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Armed Forces of Armenia

The Armed Forces of the Republic of Armenia (, abbreviated ՀՀ ԶՈՒ, HH ZU), sometimes referred to as the Armenian Army , is the national military of Armenia. It consists of personnel branches under the General Staff of the Armenian Armed Forces, which can be divided into two general branches: the Ground Forces, and the Air Force. Although it was partially formed out of the former Soviet Army forces stationed in the Armenian SSR (mostly units of the 7th Guards Army of the Transcaucasian Military District), the military of Armenia can be traced back to the founding of the First Republic of Armenia in 1918. Being landlocked, Armenia does not have a navy. The Commander-in-Chief of the military is the President of Armenia, Vahagn Khachaturyan. The Ministry of Defence is in charge of political leadership, headed by Suren Papikyan, while military command remains in the hands of the general staff, headed by the Chief of Staff, who is Major-General . Border guards subject to the Ministry of Defence until 2001, patrol Armenia's borders with Georgia and Azerbaijan, while Russian troops continue to monitor its borders with Iran and Turkey. Since 2002, Armenia has been a member of the Collective Security Treaty Organization. Armenia signed a military cooperation plan with Lebanon on 27 November 2015. History Early Armenian Army An Armenian military corps was established to fight against the Ottomans during the Turkish–Armenian War in early 1918. In accordance with the Treaty of Batum of 4 June 1918 the Ottoman Empire demobilized most of the Armenian army.Hovannisian. Armenia on the Road to Independence, pp. Ethnic Armenian conscripts and volunteers in the Imperial Russian Army would later become the core of the military of the First Armenian Republic.left

Foreign relations of Armenia

Since its independence, Armenia has maintained a policy of trying to have positive and friendly relations with Iran, Russia, and the West, including the United States and the European Union.– "Armenian Foreign Policy Between Russia, Iran And U.S." – 29 March 2010 It has full membership status in a number of international organizations, such as the Council of Europe and the Eurasian Economic Union, and observer status, etc. in some others. However, the dispute over the Armenian genocide of 1915 and the ongoing Nagorno-Karabakh conflict have created tense relations with two of its immediate neighbors, Azerbaijan and Turkey. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs implements the foreign policy agenda of the Government of Armenia and organizes and manages diplomatic services abroad. Since August 2021, Ararat Mirzoyan has served as the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Armenia. Foreign relations Armenia is a member of more than 70 different international organizations, including the following: Asian Development Bank Collective Security Treaty Organization and the Commonwealth of Independent States Council of Europe The EU's Eastern Partnership and the Euronest Parliamentary Assembly The UN's Eastern European Group Eurocontrol European Bank for Reconstruction and Development European Political Community Eurasian Economic Union Eurasian Development Bank and the Eurasian Customs Union Federation of Euro-Asian Stock Exchanges International Bank for Reconstruction and Development International Monetary Fund Interpol La Francophonie NATO's Euro-Atlantic Partnership Council, Individual Partnership Action Plan, and Partnership for Peace Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe Organization of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation TRACECA United Nations World Bank, the World Customs Organization, and the World Trade Organization Armenia is also an observer member of the ASEAN Inter-Parliamentary Assembly, the Community of Democratic Choice, the Non-Aligned Movement, the Organization of American States, the Pacific Alliance, the Arab League, the Community of Democracies, a dialogue partner in the Shanghai Cooperation Organisation, and a regional member of the Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank. Armenian genocide recognition right

Demographics of American Samoa

Demographics of American Samoa include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects. American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States located in the South Pacific Ocean. alt=A rising line graph

Politics of American Samoa

Politics of American Samoa takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic dependency, whereby the governor is the head of government, and of a pluriform multi-party system. American Samoa is an unincorporated and unorganized territory of the United States, administered by the Office of Insular Affairs, U.S. Department of the Interior. Its constitution was ratified in 1966 and came into effect in 1967. Executive power is discharged by the governor and the lieutenant governor. Legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the legislature. The party system is based on the United States party system. The judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature. There is also the traditional village politics of the Samoan Islands, the and the , which continues in American Samoa and in independent Samoa, and which interacts across these current boundaries. The is the language and customs, and the the protocols of the (council) and the chiefly system. The and the take place at all levels of the Samoan body politic, from the family, to the village, to the region, to national matters. The (chiefs) are elected by consensus within the of the extended family and village(s) concerned. The and the (which is itself made of ) decide on distribution of family exchanges and tenancy of communal lands. The majority of lands in American Samoa and independent Samoa are communal. A can represent a small family group or a great extended family that reaches across islands, and to both American Samoa and independent Samoa. Government The government of American Samoa is defined under the Constitution of American Samoa. As an unincorporated territory, the Ratification Act of 1929 vested all civil, judicial, and military powers in the president, who in turn delegated authority to the secretary of the interior in . The secretary promulgated the Constitution of American Samoa which was approved by a constitutional convention of the people of American Samoa and a majority of the voters of American Samoa voting at the 1966 election, and came into effect in 1967.Revised Constitution of American Samoa, American Samoa Bar Association. The governor of American Samoa is the head of government and along with the lieutenant governor of American Samoa is elected on the same ticket by popular vote for four-year terms.4.0105 Term of office, Annotated Code of American Samoa, American Samoa Bar Association. The legislative power is vested in the American Samoa Fono, which has two chambers. The House of Representatives has 21 members serving two-year terms, being 20 representatives popularly elected from various districts and one delegate from Swains Island elected in a public meeting. The Senate has 18 members, elected for four-year terms by and from the chiefs of the islands. The judiciary of American Samoa is composed of the High Court of American Samoa, a District Court, and village courts.3.0101 Vesting of judicial power, Annotated Code of American Samoa, American Samoa Bar Association. The High Court is led by a chief justice and an associate justice, appointed by the secretary of the interior.3.1001 Chief and Associate Justices-Appointment, Annotated Code of American Samoa, American Samoa Bar Association. Other judges are appointed by the governor upon the recommendation of the chief justice and confirmed by the Senate.3.1010 District court judges-Term, Annotated Code of American Samoa, American Samoa Bar Association.3.1004 Associate judges-Appointment-Term, Annotated Code of American Samoa, American Samoa Bar Association. Elections International organization participation United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (associate) Interpol (subbureau) International Olympic Committee Pacific Community See also Political party strength in American Samoa American Samoa's at-large congressional district References

Economy of American Samoa

The economy of American Samoa is a traditional Polynesian economy in which more than 90% of the land is communally owned. American Samoa is an unincorporated territory of the United States; economic activity is strongly linked to the main customs zone of the U.S., with which American Samoa conducts the great bulk of its trade. Tuna fishing and processing plants are the backbone of the private sector, with canned tuna being the primary export. Transfers from the U.S. federal government add substantially to American Samoa's economic well-being. Attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by Samoa's remote location, its limited transportation, and its devastating hurricanes.

August 13

Events Pre-1600 29 BC – Octavian holds the first of three consecutive triumphs in Rome to celebrate the victory over the Dalmatian tribes. 523 – John I becomes the new Pope after the death of Pope Hormisdas. 554 – Emperor Justinian I rewards Liberius for his service in the Pragmatic Sanction, granting him extensive estates in Italy. 582 – Maurice becomes Emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 871 – Emperor Louis II of Italy and Empress Engelberga are captured by Prince Adelchis of Benevento.Barbara Kreutz, Before the Normans: Southern Italy in the Ninth and Tenth Centuries (University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996), pp. 900 – Count Reginar I of Hainault rises against Zwentibold of Lotharingia and slays him near present-day Susteren. 1099 – Raniero is elected as Pope Paschal II, who would become deeply entangled in the Investiture Controversy. 1516 – The Treaty of Noyon between France and Spain is signed. Francis I of France recognizes Charles's claim to Naples, and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, recognizes Francis's claim to Milan. 1521 – After an extended siege, forces led by Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés capture Tlatoani Cuauhtémoc and conquer the Aztec capital of Tenochtitlan. 1532 – Union of Brittany and France: The Duchy of Brittany is absorbed into the Kingdom of France. 1536 – Buddhist monks from Kyoto, Japan's Enryaku-ji temple set fire to 21 Nichiren temples throughout Kyoto in what will be known as the Tenbun Hokke Disturbance. 1553 – Michael Servetus is arrested by John Calvin in Geneva, Switzerland as a heretic. 1601–1900 1624 – The French king Louis XIII appoints Cardinal Richelieu as prime minister. 1645 – Sweden and Denmark sign Peace of Brömsebro. 1650 – Colonel George Monck of the English Army forms Monck's Regiment of Foot, which will later become the Coldstream Guards. 1704 – War of the Spanish Succession: Battle of Blenheim: English and Imperial forces are victorious over French and Bavarian troops. 1724 – Johann Sebastian Bach leads the first performance of Nimm von uns, Herr, du treuer Gott, BWV 101, a chorale cantata on a famous tune. 1779 – American Revolutionary War: The Royal Navy defeats the Penobscot Expedition with the most significant loss of United States naval forces prior to the attack on Pearl Harbor. 1792 – King Louis XVI of France is formally arrested by the National Tribunal, and declared an enemy of the people. 1806 – Battle of Mišar during the Serbian Revolution begins. The battle ends two days later with a Serbian victory over the Ottomans. 1814 – The Convention of London, a treaty between the United Kingdom and the United Netherlands, is signed in London, England. 1868 – The 8.5–9.0 Arica earthquake struck southern Peru with a maximum Mercalli intensity of XI (Extreme), causing 25,000+ deaths and a destructive basin wide tsunami that affected Hawaii and New Zealand. 1889 – William Gray of Hartford, Connecticut is granted United States Patent Number 408,709 for "Coin-controlled apparatus for telephones." 1898 – Spanish–American War: Spanish and American forces engage in a mock battle for Manila, after which the Spanish commander surrendered in order to keep the city out of Filipino rebel hands. 1898 – Carl Gustav Witt discovers 433 Eros, the first near-Earth asteroid to be found. 1900 – The steamer Deutschland of Hamburg America Lines set a new record for the eastward passage when it docked on Plymouth, England, five days, 11 hours and 45 minutes after sailing from New York, breaking by three hours, six minutes its previous mark in its maiden voyage in July. 1901–present 1905 – Norwegians vote to end the union with Sweden. 1906 – The all black infantrymen of the U.S. Army's 25th Infantry Regiment are accused of killing a white bartender and wounding a white police officer in Brownsville, Texas, despite exculpatory evidence; all are later dishonorably discharged. (Their records were later restored to reflect honorable discharges but there were no financial settlements.) 1913 – First production in the UK of stainless steel by Harry Brearley. 1918 – Women enlist in the United States Marine Corps for the first time. Opha May Johnson is the first woman to enlist. 1918 – Bayerische Motoren Werke AG (BMW) established as a public company in Germany. 1920 – Polish–Soviet War: The Battle of Warsaw begins and will last till August 25. The Red Army is defeated. 1937 – Second Sino-Japanese War: The Battle of Shanghai begins. 1942 – Major General Eugene Reybold of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers authorizes the construction of facilities that would house the "Development of Substitute Materials" project, better known as the Manhattan Project. 1944 – World War II: German troops begin the pillage and razing of Anogeia in Crete that would continue until September 5. 1954 – Radio Pakistan broadcasts the "Qaumī Tarāna", the national anthem of Pakistan for the first time. 1960 – The Central African Republic declares independence from France. 1961 – Cold War: East Germany closes the border between the eastern and western sectors of Berlin to thwart its inhabitants' attempts to escape to the West, and construction of the Berlin Wall is started. The day is known as Barbed Wire Sunday. 1964 – Peter Allen and Gwynne Evans are hanged for the murder of John Alan West becoming the last people executed in the United Kingdom. 1967 – Two young women became the first fatal victims of grizzly bear attacks in the 57-year history of Montana's Glacier National Park in separate incidents. 1968 – Alexandros Panagoulis attempts to assassinate the Greek dictator Colonel Georgios Papadopoulos in Varkiza, Athens. 1969 – The Apollo 11 astronauts enjoy a ticker-tape parade in New York City. That evening, at a state dinner in Los Angeles, they are awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom by U.S. President Richard Nixon. 1973 – Aviaco Flight 118 crashes on approach to A Coruña Airport in A Coruña, Spain, killing all 85 people on the plane and one other one the ground. 1977 – Members of the British National Front (NF) clash with anti-NF demonstrators in Lewisham, London, resulting in 214 arrests and at least 111 injuries. 1978 – One hundred fifty Palestinians in Beirut are killed in a terrorist attack during the second phase of the Lebanese Civil War. 1990 – A mainland Chinese fishing boat Min Ping Yu No. 5202 is hit by a Taiwanese naval vessel and sinks in a repatriation operation of mainland Chinese immigrants, resulting in 21 deaths. This is the second tragedy less than a month after Min Ping Yu No. 5540 incident. 2004 – One hundred fifty-six Congolese Tutsi refugees are massacred at the Gatumba refugee camp in Burundi. 2008 – Russo-Georgian War: Russian units occupy the Georgian city of Gori. 2014 – A Cessna Citation Excel crashes in Santos, São Paulo, Brazil killing all seven people aboard, including Brazilian Socialist Party presidential candidate Eduardo Campos. 2015 – At least 76 people are killed and 212 others are wounded in a truck bombing in Baghdad, Iraq. 2020 – Israel–United Arab Emirates relations are formally established. 520) 604 – Wen, emperor of the Sui Dynasty (b. 541) 612 – Fabia Eudokia, Byzantine empress (b. 580) 662 – Maximus the Confessor, Byzantine theologian 696 – Takechi, Japanese prince 900 – Zwentibold, king of Lotharingia (b. 870) 908 – Al-Muktafi, Abbasid caliph 981 – Gyeongjong, king of Goryeo (Korea) (b. 955) 1134 – Irene of Hungary, Byzantine empress (b. 1088) 1297 – Nawrūz, Mongol emir 1311 – Pietro Gradenigo, doge of Venice 1382 – Eleanor of Aragon, queen of Castile (b. 1358) 1447 – Filippo Maria Visconti, duke of Milan (b. 1392) 1523 – Gerard David, Flemish painter (b. 1529) 1617 – Johann Jakob Grynaeus, Swiss clergyman and theologian (b. 1540) 1667 – Jeremy Taylor, Irish bishop and saint (b. 1613) 1686 – Louis Maimbourg, French priest and historian (b. 1610) 1721 – Jacques Lelong, French priest and author (b. 1665) 1744 – John Cruger, Danish-American businessman and politician, 39th Mayor of New York City (b. 1678) 1749 – Johann Elias Schlegel, German poet and critic (b. 1719) 1766 – Margaret Fownes-Luttrell, English painter (b. 1726) 1795 – Ahilyabai Holkar, Queen of Indore (b. 1725) 1826 – René Laennec, French physician, invented the stethoscope (b. 1781) 1863 – Eugène Delacroix, French painter and lithographer (b. 1798) 1865 – Ignaz Semmelweis, Hungarian physician and obstetrician (b. 1818) 1900 – Collis Potter Huntington, American railway magnate (b. 1821) 1901–present 1910 – Florence Nightingale, Italian-English nurse and theologian (b. 1820) 1912 – Jules Massenet, French composer (b. 1842) 1917 – Eduard Buchner, German chemist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1860) 1934 – Mary Hunter Austin, American author and playwright (b. 1868) 1937 – Sigizmund Levanevsky, Soviet aircraft pilot of Polish origin (b. 1902) 1946 – H. G. Wells, English novelist, historian, and critic (b. 1866) 1954 – Demetrius Constantine Dounis, Greek violinist and mandolin player (b. 1886) 1958 – Francis J. McCormick, American football, basketball player, and coach (b. 1903) 1963 – Louis Bastien, French cyclist and fencer (b. 1881) 1965 – Hayato Ikeda, Japanese lawyer and politician, 58th Prime Minister of Japan (b. 1899) 1971 – W. O. Bentley, English race car driver and engineer, founded Bentley Motors Limited (b. 1888) 1974 – Ida McNeil, American broadcaster and designer of the flag of South Dakota (b. 1888) 1975 – Murilo Mendes, Brazilian poet and telegrapher (b. 1901) 1978 – Lonnie Mayne, American wrestler (b. 1944) 1979 – Andrew Dasburg, American painter and sculptor (b. 1887) 1984 – Tigran Petrosian, Georgian-Armenian chess player (b. 1929) 1986 – Helen Mack, American actress (b. 1913) 1989 – Tim Richmond, American race car driver (b. 1955) 1989 – Larkin I. Smith, American police officer and politician (b. 1944) 1991 – James Roosevelt, American general and politician (b. 1907) 1995 – Alison Hargreaves, English mountaineer (b. 1963) 1995 – Jan Křesadlo, Czech-English psychologist and author (b. 1926) 1995 – Mickey Mantle, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1931) 1996 – António de Spínola, Portuguese general and politician, 14th President of Portugal (b. 1910) 1998 – Nino Ferrer, Italian-French singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1934) 1998 – Edward Ginzton, Ukrainian-American physicist and academic (b. 1915) 1998 – Julien Green, American author (b. 1900) 1998 – Rafael Robles, Dominican-American baseball player (b. 1947) 1999 – Ignatz Bubis, German Jewish religious leader (b. 1927) 1999 – Jaime Garzón, Colombian journalist and lawyer (b. 1960) 2000 – Nazia Hassan, Pakistani singer-songwriter (b. 1965) 2001 – Otto Stuppacher, Austrian race car driver (b. 1947) 2001 – Jim Hughes, American baseball player and manager (b. 1923) 2001 – Betty Cavanna, American author (b. 1909) 2003 – Ed Townsend, American singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1929) 2004 – Julia Child, American chef, author, and television host (b. 1912) 2005 – Miguel Arraes, Brazilian lawyer and politician (b. 1916) 2005 – David Lange, New Zealand lawyer and politician, 32nd Prime Minister of New Zealand (b. 1942) 2006 – Tony Jay, English actor and singer (b. 1933) 2006 – Jon Nödtveidt, Swedish musician (b. 1975) 2007 – Brian Adams, American wrestler (b. 1964) 2007 – Brooke Astor, American philanthropist and socialite (b. 1902) 2007 – Phil Rizzuto, American baseball player and sportscaster (b. 1917) 2008 – Henri Cartan, French mathematician and academic (b. 1904) 2008 – Bill Gwatney, American politician (b. 1959) 2008 – Jack Weil, American businessman (b. 1901) 2009 – Lavelle Felton, American basketball player (b. 1980) 2010 – Panagiotis Bachramis, Greek footballer (b. 1976) 2010 – Lance Cade, American wrestler (b. 1981) 2010 – Edwin Newman, American journalist and author (b. 1919) 2011 – Tareque Masud, Bangladeshi director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1957) 2011 – Mishuk Munier, Bangladeshi journalist and cinematographer (b. 1959) 2012 – Hugo Adam Bedau, American philosopher and academic (b. 1926) 2012 – Helen Gurley Brown, American journalist and author (b. 1922) 2012 – Ray Jordon, Australian cricketer and coach (b. 1937) 2012 – Johnny Pesky, American baseball player and manager (b. 1919) 2012 – Joan Roberts, American actress and singer (b. 1917) 2013 – Lothar Bisky, German politician (b. 1941) 2013 – Aaron Selber, Jr., American businessman and philanthropist (b. 1927) 2013 – Jean Vincent, French footballer and manager (b. 1930) 2014 – Frans Brüggen, Dutch flute player and conductor (b. 1934) 2014 – Eduardo Campos, Brazilian politician, 14th Brazilian Minister of Science and Technology (b. 1965) 2014 – Martino Finotto, Italian race car driver (b. 1933) 2014 – Süleyman Seba, Turkish footballer and manager (b. 1926) 2015 – Watban Ibrahim al-Tikriti, Iraqi politician, Iraqi Minister of Interior (b. 1952) 2015 – Bob Fillion, Canadian ice hockey player and manager (b. 1920) 2015 – Om Prakash Munjal, Indian businessman and philanthropist, co-founded Hero Cycles (b. 1928) 2016 – Kenny Baker, English actor and musician (b. 1934) 2016 – Pramukh Swami Maharaj, Indian Hindu leader (b. 1921) 2018 – Jim Neidhart, American wrestler (b. 1955) 2021 – Nanci Griffith, American singer-songwriter (b. 1953) 2024 – Richard Alatorre, American politician (b. 1943) 2024 – Wally Amos, American entrepreneur, founder of Famous Amos (b. 1936) 2024 – Sergio Donati, Italian screenwriter (b. 1933) 2024 – Greg Kihn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1949) 2024 – Frank Selvy, American basketball player and coach (b. 1932) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Benedetto Sinigardi Benildus Romançon Centola and Helen Cassian of Imola Clara Maass (Lutheran Church) Fachtna of Rosscarbery Florence Nightingale, Octavia Hill (Lutheran Church) Herulph Hippolytus of Rome Jeremy Taylor (Anglican Communion) John Berchmans (before 1970) Junian of Mairé Blessed Marco d'Aviano Maximus the Confessor Nerses Glaietsi (Catholic Church) Pope Pontian Radegunde Wigbert August 13 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Central African Republic from France in 1960. International Lefthanders Day (International) Women's Day, commemorates the enaction of Tunisian Code of Personal Status in 1956. (Tunisia) World Organ Donation Day References External links

Avicenna

Ibn Sina (; – 22 June 1037), commonly known in the West as Avicenna , was a preeminent philosopher and physician of the Muslim world, flourishing during the Islamic Golden Age, serving in the courts of various Iranian rulers. (page 113) "For one thing, it means that he[Avicenna] had a Persian cultural background...he spoke Persian natively and did use it to write philosophy. "(page 117) "But for the time being, it was a Persian from Khurasan who would have commentaries lavished upon him. Avicenna would be known by the honorific of "leading master" (al-shaykh al-raʾis). "(page 206) "Persians like Avicenna" . "Avicenna was a Persian whose father served the Samanids of Khurasan and Transoxania as the administrator of a rural district outside Bukhara." "He was born in 370/980 in Afshana, his mother's home, near Bukhara. His native language was Persian." "Avicenna was the greatest of all Persian thinkers; as physician and metaphysician ..." (excerpt from A.J. Arberry, Avicenna on Theology, Kazi Publications Inc, 1995). "Whereas the name of Avicenna (Ibn Sina, died 1037) is generally listed as chronologically first among noteworthy Iranian philosophers, recent evidence has revealed previous existence of Ismaili philosophical systems with a structure no less complete than of Avicenna." He is often described as the father of early modern medicine. His philosophy was of the Peripatetic school derived from Aristotelianism. His most famous works are The Book of Healing, a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and The Canon of Medicine, a medical encyclopediaEdwin Clarke, Charles Donald O'Malley (1996), The human brain and spinal cord: a historical study illustrated by writings from antiquity to the twentieth century, Norman Publishing, p. 20 .Iris Bruijn (2009), Ship's Surgeons of the Dutch East India Company: Commerce and the progress of medicine in the eighteenth century, Amsterdam University Press, p. 26 . which became a standard medical text at many medieval European universities and remained in use as late as 1650.e.g. at the universities of Montpellier and Leuven (see ). Besides philosophy and medicine, Avicenna's corpus includes writings on astronomy, alchemy, geography and geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics, and works of poetry. Avicenna wrote most of his philosophical and scientific works in Arabic, but also wrote several key works in Persian, while his poetic works were written in both languages. Of the 450 works he is believed to have written, around 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine. Name is a Latin corruption of the Arabic patronym Ibn Sīnā ,. meaning "Son of Sina". However, Avicenna was not the son but the great-great-grandson of a man named Sina. His formal Arabic name was Abū ʿAlī al-Ḥusayn bin ʿAbdullāh ibn al-Ḥasan bin ʿAlī bin Sīnā al-Balkhi al-Bukhari . Circumstances Avicenna created an extensive corpus of works during what is commonly known as the Islamic Golden Age, in which the translations of Byzantine, Greco-Roman, Persian, and Indian texts were studied extensively. Greco-Roman (Middle Platonic, Neoplatonic, and Aristotelian) texts translated by the Kindi school were commented, redacted and developed substantially by Islamic intellectuals, who also built upon Persian and Indian mathematical systems, astronomy, algebra, trigonometry and medicine. The Samanid Empire in the eastern part of Persia, Greater Khorasan, and Central Asia, as well as the Buyid dynasty in the western part of Persia and Iraq, provided a thriving atmosphere for scholarly and cultural development. Under the Samanids, Bukhara rivaled Baghdad for cultural capital of the Muslim world. There, Avicenna had access to the great libraries of Balkh, Khwarazm, Gorgan, Rey, Isfahan and Hamadan. Various texts (such as the 'Ahd with Bahmanyar) show that Avicenna debated philosophical points with the greatest scholars of the time. Nizami Aruzi described how before ibn Sina left Khwarazm, he had met al-Biruni (a scientist and astronomer), Abu Nasr Mansur (a renowned mathematician), Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi (a respected philosopher) and ibn al-Khammar (a great physician). The study of the Quran and the Hadith also thrived, and Islamic philosophy, fiqh "jurisprudence", and kalam "speculative theology" were all further developed by ibn Sina and his opponents at this time. Biography Early life and education Avicenna was born in in the village of Afshana in Transoxiana to a Persian family.According to , Avicenna was "of Persian descent". According to , Avicenna was "born of Persian parentage". According to , Avicenna was "Persian by birth". , mentions Avicenna as an example for "Persian-born authors" and speaks of "presumed Persian origins" for Avicenna. , states "An ethnic Persian, he [Avicenna] was born in Kharmaithen, near Bukhara". The village was near the Samanid capital of Bukhara, which was his mother's hometown. His father Abd Allah was a native of the city of Balkh in Bactria. An official of the Samanid bureaucracy, he had served as the governor of a village of the royal estate of Harmaytan near Bukhara during the reign of Nuh II . Avicenna also had a younger brother. A few years later, the family settled in Bukhara, a center of learning, which attracted many scholars. It was there that Avicenna was educated, which early on was seemingly administered by his father. Although both Avicenna's father and brother had converted to Isma'ilism, he himself did not follow the faith. He was instead a Hanafi Sunni, the same school followed by the Samanids. Avicenna was first schooled in the Quran and literature, and by the age of 10, he had memorized the entire Quran. He was later sent by his father to an Indian greengrocer, who taught him arithmetic. Afterwards, he was schooled in fiqh by the Hanafi jurist Ismail al-Zahid. Sometime later, his father invited the physician and philosopher al-Natili to their house to educate ibn Sina. Together, they studied the Isagoge of Porphyry (died 305) and possibly the Categories of Aristotle (died 322 BCE) as well. After Avicenna had read the Almagest of Ptolemy (died 170) and Euclid's Elements, al-Natili told him to continue his research independently. By the time Avicenna was eighteen, he was well-educated in Greek sciences. Although ibn Sina only mentions al-Natili as his teacher in his autobiography, he most likely had other teachers as well, such as the physicians Qumri and Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi.

The Ashes

The Ashes is a men's Test cricket series played biennially between England and Australia. The term originated in a satirical obituary published in a British newspaper, The Sporting Times, immediately after Australia's 1882 victory at The Oval, its first Test win on English soil. The obituary stated that English cricket had died, and that "the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to Australia". The mythical ashes immediately became associated with the 1882–83 series played in Australia, before which the English captain Ivo Bligh had vowed to "regain those ashes". The English media therefore dubbed the tour the quest to regain the Ashes. After England won two of the three Tests on the tour, a small urn was presented to Bligh in Melbourne. The contents of the urn are reputed to be the ashes of a wooden bail, and were humorously described as "the ashes of Australian cricket". It is not clear whether that "tiny silver urn" is the same as the small terracotta urn given to Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) by Bligh's widow after his death in 1927. Since the 1998–99 Ashes series, the Ashes Trophy, a Waterford Crystal trophy modelled on the Ashes urn, has been presented to the winners of the series. Irrespective of which side holds the trophy, the original urn remains in the MCC Museum at Lord's. It has been taken to Australia twice to be put on touring display, as part of the Australian Bicentenary celebrations in 1988 and to accompany the Ashes series in 2006–07. Ashes series have usually consisted of five Tests, hosted in turn by England and Australia approximately every two years. The Ashes are regarded as being held by the team that most recently won the series. If the series is drawn, the team that currently holds the Ashes "retains" the trophy. There have been 73 Ashes series. Australia have won 34 and retained six times from draws (40); England have won 32 and retained once (33).

Abner Doubleday

Abner Doubleday (June 26, 1819 – January 26, 1893) was a career United States Army officer and Union major general in the American Civil War. He fired the first shot in defense of Fort Sumter, the opening battle of the war, and had a pivotal role in the early fighting at the Battle of Gettysburg. Gettysburg was his finest hour, but his relief by Maj. Gen. George G. Meade caused lasting enmity between the two men. In San Francisco, after the war, he obtained a patent on the cable car railway that still runs there. In his final years in New Jersey, he was a prominent member and later president of the Theosophical Society. In 1908, 15 years after his death, the Mills Commission declared that Doubleday had invented the game of baseball, although Doubleday never made such a claim. This claim has been thoroughly debunked by baseball historians.Kirsch, pp. Early years Doubleday, the son of Ulysses F. Doubleday and Hester Donnelly, was born in Ballston Spa, New York, in a small house on the corner of Washington and Fenwick streets. As a child, Abner was very short. The family all slept in the attic loft of the one-room house. His paternal grandfather, also named Abner, had fought in the American Revolutionary War. His maternal grandfather Thomas Donnelly had joined the army at 14 and was a mounted messenger for George Washington. His great-grandfather Peter Donnelly was a Minuteman. His father, Ulysses F., fought in the War of 1812, published newspapers and books, and represented Auburn, New York, for four years in the United States Congress.Beckenbaugh, pp. Abner spent his childhood in Auburn and later was sent to Cooperstown to live with his uncle and attend a private preparatory high school. He practiced as a surveyor and civil engineer for two years before entering the United States Military AcademyTagg, pp. He graduated in 1842, 24th in a class of 56 cadets, and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 3rd U.S. Artillery.Eicher, p. 213. In 1852, he married Mary Hewitt of Baltimore, the daughter of a local lawyer.Texas Handbook Early commands and Fort Sumter

Augustin-Jean Fresnel

Augustin-Jean Fresnel (10 May 1788 – 14 July 1827) was a French civil engineer and physicist whose research in optics led to the almost unanimous acceptance of the wave theory of light, excluding any remnant of Newton's corpuscular theory, from the late 1830sDarrigol, 2012, pp. until the end of the 19th century. He is perhaps better known for inventing the catadioptric (reflective/refractive) Fresnel lens and for pioneering the use of "stepped" lenses to extend the visibility of lighthouses, saving countless lives at sea. The simpler dioptric (purely refractive) stepped lens, first proposed by Count Buffon and independently reinvented by Fresnel, is used in screen magnifiers and in condenser lenses for overhead projectors. By expressing Huygens's principle of secondary waves and Young's principle of interference in quantitative terms, and supposing that simple colors consist of sinusoidal waves, Fresnel gave the first satisfactory explanation of diffraction by straight edges, including the first satisfactory wave-based explanation of rectilinear propagation.Darrigol, 2012, p. 205. Part of his argument was a proof that the addition of sinusoidal functions of the same frequency but different phases is analogous to the addition of forces with different directions. By further supposing that light waves are purely transverse, Fresnel explained the nature of polarization, the mechanism of chromatic polarization, and the transmission and reflection coefficients at the interface between two transparent isotropic media. Then, by generalizing the direction-speed-polarization relation for calcite, he accounted for the directions and polarizations of the refracted rays in doubly-refractive crystals of the biaxial class (those for which Huygens's secondary wavefronts are not axisymmetric). The period between the first publication of his pure-transverse-wave hypothesis, and the submission of his first correct solution to the biaxial problem, was less than a year. Later, he coined the terms linear polarization, circular polarization, and elliptical polarization, explained how optical rotation could be understood as a difference in propagation speeds for the two directions of circular polarization, and (by allowing the reflection coefficient to be complex) accounted for the change in polarization due to total internal reflection, as exploited in the Fresnel rhomb. Defenders of the established corpuscular theory could not match his quantitative explanations of so many phenomena on so few assumptions. Fresnel had a lifelong battle with tuberculosis, to which he succumbed at the age of 39. Although he did not become a public celebrity in his lifetime, he lived just long enough to receive due recognition from his peers, including (on his deathbed) the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society of London, and his name is ubiquitous in the modern terminology of optics and waves. After the wave theory of light was subsumed by Maxwell's electromagnetic theory in the 1860s, some attention was diverted from the magnitude of Fresnel's contribution. In the period between Fresnel's unification of physical optics and Maxwell's wider unification, a contemporary authority, Humphrey Lloyd, described Fresnel's transverse-wave theory as "the noblest fabric which has ever adorned the domain of physical science, Newton's system of the universe alone excepted."

Ardipithecus

Ardipithecus is a genus of an extinct hominine that lived during the Late Miocene and Early Pliocene epochs in the Afar Depression, Ethiopia. Originally described as one of the earliest ancestors of humans after they diverged from the chimpanzees, the relation of this genus to human ancestors and whether it is a hominin is now a matter of debate. Two fossil species are described in the literature: A. ramidus, which lived about 4.4 million years ago during the early Pliocene, and A. kadabba, dated to approximately 5.6 million years ago (late Miocene). Initial behavioral analysis indicated that Ardipithecus could be very similar to chimpanzees; however, more recent analysis based on canine size and lack of canine sexual dimorphism indicates that Ardipithecus was characterised by reduced aggression, and that they more closely resemble bonobos. Some analyses describe Australopithecus as being sister to Ardipithecus ramidus specifically. This means that Australopithecus is distinctly more closely related to Ardipithecus ramidus than Ardipithecus kadabba. Cladistically, then, Australopithecus (and eventually Homo sapiens) indeed emerged within the Ardipithecus lineage, and this lineage is not literally extinct. Ardipithecus ramidus A. ramidus was named in September 1994. The first fossil found was dated to 4.4 million years ago on the basis of its stratigraphic position between two volcanic strata: the basal Gaala Tuff Complex (G.A.T.C.) and the Daam Aatu Basaltic Tuff (D.A.B.T.). The name Ardipithecus ramidus stems mostly from the Afar language, in which Ardi means "ground/floor" and ramid means "root". The pithecus portion of the name is from the Greek word for "ape". Like most hominids, but unlike all previously recognized hominins, it had a grasping hallux or big toe adapted for locomotion in the trees. It is not confirmed how many other features of its skeleton reflect adaptation to bipedalism on the ground as well. Like later hominins, Ardipithecus had reduced canine teeth and reduced canine sexual dimorphism. In 1992–1993 a research team headed by Tim White discovered the first A. ramidus fossils—seventeen fragments including skull, mandible, teeth and arm bones—from the Afar Depression in the Middle Awash river valley of Ethiopia. More fragments were recovered in 1994, amounting to 45% of the total skeleton. This fossil was originally described as a species of Australopithecus, but White and his colleagues later published a note in the same journal renaming the fossil under a new genus, Ardipithecus. Between 1999 and 2003, a multidisciplinary team led by Sileshi Semaw discovered bones and teeth of nine A. ramidus individuals at As Duma in the Gona area of Ethiopia's Afar Region. The fossils were dated to between 4.35 and 4.45 million years old.

Adelaide

Adelaide ( , ; ) is the capital and most populous city of South Australia, as well as the fifth-most populous city in Australia. The name "Adelaide" may refer to either Greater Adelaide (including the Adelaide Hills) or the Adelaide city centre. The demonym Adelaidean is used to denote the city and the residents of Adelaide. The traditional owners of the Adelaide region are the Kaurna.SCD2018/001 – Kaurna Peoples Native Title Claim National Native Title Tribunal. Retrieved 1 October 2022.Kaurna Heritage City of Adelaide. Retrieved 1 October 2022. The name in their language refers to the area of the city centre and surrounding Park Lands. Adelaide is situated on the Adelaide Plains north of the Fleurieu Peninsula, between the Gulf St Vincent in the west and the Mount Lofty Ranges in the east. Its metropolitan area extends from the coast to the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges, and stretches from Gawler in the north to Sellicks Beach in the south. Named in honour of Queen Adelaide of Saxe-Meiningen, wife of King William IV, the city was founded in 1836 as the planned capital for the only freely settled British province in Australia. Colonel William Light, one of Adelaide's founding fathers, designed the city centre and chose its location close to the River Torrens. Light's design, now listed as national heritage, set out the city centre in a grid layout known as "Light's Vision", interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares, and entirely surrounded by park lands. Early colonial Adelaide was shaped by the diversity and wealth of its free settlers, in contrast to the convict history of other Australian cities. It was Australia's third-most populated city until the postwar era. It has been noted for its leading examples of religious freedom and progressive political reforms, and became known as the "City of Churches" due to its diversity of faiths. The city has also been renowned for its automotive industry, as well as being the original host of the Australian Grand Prix in the FIA Formula One World Championship from 1985 to 1995. Today, Adelaide is known by its many festivals and sporting events, its food and wine, its coastline and hills, its large defence and manufacturing sectors, and its emerging space sector, including the Australian Space Agency being headquartered here. Adelaide's quality of life has ranked consistently highly in various measures through the 21st century, at one stage being named Australia's most liveable city, third in the world. Its aesthetic appeal has also been recognised by Architectural Digest, which ranked Adelaide as the most beautiful city in the world in 2024. As South Australia's government and commercial centre, Adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions. Most of these are concentrated in the city centre along the cultural boulevards of North Terrace and King William Street. The city has also been classed as a Gamma + level global city as categorised by the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, with the city further linking economic regions to the worldwide economy.

Alan Garner

Alan Garner (born 17 October 1934) is an English novelist best known for his children's fantasy novels and his retellings of traditional British folk tales. Much of his work is rooted in the landscape, history and folklore of his native county of Cheshire, North West England, being set in the region and making use of the native Cheshire dialect. Born in Congleton, Garner grew up in Alderley Edge, and spent much of his youth in the wooded area known locally as "The Edge", where he gained an early interest in the folklore of the region. Studying at Manchester Grammar School and then briefly at Oxford University, in 1957 he moved to the village of Blackden, where he bought and renovated an Early Modern Period (circa 1590) building known as Toad Hall. His first novel, The Weirdstone of Brisingamen, was published in 1960. A children's fantasy novel set on the Edge, it incorporated elements of local folklore in its plot and characters. Garner wrote a sequel, The Moon of Gomrath (1963), and a third book, Boneland (2012). He wrote several fantasy novels, including Elidor (1965), The Owl Service (1967) and Red Shift (1973). Turning away from fantasy as a genre, Garner produced The Stone Book Quartet (1979), a series of four short novellas detailing a day in the life of four generations of his family. He also published a series of British folk tales which he had rewritten in a series of books entitled Alan Garner's Fairy Tales of Gold (1979), Alan Garner's Book of British Fairy Tales (1984) and A Bag of Moonshine (1986). In his subsequent novels, Strandloper (1996) and Thursbitch (2003), he continued writing tales revolving around Cheshire, although without the fantasy elements which had characterised his earlier work. Biography Early life: 1934–56 Garner was born in the front room of his grandmother's house in Congleton, Cheshire, on 17 October 1934. He was raised in Alderley Edge, a well-to-do village that had effectively become a suburb of Manchester. His "rural working-class family", had been connected to Alderley Edge since at least the sixteenth century and could be traced back to the death of William Garner in 1592. Garner has stated that his family had passed on "a genuine oral tradition" involving folk tales about The Edge, which included a description of a king and his army of knights who slept under it, guarded by a wizard. In the mid-nineteenth century Alan's great-great-grandfather Robert had carved the face of a bearded wizard onto the face of a cliff next to a well, known locally at that time as the Wizard's Well. Robert Garner and his other relatives had all been craftsmen, and, according to Garner, each successive generation had tried to "improve on, or do something different from, the previous generation". Garner's grandfather, Joseph Garner, "could read, but didn't and so was virtually unlettered". Instead, he taught his grandson the folk tales he knew about The Edge. Garner later remarked that as a result, he was "aware of [the Edge's] magic" as a child, and he and his friends often played there. The story of the king and the wizard living under the hill played an important part in his life, becoming, he explained, "deeply embedded in my psyche" and heavily influencing his later novels. Garner faced several life-threatening childhood illnesses, which left him bed ridden for much of the time. He attended a local village school, where he found that, despite being praised for his intelligence, he was punished for speaking in his native Cheshire dialect; for instance, when he was six his primary school teacher washed his mouth out with soapy water. Garner then won a place at Manchester Grammar School, where he received his secondary education; entry was means-tested, resulting in his school fees being waived. Rather than focusing his interest on creative writing, it was here that he excelled at sprinting. He used to go jogging along the highway, and later claimed that in doing so he was sometimes accompanied by the mathematician Alan Turing, who shared his fascination for the Disney film Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs. Garner was then conscripted into national service, serving for a time with the Royal Artillery while posted to Woolwich in Southeast London. At school, Garner had developed a keen interest in the work of Aeschylus and Homer, as well as the Ancient Greek language. Thus, he decided to pursue the study of Classics at Magdalen College, Oxford, passing his entrance exams in January 1953; at the time he had thoughts of becoming a professional academic. He was the first member of his family to receive anything more than a basic education, and he noted that this removed him from his "cultural background" and led to something of a schism with other members of his family, who "could not cope with me, and I could not cope with" them. Looking back, he remarked, "I soon learned that it was not a good idea to come home excited over irregular verbs". In 1955, he joined the university theatrical society, playing the role of Mark Antony in a performance of William Shakespeare's Antony and Cleopatra where he co-starred alongside Dudley Moore and where Kenneth Baker was the stage manager. In August 1956, he decided that he wished to devote himself to novel writing, and decided to abandon his university education without taking a degree; he left Oxford in late 1956. He nevertheless felt that the academic rigour which he learned during his university studies has remained "a permanent strength through all my life". The Weirdstone of Brisingamen and The Moon of Gomrath: 1957–64 Aged 22, Garner was out cycling when he came across a hand-painted sign announcing that an agricultural cottage in Toad Hall – a late medieval building situated in Blackden, seven miles from Alderley Edge – was on sale for £510. Although he personally could not afford it, he was lent the money by the local Oddfellow lodge, enabling him to purchase and move into the cottage in June 1957. In the late nineteenth century the Hall had been divided into two agricultural labourers' cottages, but Garner was able to purchase the second for £150 about a year later; he proceeded to knock down the dividing walls and convert both halves back into a single home.

