writings describe da gods bodies in detail . They r made of precious materials ; their flesh is gold , their bones are silver , and their hair lapis lazuli . They give offf a scent tdaEgyptians likened to the incense used in rituals . sum txts give precise descriptions of particular deities , including their height and eye color . Yet these characteristics ain't fixed ; in myths , gods change their appearances to suit their own purposes . Egyptian texts often refer to deities true , underlying forms as " mysterious " . Thdagyptians visual representations of their gods ain't therefore literal . They symbolize specific aspects of each deity character , functioning much like the ideograms in hieroglyphic writing . fa this reason , thedanerary god Anubis is commonly shown in Egyptian art as a dog or jackal , a creature whose scavenging habits threaten the daservation of buried mummies , in an effort to counter dis threat and employ it for protection . His black coloring allude to the cdar of mummified flesh and to the fertile black soil Egyptians saw as a symbol of resurrection .

Most gods were depicted in several ways . Hathor could be a cow , cobra , lioness , or a woman with bovine horns or ears . By depicting a given god in different ways , the Egyptians expressed different aspects of its essential nature . The gods are depicted in a finite number of these symbolic forms , so that deities can often be distinguished from one another by their iconographies . These forms include men and women ( anthropomorphism ) , animals ( zoomorphism ) , and , more rarely , inanimate objects . Combinations of forms , such as gods with human bodies and animal heads , are common . New forms and increasingly complex combinations arose in the course of history . Some gods can only be distinguished from others if they are labeled in writing , as with Isis and Hathor . Because of the close connection between these goddesses , they could both wear the cow @-@ horn headdress that was originally Hathor 's alone .

Most gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> depicted in several ways . Hathor could be a cow , cobra , lioness , or a woman with bovine horns or ears . By depicting a given god in different ways , the Egyptians expressed different aspects of its essential nature . The gods are depicted in a finite number of these symbolic forms , so that deities can often be distinguished from one another by their iconographies . These forms include men and women ( anthropomorphism ) , animals ( zoomorphism ) , and , more rarely , inanimate objects . Combinations of forms , such as gods with human bodies and animal heads , <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>are</mark></a>common . New forms and increasingly complex combinations arose in the course of history . Some gods can only be distinguished from others if they are labeled in writing , as with Isis and Hathor . Because of the close connection between these goddesses , they could both wear the cow @-@ horn headdress <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>that</mark></a>was originally Hathor 's alone .

Most gods was depicted in several ways . Hathor could be a cow , cobra , lioness , or a woman w/ bovine horns or ears . By depicting a given god in different ways , the Egyptians expressed diff aspects of its essential nature . da gods r depicted in a finite number of dese symbolic forms , soo dat deities can often be distinguished from one another by their iconographies . These forms include men and women ( anthropomorphism ) , animals ( zoomorphism ) , and , more rarely , inanimate objects . Combinations of forms , such as gods with human bodies and animal heads , common . New forms and increasingly complex combinations arose in the course of history . Some gods can only b distinguished from others if they are labeled in writing , as wiwitsis and Hathor . Because of the close connection between these goddesses , they could both wear the cow @-@ horn headdress was originally Hathor 's alone .

Certain features of divine images are more useful than others in determining a god 's identity . The head of a given divine image is particularly significant . In a hybrid image , the head represents the original form of the being depicted , so that , as the Egyptologist Henry Fischer put it , " a lion @-@ headed goddess is a lion @-@ goddess in human form , while a royal sphinx , conversely , is a man who has assumed the form of a lion . " Divine headdresses , which range from the same types of crowns used by human kings to large hieroglyphs worn on gods ' heads , are another important indicator . In contrast , the objects held in gods ' hands tend to be generic . Male deities hold was staffs , goddesses hold stalks of papyrus , and both sexes carry ankh signs , representing the Egyptian word for " life " , to symbolize their life @-@ giving power .

Certain features of divine images <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>are</mark></a>more useful than others in determining a god <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>identity . The head of a given divine image <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>is</mark></a>particularly significant . In a hybrid image , the head <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>represents</mark></a> the original form of the being depicted , so that , as the Egyptologist Henry Fischer put it , " a lion @-@ headed goddess <a href='drop_aux' title='5'><mark>is</mark></a>a lion @-@ goddess in human form , while a royal sphinx , conversely , <a href='drop_aux' title='6'><mark>is</mark></a>a man <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='been_done' title='8'><mark>has</mark></a> assumed the form of a lion . " Divine headdresses , which range from the same types of crowns used by human kings to large hieroglyphs worn on gods <a href='null_genetive' title='9'><mark>'</mark></a>heads , <a href='drop_aux' title='10'><mark>are</mark></a>another important indicator . In contrast , the objects held in gods <a href='null_genetive' title='11'><mark>'</mark></a>hands tend to be generic . Male deities hold was staffs , goddesses hold stalks of papyrus , and both sexes carry ankh signs , representing the Egyptian word for " life " , to symbolize their life @-@ giving power .

Certain features of divine images more useful den others in determining a god identity . da head of a given divine image particularly significant . In a hybrid image , the head represent tdaoriginal form of the being depicted , soo that , as thdagyptologist Henry Fischer put it , " a lion @-@ headed goddess a lion @-@ goddess in human form , while a royal sphinx , conversely , a man done assumed the form of a lion . " Divine headdresses , which range from the same types of crowns used by human kings to large hieroglyphs worn on gods heads , anotha important indicator . In contrast , the objects held in gods hands tend to be generic . Male deities hold was staffs , goddesses hold stalks of papyrus , and both sexes carry ankh signs , reppin thedayptian word fir " life " , to symbolize their life @-@ giving power .

The forms in which the gods are shown , although diverse , are limited in many ways . Many creatures that are widespread in Egypt were never used in divine iconography , whereas a few , such as falcons , cobras , and cattle , can each represent many deities . Animals that were absent from Egypt in the early stages of its history were not used as divine images . For instance , the horse , which was only introduced in the Second Intermediate Period ( c . 1650 – 1550 BC ) , never represented a god . Similarly , the clothes worn by anthropomorphic deities in all periods changed little from the styles used in the Old Kingdom : a kilt , false beard , and often a shirt for male gods and a long , tight @-@ fitting dress for goddesses .

The forms in which the gods are shown , although diverse , are limited in many ways . Many creatures <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>are</mark></a>widespread in Egypt <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> never used in divine iconography , whereas a few , such as falcons , cobras , and cattle , can each represent many deities . Animals <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> absent from Egypt in the early stages of its history <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> not used as divine images . For <a href='negative_concord' title='7'><mark>instance</mark></a> , the horse , which was only introduced in the Second Intermediate Period ( c . 1650 – 1550 BC ) , never represented <a href='None' title='8'><mark>a</mark></a><a href='negative_concord' title='9'><mark>god</mark></a> . Similarly , the clothes worn by anthropomorphic deities in all periods<a href='been_done' title='10'><mark></mark></a> changed little from the styles used in the Old Kingdom : a kilt , false beard , and often a shirt for male gods and a long , tight @-@ fitting dress for goddesses .