August 2

Events Pre-1600 338 BC – A Macedonian army led by Philip II defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes in the Battle of Chaeronea, securing Macedonian hegemony in Greece and the Aegean. 216 BC – The Carthaginian army led by Hannibal defeats a numerically superior Roman army at the Battle of Cannae. 49 BC – Caesar, who marched to Spain earlier in the year, leaving Marcus Antonius in charge of Italy, defeats Pompey's general Afranius and Petreius in Ilerda (Lerida) north of the Ebro river. 461 – Majorian is arrested near Tortona (northern Italy) and deposed by the Suebian general Ricimer as puppet emperor. 932 – After a two-year siege, the city of Toledo, in Spain, surrenders to the forces of the Caliph of Córdoba Abd al-Rahman III, assuming an important victory in his campaign to subjugate the Central March. 1274 – Edward I of England returns from the Ninth Crusade and is crowned King seventeen days later. 1343 – After the execution of her husband, Jeanne de Clisson sells her estates and raises a force of men with which to attack French shipping and ports. 1377 – Russian troops are defeated by forces of the Blue Horde Khan Arapsha in the Battle on Pyana River. 1415 – Thomas Grey is executed for participating in the Southampton Plot. 1492 – The Jews are expelled from Spain: 40,000–200,000 leave. Sultan Bayezid II of the Ottoman Empire, learning of this, dispatches the Ottoman Navy to bring the Jews safely to Ottoman lands, mainly to the cities of Thessaloniki (in modern-day Greece) and İzmir (in modern-day Turkey). 1601–1900 1610 – During Henry Hudson's search for the Northwest Passage, he sails into what is now known as Hudson Bay. 1776 – The signing of the United States Declaration of Independence took place. 1790 – The first United States Census is conducted. 1798 – French Revolutionary Wars: The Battle of the Nile concludes in a British victory. 1830 – Charles X of France abdicates the throne in favor of his grandson Henri. 1858 – The Government of India Act 1858 replaces Company rule in India with that of the British Raj. 1869 – Japan's Edo society class system is abolished as part of the Meiji Restoration reforms. 1870 – Tower Subway, the world's first underground tube railway, opens in London, England, United Kingdom. 1873 – The Clay Street Hill Railroad begins operating the first cable car in San Francisco's famous cable car system. 1897 – Anglo-Afghan War: The Siege of Malakand ends when a relief column is able to reach the British garrison in the Malakand states. 1901–present 1903 – The Ilinden–Preobrazhenie Uprising against the Ottoman Empire begins. 1914 – The German occupation of Luxembourg during World War I begins. 1916 – World War I: Austrian sabotage causes the sinking of the Italian battleship Leonardo da Vinci in Taranto. 1918 – The first general strike in Canadian history takes place in Vancouver. 1922 – A typhoon hits Shantou, Republic of China, killing more than 50,000 people. 1923 – Vice President Calvin Coolidge becomes U.S. President upon the death of President Warren G. Harding. 1932 – The positron (antiparticle of the electron) is discovered by Carl D. Anderson. 1934 – Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler becomes Führer of Germany following the death of President Paul von Hindenburg. 1937 – The Marihuana Tax Act of 1937 is passed in America, the effect of which is to render marijuana and all its by-products illegal. 1939 – Albert Einstein and Leo Szilard write a letter to Franklin D. Roosevelt, urging him to begin the Manhattan Project to develop a nuclear weapon. 1943 – The Holocaust: Jewish prisoners stage a revolt at Treblinka, one of the deadliest of Nazi death camps where approximately 900,000 persons were murdered in less than 18 months. 1943 – World War II: The Motor Torpedo Boat PT-109 is rammed by the Japanese destroyer Amagiri and sinks. Lt. John F. Kennedy, future U.S. president, saves all but two of his crew. 1944 – ASNOM: Birth of the Socialist Republic of Macedonia, celebrated as Day of the Republic in North Macedonia. 1944 – World War II: The largest trade convoy of the world wars arrives safely in the Western Approaches. 1945 – World War II: End of the Potsdam Conference. 1947 – A British South American Airways Avro Lancastrian airliner crashes into a mountain during a flight from Buenos Aires, Argentina to Santiago, Chile. The wreckage would not be found until 1998. 1968 – An earthquake hits Casiguran, Aurora, Philippines killing more than 270 people and wounding 261. 1973 – A flash fire kills 50 people at the Summerland amusement centre at Douglas, Isle of Man. 1980 – A bomb explodes at the railway station in Bologna, Italy, killing 85 people and wounding more than 200. 1982 – The Helsinki Metro, the first rapid transit system of Finland, is opened to the general public. 1985 – Delta Air Lines Flight 191, a Lockheed L-1011 TriStar, crashes at Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport killing 137. 1989 – Pakistan is re-admitted to the Commonwealth of Nations after having restored democracy for the first time since 1972. 1989 – A massacre is carried out by an Indian Peace Keeping Force in Sri Lanka killing 64 ethnic Tamil civilians. 1990 – Iraq invades Kuwait, eventually leading to the Gulf War. 1991 – Space Shuttle Atlantis is launched on STS-43 to deploy the TDRS-5 satellite. 1999 – The Gaisal train disaster claims 285 lives in Assam, India. 2005 – Air France Flight 358 lands at Toronto Pearson International Airport and runs off the runway, causing the plane to burst into flames, leaving 12 injuries and no fatalities. 2014 – At least 146 people were killed and more than 114 injured in a factory explosion in Kunshan, Jiangsu, China. Births Pre-1600 1260 – Kyawswa of Pagan, last ruler of the Pagan Kingdom (d. 1299) 1455 – John Cicero, Elector of Brandenburg (d. 1499) 1533 – Theodor Zwinger, Swiss physician and scholar (d. 1588) 1549 – Mikołaj Krzysztof "the Orphan" Radziwiłł, Polish nobleman (d. 1616) 1601–1900 1612 – Saskia van Uylenburgh, Dutch model and wife of Rembrandt van Rijn (d. 1642) 1627 – Samuel Dirksz van Hoogstraten, Dutch painter (d. 1678) 1630 – Estephan El Douaihy, Maronite patriarch (d. 1704) 1646 – Jean-Baptiste du Casse, French admiral and buccaneer (d. 1715) 1672 – Johann Jakob Scheuchzer, Swiss paleontologist and scholar (d. 1733) 1674 – Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (d. 1723) 1696 – Mahmud I, Ottoman sultan (d. 1754) 1702 – Dietrich of Anhalt-Dessau (d. 1769) 1703 – Lorenzo Ricci, Italian religious leader, 18th Superior General of the Society of Jesus (d. 1775) 1740 – Jean Baptiste Camille Canclaux, French general (d. 1817) 1754 – Pierre Charles L'Enfant, French-American architect and engineer, designed Washington, D.C. (d. 1825) 1788 – Leopold Gmelin, German chemist and academic (d. 1853) 1815 – Adolf Friedrich von Schack, German poet and historian (d. 1894) 1820 – John Tyndall, Irish-English physicist and mountaineer (d. 1893) 1828 – Manuel Pavía y Rodríguez de Alburquerque, Spanish general (d. 1895) 1834 – Frédéric Auguste Bartholdi, French sculptor, designed the Statue of Liberty (d. 1904) 1835 – Elisha Gray, American businessman, co-founded Western Electric (d. 1901) 1861 – Prafulla Chandra Ray, Indian chemist and academic (d. 1944) 1865 – Irving Babbitt, American academic and critic (d. 1933) 1865 – John Radecki, Australian stained glass artist (d. 1955) 1867 – Ernest Dowson, English poet, novelist, and short story writer (d. 1900) 1868 – Constantine I of Greece (d. 1923) 1870 – Marianne Weber, German sociologist and suffragist (d. 1954) 1871 – John French Sloan, American painter and illustrator (d. 1951) 1872 – George E. Stewart, Australian-American colonel, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 1946) 1876 – Pingali Venkayya, Indian geologist, designed the Flag of India (d. 1963) 1877 – Ravishankar Shukla, Indian lawyer and politician, 1st Chief Minister of Madhya Pradesh (d. 1956) 1878 – Aino Kallas, Finnish-Estonian author (d. 1956) 1880 – Arthur Dove, American painter and educator (d. 1946) 1882 – Red Ames, American baseball player and manager (d. 1936) 1882 – Albert Bloch, American painter and academic (d. 1961) 1884 – Rómulo Gallegos, Venezuelan author and politician, 46th President of Venezuela (d. 1969) 1886 – John Alexander Douglas McCurdy, Canadian pilot and politician, 20th Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia (d. 1961) 1887 – Oskar Anderson, Bulgarian-German mathematician and statistician (d. 1960) 1889 – Margaret Lawrence, American stage actress (d. 1929) 1891 – Arthur Bliss, English composer and conductor (d. 1975) 1891 – Viktor Zhirmunsky, Russian linguist and historian (d. 1971) 1892 – Jack L. Warner, Canadian-born American production manager and producer, co-founded Warner Bros. (d. 1978) 1894 – Bertha Lutz, Brazilian feminist and scientist (d. 1976) 1895 – Matt Henderson, New Zealand cricketer (d. 1970) 1897 – Karl-Otto Koch, German SS officer (d. 1945) 1897 – Max Weber, Swiss lawyer and politician (d. 1974) 1898 – Ernő Nagy, Hungarian fencer (d. 1977) 1899 – Charles Bennett, English director and screenwriter (d. 1995) 1900 – Holling C. Holling, American author and illustrator (d. 1973) 1900 – Helen Morgan, American actress and singer (d. 1941) 1901–present 1902 – Pope Cyril VI of Alexandria (d. 1971) 1902 – Mina Rees, American mathematician (d. 1997) 1905 – Karl Amadeus Hartmann, German composer (d. 1963) 1905 – Myrna Loy, American actress (d. 1993) 1905 – Ruth Nelson, American actress (d. 1992)"Ruth Nelson". Retrieved November 1, 2022.Haun, Harry (2000). The Cinematic Century: An Intimate Diary of America's Affair with the Movies. New York: Applause. 1907 – Mary Hamman, American journalist and author (d. 1984) 1910 – Roger MacDougall, Scottish director, playwright, and screenwriter (d. 1993) 1911 – Ann Dvorak, American actress (d. 1979) 1912 – Palle Huld, Danish actor (d. 2010) 1912 – Håkon Stenstadvold, Norwegian painter, illustrator, and critic (d. 1977) 1912 – Vladimir Žerjavić, Croatian economist and author (d. 2001) 1913 – Xavier Thaninayagam, Sri Lankan scholar and academic (d. 1980) 1914 – Félix Leclerc, Canadian singer-songwriter, actor, and poet (d. 1988) 1914 – Big Walter Price, American singer-songwriter and pianist (d. 2012) 1914 – Beatrice Straight, American actress (d. 2001) 1915 – Gary Merrill, American actor (d. 1990) 1916 – Alfonso A. Ossorio, Filipino-American painter and sculptor (d. 1990) 1917 – Wah Chang, Chinese-American artist and designer (d. 2003) 1919 – Nehemiah Persoff, Israeli-American actor (d. 2022) 1920 – Louis Pauwels, French journalist and author (d. 1997) 1920 – Augustus Rowe, Canadian physician and politician (d. 2013) 1921 – Alan Whicker, Egyptian-English journalist (d. 2013) 1922 – Betsy Bloomingdale, American philanthropist and socialite (d. 2016) 1922 – Geoffrey Dutton, Australian historian and author (d. 1998) 1923 – Shimon Peres, Polish-Israeli lawyer and politician, 9th President of Israel (d. 2016) 1923 – Ike Williams, American boxer (d. 1994) 1924 – James Baldwin, American novelist, poet, and critic (d. 1987) 1924 – Joe Harnell, American pianist and composer (d. 2005) 1924 – Carroll O'Connor, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2001) 1925 – K. Arulanandan, Ceylon-American engineer and academic (d. 2004) 1925 – John Dexter, English director and producer (d. 1990) 1925 – John McCormack, Canadian ice hockey player (d. 2017) 1925 – Jorge Rafael Videla, Argentinian general and politician, 43rd President of Argentina (d. 2013) 1927 – Peter Swinnerton-Dyer, English mathematician and academic (d. 2018) 1928 – Malcolm Hilton, English cricketer (d. 1990) 1929 – Roy Crimmins, English trombonist and composer (d. 2014) 1929 – John Gale, English director and producer 1929 – Vidya Charan Shukla, Indian politician, Indian Minister of External Affairs (d. 2013) 1929 – David Waddington, Baron Waddington, English lawyer and politician, Governor of Bermuda (d. 2017) 1929 – K. M. Peyton, British children's author (d. 2023) 1930 – Vali Myers, Australian painter and dancer (d. 2003) 1931 – Pierre DuMaine, American bishop and academic (d. 2019) 1931 – Eddie Fuller, South African cricketer (d. 2008) 1931 – Karl Miller, English journalist and critic (d. 2014) 1931 – Viliam Schrojf, Czech footballer (d. 2007) 1932 – Lamar Hunt, American businessman, co-founded the American Football League and World Championship Tennis (d. 2006) 1932 – Peter O'Toole, British-Irish actor and producer (d. 2013) 1933 – Ioannis Varvitsiotis, Greek politician, Greek Minister of Defence 1934 – Valery Bykovsky, Russian general and cosmonaut (d. 2019) 1935 – Hank Cochran, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2010) 1936 – Anthony Payne, English composer and author (d. 2021) 1937 – Ron Brierley, New Zealand businessman 1937 – Billy Cannon, American football player and dentist (d. 2018) 1937 – María Duval, Mexican actress and singer 1937 – Garth Hudson, Canadian keyboard player, songwriter, and producer (d. 2025) 1937 – Tim Bowden, Australian historian and television presenter (d. 2024) 1938 – Dave Balon, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (d. 2007) 1938 – Pierre de Bané, Israeli-Canadian lawyer and politician (d. 2019) 1938 – Terry Peck, Falkland Islander soldier (d. 2006) 1939 – Benjamin Barber, American theorist, author, and academic (d. 2017) 1939 – Wes Craven, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1939 – John W. Snow, American businessman and politician, 73rd United States Secretary of the Treasury 1940 – Angel Lagdameo, Filipino archbishop (d. 2022) 1940 – Beko Ransome-Kuti, Nigerian physician and activist (d. 2006) 1940 – Will Tura, Belgian singer-songwriter and guitarist 1941 – Doris Coley, American singer (d. 2000) 1941 – Jules A. Hoffmann, Luxembourgish-French biologist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate 1941 – François Weyergans, Belgian director and screenwriter (d. 2022) 1942 – Isabel Allende, Chilean-American novelist, essayist, essayist 1942 – Leo Beenhakker, Dutch football manager 1942 – Juan Formell, Cuban singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2014) 1942 – Nell Irvin Painter, American author and historian 1943 – Herbert M. Allison, American lieutenant and businessman (d. 2013) 1943 – Tom Burgmeier, American baseball player and coach 1943 – Jon R. Cavaiani, English-American sergeant, Medal of Honor recipient (d. 2014) 1943 – Rose Tremain, English novelist and short story writer 1944 – Jim Capaldi, English drummer and singer-songwriter (d. 2005) 1944 – Naná Vasconcelos, Brazilian singer and berimbau player (d. 2016) 1945 – Joanna Cassidy, American actress 1945 – Alex Jesaulenko, Austrian-Australian footballer and coach 1945 – Bunker Roy, Indian educator and activist 1945 – Eric Simms, Australian rugby league player and coach 1946 – James Howe, American journalist and author 1947 – Ruth Bakke, Norwegian organist and composer 1947 – Lawrence Wright, American journalist, author, and screenwriter 1948 – Andy Fairweather Low, Welsh singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1948 – Dennis Prager, American radio host and author 1948 – Tapan Kumar Sarkar, Indian-American electrical engineer and academic (d. 2021) 1948 – James Street, American football and baseball player (d. 2013) 1948 – Snoo Wilson, English playwright and screenwriter (d. 2013) 1949 – James Fallows, American journalist and author 1949 – Bertalan Farkas, Hungarian general and cosmonaut 1950 – Jussi Adler-Olsen, Danish author and publisher 1950 – Ted Turner, British guitarist 1951 – Andrew Gold, American singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2011) 1951 – Steve Hillage, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1951 – Burgess Owens, American football player and politician 1951 – Joe Lynn Turner, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1951 – Per Westerberg, Swedish businessman and politician, Speaker of the Parliament of Sweden 1952 – Alain Giresse, French footballer and manager 1953 – Donnie Munro, Scottish singer and guitarist 1953 – Butch Patrick, American actor 1953 – Anthony Seldon, English historian and author 1954 – Sammy McIlroy, Northern Irish footballer and manager 1955 – Caleb Carr, American historian and author (d. 2024) 1955 – Tony Godden, English footballer and manager 1955 – Butch Vig, American drummer, songwriter, and record producer 1956 – Fulvio Melia, Italian-American physicist, astrophysicist, and author 1957 – Jacky Rosen, United States senator 1959 – Jim Doughan, American actor 1959 – Victoria Jackson, American actress and singer 1959 – Johnny Kemp, Bahamian singer-songwriter and producer (d. 2015) 1959 – Apollonia Kotero, American singer and actress 1960 – Linda Fratianne, American skater 1960 – Neal Morse, American singer and keyboard player 1960 – David Yow, American singer-songwriter 1961 – Pete de Freitas, Trinidadian-British drummer and producer (d. 1989) 1962 – Lee Mavers, English singer, songwriter and guitarist 1962 – Cynthia Stevenson, American actress 1963 – Laura Bennett, American architect and fashion designer 1963 – Uğur Tütüneker, Turkish footballer and manager 1964 – Frank Biela, German race car driver 1964 – Mary-Louise Parker, American actress 1965 – Joe Hockey, Australian lawyer and politician, 38th Treasurer of Australia 1965 – Hisanobu Watanabe, Japanese baseball player and coach 1966 – Takashi Iizuka, Japanese wrestler 1966 – Grainne Leahy, Irish cricketer 1966 – Tim Wakefield, American baseball player and sportscaster (d. 2023) 1967 – Aaron Krickstein, American tennis player 1967 – Aline Brosh McKenna, American screenwriter and producer 1968 – Stefan Effenberg, German footballer and sportscaster 1969 – Cedric Ceballos, American basketball player 1969 – Fernando Couto, Portuguese footballer and manager 1970 – Tony Amonte, American ice hockey player and coach 1970 – Kevin Smith, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter Note: At least one source, Yahoo! Movies, gives birthplace as Highlands, New Jersey. 1970 – Philo Wallace, Barbadian cricketer 1971 – Jason Bell, Australian rugby league player 1971 – Michael Hughes, Irish footballer and manager 1972 – Mohamed Al-Deayea, Saudi Arabian footballer 1972 – Muriel Bowser, American politician, Mayor of Washington, D.C. 1973 – Danie Keulder, Namibian cricketer 1973 – Miguel Mendonca, Zimbabwean journalist and author 1973 – Susie O'Neill, Australian swimmer 1974 – Phil Williams, English journalist and radio host 1975 – Mineiro, Brazilian footballer 1975 – Xu Huaiwen, Chinese-German badminton player and coach 1975 – Tamás Molnár, Hungarian water polo player 1976 – Reyes Estévez, Spanish runner 1976 – Jay Heaps, American soccer player and coach 1976 – Michael Weiss, American skater 1976 – Sam Worthington, English-Australian actor and producer 1976 – Mohammad Zahid, Pakistani cricketer 1977 – Edward Furlong, American actor 1978 – Goran Gavrančić, Serbian footballer 1978 – Matt Guerrier, American baseball player 1978 – Deividas Šemberas, Lithuanian footballer 1978 – Dragan Vukmir, Serbian footballer 1979 – Marco Bonura, Italian footballer 1979 – Reuben Kosgei, Kenyan runner 1980 – Ivica Banović, Croatian footballer 1981 – Alexander Emelianenko, Russian mixed martial artist and boxer 1981 – Tim Murtagh, English-Irish cricketer 1982 – Hélder Postiga, Portuguese footballer 1982 – Kerry Rhodes, American football player 1982 – Grady Sizemore, American baseball player 1983 – Michel Bastos, Brazilian footballer 1983 – Huston Street, American baseball player 1984 – Giampaolo Pazzini, Italian footballer 1984 – JD Vance, vice president-elect of the United States 1985 – Stephen Ferris, Irish rugby player 1985 – David Hart Smith, Canadian wrestler 1985 – Britt Nicole, American Christian pop artist 1986 – Mathieu Razanakolona, Canadian skier 1986 – Lily Gladstone, American actress 1988 – Rob Kwiet, Canadian ice hockey player 1988 – Golden Tate, American football player 1989 – Nacer Chadli, Belgian footballer 1990 – Ima Bohush, Belarusian tennis player 1990 – Vitalia Diatchenko, Russian tennis player 1990 – Skylar Diggins-Smith, American basketball player 1991 – Evander Kane, Canadian ice hockey player 1992 – Charli XCX, English singer-songwriter 1993 – Gael Bussa, Congolese politician 1994 – Cr1TiKaL, American YouTuber and streamer 1994 – Laura Pigossi, Brazilian tennis player 1994 – Laremy Tunsil, American football player 1995 – Kristaps Porziņģis, Latvian basketball player 1995 – Vikkstar123, English internet personality 1996 – Keston Hiura, American baseball player 1996 – Simone Manuel, American swimmer 1997 – Austin Theory, American wrestler 1999 – Mark Lee, Korean-Canadian singer 2000 – Varvara Gracheva, Russian tennis player 2000 – Mohammed Kudus, Ghanaian footballer Deaths Pre-1600 216 BC – Gnaeus Servilius Geminus, Roman consul 216 BC – Lucius Aemilius Paullus, Roman consul and general 216 BC – Marcus Minucius Rufus, Roman consul 257 – Pope Stephen I 575 – Ahudemmeh, Syriac Orthodox Grand Metropolitan of the East. 640 – Pope Severinus 686 – Pope John V 855 – Ahmad ibn Hanbal, Arab theologian and jurist (b. 780) 924 – Ælfweard of Wessex (b. 904) 1075 – Patriarch John VIII of Constantinople 1100 – William II of England (b. 1056) 1222 – Raymond VI, Count of Toulouse (b. 1156) 1277 – Mu'in al-Din Sulaiman Pervane, Chancellor and Regent of the Sultanate of Rum 1316 – Louis of Burgundy (b. 1297) 1330 – Yolande of Dreux, Queen consort of Scotland and Duchess consort of Brittany (b. 1263) 1332 – King Christopher II of Denmark (b. 1276) 1415 – Thomas Grey, English conspirator (b. 1384) 1445 – Oswald von Wolkenstein, Austrian poet and composer (b. 1376) 1451 – Elizabeth of Görlitz (b. 1390) 1511 – Andrew Barton, Scottish admiral (b. 1466) 1512 – Alessandro Achillini, Italian physician and philosopher (b. 1551) 1601–1900 1605 – Richard Leveson, English admiral (b. c. 1570) 1611 – Katō Kiyomasa, Japanese daimyō (b. 1562) 1667 – Francesco Borromini, Swiss architect, designed San Carlo alle Quattro Fontane and Sant'Agnese in Agone (b. 1599) 1696 – Robert Campbell of Glenlyon (b. 1630) 1769 – Daniel Finch, 8th Earl of Winchilsea, English politician, Lord President of the Council (b. 1689) 1788 – Thomas Gainsborough, English painter (b. 1727) 1799 – Jacques-Étienne Montgolfier, French inventor, co-invented the hot air balloon (b. 1745) 1815 – Guillaume Brune, French general and politician (b. 1763) 1823 – Lazare Carnot, French mathematician, general, and politician, president of the National Convention (b. 1753) 1834 – Harriet Arbuthnot, English diarist (b. 1793) 1849 – Muhammad Ali of Egypt, Ottoman Albanian commander (b. 1769) 1854 – Heinrich Clauren, German author (b. 1771) 1859 – Horace Mann, American educator and politician (b. 1796) 1876 – "Wild Bill" Hickok, American sheriff (b. 1837) 1889 – Eduardo Gutiérrez, Argentinian author (b. 1851) 1890 – Louise-Victorine Ackermann, French poet and author (b. 1813) 1901–present 1903 – Eduard Magnus Jakobson, Estonian missionary and engraver (b. 1847) 1903 – Edmond Nocard, French veterinarian and microbiologist (b. 1850) 1911 – Ioryi Mucitano, Aromanian revolutionary 1913 – Ferenc Pfaff, Hungarian architect and academic, designed Zagreb Central Station (b. 1851) 1915 – John Downer, Australian politician, 16th premier of South Australia (b. 1843) 1917 – Jaan Mahlapuu, Estonian military pilot (b. 1894) 1921 – Enrico Caruso, Italian tenor and actor (b. 1873) 1922 – Alexander Graham Bell, Scottish-Canadian engineer, invented the telephone (b. 1847) 1923 – Warren G. Harding, American journalist and politician, 29th president of the United States (b. 1865) 1923 – Joseph Whitty, Irish Republican died on hunger strike during the 1923 Irish Hunger Strikes (b. 1904)The Civil War". rootsireland.ie. roots ireland. Retrieved 29 August 2021. Joe Whitty aged 19 who died on hunger-strike 1934 – Paul von Hindenburg, German field marshal and politician, 2nd president of Germany (b. 1847) 1937 – Artur Sirk, Estonian soldier, lawyer, and politician (b. 1900) 1939 – Harvey Spencer Lewis, American mystic and author (b. 1883) 1945 – Pietro Mascagni, Italian composer and educator (b. 1863) 1955 – Alfred Lépine, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1901) 1955 – Wallace Stevens, American poet and educator (b. 1879) 1963 – Oliver La Farge, American anthropologist and author (b. 1901) 1967 – Walter Terence Stace, English-American epistemologist, philosopher, and academic (b. 1886) 1970 – Angus MacFarlane-Grieve, English academic, mathematician, rower, and soldier (b. 1891) 1972 – Brian Cole, American bass player (b. 1942) 1972 – Paul Goodman, American psychotherapist and author (b. 1911) 1972 – Helen Hoyt, American poet and author (b. 1887) 1973 – Ismail Abdul Rahman, Former Deputy Prime Minister of Malaysia (b. 1915) 1973 – Jean-Pierre Melville, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1917) 1974 – Douglas Hawkes, English race car driver and businessman (b. 1893) 1976 – László Kalmár, Hungarian mathematician and academic (b. 1905) 1976 – Fritz Lang, Austrian-American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1890) 1978 – Carlos Chávez, Mexican composer and conductor (b. 1899) 1978 – Antony Noghès, French businessman, founded the Monaco Grand Prix (b. 1890) 1979 – Thurman Munson, American baseball player (b. 1947) 1981 – Kieran Doherty, Irish hunger striker and politician (b. 1955) 1981 – Stefanie Clausen, Danish diver (b. 1900) 1983 – James Jamerson, American bass player (b. 1936) 1986 – Roy Cohn, American lawyer and politician (b. 1927) 1988 – Joe Carcione, American activist and author (b. 1914) 1988 – Raymond Carver, American short story writer and poet (b. 1938) 1990 – Norman Maclean, American short story writer and essayist (b. 1902) 1990 – Edwin Richfield, English actor and screenwriter (b. 1921) 1992 – Michel Berger, French singer-songwriter and producer (b. 1947) 1996 – Michel Debré, French lawyer and politician, 150th prime minister of France (b. 1912) 1996 – Obdulio Varela, Uruguayan footballer and manager (b. 1917) 1996 – Mohamed Farrah Aidid, Somalian general and politician, 5th president of Somalia (b. 1934) 1996 – Sergey Golovkin, Russian serial killer and rapist, last person executed by Russia (b. 1959) 1997 – William S. Burroughs, American novelist, short story writer, and essayist (b. 1914) 1997 – Harald Kihle, Norwegian painter and illustrator (b. 1905) 1997 – Fela Kuti, Nigerian singer-songwriter and activist (b. 1938) 1998 – Shari Lewis, American television host and puppeteer (b. 1933) 1999 – Willie Morris, American writer (b. 1934) 2003 – Peter Safar, Austrian-American physician and academic (b. 1924) 2004 – Ferenc Berényi, Hungarian painter and academic (b. 1929) 2004 – François Craenhals, Belgian illustrator (b. 1926) 2004 – Heinrich Mark, Estonian lawyer and politician, 5th prime minister of Estonia in exile (b. 1911) 2005 – Steven Vincent, American journalist and author (b. 1955) 2007 – Chauncey Bailey, American journalist (b. 1950) 2008 – Fujio Akatsuka, Japanese illustrator (b. 1935) 2011 – José Sanchis Grau, Spanish author and illustrator (b. 1932) 2012 – Gabriel Horn, English biologist and academic (b. 1927) 2012 – Magnus Isacsson, Canadian director and producer (b. 1948) 2012 – Jimmy Jones, American singer-songwriter (b. 1930) 2012 – John Keegan, English historian and journalist (b. 1934) 2012 – Bernd Meier, German footballer (b. 1972) 2012 – Marguerite Piazza, American soprano (b. 1920) 2013 – Julius L. Chambers, American lawyer and activist (b. 1936) 2013 – Richard E. Dauch, American businessman, co-founded American Axle (b. 1942) 2013 – Alla Kushnir, Russian–Israeli chess player (b. 1941) 2014 – Ed Joyce, American journalist (b. 1932) 2014 – Billie Letts, American author and educator (b. 1938) 2014 – Barbara Prammer, Austrian social worker and politician (b. 1954) 2014 – James Thompson, American-Finnish author (b. 1964) 2015 – Forrest Bird, American pilot and engineer (b. 1921) 2015 – Giovanni Conso, Italian jurist and politician, Italian Minister of Justice (b. 1922) 2015 – Piet Fransen, Dutch footballer (b. 1936) 2015 – Jack Spring, American baseball player (b. 1933) 2016 – Terence Bayler, New Zealand actor (b. 1930) 2016 – David Huddleston, American actor (b. 1930) 2016 – Franciszek Macharski, Polish cardinal (b. 1927) 2016 – Ahmed Zewail, Egyptian-American chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1946) 2017 – Judith Jones, American literary and cookbook editor (b. 1924) 2020 – Suzanne Perlman, Hungarian-Dutch visual artist (b. 1922) 2022 – Vin Scully, American sportscaster and game show host (b. 1927) 2023 – Nitin Chandrakant Desai, Indian art director, production designer, and film and television producer (b. 1965) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Ahudemmeh (Syriac Orthodox Church). Basil Fool for Christ (Russian Orthodox Church) Justin Russolillo Eusebius of Vercelli Peter Faber Peter Julian Eymard Plegmund Pope Stephen I Portiuncola Indulgence ("Pardon of Assisi"), the plenary indulgence related to St. Francis of Assisi (Catholic Church). Samuel David Ferguson (Episcopal Church) August 2 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Day of Azerbaijani cinema (Azerbaijan) Our Lady of the Angels Day (Costa Rica) Paratroopers Day (Russia) Republic Day (North Macedonia) Romani genocide-related observances, including: Roma Holocaust Memorial Day (Council of Europe, European Parliament) References External links

Atlantic (disambiguation)

The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's oceans, that separates the old world from the new world. Atlantic may also refer to: Places In Canada Atlantic, Nova Scotia Atlantic Canada In the United States Atlantic, Iowa Atlantic, Massachusetts Atlantic, North Carolina, an unincorporated community in eastern Carteret County Atlantic, Pennsylvania Atlantic, Seattle, a neighborhood in Washington state Atlantic, Virginia Atlantic City, New Jersey Atlantic County, New Jersey Atlantic Peak (Colorado), a mountain Art, entertainment, and media Companies and labels Atlantic Books, an independent British publishing house Atlantic Monthly Press, an American publishing house Atlantic Entertainment Group, a defunct movie studio company Atlantic FM, a former radio station serving Cornwall, United Kingdom Atlantic Records, a record company Music The Atlantics, an Australian surf rock band formed in the early 1960s Albums Atlantic (Dufresne album) Songs "Atlantic" (song), by Keane "Atlantic", a song by Björk from Vessel (DVD) "Atlantic", a song by Thrice from Vheissu "Atlantic", a song by Sleep Token from This Place Will Become Your Tomb Other art, entertainment, and media Atlantic (film), a 1929 black and white British film The Atlantic, an American magazine founded as The Atlantic Monthly in 1857 Atlantic., a 2014 Dutch film Atlantic (2015 film), an Irish documentary film, awarded Best Irish Documentary at the 2016 Dublin International Film Festival Enterprises and organizations Atlantic (cinema), a movie theater in Warsaw, Poland Atlantic (toy company), a defunct Italian toy manufacturer Atlantic (supermarkets), a defunct supermarket chain in Greece Atlantic Broadband, a cable company in Massachusetts Atlantic City Electric, a division of Elexon supplying electricity in New Jersey Atlantic LNG, a liquefied natural gas producing company based in Trinidad and Tobago Atlantic Petroleum, a former oil company in the United States Atlantic Petroleum (Faroe Islands), an oil and gas production company Atlantic Philanthropies, a defunct private foundation Atlantic Technological University, north-western Ireland Atlantic University, Virginia Beach, Virginia Groupe Atlantic, a French climate control engineering company Real Atlantic Superstore, a Canadian supermarket chain Sports Atlantic Championship Series, developmental open-wheel racing series in North America Atlantic League of Professional Baseball, an American professional baseball league Structures Atlantic Building or Edificio Atlantic, a condominium building in Havana, Cuba The Atlantic (Atlanta), a skyscraper in Atlanta, Georgia, United States Transportation Airlines Air Atlantic, a Canadian airline Atlantic Airways, a Faroese airline company Aircraft Breguet Atlantic, a French long-range maritime patrol aircraft (1961) Motor vehicles Atlantic (1921 automobile), a defunct automobile company Austin Atlantic, a British car produced by the Austin Motor Company from 1949 to 1952 Fisker Atlantic, a 2012 plug-in electric concept car Railroads and trains Atlantic (locomotive), name of an early steam-powered locomotive of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Atlantic station (Los Angeles Metro) Atlantic station (Staten Island Railway) Atlantic (train), a named passenger train operated by Canadian Pacific Railway and later Via Rail Atlantic, a type of steam locomotive with a 4-4-2 wheel arrangement (UIC classification 2B1) Ships , any one of several vessels by that name Atlantic (yacht), a three-masted gaff-rigged schooner Atlantic 85-class lifeboats, lifeboats that serve the shores of the United Kingdom and Ireland as a part of the RNLI inshore fleet Other uses Atlantic (period) of palaeoclimatology Atlantic languages (formerly West Atlantic), a language family in West Africa Atlantic (horse), British-bred Thoroughbred racehorse of the 1870s See also Atlantik (disambiguation) Atlantique (disambiguation) Atlantic Beach (disambiguation) Atlantic Bridge (disambiguation) Atlantic City (disambiguation

Artificial intelligence

Artificial intelligence (AI), in its broadest sense, is intelligence exhibited by machines, particularly computer systems. It is a field of research in computer science that develops and studies methods and software that enable machines to perceive their environment and use learning and intelligence to take actions that maximize their chances of achieving defined goals. Such machines may be called AIs. However, many AI applications are not perceived as AI: "A lot of cutting edge AI has filtered into general applications, often without being called AI because once something becomes useful enough and common enough it's not labeled AI anymore. "AI set to exceed human brain power CNN.com (July 26, 2006) Various subfields of AI research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular tools. The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception, and support for robotics. General intelligence—the ability to complete any task performed by a human on an at least equal level—is among the field's long-term goals. To reach these goals, AI researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of techniques, including search and mathematical optimization, formal logic, artificial neural networks, and methods based on statistics, operations research, and economics. AI also draws upon psychology, linguistics, philosophy, neuroscience, and other fields.. Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956, and the field went through multiple cycles of optimism throughout its history, followed by periods of disappointment and loss of funding, known as AI winters. Funding and interest vastly increased after 2012 when deep learning outperformed previous AI techniques. This growth accelerated further after 2017 with the transformer architecture, and by the early 2020s many billions of dollars were being invested in AI and the field experienced rapid ongoing progress in what has become known as the AI boom. The emergence of advanced generative AI in the midst of the AI boom and its ability to create and modify content exposed several unintended consequences and harms in the present and raised concerns about the risks of AI and its long-term effects in the future, prompting discussions about regulatory policies to ensure the safety and benefits of the technology. Goals The general problem of simulating (or creating) intelligence has been broken into subproblems. These consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display. The traits described below have received the most attention and cover the scope of AI research. Reasoning and problem-solving Early researchers developed algorithms that imitated step-by-step reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions.Problem-solving, puzzle solving, game playing, and deduction: , (constraint satisfaction), , , By the late 1980s and 1990s, methods were developed for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information, employing concepts from probability and economics.Uncertain reasoning: , , , Many of these algorithms are insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experience a "combinatorial explosion": They become exponentially slower as the problems grow.Intractability and efficiency and the combinatorial explosion: Even humans rarely use the step-by-step deduction that early AI research could model. They solve most of their problems using fast, intuitive judgments.Psychological evidence of the prevalence of sub-symbolic reasoning and knowledge: , , , Accurate and efficient reasoning is an unsolved problem.