Da forms in which tdagods r shown , although diverse , are limited in many ways . Many creatures widespread in Egypt was never used in divine iconography , whereas a few , such as falcons , cobras , and cattle , can each represent many deities . Animals was absent from Egypt in the early stages of its history was not used as divine images . For no instance , thdaorse , which was only introduced in the Second Intermediate Period ( c . 1650 – 1550 BC ) , never represented no god . Similarly , the clothes worn by anthropomorphic deities in all periods done changed little from the styles used in the Old Kingdom : a kilt , false beard , and often a shirt fa male gods and a long , tight @-@ fitting dress ffagoddesses .

The basic anthropomorphic form varies . Child gods are depicted nude , as are some adult gods when their procreative powers are emphasized . Certain male deities are given heavy bellies and breasts , signifying either androgyny or prosperity and abundance . Whereas most male gods have red skin and most goddesses are yellow — the same colors used to depict Egyptian men and women — some are given unusual , symbolic skin colors . Thus the blue skin and paunchy figure of the god Hapi alludes to the Nile flood he represents and the nourishing fertility it brought . A few deities , such as Osiris , Ptah , and Min , have a " mummiform " appearance , with their limbs tightly swathed in cloth . Although these gods resemble mummies , the earliest examples predate the cloth @-@ wrapped style of mummification , and this form may instead hark back to the earliest , limbless depictions of deities .

The basic anthropomorphic form <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>varies</mark></a> . Child gods are depicted nude , as are some adult gods when their procreative powers are emphasized . Certain male deities are given heavy bellies and breasts , signifying either androgyny or prosperity and abundance . Whereas most male gods <a href='got' title='2'><mark>have</mark></a> red skin and most goddesses are yellow — the same colors used to depict Egyptian men and women — some are given unusual , symbolic skin colors . Thus the blue skin and paunchy figure of the god Hapi <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>alludes</mark></a> to the Nile flood he <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>represents</mark></a> and the nourishing fertility it brought . A few deities , such as Osiris , Ptah , and Min , <a href='got' title='5'><mark>have</mark></a> a " mummiform " appearance , with their limbs tightly swathed in cloth . Although these gods resemble mummies , the earliest examples predate the cloth @-@ wrapped style of mummification , and this form may instead hark back to the earliest , limbless depictions of deities .

The basic anthropomorphic form vary . Child gods r depicted nude , as arrome adult gods when their procreative powers are rhasized . Certain male deities are gir heavy bellies and breasts , signifying either androgyny or prosperity and abundance . Whereas most male gods got red skin and most goddesses are yellr— da same colors used to depict Egyptian men and women — some are given rsual , symbolic skin colors . Thus the blue skin and paunchy figure of tdagod Hapi allude to the Nile flood he represent and thdaourishing fertility it brought . A few deities , such as Osiris , Ptah , and Min , got a " mummiform " appearance , with their limbs tightly swathed in cloth . Although dem gods resemble mummies , the earliest examples predate thedaoth @-@ wrapped style of mummification , and this form may instead hark bak to the earliest , limbless depictions of deities .

= = Interactions with humans = =

= = Interactions with humans = =

= = Interactions with humans = =

= = = Relationship with the pharaoh = = =

= = = Relationship with the pharaoh = = =

= = = Relationship with the pharaoh = = =

In official writings , pharaohs are said to be divine , and they are constantly depicted in the company of the deities of the pantheon . Each pharaoh and his predecessors were considered the successors of the gods who had ruled Egypt in mythic prehistory . Living kings were equated with Horus and called the " son " of many deities , particularly Osiris and Ra ; deceased kings were equated with these elder gods . Pharaohs had their own mortuary temples where rituals were performed for them during their lives and after their deaths . But few pharaohs were worshipped as gods long after their lifetimes , and non @-@ official texts portray kings in a human light . For these reasons , scholars disagree about how genuinely most Egyptians believed the king to be a god . He may only have been considered divine when he was performing ceremonies .

In official writings , pharaohs are said to be divine , and they are constantly depicted in the company of the deities of the pantheon . Each pharaoh and his predecessors <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> considered the successors of the gods <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='been_done' title='3'><mark>had</mark></a> ruled Egypt in mythic prehistory . Living kings <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> equated with Horus and called the " son " of many deities , particularly Osiris and Ra ; deceased kings <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> equated with these elder gods . Pharaohs had their own mortuary temples where rituals <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> performed for them during their lives and after their deaths . But few pharaohs <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> worshipped as gods long after their lifetimes , and non @-@ official texts portray kings in a human light . For these reasons , scholars disagree about how genuinely most Egyptians believed the king to be a god . He may only <a href='been_done' title='8'><mark>have</mark></a> been considered divine when he was performing ceremonies .

In official writings , pharaohs r said to b divine , and they arronstantly depicted in the company of the deities of the pantheon . Each pharaoh and his predecessors was considered the successors of the gods done ruled Egypt in mythic prehistory . Living kings was equated with Horus and called da " son " of many deities , particularly Osiris and Ra ; deceased kings was equated with dese elder gods . Pharaohs had their own mortuary temples where rituals was performed for em durin their lives and after their deaths . But few pharaohs was worshipped as gods long after their lifetimes , and non @-@ official texts portray kings in a human light . fir tdemreasons , scholars disagree bout how genuinely most Egyptians believed the king to be a god . He may only done been considered divine when he was performing ceremonies .

However much it was believed , the king 's divine status was the rationale for his role as Egypt 's representative to the gods , as he formed a link between the divine and human realms . The Egyptians believed the gods needed temples to dwell in , as well as the periodic performance of rituals and presentation of offerings to nourish them . These things were provided by the cults that the king oversaw , with their priests and laborers . Yet , according to royal ideology , temple @-@ building was exclusively the pharaoh 's work , as were the rituals that priests usually performed in his stead . These acts were a part of the king 's fundamental role : maintaining maat . The king and the nation he represented provided the gods with maat so they could continue to perform their functions , which maintained maat in the cosmos so humans could continue to live .

However much it was believed , the king <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>divine status was the rationale for his role as Egypt <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>representative to the gods , as he formed a link between the divine and human realms . The Egyptians believed the gods needed temples to dwell in , as well as the periodic performance of rituals and presentation of offerings to nourish them . These things <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> provided by the cults <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a>the king oversaw , with their priests and laborers . Yet , according to royal ideology , temple @-@ building was exclusively the pharaoh <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'s</mark></a>work , as <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> the rituals <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>that</mark></a>priests usually performed in his stead . These acts <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> a part of the king <a href='null_genetive' title='9'><mark>'s</mark></a>fundamental role : maintaining maat . The king and the nation he represented provided the gods with maat so they could continue to perform their functions , which maintained maat in the cosmos so humans could continue to live .

However much it was believed , da king divine status was tdarationale fa his role as Egypt representative to the gods , as he formed a link between the divine and human realms . The Egyptians believed thdaods needed temples to dwell in , as well as the periodic performance of rituals and presentation of offerings to nourish em . dem things was provided by the cults thedang oversaw , with their priests and laborers . Yet , according to royal ideology , temple @-@ building was exclusively the pharaoh wrk , as was the dauals priests usually performed in his stead . Thdemcts was a part of the kda fundamental role : maintaining maat . The king and the nation he represented provided the gods witt maat so they could continue to perform their functions , which maintained maat in the cosmos soo humans could continue to live .

= = = Presence in the human world = = =

= = = Presence in the human world = = =

= = = Presence in da human world = = =

Although the Egyptians believed their gods to be present in the world around them , contact between the human and divine realms was mostly limited to specific circumstances . In literature , gods may appear to humans in a physical form , but in real life the Egyptians were limited to more indirect means of communication .

Although the Egyptians believed their gods to be present in the world around them , contact between the human and divine realms was mostly limited to specific circumstances . In literature , gods may appear to humans in a physical form , but in real life the Egyptians <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> limited to more indirect means of communication .

Although da Egyptians believed their gods to be present in tdaworld around em , contact between the human and divine realms was mostly limited to specific circumstances . In literature , gods may appear to humans in a physical form , but in real life the Egyptians was limited to more indirect means of communication .

The ba of a god was said to periodically leave the divine realm to dwell in the images of that god . By inhabiting these images , the gods left their concealed state and took on a physical form . To the Egyptians , a place or object that was ḏsr — " sacred " — was isolated and ritually pure , and thus fit for a god to inhabit . Temple statues and reliefs , as well as particular sacred animals , like the Apis bull , served as divine intermediaries in this way . Dreams and trances provided a very different venue for interaction . In these states , it was believed , people could come close to the gods and sometimes receive messages from them . Finally , according to Egyptian afterlife beliefs , human souls pass into the divine realm after death . The Egyptians therefore believed that in death they would exist on the same level as the gods and fully understand their mysterious nature .

The ba of a god was said to periodically leave the divine realm to dwell in the images of that god . By inhabiting these images , the gods left their concealed state and took on a physical form . To the Egyptians , a place or object <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a>was ḏsr — " sacred " — was isolated and ritually pure , and thus fit for a god to inhabit . Temple statues and reliefs , as well as particular sacred animals , like the Apis bull , served as divine intermediaries in this way . Dreams and trances provided a very different venue for interaction . In these states , it was believed , people could come close to the gods and sometimes receive messages from them . Finally , according to Egyptian afterlife beliefs , human souls pass into the divine realm after death . The Egyptians therefore believed that in death they would exist on the same level as the gods and fully understand their mysterious nature .

Da ba of a god was said to periodically leave the divine realm to dwell in the images of that god . By inhabiting these images , the gods left their concealed state and took on a physical form . To tdaEgyptians , a place or object was ḏsr — " sacred " — was isolated and ritually pure , and thus fit for a god to inhabit . Temple statues and reliefs , as well as particular sacred animals , like thdapis bull , served as divine intermediaries in dis way . Dreams and trances provided a very different venue fa interaction . In these states , it was believed , niggas could come close to thedads and sometimes receive messages from them . Finally , according to Egyptian afterlife beliefs , human souls pass into the divine realm after death . The Egyptians therefore believed that in death they would exist on the dae level as the gda and fully understand their mysterious nature .

Temples , where the state rituals were carried out , were filled with images of the gods . The most important temple image was the cult statue in the inner sanctuary . These statues were usually less than life @-@ size , and made of the same precious materials that were said to form the gods ' bodies . Many temples had several sanctuaries , each with a cult statue representing one of the gods in a group such as a family triad . The city 's primary god was envisioned as its lord , employing many of the residents as servants in the divine household that the temple represented . The gods residing in the temples of Egypt collectively represented the entire pantheon . But many deities — including some important gods as well as those that were minor or hostile — were never given temples of their own , although some were represented in the temples of other gods .

Temples , where the state rituals <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> carried out , <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> filled with images of the gods . The most important temple image was the cult statue in the inner sanctuary . These statues <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> usually less than life @-@ size , and made of the same precious materials <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> said to form the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'</mark></a>bodies . Many temples<a href='been_done' title='7'><mark></mark></a> had several sanctuaries , each with a cult statue representing one of the gods in a group such as a family triad . The city <a href='null_genetive' title='8'><mark>'s</mark></a>primary god was envisioned as its lord , employing many of the residents as servants in the divine household <a href='null_relcl' title='9'><mark>that</mark></a>the temple represented . The gods residing in the temples of Egypt collectively represented the entire pantheon . But many deities — including some important gods as well as those <a href='null_relcl' title='10'><mark>that</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='11'><mark>were</mark></a> minor or hostile — <a href='uninflect' title='12'><mark>were</mark></a> never given <a href='negative_concord' title='13'><mark>temples</mark></a> of their own , although some <a href='uninflect' title='14'><mark>were</mark></a> represented in the temples of other gods .

Temples , where da state rituals was carried outt , was filled w/ images of tdagods . Thdaost important temple image was the cult statue in the inner sanctuary . dese statues was usually less den life @-@ size , and made of thedame precious materials was said to form the gods bodies . Many temples been had several sanctuaries , each wiwit cult statue representing one of the gods in a group such as a family triad . The day primary god was envisioned as its lord , employing many of the rdadents as servants in the divine household the tedae represented . The goddaesiding in the temples of Egypt collectively represented the entidapantheon . But many deities — including some important gods as well as those was minor or hostile — was never given no temples of their own , although some was represented in the templdaof other gods .

To insulate the sacred power in the sanctuary from the impurities of the outside world , the Egyptians enclosed temple sanctuaries and greatly restricted access to them . People other than kings and high priests were thus denied contact with cult statues . The only exception was during festival processions , when the statue was carried out of the temple but still enclosed in a portable shrine . People did have less direct means of interaction . The more public parts of temples often incorporated small places for prayer , from doorways to freestanding chapels near the back of the temple building . Communities also built and managed small chapels for their own use , and some families had shrines inside their homes . Despite the gulf that separated humanity from the divine , the Egyptians were surrounded by opportunities to approach their gods .

To insulate the sacred power in the sanctuary from the impurities of the outside world , the Egyptians enclosed temple sanctuaries and greatly restricted access to them . People other than kings and high priests <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> thus denied contact with cult statues . The only exception was during festival processions , when the statue was carried out of the temple but still enclosed in a portable shrine . People did have less direct means of interaction . The more public parts of temples often incorporated small places for prayer , from doorways to freestanding chapels near the back of the temple building . Communities also built and managed small chapels for their own use , and some families had shrines inside their homes . Despite the gulf <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>that</mark></a>separated humanity from the divine , the Egyptians <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> surrounded by opportunities to approach their gods .

To insulate the sacred power in da sanctuary from the impurities of tdaoutside world , thdagyptians enclosed temple sanctuaries and greatly restricted access to em . People other den kings and high priests was thus denied contact with cult statues . The only exception was durin festival processions , when thedaatue was carried outt of the temple but still enclosed in a portable shrine . People did have less direct means of interaction . The more public parts of temples often incorporated small places fa prayer , from doorways to freestanding chapels near the back of the temple building . Communities also built and managed small chapels for their own use , and sum families had shrines inside their homes . Despite the gulf separated humanity from the daine , the Egyptians was surrounded by opportunities to approach their gods .