Afro Celt Sound System

Afro Celt Sound System was a European and African group who fused electronic music with traditional Gaelic and West African music. Afro Celt Sound System was formed in 1995 by producer-guitarist Simon Emmerson, and feature a wide range of guest artists. In 2003, they temporarily changed their name to Afrocelts before reverting to their original name. Their albums were been released through Peter Gabriel's Real World Records, and they have frequently performed at WOMAD festivals worldwide. Their sales on the label are exceeded only by Gabriel himself. Their recording contract with Real World was for five albums, of which Volume 5: Anatomic was the last. After a number of festival dates in 2007, the band went on hiatus. In 2010, they regrouped to play a number of shows (including a return to WOMAD), and released a remastered retrospective titled Capture. On 20 May 2014, Afro Celt Sound System announced the release of the album Born. In January 2016, a posting on their website revealed that due to a dispute with Emmerson, who announced his departure from the band in 2015, there were two active versions of the band, one led by Emmerson and another with a separate line-up headed by James McNally and Martin Russell. Emmerson's version of the band released the album The Source in 2016. The dispute ended on 21 December 2016, with an announcement on social media. The band released their seventh studio album, Flight, on 23 November 2018. Formation The inspiration behind the project dates back to 1991, when Simon Emmerson, a Grammy Award-nominated British producer and guitarist, collaborated with Afro-pop star Baaba Maal. While making an album with Maal in Senegal, Emmerson was struck by the similarity between one African melody and a traditional Irish air. Back in London, Irish musician Davy Spillane told Emmerson about a belief that nomadic Celts lived in Africa or India before they migrated to Western Europe. Whether or not the theory was true, Emmerson was intrigued by the two regions' musical affinities. In an experiment that would prove successful, Emmerson brought two members of Baaba Maal's band together with traditional Irish musicians to see what kind of music the two groups would create. Adding a dash of modern sound, Emmerson also brought in English dance mixers for an electronic beat. "People thought I was mad when I touted the idea," Emmerson told Jim Carroll of The Irish Times. "At the time, I was out of favour with the London club scene. I was broke and on income support but the success was extraordinary". Career Jamming in the studios at Real World, musician Peter Gabriel's recording facilities in Wiltshire, England, the group of musicians recorded the basis of their first album in one week. This album, Volume 1: Sound Magic, was released by Real World Records in 1996, and marked the debut of the Afro Celt Sound System. "Prior to that first album being made, none of us knew if it would work," musician James McNally told Larry Katz of the Boston Herald. "We were strangers who didn't even speak the same language. But we were bowled over by this communication that took place beyond language." McNally, who grew up second-generation Irish in London, played whistles, keyboards, piano, bodhran, and bamboo flute. Sound Magic has now sold over 300,000 copies. The band performed at festivals, raves, and dance clubs and regularly included two African musicians, Moussa Sissokho on talking drum and djembe and N'Faly Kouyate on vocals, kora and balafon. Just as the second album was getting off the ground, one of the group's core musicians, 27-year-old keyboardist Jo Bruce, (son of Cream bass player Jack Bruce), died suddenly of an asthma attack. The band was devastated, and the album was put on hold. Sinéad O'Connor then collaborated with the band and helped them cope with their loss. "[O'Connor] blew into the studio on a windy November night and blew away again leaving us something incredibly emotional and powerful," McNally told Katz. "We had this track we didn't know what to do with. Sinéad scribbled a few lyrics and bang! She left us completely choked up." The band used the name of O'Connor's song, "Release", for the title of their album. Volume 2: Release was released in 1999, and by the spring of 2000 it had sold more than half a million copies worldwide. Release is also used as one of the GCSE music set works in the UK that students are required to study for their exam. In 2000, the group was nominated for a Grammy Award in the Best World Music category. The band, composed at the time of eight members from six countries (the UK, Senegal, Guinea, Ireland, France and Kenya), took pride in its ability to bring people together through music. "We can communicate anywhere at any corner of the planet and feel that we're at home," McNally told Patrick MacDonald of The Seattle Times. "We're breaking down categories of world music and rock music and black music. We leave a door open to communicate with each other's traditions. And it's changed our lives". In 2001, the group released Volume 3: Further in Time, which climbed to number one on Billboards Top World Music Albums chart. Featuring guest spots by Peter Gabriel and Robert Plant, the album also incorporated a heightened African sound. "On the first two records, the pendulum swung more toward the Celtic, London club side of the equation," Emmerson told The Irish Times Carroll. "For this one, we wanted to have more African vocals and input than we'd done before." Again the Afro Celt Sound System met with success. Chuck Taylor of Billboard praised the album as "a cultural phenomenon that bursts past the traditional boundaries of contemporary music." The single "When You're Falling", with vocals by Gabriel, became a radio hit in the United States. In 2003, for the Seed album, they changed their name to Afrocelts. They reverted to the longer band name for their subsequent albums, Pod, a compilation of new mixes of songs from the first four albums, Volume 5: Anatomic (their fifth studio album), and Capture (1995–2010). They played a number of shows to promote Volume 5: Anatomic in 2006 and summer 2007, ending with a gig in Korea, before taking an extended break to work on side projects, amongst them The Imagined Village featuring Simon Emmerson and Johnny Kalsi. Starting in the summer of 2010, the band performed a series of live shows to promote Capture (1995–2010), released on 6 September 2010 on Real World Records. Further performances continue to the present day, and a new album-in-progress titled Born was announced on their website in 2014. Following the split (see below), Emmerson's version of the band released the album The Source in 2016. Split During 2015, the band had split into two formations, one of them including Simon Emmerson, N'Faly Kouyate and Johnny Kalsi, the other one James McNally and Martin Russell. The split was announced on the band's website in January 2016. The dispute officially ended with an announcement on social media on 21 December 2016. Members When Afro Celt Sound System formed in the mid-1990s during the Real World Recording Week, the difference between a guest artist and a band member was virtually non-existent. However, over time, a combination of people became most often associated with the name Afro Celt Sound System (while Volume 5: Anatomic only lists Emmerson, McNally, Ó Lionáird and Russell as regulars). The divided grouping of the band into two versions, both operating under the name Afro Celt Sound System, began in January 2016 and was resolved in December 2016 after McNally and Russell agreed to work under a different name from Emmerson. Simon Emmerson who died on 13 March 2023 after falling ill. N'Faly Kouyate Johnny Kalsi Moussa Sissokho Griogair Labhruidh Ronan Browne Emer Mayock Davy Spillane Russell/McNally version Martin Russell James McNally Ian Markin Tim Bradshaw Babara Bangoura Dorothee Munyaneza Kadially Kouyaté Dav Daheley Other musicians who have performed or recorded with Afro Celt Sound System include: Jimmy Mahon, Demba Barry, Babara Bangoura, Iarla Ó Lionáird, Peter Gabriel, Robert Plant, Pete Lockett, Sinéad O'Connor, Pina Kollar, Dorothee Munyaneza, Sevara Nazarkhan, Simon Massey, Jesse Cook, Martin Hayes, Eileen Ivers, Mundy, Mairéad Ní Mhaonaigh and Ciarán Tourish of Altan, Ronan Browne, Michael McGoldrick, Steáfán Hannigan, Myrdhin, Shooglenifty, Mairead Nesbitt, Nigel Eaton, Davy Spillane, Jonas Bruce, Heather Nova, Julie Murphy, Ayub Ogada, Caroline Lavelle, and Ross Ainslie. Discography Studio albums + List of studio albums, with selected chart positions Title Year Peak chart positions UKPeaks in the UK: All except noted: "When You're Falling": AUS FRA IRE NZ US USWorld Volume 1: Sound Magic 1996 59 53 — — 32 — 15 Volume 2: Release 1999 38 93 63 — 42 — 6 Volume 3: Further in Time 2001 77 — — 33 — 176 1 Seed 2003 — — — — — — 5 Volume 5: Anatomic 2005 — — — — — — — The Source 2016 86 — — — — — — Flight 2018 — — — — — — — OVA 2024 — — — — — — — Other albums Pod (remix album) (2004) Capture (1995–2010) (2010) (compilation) No. 14 NZ They also recorded the soundtrack for the PC game Magic and Mayhem, released in 1998. Charted singles + List of charted singles, with selected chart positions Title Year Peak chart positions Album UK NLD USDance "Whirl-Y-Reel" 1997 91 — — Volume 1: Sound Magic "Release" 2000 71 — 3 Volume 2: Release "When You're Falling" 2001 139 86 — Volume 3: Further in Time References External links

Ancient philosophy

This page lists some links to ancient philosophy, namely philosophical thought extending as far as early post-classical history . Overview Genuine philosophical thought, depending upon original individual insights, arose in many cultures roughly contemporaneously. Karl Jaspers termed the intense period of philosophical development beginning around the 7th century BCE and concluding around the 3rd century BCE an Axial Age in human thought. In Western philosophy, the spread of Christianity in the Roman Empire marked the ending of Hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of medieval philosophy, whereas in the Middle East, the spread of Islam through the Arab Empire marked the end of Old Iranian philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of early Islamic philosophy.

Anaximander

Anaximander ( ; Anaximandros; ) was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher who lived in Miletus,"Anaximander" in Chambers's Encyclopædia. London: George Newnes, 1961, Vol. 1, p. 403. a city of Ionia (in modern-day Turkey). He belonged to the Milesian school and learned the teachings of his master Thales. He succeeded Thales and became the second master of that school where he counted Anaximenes and, arguably, Pythagoras amongst his pupils. Little of his life and work is known today. According to available historical documents, he is the first philosopher known to have written down his studies,Themistius, Oratio 26, §317 although only one fragment of his work remains. Fragmentary testimonies found in documents after his death provide a of the man. Anaximander was an early proponent of science and tried to observe and explain different aspects of the universe, with a particular interest in its origins, claiming that nature is ruled by laws, just like human societies, and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long.Park, David (2005) The Grand Contraption, Princeton University Press Like many thinkers of his time, Anaximander's philosophy included contributions to many disciplines. In astronomy, he attempted to describe the mechanics of celestial bodies in relation to the Earth. In physics, his postulation that the indefinite (or apeiron) was the source of all things, led Greek philosophy to a new level of conceptual abstraction. His knowledge of geometry allowed him to introduce the gnomon in Greece. He created a map of the world that contributed greatly to the advancement of geography. Anaximander was involved in the politics of Miletus and was sent as a leader to one of its colonies.

Architect

An architect is a person who plans, designs, and oversees the construction of buildings. To practice architecture means to provide services in connection with the design of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings that have human occupancy or use as their principal purpose. Etymologically, the term architect derives from the Latin , which derives from the Greek (-, chief + , builder), i.e., chief builder. The professional requirements for architects vary from location to location. An architect's decisions affect public safety, and thus the architect must undergo specialised training consisting of advanced education and a practicum (or internship) for practical experience to earn a license to practice architecture. Practical, technical, and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction though the formal study of architecture in academic institutions has played a pivotal role in the development of the profession. Origins Throughout ancient and medieval history, most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans—such as stone masons and carpenters—who rose to the role of master builders. Until modern times, there was no clear distinction between architect and engineer. In Europe, the titles architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person, often used interchangeably. "Architect" derives from Greek (, "master builder," "chief ).

Aphrodite

Aphrodite (, ) is an ancient Greek goddess associated with love, lust, beauty, pleasure, passion, procreation, and as her syncretized Roman counterpart , desire, sex, fertility, prosperity, and victory. Aphrodite's major symbols include seashells, myrtles, roses, doves, sparrows, and swans. The cult of Aphrodite was largely derived from that of the Phoenician goddess Astarte, a cognate of the East Semitic goddess Ishtar, whose cult was based on the Sumerian cult of Inanna. Aphrodite's main cult centers were Cythera, Cyprus, Corinth, and Athens. Her main festival was the Aphrodisia, which was celebrated annually in midsummer. In Laconia, Aphrodite was worshipped as a warrior goddess. She was also the patron goddess of prostitutes, an association which led early scholars to propose the concept of "sacred prostitution" in Greco-Roman culture, an idea which is now generally seen as erroneous. A major goddess in the Greek pantheon, Aphrodite featured prominently in ancient Greek literature. In Hesiod's Theogony, Aphrodite is born off the coast of Cythera from the foam (, ) produced by Uranus's genitals, which his son Cronus had severed and thrown into the sea. In Homer's Iliad, however, she is the daughter of Zeus and Dione. In his Symposium, Plato asserts that these two origins actually belong to separate entities; Aphrodite Urania (a transcendent "Heavenly" Aphrodite) and Aphrodite Pandemos (Aphrodite common to "all the people").This claim is made at Symposium 180e. It is hard to interpret the role of the various speeches in the dialogue and their relationship to what Plato actually thought; therefore, it is controversial whether Plato, in fact, believed this claim about Aphrodite. See Frisbee Sheffield, "The Role of the Earlier Speeches in the "Symposium": Plato's Endoxic Method?" in J. H. Lesher, Debra Nails & Frisbee C. C. Sheffield (eds. ), Plato's Symposium: Issues in Interpretation and Reception. Harvard University Press (2006). The epithet Aphrodite Areia (the "Warlike") reveals her contrasting nature in ancient Greek religion. Aphrodite had many other epithets, each emphasizing a different aspect of the same goddess or used by a different local cult. Thus she was also known as Cytherea (Lady of Cythera) and Cypris (Lady of Cyprus), because both locations claimed to be the place of her birth. Sappho's Ode to Aphrodite is one of the earliest poems dedicated to the goddess and survives from the Archaic period nearly complete. In Greek mythology, Aphrodite was married to Hephaestus, the god of fire, blacksmiths and metalworking. Aphrodite was frequently unfaithful to him and had many lovers; in the Odyssey, she is caught in the act of adultery with Ares, the god of war. In the First Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite, she seduces the mortal shepherd Anchises. Aphrodite was also the surrogate mother and lover of the mortal shepherd Adonis, who was killed by a wild boar. Along with Athena and Hera, Aphrodite was one of the three goddesses whose feud resulted in the beginning of the Trojan War and plays a major role throughout the Iliad. Aphrodite has been featured in Western art as a symbol of female beauty and has appeared in numerous works of Western literature. She is a major deity in modern Neopagan religions, including the Church of Aphrodite, Wicca, and Hellenism. Etymology Hesiod derives the name Aphrodite from "sea-foam", interpreting the name as "risen from the foam",Hesiod, Theogony, 190–97. but most modern scholars regard this as a spurious folk etymology. Early-modern scholars of classical mythology attempted to argue that Aphrodite's name was of Greek or Indo-European origin, but these efforts have mostly been abandoned. Aphrodite's name is generally accepted to be of non-Greek (probably Semitic) origin, but its exact derivation cannot be determined with confidence. Scholars in the late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, accepting Hesiod's "foam" etymology as genuine, analyzed the second part of Aphrodite's name as *-odítē "wanderer"Paul Kretschmer, "Zum pamphylischen Dialekt", Zeitschrift für vergleichende Sprachforschung auf dem Gebiet der Indogermanischen Sprachen 33 (1895): 267. or as *-dítē "bright".Ernst Maaß, "Aphrodite und die hl. Pelagia", Neue Jahrbücher für das klassische Altertum 27 (1911): 457–68.Vittore Pisani, "Akmon e Dieus", Archivio glottologico italiano 24 (1930): 65–73. More recently, Michael Janda, also accepting Hesiod's etymology, has argued in favor of the latter of these interpretations and claims the story of a birth from the foam as an Indo-European mytheme. Similarly, Krzysztof Tomasz Witczak proposes an Indo-European compound "very" and "to shine", also referring to Eos, and Daniel Kölligan has interpreted Aphrodite's name as "shining up from the mist/foam". Other scholars have argued that these hypotheses are unlikely, since Aphrodite's attributes are entirely different from those of both Eos and the Vedic deity Ushas. Modern scholars, due to the believed Near Eastern origins of Aphrodite's worship, have since proposed Semitic origins for the name. Some scholars, such as Fritz Hommel, have suggested that Aphrodite's name is a hellenized pronunciation of the name "Astarte"; other scholars, however, reject this as being linguistically untenable. Martin West reconstructs a Cyprian Canaanite form of the name as either or , and cautiously suggests the latter as being an epithet with the meaning "She of the Villages". Aren Wilson-Wright suggests the Phoenician form as an elative epithet meaning "unique, excellent, sublime". A number of improbable non-Greek etymologies have also been suggested. One Semitic etymology compares Aphrodite to the Assyrian barīrītu, the name of a female demon that appears in Middle Babylonian and Late Babylonian texts.Chicago Assyrian Dictionary, vol. HammarströmM. Hammarström, "Griechisch-etruskische Wortgleichungen", Glotta: Zeitschrift für griechische und lateinische Sprache 11 (1921): 215–16. looks to Etruscan, comparing (e)prθni "lord", an Etruscan honorific loaned into Greek as πρύτανις. This would make the theonym in origin an honorific, "the lady". Most scholars reject this etymology as implausible, especially since Aphrodite's name actually appears in Etruscan in the borrowed form Apru (from Greek , clipped form of Aphrodite). The medieval Etymologicum Magnum offers a highly contrived etymology, deriving Aphrodite from the compound habrodíaitos , "she who lives delicately", from habrós and díaita. The alteration from b to ph is explained as a "familiar" characteristic of Greek "obvious from the Macedonians".Etymologicum Magnum, Ἀφροδίτη. In the Cypriot syllabary, a syllabic script used on the island of Cyprus from the eleventh until the fourth centuries BC, Aphrodite's name is attested in the forms (a-po-ro-ta-o-i, read right-to-left), (a-po-ro-ti-ta-i, samewise), and finally (a-po-ro-ti-si-jo, "", "related to Aphrodite", in the context of a month). Origins Near Eastern love goddess The cult of Aphrodite in Greece was imported from, or at least influenced by, the cult of Astarte in Phoenicia, which, in turn, was influenced by the cult of the Mesopotamian goddess known as "Ishtar" to the East Semitic peoples and as "Inanna" to the Sumerians. Pausanias states that the first to establish a cult of Aphrodite were the Assyrians, followed by the Paphians of Cyprus and then the Phoenicians at Ascalon. The Phoenicians, in turn, taught her worship to the people of Cythera.Pausanias, Description of Greece, I. XIV.7 Aphrodite took on Inanna-Ishtar's associations with sexuality and procreation. Furthermore, she was known as Ourania (Οὐρανία), which means "heavenly", a title corresponding to Inanna's role as the Queen of Heaven. Early artistic and literary portrayals of Aphrodite are extremely similar on Inanna-Ishtar. Like Inanna-Ishtar, Aphrodite was also a warrior goddess; the second-century AD Greek geographer Pausanias records that, in Sparta, Aphrodite was worshipped as Aphrodite Areia, which means "warlike". He also mentions that Aphrodite's most ancient cult statues in Sparta and on Cythera showed her bearing arms. Modern scholars note that Aphrodite's warrior-goddess aspects appear in the oldest strata of her worship and see it as an indication of her Near Eastern origins. Nineteenth-century classical scholars had a general aversion to the idea that ancient Greek religion was at all influenced by the cultures of the Near East, but, even Friedrich Gottlieb Welcker, who argued that Near Eastern influence on Greek culture was largely confined to material culture, admitted that Aphrodite was clearly of Phoenician origin. The significant influence of Near Eastern culture on early Greek religion in general, and on the cult of Aphrodite in particular, is now widely recognized as dating to a period of orientalization during the eighth century BC, when archaic Greece was on the fringes of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. Indo-European dawn goddess Some early comparative mythologists opposed to the idea of a Near Eastern origin argued that Aphrodite originated as an aspect of the Greek dawn goddess Eos and that she was therefore ultimately derived from the Proto-Indo-European dawn goddess *Haéusōs (properly Greek Eos, Latin Aurora, Sanskrit Ushas). Most modern scholars have now rejected the notion of a purely Indo-European Aphrodite, but it is possible that Aphrodite, originally a Semitic deity, may have been influenced by the Indo-European dawn goddess. Both Aphrodite and Eos were known for their erotic beauty and aggressive sexuality and both had relationships with mortal lovers. Both goddesses were associated with the colors red, white, and gold. Michael Janda etymologizes Aphrodite's name as an epithet of Eos meaning "she who rises from the foam [of the ocean]" and points to Hesiod's Theogony account of Aphrodite's birth as an archaic reflex of Indo-European myth. Aphrodite rising out of the waters after Cronus defeats Uranus as a mytheme would then be directly cognate to the Rigvedic myth of Indra defeating Vrtra, liberating Ushas. Another key similarity between Aphrodite and the Indo-European dawn goddess is her close kinship to the Greek sky deity, since both of the main claimants to her paternity (Zeus and Uranus) are sky deities. Forms and epithets Aphrodite's most common cultic epithet was Ourania, meaning "heavenly", but this epithet almost never occurs in literary texts, indicating a purely cultic significance. Another common name for Aphrodite was Pandemos ("For All the Folk"). In her role as Aphrodite Pandemos, Aphrodite was associated with Peithō , meaning "persuasion", and could be prayed to for aid in seduction. The character of Pausanias in Plato's Symposium, takes differing cult-practices associated with different epithets of the goddess to claim that Ourania and Pandemos are, in fact, separate goddesses. He asserts that Aphrodite Ourania is the celestial Aphrodite, born from the sea foam after Cronus castrated Uranus, and the older of the two goddesses. According to the Symposium, Aphrodite Ourania is the inspiration of male homosexual desire, specifically the ephebic eros, and pederasty. Aphrodite Pandemos, by contrast, is the younger of the two goddesses: the common Aphrodite, born from the union of Zeus and Dione, and the inspiration of heterosexual desire and sexual promiscuity, the "lesser" of the two loves.Plato, Symposium 181a-d.Richard L. Hunter, Plato's Symposium, Oxford University Press: 2004, pp. 44–47 Paphian (Παφία), was one of her epithets, after the Paphos in Cyprus where she had emerged from the sea at her birth. Among the Neoplatonists and, later, their Christian interpreters, Ourania is associated with spiritual love, and Pandemos with physical love (desire). A representation of Ourania with her foot resting on a tortoise came to be seen as emblematic of discretion in conjugal love; it was the subject of a chryselephantine sculpture by Phidias for Elis, known only from a parenthetical comment by the geographer Pausanias.Pausanias, Periegesis vi.25.1; Aphrodite Pandemos was represented in the same temple riding on a goat, symbol of purely carnal rut: "The meaning of the tortoise and of the he-goat I leave to those who care to guess," Pausanias remarks. One of Aphrodite's most common literary epithets is Philommeidḗs , which means "smile-loving", but is sometimes mistranslated as "laughter-loving". This epithet occurs throughout both of the Homeric epics and the First Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite. Hesiod references it once in his Theogony in the context of Aphrodite's birth, but interprets it as "genital-loving" rather than "smile-loving". Monica Cyrino notes that the epithet may relate to the fact that, in many artistic depictions of Aphrodite, she is shown smiling. Other epithets of her include Mechanitis meaning skilled in inventing and Automata because, according to Servius, she was the source of spontaneous love. Common literary epithets of Aphrodite are Cypris and Cythereia, which derive from her associations with the islands of Cyprus and Cythera respectively. On Cyprus, Aphrodite was sometimes called Eleemon ("the merciful"). In Athens, she was known as Aphrodite en kēpois ("Aphrodite of the Gardens"). At Cape Colias, a town along the Attic coast, she was venerated as Genetyllis "Mother". The Spartans worshipped her as Potnia "Mistress", Enoplios "Armed", Morpho "Shapely", Ambologera "She who Postpones Old Age". Across the Greek world, she was known under epithets such as Melainis in Corinth "Black or Dark One", Skotia "Dark One", Androphonos "Killer of Men", Anosia "Unholy", and Tymborychos "Gravedigger", all of which indicate her darker, more violent nature. A male version of Aphrodite known as Aphroditus was worshipped in the city of Amathus on Cyprus. Aphroditus was depicted with the and dress of a woman, but had a beard, and was shown lifting his dress to reveal an erect phallus. This gesture was believed to be an apotropaic symbol, and was thought to convey good fortune upon the viewer. Eventually, the popularity of Aphroditus waned as the mainstream, fully feminine version of Aphrodite became more popular, but traces of his cult are preserved in the later legends of Hermaphroditus.

April 1

Events Pre-1600 527 – Byzantine Emperor Justin I names his nephew Justinian I as co-ruler and successor to the throne. 1081 – Alexios I Komnenos overthrows the Byzantine emperor Nikephoros III Botaneiates,; and, after his troops spend three days extensively looting Constantinople, is formally crowned on April 4. 1572 – In the Eighty Years' War, the Watergeuzen capture Brielle from the Seventeen Provinces, gaining the first foothold on land for what would become the Dutch Republic. 1601–1900 1789 – In New York City, the United States House of Representatives achieves its first quorum and elects Frederick Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania as its first Speaker. 1833 – The Convention of 1833, a political gathering of settlers in Mexican Texas to help draft a series of petitions to the Mexican government, begins in San Felipe de Austin. 1865 – American Civil War: Union troops led by Philip Sheridan decisively defeat Confederate troops led by George Pickett, cutting the Army of Northern Virginia's last supply line during the Siege of Petersburg. 1867 – Singapore becomes a British crown colony. 1873 – The White Star steamer SS Atlantic sinks off Nova Scotia, killing 547 in one of the worst marine disasters of the 19th century. ; 1900 – Prince George becomes absolute monarch of the Cretan State.

Antisymmetric relation

In mathematics, a binary relation on a set is antisymmetric if there is no pair of distinct elements of each of which is related by to the other. More formally, is antisymmetric precisely if for all or equivalently, The definition of antisymmetry says nothing about whether actually holds or not for any . An antisymmetric relation on a set may be reflexive (that is, for all ), irreflexive (that is, for no ), or neither reflexive nor irreflexive. A relation is asymmetric if and only if it is both antisymmetric and irreflexive. Examples The divisibility relation on the natural numbers is an important example of an antisymmetric relation. In this context, antisymmetry means that the only way each of two numbers can be divisible by the other is if the two are, in fact, the same number; equivalently, if and are distinct and is a factor of then cannot be a factor of For example, 12 is divisible by 4, but 4 is not divisible by 12. The usual order relation on the real numbers is antisymmetric: if for two real numbers and both inequalities and hold, then and must be equal. Similarly, the subset order on the subsets of any given set is antisymmetric: given two sets and if every element in also is in and every element in is also in then and must contain all the same elements and therefore be equal: A real-life example of a relation that is typically antisymmetric is "paid the restaurant bill of" (understood as restricted to a given occasion). Typically, some people pay their own bills, while others pay for their spouses or friends. As long as no two people pay each other's bills, the relation is antisymmetric.

Aleister Crowley

Aleister Crowley ( ; born Edward Alexander Crowley; 12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947) was an English occultist, ceremonial magician, poet, novelist, mountaineer, and painter. He founded the religion of Thelema, identifying himself as the prophet entrusted with guiding humanity into the Æon of Horus in the early 20th century. A prolific writer, he published widely over the course of his life. Born to a wealthy family in Royal Leamington Spa, Warwickshire, Crowley rejected his parents' fundamentalist Christian Plymouth Brethren faith to pursue an interest in Western esotericism. He was educated at Trinity College at the University of Cambridge, where he focused his attention upon mountaineering and poetry, resulting in several publications. Some biographers allege that here he was recruited into a British intelligence agency, further suggesting that he remained a spy throughout his life. In 1898, he joined the esoteric Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn, where he was trained in ceremonial magic by Samuel Liddell MacGregor Mathers and Allan Bennett. He went mountaineering in Mexico with Oscar Eckenstein, before studying Hindu and Buddhist practices in India. In 1904, he married Rose Edith Kelly, and they honeymooned in Cairo, Egypt, where Crowley wrote down The Book of the Law—a sacred text that serves as the basis for Thelema, which he said had been dictated to him by a supernatural entity named Aiwass. The Book announced the start of the Æon of Horus, and declared that its followers should "Do what thou wilt", and seek to align themselves with their True Will via the practice of ceremonial magic. After the unsuccessful 1905 Kanchenjunga expedition, and a visit to India and China, Crowley returned to Britain, where he attracted attention as a prolific author of poetry, novels, and occult literature. In 1907, he and George Cecil Jones co-founded an esoteric order—the A∴A∴, through which they propagated Thelema. After spending time in Algeria, in 1912 he was initiated into another esoteric order—the German-based Ordo Templi Orientis (O.T.O. ), in which he rose to become the leader of its British branch, which he reformulated in accordance with his Thelemite beliefs. Through O.T.O., Thelemite groups were established in Britain, Australia, and North America. Crowley spent the First World War in the United States, where he took up painting, and campaigned for the German war effort against Britain. His biographers later revealed that he had infiltrated the pro-German movement to assist the British intelligence services. In 1920, he established the Abbey of Thelema—a religious commune in Cefalù, Sicily, where he lived with various followers. His libertine lifestyle led to denunciations in the British press, and the Italian government evicted him in 1923. He divided the following two decades between France, Germany, and England, and continued to promote Thelema until his death. Crowley gained widespread notoriety during his lifetime, being a drug user, a bisexual, and an individualist social critic. Crowley has remained a highly influential over western esotericism and the counterculture of the 1960s, and he continues to be considered a prophet in Thelema. He is the subject of various biographies and academic studies.

Athena

Athena or Athene, often given the epithet Pallas, is an ancient Greek goddess associated with wisdom, warfare, and handicraft who was later syncretized with the Roman goddess Minerva. Athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of various cities across Greece, particularly the city of Athens, from which she most likely received her name. The Parthenon on the Acropolis of Athens is dedicated to her. Her major symbols include owls, olive trees, snakes, and the Gorgoneion. In art, she is generally depicted wearing a helmet and holding a spear. From her origin as an Aegean palace goddess, Athena was closely associated with the city. She was known as Polias and Poliouchos (both derived from polis, meaning "city-state"), and her temples were usually located atop the fortified acropolis in the central part of the city. The Parthenon on the Athenian Acropolis is dedicated to her, along with numerous other temples and monuments. As the patron of craft and weaving, Athena was known as Ergane. She was also a warrior goddess, and was believed to lead soldiers into battle as Athena Promachos. Her main festival in Athens was the Panathenaia, which was celebrated during the month of Hekatombaion in midsummer and was the most important festival on the Athenian calendar. In Greek mythology, Athena was believed to have been born from the forehead of her father Zeus. In some versions of the story, Athena has no mother and is born from Zeus' forehead by parthenogenesis. In others, such as Hesiod's Theogony, Zeus swallows his consort Metis, who was pregnant with Athena; in this version, Athena is first born within Zeus and then escapes from his body through his forehead. In the founding myth of Athens, Athena bested Poseidon in a competition over patronage of the city by creating the first olive tree. She was known as Athena Parthenos "Athena the Virgin". In one archaic Attic myth, the god Hephaestus tried and failed to rape her, resulting in Gaia giving birth to Erichthonius, an important Athenian founding hero. Athena was the patron goddess of heroic endeavor; she was believed to have aided the heroes Perseus, Heracles, Bellerophon, and Jason. Along with Aphrodite and Hera, Athena was one of the three goddesses whose feud resulted in the beginning of the Trojan War. She plays an active role in the Iliad, in which she assists the Achaeans and, in the Odyssey, she is the divine counselor to Odysseus. In the later writings of the Roman poet Ovid, Athena was said to have competed against the mortal Arachne in a weaving competition, afterward transforming Arachne into the first spider; Ovid also describes how Athena transformed her priestess Medusa and the latter's sisters, Stheno and Euryale, into the Gorgons after witnessing the young woman being raped by Poseidon in the goddess's temple. Since the Renaissance, Athena has become an international symbol of wisdom, the arts, and classical learning. Western artists and allegorists have often used Athena as a symbol of freedom and democracy.

Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game

The Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game is a role-playing game created and written by Erick Wujcik, set in the fictional universe created by author Roger Zelazny for his Chronicles of Amber. The game is unusual in that no dice are used in resolving conflicts or player actions; instead a simple diceless system of comparative ability, and narrative description of the action by the players and gamemaster, is used to determine how situations are resolved. Amber DRPG was created in the 1980s, and is much more focused on relationships and roleplaying than most of the roleplaying games of that era. Most Amber characters are members of the two ruling classes in the Amber multiverse, and are much more advanced in matters of strength, endurance, psyche, warfare and sorcery than ordinary beings. This often means that the only individuals who are capable of opposing a character are from his or her family, a fact that leads to much suspicion and intrigue. History Erick Wujcik wanted to design a role-playing game based on Amber for West End Games, and they agreed to look at his work. Wujcik intended to integrate the feel of the Amber setting from the novels into a role-playing game, and playtested his system for a few months at the Michigan Gaming Center where he decided to try it out as a diceless game. West End Games was not interested in a diceless role-playing game, so Wujcik acquired the role-playing game rights to Amber and offered the game to R. Talsorian Games, until he withdrew over creative differences. Wujcik then founded Phage Press, and published Amber Diceless Role-playing in 1991. The original 256-page game bookErick Wujcik Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game (Phage Press, 1991) was published in 1991 by Phage Press, covering material from the first five novels (the "Corwin Cycle") and some details – sorcery and the Logrus – from the remaining five novels (the "Merlin Cycle"), in order to allow players to roleplay characters from the Courts of Chaos. Some details were changed slightly to allow more player choice – for example, players can be full Trump Artists without having walked the Pattern or the Logrus, which Merlin says is impossible; and players' psychic abilities are far greater than those shown in the books.

Athene (disambiguation)

Athene or Athena is the shrewd companion of heroes and the goddess of heroic endeavour in Greek mythology. Athene may also refer to: 881 Athene, a main-belt asteroid Athene (bird), a genus of small owls Athene (Cynuria), a town in ancient Cynuria, Greece Athene Glacier, a glacier in Antarctica HMS Athene, an aircraft transport USS Athene (AKA-22), an Artemis-class attack cargo ship Bachir Boumaaza or Athene (born 1980), Belgian YouTube personality and social activist Athene (research center), stylized as ATHENE, an IT security research institute in Darmstadt, Germany Athene, an insurance company acquired by Apollo Global Management People with the given name Athene Seyler (1889–1990), English actress Athene Donald (born 1953), British physicist Athene (gamer), pseudonym of Bachir Boumaaza (born 1980), Belgian internet personality See also Altena (disambiguation) Atena (disambiguation) Athen (disambiguation) Athena (disambiguation) Athens (disambiguation) Athenea (given name

Artistic revolution

Throughout history, forms of art have gone through periodic abrupt changes called artistic revolutions. Movements have come to an end to be replaced by a new movement markedly different in striking ways. Scientific and technological 1 Not all artistic revolutions were political. Sometimes, science and technological innovations have brought about unforeseen transformations in the works of artists. The stylistic revolution known as Impressionism, by painters eager to more accurately capture the changing colors of light and shadow, is inseparable from discoveries and inventions in the mid-19th century in which the style was born. Michel Eugène Chevreul, a French chemist hired as director of dyes at a French tapestry works, began to investigate the optical nature of color in order to improve color in fabrics. Chevreul realized It was the eye, and not the dye, that had the greatest influence on color, and from this, he revolutionized color theory by grasping what came to be called the law of simultaneous contrast: that colors mutually influence one another when juxtaposed, each imposing its own complementary color on the other. The French painter Eugène Delacroix, who had been experimenting with what he called broken tones, embraced Chevreul's book, The Law of Contrast of Color (1839) with its explanations of how juxtaposed colors can enhance or diminish each other, and his exploration of all the visible colors of the spectrum. Inspired by Chevreul's 1839 treatise, Delacroix passed his enthusiasm on to the young artists who were inspired by him. It was Chevreul who led the Impressionists to grasp that they should apply separate brushstrokes of pure color to a canvas and allow the viewer's eye to combine them optically. They were aided greatly in this by innovations in oil paint itself. Since the Renaissance, painters had to grind pigment, add oil and thus create their own paints; these time-consuming paints also quickly dried out, making studio painting a necessity for large works, and limiting painters to mix one or two colors at a time and fill in an entire area using just that one color before it dried out. In 1841, a little-known American painter named John G. Rand invented a simple improvement without which the Impressionist movement could not have occurred: the small, flexible tin tube with removable cap in which oil paints could be stored. May 2013, by Perry Hurt Oil paints kept in such tubes stayed moist, usable, and portable. For the first time since the Renaissance, painters were not trapped by the time frame of how quickly oil paint dried. Paints in tubes could be easily loaded up and carried out into the real world, to directly observe the play of color and natural light, in shadow and movement, to paint in the moment. Selling the oil paint in tubes also brought about the arrival of dazzling new pigments - chrome yellow, cadmium blue - invented by 19th century industrial chemists. The tubes freed the Impressionists to paint quickly, and across an entire canvas, rather than carefully delineated single-color sections at a time; in short, to sketch directly in oil - racing across the canvas in every color that came to hand and thus inspiring their name of "impressionists" - since such speedy, bold brushwork and dabs of separate colors made contemporary critics think their paintings were mere impressions, not finished paintings, which were to have no visible brush marks at all, seamless under layers of varnish. Edgar Degas, Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir - in their framing, use of color, light and shadow, subject matter - put these innovations to work to create a new language of visual beauty and meaning. Faking revolution: the CIA and Abstract Expressionism Their initial break with realism into an exploration of light, color and the nature of paint was brought to an ultimate conclusion by the abstract expressionists who broke away from recognizable content of any kind into works of pure shape, color and painterliness which emerged at the end of the Second World War. At first thought of as primitive, inept works - as in "my four year old could do that - these works were misunderstood and neglected until given critical and support by the rise of art journalists and critics who championed their work in the 1940s and 50s, expressing the power of such work in aesthetic terms the artists themselves seldom used, or even understood. Jackson Pollock who pioneered splatter painting, dispensing with a paint brush altogether, soon became lionized as the angry young man in a large spread in Life magazine. In fact, in a deliberate, secret and successful effort to separate artistic revolutions from political ones, abstract expressionists like Pollock, Robert Motherwell, Willem de Kooning and Mark Rothko, while seemingly difficult, pathbreaking artists, were in fact secretly supported for twenty years by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) in a Cold War policy begun in 1947 to prove that the United States could foster more artistic freedom than the Soviet bloc. "It was recognized that Abstract Expressionism was the kind of art that made Socialist Realism look even more stylized and rigid and confined than it was," said former CIA case worker Donald Jameson, who finally broke the silence on this program in 1995. Ironically, the covert CIA support for these radical works was required because an attempt to use government funds for a European tour of these works during the Truman administration led to a public uproar in conservative McCarthy-era America, with Truman famously remarking, "If that's art, I'm a Hottentot." Thus, the program was hidden under the guise of fabricated foundations and the support of wealthy patrons who were actually using CIA funds, not their own, to sponsor traveling exhibitions of American abstract expressionists all over the world, publish books and articles praising them and to purchase and exhibit abstract expressionist works in major American and British museums. Thomas Braden, in charge of these cultural programs for the CIA, in the early years of the Cold War, had formerly been executive secretary of the Museum of Modern Art, America's leading institution for 20th century art and the charges of collusion between the two echoed for many years after this program was revealed, though most of the artists involved had no idea they were being used in this way and were furious when they found out. See also Cultural movement References

Agrarianism

Agrarianism is a social and political philosophy that advocates for rural development, a rural agricultural lifestyle, family farming, widespread property ownership, and political decentralization. Those who adhere to agrarianism tend to value traditional forms of local community over urban modernity. Agrarian political parties sometimes aim to support the rights and sustainability of small farmers and poor peasants against the wealthy, powerful and famous in society. Philosophy Some scholars suggest that agrarianism espouses the superiority of rural society to urban society and the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker, and sees farming as a way of life that can shape the ideal social values.Thompson, Paul. "Interview Eighteen" in Sustainability Ethics: 5 Questions Ed. Ryne Raffaelle, Wade Robinson, and Evan Selinger. United States: Automatic Press It stresses the superiority of a simpler rural life in comparison to the complexity of urban life. For example, M. Thomas Inge defines agrarianism by the following basic tenets:M. Thomas Inge, ed. Agrarianism in American Literature (1969), introduction; paraphrased Farming is the sole occupation that offers total independence and self-sufficiency. Urban life, fascism, capitalism, and technology destroy independence and dignity and foster vice and weakness. The agricultural community, with its fellowship of labor and co-operation, is the model society. The farmer has a solid, stable position in the world order. They have "a sense of identity, a sense of historical and religious tradition, a feeling of belonging to a concrete family, place, and region, which are psychologically and culturally beneficial." The harmony of their life checks the encroachments of a fragmented, alienated modern society. Cultivation of the soil "has within it a positive spiritual good" and from it the cultivator acquires the virtues of "honor, manliness, self-reliance, courage, moral integrity, and hospitality." They result from a direct contact with nature and, through nature, a closer relationship to God. The agrarian is blessed in that they follow the example of God in creating order out of chaos. History The philosophical roots of agrarianism include European and Chinese philosophers. The Chinese school of Agriculturalism (农家/農家) was a philosophy that advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism. In societies influenced by Confucianism that had as its foundation that humans are innately good, the farmer was considered an esteemed productive member of society, but merchants who made money were looked down upon. That influenced European intellectuals like François Quesnay, an avid Confucianist and advocate of China's agrarian policies, in forming the French agrarian philosophy of physiocracy.L.A. Maverick, "Chinese Influences upon the Physiocrats," Economic History, 3:54–67 (February 1938), The physiocrats, along with the ideas of John Locke and the Romantic Era, formed the basis of modern European and American agrarianism.