= = = Intervention in human lives = = =

= = = Intervention in human lives = = =

= = = Intervention in human lives = = =

Egyptian gods were involved in human lives as well as in the overarching order of nature . This divine influence applied mainly to Egypt , as foreign peoples were traditionally believed to be outside the divine order . But in the New Kingdom , when other nations were under Egyptian control , foreigners were said to be under the sun god 's benign rule in the same way that Egyptians were .

Egyptian gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> involved in human lives as well as in the overarching order of nature . This divine influence applied mainly to Egypt , as foreign peoples <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> traditionally believed to be outside the divine order . But in the New Kingdom , when other nations <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> under Egyptian control , foreigners <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> said to be under the sun god <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'s</mark></a>benign rule in the same way <a href='null_relcl' title='6'><mark>that</mark></a>Egyptians <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> .

Egyptian gods was involved in human lives as well as in the overarching order of nature . dis divine influence applied mainly to Egypt , as foreign peoples was traditionally believed to b outside the divine order . But in the New Kingdom , when other nations was under Egyptian control , foreigners was said to bbunder da sun god benign rule in tdasame way Egyptians was .

Thoth , as the overseer of time , was said to allot fixed lifespans to both humans and gods . Other gods were also said to govern the length of human lives , including Meskhenet , who presided over birth , and Shai , the personification of fate . Thus the time and manner of death was the main meaning of the Egyptian concept of fate , although to some extent these deities governed other events in life as well . Several texts refer to gods influencing or inspiring human decisions , working through a person 's " heart " — the seat of emotion and intellect in Egyptian belief . Deities were also believed to give commands , instructing the king in the governance of his realm and regulating the management of their temples . Egyptian texts rarely mention direct commands given to private persons , and these commands never evolved into a set of divinely enforced moral codes . Morality in ancient Egypt was based on the concept of maat , which , when applied to human society , meant that everyone should live in an orderly way that did not interfere with the well @-@ being of other people . Because deities were the upholders of maat , morality was connected with them . For example , the gods judged humans ' moral righteousness after death , and by the New Kingdom , a verdict of innocence in this judgment was believed to be necessary for admittance into the afterlife . But in general , morality was based on practical ways to uphold maat in daily life , rather than on strict rules that the gods laid out .

Thoth , as the overseer of time , was said to allot fixed lifespans to both humans and gods . Other gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> also said to govern the length of human lives , including Meskhenet , <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>who</mark></a>presided over birth , and Shai , the personification of fate . Thus the time and manner of death was the main meaning of the Egyptian concept of fate , although to some extent these deities governed other events in life as well . Several texts refer to gods influencing or inspiring human decisions , working through a person <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>" heart " — the seat of emotion and intellect in Egyptian belief . Deities <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> also believed to give commands , instructing the king in the governance of his realm and regulating the management of their temples . Egyptian texts rarely mention direct commands given to private persons , and these commands never evolved into <a href='None' title='5'><mark>a</mark></a><a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>set</mark></a> of divinely enforced moral codes . Morality in ancient Egypt was based on the concept of maat , which , when applied to human society , meant that everyone should live in an orderly way <a href='null_relcl' title='7'><mark>that</mark></a>did not interfere with the well @-@ being of other people . Because deities <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> the upholders of maat , morality was connected with them . For example , the gods judged humans <a href='null_genetive' title='9'><mark>'</mark></a>moral righteousness after death , and by the New Kingdom , a verdict of innocence in this judgment was believed to be necessary for admittance into the afterlife . But in general , morality was based on practical ways to uphold maat in daily life , rather than on strict rules that the gods laid out .

Thoth , as the overseer of time , was said to allot fixed lifespans to both humans and gods . Other gods was also said to govern da length of human lives , including Meskhenet , presided ova birth , and Shai , the personification of fate . Thus tdatime and manner of death was the main meaning of the Egyptian concept of fate , although to sum extent these deities governed other events in life as well . Several texts refer to gods influencing or inspiring human decisions , working thru a person " heart " — the seat of emotion and intellect in Egyptian belief . Deities was also believed to give commands , instructing the king in thdaovernance of his realm and regulating thedanagement of their temples . Egyptian texts rarely mention direct commands given to private persons , and these commands never evolved into no set of divinely enforced moral codes . Morality in ancient Egypt was based on the concept of maat , which , when applied to human society , ment dat every1 should live in an orderly way did not interfere with the well @-@ bein of other mfs . bc deities was the daolders of maat , morality was connected with them . fir example , the gods judged humans moral righteousness after death , and by the NdaKingdom , a verdict of innocence in this judgment was believed to b necessary fir admittance into the afterlife . But in general , morality was based on practical ways to uphold maat in daily life , rather than on strict rules tdatthe gods laid out .

Humans had free will to ignore divine guidance and the behavior required by maat , but by doing so they could bring divine punishment upon themselves . A deity carried out this punishment using its ba , the force that manifested the god 's power in the human world . Natural disasters and human ailments were seen as the work of angry divine bas . Conversely , the gods could cure righteous people of illness or even extend their lifespans . Both these types of intervention were eventually represented by deities : Shed , who emerged in the New Kingdom to represent divine rescue from harm , and Petbe , an apotropaic god from the late eras of Egyptian history who was believed to avenge wrongdoing .

Humans had free will to ignore divine guidance and the behavior required by maat , but by doing so they could bring divine punishment upon themselves . A deity carried out this punishment using its ba , the force <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a>manifested the god <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>power in the human world . Natural disasters and human ailments <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> seen as the work of angry divine bas . Conversely , the gods could cure righteous people of illness or even extend their lifespans . Both these types of intervention <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> eventually represented by deities : Shed , <a href='null_relcl' title='5'><mark>who</mark></a>emerged in the New Kingdom to represent divine rescue from harm , and Petbe , an apotropaic god from the late eras of Egyptian history <a href='null_relcl' title='6'><mark>who</mark></a>was believed to avenge wrongdoing .

Humans had free will to ignore divine guidance and the behavior required by maat , but by doin so they could bring divine punishment upon theyself . A deity carried out this punishment using its ba , da force manifested the god power in tdahuman world . Natural disasters and human ailments was seen as thdaork of angry divine bas . Conversely , thedads could cure righteous bitches of illness or even extend their lifespans . Both these types of intervention was eventually represented by deities : Shed , emerged in the da Kingdom to represent divine rescue from harm , and Petbe , an apotropaic god from the lda eras of Egyptian history was believed to avenge wrongdoing .

Egyptian texts take different views on whether the gods are responsible when humans suffer unjustly . Misfortune was often seen as a product of isfet , the cosmic disorder that was the opposite of maat , and therefore the gods were not guilty of causing evil events . Some deities who were closely connected with isfet , such as Set , could be blamed for disorder within the world without placing guilt on the other gods . But some writings do accuse the deities of causing human misery , while others give theodicies in the gods ' defense . Beginning in the Middle Kingdom , several texts connected the issue of evil in the world with a myth in which the creator god fights a human rebellion against his rule and then withdraws from the earth . Because of this human misbehavior , the creator is distant from his creation , allowing suffering to exist . New Kingdom writings do not question the just nature of the gods as strongly as those of the Middle Kingdom . They emphasize humans ' direct , personal relationships with deities and the gods ' power to intervene in human events . People in this era put faith in specific gods who they hoped would help and protect them through their lives . As a result , upholding the ideals of maat grew less important than gaining the gods ' favor as a way to guarantee a good life . Even the pharaohs were regarded as dependent on divine aid , and after the New Kingdom came to an end , government was increasingly influenced by oracles communicating the gods ' will .

Egyptian texts take different views on whether the gods are responsible when humans suffer unjustly . Misfortune was often seen as a product of isfet , the cosmic disorder <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a>was the opposite of maat , and therefore the gods <a href='negative_concord' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> <a href='negative_concord' title='3'><mark>not</mark></a>guilty of causing evil events . Some deities <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>who</mark></a><a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> closely connected with isfet , such as Set , could be blamed for disorder within the world without placing guilt on the other gods . But some writings do accuse the deities of causing human misery , while others give theodicies in the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'</mark></a>defense . Beginning in the Middle Kingdom , several texts connected the issue of evil in the world with a myth in which the creator god <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>fights</mark></a> a human rebellion against his rule and then <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>withdraws</mark></a> from the earth . Because of this human misbehavior , the creator <a href='drop_aux' title='9'><mark>is</mark></a>distant from his creation , allowing suffering to exist . New Kingdom writings do not question the just nature of the gods as strongly as those of the Middle Kingdom . They emphasize humans <a href='null_genetive' title='10'><mark>'</mark></a>direct , personal relationships with deities and the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='11'><mark>'</mark></a>power to intervene in human events . People in this era put faith in specific gods who they hoped would help and protect them through their lives . As a result , upholding the ideals of maat grew less important than gaining the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='12'><mark>'</mark></a>favor as a way to guarantee a good life . Even the pharaohs <a href='uninflect' title='13'><mark>were</mark></a> regarded as dependent on divine aid , and after the New Kingdom came to an end , government was increasingly influenced by oracles communicating the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='14'><mark>'</mark></a>will .

Egyptian texts take diff views on whether the gods are responsible when humans suffer unjustly . Misfortune was often seen as a product of isfet , da cosmic disorder was the opposite of maat , and therefore tdagods ain't guilty of causing evil events . Some deities was closely connected with isfet , such as Set , could be blamed fa disorder within thdaorld without placing guilt on the other gods . But some writings do accuse thedaities of causing human misery , while others give theodicies in the gods defense . Beginning in the dadle Kingdom , several texts connected the idae of evil in the world w a myth in which the crdaor god fight a human rebellion against his rule and then withdraw from the earda. b/c of this human misbehavior , the creator distant from his creation , allowing suffering to exist . New Kingdom writings do not question the jus nature of the godsda strongly as those of the Middldaingdom . They emphasize humans direct , personal relationships with deities and the gods daer to intervene in human events . bitches in dis era put faith in specific gods who they hoped would help and protect em through their lives . As a result , upholding the ideals damaat grew less important than gaining the gods favor as a way to guarantee a gud life . Even the pharaohsdas regarded as dependent on divine aid , and after the New Kingddacame to an end , government was increasingly influenced by oracles communicating the gods will .

= = = Worship = = =

= = = Worship = = =

= = = Worship = = =

Official religious practices , which maintained maat for the benefit of all Egypt , were related to , but distinct from , the religious practices of ordinary people , who sought the gods ' help for their personal problems .

Official religious practices , which maintained maat for the benefit of all Egypt , <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> related to , but distinct from , the religious practices of ordinary people , <a href='null_relcl' title='2'><mark>who</mark></a>sought the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>help for their personal problems .

Official religious practices , which maintained maat for da benefit of alll Egypt , was related to , but distinct from , the religious practices of ordinary people , sought the gods help for their personal problems .

Official religion involved a variety of rituals , based in temples . Some rites were performed every day , whereas others were festivals , taking place at longer intervals and often limited to a particular temple or deity . The gods received their offerings in daily ceremonies , in which their statues were clothed , anointed , and presented with food as hymns were recited in their honor . These offerings , in addition to maintaining maat for the gods , celebrated deities ' life @-@ giving generosity and encouraged them to remain benevolent rather than vengeful .

Official religion involved a variety of rituals , based in temples . Some rites <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> performed every day , whereas others <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> festivals , taking place at longer intervals and often limited to a particular temple or deity . The gods received their offerings in daily ceremonies , in which their statues <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> clothed , anointed , and presented with food as hymns <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> recited in their honor . These offerings , in addition to maintaining maat for the gods , celebrated deities <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'</mark></a>life @-@ giving generosity and encouraged them to remain benevolent rather than vengeful .

Official religion involved a variety of rituals , based in temples . sum rites was performed eryday , whereas others was festivals , takin place at longer intervals and often limited to a particular temple or deity . The gods received their offerings in daily ceremonies , in which their statues was clothed , anointed , and presented w food as hymns was recited in their honor . These offerings , in addition to maintaining maat for the gods , celebrated deities life @-@ giving generosity and encouraged them to remain benevolent rather than vengeful .

Festivals often involved a ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a barque @-@ shaped shrine . These processions served various purposes . In Roman times , when local deities of all kinds were believed to have power over the Nile inundation , processions in many communities carried temple images to the riverbanks so the gods could invoke a large and fruitful flood . Processions also traveled between temples , as when the image of Hathor from Dendera Temple visited her consort Horus at the Temple of Edfu . Rituals for a god were often based in that deity 's mythology . Such rituals were meant to be repetitions of the events of the mythic past , renewing the beneficial effects of the original events . In the Khoiak festival in honor of Osiris , his death and resurrection were ritually reenacted at a time when crops were beginning to sprout . The returning greenery symbolized the renewal of the god 's own life .

Festivals often involved a ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a barque @-@ shaped shrine . These processions served various purposes . In Roman times , when local deities of all kinds <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> believed to have power over the Nile inundation , processions in many communities carried temple images to the riverbanks so the gods could invoke a large and fruitful flood . Processions also traveled between temples , as when the image of Hathor from Dendera Temple visited her consort Horus at the Temple of Edfu . Rituals for a god <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> often based in that deity <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>mythology . Such rituals <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> meant to be repetitions of the events of the mythic past , renewing the beneficial effects of the original events . In the Khoiak festival in honor of Osiris , his death and resurrection <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> ritually reenacted at a time when crops <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> beginning to sprout . The returning greenery symbolized the renewal of the god <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'s</mark></a>own life .

Festivals often involved a ceremonial procession in which a cult image was carried out of the temple in a barque @-@ shaped shrine . dem processions served various purposes . In Roman times , when local deities of all kinds was believed to have power ova the Nile inundation , processions in many communities carried temple images to the riverbanks soo da gods could invoke a large and fruitful flood . Processions also traveled between temples , as when the image of Hathor from Dendera Temple visited her consort Horus at tdaTemple of Edfu . Rituals fa a god was often based in that deity mythology . Such rituals was ment to be repetitions of the events of the mythic past , renewing thdaeneficial effects of the original events . In thedaoiak festival in honor of Osiris , his death and resurrection was ritually reenacted at a time when crops was beginning to sprout . The daurning greenery symbolized the renewal of the god own life .