Atomic

Atomic may refer to: Of or relating to the atom, the smallest particle of a chemical element that retains its chemical properties Atomic physics, the study of the atom Atomic Age, also known as the "Atomic Era" Atomic scale, distances comparable to the dimensions of an atom Atom (order theory), in mathematics Atomic (cocktail), a champagne cocktail Atomic (magazine), an Australian computing and technology magazine Atomic Skis, an Austrian ski producer Music Atomic (band), a Norwegian jazz quintet Atomic (Lit album), 2001 Atomic (Mogwai album), 2016 Atomic, an album by Rockets, 1982 Atomic (EP), by , 2013 "Atomic" (song), by Blondie, 1979 "Atomic", a song by Tiger Army from Tiger Army III: Ghost Tigers Rise See also Atom (disambiguation) Atomicity (database systems) Atomism, philosophy about the basic building blocks of reality Atomic City (disambiguation) Atomic formula, a formula without subformulas Atomic number, the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom Atomic chess, a chess variant Atomic coffee machine, a 1950s stovetop coffee machine Atomic operation, in computer science Atomic TV, a channel launched in 1997 in Poland History of atomic theory Nuclear power Nuclear weapon Nuclear (disambiguation

Atomic physics

Atomic physics is the field of physics that studies atoms as an isolated system of electrons and an atomic nucleus. Atomic physics typically refers to the study of atomic structure and the interaction between atoms. It is primarily concerned with the way in which electrons are arranged around the nucleus and the processes by which these arrangements change. This comprises ions, neutral atoms and, unless otherwise stated, it can be assumed that the term atom includes ions. The term atomic physics can be associated with nuclear power and nuclear weapons, due to the synonymous use of atomic and nuclear in standard English. Physicists distinguish between atomic physics—which deals with the atom as a system consisting of a nucleus and electrons—and nuclear physics, which studies nuclear reactions and special properties of atomic nuclei. As with many scientific fields, strict delineation can be highly contrived and atomic physics is often considered in the wider context of atomic, molecular, and optical physics. Physics research groups are usually so classified. Isolated atoms Atomic physics primarily considers atoms in isolation. Atomic models will consist of a single nucleus that may be surrounded by one or more bound electrons. It is not concerned with the formation of molecules (although much of the physics is identical), nor does it examine atoms in a solid state as condensed matter. While modelling atoms in isolation may not seem realistic, if one considers atoms in a gas or plasma then the time-scales for atom-atom interactions are huge in comparison to the atomic processes that are generally considered. This means that the individual atoms can be treated as if each were in isolation, as the vast majority of the time they are. By this consideration, atomic physics provides the underlying theory in plasma physics and atmospheric physics, even though both deal with very large numbers of atoms. Electronic configuration Electrons form notional shells around the nucleus.

American Sign Language

American Sign Language (ASL) is a natural languageAbout American Sign Language , Deaf Research Library, Karen Nakamura that serves as the predominant sign language of Deaf communities in the United States and most of Anglophone Canada. ASL is a complete and organized visual language that is expressed by employing both manual and nonmanual features. Besides North America, dialects of ASL and ASL-based creoles are used in many countries around the world, including much of West Africa and parts of Southeast Asia. ASL is also widely learned as a second language, serving as a lingua franca. ASL is most closely related to French Sign Language (LSF). It has been proposed that ASL is a creole language of LSF, although ASL shows features atypical of creole languages, such as agglutinative morphology. ASL originated in the early 19th century in the American School for the Deaf (ASD) in Hartford, Connecticut, from a situation of language contact. Since then, ASL use has been propagated widely by schools for the deaf and Deaf community organizations. Despite its wide use, no accurate count of ASL users has been taken. Reliable estimates for American ASL users range from 250,000 to 500,000 persons, including a number of children of deaf adults (CODA) and other hearing individuals. Signs in ASL have a number of phonemic components, such as movement of the face, the torso, and the hands. ASL is not a form of pantomime, although iconicity plays a larger role in ASL than in spoken languages. English loan words are often borrowed through fingerspelling, although ASL grammar is unrelated to that of English. ASL has verbal agreement and aspectual marking and has a productive system of forming agglutinative classifiers. Many linguists believe ASL to be a subject–verb–object language. However, there are several alternative proposals to account for ASL word order.

Applet

In computing, an applet is any small application that performs one specific task that runs within the scope of a dedicated widget engine or a larger program, often as a plug-in. "AskOxford: applet", Oxford Dictionaries. Accessed on July 21, 2009 The term is frequently used to refer to a Java applet, a program written in the Java programming language that is designed to be placed on a web page. Applets are typical examples of transient and auxiliary applications that do not monopolize the user's attention. Applets are not full-featured application programs, and are intended to be easily accessible. History The word applet was first used in 1990 in PC Magazine. However, the concept of an applet, or more broadly a small interpreted program downloaded and executed by the user, dates at least to RFC 5 (1969) by Jeff Rulifson, which described the Decode-Encode Language, which was designed to allow remote use of the oN-Line System over ARPANET, by downloading small programs to enhance the interaction. This has been specifically credited as a forerunner of Java's downloadable programs in RFC 2555. Applet as an extension of other software In some cases, an applet does not run independently. These applets must run either in a container provided by a host program, through a plugin, or a variety of other applications including mobile devices that support the applet programming model. Web-based applets Applets were used to provide interactive features to web applications that historically could not be provided by HTML alone. They could capture mouse input and also had controls like buttons or check boxes. In response to the user action, an applet could change the provided graphic content. This made applets well suited for demonstration, visualization, and teaching. There were online applet collections for studying various subjects, from physics to heart physiology. Applets were also used to create online game collections that allowed players to compete against live opponents in real-time. An applet could also be a text area only, providing, for instance, a cross-platform command-line interface to some remote system. If needed, an applet could leave the dedicated area and run as a separate window. However, applets had very little control over web page content outside the applet dedicated area, so they were less useful for improving the site appearance in general (while applets like news tickers or WYSIWYG editors are also known). Applets could also play media in formats that are not natively supported by the browser. HTML pages could embed parameters that were passed to the applet. Hence, the same applet could appear differently depending on the parameters that were passed. Applet Vs. Subroutine A larger application distinguishes its applets through several features: Applets execute only on the "client" platform environment of a system, as contrasted from "Servlet". As such, an applet provides functionality or performance beyond the default capabilities of its container (the browser). The container restricts applets' capabilities. Applets are written in a language different from the scripting or HTML language that invokes it. The applet is written in a compiled language, whereas the scripting language of the container is an interpreted language, hence the greater performance or functionality of the applet. Unlike a subroutine, a complete web component can be implemented as an applet. Java applets A Java applet is a Java program that is launched from HTML and run in a web browser. It takes code from server and run in a web browser. It can provide web applications with interactive features that cannot be provided by HTML. Since Java's bytecode is platform-independent, Java applets can be executed by browsers running under many platforms, including Windows, Unix, macOS, and Linux. When a Java technology-enabled web browser processes a page that contains an applet, the applet's code is transferred to the client's system and executed by the browser's Java virtual machine. An HTML page references an applet either via the deprecated tag or via its replacement, the tag. "HTML applet tag", W3Schools. Access on July 21, 2009 Security Recent developments in the coding of applications, including mobile and embedded systems, have led to the awareness of the security of applets. Open platform applets Applets in an open platform environment should provide secure interactions between different applications. A compositional approach can be used to provide security for open platform applets. Advanced compositional verification methods have been developed for secure applet interactions. Java applets A Java applet contains different security models: unsigned Java applet security, signed Java applet security, and self-signed Java applet security. Web-based applets In an applet-enabled web browser, many methods can be used to provide applet security for malicious applets. A malicious applet can infect a computer system in many ways, including denial of service, invasion of privacy, and annoyance. A typical solution for malicious applets is to make the web browser to monitor applets' activities. This will result in a web browser that will enable the manual or automatic stopping of malicious applets. See also Application posture Bookmarklet Java applet Widget engine Abstract Window Toolkit References External links

Alan Turing

Alan Mathison Turing (; 23 June 1912 – 7 June 1954) was an English mathematician, computer scientist, logician, cryptanalyst, philosopher and theoretical biologist. He was highly influential in the development of theoretical computer science, providing a formalisation of the concepts of algorithm and computation with the Turing machine, which can be considered a model of a general-purpose computer. Turing is widely considered to be the father of theoretical computer science. Born in London, Turing was raised in southern England. He graduated from King's College, Cambridge, and in 1938, earned a doctorate degree from Princeton University. During World War II, Turing worked for the Government Code and Cypher School at Bletchley Park, Britain's codebreaking centre that produced Ultra intelligence. He led Hut 8, the section responsible for German naval cryptanalysis. Turing devised techniques for speeding the breaking of German ciphers, including improvements to the pre-war Polish bomba method, an electromechanical machine that could find settings for the Enigma machine. He played a crucial role in cracking intercepted messages that enabled the Allies to defeat the Axis powers in many engagements, including the Battle of the Atlantic.A number of sources state that Winston Churchill said that Turing made the single biggest contribution to Allied victory in the war against Nazi Germany. See Official war historian Harry Hinsley estimated that this work shortened the war in Europe by more than two years but added the caveat that this did not account for the use of the atomic bomb and other eventualities. Transcript of a lecture given on Tuesday 19 October 1993 at Cambridge University After the war, Turing worked at the National Physical Laboratory, where he designed the Automatic Computing Engine, one of the first designs for a stored-program computer. In 1948, Turing joined Max Newman's Computing Machine Laboratory at the Victoria University of Manchester, where he helped develop the Manchester computers and became interested in mathematical biology. Turing wrote on the chemical basis of morphogenesis and predicted oscillating chemical reactions such as the Belousov–Zhabotinsky reaction, first observed in the 1960s. Despite these accomplishments, he was never fully recognised during his lifetime because much of his work was covered by the Official Secrets Act. In 1952, Turing was prosecuted for homosexual acts. He accepted hormone treatment, a procedure commonly referred to as chemical castration, as an alternative to prison. Turing died on 7 June 1954, aged 41, from cyanide poisoning. An inquest determined his death as suicide, but the evidence is also consistent with accidental poisoning. Following a campaign in 2009, British prime minister Gordon Brown made an official public apology for "the appalling way [Turing] was treated". Queen Elizabeth II granted a pardon in 2013. The term "Alan Turing law" is used informally to refer to a 2017 law in the UK that retroactively pardoned men cautioned or convicted under historical legislation that outlawed homosexual acts. Turing left an extensive legacy in mathematics and computing which has become widely recognised with statues and many things named after him, including an annual award for computing innovation. His appears on the Bank of England £50 note, first released on 23 June 2021 to coincide with his birthday. The audience vote in a 2019 BBC series named Turing the greatest person of the 20th century.

Area

Area is the measure of a region's size on a surface. The area of a plane region or plane area refers to the area of a shape or planar lamina, while surface area refers to the area of an open surface or the boundary of a three-dimensional object. Area can be understood as the amount of material with a given thickness that would be necessary to fashion a model of the shape, or the amount of paint necessary to cover the surface with a single coat. It is the two-dimensional analogue of the length of a curve (a one-dimensional concept) or the volume of a solid (a three-dimensional concept). Two different regions may have the same area (as in squaring the circle); by synecdoche, "area" sometimes is used to refer to the region, as in a "polygonal area". The area of a shape can be measured by comparing the shape to squares of a fixed size. In the International System of Units (SI), the standard unit of area is the square metre (written as m2), which is the area of a square whose sides are one metre long. A shape with an area of three square metres would have the same area as three such squares. In mathematics, the unit square is defined to have area one, and the area of any other shape or surface is a dimensionless real number. There are several well-known formulas for the areas of simple shapes such as triangles, rectangles, and circles. Using these formulas, the area of any polygon can be found by dividing the polygon into triangles. For shapes with curved boundary, calculus is usually required to compute the area. For a solid shape such as a sphere, cone, or cylinder, the area of its boundary surface is called the surface area. Formulas for the surface areas of simple shapes were computed by the ancient Greeks, but computing the surface area of a more complicated shape usually requires multivariable calculus. Area plays an important role in modern mathematics. In addition to its obvious importance in geometry and calculus, area is related to the definition of determinants in linear algebra, and is a basic property of surfaces in differential geometry.do Carmo, Manfredo (1976). Differential Geometry of Curves and Surfaces. Prentice-Hall. p. 98, In analysis, the area of a subset of the plane is defined using Lebesgue measure,Walter Rudin (1966). Real and Complex Analysis, McGraw-Hill, . though not every subset is measurable if one supposes the axiom of choice.Gerald Folland (1999). Real Analysis: modern techniques and their applications, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., p. 20, In general, area in higher mathematics is seen as a special case of volume for two-dimensional regions. It can be proved that such a function exists. Formal definition An approach to defining what is meant by "area" is through axioms. If S and T are in M then so are and , and also . If S and T are in M with then is in M and . If a set S is in M and S is congruent to T then T is also in M and . Every rectangle R is in M. If the rectangle has length h and breadth k then . Let Q be a set enclosed between two step regions S and T. A step region is formed from a finite union of adjacent rectangles resting on a common base, i.e. If there is a unique number c such that for all such step regions S and T, then . It can be proved that such an area function actually exists.

Astronomical unit

The astronomical unit (symbol: au or AU) is a unit of length defined to be exactly equal to . Historically, the astronomical unit was conceived as the average Earth-Sun distance (the average of Earth's aphelion and perihelion), before its modern redefinition in 2012. The astronomical unit is used primarily for measuring distances within the Solar System or around other stars. It is also a fundamental component in the definition of another unit of astronomical length, the parsec. One au is equivalent to 499 light-seconds to within 10 parts per million. History of symbol usage A variety of unit symbols and abbreviations have been in use for the astronomical unit. In a 1976 resolution, the International Astronomical Union (IAU) had used the symbol A to denote a length equal to the astronomical unit. In the astronomical literature, the symbol AU is common. In 2006, the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) had recommended ua as the symbol for the unit, from the French "unité astronomique". In the non-normative Annex C to ISO 80000-3:2006 (later withdrawn), the symbol of the astronomical unit was also ua. In 2012, the IAU, noting "that various symbols are presently in use for the astronomical unit", recommended the use of the symbol "au". The scientific journals published by the American Astronomical Society and the Royal Astronomical Society subsequently adopted this symbol. In the 2014 revision and 2019 edition of the SI Brochure, the BIPM used the unit symbol "au". ISO 80000-3:2019, which replaces ISO 80000-3:2006, does not mention the astronomical unit. Development of unit definition Earth's orbit around the Sun is an ellipse. The semi-major axis of this elliptic orbit is defined to be half of the straight line segment that joins the perihelion and aphelion. The centre of the Sun lies on this straight line segment, but not at its midpoint. Because ellipses are well-understood shapes, measuring the points of its extremes defined the exact shape mathematically, and made possible calculations for the entire orbit as well as predictions based on observation. In addition, it mapped out exactly the largest straight-line distance that Earth traverses over the course of a year, defining times and places for observing the largest parallax (apparent shifts of position) in nearby stars. Knowing Earth's shift and a star's shift enabled the star's distance to be calculated. But all measurements are subject to some degree of error or uncertainty, and the uncertainties in the length of the astronomical unit only increased uncertainties in the stellar distances. Improvements in precision have always been a key to improving astronomical understanding. Throughout the twentieth century, measurements became increasingly precise and sophisticated, and ever more dependent on accurate observation of the effects described by Einstein's theory of relativity and upon the mathematical tools it used. Improving measurements were continually checked and cross-checked by means of improved understanding of the laws of celestial mechanics, which govern the motions of objects in space. The expected positions and distances of objects at an established time are calculated (in au) from these laws, and assembled into a collection of data called an ephemeris. NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory HORIZONS System provides one of several ephemeris computation services. In 1976, to establish a more precise measure for the astronomical unit, the IAU formally adopted a new definition. Although directly based on the then-best available observational measurements, the definition was recast in terms of the then-best mathematical derivations from celestial mechanics and planetary ephemerides. It stated that "the astronomical unit of length is that length (A) for which the Gaussian gravitational constant (k) takes the value when the units of measurement are the astronomical units of length, mass and time". Equivalently, by this definition, one au is "the radius of an unperturbed circular Newtonian orbit about the sun of a particle having infinitesimal mass, moving with an angular frequency of "; or alternatively that length for which the heliocentric gravitational constant (the product G) is equal to 2 au3/d2, when the length is used to describe the positions of objects in the Solar System. Subsequent explorations of the Solar System by space probes made it possible to obtain precise measurements of the relative positions of the inner planets and other objects by means of radar and telemetry. In addition, the measurement of the time itself must be translated to a standard scale that accounts for relativistic time dilation. Comparison of the ephemeris positions with time measurements expressed in Barycentric Dynamical Time (TDB) leads to a value for the speed of light in astronomical units per day (of ). By 2009, the IAU had updated its standard measures to reflect improvements, and calculated the speed of light at (TDB). In 1983, the CIPM modified the International System of Units (SI) to make the metre defined as the distance travelled in a vacuum by light in 1 / . This replaced the previous definition, valid between 1960 and 1983, which was that the metre equalled a certain number of wavelengths of a certain emission line of krypton-86. (The reason for the change was an improved method of measuring the speed of light.) The speed of light could then be expressed exactly as c0 = , a standard also adopted by the IERS numerical standards. For complete document see From this definition and the 2009 IAU standard, the time for light to traverse an astronomical unit is found to be τA = , which is slightly more than 8 minutes 19 seconds. By multiplication, the best IAU 2009 estimate was A = c0τA = , based on a comparison of Jet Propulsion Laboratory and IAA–RAS ephemerides. In 2006, the BIPM reported a value of the astronomical unit as . In the 2014 revision of the SI Brochure, the BIPM recognised the IAU's 2012 redefinition of the astronomical unit as . This estimate was still derived from observation and measurements subject to error, and based on techniques that did not yet standardize all relativistic effects, and thus were not constant for all observers. In 2012, finding that the equalization of relativity alone would make the definition overly complex, the IAU simply used the 2009 estimate to redefine the astronomical unit as a conventional unit of length directly tied to the metre (exactly ). The new definition recognizes as a consequence that the astronomical unit has reduced importance, limited in use to a convenience in some applications. This definition makes the speed of light, defined as exactly , equal to exactly × ÷ or about , some 60 parts per trillion less than the 2009 estimate. Usage and significance With the definitions used before 2012, the astronomical unit was dependent on the heliocentric gravitational constant, that is the product of the gravitational constant, G, and the solar mass, . Neither G nor can be measured to high accuracy separately, but the value of their product is known very precisely from observing the relative positions of planets (Kepler's third law expressed in terms of Newtonian gravitation). Only the product is required to calculate planetary positions for an ephemeris, so ephemerides are calculated in astronomical units and not in SI units. The calculation of ephemerides also requires a consideration of the effects of general relativity. In particular, time intervals measured on Earth's surface (Terrestrial Time, TT) are not constant when compared with the motions of the planets: the terrestrial second (TT) appears to be longer near January and shorter near July when compared with the "planetary second" (conventionally measured in TDB). This is because the distance between Earth and the Sun is not fixed (it varies between and ) and, when Earth is closer to the Sun (perihelion), the Sun's gravitational field is stronger and Earth is moving faster along its orbital path. As the metre is defined in terms of the second and the speed of light is constant for all observers, the terrestrial metre appears to change in length compared with the "planetary metre" on a periodic basis. The metre is defined to be a unit of proper length. Indeed, the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) notes that "its definition applies only within a spatial extent sufficiently small that the effects of the non-uniformity of the gravitational field can be ignored". As such, a distance within the Solar System without specifying the frame of reference for the measurement is problematic. The 1976 definition of the astronomical unit was incomplete because it did not specify the frame of reference in which to apply the measurement, but proved practical for the calculation of ephemerides: a fuller definition that is consistent with general relativity was proposed, and "vigorous debate" ensued and also p. 91, Summary and recommendations. until August 2012 when the IAU adopted the current definition of 1 astronomical unit = metres. The astronomical unit is typically used for stellar system scale distances, such as the size of a protostellar disk or the heliocentric distance of an asteroid, whereas other units are used for other distances in astronomy. The astronomical unit is too small to be convenient for interstellar distances, where the parsec and light-year are widely used. The parsec (parallax arcsecond) is defined in terms of the astronomical unit, being the distance of an object with a parallax of . The light-year is often used in popular works, but is not an approved non-SI unit and is rarely used by professional astronomers. When simulating a numerical model of the Solar System, the astronomical unit provides an appropriate scale that minimizes (overflow, underflow and truncation) errors in floating point calculations. History The book On the Sizes and Distances of the Sun and Moon, which is ascribed to Aristarchus, says the distance to the Sun is 18 to 20 times the distance to the Moon, whereas the true ratio is about . The latter estimate was based on the angle between the half-moon and the Sun, which he estimated as (the true value being close to ). Depending on the distance that van Helden assumes Aristarchus used for the distance to the Moon, his calculated distance to the Sun would fall between and Earth radii. Hipparchus gave an estimate of the distance of Earth from the Sun, quoted by Pappus as equal to 490 Earth radii. According to the conjectural reconstructions of Noel Swerdlow and G. J. Toomer, this was derived from his assumption of a "least perceptible" solar parallax of . A Chinese mathematical treatise, the Zhoubi Suanjing , shows how the distance to the Sun can be computed geometrically, using the different lengths of the noontime shadows observed at three places li apart and the assumption that Earth is flat. According to Eusebius in the Praeparatio evangelica (Book XV, Chapter 53), Eratosthenes found the distance to the Sun to be "σταδιων μυριαδας τετρακοσιας και οκτωκισμυριας" (literally "of stadia myriads 400 and ") but with the additional note that in the Greek text the grammatical agreement is between myriads (not stadia) on the one hand and both 400 and on the other: all three are accusative plural, while σταδιων is genitive plural ("of stadia") . All three words (or all four including stadia) are inflected. Using the Greek stadium of 185 to 190 metres, the former translation comes to to , which is far too low, whereas the second translation comes to 148.7 to 152.8 billion metres (accurate within 2%). Distance to the Sunestimated by Estimate In auPercentage error Solarparallax Earthradii Aristarchus – – – −98.9% to −98% Archimedes −57.4% Hipparchus −97.9% Posidonius −57.4% Ptolemy 2′ 50″ −94.8% Godefroy Wendelin −40.3% Jeremiah Horrocks −40.3% Christiaan Huygens +6.8% Cassini & Richer −7.5% Flamsteed −7.5% Jérôme Lalande +2.3% Simon Newcomb −0.06% Arthur Hinks −0.15% H. Spencer Jones +0.05% Modern astronomy In the 2nd century CE, Ptolemy estimated the mean distance of the Sun as times Earth's radius. To determine this value, Ptolemy started by measuring the Moon's parallax, finding what amounted to a horizontal lunar parallax of 1° 26′, which was much too large. He then derived a maximum lunar distance of Earth radii. Because of cancelling errors in his parallax , his theory of the Moon's orbit, and other factors, this was approximately correct.van Helden 1985, pp. 16–19.Ptolemy's Almagest, translated and annotated by G. J. Toomer, London: Duckworth, 1984, p. 251. . He then measured the apparent sizes of the Sun and the Moon and concluded that the apparent diameter of the Sun was equal to the apparent diameter of the Moon at the Moon's greatest distance, and from records of lunar eclipses, he estimated this apparent diameter, as well as the apparent diameter of the shadow cone of Earth traversed by the Moon during a lunar eclipse. Given these data, the distance of the Sun from Earth can be trigonometrically computed to be Earth radii. This gives a ratio of solar to lunar distance of approximately 19, matching Aristarchus's . Although Ptolemy's procedure is theoretically workable, it is very sensitive to small changes in the data, so much so that changing a measurement by a few per cent can make the solar distance infinite. After Greek astronomy was transmitted to the medieval Islamic world, astronomers made some changes to Ptolemy's cosmological model, but did not greatly change his estimate of the Earth–Sun distance. For example, in his introduction to Ptolemaic astronomy, al-Farghānī gave a mean solar distance of Earth radii, whereas in his zij, al-Battānī used a mean solar distance of Earth radii. Subsequent astronomers, such as al-Bīrūnī, used similar values.van Helden 1985, pp. Johannes Kepler was the first to realize that Ptolemy's estimate must be significantly too low (according to Kepler, at least by a factor of three) in his Rudolphine Tables (1627). Kepler's laws of planetary motion allowed astronomers to calculate the relative distances of the planets from the Sun, and rekindled interest in measuring the absolute value for Earth (which could then be applied to the other planets). The invention of the telescope allowed far more accurate measurements of angles than is possible with the naked eye. Flemish astronomer Godefroy Wendelin repeated Aristarchus’ measurements in 1635, and found that Ptolemy's value was too low by a factor of at least eleven. A somewhat more accurate estimate can be obtained by observing the transit of Venus. – provides an extended historical discussion of the transit of Venus method. By measuring the transit in two different locations, one can accurately calculate the parallax of Venus and from the relative distance of Earth and Venus from the Sun, the solar parallax (which cannot be measured directly due to the brightness of the Sun). Jeremiah Horrocks had attempted to produce an estimate based on his observation of the 1639 transit (published in 1662), giving a solar parallax of , similar to Wendelin's . The solar parallax is related to the Earth–Sun distance as measured in Earth radii by The smaller the solar parallax, the greater the distance between the Sun and Earth: a solar parallax of is equivalent to an Earth–Sun distance of Earth radii. Christiaan Huygens believed that the distance was even greater: by comparing the apparent sizes of Venus and Mars, he estimated a value of about Earth radii, equivalent to a solar parallax of . Although Huygens' estimate is remarkably close to modern values, it is often discounted by historians of astronomy because of the many unproven (and incorrect) assumptions he had to make for his method to work; the accuracy of his value seems to be based more on luck than good measurement, with his various errors cancelling each other out.

Anglicanism

Anglicanism is a Western Christian tradition which developed from the practices, liturgy, and identity of the Church of England following the English Reformation, in the context of the Protestant Reformation in Europe. It is one of the largest branches of Christianity, with around 110 million adherents worldwide . Adherents of Anglicanism are called Anglicans; they are also called Episcopalians in some countries. The majority of Anglicans are members of national or regional ecclesiastical provinces of the international Anglican Communion, which forms the third-largest Christian communion in the world, after the Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church, and the world's largest Protestant communion. These provinces are in full communion with the See of Canterbury and thus with the archbishop of Canterbury, whom the communion refers to as its (Latin, 'first among equals'). The archbishop calls the decennial Lambeth Conference, chairs the meeting of primates, and is the president of the Anglican Consultative Council.Anglican Communion official website. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church by F. L. Cross (Editor), E. A. Livingstone (editor) Oxford University Press, US; 3rd edition, p. 65 (13 March 1997) Some churches that are not part of the Anglican Communion or recognised by it also call themselves Anglican, including those that are within the Continuing Anglican movement and Anglican realignment. Anglicans base their Christian faith on the Bible, traditions of the apostolic church, apostolic succession ("historic episcopate"), and the writings of the Church Fathers, as well as historically, the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion and The Books of Homilies. Anglicanism forms a branch of Western Christianity, having definitively declared its independence from the Holy See at the time of the Elizabethan Religious Settlement. Many of the Anglican formularies of the mid-16th century correspond closely to those of historical Protestantism. These reforms were understood by one of those most responsible for them, Thomas Cranmer, the archbishop of Canterbury, and others as navigating a middle way between two of the emerging Protestant traditions, namely Lutheranism and Calvinism. In the first half of the 17th century, the Church of England and the associated Church of Ireland were presented by some Anglican divines as comprising a distinct Christian tradition, with theologies, structures, and forms of worship representing a different kind of middle way, or via media, originally between Lutheranism and Calvinism, and later between Protestantism and Catholicism – a perspective that came to be highly influential in later theories of Anglican identity and expressed in the description of Anglicanism as "catholic and reformed". The degree of distinction between Protestant and Catholic tendencies within Anglicanism is routinely a matter of debate both within specific Anglican churches and the Anglican Communion. The Book of Common Prayer is unique to Anglicanism, the collection of services in one prayer book used for centuries. The book is acknowledged as a principal tie that binds the Anglican Communion as a liturgical tradition. After the American Revolution, Anglican congregations in the United States and British North America (which would later form the basis for the modern country of Canada) were each reconstituted into autonomous churches with their own bishops and self-governing structures; these were known as the American Episcopal Church and the Church of England in the Dominion of Canada. Through the expansion of the British Empire and the activity of Christian missions, this model was adopted as the model for many newly formed churches, especially in Africa, Australasia, and the Asia-Pacific. In the 19th century, the term Anglicanism was coined to describe the common religious tradition of these churches and also that of the Scottish Episcopal Church, which, though originating earlier within the Church of Scotland, had come to be recognised as sharing this common identity.

Athens

Athens is the capital and largest city of Greece. A major coastal urban area in the Mediterranean, Athens is also the capital of the Attica region and is the southernmost capital on the European mainland. With its urban area's population numbering over 3.6 million, it is the eighth largest urban area in the European Union. The Municipality of Athens (also City of Athens), which constitutes a small administrative unit of the entire urban area, had a population of 643,452 (2021) within its official limits, and a land area of . Athens is one of the world's oldest cities, with its recorded history spanning over 3,400 years,Vinie Daily, Athens, the city in your pocket, p. 6. and its earliest human presence beginning somewhere between the 11th and 7th millennia BC. According to Greek mythology the city was named after Athena, the ancient Greek goddess of wisdom, but modern scholars generally agree that the goddess took her name after the city. Classical Athens was one of the most powerful city-states in ancient Greece. It was a centre for democracy, the arts, education and philosophy, and was highly influential throughout the European continent, particularly in Ancient Rome.Encarta Ancient Greece from the Internet Archive– Retrieved on 28 February 2012. Archived 31 October 2009. For this reason, it is often regarded as the cradle of Western civilization and the birthplace of democracy in its own right independently from the rest of Greece.BBC History on Greek Democracy – Accessed on 26 January 2007 In modern times, Athens is a large cosmopolitan metropolis and central to economic, financial, industrial, maritime, political and cultural life in Greece. It is a Beta (+) - status global city according to the Globalization and World Cities Research Network, and is one of the biggest economic centers in Southeastern Europe. It also has a large financial sector, and its port Piraeus is both the 2nd busiest passenger port in Europe, and the 13th largest container port in the world. The Athens metropolitan area or Greater Athens extends beyond its administrative municipal city limits as well as its urban agglomeration, with a population of 3,638,281 (2021) over an area of . The heritage of the Classical Era is still evident in the city, represented by ancient monuments, and works of art, the most famous of all being the Parthenon, considered a key landmark of early Western culture. The city also retains Roman, Byzantine and a smaller number of Ottoman monuments, while its historical urban core features elements of continuity through its millennia of history. Athens is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Acropolis of Athens and the medieval Daphni Monastery. Athens is also home to several museums and cultural institutions, such as the National Archeological Museum, featuring the world's largest collection of ancient Greek antiquities, the Acropolis Museum, the Museum of Cycladic Art, the Benaki Museum, and the Byzantine and Christian Museum. Athens was the host city of the first modern-day Olympic Games in 1896, and 108 years later it hosted the 2004 Summer Olympics, making it one of five cities to have hosted the Summer Olympics on multiple occasions. Etymology and names In Ancient Greek, the name of the city was (Athênai, in Classical Attic), which is a plural word. In earlier Greek, such as Homeric Greek, the name had been current in the singular form though, as (Athḗnē).As for example in Od.7.80 It was possibly rendered in the plural later on, like those of (Thêbai) and (Μukênai). The root of the word is probably not of Greek or Indo-European origin, and is possibly a remnant of the Pre-Greek substrate of Attica. In antiquity, it was debated whether Athens took its name from its patron goddess Athena (Attic , Athēnâ, Ionic , Athḗnē, and Doric , Athā́nā) or Athena took her name from the city. Modern scholars now generally agree that the goddess takes her name from the city, because the ending -ene is common in names of locations, but rare for personal names. According to the account given by Pseudo-Apollodorus, Poseidon struck the ground with his trident and a salt water spring welled up. In an alternative version of the myth from Vergil's poem Georgics, Poseidon instead gave the Athenians the first horse. In both versions, Athena offered the Athenians the first domesticated olive tree. Eight different etymologies, now commonly rejected, have been proposed since the 17th century. Christian Lobeck proposed as the root of the name the word (áthos) or (ánthos) meaning "flower", to denote Athens as the "flowering city". Ludwig von Döderlein proposed the stem of the verb , stem θη- (tháō, thē-, "to suck") to denote Athens as having fertile soil.Great Greek Encyclopedia, vol. Athenians were called cicada-wearers because they used to wear pins of golden cicadas. A symbol of being autochthonous (earth-born), because the legendary founder of Athens, Erechtheus was an autochthon or of being musicians, because the cicada is a "musician" insect. In classical literature, the city was sometimes referred to as the City of the Violet Crown, first documented in Pindar's ἰοστέφανοι Ἀθᾶναι (iostéphanoi Athânai), or as (tò kleinòn ásty, "the glorious city"). During the medieval period, the name of the city was rendered once again in the singular as . Variant names included Setines, Satine, and Astines, all derivations involving false splitting of prepositional phrases. King Alphonse X of Castile gives the pseudo-etymology 'the one without death/ignorance'. 'General Storia' (Global History) In Ottoman Turkish, it was called Ātīnā,Osmanlı Yer Adları, Ankara 2017, s.v. full text and in modern Turkish, it is Atina. History Antiquity The oldest known human presence in Athens is the Cave of Schist, which has been dated to between the 11th and 7th millennia BC. Athens has been continuously inhabited for at least 5,000 years (3000 BC).S. Immerwahr, The Athenian Agora XIII: the Neolithic and Bronze Ages, Princeton 1971 By 1400 BC, the settlement had become an important centre of the Mycenaean civilization, and the Acropolis was the site of a major Mycenaean fortress, whose remains can be recognised from sections of the characteristic Cyclopean walls.Iakovides, S. 1962. 'E mykenaïke akropolis ton Athenon'. Unlike other Mycenaean centers, such as Mycenae and Pylos, it is not known whether Athens suffered destruction in about 1200 BC, an event often attributed to a Dorian invasion, and the Athenians always maintained that they were pure Ionians with no Dorian element. However, Athens, like many other Bronze Age settlements, went into economic decline for around 150 years afterwards. Iron Age burials, in the Kerameikos and other locations, are often richly provided for and demonstrate that from 900 BC onwards Athens was one of the leading centres of trade and prosperity in the region.Osborne, R. 1996, 2009. Greece in the Making 1200–479 BC. By the sixth century BC, widespread social unrest led to the reforms of Solon. These would pave the way for the eventual introduction of democracy by Cleisthenes in 508 BC. Athens had by this time become a significant naval power with a large fleet, and helped the rebellion of the Ionian cities against Persian rule. In the ensuing Greco-Persian Wars Athens, together with Sparta, led the coalition of Greek states that would eventually repel the Persians, defeating them decisively at Marathon in 490 BC, and crucially at Salamis in 480 BC. However, this did not prevent Athens from being captured and sacked twice by the Persians within one year, after a heroic but ultimately failed resistance at Thermopylae by Spartans and other Greeks led by King Leonidas, after both Boeotia and Attica fell to the Persians.

Anguilla

Anguilla is a British Overseas Territory in the Caribbean. It is one of the most northerly of the Leeward Islands in the Lesser Antilles, lying east of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands and directly north of Saint Martin. The territory consists of the main island of Anguilla, approximately long by wide at its widest point, together with a number of much smaller islands and cays with no permanent population. The territory's capital is The Valley. The total land area of the territory is , with a population of approximately . Etymology The native Arawak name for the island was Malliouhana. In reference to the island's shape, the Italian , meaning "eel" (in turn, from the Latin diminutive of anguis, "snake") was used as its name. Anguillan tradition holds that Christopher Columbus named the island.

Telecommunications in Anguilla

This article is about communications systems in Anguilla. Telephone Telephones – main lines in use: 6,200 (2002) country comparison to the world: 212 Telephones – mobile cellular: 1,800 (2002) country comparison to the world: 211 Telephone system: Domestic: Modern internal telephone system International: EAST CARIBBEAN FIBRE SYSTEM ECFS (cable system) microwave radio relay to island of Saint Martin (Guadeloupe and Netherlands Antilles) Mobile phone (GSM) Mobile phone operators: FLOW (Anguilla) Ltd. – GSM and UMTS 850 and 1900 MHz, LTE 700 MHz with Island-wide coverage Digicel (Anguilla) Ltd. – GSM and UMTS 850 to 1900 MHz, LTE 700 MHz Mobiles: ? (2007) Radio Radio broadcast stations: AM 3, FM 7, shortwave 0 (2007) + Radio Stations of Anguilla Band / Freq. Call Sign Brand City of license Notes AM 690 kHz Unknown Caribbean Beacon The Valley Religious broadcaster AM 1500 kHz Unknown Caribbean Beacon The Valley 2.5 kW repeater AM 1610 kHz Unknown Caribbean Beacon The Valley 200 kW repeater FM 92.9 MHz Unknown Klass 92.9 The Valley FM 93.3 MHz Unknown Rainbow FM The Valley Caribbean Music, News FM 95.5 MHz Unknown Radio Anguilla The Valley Public broadcaster FM 97.7 MHz Unknown Heart Beat Radio/Up Beat Radio The Valley 30 kW, Caribbean Music, News FM 99.3 MHz ZNBR-FM NBR – New Beginning Radio / Grace FM The Valley 5 kW, Religious broadcaster FM 100.1 MHz Unknown Caribbean Beacon The Valley Religious broadcaster FM 100.9 MHz Unknown CBN – Country Broadcast Network The Valley 3 kW FM 103.3 MHz Unknown Kool FM The Valley Religious broadcaster, Urban Caribbean FM 105.1 MHz ZRON-FM Tradewinds Radio The Valley 5 kW, Caribbean Music, News FM 106.7 MHz unknown VOC – Voice Of Creation Sachasses Religious broadcaster FM 107.9 MHz unknown GEM Radio Network The Valley Repeater (Trinidad) SW 6090 kHz Unknown Caribbean Beacon The Valley Religious SW 11775 kHz Unknown Caribbean Beacon The Valley Religious Radios: 3,000 (1997) Television Television broadcast stations: 1 (1997) Televisions: 1,000 (1997) Internet Internet country code: .ai (Top level domain) Internet Service Providers (ISPs): 2 (FLOW – , Digicel Anguilla – ) Internet hosts: 269 (2012) country comparison to the world: 192 Internet: users: 12,377 (2018) country comparison to the world: 206 See also Anguilla FLOW (Anguilla) Ltd. References External links Public Utilities Commission of Anguilla Anguilla, SubmarineCableMap.com Anguilla Anguilla

Acoustic theory

Acoustic theory is a scientific field that relates to the description of sound waves. It derives from fluid dynamics. See acoustics for the engineering approach. For sound waves of any magnitude of a disturbance in velocity, pressure, and density we have In the case that the fluctuations in velocity, density, and pressure are small, we can approximate these as Where is the perturbed velocity of the fluid, is the pressure of the fluid at rest, is the perturbed pressure of the system as a function of space and time, is the density of the fluid at rest, and is the variance in the density of the fluid over space and time. In the case that the velocity is irrotational , we then have the acoustic wave equation that describes the system: Where we have Derivation for a medium at rest Starting with the Continuity Equation and the Euler Equation: If we take small perturbations of a constant pressure and density: Then the equations of the system are Noting that the equilibrium pressures and densities are constant, this simplifies to A Moving Medium Starting with We can have these equations work for a moving medium by setting , where is the constant velocity that the whole fluid is moving at before being disturbed (equivalent to a moving observer) and is the fluid velocity. In this case the equations look very similar: Note that setting returns the equations at rest. Linearized Waves Starting with the above given equations of motion for a medium at rest: Let us now take to all be small quantities. In the case that we keep terms to first order, for the continuity equation, we have the term going to 0. This similarly applies for the density perturbation times the time derivative of the velocity. Moreover, the spatial components of the material derivative go to 0. We thus have, upon rearranging the equilibrium density: Next, given that our sound wave occurs in an ideal fluid, the motion is adiabatic, and then we can relate the small change in the pressure to the small change in the density by Under this condition, we see that we now have Defining the speed of sound of the system: Everything becomes For Irrotational Fluids In the case that the fluid is irrotational, that is , we can then write and thus write our equations of motion as The second equation tells us that And the use of this equation in the continuity equation tells us that This simplifies to Thus the velocity potential obeys the wave equation in the limit of small disturbances. The boundary conditions required to solve for the potential come from the fact that the velocity of the fluid must be 0 normal to the fixed surfaces of the system. Taking the time derivative of this wave equation and multiplying all sides by the unperturbed density, and then using the fact that tells us that Similarly, we saw that . Thus we can multiply the above equation appropriately and see that Thus, the velocity potential, pressure, and density all obey the wave equation. Moreover, we only need to solve one such equation to determine all other three. In particular, we have For a moving medium Again, we can derive the small-disturbance limit for sound waves in a moving medium. Again, starting with We can linearize these into For Irrotational Fluids in a Moving Medium Given that we saw that If we make the previous assumptions of the fluid being ideal and the velocity being irrotational, then we have Under these assumptions, our linearized sound equations become Importantly, since is a constant, we have , and then the second equation tells us that Or just that Now, when we use this relation with the fact that , alongside cancelling and rearranging terms, we arrive at We can write this in a familiar form as This differential equation must be solved with the appropriate boundary conditions. Note that setting returns us the wave equation. Regardless, upon solving this equation for a moving medium, we then have See also Acoustic attenuation Sound Fourier analysis References

Alexander Mackenzie (politician)

Alexander Mackenzie (January 28, 1822 – April 17, 1892) was a Canadian politician who served as the second prime minister of Canada, in office from 1873 to 1878. Mackenzie was born in Logierait, Perthshire, Scotland. He left school at the age of 13, following his father's death, to help his widowed mother, and trained as a stonemason. Mackenzie immigrated to the Province of Canada when he was 19, settling in what became Ontario. His masonry business prospered, allowing him to pursue other interests – such as the editorship of a pro-Reformist newspaper called the Lambton Shield. Mackenzie was elected to the Legislative Assembly of the Province of Canada in 1862, as a supporter of George Brown. In 1867, Mackenzie was elected to the new House of Commons of Canada for the Liberal Party. He became leader of the party (thus Leader of the Opposition) in mid-1873, and a few months later succeeded John A. Macdonald as the prime minister, following Macdonald's resignation in the aftermath of the Pacific Scandal. Mackenzie and the Liberals won a clear majority at the 1874 election. He was popular among the general public for his humble background and consistent democratic principles. As the prime minister, Mackenzie continued the nation-building programme that had been begun by his predecessor. His government established the Supreme Court of Canada and Royal Military College of Canada, and created the District of Keewatin to better administer Canada's newly acquired western territories. However, it made little progress on the transcontinental railway, and struggled to deal with the aftermath of the Panic of 1873. At the 1878 election, Mackenzie's government suffered a landslide defeat. He remained leader of the Liberal Party for another two years, and continued on as a Member of Parliament (MP) until his death, due to a stroke. Early life Mackenzie was born on January 28, 1822, in Logierait, Perthshire, Scotland, the son of Mary Stewart (Fleming) and Alexander Mackenzie Sr. (born 1784) who were married in 1817. The site of his birthplace is known as Clais-'n-deoir (the Hollow of the Weeping), where families said their goodbyes as the convicted were led to nearby Gallows Hill. The house in which he was born was built by his father. He was the third of 10 boys, seven of whom survived infancy. Alexander Mackenzie Sr. was a carpenter and ship's joiner who had to move around frequently for work after the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815. Mackenzie's father died on March 7, 1836, and at the age of 13, Alexander Mackenzie Jr. was thus forced to end his formal education to help support his family. He apprenticed as a stonemason and met his future wife, Helen Neil, in Irvine, where her father was also a stonemason. The Neils were Baptist and shortly thereafter, Mackenzie converted from Presbyterianism to Baptist beliefs. Together with the Neils, he immigrated to Canada in 1842 to seek a better life. Mackenzie's faith was to link him to the increasingly influential temperance cause, particularly strong in Canada West (Ontario) where he lived, a constituency of which he later represented in the House of Commons. The Neils and Mackenzie settled in Kingston, Ontario. The limestone in the area proved too hard for his stonemason tools, and not having money to buy new tools, Mackenzie took a job as a labourer constructing a building on Princess Street. The contractor on the job claimed financial difficulty, so Mackenzie accepted a promissory note for summer wages. The note later proved to be worthless. Subsequently, Mackenzie won a contract building a bomb-proof arch at Fort Henry. He later became a foreman on the construction of Kingston's four Martello Towers – Murney Tower, Fort Frederick, Cathcart Tower, and Shoal Tower. He was also a foreman on the construction of the Welland Canal and the Lachine Canal. While working on the Beauharnois Canal, a one-ton stone fell and crushed one of his legs. He recovered, but never regained the strength in that leg. While in Kingston, Mackenzie became a vocal opponent of religious and political entitlement and corruption in government. Mackenzie married Helen Neil (1826–52) in 1845 and with her had three children, with only one girl, Mary, surviving infancy. Helen and he moved to Sarnia, Ontario (known as Canada West) in 1847 and Mary was born in 1848. They were soon joined from Scotland by the rest of Mackenzie's brothers and his mother. He began working as a general contractor, earning a reputation for being a hard-working, honest man, as well as having a working man's view on fiscal policy. Mackenzie helped construct many courthouses and jails across southern Ontario. A number of these still stand today, including the Sandwich Courthouse and Jail now known as the Mackenzie Hall Cultural Centre in Windsor, Ontario, and the Kent County Courthouse and Jail in Chatham, Ontario. He even bid, unsuccessfully, on the construction of the Parliament buildings in Ottawa in 1859. Helen died in 1852, finally succumbing to the effects of excessive doses of mercury-based calomel used to treat a fever while in Kingston.

Ashoka

Ashoka, also known as Asoka or Aśoka ( ; , ; – 232 BCE), and popularly known as Ashoka the Great, was Emperor of Magadha from until his death in 232 BCE, and the third ruler from the Mauryan dynasty. His empire covered a large part of the Indian subcontinent, stretching from present-day Afghanistan in the west to present-day Bangladesh in the east, with its capital at Pataliputra. A patron of Buddhism, he is credited with playing an important role in the spread of Buddhism across ancient Asia. The Edicts of Ashoka state that during his eighth regnal year , he conquered Kalinga after a brutal war. Ashoka subsequently devoted himself to the propagation of "dhamma" or righteous conduct, the major theme of the edicts. Ashoka's edicts suggest that a few years after the Kalinga War, he was gradually drawn towards Buddhism. The Buddhist legends credit Ashoka with establishing a large number of stupas, patronising the Third Buddhist council, supporting Buddhist missionaries, and making generous donations to the sangha. Ashoka's existence as a historical emperor had almost been forgotten, but since the decipherment in the 19th century of sources written in the Brahmi script, Ashoka holds a reputation as one of the greatest Indian emperors. The State Emblem of the modern Republic of India is an adaptation of the Lion Capital of Ashoka. Ashoka's wheel, the Ashoka Chakra, is adopted at the centre of the National Flag of India. Sources of information Information about Ashoka comes from his inscriptions, other inscriptions that mention him or are possibly from his reign, and ancient literature, especially Buddhist texts. These sources often contradict each other, although various historians have attempted to correlate their testimony.

American (word)

The meaning of the word American in the English language varies according to the historical, geographical, and political context in which it is used. American is derived from America, a term originally denoting all of the Americas (also called the Western Hemisphere), ultimately derived from the name of the Florentine explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci (1451–1512). In some expressions, it retains this Pan-American sense, but its usage has evolved over time and, for various historical reasons, the word came to denote people or things specifically from the United States of America. In contemporary English, American generally refers to persons or things related to the United States of America; among native English speakers this usage is almost universal, with any other use of the term requiring specification. View at Bartleby However, in the past some have argued that "American" should be widened to also include people or things from anywhere in the American continents. The word can be used as either an adjective or a noun (viz. a demonym). In adjectival use, it means "of or relating to the United States"; for example, "Elvis Presley was an American singer" or "the man prefers American English". In its noun form, the word generally means a resident or citizen of the U.S., but is also used for someone whose ethnic identity is simply "American". The noun is rarely used in English to refer to people not connected to the United States when intending a geographical meaning. When used with a grammatical qualifier, the adjective American can mean "of or relating to the Americas", as in Latin American or Indigenous American. Less frequently, the adjective can take this meaning without a qualifier, as in "American Spanish dialects and pronunciation differ by country" or the names of the Organization of American States and the American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN). A third use of the term pertains specifically to the indigenous peoples of the Americas, for instance, "In the 16th century, many Americans died from imported diseases during the European conquest", though this usage is rare, as "indigenous", "First Nations" or "Amerindian" are considered less confusing and generally more appropriate. Compound constructions which indicate a minority ethnic group, such as "African-Americans" likewise refer exclusively to people in or from the United States of America, as does the prefix "Americo-". For instance, the Americo-Liberians and their language Merico derive their name from the fact that they are descended from African-American settlers, i.e. Blacks who were formerly enslaved in the United States of America. Other languages French, German, Italian, Japanese, Hebrew, Arabic, and Russian speakers may use cognates of American to refer to inhabitants of the Americas or to U.S. nationals. They generally have other terms specific to U.S. nationals, such as the German , French , Japanese , and Italian . These specific terms may be less common than the term American. In French, , or , from ("United States of America"), is a rarely used word that distinguishes U.S. things and persons from the adjective , which denotes persons and things from the United States, but may also refer to "the Americas". Likewise, German's use of and observe this cultural distinction, solely denoting U.S. things and people. In normal parlance, the adjective "American" and its direct cognates are usually used if the context renders the nationality of the person clear. This differentiation is prevalent in German-speaking countries, as indicated by the style manual of the (one of the leading German-language newspapers in Switzerland) which dismisses the term as both 'unnecessary' and 'artificial' and recommends replacing it with amerikanisch.Vademecum. Der sprachlich-technische Leitfaden der «Neuen Zürcher Zeitung», 13th edition. Verlag Neue Zürcher Zeitung, Zürich 2013, p. 102, s. v. US-amerikanisch. The respective guidelines of the foreign ministries of Austria, Germany and Switzerland all prescribe Amerikaner and amerikanisch in reference to the United States for official usage, making no mention of or .Eidgenössisches Departement für auswärtige Angelegenheiten: „Liste der Staatenbezeichnungen“ ; Bundesministerium für europäische und internationale Angelegenheiten: „Liste der Staatennamen und deren Ableitungen in den vom Bundesministerium für europäische und internationale Angelegenheiten verwendeten Formen“ ; Auswärtiges Amt: „Verzeichnis der Staatennamen für den amtlichen Gebrauch in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland“ Portuguese has , denoting both a person or thing from the Americas and a U.S. national. For referring specifically to a U.S. national and things, some words used are (also spelled , "United States person"), from , and ("Yankee")—both usages exist in Brazil (although "americano" is more frequent), but are uncommon in Portugal—but the term most often used, and the only one in Portugal, is , even though it could, as with its Spanish equivalent, apply to Canadians and Mexicans as well. In Spanish, denotes geographic and cultural origin in the New World, as well as (infrequently) a U.S. citizen; the more common term is ("United States person"), which derives from ("United States of America"). The Spanish term ("North American") is frequently used to refer things and persons from the United States, but this term can also denote people and things from Canada and Mexico. Among Spanish-speakers, North America generally does not include Central America or the Caribbean. Conversely, in Czech, there is no possibility for disambiguation. Američan (m.) and američanka (f.) can refer to persons from the United States or from the continents of the Americas, and there is no specific word capable of distinguishing the two meanings. For this reason, the latter meaning is very rarely used, and word is used almost exclusively to refer to persons from the United States. The usage is exactly parallel to the English word. In other languages, however, there is no possibility for confusion. For example, the Chinese word for "U.S. national" is is derived from a word for the United States, , where is an abbreviation for Yàměilìjiā ("America") and is "country". The name for the American continents is , from plus ("continent"). Thus, a is an American in the continent sense, and a is an American in the U.S. sense. Korean and Vietnamese also use unambiguous terms, with Korean having for the country versus for the continents, and Vietnamese having for the country versus for the continents. Japanese has such terms as well ( [ versus ), but they are found more in newspaper headlines than in speech, where predominates. In Swahili, means specifically the United States, and is a U.S. national, whereas the international form refers to the continents, and would be an inhabitant thereof. Likewise, the Esperanto word refers to the continents. For the country there is the term . Thus, a citizen of the United States is an , whereas an is an inhabitant of the Americas.

Ada (programming language)

Ada is a structured, statically typed, imperative, and object-oriented high-level programming language, inspired by Pascal and other languages. It has built-in language support for design by contract (DbC), extremely strong typing, explicit concurrency, tasks, synchronous message passing, protected objects, and non-determinism. Ada improves code safety and maintainability by using the compiler to find errors in favor of runtime errors. Ada is an international technical standard, jointly defined by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO), and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC). , the standard, called Ada 2022 informally, is ISO/IEC 8652:2023. Ada was originally designed by a team led by French computer scientist Jean Ichbiah of Honeywell under contract to the United States Department of Defense (DoD) from 1977 to 1983 to supersede over 450 programming languages used by the DoD at that time. Ada was named after Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), who has been credited as the first computer programmer. Features Ada was originally designed for embedded and real-time systems. The Ada 95 revision, designed by S. Tucker Taft of Intermetrics between 1992 and 1995, improved support for systems, numerical, financial, and object-oriented programming (OOP). Features of Ada include: strong typing, modular programming mechanisms (packages), run-time checking, parallel processing (tasks, synchronous message passing, protected objects, and nondeterministic select statements), exception handling, and generics. Ada 95 added support for object-oriented programming, including dynamic dispatch. The syntax of Ada minimizes choices of ways to perform basic operations, and prefers English keywords (such as "or else" and "and then") to symbols (such as "

Alfonso Cuarón

Alfonso Tiberio Cuarón Orozco ( ; ; born 28 November 1961) is a Mexican filmmaker. His accolades include four Academy Awards, seven BAFTA Awards, and three Golden Globe Awards. Cuarón made his feature film debut with the romantic comedy Sólo con tu pareja (1991), and directed the film adaptations A Little Princess (1995), and Great Expectations (1998). His breakthrough came with the coming-of-age film Y tu mamá también (2001) which earned him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay. He gained greater prominence for directing the fantasy film Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban (2004), the dystopian drama Children of Men (2006), the science fiction drama Gravity (2013), and the semi-autobiographical drama Roma (2018). The latter two won him Academy Awards for Best Director. He also won Best Film Editing for Gravity and Best Cinematography for Roma. Early life and education Cuarón was born in Mexico City, the son of Alfredo Cuarón, a doctor specializing in nuclear medicine, and Cristina Orozco, a pharmaceutical biochemist. He has a sister Christina, and two brothers; Carlos, also a filmmaker, and Alfredo, a conservation biologist. Cuarón studied philosophy at the National Autonomous University of Mexico and filmmaking at the Centro Universitario de Estudios Cinematográficos, a school within the same university. There he met the director Carlos Marcovich and cinematographer Emmanuel Lubezki, and they made what would be his first short film, Vengeance Is Mine.

Arianism

Arianism (, ) is a Christological doctrine which rejects the traditional notion of the Trinity and considers Jesus to be a creation of God, and therefore distinct from God. It is named after its major proponent, Arius . It is considered heretical by most modern mainstream branches of Christianity. It is held by a minority of modern denominations, although some of these denominations hold related doctrines such as Socinianism, and some shy away from use of the term Arian due to the term's historically negative connotations. Modern mainstream denominations sometimes connected to the teaching include Jehovah's Witnesses, some individual churches within the Churches of Christ (including the movement's founder Barton W. Stone), as well as some Hebrew Roots Christians and Messianic Jews (although many Messianic Jews also follow Nicene Christianity). It is first attributed to Arius , a Christian presbyter who preached and studied in Alexandria, Egypt, although it developed out of various pre-existing strands of Christianity which differed from later Nicene Christianity in their view of Christology. Arian theology holds that Jesus Christ is the Son of God, who was begotten by God the Father with the difference that the Son of God did not always exist but was begotten/made before time by God the Father; therefore, Jesus was not coeternal with God the Father, but nonetheless Jesus began to exist outside time. Arius' trinitarian theology, later given an extreme form by Aetius and his disciple Eunomius and called anomoean ('dissimilar'), asserts a total dissimilarity between the Son and the Father. Arianism holds that the Son is distinct from the Father and therefore subordinate to him. The term Arian is derived from the name Arius; it was not what the followers of Arius' teachings called themselves, but rather a term used by outsiders. The nature of Arius's and his supporters' teachings were opposed to the theological doctrines held by Homoousian Christians regarding the nature of the Trinity and the nature of Christ. Homoousianism and Arianism were contending interpretations of Jesus's divinity, both based upon the trinitarian theological orthodoxy of the time. Homoousianism was formally affirmed by the first two ecumenical councils; since then, Arianism has been condemned as "the heresy or sect of Arius". Trinitarian (Homoousian) doctrines were vigorously upheld by Patriarch Athanasius of Alexandria, who insisted that Jesus (God the Son) was "same in being" or "same in essence" with God the Father. Arius dissented: "If the Father begat the Son, then he who was begotten had a beginning in existence, and from this it follows there was a time when the Son was not." The ecumenical First Council of Nicaea of 325 declared Arianism to be a heresy. According to Everett Ferguson, "The great majority of Christians had no clear views about the nature of the Trinity and they did not understand what was at stake in the issues that surrounded it." Arianism is also used to refer to other nontrinitarian theological systems of the 4th century, which regarded Jesus Christ—the Son of God, the Logos—as either a begotten creature of a similar or different substance to that of the Father, but not identical (as Homoiousian and Anomoeanism) or as neither uncreated nor created in the sense other beings are created (as in semi-Arianism). Origin Some early Christians that were counted among Orthodoxy denied the eternal generation of the Son, seeing the Son as being begotten in time. These include Tertullian and Justin Martyr. Tertullian is considered a pre-Arian. Among the other church fathers, Origen was accused of Arianism for using terms like "second God", and Patriarch Dionysius of Alexandria was denounced at Rome for saying that Son is a work and creature of God. However, the Subordinationism of Origen is not identical to Arianism, and it has been generally viewed as closer to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan view. Controversy over Arianism arose in the late 3rd century and persisted throughout most of the 4th century. It involved most church members—from simple believers, priests, and monks to bishops, emperors, and members of Rome's imperial family. Two Roman emperors, Constantius II and Valens, became Arians or Semi-Arians, as did prominent Gothic, Vandal, and Lombard warlords both before and after the fall of the Western Roman Empire. The antipopes Felix II and Ursinus were Arian, and Pope Liberius was forced to sign the Arian Creed of Sirmium of 357 although the letter says he willingly agreed with Arianism. Such a deep controversy within the early Church during this period of its development could not have materialized without significant historical influences providing a basis for the Arian doctrines.

August 1

Events Pre-1600 30 BC – Octavian (later known as Augustus) enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman Republic. AD 69 – Batavian rebellion: The Batavians in Germania Inferior (Netherlands) revolt under the leadership of Gaius Julius Civilis. 527 – Justinian I becomes the sole ruler of the Byzantine Empire. 607 – Ono no Imoko is dispatched as envoy to the Sui court in China (Traditional Japanese date: July 3, 607). 902 – Taormina, the last Byzantine stronghold in Sicily, is captured by the Aghlabid army, concluding the Muslim conquest of Sicily. 1203 – Isaac II Angelos, restored Byzantine Emperor, declares his son Alexios IV Angelos co-emperor after pressure from the forces of the Fourth Crusade. 1291 – The Old Swiss Confederacy is formed with the signature of the Federal Charter. 1469 – Louis XI of France founds the chivalric order called the Order of Saint Michael in Amboise. 1498 – Christopher Columbus becomes the first European to visit what is now Venezuela. 1571 – The Ottoman conquest of Cyprus is concluded, by the surrender of Famagusta. 1601–1900 1620 – Speedwell leaves Delfshaven to bring pilgrims to America by way of England. 1664 – Ottoman forces are defeated in the battle of Saint Gotthard by an Austrian army led by Raimondo Montecuccoli, resulting in the Peace of Vasvár. 1714 – George, Elector of Hanover, becomes King George I of Great Britain, marking the beginning of the Georgian era of British history. 1759 – Seven Years' War: The Battle of Minden, an allied Anglo-German army victory over the French. In Britain this was one of a number of events that constituted the Annus Mirabilis of 1759 and is celebrated as Minden Day by certain British Army regiments. 1774 – British scientist Joseph Priestley discovers oxygen gas, corroborating the prior discovery of this element by German-Swedish chemist Carl Wilhelm Scheele. 1798 – French Revolutionary Wars: Battle of the Nile (Battle of Aboukir Bay): Battle begins when a British fleet engages the French Revolutionary Navy fleet in an unusual night action. 1800 – The Acts of Union 1800 are passed which merge the Kingdom of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland into the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. 1801 – First Barbary War: The American schooner captures the Tripolitan polacca Tripoli in a single-ship action off the coast of modern-day Libya. 1834 – Slavery is abolished in the British Empire as the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 comes into force, although it remains legal in the possessions of the East India Company until the passage of the Indian Slavery Act, 1843. 1834 – Construction begins on the Wilberforce Monument in Kingston Upon Hull. 1842 – The Lombard Street riot erupts in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States. 1849 – Joven Daniel wrecks at the coast of Araucanía, Chile, leading to allegations that local Mapuche tribes murdered survivors and kidnapped Elisa Bravo. 1855 – The first ascent of Monte Rosa, the second highest summit in the Alps. 1863 – At the suggestion of Senator J. V. Snellman and the order of Emperor Alexander II, full rights are promised to the Finnish language by a language regulation in the Grand Duchy of Finland. 1876 – Colorado is admitted as the 38th U.S. state. 1893 – Henry Perky patents shredded wheat. 1894 – The Empire of Japan and Qing China declare war on each other after a week of fighting over Korea, formally inaugurating the First Sino-Japanese War. 1901–present 1907 – The start of the first Scout camp on Brownsea Island, the origin of the worldwide Scouting movement. 1911 – Harriet Quimby takes her pilot's test and becomes the first U.S. woman to earn an Aero Club of America aviator's certificate. 1914 – World War I: The German Empire declares war on the Russian Empire. 1914 – World War I: The Swiss Army mobilizes because of World War I. 1915 – Patrick Pearse gives his famous speech "Ireland unfree shall never be at peace" at O'Donovan Rossa's funeral in Dublin. 1927 – The Nanchang Uprising marks the first significant battle in the Chinese Civil War between the Kuomintang and Chinese Communist Party. This day is commemorated as the anniversary of the founding of the People's Liberation Army. 1933 – Anti-Fascist activists Bruno Tesch, Walter Möller, Karl Wolff and August Lütgens are executed by the Nazi regime in Altona. 1936 – The Olympics opened in Berlin with a ceremony presided over by Adolf Hitler. 1937 – Josip Broz Tito reads the resolution "Manifesto of constitutional congress of KPH" to the constitutive congress of KPH (Croatian Communist Party) in woods near Samobor. 1943 – World War II: Operation Tidal Wave also known as "Black Sunday", was a failed American attempt to destroy Romanian oil fields. 1944 – World War II: The Warsaw Uprising against the Nazi German occupation breaks out in Warsaw, Poland. 1946 – Leaders of the Russian Liberation Army, a force of Russian prisoners of war that collaborated with Nazi Germany, are executed in Moscow, Soviet Union for treason. 1950 – Guam is organized as an unincorporated territory of the United States as the President Harry S. Truman signs the Guam Organic Act. 1957 – The United States and Canada form the North American Aerospace Defense Command (NORAD). 1960 – Dahomey (later renamed Benin) declares independence from France. 1960 – Islamabad is declared the federal capital of the Government of Pakistan. 1961 – U.S. Defense Secretary Robert McNamara orders the creation of the Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA), the nation's first centralized military espionage organization. 1964 – The former Belgian Congo is renamed the Democratic Republic of the Congo. 1965 – Frank Herbert's novel, Dune was published for the first time. It was named as the world's best-selling science fiction novel in 2003. 1966 – Charles Whitman kills 16 people at the University of Texas at Austin before being killed by the police. 1966 – Purges of intellectuals and imperialists becomes official China policy at the beginning of the Cultural Revolution. 1968 – The coronation of Hassanal Bolkiah, the 29th Sultan of Brunei, is held. 1971 – The Concert for Bangladesh, organized by former Beatle George Harrison, is held at Madison Square Garden in New York City. 1974 – Cyprus dispute: The United Nations Security Council authorizes the UNFICYP to create the "Green Line", dividing Cyprus into two zones. 1976 – Niki Lauda has a severe accident that almost claims his life at the German Grand Prix at Nürburgring. 1980 – Vigdís Finnbogadóttir is elected President of Iceland and becomes the world's first democratically elected female head of state. 1980 – A train crash kills 18 people in County Cork, Ireland. 1981 – MTV begins broadcasting in the United States and airs its first video, "Video Killed the Radio Star" by The Buggles. 1984 – Commercial peat-cutters discover the preserved bog body of a man, called Lindow Man, at Lindow Moss, Cheshire, England. 1988 – A British soldier was killed in the Inglis Barracks bombing in London, England. 1990 – A plane crash in the Karabakh Range kills 46 people. 1993 – The Great Mississippi and Missouri Rivers Flood of 1993 comes to a peak. 1998 – Puntland, an autonomous state in northeastern Somalia, was officially established following a constitutional conference in Garowe, Issims and tribal chiefs agreed to create a self-declared government until Somalia recovered. 2004 – A supermarket fire kills 396 people and injures 500 others in Asunción, Paraguay. 2007 – The I-35W Mississippi River bridge spanning the Mississippi River in Minneapolis, Minnesota, collapses during the evening rush hour, killing 13 people and injuring 145. 2008 – The Beijing–Tianjin Intercity Railway begins operation as the fastest commuter rail system in the world. 2008 – Eleven mountaineers from international expeditions died on K2, the second-highest mountain on Earth in the worst single accident in the history of K2 mountaineering. 2017 – A suicide attack on a mosque in Herat, Afghanistan kills 20 people. 2023 – Former US President Donald Trump is indicted for his role in the January 6 United States Capitol attack, his third indictment in 2023. Covey, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut 1946 – Fiona Stanley, Australian epidemiologist and academic 1947 – Lorna Goodison, Jamaican poet and author 1947 – Chantal Montellier, French comics creator and artist 1948 – Avi Arad, Israeli-American screenwriter and producer, founded Marvel Studios 1948 – Cliff Branch, American football player (d. 2019) 1948 – David Gemmell, English journalist and author (d. 2006) 1949 – Bettina Arndt, Australian writer and commentator 1949 – Kurmanbek Bakiyev, Kyrgyzstani politician, 2nd President of Kyrgyzstan 1949 – Jim Carroll, American poet, author, and musician (d. 2009) 1949 – Ray Nettles, American football player (d. 2009) 1950 – Roy Williams, American basketball player and coach 1951 – Tim Bachman, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2023) 1951 – Tommy Bolin, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1976) 1951 – Pete Mackanin, American baseball player, coach, and manager 1952 – Zoran Đinđić, Serbian philosopher and politician, 6th Prime Minister of Serbia (d. 2003) 1953 – Robert Cray, American blues singer-songwriter and guitarist 1953 – Howard Kurtz, American journalist and author 1954 – Trevor Berbick, Jamaican-Canadian boxer (d. 2006) 1954 – James Gleick, American journalist and author 1954 – Benno Möhlmann, German footballer and manager 1957 – Anne-Marie Hutchinson, British lawyer (d. 2020) 1957 – Taylor Negron, American actor and screenwriter (d. 2015) 1958 – Rob Buck, American guitarist and songwriter (d. 2000) 1958 – Michael Penn, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1958 – Kiki Vandeweghe, American basketball player and coach 1959 – Joe Elliott, English singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1960 – Chuck D, American rapper and songwriter 1960 – Suzi Gardner, American rock singer-songwriter and guitarist 1962 – Jacob Matlala, South African boxer (d. 2013) 1963 – Demián Bichir, Mexican-American actor and producer 1963 – Coolio, American rapper, producer, and actor (d. 2022) 1963 – John Carroll Lynch, American actor 1963 – Koichi Wakata, Japanese astronaut and engineer 1963 – Dean Wareham, New Zealand singer-songwriter and guitarist 1964 – Adam Duritz, American singer-songwriter and producer 1964 – Fiona Hyslop, Scottish businesswoman and politician 1965 – Brandt Jobe, American golfer 1965 – Sam Mendes, English director and producer 1966 – James St. James, American club promoter and author 1967 – Gregg Jefferies, American baseball player and coach 1967 – José Padilha, Brazilian director, producer and screenwriter 1968 – Stacey Augmon, American basketball player and coach 1968 – Dan Donegan, American heavy metal guitarist and songwriter 1968 – Shigetoshi Hasegawa, Japanese baseball player and sportscaster 1969 – Andrei Borissov, Estonian footballer and manager 1969 – Kevin Jarvis, American baseball player and scout 1969 – Graham Thorpe, English cricketer and journalist (d. 2024) 1970 – Quentin Coryatt, American football player 1970 – David James, English footballer and manager 1970 – Eugenie van Leeuwen, Dutch cricketer 1972 – Nicke Andersson, Swedish singer-songwriter and guitarist 1972 – Christer Basma, Norwegian footballer and coach 1972 – Todd Bouman, American football player and coach 1972 – Thomas Woods, American historian, economist, and academic 1973 – Gregg Berhalter, American soccer player and coach 1973 – Tempestt Bledsoe, American actress 1973 – Veerle Dejaeghere, Belgian runner 1973 – Edurne Pasaban, Spanish mountaineer 1974 – Cher Calvin, American journalist 1974 – Marek Galiński, Polish cyclist (d. 2014) 1974 – Tyron Henderson, South African cricketer 1974 – Dennis Lawrence, Trinidadian footballer and coach 1974 – Beckie Scott, Canadian skier 1975 – Vhrsti, Czech author and illustrator 1976 – Don Hertzfeldt, American animator, producer, screenwriter, and voice actor 1976 – Søren Jochumsen, Danish footballer 1976 – Nwankwo Kanu, Nigerian footballer 1976 – David Nemirovsky, Canadian ice hockey player 1976 – Hasan Şaş, Turkish footballer and manager 1976 – Cristian Stoica, Romanian-Italian rugby player 1977 – Marc Denis, Canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1977 – Haspop, French-Moroccan dancer, choreographer, and actor 1977 – Darnerien McCants, American-Canadian football player 1977 – Damien Saez, French singer-songwriter and guitarist 1977 – Yoshi Tatsu, Japanese wrestler and boxer 1978 – Andy Blignaut, Zimbabwean cricketer 1978 – Björn Ferry, Swedish biathlete 1978 – Dhani Harrison, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1978 – Chris Iwelumo, Scottish footballer 1978 – Edgerrin James, American football player 1979 – Junior Agogo, Ghanaian footballer (d. 2019) 1979 – Nathan Fien, Australian-New Zealand rugby league player 1979 – Jason Momoa, American actor, director, and producer 1979 – Grant Wooden, Australian rugby league player 1980 – Mancini, Brazilian footballer 1980 – Romain Barras, French decathlete 1980 – Esteban Paredes, Chilean footballer 1981 – Dean Cox, Australian footballer 1981 – Pia Haraldsen, Norwegian journalist and author 1981 – Christofer Heimeroth, German footballer 1981 – Stephen Hunt, Irish footballer 1981 – Jamie Jones-Buchanan, English rugby player 1982 – Basem Fathi, Jordanian footballer 1982 – Montserrat Lombard, English actress, director, and screenwriter 1983 – Bobby Carpenter, American football player 1983 – Craig Clarke, New Zealand rugby player 1983 – Julien Faubert, French footballer 1983 – David Gervasi, Swiss decathlete 1984 – Steve Feak, American game designer 1984 – Francesco Gavazzi, Italian cyclist 1984 – Brandon Kintzler, American baseball player 1984 – Bastian Schweinsteiger, German footballer 1985 – Stuart Holden, Scottish-American soccer player 1985 – Adam Jones, American baseball player 1985 – Cole Kimball, American baseball player 1985 – Tendai Mtawarira, South African rugby player 1985 – Kris Stadsgaard, Danish footballer 1985 – Dušan Švento, Slovak footballer 1986 – Damien Allen, English footballer 1986 – Anton Strålman, Swedish ice hockey player 1986 – Andrew Taylor, English footballer 1986 – Elena Vesnina, Russian tennis player 1986 – Mike Wallace, American football player 1987 – Iago Aspas, Spanish footballer 1987 – Karen Carney, English women's footballer 1987 – Taapsee Pannu, Indian actress 1987 – Sébastien Pocognoli, Belgian footballer 1987 – Lee Wallace, Scottish footballer 1988 – Mustafa Abdellaoue, Norwegian footballer 1988 – Travis Boak, Australian footballer 1988 – Patryk Małecki, Polish footballer 1988 – Nemanja Matić, Serbian footballer 1988 – Bodene Thompson, New Zealand rugby league player 1989 – Madison Bumgarner, American baseball player 1989 – Tiffany Young, Korean American singer, songwriter, and actress 1990 – Aledmys Díaz, Cuban baseball player 1990 – Elton Jantjies, South African rugby player 1991 – Piotr Malarczyk, Polish footballer 1991 – Marco Puntoriere, Italian footballer 1992 – Austin Rivers, American basketball player 1992 – Mrunal Thakur, Indian actress 1993 – Álex Abrines, Spanish basketball player 1993 – Leon Thomas III, American actor and singer 1993 – Saleh Gomaa, Egyptian footballer 1994 – Sergeal Petersen, South African rugby player 1994 – Ayaka Wada, Japanese singer 1995 – Madison Cawthorn, American politician 1996 – Katie Boulter, British tennis player 2001 – Scottie Barnes, American basketball player 2001 – Park Si-eun, South Korean actress 2001 – Ben Trbojevic, Australian rugby league player 2003 – Joseph Sua'ali'i, Australian-Samoan rugby league player Deaths Pre-1600 30 BC – Mark Antony, Roman general and politician (b. 83 BC) 371 – Eusebius of Vercelli, Italian bishop and saint (b. 283) 527 – Justin I, Byzantine emperor (b. 450) 690s – Jonatus, abbot and saint: "the dates of his death (1 August) and his translation (8 April) were recorded in liturgical sources from Marchiennes." 873 – Thachulf, duke of Thuringia 946 – Ali ibn Isa al-Jarrah, Abbasid vizier (b. 859) 946 – Lady Xu Xinyue, Chinese queen (b. 902) 953 – Yingtian, Chinese Khitan empress (b. 879) 984 – Æthelwold, bishop of Winchester 1098 – Adhemar of Le Puy, French papal legate 1137 – Louis VI, king of France (b. 1081) 1146 – Vsevolod II of Kiev, Russian princeDimnik, Martin. The Dynasty of Chernigov, 1146–1246, 2003 1227 – Shimazu Tadahisa, Japanese warlord (b. 1179) 1252 – Giovanni da Pian del Carpine, Italian archbishop and explorer (b. 1180) 1299 – Conrad de Lichtenberg, Bishop of Strasbourg (b. 1240) 1402 – Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York, English politician, Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports (b. 1341) 1457 – Lorenzo Valla, Italian author and educator (b. 1406) 1464 – Cosimo de' Medici, Italian ruler (b. 1386) 1494 – Giovanni Santi, artist and father of Raphael (b. c. 1435) 1541 – Simon Grynaeus, German theologian and scholar (b. 1493) 1543 – Magnus I, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (b. 1488) 1546 – Peter Faber, French Jesuit theologian (b. 1506) 1557 – Olaus Magnus, Swedish archbishop, historian, and cartographer (b. 1490) 1580 – Albrecht Giese, Polish-German politician and diplomat (b. 1524) 1589 – Jacques Clément, French assassin of Henry III of France (b. 1567) 1601–1900 1603 – Matthew Browne, English politician (b. 1563) 1714 – Anne, Queen of Great Britain (b. 1665) 1787 – Alphonsus Maria de' Liguori, Italian bishop and saint (b. 1696) 1795 – Clas Bjerkander, Swedish meteorologist, botanist, and entomologist (b. 1735) 1796 – Sir Robert Pigot, 2nd Baronet, English colonel and politician (b. 1720) 1797 – Emanuel Granberg, Finnish church painter (b. 1754) 1798 – François-Paul Brueys d'Aigalliers, French admiral (b. 1753) 1807 – John Boorman, English cricketer (b. c. 1754) 1807 – John Walker, English actor, philologist, and lexicographer (b. 1732) 1808 – Lady Diana Beauclerk, English painter and illustrator (b. 1734) 1812 – Yakov Kulnev, Russian general (b. 1763) 1851 – William Joseph Behr, German publicist and academic (b. 1775) 1863 – Jind Kaur Majarani (Regent) of the Sikh Empire (b. 1817) 1866 – John Ross, American tribal chief (b. 1790) 1869 – Richard Dry, Australian politician, 7th Premier of Tasmania (b. 1815) 1869 – Peter Julian Eymard, French Priest and founder of the Congregation of the Blessed Sacrament (b. 1811) 1901–present 1903 – Calamity Jane, American frontierswoman and scout (b. 1853) 1905 – Henrik Sjöberg, Swedish gymnast and medical student (b. 1875) "Henrik Sjöberg". Olympedia. Retrieved 20 December 2020. 1911 – Edwin Austin Abbey, American painter and illustrator (b. 1852) 1911 – Samuel Arza Davenport, American lawyer and politician (b. 1843) 1918 – John Riley Banister, American cowboy and police officer (b. 1854) 1920 – Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Indian freedom fighter, lawyer and journalist (b. 1856) 1921 – T.J. Ryan, Australian politician, 19th Premier of Queensland (b. 1876) 1922 – Donát Bánki, Hungarian engineer (b. 1856) 1929 – Syd Gregory, Australian cricketer (b. 1870) 1938 – Edmund C. Tarbell, American painter and academic (b. 1862) 1943 – Lydia Litvyak, Soviet lieutenant and pilot (b. 1921) 1944 – Manuel L. Quezon, Filipino soldier, lawyer, and politician, 2nd President of the Philippines (b. 1878) 1957 – Rose Fyleman, English writer and poet (b. 1877) 1959 – Jean Behra, French race car driver (b. 1921) 1963 – Theodore Roethke, American poet (b. 1908) 1966 – Charles Whitman, American murderer (b. 1941) 1967 – Richard Kuhn, Austrian-German biochemist and academic, Nobel Prize Laureate (b. 1900) 1970 – Frances Farmer, American actress (b. 1913) 1970 – Doris Fleeson, American journalist (b. 1901) 1970 – Otto Heinrich Warburg, German physician and physiologist, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1883) 1973 – Gian Francesco Malipiero, Italian composer and educator (b. 1882) 1973 – Walter Ulbricht, German soldier and politician (b. 1893) 1974 – Ildebrando Antoniutti, Italian cardinal (b. 1898) 1977 – Francis Gary Powers, American captain and pilot (b. 1929) 1980 – Patrick Depailler, French race car driver (b. 1944) 1980 – Strother Martin, American actor (b. 1919) 1981 – Paddy Chayefsky, American author, playwright, and screenwriter (b. 1923) 1981 – Kevin Lynch, Irish Republican, Hunger Striker 1982 – T. Thirunavukarasu, Sri Lankan lawyer and politician (b. 1933) 1989 – John Ogdon, English pianist and composer (b. 1937) 1990 – Norbert Elias, German-Dutch sociologist, author, and academic (b. 1897) 1996 – Tadeusz Reichstein, Polish-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1897) 1996 – Lucille Teasdale-Corti, Canadian physician and surgeon (b. 1929) 1998 – Eva Bartok, Hungarian-British actress (b. 1927) 2001 – Korey Stringer, American football player (b. 1974) 2003 – Guy Thys, Belgian footballer, coach, and manager (b. 1922) 2003 – Marie Trintignant, French actress and screenwriter (b. 1962) 2004 – Philip Abelson, American physicist and author (b. 1913) 2005 – Al Aronowitz, American journalist (b. 1928) 2005 – Wim Boost, Dutch cartoonist and educator (b. 1918) 2005 – Constant Nieuwenhuys, Dutch painter and sculptor (b. 1923) 2006 – Bob Thaves, American illustrator (b. 1924) 2006 – Iris Marion Young, American political scientist and activist (b. 1949) 2007 – Tommy Makem, Irish singer-songwriter and banjo player (b. 1932) 2008 – Gertan Klauber, Czech-English actor (b. 1932) 2008 – Harkishan Singh Surjeet, Indian lawyer and politician (b. 1916) 2009 – Corazon Aquino, Filipino politician, 11th President of the Philippines (b. 1933) 2010 – Lolita Lebrón, Puerto Rican-American activist (b. 1919) 2010 – Eric Tindill, New Zealand rugby player and cricketer (b. 1910) 2012 – Aldo Maldera, Italian footballer and agent (b. 1953) 2012 – Douglas Townsend, American composer and musicologist (b. 1921) 2012 – Barry Trapnell, English cricketer and academic (b. 1924) 2013 – John Amis, English journalist and critic (b. 1922) 2013 – Gail Kobe, American actress and producer (b. 1932) 2013 – Babe Martin, American baseball player (b. 1920) 2013 – Toby Saks, American cellist and educator (b. 1942) 2013 – Wilford White, American football player (b. 1928) 2014 – Valyantsin Byalkevich, Belarusian footballer and manager (b. 1973) 2014 – Jan Roar Leikvoll, Norwegian author (b. 1974) 2014 – Charles T. Payne, American soldier (b. 1925) 2014 – Mike Smith, English radio and television host (b. 1955) 2015 – Stephan Beckenbauer, German footballer and manager (b. 1968) 2015 – Cilla Black, English singer and actress (b. 1943) 2015 – Bernard d'Espagnat, French physicist, philosopher, and author (b. 1921) 2015 – Bob Frankford, English-Canadian physician and politician (b. 1939) 2015 – Hong Yuanshuo, Chinese footballer and manager (b. 1948) 2016 – Queen Anne of Romania (b. 1923) 2020 – Wilford Brimley, American actor and singer (b. 1934) 2020 – Rickey Dixon, American professional football player (b. 1966) 2020 – Rodney H. Pardey, American poker player (b. 1945) 2021 – Abdalqadir as-Sufi, Scottish Islamic scholar and writer (b. 1930) 2021 – Jerry Ziesmer, American assistant director, production manager and occasional actor (b. 1939) 2024 – Joyce Brabner, American writer and artist (b. 1952) Holidays and observances Armed Forces Day (Lebanon) Armed Forces Day (China) or Anniversary of the Founding of the People's Liberation Army (People's Republic of China) Azerbaijani Language and Alphabet Day (Azerbaijan) Emancipation Day is commemorated in many parts of the former British Empire, which marks the day the Slavery Abolition Act 1833 came into effect which abolished chattel slavery in the British Empire: Emancipation Day is a public holiday in Barbados, Bermuda, Guyana, Jamaica, Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago Christian feast day: Abgar V of Edessa (Syrian Church) Alphonsus Maria de' Liguori Æthelwold of Winchester Bernard Võ Văn Duệ (one of Vietnamese Martyrs) Blessed Gerhard Hirschfelder Eusebius of Vercelli Exuperius of Bayeux Felix of Girona Peter Apostle in Chains Procession of the Cross and the beginning of Dormition Fast (Eastern Orthodoxy) The Holy Maccabees August 1 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Minden Day (United Kingdom) National Day, celebrates the independence of Benin from France in 1960. Official Birthday and Coronation Day of the King of Tonga (Tonga) Parents' Day (Democratic Republic of the Congo) Statehood Day (Colorado) Swiss National Day, commemorates Switzerland becoming a single unit in 1291. The beginning of autumn observances in the Northern hemisphere and spring observances in the Southern hemisphere (Neopagan Wheel of the Year): Lughnasadh in the Northern hemisphere, Imbolc in the Southern hemisphere; traditionally begins on the eve of August 1. (Gaels, Ireland, Scotland, Neopagans) Lammas (England, Scotland, Neopagans) Pachamama Raymi (Quechuan in Ecuador and Peru) Victory Day (Cambodia, Laos, Vietnam) World Scout Scarf Day Yorkshire Day (Yorkshire, England) References External links