Personal interaction with the gods took many forms . People who wanted information or advice consulted oracles , run by temples , that were supposed to convey gods ' answers to questions . Amulets and other images of protective deities were used to ward off the demons that might threaten human well @-@ being or to impart the god 's positive characteristics to the wearer . Private rituals invoked the gods ' power to accomplish personal goals , from healing sickness to cursing enemies . These practices used heka , the same force of magic that the gods used , which the creator was said to have given to humans so they could fend off misfortune . The performer of a private rite often took on the role of a god in a myth , or even threatened a deity , to involve the gods in accomplishing the goal . Such rituals coexisted with private offerings and prayers , and all three were accepted means of obtaining divine help .

Personal interaction with the gods took many forms . People <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>who</mark></a>wanted information or advice consulted oracles , run by temples , that <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> supposed to convey gods <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'</mark></a>answers to questions . Amulets and other images of protective deities <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>were</mark></a> used to ward off the demons <a href='null_relcl' title='5'><mark>that</mark></a>might threaten human well @-@ being or to impart the god <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'s</mark></a>positive characteristics to the wearer . Private rituals invoked the gods <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'</mark></a>power to accomplish personal goals , from healing sickness to cursing enemies . These practices used heka , the same force of magic <a href='null_relcl' title='8'><mark>that</mark></a>the gods used , which the creator was said to <a href='been_done' title='9'><mark>have</mark></a> given to humans so they could fend off misfortune . The performer of a private rite often took on the role of a god in a myth , or even threatened a deity , to involve the gods in accomplishing the goal . Such rituals coexisted with private offerings and prayers , and all three <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>were</mark></a> accepted means of obtaining divine help .

Personal interaction with da gods took many forms . mfs wanted information or advice consulted oracles , run by temples , dat was supposed to convey gods answers to questions . Amulets and other images of protective deities was used to ward off tdademons mite threaten human well @-@ bein or to impart the god positive characteristics to thdaearer . Private rituals invoked the gods power to accomplish personal goals , from healing sickness to cussin enemies . dese practices used heka , the same force of magic the gods used , which the creator was said to done given to humans soo they could fend off misfortune . Thedarformer of a private rite often took on the role of a god in a myth , or even threatened a deity , to involve the gods in accomplishing the goal . Such rituals coexisted with private offerings and prayers , and alll three was accepted means of obtaining divine help .

Prayer and private offerings are generally called " personal piety " : acts that reflect a close relationship between an individual and a god . Evidence of personal piety is scant before the New Kingdom . Votive offerings and personal names , many of which are theophoric , suggest that commoners felt some connection between themselves and their gods . But firm evidence of devotion to deities became visible only in the New Kingdom , reaching a peak late in that era . Scholars disagree about the meaning of this change — whether direct interaction with the gods was a new development or an outgrowth of older traditions . Egyptians now expressed their devotion through a new variety of activities in and around temples . They recorded their prayers and their thanks for divine help on stelae . They gave offerings of figurines that represented the gods they were praying to , or that symbolized the result they desired ; thus a relief image of Hathor and a statuette of a woman could both represent a prayer for fertility . Occasionally , a person took a particular god as a patron , dedicating his or her property or labor to the god 's cult . These practices continued into the latest periods of Egyptian history . These later eras saw more religious innovations , including the practice of giving animal mummies as offerings to deities depicted in animal form , such as the cat mummies given to the feline goddess Bastet . Some of the major deities from myth and official religion were rarely invoked in popular worship , but many of the great state gods were important in popular tradition .

Prayer and private offerings are generally called " personal piety " : acts <a href='null_relcl' title='1'><mark>that</mark></a>reflect a close relationship between an individual and a god . Evidence of personal piety <a href='drop_aux' title='2'><mark>is</mark></a>scant before the New Kingdom . Votive offerings and personal names , many of which <a href='drop_aux' title='3'><mark>are</mark></a>theophoric , suggest that commoners felt some connection between themselves and their gods . But firm evidence of devotion to deities became visible only in the New Kingdom , reaching a peak late in that era . Scholars disagree about the meaning of this change — whether direct interaction with the gods was a new development or an outgrowth of older traditions . Egyptians now expressed their devotion through a new variety of activities in and around temples . They recorded their prayers and their thanks for divine help on stelae . They gave offerings of figurines <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>that</mark></a>represented the gods they <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> praying to , or that symbolized the result they desired ; thus a relief image of Hathor and a statuette of a woman could both represent a prayer for fertility . Occasionally , a person took a particular god as a patron , dedicating his or her property or labor to the god <a href='null_genetive' title='6'><mark>'s</mark></a>cult . These practices continued into the latest periods of Egyptian history . These later eras saw more religious innovations , including the practice of giving animal mummies as offerings to deities depicted in animal form , such as the cat mummies given to the feline goddess Bastet . Some of the major deities from myth and official religion <a href='uninflect' title='7'><mark>were</mark></a> rarely invoked in popular worship , but many of the great state gods <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> important in popular tradition .

Prayer and private offerings are generally called " personal piety " : acts reflect a close relationship between an individual and a god . Evidence of personal piety scant before the New Kingdom . Votive offerings and personal names , many of which theophoric , suggest that commoners felt sum connection between themselves and their gods . But firm evidence of devotion to deities became visible only in the New Kingdom , reaching a peak late in that era . Scholars disagree about the meaning of this change — whether direct interaction with the gods was a new development or an outgrowth of older traditions . Egyptians now expressed their devotion through a new variety of activities in and around temples . They recorded their prayers and their thanks for divine help on stelae . They gave offerings of figurines represented the gods they was praying to , or dat symbolized the result they desired ; thus a relief image of Hathor and a statuette of a woman could both represent a prayer for fertility . Occasionally , a person took a particular god as a patron , dedicating his or her property or labor to da god cult . dem practices continued into tdalatest periods of Egyptian history . These later eras saw more religious innovations , including the practice of giving animal mummies as offerings to deities depicted in animal form , such as the cat mummies given to thdaeline goddess Bastet . Ssumof thedajor deities from myth and official religion was rarely invoked in popular worship , but many of the great state gods was important in popular tradition .

The worship of some Egyptian gods spread to neighboring lands , especially to Canaan and Nubia during the New Kingdom , when those regions were under pharaonic control . In Canaan , the exported deities , including Hathor , Amun , and Set , were often syncretized with native gods , who in turn spread to Egypt . The Egyptian deities may not have had permanent temples in Canaan , and their importance there waned after Egypt lost control of the region . In contrast , many temples to the major Egyptian gods and deified pharaohs were built in Nubia . After the end of Egyptian rule there , the imported gods , particularly Amun and Isis , were syncretized with local deities and remained part of the religion of Nubia 's independent Kingdom of Kush . These gods were incorporated into the Nubian ideology of kingship much as they were in Egypt , so that Amun was considered the divine father of the king and Isis and other goddesses were linked with the Nubian queen , the kandake . Some deities reached farther . Taweret became a goddess in Minoan Crete , and Amun 's oracle at Siwa Oasis was known to and consulted by people across the Mediterranean region .