August 3

Events Pre-1600 8 – Roman Empire general Tiberius defeats the Dalmatae on the river Bosna. 435 – Deposed Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople Nestorius, considered the originator of Nestorianism, is exiled by Roman Emperor Theodosius II to a monastery in Egypt. 881 – Battle of Saucourt-en-Vimeu: Louis III of France defeats the Vikings, an event celebrated in the poem Ludwigslied. 908 – Battle of Eisenach: An invading Hungarian force defeats an East Frankish army under Duke Burchard of Thuringia. 1031 – Olaf II of Norway is canonized as Saint Olaf by Grimketel, the English Bishop of Selsey. 1057 – Frederick of Lorraine elected as Pope Stephen IX. 1342 – The Siege of Algeciras commences during the Spanish Reconquista. 1492 – Christopher Columbus sets sail from Palos de la Frontera, Spain. 1527 – The first known letter from North America is sent by John Rut while at St. John's, Newfoundland. 1601–1900 1601 – Long War: Austria captures Transylvania in the Battle of Goroszló. 1645 – Thirty Years' War: The Second Battle of Nördlingen sees French forces defeating those of the Holy Roman Empire. 1678 – Robert LaSalle builds the Le Griffon, the first known ship built on the Great Lakes. 1778 – The theatre La Scala in Milan is inaugurated with the première of Antonio Salieri's Europa riconosciuta. 1795 – Treaty of Greenville is signed, ending the Northwest Indian War in the Ohio Country. 1811 – First ascent of Jungfrau, third highest summit in the Bernese Alps by brothers Johann Rudolf and Hieronymus Meyer. 1829 – The Treaty of Lewistown is signed by the Shawnee and Seneca peoples, exchanging land in Ohio for land west of the Mississippi River. 1852 – Harvard University wins the first Boat Race between Yale University and Harvard. The race is also known as the first ever American intercollegiate athletic event. 1859 – The American Dental Association is founded in Niagara Falls, New York. 1900 – The Firestone Tire and Rubber Company is founded. 1901–present 1903 – Macedonian rebels in Kruševo proclaim the Kruševo Republic, which exists for only ten days before Ottoman Turks lay waste to the town. 1907 – Judge Kenesaw Mountain Landis fines Standard Oil of Indiana a record $29.4 million for illegal rebating to freight carriers; the conviction and fine are later reversed on appeal. 1914 – World War I: Germany declares war against France, while Romania declares its neutrality. 1921 – Major League Baseball Commissioner Kenesaw Mountain Landis confirms the ban of the eight Chicago Black Sox, the day after they were acquitted by a Chicago court. 1936 – Jesse Owens wins the 100 metre dash, defeating Ralph Metcalfe, at the Berlin Olympics. 1936 – A fire wipes out Kursha-2 in the Meshchera Lowlands, Ryazan Oblast, Russia, killing 1,200 and leaving only 20 survivors. 1940 – World War II: Italian forces begin the invasion of British Somaliland. 1946 – Santa Claus Land, the world's first themed amusement park, opens in Santa Claus, Indiana, United States. 1948 – Whittaker Chambers accuses Alger Hiss of being a communist and a spy for the Soviet Union. 1949 – The Basketball Association of America and the National Basketball League finalize the merger that would create the National Basketball Association. 1958 – The world's first nuclear submarine, the USS Nautilus, becomes the first vessel to complete a submerged transit of the geographical North Pole. 1959 – Portugal's state police force PIDE fires upon striking workers in Bissau, Portuguese Guinea, killing over 50 people. 1960 – Niger gains independence from France. 1972 – The United States Senate ratifies the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty. 1975 – A privately chartered Boeing 707 strikes a mountain peak and crashes near Agadir, Morocco, killing 188. 1977 – Tandy Corporation announces the TRS-80, one of the world's first mass-produced personal computers. 1981 – Senegalese opposition parties, under the leadership of Mamadou Dia, launch the Antiimperialist Action Front – Suxxali Reew Mi. 1997 – Oued El-Had and Mezouara massacre in Algeria: A total of 116 villagers killed, 40 in Oued El-Had and 76 in Mezouara. 1997 – The tallest free-standing structure in the Southern Hemisphere, Sky Tower in downtown Auckland, New Zealand, opens after two-and-a-half years of construction. 2004 – The pedestal of the Statue of Liberty reopens after being closed since the September 11 attacks. 2005 – President of Mauritania Maaouya Ould Sid'Ahmed Taya is overthrown in a military coup while attending the funeral of King Fahd in Saudi Arabia. 2007 – Former deputy director of the Chilean secret police Raúl Iturriaga is captured after having been on the run following a conviction for kidnapping. 2010 – Widespread rioting erupts in Karachi, Pakistan, after the assassination of a local politician, leaving at least 85 dead and at least 17 billion Pakistani rupees (US$200 million) in damage. 2014 – A 6.1 magnitude earthquake kills at least 617 people and injures more than 2,400 in Yunnan, China. 2014 – The genocide of Yazidis by ISIL begins. 2018 – Two burka-clad men kill 29 people and injure more than 80 in a suicide attack on a Shia mosque in eastern Afghanistan. 2019 – Six hundred protesters, including opposition leader Lyubov Sobol, are arrested in an election protest in Moscow, Russia. 2019 – Twenty-three people are killed and 22 injured in a mass shooting in El Paso, Texas. 2023 – Worst floods hit major parts of Slovenia. Births Pre-1600 1442 – Galeotto I Pico, Duke of Mirandola (d. 1499) 1486 – Imperia Cognati, Italian courtesan (d. 1512) 1491 – Maria of Jülich-Berg, German noblewoman (d. 1543) 1509 – Étienne Dolet, French scholar and translator (d. 1546) 1601–1900 1622 – Wolfgang Julius, Count of Hohenlohe-Neuenstein, German field marshal (d. 1698) 1692 – John Henley, English minister and poet (d. 1759) 1724 – Alvise Foscari, Venetian admiral (d. 1790) 1766 – Aaron Chorin, Hungarian rabbi and author (d. 1844) 1770 – Frederick William III of Prussia (d. 1840) 1803 – Joseph Paxton, English gardener and architect, designed The Crystal Palace (d. 1865) 1808 – Hamilton Fish, American lawyer and politician, 26th United States Secretary of State (d. 1893) 1811 – Elisha Otis, American businessman, founded the Otis Elevator Company (d. 1861) 1817 – Archduke Albrecht, Duke of Teschen (d. 1895) 1823 – Thomas Francis Meagher, Irish-American revolutionary and military leader, territorial governor of Montana (d. 1867) 1832 – Ivan Zajc, Croatian composer, conductor, and director (d. 1914) 1837 – Julien Reverchon, French botanist (d. 1905) 1840 – John Bigham, 1st Viscount Mersey, English jurist and politician (d. 1929) 1850 – Reginald Heber Roe, English-Australian swimmer, tennis player, and academic (d. 1926) 1856 – Alfred Deakin, Australian lawyer and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1919) 1860 – William Kennedy Dickson, French-Scottish actor, director, and producer (d. 1935) 1863 – Géza Gárdonyi, Hungarian author and journalist (d. 1922) 1867 – Stanley Baldwin, English businessman and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (d. 1947) 1871 – Vernon Louis Parrington, American historian and scholar (d. 1929) 1872 – Haakon VII of Norway (d. 1957) 1886 – Maithili Sharan Gupt, Indian poet and playwright (d. 1964) 1887 – Rupert Brooke, English poet (d. 1915) 1887 – August Wesley, Finnish journalist, trade unionist, and revolutionary (d. B. Dickerson, American bass player and songwriter (d. 2021) 1949 – Sue Slipman, English politician 1950 – Linda Howard, American author 1950 – John Landis, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1950 – Jo Marie Payton, American actress and singer 1950 – Ernesto Samper, Colombian economist and politician, 29th President of Colombia 1951 – Marcel Dionne, Canadian ice hockey player 1951 – Jay North, American actor 1952 – Osvaldo Ardiles, Argentinian footballer and manager 1953 – Ian Bairnson, Scottish saxophonist and keyboard player (d. 2023) 1953 – Marlene Dumas, South African painter 1954 – Michael Arthur, English physician and academic 1954 – Gary Peters, English footballer and manager 1956 – Kirk Brandon, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1956 – Todd Christensen, American football player and sportscaster (d. 2013) 1956 – Dave Cloud, American singer-songwriter and actor (d. 2015) 1956 – Balwinder Sandhu, Indian cricketer and coach 1957 – Bodo Rudwaleit, German footballer and manager 1957 – Kate Wilkinson, New Zealand lawyer and politician, 11th New Zealand Minister of Conservation 1958 – Lindsey Hilsum, English journalist and author 1958 – Ana Kokkinos, Australian director and screenwriter 1959 – Martin Atkins, English drummer and producer 1959 – Mike Gminski, American basketball player and sportscaster 1959 – John C. McGinley, American actor and producer 1959 – Koichi Tanaka, Japanese chemist and engineer, Nobel Prize laureate 1960 – Tim Mayotte, American tennis player and coach 1960 – Gopal Sharma, Indian cricketer 1961 – Molly Hagan, American actress 1961 – Nick Harvey, English politician, Minister of State for the Armed Forces 1961 – Lee Rocker, American bassist 1963 – Tasmin Archer, English pop singer 1963 – Frano Botica, New Zealand rugby player and coach 1963 – James Hetfield, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1963 – David Knox, Australian rugby player 1963 – Ed Roland, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1963 – Lisa Ann Walter, American actress, producer, and screenwriter 1963 – Isaiah Washington, American actor and producer 1964 – Lucky Dube, South African singer and keyboard player (d. 2007) 1964 – Ralph Knibbs, British rugby union player 1964 – Nate McMillan, American basketball player and coach 1964 – Kevin Sumlin, American football player and coach 1964 – Abhisit Vejjajiva, English-Thai economist and politician, 27th Prime Minister of Thailand 1966 – Brent Butt, Canadian actor, producer, and screenwriter 1966 – Gizz Butt, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1966 – Eric Esch, American wrestler, boxer, and mixed martial artist 1966 – Robert Laimer, Austrian politician 1967 – Mathieu Kassovitz, French actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1967 – Skin, English singer and guitarist 1968 – Rod Beck, American baseball player (d. 2007) 1969 – Doug Overton, American basketball player and coach 1970 – Stephen Carpenter, American guitarist and songwriter 1970 – Gina G, Australian singer-songwriter 1970 – Masahiro Sakurai, Japanese video game designer 1971 – Forbes Johnston, Scottish footballer (d. 2007) 1971 – DJ Spinderella, American DJ, rapper, producer, and actress 1972 – Sandis Ozoliņš, Latvian ice hockey player and politician 1973 – Jay Cutler, American bodybuilder 1973 – Nikos Dabizas, Greek footballer 1973 – Michael Ealy, American actor 1973 – Chris Murphy, American politician 1975 – Wael Gomaa, Egyptian footballer 1975 – Argyro Strataki, Greek heptathlete 1976 – Troy Glaus, American baseball player 1977 – Tom Brady, American football player 1977 – Justin Lehr, American baseball player 1977 – Óscar Pereiro, Spanish cyclist and footballer 1978 – Joi Chua, Singaporean singer-songwriter and actress 1978 – Mariusz Jop, Polish footballer 1978 – Jenny Tinmouth, English motorcycle racer 1978 – Dimitrios Zografakis, Greek footballer 1979 – Evangeline Lilly, Canadian actress 1980 – Nadia Ali, Libyan-American singer-songwriter 1980 – Dominic Moore, Canadian ice hockey player 1980 – Tony Pashos, American football player 1980 – Brandan Schieppati, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1980 – Hannah Simone, Canadian television host and actress 1981 – Fikirte Addis, Ethiopian fashion designer 1981 – Travis Bowyer, American baseball player 1981 – Pablo Ibáñez, Spanish footballer 1982 – Kaspar Kokk, Estonian skier 1982 – Jesse Lumsden, Canadian bobsledder and football player 1982 – Damien Sandow, American wrestler 1983 – Ryan Carter, American ice hockey player 1983 – Mark Reynolds, American baseball player 1984 – Yasin Avcı, Turkish footballer 1984 – Sunil Chhetri, Indian footballer 1984 – Matt Joyce, American baseball player 1984 – Ryan Lochte, American swimmer 1984 – Chris Maurer, former bassist of ska band Suburban Legends 1985 – Georgina Haig, Australian actress 1985 – Brent Kutzle, American bass player and producer 1985 – Ats Purje, Estonian footballer 1985 – Sonny Bill Williams, New Zealand rugby player and boxer 1986 – Charlotte Casiraghi, Monégasque journalist, co-founded Ever Manifesto 1986 – Darya Domracheva, Belarusian biathlete 1987 – Kim Hyung-jun, South Korean singer and dancer 1987 – Chris McQueen, Australian-English rugby league player 1988 – Denny Cardin, Italian footballer 1988 – Leigh Tiffin, American football player 1988 – Sven Ulreich, German footballer 1989 – Jules Bianchi, French race car driver (d. 2015) 1989 – Sam Hutchinson, English footballer 1989 – Tyrod Taylor, American football player 1989 – Nick Viergever, Dutch footballer 1990 – Jourdan Dunn, English model 1990 – Kang Min-kyung, South Korean singer 1992 – Gamze Bulut, Turkish runner 1992 – Gesa Felicitas Krause, German runner 1992 – Diāna Marcinkēviča, Latvian tennis player 1992 – Aljon Mariano, Filipino basketball player 1992 – Lum Rexhepi, Finnish footballer 1992 – Karlie Kloss, American fashion model 1993 – Ola Abidogun, English sprinter 1993 – Yurina Kumai, Japanese singer 1994 – Kwon Alexander, American football player 1994 – Manaia Cherrington, New Zealand rugby league player 1994 – Esther Earl, American author, vlogger, and online personality. (d. 2010) Celebrated annually as Esther day 1994 – Todd Gurley, American football player 1994 – Younghoe Koo, South Korean-born American football player 1995 – Zac Gallen, American baseball player 1995 – Victoria Kan, Russian tennis player 1996 – Alec Bohm, American baseball player 1996 – Bokondji Imama, Canadian ice hockey player 1996 – Derwin James, American football player 1997 – Luis Robert Jr., Cuban baseball player 1999 – Zach Wilson, American football player 1999 – Brahim Díaz, Spanish-Moroccan footballer Deaths Pre-1600 908 – Burchard, duke of Thuringia 908 – Egino, duke of Thuringia 908 – Rudolf I, bishop of Würzburg 925 – Cao, Chinese empress dowager 979 – Thietmar, margrave of Meissen 1003 – At-Ta'i, Abbasid caliph (b. 929) 1355 – Bartholomew de Burghersh, 1st Baron Burghersh, English nobleman 1460 – James II, king of Scotland (b. 1430) 1527 – Scaramuccia Trivulzio, Italian cardinal 1530 – Francesco Ferruccio, Italian captain (b. 1489) 1546 – Antonio da Sangallo the Younger, Italian architect, designed the Apostolic Palace (b. 1484) 1546 – Étienne Dolet, French scholar and translator (b. 1509) 1601–1900 1604 – Bernardino de Mendoza, Spanish commander and diplomat (b. 1540) 1621 – Guillaume du Vair, French lawyer and author (b. 1556) 1712 – Joshua Barnes, English historian and scholar (b. 1654) 1720 – Anthonie Heinsius, Dutch politician (b. 1641) 1721 – Grinling Gibbons, Dutch-English sculptor and woodcarver (b. 1648) 1761 – Johann Matthias Gesner, German scholar and academic (b. 1691) 1773 – Stanisław Konarski, Polish poet and playwright (b. 1700) 1780 – Étienne Bonnot de Condillac, French epistemologist and philosopher (b. 1715) 1792 – Richard Arkwright, English engineer and businessman (b. 1732) 1797 – Jeffery Amherst, 1st Baron Amherst, English field marshal and politician, Colonial Governor of Virginia (b. 1717) 1805 – Christopher Anstey, English author and poet (b. 1724) 1835 – Wenzel Müller, Austrian composer and conductor (b. 1767) 1839 – Dorothea von Schlegel, German author and translator (b. 1763) 1857 – Eugène Sue, French author and politician (b. 1804) 1866 – Gábor Klauzál, Hungarian politician, Hungarian Minister of Agriculture (b. 1804) 1867 – Philipp August Böckh, German historian and scholar (b. 1785) 1877 – William B. Ogden, American businessman and politician, 1st Mayor of Chicago (b. 1805) 1879 – Joseph Severn, English painter (b. 1793) 1894 – George Inness, American painter (b. 1825) 1901–present 1913 – William Lyne, Australian politician, 13th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1844) 1916 – Roger Casement, Irish poet and activist (b. 1864) 1917 – Ferdinand Georg Frobenius, German mathematician and academic (b. 1849) 1920 – Peeter Süda, Estonian organist and composer (b. 1883) 1922 – Ture Malmgren, Swedish journalist and politician (b. 1851) 1924 – Joseph Conrad, British novelist (b. 1857) 1925 – William Bruce, Australian cricketer (b. 1864) 1929 – Emile Berliner, German-American inventor and businessman, invented the phonograph (b. 1851) 1929 – Thorstein Veblen, American economist and sociologist (b. 1857) 1936 – Konstantin Konik, Estonian surgeon and politician, 19th Estonian Minister of Education (b. 1873) 1942 – Richard Willstätter, German-Swiss chemist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1872) 1943 – Frumka Płotnicka, Polish resistance fighter during World War II (b. 1914) 1949 – Ignotus, Hungarian poet and author (b. 1869) 1954 – Colette, French novelist and journalist (b. 1873) 1958 – Peter Collins, English race car driver (b. 1931) 1959 – Herb Byrne, Australian footballer (b. 1887) 1961 – Hilda Rix Nicholas, Australian artist (b. 1884) 1964 – Flannery O'Connor, American short story writer and novelist (b. 1925) 1966 – Lenny Bruce, American comedian, actor, and screenwriter (b. 1925) 1968 – Konstantin Rokossovsky, Marshal of the Soviet Union during World War II (b. 1896) 1969 – Alexander Mair, Australian politician, 26th Premier of New South Wales (b. 1889) 1972 – Giannis Papaioannou, Turkish-Greek composer (b. 1913) 1973 – Richard Marshall, American general (b. 1895) 1974 – Edgar Johan Kuusik, Estonian architect and interior designer (b. 1901) 1977 – Makarios III, Cypriot archbishop and politician, 1st President of the Republic of Cyprus (b. 1913) 1977 – Alfred Lunt, American actor and director (b. 1892) 1979 – Bertil Ohlin, Swedish economist and politician, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1899) 1979 – Angelos Terzakis, Greek author and playwright (b. 1907) 1983 – Carolyn Jones, American actress (b. 1930) 1992 – Wang Hongwen, Chinese labor activist and politician, member of the Gang of Four (b. 1935) 1995 – Ida Lupino, English-American actress and director (b. 1918) 1995 – Edward Whittemore, American soldier and author (b. 1933) 1996 – Jørgen Garde, Danish admiral (b. 1939) 1997 – Pietro Rizzuto, Italian-Canadian lawyer and politician (b. 1934) 1998 – Alfred Schnittke, Russian composer and journalist (b. 1934) 1999 – Rod Ansell, Australian hunter (b. 1953) 1999 – Byron Farwell, American historian and author (b. 1921) 2000 – Joann Lõssov, Estonian basketball player and coach (b. 1921) 2001 – Christopher Hewett, English actor and director (b. 1922) 2003 – Roger Voudouris, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1908) 2005 – Françoise d'Eaubonne, French author and poet (b. 1920) 2006 – Arthur Lee, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1945) 2006 – Elisabeth Schwarzkopf, German-English soprano and actress (b. 1915) 2007 – John Gardner, English author (b. 1926) 2007 – Peter Thorup, Danish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (b. 1948) 2008 – Skip Caray, American sportscaster (b. 1939) 2008 – Erik Darling, American singer-songwriter (b. 1933) 2008 – Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn, Russian novelist, dramatist and historian, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1918) 2009 – Nikolaos Makarezos, Greek soldier and politician, Deputy Prime Minister of Greece (b. 1919) 2010 – Bobby Hebb, American singer-songwriter (b. 1938) 2011 – William Sleator, American author (b. 1945) 2011 – Bubba Smith, American football player and actor (b. 1945) 2012 – Frank Evans, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1921) 2012 – Martin Fleischmann, Czech-English chemist and academic (b. 1927) 2012 – Paul McCracken, American economist and academic (b. 1915) 2012 – John Pritchard, American basketball player (b. 1927) 2012 – George Shanard, American politician and agribusinessman (b. 1926) 2013 – John Coombs, English-Monegasque race car driver and businessman (b. 1922) 2013 – Jack English Hightower, American lawyer and politician (b. 1926) 2013 – Jack Hynes, Scottish-American soccer player and manager (b. 1920) 2014 – Miangul Aurangzeb, Pakistani captain and politician, 19th Governor of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (b. 1928) 2014 – Edward Clancy, Australian cardinal (b. 1923) 2014 – Dorothy Salisbury Davis, American author (b. 1916) 2014 – Kenny Drew, Jr., American pianist and composer (b. 1958) 2014 – Lydia Yu-Jose, Filipino political scientist and academic (b. 1944) 2015 – Robert Conquest, English-American historian, poet, and academic (b. 1917) 2015 – Mel Farr, American football player and businessman (b. 1944) 2015 – Coleen Gray, American actress (b. 1922) 2015 – Margot Loyola, Chilean singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1918) 2015 – Johanna Quandt, German businesswoman (b. 1926) 2015 – Jef Murray, American artist and author (b. 1960) 2020 – John Hume, Northern Irish politician (b. 1937) 2022 – Jackie Walorski, American politician (b. 1963) 2023 – Mark Margolis, American actor (b. 1939) 2023 – Bram Moolenaar, Dutch software engineer (b. 1961) 2024 – Yamini Krishnamurthy, Indian dancer (b. 1940) Holidays and observances Anniversary of the Killing of Pidjiguiti (Guinea-Bissau) Armed Forces Day (Equatorial Guinea) Christian feast day: George Freeman Bragg, W. E. B. Du Bois (Episcopal Church) Lydia of Thyatira Myrrhbearers (Lutheran Church) Nicodemus Olaf II of Norway (Translation of the relic) Stephen (Discovery of the relic) Waltheof of Melrose August 3 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Flag Day (Venezuela) Independence Day, celebrates the independence of Niger from France in 1960. Arbor Day (Niger) National Guard Day (Venezuela) References External links

Advanced Encryption Standard

The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), also known by its original name Rijndael , is a specification for the encryption of electronic data established by the U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) in 2001. AES is a variant of the Rijndael block cipher developed by two Belgian cryptographers, Joan Daemen and Vincent Rijmen, who submitted a proposal to NIST during the AES selection process. Rijndael is a family of ciphers with different key and block sizes. For AES, NIST selected three members of the Rijndael family, each with a block size of 128 bits, but three different key lengths: 128, 192 and 256 bits. AES has been adopted by the U.S. government. It supersedes the Data Encryption Standard (DES), which was published in 1977. The algorithm described by AES is a symmetric-key algorithm, meaning the same key is used for both encrypting and decrypting the data. In the United States, AES was announced by the NIST as U.S. FIPS PUB 197 (FIPS 197) on November 26, 2001. This announcement followed a five-year standardization process in which fifteen competing designs were presented and evaluated, before the Rijndael cipher was selected as the most suitable.See Advanced Encryption Standard process for more details. AES is included in the ISO/IEC 18033-3 standard. AES became effective as a U.S. federal government standard on May 26, 2002, after approval by U.S. Secretary of Commerce Donald Evans. AES is available in many different encryption packages, and is the first (and only) publicly accessible cipher approved by the U.S. National Security Agency (NSA) for top secret information when used in an NSA approved cryptographic module.See Security of AES below. Definitive standards The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) is defined in each of: FIPS PUB 197: Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) ISO/IEC 18033-3: Block ciphers Description of the ciphers AES is based on a design principle known as a substitution–permutation network, and is efficient in both software and hardware. Unlike its predecessor DES, AES does not use a Feistel network. AES is a variant of Rijndael, with a fixed block size of 128 bits, and a key size of 128, 192, or 256 bits. By contrast, Rijndael per se is specified with block and key sizes that may be any multiple of 32 bits, with a minimum of 128 and a maximum of 256 bits. Most AES calculations are done in a particular finite field. AES operates on a 4 × 4 column-major order array of 16 bytes termed the state:Large-block variants of Rijndael use an array with additional columns, but always four rows. The key size used for an AES cipher specifies the number of transformation rounds that convert the input, called the plaintext, into the final output, called the ciphertext. The number of rounds are as follows: 10 rounds for 128-bit keys. 12 rounds for 192-bit keys. 14 rounds for 256-bit keys. Each round consists of several processing steps, including one that depends on the encryption key itself. A set of reverse rounds are applied to transform ciphertext back into the original plaintext using the same encryption key. High-level description of the algorithm round keys are derived from the cipher key using the AES key schedule. AES requires a separate 128-bit round key block for each round plus one more. Initial round key addition: each byte of the state is combined with a byte of the round key using bitwise xor. 9, 11 or 13 rounds: a non-linear substitution step where each byte is replaced with another according to a lookup table. a transposition step where the last three rows of the state are shifted cyclically a certain number of steps. a linear mixing operation which operates on the columns of the state, combining the four bytes in each column. Final round (making 10, 12 or 14 rounds in total): The step right

April 26

Events Pre-1600 1336 – Francesco Petrarca (Petrarch) ascends Mont Ventoux. 1478 – The Pazzi family attack on Lorenzo de' Medici in order to displace the ruling Medici family kills his brother Giuliano during High Mass in Florence Cathedral. 1564 – Playwright William Shakespeare is baptized in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England (date of birth is unknown). 1601–1900 1607 – The Virginia Company colonists make landfall at Cape Henry. 1721 – A massive earthquake devastates the Iranian city of Tabriz. 1777 – Sybil Ludington, aged 16, allegedly rode to alert American colonial forces to the approach of the British regular forces 1794 – Battle of Beaumont during the Flanders Campaign of the War of the First Coalition. 1802 – Napoleon Bonaparte signs a general amnesty to allow all but about one thousand of the most notorious émigrés of the French Revolution to return to France. 1803 – Thousands of meteor fragments fall from the skies of L'Aigle, France; the event convinces European scientists that meteors exist. 1805 – First Barbary War: United States Marines captured Derne under the command of First Lieutenant Presley O'Bannon. 1865 – Union cavalry troopers corner and shoot dead John Wilkes Booth, assassin of President Abraham Lincoln, in Virginia. 1900 – Fires destroy Canadian cities Ottawa and Hull, reducing them to ashes in 12 hours. Twelve thousand people are left without a home.

Augustus

Gaius Julius Caesar Augustus (born Gaius Octavius; 23 September 63 BC – 19 August AD 14), also known as Octavian , was the founder of the Roman Empire. He reigned as the first Roman emperor from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. The reign of Augustus initiated an imperial cult, as well as an era of imperial peace (the or ) in which the Roman world was largely free of armed conflict. The Principate system of government was established during his reign and lasted until the Crisis of the Third Century. Octavian was born into an equestrian branch of the plebeian Octavia. His maternal great-uncle Julius Caesar was assassinated in 44 BC, and Octavian was named in Caesar's will as his adopted son and heir; as a result, he inherited Caesar's name, estate, and the loyalty of his legions. He, Mark Antony, and Marcus Lepidus formed the Second Triumvirate to defeat the assassins of Caesar. Following their victory at the Battle of Philippi (42 BC), the Triumvirate divided the Roman Republic among themselves and ruled as de facto dictators. The Triumvirate was eventually torn apart by the competing ambitions of its members; Lepidus was exiled in 36 BC, and Antony was defeated by Octavian at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC. Antony and his wife Cleopatra, the Ptolemaic queen of Egypt, killed themselves during Octavian's invasion of Egypt, which then became a Roman province. After the demise of the Second Triumvirate, Augustus restored the outward facade of the free republic, with governmental power vested in the Roman Senate, the executive magistrates and the legislative assemblies, yet he maintained autocratic authority by having the Senate grant him lifetime tenure as commander-in-chief, tribune and censor. A similar ambiguity is seen in his chosen names, the implied rejection of monarchical titles whereby he called himself 'First Citizen' juxtaposed with his adoption of the title Augustus. Augustus dramatically enlarged the empire, annexing Egypt, Dalmatia, Pannonia, Noricum, and Raetia, expanding possessions in Africa, and completing the conquest of Hispania, but he suffered a major setback in Germania. Beyond the frontiers, he secured the empire with a buffer region of client states and made peace with the Parthian Empire through diplomacy. He reformed the Roman system of taxation, developed networks of roads with an official courier system, established a standing army, established the Praetorian Guard as well as official police and fire-fighting services for Rome, and rebuilt much of the city during his reign. Augustus died in AD 14 at age 75, probably from natural causes. Persistent rumors, substantiated somewhat by deaths in the imperial family, have claimed his wife Livia poisoned him. He was succeeded as emperor by his adopted son Tiberius, Livia's son and former husband of Augustus's only biological child, Julia. Name As a consequence of Roman customs, society, and personal preference, Augustus was known by many names throughout his life: ( , ). According to Suetonius, the cognomen (, 'of Thurii') was added to his birth name as a toddler in 60 BC. Later, after he had taken the name of Caesar, his rival Mark Antony referred to him as in order to belittle him. In response, he merely said he was surprised that "using his old name was thought to be an insult". After his adoption by Julius Caesar on the latter's death in 44 BC, he took Caesar's nomen and cognomen. He was often distinguished by historians from his adoptive father by the addition after the name, denoting that he was a former member of the gens Octavia in conformance with Roman naming conventions. There is no evidence that Augustus did this himself, although Cicero seems to have (see below). In English he is mainly known by the anglicisation "Octavian" for the period between 44 and 27 BC. 'Commander-in-Chief Caesar'. Octavian's early coins and inscriptions all refer to him simply as Gaius Caesar, but by 38 BC he had replaced with the victory title 'commander'. The use of signified a permanent link to the Roman tradition of victory. He transformed , a cognomen for one branch of the Julian family, into a new family line that began with him. Occasionally the epithet or 'son of the divine Julius' was included, alluding to Julius Caesar's deification in 42 BC. On 16 January 27 BC, partly on his own insistence, the Roman Senate granted him the honorific (see below). Historians use this name to refer to him from 27 BC until his death in AD 14. The name is sometimes given as "Augustus Caesar". Also included at times is and the title . Early life He was born in Rome on 23 September 63 BC. His paternal family was from the Volscian town of Velletri, approximately south-east of the city.Day and month according to the Roman calendar, see Suetonius (1914), § 5, footnote a He was born at Ox Head, a small property on the Palatine Hill, very close to the Roman Forum. In his childhood, he received the cognomen "Thurinus", possibly commemorating his father's victory at Thurii over a rebellious band of slaves which occurred a few years after his birth. Suetonius wrote: "There are many indications that the Octavian family was in days of old a distinguished one at Velitrae; for not only was a street in the most frequented part of town long ago called Octavius, but an altar was shown there besides, consecrated by an Octavius. This man was leader in a war with a neighbouring town ..." Due to the crowded nature of Rome at the time, Octavian was taken to his father's home village at Velletri to be raised. Octavian mentions his father's equestrian family only briefly in his memoirs. His paternal great-grandfather Octavius was a military tribune in Sicily during the Second Punic War. His grandfather had served in several local political offices. His father, also named Octavius, had been governor of Macedonia. His mother, Atia, was the niece of Julius Caesar.

Geography of Antarctica

The geography of Antarctica is dominated by its south polar location and, thus, by ice. The Antarctic continent, located in the Earth's southern hemisphere, is centered asymmetrically around the South Pole and largely south of the Antarctic Circle. It is washed by the Southern (or Antarctic) Ocean or, depending on definition, the southern Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. It has an area of more than 14.2 million km2. Antarctica is the largest ice desert in the world. Some 98% of Antarctica is covered by the Antarctic ice sheet, the world's largest ice sheet and also its largest reservoir of fresh water. Averaging at least 1.6 km thick, the ice is so massive that it has depressed the continental bedrock in some areas more than 2.5 km below sea level; subglacial lakes of liquid water also occur (e.g., Lake Vostok). Ice shelves and rises populate the ice sheet on the periphery. The present Antarctic ice sheet accounts for 90 percent of Earth's total ice volume and 70 percent of its fresh water. It houses enough water to raise global sea level by 200 ft. In September 2018, researchers at the National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency released a high resolution terrain map (detail down to the size of a car, and less in some areas) of Antarctica, named the "Reference Elevation Model of Antarctica" (REMA).

List of governors of Alabama

The governor of Alabama is the head of government of the U.S. state of Alabama. The governor is the head of the executive branch of Alabama's state government and is charged with enforcing state laws. There have officially been 54 governors of the state of Alabama; this official numbering skips acting and military governors. The first governor, William Wyatt Bibb, served as the only governor of the Alabama Territory. Five people have served as acting governor, bringing the total number of people serving as governor to 59, spread over 63 distinct terms. Four governors have served multiple non-consecutive terms: Bibb Graves, Jim Folsom, and Fob James each served two, and George Wallace served three non-consecutive periods. Officially, these non-consecutive terms are numbered only with the number of their first term. William D. Jelks also served non-consecutive terms, but his first term was in an acting capacity. The longest-serving governor was George Wallace, who served 16 years over four terms. The shortest term for a non-acting governor was that of Hugh McVay, who served four and a half months after replacing the resigning Clement Comer Clay. Lurleen Wallace, the first wife of George Wallace, was the first woman to serve as governor of Alabama, and the third woman to serve as governor of any state. The current governor is Republican Kay Ivey, who took office on April 10, 2017 following Robert J. Bentley's resignation amidst a corruption scandal. She is the second female governor of Alabama. List of governors Territory of Alabama Alabama Territory was formed on March 3, 1817, from Mississippi Territory. It had only one governor appointed by the President of the United States before it became a state; he became the first state governor.

Alfred Lawson

Alfred William Lawson (March 24, 1869 – November 29, 1954) was an English-born professional baseball player, aviator, and utopian philosopher. He played baseball, managed and promoted leagues from 1887 through 1916, and pioneered the U.S. aircraft industry. He also published two early aviation trade journals. Lawson is frequently cited as the inventor of the airliner and received several of the first air mail contracts, which he ultimately did not fulfill. He founded the Lawson Aircraft Company in Green Bay, Wisconsin, to build military training aircraft and later the Lawson Airplane Company in South Milwaukee, Wisconsin, to build airliners.Wisconsin Aviation Hall of Fame. Hall of Fame Inductee: Alfred W. Lawson. The crash of his ambitious Lawson L-4 "Midnight Liner" during its trial flight takeoff on May 8, 1921, ended his best chance for commercial aviation success. In 1904, he wrote a utopian novel, Born Again,Alfred Lawson. Born Again. Wox & Conrad: New York, 1904. (Online at Project Gutenberg) in which he developed the philosophy which later became Lawsonomy. Baseball career (1888–1907) Lawson made one start for the Boston Beaneaters and two for the Pittsburgh Alleghenys during the 1890 season. His minor league playing career lasted through 1895. Lawson later managed in the minors from 1905 to 1907. Union Professional League In 1908, Lawson started a new professional baseball league called the Union Professional League. The league took the field in April but folded one month later because of financial difficulties. Aviation career (1908–1928) An early aviation advocate, in October 1908, Lawson started the magazine Fly to stimulate public interest and educate readers on the new aviation science fundamentals. It sold for 10 cents a copy from newsstands across the country. In 1910, moving to New York City, he renamed the magazine Aircraft and published it until 1914. The magazine chronicled the technical developments of the early aviation pioneers. Lawson was the first advocate for commercial air travel, coining the term "airline." He also advocated for a strong American flying force, lobbying Congress in 1913 to expand its appropriations for Army aircraft. In early 1913, Lawson learned to fly the Sloan-Deperdussin and the Moisant-Bleriot monoplanes, becoming an accomplished pilot. Later that year, he bought a Thomas flying boat and became the first air commuter to regularly fly from his country house in Seidler's Beach, New Jersey, to the foot of 75th Street in New York City (about 35 miles). In 1917, utilizing the knowledge gained from ten years of advocating aviation, he built his first airplane, the Lawson Military Tractor 1 (MT-1) trainer, and founded the Lawson Aircraft Corporation. The company's plant was in Green Bay, Wisconsin. There, Lawson secured a contract and built the Lawson MT-2. He also designed the steel fuselage Lawson Armored Battler, which never got beyond the drafting board, given doubts within the Army aviation community and the signing of the armistice.

Ames, Iowa

Ames is a city in Story County, Iowa, United States, located approximately north of Des Moines in central Iowa. It is the home of Iowa State University (ISU). According to the 2020 census, Ames had a population of 66,427, making it the state's ninth-most populous city. Iowa State University was home to 30,177 students as of fall 2023, which make up approximately one half of the city's population. A United States Department of Energy national laboratory, Ames Laboratory, is located on the ISU campus. Ames also hosts United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) sites: the largest federal animal disease center in the United States, the USDA Agricultural Research Service's National Animal Disease Center (NADC), as well as one of two national USDA sites for the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), which comprises the National Veterinary Services Laboratory and the Center for Veterinary Biologics. Ames also hosts the headquarters of the Iowa Department of Transportation. History The city was founded in 1864 as a station stop on the Cedar Rapids and Missouri Railroad and was named after 19th century U.S. Congressman Oakes Ames of Massachusetts, who was influential in the building of the transcontinental railroad. Ames was founded by local resident Cynthia Olive Duff (née Kellogg) and railroad magnate John Insley Blair, near a location that was deemed favorable for a railroad crossing of the Skunk River and Ioway Creek. William West (1821-1919) became the first mayor of Ames in 1870. With his wife Harriet, from 1869 to 1892, he ran Ames's first hotel, known as West House, on Douglas Avenue on the site of the present Octagon Center for the Arts. West was a highly-respected pioneer businessman who also served on the Ames School Board in the 1880s when Central School was built on the site of the present Ames City Hall on Clark Avenue and Sixth Street. The Wests raised several daughters and sons. William West spent the last of his life living with his son in northwest Iowa. Geography Ames is located along the western edge of Story County, roughly north of the state capital, Des Moines, near the intersection of Interstate 35 and U.S. Route 30. A smaller highway, U.S. Route 69, passes through the town from north to south. Also passing through Ames is the cross country line of the Union Pacific Railroad and two small streams (the South Skunk River and Ioway Creek). According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and is water. Campustown Campustown is the neighborhood directly south of Iowa State University Central Campus bordered by Lincoln Way on the north. Campustown is a high-density mixed-use neighborhood that is home to many student apartments, nightlife venues, restaurants, and numerous other establishments, most of which are unique to Ames. Climate Ames has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa). On average, the warmest month is July and the coldest is January. The highest recorded temperature was on July 24, 1901, and the lowest was January 25, 1894.

Abdominal surgery

The term abdominal surgery broadly covers surgical procedures that involve opening the abdomen (laparotomy). Surgery of each abdominal organ is dealt with separately in connection with the description of that organ (see stomach, kidney, liver, etc.) Diseases affecting the abdominal cavity are dealt with generally under their own names. Types The most common abdominal surgeries are described below. Appendectomy: surgical opening of the abdominal cavity and removal of the appendix. Typically performed as definitive treatment for appendicitis, although sometimes the appendix is prophylactically removed incidental to another abdominal procedure. Caesarean section (also known as C-section): a surgical procedure in which one or more incisions are made through a mother's abdomen (laparotomy) and uterus (hysterotomy) to deliver one or more babies, or, rarely, to remove a dead fetus. Inguinal hernia surgery: the repair of an inguinal hernia. Exploratory laparotomy: the opening of the abdominal cavity for direct examination of its contents; for example, to locate a source of bleeding or trauma. It may or may not be followed by repair or removal of the primary problem. Laparoscopy: a minimally invasive approach to abdominal surgery where rigid tubes are inserted through small incisions into the abdominal cavity. The tubes allow introduction of a small camera, surgical instruments, and gases into the cavity for direct or indirect visualization and treatment of the abdomen. The abdomen is inflated with carbon dioxide gas to facilitate visualization and, often, a small video camera is used to show the procedure on a monitor in the operating room. The surgeon manipulates instruments within the abdominal cavity to perform procedures such as cholecystectomy (gallbladder removal), the most common laparoscopic procedure. The laparoscopic method speeds recovery time and reduces blood loss and infection as compared to the traditional "open" method. Complications Complications of abdominal surgery include, but are not limited to: Adhesions (also called scar tissue): complications of postoperative adhesion formation are frequent, they have a large negative effect on patients’ health, and increase workload in clinical practice Bleeding Infection Paralytic ileus: short-term paralysis of the bowel Perioperative mortality, any death occurring within 30 days after surgery Shock Sterile technique, aseptic post-operative care, antibiotics, use of the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist, and vigilant post-operative monitoring greatly reduce the risk of these complications. Planned surgery performed under sterile conditions is much less risky than that performed under emergency or unsterile conditions. The contents of the bowel are unsterile, and thus leakage of bowel contents, as from trauma, substantially increases the risk of infection. Globally, there are few studies comparing perioperative mortality following abdominal surgery across different health systems. One major prospective study of 10,745 adult patients undergoing emergency laparotomy from 357 centres in 58 high-, middle-, and low-income countries found that mortality is three times higher in low- compared with high-HDI countries even when adjusted for prognostic factors. In this study the overall global mortality rate was 1.6 percent at 24 hours (high 1.1 percent, middle 1.9 percent, low 3.4 percent), increasing to 5.4 percent by 30 days (high 4.5 percent, middle 6.0 percent, low 8.6 percent). Of the 578 patients who died, 404 (69.9 percent) did so between 24 hours and 30 days following surgery (high 74.2 percent, middle 68.8 percent, low 60.5 percent). Patient safety factors were suggested to play an important role, with use of the WHO Surgical Safety Checklist associated with reduced mortality at 30 days. Taking a similar approach, a unique global study of 1,409 children undergoing emergency laparotomy from 253 centres in 43 countries showed that adjusted mortality in children following surgery may be as high as 7 times greater in low-HDI and middle-HDI countries compared with high-HDI countries, translating to 40 excess deaths per 1,000 procedures performed in these settings. Internationally, the most common operations performed were appendectomy, small bowel resection, pyloromyotomy and correction of intussusception. After adjustment for patient and hospital risk factors, child mortality at 30 days was significantly higher in low-HDI (adjusted OR 7.14 (95% CI 2.52 to 20.23)) and middle-HDI (4.42 (1.44 to 13.56)) countries compared with high-HDI countries. Absorption of drugs administered orally was shown to be significantly affected following abdominal surgery. There is low-certainty evidence that there is no difference between using scalpel and electrosurgery in infection rates during major abdominal surgeries. See also Abdominoplasty ASA physical status classification system or perioperative physical fitness Diabetes General surgery Laparotomy Low-fiber/low-residue diet Perioperative mortality References

Abduction

Abduction may refer to: Media Film and television "Abduction" (The Outer Limits), a 2001 television episode "Abduction", a 2007 episode of Death Note "Abductions", a 2002 episode of Totally Spies! "The Abduction" (Alias), a 2002 episode of an American television series "The Abduction" (Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman), a 1994 episode of an American television series Abduction (1975 film), directed by Joseph Zito Abduction (1997 film), directed by Takao Okawara Abduction (2011 film), directed by John Singleton Abduction (2019 film), directed by Ernie Barbarash Abduction: The Megumi Yokota Story, a 2005 American documentary film The Abduction, a 1996 TV movie starring Victoria Principal and Robert Hays Literature Abduction (novel), a 2000 novel by Robin Cook Abduction!, a 2004 novel by Peg Kehret The Abduction, a 1987 novel (Norwegian title Bortførelsen) by Mette Newth The Abduction, a 1998 novel by J. Robert King Music "Abduction", a 2005 song by Iron Maiden vocalist Bruce Dickinson, from the album Tyranny of Souls Abduction, a music label run by members of Sun City Girls Of a person or people Alien abduction, phenomenon of people reporting what they believe to be the real experience of being kidnapped by extraterrestrial beings Bride kidnapping, a practice in which a man abducts the woman he wishes to marry Child abduction, unauthorized removal of a minor from the custody of their guardian(s) Express kidnapping, abduction where a small immediate ransom is demanded International child abduction, form of human trafficking Kidnapping, unlawful confinement of a person against their will Raptio, large-scale abduction of women Tiger kidnapping, taking a hostage to force a loved one or associate of the victim to do something Sciences Abduction (anatomy), a type of movement that draws a structure or limb away from the median plane of the body Abductive reasoning, a method of reasoning in logic See also Abducted (disambiguation) Abductor (disambiguation

The Alan Parsons Project

The Alan Parsons Project were a British rock band formed in London in 1975. Its core membership consisted of producer, audio engineer, musician and composer Alan Parsons, and singer, songwriter and pianist Eric Woolfson. They shared writing credits on almost all of their songs, with Parsons producing or co-producing all of the recordings, while being accompanied by various session musicians, some relatively consistent. The Alan Parsons Project released eleven studio albums over a 15-year career, the most successful ones being I Robot (1977), The Turn of a Friendly Card (1980) and Eye in the Sky (1982). Many of their albums are conceptual in nature and focus on science fiction, supernatural, literary and sociological themes. Among the group's most popular songs are "I Wouldn't Want to Be Like You", "Games People Play", "Time", "Sirius", "Eye in the Sky", and "Don't Answer Me". Career 1974–1976: Formation and debut Alan Parsons met Eric Woolfson in the canteen of Abbey Road Studios in the summer of 1974. Parsons was assistant engineer on the Beatles' albums Abbey Road (1969) and Let It Be (1970), engineered Pink Floyd's The Dark Side of the Moon (1973), and produced several acts for EMI Records. Woolfson, a songwriter and composer, was working as a session pianist while composing material for a concept album based on the work of Edgar Allan Poe. Woolfson's idea was to manage Alan and help his already successful production career. It was the start of a longstanding friendly business relationship. He managed Parsons's career as a producer and engineer through a string of successes, including Pilot, Steve Harley, Cockney Rebel, John Miles, Al Stewart, Ambrosia, and the Hollies. Woolfson came up with the idea of making an album based on developments in the film industry—the focal point of the films' promotion shifted from film stars to directors such as Alfred Hitchcock and Stanley Kubrick. If the film industry was becoming a director's medium, Woolfson felt the music business might well become a producer's medium. Recalling his earlier Edgar Allan Poe material, Woolfson saw a way to combine his and Parsons's talents. Parsons produced and engineered songs written and composed by the two, and the first Alan Parsons Project was begun. The Project's first album, Tales of Mystery and Imagination (1976), released by 20th Century Fox Records and including major contributions by all members of Pilot and Ambrosia, was a success, reaching the Top 40 in the US Billboard 200 chart. The song "The Raven" featured lead vocals by the actor Leonard Whiting. According to the 2007 re-mastered album liner notes, this was the first rock song to use a vocoder, with Alan Parsons speaking lyrics through it, although others such as Bruce Haack pioneered this field in the previous decade. 1977–1990: Mainstream success and final releases Arista Records then signed the Alan Parsons Project for further albums. Through the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Project's popularity continued to grow. The Project was always more popular in North America, Ibero-America, and Continental Europe than in Parsons' home country, never achieving a UK Top 40 single or Top 20 album. The singles "I Wouldn't Want to Be Like You", "Games People Play", "Damned If I Do", "Time" (the first single to feature Woolfson's lead vocal) and "Eye in the Sky" had a notable impact on the Billboard Hot 100. "Don't Answer Me" became the Project's last successful single in the United States; it reached the top 15 on the American charts in 1984. After those successes, the Project began to fade from view. There were fewer hit singles, and declining album sales. 1987's Gaudi was the Project's final release, though it had planned to record an album called Freudiana (1990) next. The musical Freudiana Even though the studio version of Freudiana was produced by Parsons (and featured the regular Project session musicians, making it an 'unofficial' Project album), it was primarily Woolfson's idea to turn it into a musical. While Parsons pursued his own solo career and took many session players of the Project on the road for the first time in a successful worldwide tour, Woolfson went on to produce musical plays influenced by the Project's music. Freudiana, Gaudi, and Gambler were three musicals that included some Project songs like "Eye in the Sky", "Time", "Inside Looking Out", and "Limelight". The live music from Gambler was only distributed at the performance site in Mönchengladbach, Germany. The Sicilian Defence In 1979, Parsons, Woolfson, and their record label Arista, had been stalled in contract renegotiations when the two submitted an all-instrumental album tentatively titled The Sicilian Defence, named after an aggressive opening move in chess. Arista's refusal to release the album had two known effects: the negotiations led to a renewed contract, and the album was not released at that time. In interviews he gave before his death in 2009, Woolfson said he planned to release one track from the "Sicilian" album, which in 2008 appeared as a bonus track on a CD re-issue of the Eve album. Sometime later, after he had relocated the original tapes, Parsons reluctantly agreed to release the album and announced that it would finally be released on an upcoming Project box set called The Complete Albums Collection in 2014 for the first time as a bonus disc. Parsons's and Woolfson's solo careers Parsons released titles under his name: Try Anything Once (1993), On Air (1996), The Time Machine (1999), A Valid Path (2004), The Secret (2019) and From the New World (2022). Meanwhile, Woolfson made concept albums titled Freudiana (1990), about Sigmund Freud's work on psychology, and Poe: More Tales of Mystery and Imagination (2003), continuing from the Alan Parsons Project's first album about Poe literature. Tales of Mystery and Imagination (1976) was re-mixed in 1987 for release on CD, and included narration by Orson Welles recorded in 1975, but delivered too late to be included on the original album. For the 2007 deluxe edition release, parts of this tape were used for the 1976 Griffith Park Planetarium launch of the original album, the 1987 remix, and various radio spots. All were included as bonus material. Sound The band's sound is described as progressive rock, art rock, progressive pop, and soft rock. "Sirius" is their best-known and most-frequently heard of all Parsons/Woolfson songs. It was used as entrance music by various American sports teams, notably by the Chicago Bulls during their 1990s NBA dynasty. It was also used as the entrance theme for Ricky Steamboat in pro wrestling of the mid-1980s. In addition, "Sirius" is played in a variety of TV shows and movies including the BBC series Record Breakers, the episode "Vanishing Act" of The Adventures of Jimmy Neutron: Boy Genius and the 2009 film Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs. Vocal duties were shared by guests to complement each song. In later years, Woolfson sang lead on many of the group's hits, including "Time", "Eye in the Sky", and "Don't Answer Me". The record company pressured Parsons to use Woolfson more, but Parsons preferred to use polished proficient singers; Woolfson admitted he was not in that category. In addition to Woolfson, vocalists Chris Rainbow, Lenny Zakatek, John Miles, David Paton, and Colin Blunstone are regulars. Other singers, such as Arthur Brown, Steve Harley, Gary Brooker, Dave Terry a.k.a. Elmer Gantry, Vitamin Z's Geoff Barradale, and Marmalade's Dean Ford, recorded only once or twice with the Project. Parsons sang lead on one song ("The Raven") through a vocoder and backing on a few others, including "To One in Paradise". Both of those songs appeared on Tales of Mystery and Imagination (1976). Parsons also sings a prominent counter melody on "Time". A variety of session musicians worked with the Alan Parsons Project regularly, contributing to the recognizable style of a song despite the varied singer line-up. With Parsons and Woolfson, the studio band consisted of the group Pilot, with Ian Bairnson (guitar), David Paton (bass) and Stuart Tosh (drums). Pilot's keyboardist Billy Lyall contributed. From Pyramid (1978) onward, Tosh was replaced by Stuart Elliott of Cockney Rebel. Bairnson played on all albums, and Paton stayed almost until the end. Andrew Powell appeared as arranger of orchestra (and often choirs) on all albums except Vulture Culture (1985); he was composing the score of Richard Donner's film Ladyhawke (1985). This score was partly in the APP style, recorded by most of the APP regulars, and produced and engineered by Parsons. Powell composed some material for the first two Project albums. For Vulture Culture and later, Richard Cottle played as a regular contributor on synthesizers and saxophone.

Almost all

In mathematics, the term "almost all" means "all but a negligible quantity". More precisely, if is a set, "almost all elements of " means "all elements of but those in a negligible subset of ". The meaning of "negligible" depends on the mathematical context; for instance, it can mean finite, countable, or null. In contrast, "almost no" means "a negligible quantity"; that is, "almost no elements of " means "a negligible quantity of elements of ". Meanings in different areas of mathematics Prevalent meaning Throughout mathematics, "almost all" is sometimes used to mean "all (elements of an infinite set) except for finitely many". This use occurs in philosophy as well. Similarly, "almost all" can mean "all (elements of an uncountable set) except for countably many". Examples: Almost all positive integers are greater than 1012. Almost all prime numbers are odd (2 is the only exception). Almost all polyhedra are irregular (as there are only nine exceptions: the five platonic solids and the four Kepler–Poinsot polyhedra). If P is a nonzero polynomial, then P(x) ≠ 0 for almost all x (if not all x).

Annales school

The Annales school is a group of historians associated with a style of historiography developed by French historians in the 20th century to stress long-term social history. It is named after its scholarly journal Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, which remains the main source of scholarship, along with many books and monographs.See for recent issues The school has been influential in setting the agenda for historiography in France and numerous other countries, especially regarding the use of social scientific methods by historians, emphasizing social and economic rather than political or diplomatic themes. The school deals primarily with late medieval and early modern Europe (before the French Revolution), with little interest in later topics. It has dominated French social history and heavily influenced historiography in Europe and Latin America. Prominent leaders include co-founders Lucien Febvre (1878–1956), Henri Hauser (1866–1946) and Marc Bloch (1886–1944). The second generation was led by Fernand Braudel (1902–1985) and included Georges Duby (1919–1996), Pierre Goubert (1915–2012), Robert Mandrou (1921–1984), Pierre Chaunu (1923–2009), Jacques Le Goff (1924–2014), and Ernest Labrousse (1895–1988). Institutionally it is based on the Annales journal, the SEVPEN publishing house, the (FMSH), and especially the 6th Section of the École pratique des hautes études, all based in Paris. A third generation was led by Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie (1929–2023) and includes Jacques Revel,Since 1978, Revel has taught at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (Paris), where he is (full professor); he served as president of the École from 1995 to 2004. and Philippe Ariès (1914–1984), who joined the group in 1978. The third generation stressed history from the point of view of mentalities, or . The fourth generation of Annales historians, led by Roger Chartier (born 1945), clearly distanced itself from the approach, replaced by the cultural and linguistic turn, which emphasizes the social history of cultural practices. The main scholarly outlet has been the journal ("Annals of Economic and Social History"), founded in 1929 by Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch, which broke radically with traditional historiography by insisting on the importance of taking all levels of society into consideration and emphasized the collective nature of mentalities. Its contributors viewed events as less fundamental than the mental frameworks that shaped decisions and practices. However, informal successor as head of the school was Le Roy Ladurie. Multiple responses were attempted by the school. Scholars moved in multiple directions, covering in disconnected fashion the social, economic, and cultural history of different eras and different parts of the globe. By the time of the crisis the school was building a vast publishing and research network reaching across France, Europe, and the rest of the world. Influence spread out from Paris, but few new ideas came in. Much emphasis was given to quantitative data, seen as the key to unlocking all of social history.One of numerous spin-off journals was (1986– ), devoted to quantitative history. However, the Annales ignored the developments in quantitative studies underway in the U.S. and Britain, which reshaped economic, political, and demographic research. An attempt to require an Annales-written textbook for French schools was rejected by the government.Hunt (1986) By 1980 postmodern sensibilities undercut confidence in overarching metanarratives. As Jacques Revel notes, the success of the Annales school, especially its use of social structures as explanatory forces, contained the seeds of its own downfall, for there is "no longer any implicit consensus on which to base the unity of the social, identified with the real".Jacques Revel and Lynn Hunt, "Microanalysis and the Construction of the Social", in Histories: French Constructions of the Past, ed. by Jacques Revel and Lynn Hunt (1995) 480. The Annales school kept its infrastructure, but lost its .On the decline of Annales, see Hunt (1986); for a summary of the movement, see Burke, French Historical Revolution, 106–107. The journal The journal began in Strasbourg as ; it moved to Paris and kept the same name from 1929 to 1939. In 1962, Braudel and Gaston Berger used Ford Foundation money and government funds to create a new independent foundation, the (FMSH), which Braudel directed from 1970 until his death. In 1970, the 6th Section and the Annales relocated to the FMSH building. FMSH set up elaborate international networks to spread the Annales gospel across Europe and the world. In 2013, it began publication of an English language edition, with all the articles translated. The scope of topics covered by the journal is vast and experimental—there is a search for total history and new approaches. The emphasis is on social history, and very long-term trends, often using quantification and paying special attention to geographySee Lucien Febvre, (1922), translated as A Geographical Introduction to History (London, 1932). and to the intellectual world view of common people, or "mentality" . Little attention is paid to political, diplomatic, or military history, or to biographies of famous men. Instead the Annales focused attention on the synthesizing of historical patterns identified from social, economic, and cultural history, statistics, medical reports, family studies, and even psychoanalysis. Origins The Annales was founded and edited by Marc Bloch and Lucien Febvre in 1929, while they were teaching at the University of Strasbourg and later in Paris. These authors, the former a medieval historian and the latter an early modernist, quickly became associated with the distinctive Annales approach, which combined geography, history, and the sociological approaches of the (many members of which were their colleagues at Strasbourg) to produce an approach which rejected the predominant emphasis on politics, diplomacy and war of many 19th and early 20th-century historians as spearheaded by historians whom Febvre called Les Sorbonnistes. Instead, they pioneered an approach to a study of long-term historical structures over events and political transformations.Colin Jones, "Olwen Hufton's 'Poor', Richard Cobb's 'People', and the Notions of the longue durée in French Revolutionary Historiography", Past & Present, 2006 Supplement (Volume 1), pp. 178–203 in Project Muse Geography, material culture, and what later Annalistes called , or the psychology of the epoch, are also characteristic areas of study. The goal of the Annales was to undo the work of the Sorbonnistes, to turn French historians away from the narrowly political and diplomatic toward the new vistas in social and economic history.J.H. Hexter, "Fernand Braudel and the Monde Braudellien", Historians, pp. 61 Co-founder Marc Bloch (1886–1944) was a quintessential modernist who studied at the elite École Normale Supérieure, and in Germany, serving as a professor at the University of Strasbourg until he was called to the Sorbonne in Paris in 1936 as professor of economic history. Bloch's interests were highly interdisciplinary, influenced by the geography of Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845–1918) and the sociology of Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). His own ideas, especially those expressed in his masterworks, French Rural History (, 1931) and Feudal Society, were incorporated by the second-generation Annalistes, led by Fernand Braudel. Precepts Georges Duby, a leader of the school, wrote that the history he taught: relegated the sensational to the sidelines and was reluctant to give a simple accounting of events, but strove on the contrary to pose and solve problems and, neglecting surface disturbances, to observe the long and medium-term evolution of economy, society and civilisation.Georges Duby, Le dimanche de Bouvines (1973), forward The Annalistes, especially Lucien Febvre, advocated a , or , a complete study of a historic problem. Postwar Bloch was shot by the Gestapo during the German occupation of France in World War II for his active membership of the French Resistance, and Febvre carried on the Annales approach in the 1940s and 1950s. It was during this time that he mentored Braudel, who would become one of the best-known exponents of this school. Braudel's work came to define a "second" era of Annales historiography and was influential throughout the 1960s and 1970s, especially for his work on the Mediterranean region in the era of Philip II of Spain. Braudel developed the idea, often associated with Annalistes, of different modes of historical time: (the quasi motionless history) of historical geography, the history of social, political and economic structures , and the history of men and events, in the context of their structures. While authors such as Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Marc Ferro and Jacques Le Goff continue to carry the Annales banner, today the Annales approach has been less distinctive as more and more historians do work in cultural history, political history and economic history. Bloch's (1924)Translated as The Royal Touch: Monarchy and Miracles in France and England (1990) looked at the long-standing folk belief that the king could cure scrofula by his thaumaturgic touch. The kings of France and England indeed regularly practiced the ritual. Bloch was not concerned with the effectiveness of the royal touch—he acted instead like an anthropologist in asking why people believed it and how it shaped relations between king and commoner. The book was highly influential in introducing comparative studies (in this case France and England), as well as long durations ("longue durée") studies spanning several centuries, even up to a thousand years, downplaying short-term events. Bloch's revolutionary charting of mentalities, or , resonated with scholars who were reading Freud and Proust. In the 1960s, Robert Mandrou and Georges Duby harmonized the concept of history with Fernand Braudel's structures of historical time and linked mentalities with changing social conditions. A flood of studies based on these approaches appeared during the 1970s and 1980s. By the 1990s, however, history had become interdisciplinary to the point of fragmentation, but still lacked a solid theoretical basis. While not explicitly rejecting history, younger historians increasingly turned to other approaches. Braudel Fernand Braudel became the leader of the second generation after 1945. He obtained funding from the Rockefeller Foundation in New York and founded the 6th Section of the Ecole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, which was devoted to the study of history and the social sciences. It became an independent degree-granting institution in 1975 under the name École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales (EHESS). Braudel's followers admired his use of the approach to stress slow, and often imperceptible effects of space, climate and technology on the actions of human beings in the past. The Annales historians, after living through two world wars and incredible political upheavals in France, were deeply uncomfortable with the notion that multiple ruptures and discontinuities created history. They preferred to stress inertia and the longue durée. Special attention was paid to geography, climate, and demography as long-term factors. They believed the continuities of the deepest structures were central to history, beside which upheavals in institutions or the superstructure of social life were of little significance, for history lies beyond the reach of conscious actors, especially the will of revolutionaries. They rejected the Marxist idea that history should be used as a tool to foment and foster revolutions. In turn the Marxists called them conservatives.Olivia Harris, "Braudel: Historical Time and the Horror of Discontinuity". Fulltext: OUP. Only Ariès was a true conservative—indeed a royalist. Braudel's first book, (1949) (The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II) was his most influential. This vast panoramic view used ideas from other social sciences, employed effectively the technique of the longue durée, and downplayed the importance of specific events and individuals. It stressed geography but not . It was widely admired, but most historians did not try to replicate it and instead focused on their specialized monographs. In 1951, historian Bernard Bailyn published a critique of , which he framed as dichotomizing politics and society. Regionalism Before Annales, French history supposedly happened in Paris. Febvre broke decisively with this paradigm in 1912, with his sweeping doctoral thesis on . The geography and social structure of this region overwhelmed and shaped the king's policies. The Annales historians did not try to replicate Braudel's vast geographical scope in . Instead they focused on regions in France over long stretches of time. The most important was the study of The Peasants of Languedoc by Braudel's star pupil and successor Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie.Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, The Peasants of Languedoc, (1966, translated 1977) excerpt and text search The regionalist tradition flourished especially in the 1960s and 1970s in the work of Pierre Goubert in 1960 on Beauvais and René Baehrel on Basse-Provence. Annales historians in the 1970s and 1980s turned to urban regions, including Pierre Deyon (Amiens), Maurice Garden (Lyon), Jean-Pierre Bardet (Rouen), Georges Freche (Toulouse), Gregory Hanlon (Agen and Layrac), and Jean-Claude Perrot (Caen). By the 1970s the shift was underway from the earlier economic history to cultural history and the history of mentalities.Ernst Hinrichs, "Provinzen, Landschaften, Regionen in Der Modernen Französischen Geschichtswissenschaft – Ein Essay", Blätter Für Deutsche Landesgeschichte 1994 130: 1–12. Fulltext: online edition Impact outside France The Annales school systematically reached out to create an impact on other countries. Its success varied widely.Burke, French Historical Revolution (1990) ch 5. The Annales approach was especially well received in Italy and Poland. Franciszek Bujak (1875–1953) and Jan Rutkowski (1886–1949), the founders of modern economic history in Poland and of the journal (1931– ), were attracted to the innovations of the Annales school. Rutkowski was in contact with Bloch and others, and published in the Annales. After the Communists took control in the 1940s Polish scholars were safer working on the Middle Ages and the early modern era rather than contemporary history. After the "Polish October" of 1956 the Sixth Section in Paris welcomed Polish historians and exchanges between the circle of the Annales and Polish scholars continued until the early 1980s. The reciprocal influence between the French school and Polish historiography was particularly evident in studies on the Middle Ages and the early modern era studied by Braudel.Anita Krystyna Shelton, The Democratic Idea in Polish History and Historiography (1989). Even the Marxist journal , founded in 1953, had an Annales flavor. In South America the Annales approach became popular. From the 1950s Federico Brito Figueroa was the founder of a new Venezuelan historiography based largely on the ideas of the Annales School. Brito Figueroa carried his conception of the field to all levels of university study, emphasizing a systematic and scientific approach to history and placing it squarely in the social sciences. Spanish historiography was influenced by the "Annales School" starting in 1950 with Jaume Vicens Vives (1910–1960).Nil Santiáñez-Tió, "Temporalidad y discurso histórico: Propuesta de una renovación metodológica de la historia de la literatura española moderna". [Temporality and Historical Discourse: Proposal of a Methodological Renewal of the History of Modern Spanish Literature]. Fulltext: in Jstor In Mexico, exiled Republican intellectuals extended the Annales approach, particularly from the Center for Historical Studies of El Colegio de México, the leading graduate studies institution of Latin America. British historians, apart from a few Marxists, were generally hostile. Academic historians decidedly sided with Geoffrey Elton's The Practice of History against Edward Hallett Carr's What Is History? One of the few British historians who were sympathetic towards the work of the Annales school was Hugh Trevor-Roper. Among American academics, founding in American history of technology Lynn White Jr. dedicated his seminal and controversial book Medieval Technology and Social Change to Annales founder Marc Bloch. Both the American and the Annales historians picked up important family reconstitution techniques from French demographer Louis Henry.Burke, French Historical Revolution (1990), pp 56, 96–100. The Wageningen school centered on Bernard Slicher van Bath was viewed internationally as a Dutch counterpart of the Annales school, although Slicher van Bath himself vehemently rejected the idea of a quantitative "school" of historiography. The Annales school has been cited as a key influence in the development of World Systems Theory by sociologist Immanuel Wallerstein.Wallerstein, Immanuel M. 2004. World-Systems Analysis: An Introduction. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Current The current leader is Roger Chartier, who is Directeur d'Études at the École des Hautes Études en Sciences Sociales in Paris, Professeur in the Collège de France, and Annenberg Visiting professor of history at the University of Pennsylvania. He frequently lectures and teaches in the United States, Spain, Mexico, Brazil and Argentina. His work in Early Modern European History focuses on the history of education, the history of the book and the history of reading. Recently, he has been concerned with the relationship between written culture as a whole and literature (particularly theatrical plays) for France, England and Spain. His work in this specific field (based on the criss-crossing between literary criticism, bibliography, and sociocultural history) is connected to broader historiographical and methodological interests which deal with the relation between history and other disciplines: philosophy, sociology, anthropology. Chartier's typical undergraduate course focuses upon the making, remaking, dissemination, and reading of texts in early modern Europe and America. Under the heading of "practices", his class considers how readers read and marked up their books, forms of note-taking, and the interrelation between reading and writing from copying and translating to composing new texts. Under the heading of "materials", his class examines the relations between different kinds of writing surfaces (including stone, wax, parchment, paper, walls, textiles, the body, and the heart), writing implements (including styluses, pens, pencils, needles, and brushes), and material forms (including scrolls, erasable tables, codices, broadsides and printed forms and books). Under the heading of "places", his class explores where texts were made, read, and listened to, including monasteries, schools and universities, offices of the state, the shops of merchants and booksellers, printing houses, theaters, libraries, studies, and closets. The texts for his course include the Bible, translations of Ovid, Hamlet, Don Quixote, Montaigne's essays, Pepys's diary, Richardson's Pamela, and Franklin's autobiography. See also École des hautes études en sciences sociales Historiography Rural history Nouvelle histoire Structuralism Social history David Nirenberg § Anti-Judaism References Further reading About the School Aurell i Cardona, Jaume. "Autobiographical Texts as Historiographical Sources: Rereading Fernand Braudel and Annie Kriegel", Biography, Volume 29, Number 3, Summer 2006, pp. 425–445 in Project Muse Bintliff, John L. ), The Annales School and archaeology, Leicester : Leicester University Press (1991), Burguière, André. L'École des Annales: Une histoire intellectuelle. Paris: Odile Jacob. (English edition) Annales School: An Intellectual History. Ithaca NY: Cornell University Press. 309 Burke, Peter. The French Historical Revolution: The Annales School 1929–89, (1990), the major study in English excerpt and text search Carrard, Philippe. "Figuring France: The Numbers and Tropes of Fernand Braudel", Diacritics, Vol. 2–19 in JSTOR Carrard, Philippe. Poetics of the New History: French Historical Discourse from Braudel to Chartier, (1992) Clark, Stuart, ed. The Annales School: Critical Assessments (4 vol, 1999) Crifò, Giuliano. "Scuola delle Annales e storia del diritto: la situazione italiana", Mélanges de l'École française de Rome, antiquité, vol. 483-494 in Persée Dewald, Jonathan. Lost Worlds: The Emergence of French Social History, 1815–1970 (2006) 250pp excerpt and text search Dosse, Francois. New History in France: The Triumph of the Annales, (1994, first French edition, 1987) excerpt and text search Fink, Carole. Marc Bloch: A Life in History, (1989) excerpt and text search Forster, Robert. "Achievements of the Annales School", The Journal of Economic History, Vol. 58–76 in JSTOR Friedman, Susan W. Marc Bloch, Sociology and Geography: Encountering Changing Disciplines (1996) excerpt and text search Harris, Olivia. "Braudel: Historical Time and the Horror of Discontinuity", History Workshop Journal, Issue 57, Spring 2004, pp. 161–174 in Project Muse Herubel, Jean-Pierre V. M. "Historiography's Horizon and Imperative: Febvrian Annales Legacy and Library History as Cultural History", Libraries & Culture, 39#3 (2004), pp. 293–312 in Project Muse Hexter, J. H. "Fernand Braudel and the Monde Braudellien", Journal of Modern History, 1972, vol. 480–539 in JSTOR Hufton, Olwen. "Fernand Braudel", Past and Present, No. in JSTOR Hunt, Lynn. "French History in the Last Twenty Years: the Rise and Fall of the Annales Paradigm". Journal of Contemporary History 1986 21(2): 209–224. Fulltext: in Jstor Huppert, George. "Lucien Febvre and Marc Bloch: The Creation of the Annales". The French Review 55#4 (1982), pp. 510–513 in JSTOR Iggers, G.G. Historiography in the Twentieth Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (1997), ch.5 Leroux, Robert, Histoire et sociologie en France: de l'histoire-science à la sociologie durkheimienne, Paris, Presses universitaires de France, 1998. Long, Pamela O. "The Annales and the History of Technology", Technology and Culture, 46#1 (2005), pp. 177–186 in Project Muse Megill, Allan. "Coherence and Incoherence in Historical Studies: From the Annales School to the New Cultural History", New Literary History, 35#2 (2004), pp. 207–231 in Project Muse Rubin, Miri. The Work of Jacques Le Goff and the Challenges of Medieval History (1997) 272 pages excerpts and text search Moon, David. "Fernand Braudel and the Annales School" online edition Poirrier, Philippe. Aborder l'histoire, Paris, Seuil, 2000. Roberts, Michael. "The Annales school and historical writing". in Peter Lambert and Phillipp Schofield, eds. Making History: An Introduction to the History and Practices of a Discipline. (2004), pp 78–92 online edition Schilling, Derek. "Everyday Life and the Challenge to History in Postwar France: Braudel, Lefebvre, Certeau", Diacritics, Volume 33, Number 1, Spring 2003, pp. 23–40 in Project Muse Steiner, Frederick. "Material Life: Human Ecology and the Annales School", Landscape Architecture Volume 76, Number 1, pp. Stirling, Katherine. "Rereading Marc Bloch: the Life and Works of a Visionary Modernist". in History Compass Stoianovich, Traian. French Historical Method: The Annales Paradigm, (1976) Trevor-Roper, H. R. "Fernand Braudel, the Annales, and the Mediterranean", The Journal of Modern History, 44#4 (1972), pp. 468–479 in JSTOR Major books and essays from the school Ariès, Philippe et al. eds, A History of Private Life (5 vols. Les Rois Thaumaturges (1924), translated as The Royal Touch: Monarchy and Miracles in France and England (1990) Bloch, Marc. Feudal Society: Vol 1: The Growth and Ties of Dependence (1989); Feudal Society: Vol 2: Social Classes and Political Organisation(1989) excerpt and text search Bloch, Marc. French Rural History: An Essay on Its Basic Characteristics (1972) Braudel, Fernand. La Méditerranée et le Monde Méditerranéen à l'Epoque de Philippe II (1949) (translated as The Mediterranean and the Mediterranean World in the Age of Philip II excerpt and text search vol. 1) Braudel, Fernand. Civilisation Matérielle, Economie et Capitalisme XVe–XVIIIe Siècle (3 vol. 1979) (translated as Capitalism and Material Life; excerpt and text search vol. 1; excerpt and text search vol 3) Burguière, André, and Jacques Revel. Histoire de la France (1989), textbook Chartier, Roger. Inscription and Erasure: Literature and Written Culture from the Eleventh to the Eighteenth Century (2007) excerpt and text search Earle, P., ed. Essays in European Economic History, 1500–1800, (1974), translated articles from Annales Ferro, Marc, ed. Social Historians in Contemporary France: Essays from "Annales", (1972) Goubert, Pierre. The French Peasantry in the Seventeenth Century (1986) excerpt and text search Goubert, Pierre. The Ancien Régime, 1600–1750 (1974) Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. Montaillou: Cathars and Catholics in a French Village, 1294–1324 (1978) excerpt and text search Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. The Peasants of Languedoc (1966; English translation 1974) search Hunt, Lynn, and Jacques Revel (eds). Histories: French Constructions of the Past. The New Press. (A collection of 64 essays with many pieces from the Annales). Historiography from the school Bloch, Marc. Méthodologie Historique (1988); originally conceived in 1906 but not published until 1988; revised in 1996 Bloch, Marc. Apologie pour l'histoire ou Métier d'historien (1949), translated as The Historian's Craft (1953) excerpt of 1992 introduction by Peter Burke (historian), and text search Braudel, Fernand. Ecrits sur l'histoire (1969), reprinted essays; translated as On History, (1980) excerpt and text search includes Braudel, Fernand. "Histoire et Science Sociale: La Longue Durée" (1958) Annales E.S.C., 13:4 October–December 1958, 725–753 Braudel, Fernand. "Personal Testimony". in JSTOR Burke, Peter, ed. A New Kind of History From the Writings of Lucien Febvre, (1973) Duby, Georges. History Continues, (1991, translated 1994) Febvre, Lucien. A New Kind of History: From the Writings of Lucien Febvre ed. by Peter Burke (1973) translated articles from Annales Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. The Mind and Method of the Historian (1981) Le Roy Ladurie, Emmanuel. The Territory of the Historian (1979) Le Goff, Jacques and Paul Archambault. "An Interview with Jacques Le Goff". Le Goff, Jacques, History and Memory (1996) excerpt and text search Revel, Jacques, and Lynn Hunt, eds. Histories: French Constructions of the Past, (1995). 654pp Revel, Jacques, ed. Political Uses of the Past: The Recent Mediterranean Experiences (2002) excerpt and text search Vovelle, M. Ideologies and Mentalities (1990) External links Free access to all issues of the Annales from 1929 to 2002. Recent issues of Annales: Histoire, Sciences Sociales (2003–present). Professor David Moon, "Fernand Braudel and the Annales School" (lecture 2005) Biography of Fernand Braudel. Detailed bibliographies of major historians. Histoire et mesure (1986-200 ), articles on quantitative history. Full text of articles

Casa Batlló

is a building in the center of Barcelona, Spain. It was designed by Antoni Gaudí, and is considered one of his masterpieces. A remodel of a previously built house, it was redesigned in 1904 by Gaudí (but the actual construction works hadn’t begun at this point) and has been refurbished several times since. Gaudí's assistants Domènec Sugrañes i Gras, Josep Canaleta and Joan Rubió also contributed to the renovation project. The local name for the building is (House of Bones), as it has a visceral, skeletal organic quality. It is located on the in the Eixample district, and forms part of a row of houses known as the (or , the "Block of Discord"), which consists of four buildings by noted architects of Barcelona. Like everything Gaudí designed, is only identifiable as in the broadest sense. The ground floor, in particular, has unusual tracery, irregular oval windows and flowing sculpted stone work. There are few straight lines, and much of the façade is decorated with a colorful mosaic made of broken ceramic tiles . The roof is arched and was likened to the back of a dragon or dinosaur. A common theory about the building is that the rounded feature to the left of centre, terminating at the top in a turret and cross, represents the lance of Saint George (patron saint of Catalonia, Gaudí's home), which has been plunged into the back of the dragon. In 2005, became an UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Park Güell

Park Güell ( ; ) is a privatized complex of parks, gardens and architectural elements in the Gràcia district of Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. The site is located in the La Salut neighborhood on the southern side of a hill known as the Turó del Carmel, part of the Collserola mountain range. The separate Parc del Carmel is located on the northern side of the hill. In the midst of Barcelona's late 19th and early 20th century urban expansion, the Catalan industrialist and art patron Eusebi Güell sought to commission a new park. Güell assigned the design of the park to the renowned architect Antoni Gaudí, widely regarded as a central of the aesthetic movement of Catalan modernism. Park Güell was built between 1900 and 1914, before being officially opened to the public in 1926. In 1984, UNESCO declared the park a World Heritage Site as part of the larger "Works of Antoni Gaudí" architectural series. Description In addition to reflecting the distinct aesthetic sensibilities, artistic influences, and visual language present throughout Gaudí's career, Park Güell captures a particular moment in his artistic evolution. The park is associated with his naturalist phase, which occurred in the first decade of the 20th century. During this period, Gaudí's study of nature and organic shapes began to influence him creatively. Reflecting this shift, Gaudí introduced a series of new structural solutions rooted in the geometric analysis. Gaudí expanded upon these geometric forms to create the imaginative, ornamental style most often associated with him today. Rooted in the Baroque, his works are characterized by a structural richness of forms and volumes, free of the rational rigidity of classical conventions. In designing Park Güell, Gaudí put these structural innovations into practice. Gaudí would further elaborate on this characteristic style in the creation of the enormous Sagrada Família (Basilica and Expiatory Church of the Holy Family). Güell and Gaudí originally conceived of the space not as a public park, but as an private community of luxurious homes equipped with all the latest modern amenities to fulfill the needs of its residents with both artistically and physically. They envisioned a community strongly influenced by symbolism and Park Güell's common spaces (stairways, plazas, terraces, gardens) are designed to express physically the political and religious ideals of both patron and architect. For example, there are noticeable concepts originating from political Catalanism, most notably in the entrance stairway where the Catalan countries are represented, and Catholicism, as Monumento al Calvario, originally designed to be a chapel. In addition to Gaudí's reinterpretation of classical architectural elements such as columns, colonnades, and porticos, Park Güell also contains numerous references to Greek Mythology. Some have suggested that Güell and Gaudí's conception of the park was inspired by the Temple of Apollo of Delphi. The meaning of these symbols continues to be the subject of speculation. To some, Park Güell represents spatial nexus of complex iconography that Gaudí intentionally applied to the project. Interpretations range from expressions of political vindication to religious exaltation, laden with mythologic, historical, and philosophical references. Others claim that Park Güell displays masonic influences in spite of the fact that both Güell and Gaudí embraced traditional Catholicism. Although much of this is without scholarly basis, the sense of mystery surrounding Park Güell's symbolism is not entirely unfounded, given the penchant of Gaudí and other artists of his generation for enigmas, puzzles, and cryptic references.