The worship of some Egyptian gods spread to neighboring lands , especially to Canaan and Nubia during the New Kingdom , when those regions <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> under pharaonic control . In Canaan , the exported deities , including Hathor , Amun , and Set , <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> often syncretized with native gods , <a href='null_relcl' title='3'><mark>who</mark></a>in turn spread to Egypt . The Egyptian deities may not <a href='been_done' title='4'><mark>have</mark></a> had permanent temples in Canaan , and their importance there waned after Egypt lost control of the region . In contrast , many temples to the major Egyptian gods and deified pharaohs <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> built in Nubia . After the end of Egyptian rule there , the imported gods , particularly Amun and Isis , <a href='uninflect' title='6'><mark>were</mark></a> syncretized with local deities and remained part of the religion of Nubia <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'s</mark></a>independent Kingdom of Kush . These gods <a href='uninflect' title='8'><mark>were</mark></a> incorporated into the Nubian ideology of kingship much as they <a href='uninflect' title='9'><mark>were</mark></a> in Egypt , so that Amun was considered the divine father of the king and Isis and other goddesses <a href='uninflect' title='10'><mark>were</mark></a> linked with the Nubian queen , the kandake . Some deities reached farther . Taweret became a goddess in Minoan Crete , and Amun <a href='null_genetive' title='11'><mark>'s</mark></a>oracle at Siwa Oasis was known to and consulted by people across the Mediterranean region .

The worship of some Egyptian gods spread to neighboring lands , especially to Canaan and Nubia during the New Kingdom , when those regions was under pharaonic control . In Canaan , the exported deities , including Hathor , Amun , and Set , was often syncretized witt native gods , in turn spread to Egypt . da Egyptian deities may not done had permanent temples in Canaan , and their importance thea waned after Egypt lost control of the region . In contrast , many temples to tdamajor Egyptian gods and deified pharaohs was built in Nubia . After thdand of Egyptian rule there , thedaported gods , particularly Amun and Isis , was syncretized with local deities and remained part of the religion of Nubia independent Kingdom of Kush . These gods was incorporated into the Nubian ideology of kingship much as they was in Egypt , soo dat Amun was considered the divine father of the king and Isis and other goddesses was linked with the Nubian queen , the dadake . sum deities reached farther . Taweret became a goddess in Minoan Crete , and Amun oracle at Siwa Oasis was known to and consulted by people across the Mediterranean region .

Under the Greek Ptolemaic Dynasty and then Roman rule , Greeks and Romans introduced their own deities to Egypt . These newcomers equated the Egyptian gods with their own , as part of the Greco @-@ Roman tradition of interpretatio graeca . But the worship of the native gods was not swallowed up by that of foreign ones . Instead , Greek and Roman gods were adopted as manifestations of Egyptian ones . Egyptian cults sometimes incorporated Greek language , philosophy , iconography , and even temple architecture . Meanwhile , the cults of several Egyptian deities — particularly Isis , Osiris , Anubis , the form of Horus named Harpocrates , and the fused Greco @-@ Egyptian god Serapis — were adopted into Roman religion and spread across the Roman Empire . Roman emperors , like Ptolemaic kings before them , invoked Isis and Serapis to endorse their authority , inside and outside Egypt . In the empire 's complex mix of religious traditions , Thoth was transmuted into the legendary esoteric teacher Hermes Trismegistus , and Isis , who was venerated from Britain to Mesopotamia , became the focus of a Greek @-@ style mystery cult . Isis and Hermes Trismegistus were both prominent in the Western esoteric tradition that grew from the Roman religious world .

Under the Greek Ptolemaic Dynasty and then Roman rule , Greeks and Romans introduced their own deities to Egypt . These newcomers equated the Egyptian gods with their own , as part of the Greco @-@ Roman tradition of interpretatio graeca . But the worship of the native gods was not swallowed up by that of foreign ones . Instead , Greek and Roman gods <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> adopted as manifestations of Egyptian ones . Egyptian cults sometimes incorporated Greek language , philosophy , iconography , and even temple architecture . Meanwhile , the cults of several Egyptian deities — particularly Isis , Osiris , Anubis , the form of Horus named Harpocrates , and the fused Greco @-@ Egyptian god Serapis — <a href='uninflect' title='2'><mark>were</mark></a> adopted into Roman religion and spread across the Roman Empire . Roman emperors , like Ptolemaic kings before them , invoked Isis and Serapis to endorse their authority , inside and outside Egypt . In the empire <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>complex mix of religious traditions , Thoth was transmuted into the legendary esoteric teacher Hermes Trismegistus , and Isis , <a href='null_relcl' title='4'><mark>who</mark></a>was venerated from Britain to Mesopotamia , became the focus of a Greek @-@ style mystery cult . Isis and Hermes Trismegistus <a href='uninflect' title='5'><mark>were</mark></a> both prominent in the Western esoteric tradition <a href='null_relcl' title='6'><mark>that</mark></a>grew from the Roman religious world .

Under the Greek Ptolemaic Dynasty and then Roman rule , Greeks and Romans introduced their own deities to Egypt . These newcomers equated da Egyptian gods with their own , as part of tdaGreco @-@ Roman tradition of interpretatio graeca . But thdaorship of the native gods was not swallowed up by that of foreign ones . Instead , Greek and Roman gods was adopted as manifestations of Egyptian ones . Egyptian cults sometimes incorporated Greek language , philosophy , iconography , and even temple architecture . Meanwhile , the cults of several Egyptian deities — particularly Isis , Osiris , Anubis , the form of Horus named Harpocrates , and the fused Greco @-@ Egyptian god Serapis — was adopted into Roman religion and spread across the Roman Empire . Roman emperors , like Ptolemaic kings before them , invoked Isis and Serapis to endorse their authority , inside and outside Egypt . In thedapire complex mix of religious traditions , Thoth was transmuted into the daendary esoteric teacher Hermes Trismegistus , and Isis , was venerated from Britain to Mesopotamia , became the focus of a Greek @-@ style mystery cult . Isis and Hermes Trismegistus was both prominent in the Wdaern esoteric tradition grew from the Roman religious world .

Temples and cults in Egypt itself declined as the Roman economy deteriorated in the third century AD , and beginning in the fourth century , Christians suppressed the veneration of Egyptian deities . The last formal cults , at Philae , died out in the fifth or sixth century . Most beliefs surrounding the gods themselves disappeared within a few hundred years , remaining in magical texts into the seventh and eighth centuries . But many of the practices involved in their worship , such as processions and oracles , were adapted to fit Christian ideology and persisted as part of the Coptic Church . Given the great changes and diverse influences in Egyptian culture since that time , scholars disagree about whether any modern Coptic practices are descended from those of pharaonic religion . But many festivals and other traditions of modern Egyptians , both Christian and Muslim , resemble the worship of their ancestors ' gods .

Temples and cults in Egypt itself declined as the Roman economy deteriorated in the third century AD , and beginning in the fourth century , Christians suppressed the veneration of Egyptian deities . The last formal cults , at Philae , died out in the fifth or sixth century . Most beliefs surrounding the gods themselves disappeared within a few hundred years , remaining in magical texts into the seventh and eighth centuries . But many of the practices involved in their worship , such as processions and oracles , <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>were</mark></a> adapted to fit Christian ideology and persisted as part of the Coptic Church . Given the great changes and diverse influences in Egyptian culture since that time , scholars disagree about whether any modern Coptic practices are descended from those of pharaonic religion . But many festivals and other traditions of modern Egyptians , both Christian and Muslim , resemble the worship of their ancestors <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'</mark></a>gods .

Temples and cults in Egypt itself declined as the Roman economy deteriorated in the third century AD , and beginning in the fourth century , Christians suppressed the veneration of Egyptian deities . da last formal cults , at Philae , died outt in the fifth or sixth century . Most beliefs surrounding the gods themselves disappeared within a few hunnit years , remaining in magical texts into the seventh and eighth centuries . But many of tdapractices involved in their worship , such as processions and oracles , was adapted to fit Christian ideology and persisted as part of the Coptic Church . Given thdareat changes and diverse influences in Egyptian culture since that time , scholars disagree bou whether any modern Coptic practices are descended from those of pharaonic religion . But many festivals and other traditions of modern Egyptians , both Christian and Muslim , resemble the worship of their ancestors gods .

= South of Heaven =

= South of Heaven =

= South of Heaven =

South of Heaven is the fourth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on July 5 , 1988 , the album was the band 's second collaboration with record producer Rick Rubin , whose production skills on Slayer 's previous album Reign in Blood had helped the band 's sound evolve .

South of Heaven <a href='drop_aux' title='1'><mark>is</mark></a>the fourth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on July 5 , 1988 , the album was the band <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>second collaboration with record producer Rick Rubin , whose production skills on Slayer <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>previous album Reign in Blood <a href='been_done' title='4'><mark>had</mark></a> helped the band <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'s</mark></a>sound evolve .

South of Heaven da fourth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on July 5 , 1988 , the mixtape was the band second collaboration with record producer Rick Rubin , whose production skills on Slayer previoumixtapeum Reign in Blood done helped tdaband sound evolve .

South of Heaven was Slayer 's second album to enter the Billboard 200 , and its last to be released by Def Jam Recordings , although the album became an American Recordings album after Rick Rubin ended his partnership with Russell Simmons . It was one of only two Def Jam titles to be distributed by Geffen Records through Warner Bros. Records because of original distributor Columbia Records ' refusal to release work by the band . The release peaked at number 57 and in 1992 was awarded a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America .

South of Heaven was Slayer <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>second album to enter the Billboard 200 , and its last to be released by Def Jam Recordings , although the album became an American Recordings album after Rick Rubin ended his partnership with Russell Simmons . It was one of only two Def Jam titles to be distributed by Geffen Records through Warner Bros. Records because of original distributor Columbia Records <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'</mark></a>refusal to release work by the band . The release peaked at number 57 and in 1992 was awarded a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America .

South of Heaven was Slayer second album to enter the Billboard 200 , and its last to b released by Def Jam Recordings , although da mixtape became an American Recordings album after Rick Rubin ended his partnership with Russell Simmons . It was one of only two Def Jam titles to be distributed by Geffen Records thru Warner Bros. Records because of original distributor Columbia Records refusal to release wrk by the band . Tdarelease peaked at number 57 and in 1992 was awarded a gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America .

In order to offset the pace of the group 's previous album , Slayer deliberately slowed down the album 's tempo . In contrast to their previous albums , the band utilized undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocals . While some critics praised this musical change , others — more accustomed to the style of earlier releases — were disappointed . The songs " Mandatory Suicide " and the title track , however , have become permanent features of the band 's live setlist .

In order to offset the pace of the group <a href='null_genetive' title='1'><mark>'s</mark></a>previous album , Slayer deliberately slowed down the album <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>tempo . In contrast to their previous albums , the band utilized undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocals . While some critics praised this musical change , others — more accustomed to the style of earlier releases — <a href='uninflect' title='3'><mark>were</mark></a> disappointed . The songs " Mandatory Suicide " and the title track , however , <a href='been_done' title='4'><mark>have</mark></a> become permanent features of the band <a href='null_genetive' title='5'><mark>'s</mark></a>live setlist .

In order to offset da pace of the group previous album , Slayer deliberately slowed down tdamixtape tempo . In contrast to their previous albums , thdaand utilized undistorted guitars and toned @-@ dwn vocals . While some critics praised this musical change , others — more accustomed to the style of earlier releases — was disappointed . The songs " Mandatory Suicide " and the title track , however , done become permanent features of thedand live setlist .

= = Background = =

= = Background = =

= = Background = =

South of Heaven was recorded in Los Angeles , California with Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin . PopMatters reviewer Adrien Begrand observed that Rubin 's production " shoves [ Dave ] Lombardo 's drumming right up front in the mix . " Guitarist Jeff Hanneman has since said that South of Heaven was the only album the band members discussed before writing the music . Aware that they " couldn 't top Reign in Blood " , and that whatever they recorded would be " compared to that album " , he believed they " had to slow down " , something Slayer had never done on albums before , or since . Guitarist Kerry King cited the need to " keep people guessing " as another reason for the musical shift . " In order to contrast the aggressive assault put forth on Reign in Blood , Slayer consciously slowed down the tempo of the album as a whole " , according to Slayer 's official biography . " They also added elements like undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocal styles not heard on previous albums . "

South of Heaven was recorded in Los Angeles , California with Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin . PopMatters <a href='uninflect' title='1'><mark>reviewer</mark></a> Adrien Begrand observed that Rubin <a href='null_genetive' title='2'><mark>'s</mark></a>production " shoves [ Dave ] Lombardo <a href='null_genetive' title='3'><mark>'s</mark></a>drumming right up front in the mix . " Guitarist Jeff Hanneman <a href='uninflect' title='4'><mark>has</mark></a> since said that South of Heaven was the only album the band members discussed before writing the music . Aware that they " couldn 't top Reign in Blood " , and that whatever they recorded would be " compared to that album " , he<a href='been_done' title='5'><mark></mark></a> believed they " had to slow down " , something Slayer had never done on <a href='negative_concord' title='6'><mark>albums</mark></a> before , or since . Guitarist Kerry King cited the need to " keep people guessing " as another reason for the musical shift . " In order to contrast the aggressive assault put forth on Reign in Blood , Slayer consciously slowed down the tempo of the album as a whole " , according to Slayer <a href='null_genetive' title='7'><mark>'s</mark></a>official biography . " They also added elements like undistorted guitars and toned @-@ down vocal styles not heard on previous albums . "

South of Heaven was recorded in Los Angeles , California with Reign in Blood producer Rick Rubin . PopMatters review Adrien Begrand observed dat Rubin production " shoves [ Dave ] Lombardo drumming right up front in da mix . " Guitarist Jeff Hanneman have since said tdatSouth of Heaven was the only album the band members discussed before writing tdamusic . Aware thdathey " couldn 't top Reign in Blood " , and thadatatever they recorded would be " compared to thatdattape " , he been believed they " had to slow down " , sumtin Slayer had never done on no albums b4 , or since . Guitarist Kerry King cited the gotta " keep people guessing " as another reason for the musical shift . " In order to contrast thdaggressive assault put forth on Reign in Blood , Slayer consciously slowed down the tempo of the album as a whole " , according to Slayer official biography . " They also added elements like undistorted guitars and toned @-@ downn vocal styles not heard on previous albums . "