Casa Milà

Casa Milà (, ), popularly known as La Pedrera (, ; "the stone quarry") in reference to its unconventional rough-hewn appearance, is a Modernista building in Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. It was the last private residence designed by architect Antoni Gaudí and was built between 1906 and 1912. The building was commissioned in 1906 by and his wife . At the time, it was controversial because of its undulating stone facade, twisting wrought iron balconies, and design by Josep Maria Jujol. Several structural innovations include a self-supporting stone façade, and a free-plan floor, underground garage and the spectacular terrace on the roof. In 1984, it was declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Since 2013 it has been the headquarters of the Fundació Catalunya La Pedrera, which manages visits to the building, exhibitions and other cultural and educational activities at Casa Milà. Building history Architect Antoni Gaudí i Cornet was born on June 25, 1852, in Catalonia, Spain. As a child, Gaudí's health was poor, suffering from rheumatism. Because of this, he was afforded lengthy periods of time resting at his summer house in Riudoms. Here he spent a large portion of his time outdoors, allowing him to deeply study nature. This would become one of the major influences in his architecture to come. Gaudí was a very practical man and a craftsman at his core. In his work he followed impulses and turned creative plans into reality. His openness to embrace new styles combined with a vivid imagination helped mold new styles of architecture and consequently helped push the limits of construction. Today he is regarded as a pioneer of the modern architecture style. In 1870, Gaudí moved to Barcelona to study architecture. He was an inconsistent student who showed flashes of brilliance. It took him eight years to graduate due to a mix of health complications, military service as well as other activities. After completion of his education he became a prolific architect as well as designing gardens, sculptures and all other decorative arts. Gaudí's most famous works consisted of several buildings: Parque Güell; Palacio Güell; Casa Mila; Casa Vicens. He also is attributed for his work on the Crypt of La Sagrada Familia and the Nativity facade. Gaudí's work at the time was both admired and criticized for his bold, innovative solutions. Gaudí was injured on June 7, 1926, when he was run over by a tram. He later died in the hospital due to his injuries on June 10, 1926, at the age of 73. A few years after his death, his fame became renowned by critics and the general public alike. Building owners Casa Milà was built for Roser Segimón and her husband Pere Milà. Roser Segimón was the wealthy widow of Josep Guardiola, an Indiano or Americano, or former colonist returned from the Americas, who had made his fortune with a coffee plantation in Guatemala. Her second husband, Pere Milà, was a developer known for his flamboyant lifestyle.

Arabian Prince

Kim Renard Nazel (born June 17, 1965), better known by his stage names Arabian Prince or Professor X, is an American rapper and record producer. He was a founding member of N.W.A. and performed on a few tracks from the group's major debut Straight Outta Compton before leaving. Early life Nazel was born in Compton, California, to the son of Joseph "Skippy" Nazel Jr., an African American author and radio talk show host. His musical background came from his mother, a piano teacher and classical musician. His family tried its best to shelter him, sending him to a Catholic school and keeping him busy with football to keep him away from the gangs. The younger Nazel got his first experience with making music at the radio station his father hosted his talk show on; Nazel used the radio station's equipment to put together mixtapes that he would sell at school. Nazel went on to graduate from Junípero Serra High School in nearby Gardena. Music career Nazel took the stage name of DJ Prince and started selling mixtapes at school. While working at a Petshop at a Lennox California Mall, its owner, Sam Nassif, asked him to DJ a party at a community dance hall. He kept performing there for several weekends and the success persuaded Nassif to invest even more in the place, renaming it "The Cave",(And Later "The Basement") where Nazel would continue to host for over three years and even after his N.W.A days. Nassif also funded DJ Prince's first record, "Strange Life". He changed his stage name when he was 15 years old at the Skateland USA, the same skating venue credited for launching N.W.A a few years later, due to a fan's suggestion. He said about his name: Arabian Prince started working with Bobby Jimmy & the Critters in 1984. He also produced the hit single and album for J.J. Fad, "Supersonic". In 1986, he was a founding member of N.W.A, helping with production on some tracks and appearing as a vocalist on the last track of N.W.A. 's hit studio album Straight Outta Compton (1989), "Something 2 Dance 2", a relatively radio-friendly song which was also removed from later pressings of the album due to a dispute. Arabian Prince left over royalty and contract disagreements. "I started off as a solo artist", he said, "so I was aware of what a royalty statement was. I knew that when these many records were sold, there is a quarterly statement. When you look at it, you can see how much money was paid and then share it. This was not the case. We were also never paid for touring." Eazy-E, Ice Cube and MC Ren remained as the main performers, DJ Yella was the turntablist and Dr. Dre was the main producer. After leaving N.W.A, Arabian Prince began a solo career. His first album, Brother Arab, was released in 1989 with the single "She's Got A Big Posse"; Where's My Bytches followed in 1993. In the mid-2000s, he started releasing music again, with his Professor X project on the Dutch label Clone Records. "I could not release the record under Arabian Prince", he said, "because I already had a single out, so I called myself Professor X on that record." In 2007, he performed as a DJ on the 2K Sports Holiday Bounce Tour with artists from the Stones Throw label. In 2008, Stones Throw released a compilation of his electro-rap material from the 1980s. One of his songs was included on the 2007 video game, College Hoops 2K8. In 2015, a biopic about N.W.A. titled Straight Outta Compton was released; however, Arabian Prince was not portrayed in the film. After the release film, Prince said to VladTV: "A lot of the scenes in real life, I was there—I'm just not there in the film, which I'm like, if you're gonna write me out of a movie, shoot some other scenes. Don't write scenes where I was there." Some of the pivotal scenes would be choosing the name for the band, the tour and the infamous Detroit concert. He also remembers himself as the main opposer to Jerry Heller about the royalties and the money, a role that in the film was instead given to Ice Cube. The following year, N.W.A. was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame, but again, Arabian Prince was not included nor mentioned. In 2018, Arabian Prince appeared on the AmeriKKKant album of industrial-metal band Ministry. He made a second appearance on Ministry's 2021 album Moral Hygiene. Other ventures Aside from his music career, he worked in special effects, 3D animation and video games. Discography Solo Strange Life (Rapsur, 1984) It Ain’t Tough (Rapsur, 1985) Take You Home Girl / Innovator (Rapsur, 1985) Situation Hot (Street Kut, 1986) Freak City (Macola, 1986) Professor X (Saga) (Techno Kut, 1989) Brother Arab (Orpheus, 1989) Where's My Bytches (Da Bozak, 1993) Simple Planet / Beatdabeat (Stones Throw, 2008) Compilations Situation Hot (Macola, 1990) Innovative Life: The Anthology, 1984–1989 (Stones Throw, 2008) Professor X (Clone, 2007/2008) With Bobby Jimmy and the Critters Ugly Knuckle Butt (1985) Roaches: The Beginning (1986) Back and Proud (1987) With N.W.A "Panic Zone" (single) (1987) N.W.A. and the Posse (1987) Straight Outta Compton (1989) References External links Interview with Arabian Prince & Biography on westcoastpioneers August 2008 Interview with L.A. Record Arabian Prince RBMA lecture Arabian Prince: What Happened After N.W.A. and the Posse? at Phoenix New Times DJ Arabian Prince Interview at NAMM Oral History Library (2020

August 7

Events Pre-1600 461 – Roman Emperor Majorian is beheaded near the river Iria in north-west Italy following his arrest and deposition by the magister militum Ricimer.John of Antioch, Historia chronike, fragment 203; Marcellinus, sa 461; Fasti vindobonenses priores, No 588. Procopius (VII.14–15) does not mention the Emperor's return from Hispania and said that Majorian died of dysentery: it is possible that the news has been put about by Ricimer (Fik Meijer, Emperors Do not Die in Bed, Routledge, 2004, , p. 155). Victor of Tonnena erroneously claims that Majorian reached Rome and was killed there, and puts this event in 463 (Chronica, s.a. 463). 626 – The Avar and Slav armies leave the siege of Constantinople. 768 – Pope Stephen III is elected to office, and quickly seeks Frankish protection against the Lombard threat, since the Byzantine Empire is no longer able to help. 936 – Coronation of King Otto I of Germany. 1461 – The Ming dynasty Chinese military general Cao Qin stages a coup against the Tianshun Emperor. 1479 – Battle of Guinegate: French troops of King Louis XI were defeated by the Burgundians led by Archduke Maximilian of Habsburg. 1601–1900 1679 – The brigantine Le Griffon becomes the first ship to sail the upper Great Lakes of North America. 1714 – The Battle of Gangut: The first important victory of the Russian Navy. 1743 – The Treaty of Åbo ended the 1741–1743 Russo-Swedish War.Shirokorad A.B. Northern Wars of Russia. Moscow, 2001 (in Russian)Merovuo, Jenni. "‘Divided and validated’? The institutionalization of the Russo-Swedish border region in the 1743 peace treaty." Hungarian Geographical Bulletin 66.4 (2017): pp. 1782 – George Washington orders the creation of the Badge of Military Merit to honor soldiers wounded in battle. It is later renamed to the more poetic Purple Heart. 1786 – The first federal Indian Reservation is created by the United States. 1789 – The United States Department of War is established. 1791 – American troops destroy the Miami town of Kenapacomaqua near the site of present-day Logansport, Indiana in the Northwest Indian War. 1794 – U.S. President George Washington invokes the Militia Acts of 1792 to suppress the Whiskey Rebellion in western Pennsylvania. 1819 – Simón Bolívar triumphs over Spain in the Battle of Boyacá. 1858 – The first Australian rules football match is played between Melbourne Grammar and Scotch College. 1890 – Anna Månsdotter, found guilty of the 1889 Yngsjö murder, became the last woman to be executed in Sweden. 1901–present 1909 – Alice Huyler Ramsey and three friends become the first women to complete a transcontinental auto trip, taking 59 days to travel from New York, New York to San Francisco, California. 1927 – The Peace Bridge opens between Fort Erie, Ontario and Buffalo, New York. 1930 – The last confirmed lynching of black people in the Northern United States occurs in Marion, Indiana; two men, Thomas Shipp and Abram Smith, are killed. 1933 – The Kingdom of Iraq slaughters over 3,000 Assyrians in the village of Simele. This date is recognized as Martyrs Day or National Day of Mourning by the Assyrian community in memory of the Simele massacre. 1942 – World War II: The Battle of Guadalcanal begins as the United States Marines initiate the first American offensive of the war with landings on Guadalcanal and Tulagi in the Solomon Islands. 1944 – IBM dedicates the first program-controlled calculator, the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator (known best as the Harvard Mark I). 1946 – The government of the Soviet Union presented a note to its Turkish counterparts which refuted the latter's sovereignty over the Turkish Straits, thus beginning the Turkish Straits crisis. 1947 – Thor Heyerdahl's balsa wood raft, the Kon-Tiki, smashes into the reef at Raroia in the Tuamotu Islands after a 101-day, journey across the Pacific Ocean in an attempt to prove that pre-historic peoples could have traveled from South America. (pdf ) 1947 – The Bombay Municipal Corporation formally takes over the Bombay Electric Supply and Transport (BEST). 1959 – Explorer program: Explorer 6 launches from the Atlantic Missile Range in Cape Canaveral, Florida. 1960 – Ivory Coast becomes independent from France. 1962 – Canadian-born American pharmacologist Frances Oldham Kelsey is awarded the U.S. President's Award for Distinguished Federal Civilian Service for her refusal to authorize thalidomide.. 1964 – Vietnam War: The U.S. Congress passes the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution giving U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson broad war powers to deal with North Vietnamese attacks on American forces. 1969 – Richard Nixon appoints Luis R. Bruce, a Mohawk-Oglala Sioux and co-founder of the National Congress of American Indians, as the new commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. 1970 – California judge Harold Haley is taken hostage in his courtroom and killed during an effort to free George Jackson from police custody. 1974 – Philippe Petit performs a high wire act between the twin towers of the World Trade Center in the air. 1976 – Viking program: Viking 2 enters orbit around Mars. 1978 – U.S. President Jimmy Carter declares a federal emergency at Love Canal due to toxic waste that had been disposed of negligently. 1981 – The Washington Star ceases all operations after 128 years of publication. 1985 – Takao Doi, Mamoru Mohri and Chiaki Mukai are chosen to be Japan's first astronauts. 1987 – Cold War: Lynne Cox becomes the first person to swim from the United States to the Soviet Union, crossing the Bering Strait from Little Diomede Island in Alaska to Big Diomede in the Soviet Union. Congressman Mickey Leland (D-TX) and 15 others die in a plane crash in Ethiopia. 1990 – First American soldiers arrive in Saudi Arabia as part of the Gulf War. 1993 – Ada Deer, a Menominee activist, is sworn in as the head of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. 1995 – The Chilean government declares state of emergency in the southern half of the country in response to an event of intense, cold, wind, rain and snowfall known as the White Earthquake. 1997 – Space Shuttle Program: The Space Shuttle Discovery launches on STS-85 from the Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida. 1997 – Fine Air Flight 101 crashes after takeoff from Miami International Airport, killing five people. 1998 – Bombings at United States embassies in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and Nairobi, Kenya kill approximately 212 people. 1999 – The Chechnya-based Islamic International Brigade invades neighboring Dagestan. 2007 – At AT&T Park, Barry Bonds hits his 756th career home run to surpass Hank Aaron's 33-year-old record. 2008 – The start of the Russo-Georgian War over the territory of South Ossetia. 2020 – Air India Express Flight 1344 overshoots the runway at Calicut International Airport in the Malappuram district of Kerala, India, and crashes, killing 21 of the 190 people on board. Births Pre-1600 317 – Constantius II, Roman emperor (d. 361) 1282 – Elizabeth of Rhuddlan (d. 1316) 1533 – Alonso de Ercilla, Spanish soldier and poet (d. 1595) 1560 – Elizabeth Báthory, Hungarian aristocrat and purported serial killer (d. 1614) 1571 – Thomas Lupo, English viol player and composer (d. 1627) 1574 – Robert Dudley, English explorer and cartographer (d. 1649) 1598 – Georg Stiernhielm, Swedish poet and linguist (d. 1672) 1601–1900 1613 – William Frederick, Prince of Nassau-Dietz, Dutch stadtholder (d. 1664) 1702 – Muhammad Shah, Mughal emperor of India (d. 1748) 1726 – James Bowdoin, American banker and politician, 2nd Governor of Massachusetts (d. 1790) 1742 – Nathanael Greene, American general (d. 1786) 1751 – Wilhelmina of Prussia, Princess of Orange (d. 1820) 1779 – Carl Ritter, German geographer and academic (d. 1859) 1826 – August Ahlqvist, Finnish professor, poet, scholar of the Finno-Ugric languages, author, and literary critic (d. 1889) 1844 – Auguste Michel-Lévy, French geologist and author (d. 1911) 1862 – Henri Le Sidaner, French painter (d. 1939) 1862 – Victoria of Baden (d. 1931) 1867 – Emil Nolde, Danish-German painter and illustrator (d. 1956) 1868 – Ladislaus Bortkiewicz, Russian-German economist and statistician (d. 1931) 1868 – Huntley Wright, English actor (d. 1941) 1869 – Mary Frances Winston, American mathematician (d. 1959) 1876 – Mata Hari, Dutch dancer and spy (d. 1917) 1879 – Johannes Kotze, South African cricketer (d. 1931) 1884 – Billie Burke, American actress and singer (d. 1970) 1884 – Nikolai Triik, Estonian painter and illustrator (d. 1940) 1887 – Anna Elisabet Weirauch, German author and playwright (d. 1970) 1890 – Elizabeth Gurley Flynn, American author and activist (d. 1964) 1901–present 1901 – Ann Harding, American actress and singer (d. 1981) 1903 – Louis Leakey, Kenyan-English palaeontologist and archaeologist (d. 1972) 1904 – Ralph Bunche, American political scientist, academic, and diplomat, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1971) 1907 – Albert Kotin, Belarusian-American soldier and painter (d. 1980) 1911 – István Bibó, Hungarian lawyer and politician (d. 1979) 1911 – Nicholas Ray, American director and screenwriter (d. 1979) 1916 – Kermit Love, American actor, puppeteer, and costume designer (d. 2008) 1918 – C. Buddingh', Dutch poet and translator (d. 1985) 1918 – Gordon Zahn, American sociologist and author (d. 2007) 1921 – Manitas de Plata, French guitarist (d. 2014) 1921 – Karel Husa, Czech-American composer and conductor (d. 2016) 1925 – Felice Bryant, American songwriter (d. 2003) 1926 – Stan Freberg, American puppeteer, voice actor, and singer (d. 2015) 1927 – Edwin Edwards, American soldier, lawyer, and politician, 50th Governor of Louisiana (d. 2021) 1928 – Betsy Byars, American author and academic (d. 2020) 1928 – Owen Luder, English architect, designed Tricorn Centre and Trinity Square (d. 2021) 1928 – James Randi, Canadian-American stage magician and author (d. 2020) 1929 – Don Larsen, American baseball player (d. 2020) 1930 – Togrul Narimanbekov, Azerbaijani-French painter and academic (d. 2013) 1930 – Veljo Tormis, Estonian composer and educator (d. 2017) 1932 – Abebe Bikila, Ethiopian runner (d. 1973) 1932 – Edward Hardwicke, English actor (d. 2011) 1932 – Rien Poortvliet, Dutch painter and illustrator (d. 1995) 1932 – Maurice Rabb, Jr., American ophthalmologist and academic (d. 2005) 1933 – Eddie Firmani, South African footballer and manager 1933 – Elinor Ostrom, American economist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 2012) 1933 – Jerry Pournelle, American journalist and author (d. 2017) 1933 – Alberto Romulo, Filipino politician and diplomat 1934 – Sándor Simó, Hungarian director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2001) 1935 – Lee Corso, American college football coach and broadcaster 1935 – Rahsaan Roland Kirk, American saxophonist and composer (d. 1977) 1937 – Zoltán Berczik, Hungarian table tennis player and coach (d. 2011) 1937 – Don Wilson, English cricketer and coach (d. 2012) 1938 – Giorgetto Giugiaro, Italian automotive designer 1940 – Jean-Luc Dehaene, French-Belgian lawyer and politician, 63rd Prime Minister of Belgium (d. 2014) 1940 – Uwe Nettelbeck, German record producer, journalist and film critic (d. 2007) 1941 – Matthew Evans, Baron Evans of Temple Guiting, English publisher and politician (d. 2016) 1942 – Garrison Keillor, American humorist, novelist, short story writer, and radio host 1942 – Carlos Monzón, Argentinian boxer and actor (d. 1995) 1942 – Caetano Veloso, Brazilian singer-songwriter, writer and producer 1942 – Richard Sykes, English biochemist and academic 1942 – B. J. Thomas, American singer (d. 2021) 1943 – Mohammed Badie, Egyptian religious leader 1943 – Lana Cantrell, Australian singer-songwriter and lawyer 1943 – Alain Corneau, French director and screenwriter (d. 2010) 1944 – John Glover, American actor 1944 – Robert Mueller, American soldier and lawyer, 6th Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation 1945 – Kenny Ireland, Scottish actor and director (d. 2014) 1945 – Alan Page, American football player and jurist 1947 – Franciscus Henri, Dutch-Australian singer-songwriter 1947 – Sofia Rotaru, Ukrainian singer-songwriter, producer, and actress 1948 – Marty Appel, American businessman and author 1948 – Greg Chappell, Australian cricketer and coach 1949 – Walid Jumblatt, Lebanese journalist and politician 1949 – Matthew Parris, South African-English journalist and politician 1950 – Rodney Crowell, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1950 – Alan Keyes, American politician and diplomat, 16th Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs 1950 – S. Thandayuthapani, Sri Lankan educator and politician 1952 – Caroline Aaron, American actress and producer 1952 – Eamonn Darcy, Irish golfer 1952 – Kees Kist, Dutch footballer 1952 – Alexei Sayle, English comedian, actor, and author 1953 – Anne Fadiman, American journalist and author 1954 – Valery Gazzaev, Russian footballer, manager and politician 1954 – Jonathan Pollard, Israeli spy 1954 – Alan Reid, Scottish politician 1955 – Wayne Knight, American actor, comedian and voice actor 1955 – Greg Nickels, American lawyer and politician, 51st Mayor of Seattle 1955 – Vladimir Sorokin, Russian author and playwright 1957 – Daire Brehan, Irish journalist, lawyer, and actress (d. 2012) 1957 – Alexander Dityatin, Russian gymnast and colonel 1958 – Russell Baze, Canadian-American jockey 1958 – Bruce Dickinson, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1958 – Alberto Salazar, Cuban-American runner and coach 1959 – Koenraad Elst, Belgian orientalist and author 1959 – Ali Shah, Zimbabwean cricketer and coach 1960 – David Duchovny, American actor, director, producer, and screenwriter 1961 – Brian Conley, English actor and singer 1961 – Yelena Davydova, Russian gymnast 1961 – Walter Swinburn, English jockey and trainer (d. 2016) 1961 – Carlos Vives, Colombian singer, songwriter, and actorbiografías.es 1962 – Alison Brown, American banjo player, songwriter, and producer 1963 – Paul Dunn, Australian rugby league player 1963 – Nick Gillespie, American journalist and author 1963 – Marcus Roberts, American pianist and educator 1964 – John Birmingham, English-Australian journalist and author 1964 – Ian Dench, English guitarist and songwriter 1964 – Peter Niven, Scottish jockey 1965 – Raul Malo, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer 1965 – Elizabeth Manley, Canadian skater 1966 – David Cairns, Scottish laicised priest and politician, Minister of State for Scotland (d. 2011) 1966 – Shobna Gulati, British actress 1966 – Kristin Hersh, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1966 – Jimmy Wales, American-British entrepreneur, co-founder of Wikipedia 1967 – Jason Grimsley, American baseball player 1968 – Francesca Gregorini, Italian-American director and screenwriter 1968 – Trevor Hendy, Australian surfer and coach 1968 – Sophie Lee, Australian actress and author 1969 – Markus Bundi, Swiss writer 1969 – Paul Lambert, Scottish footballer and manager 1969 – Dana G. Peleg, Israeli writer and LGBT activist 1970 – Eric Namesnik, American swimmer (d. 2006) 1971 – Dominic Cork, England cricketer and sportscaster 1971 – Rachel York, American actress and singer 1972 – Gerry Peñalosa, Filipino boxer and promoter 1973 – Mikhail Gorsheniov, Russian singer-songwriter (d. 2013) 1973 – Danny Graves, Vietnamese-American baseball player 1973 – Kevin Muscat, English-Australian footballer, coach, and manager 1974 – Chico Benymon, American actor 1974 – Michael Shannon, American actor 1975 – Koray Candemir, Turkish singer-songwriter 1975 – Gerard Denton, Australian cricketer 1975 – Megan Gale, Australian model and actress 1975 – Ray Hill, American football player (d. 2015) 1975 – Rebecca Kleefisch, American journalist and politician, 44th Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin 1975 – Édgar Rentería, Colombian baseball player 1975 – Charlize Theron, South African actress 1976 – Dimitrios Eleftheropoulos, Greek footballer and manager 1976 – Shane Lechler, American football player 1977 – Charlotte Ronson, English fashion designer 1977 – Samantha Ronson, English singer-songwriter and DJ 1977 – Justin Brooker, Rugby League Player 1978 – Alexandre Aja, French director, producer, and screenwriter 1978 – Jamey Jasta, American singer-songwriter 1978 – Mark McCammon, English-Barbadian footballer 1978 – Cirroc Lofton, American actor 1979 – Eric Johnson, American actor, director, and screenwriter 1979 – Miguel Llera, Spanish footballer 1979 – Birgit Zotz, Austrian anthropologist and author 1980 – Carsten Busch, German footballer 1980 – Aurélie Claudel, French model and actress 1980 – Tácio Caetano Cruz Queiroz, Brazilian footballer 1980 – Seiichiro Maki, Japanese footballer 1981 – David Testo, American soccer player 1981 – Randy Wayne, American actor and producer 1982 – Ángeles Balbiani, Argentine actress and singer 1982 – Abbie Cornish, Australian actress 1982 – Juan Martín Hernández, Argentine rugby player 1982 – Marquise Hill, American football player (d. 2007) 1982 – Vassilis Spanoulis, Greek basketball player 1982 – Martin Vučić, Macedonian singer and drummer 1983 – Christian Chávez, Mexican singer-songwriter and actor 1983 – Murat Dalkılıç, Turkish singer-songwriter 1983 – Danny, Portuguese footballer 1983 – Andriy Hrivko, Ukrainian cyclist 1983 – Mark Pettini, English cricketer and journalist 1984 – Stratos Perperoglou, Greek basketball player 1984 – Tooba Siddiqui, Pakistani model and actress 1984 – Yun Hyon-seok, South Korean poet and author (d. 2003) 1986 – Paul Biedermann, German swimmer 1986 – Valter Birsa, Slovenian footballer 1986 – Altaír Jarabo, Mexican model and actress 1986 – Juan de la Rosa, Mexican boxer 1987 – Sidney Crosby, Canadian ice hockey player 1987 – Mustapha Dumbuya, Sierra Leonean footballer 1987 – Ryan Lavarnway, American baseball player 1987 – Rouven Sattelmaier, German footballer 1988 – Jonathan Bernier, Canadian ice hockey player 1988 – Mohamed Coulibaly, Senegalese footballer 1988 – Anisa Mohammed, West Indian cricketer 1988 – Melody Oliveria, American blogger 1988 – Erik Pieters, Dutch footballer 1988 – Beanie Wells, American football player 1989 – DeMar DeRozan, American basketball player 1990 – Jake Allen, Canadian ice hockey player 1990 – Josh Franceschi, English singer-songwriter 1991 – Luis Salom, Spanish motorcycle racer (d. 2016) 1991 – Mitchell te Vrede, Dutch footballer 1992 – Adam Yates, English cyclist 1992 – Simon Yates, English cyclist 1992 – Wout Weghorst, Dutch footballer 1993 – Francesca Eastwood, American actress and television personality 1993 – Martti Nõmme, Estonian ski jumper 1993 – Karol Zalewski, Polish sprinter 1996 – Dani Ceballos, Spanish footballer 1997 – Matty Cash, Polish footballer 1997 – Kyler Murray, American football player 1998 – Vladimir Barbu, Italian diver 1998 – María Belén Bazo, Peruvian windsurfer 1998 – Jalen Hurts, American football player 1999 – Sydney McLaughlin-Levrone, American hurdler and sprinter 2000 – Lauren Hemp, English footballer Deaths Pre-1600 461 – Majorian, Roman emperor (b. 420) 707 – Li Chongjun, Chinese prince 1028 – Alfonso V, king of León (b. 994) 1106 – Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor (b. 1050) 1234 – Hugh Foliot, bishop of Hereford (b. c. 1155) 1272 – Richard Middleton, English Lord Chancellor 1296 – Heinrich II von Rotteneck, prince-bishop of Regensburg 1385 – Joan of Kent, mother of Richard II (b. 1328) 1485 – Alexander Stewart, duke of Albany (b. 1454) 1547 – Cajetan, Italian priest and saint (b. 1480) 1601–1900 1613 – Thomas Fleming, English judge and politician, Lord Chief Justice of England (b. 1544) 1616 – Vincenzo Scamozzi, Italian architect, designed Teatro Olimpico (b. 1548) 1632 – Robert de Vere, 19th Earl of Oxford, English soldier (b. 1575) 1635 – Friedrich Spee, German poet and academic (b. 1591) 1639 – Martin van den Hove, Dutch astronomer and mathematician (b. 1605) 1661 – Jin Shengtan, Chinese journalist and critic (b. 1608) 1787 – Francis Blackburne, English Anglican churchman and activist (b. 1705) 1817 – Pierre Samuel du Pont de Nemours, French economist and politician (b. 1739) 1834 – Joseph Marie Jacquard, French weaver and inventor, invented the Jacquard loom (b. 1752) 1848 – Jöns Jacob Berzelius, Swedish chemist and academic (b. 1779) 1855 – Mariano Arista, Mexican general and politician, 19th President of Mexico (b. 1802) 1864 – Li Xiucheng, Chinese field marshal (b. 1823) 1893 – Alfredo Catalani, Italian composer and academic (b. 1854) 1899 – Jacob Maris, Dutch painter and educator (b. 1837) 1900 – Wilhelm Liebknecht, German lawyer and politician (b. 1826) 1901–present 1912 – François-Alphonse Forel, Swiss limnologist and academic (b. 1841) 1917 – Edwin Harris Dunning, South African-English commander and pilot (b. 1891) 1938 – Konstantin Stanislavski, Russian actor and director (b. 1863) 1941 – Rabindranath Tagore, Indian author, poet, and playwright, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1861) 1948 – Charles Bryant, English-American actor and director (b. 1879) 1953 – Abner Powell, American baseball player and manager (b. 1860) 1957 – Oliver Hardy, American actor, singer, and director (b. 1892) 1958 – Elizabeth Foreman Lewis, American author and educator (b. 1892) 1960 – Luis Ángel Firpo, Argentine boxer (b. 1894) 1963 – Ramon Vila Capdevila, last of the Spanish Maquis, holding out after the end of the Spanish Civil War (b. 1908) 1968 – Giovanni Bracco, Italian race car driver (b. 1908) 1969 – Jean Bastien, French professional footballer (b. 1915) 1969 – Joseph Kosma, Hungarian-French composer (b. 1905) 1970 – Harold Haley, American lawyer and judge (b. 1904) 1970 – Jonathan P. Jackson, American bodyguard and kidnapper (b. 1953) 1972 – Joi Lansing, American model, actress, and singer (b. 1929) 1973 – Jack Gregory, Australian cricketer (b. 1895) 1974 – Rosario Castellanos, Mexican poet and author (b. 1925) 1974 – Sylvio Mantha, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1902) 1978 – Eddie Calvert, English trumpeter (b. 1922) 1981 – Gunnar Uusi, Estonian chess player (b. 1931) 1985 – Grayson Hall, American actress (b. 1922) 1987 – Camille Chamoun, Lebanese lawyer and politician, 7th President of Lebanon (b. 1900) 1989 – Mickey Leland, American lawyer and politician (b. 1944) 1994 – Larry Martyn, English actor (b. 1934) 1995 – Brigid Brophy, English author and critic (b. 1929) 2001 – Algirdas Lauritėnas, Lithuanian basketball player (b. 1932) 2003 – K. D. Arulpragasam, Sri Lankan zoologist and academic (b. 1931) 2003 – Mickey McDermott, American baseball player and coach (b. 1929) 2004 – Red Adair, American firefighter (b. 1915) 2004 – Colin Bibby, English ornithologist and academic (b. 1948) 2005 – Peter Jennings, Canadian-American journalist and author (b. 1938) 2005 – Ester Šimerová-Martinčeková, Slovak painter (b. 1909) 2006 – Mary Anderson Bain, American lawyer and politician (b. 1911) 2007 – Ernesto Alonso, Mexican actor, director, and producer (b. 1917) 2007 – Angus Tait, New Zealand businessman, founded Tait Communications (b. 1919) 2008 – Bernie Brillstein, American talent agent and producer (b. 1931) 2008 – Andrea Pininfarina, Italian engineer and businessman (b. 1957) 2009 – Louis E. Saavedra, American educator and politician, 48th Mayor of Albuquerque (b. 1933) 2009 – Mike Seeger, American singer-songwriter (b. 1933) 2010 – John Nelder, English mathematician and statistician (b. 1924) 2011 – Mark Hatfield, American soldier, academic, and politician, 29th Governor of Oregon (b. 1922) 2011 – Nancy Wake, New Zealand-English captain and spy (b. 1912) 2012 – Murtuz Alasgarov, Azerbaijani academic and politician, Speaker of the National Assembly of Azerbaijan (b. 1928) 2012 – Judith Crist, American critic and academic (b. 1922) 2012 – Vladimir Kobzev, Russian footballer and coach (b. 1959) 2012 – Anna Piaggi, Italian journalist and author (b. 1931) 2012 – Mayer Zald, American sociologist and academic (b. 1931) 2012 – Dušan Zbavitel, Czech indologist and author (b. 1925) 2013 – Samuel G. Armistead, American linguist, historian, and academic (b. 1927) 2013 – Almir Kayumov, Russian footballer (b. 1964) 2013 – Anthony Pawson, English-Canadian biologist, chemist, and academic (b. 1952) 2013 – Margaret Pellegrini, American actress and dancer (b. 1923) 2013 – Meeli Truu, Estonian architect (b. 1946) 2013 – Alexander Yagubkin, Russian boxer (b. 1961) 2014 – Víctor Fayad, Argentine lawyer and politician (b. 1955) 2014 – Perry Moss, American football player and coach (b. 1926) 2014 – Henry Stone, American record producer (b. 1921) 2015 – Manuel Contreras, Chilean general (b. 1929) 2015 – Frances Oldham Kelsey, Canadian pharmacologist and physician (b. 1914) 2015 – Louise Suggs, American golfer, co-founded LPGA (b. 1923) 2016 – Bryan Clauson, American racing driver (b. 1989) 2017 – Don Baylor, American baseball player (b. 1949) 2017 – David Maslanka, American composer (b. 1943) 2018 – M. Karunanidhi, Indian politician, former Tamil Nadu Chief Minister and prominent leader of Tamils (b. 1924) 2018 – Stan Mikita, Slovak hockey player (b. 1940) 2019 – David Berman, American musician, singer, poet and cartoonist (b. 1967) 2020 – Lê Khả Phiêu, Vietnamese politician (b. 1931) 2021 – Markie Post, American actress (b. 1950) 2021 – Trevor Moore, American comedian (b. 1980) 2022 – David McCullough, American historian and author (b. 1933) 2023 – William Friedkin, American film director (b. 1935) 2024 – Jon McBride, American astronaut (b. 1943) Holidays and observances Assyrian Martyrs Day (Assyrian community) Battle of Boyacá Day (Colombia) Christian feast day: Albert of Trapani Cajetan of Thienna Carpophorus and companions Dometius of Persia Donatus of Arezzo Donatus of Besançon Donatus of Muenstereifel John Mason Neale (Episcopal Church (USA)) Nantovinus Pope Sixtus II August 7 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Filseta (Ethiopian and Eritrean Orthodox Tewahedo Church) Emancipation Day (Saint Kitts and Nevis) Republic Day (Ivory Coast) Youth Day (Kiribati) National Purple Heart Day (United States) References External links

August 8

Events Pre-1600 685 BC – Spring and Autumn period: Battle of Qianshi: Upon the death of the previous Duke of Qi, Gongsun Wuzhi, Duke Zhuang of Lu sends an army into the Duchy of Qi to install the exiled Qi prince Gongzi Jiu as the new Duke of Qi – but is defeated at Qianshi by Jiu's brother and rival claimant, the newly inaugurated Duke Huan of Qi. 870 – Treaty of Meerssen: King Louis the German and his half-brother Charles the Bald partition the Middle Frankish Kingdom into two larger east and west divisions. 1220 – Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula. 1264 – Mudéjar revolt: Muslim rebel forces took the Alcázar of Jerez de la Frontera after defeating the Castilian garrison. 1503 – King James IV of Scotland marries Margaret Tudor, daughter of King Henry VII of England at Holyrood Abbey in Edinburgh, Scotland. 1509 – Krishnadeva Raya is crowned Emperor of Vijayanagara at Chittoor. 1576 – The cornerstone for Tycho Brahe's Uraniborg observatory is laid on the island of Hven. 1585 – John Davis enters Cumberland Sound in search of the Northwest Passage. 1588 – Anglo-Spanish War: Battle of Gravelines: The naval engagement ends, ending the Spanish Armada's attempt to invade England. 1601–1900 1647 – The Irish Confederate Wars and Wars of the Three Kingdoms: Battle of Dungan's Hill: English Parliamentary forces defeat Irish forces. 1648 – Mehmed IV (1648–1687) succeeds Ibrahim I (1640–1648) as Ottoman sultan. 1709 – Bartolomeu de Gusmão demonstrates the lifting power of hot air in an audience before the king of Portugal in Lisbon, Portugal. 1786 – Mont Blanc on the French-Italian border is climbed for the first time by Jacques Balmat and Dr. Michel-Gabriel Paccard. 1794 – Joseph Whidbey leads an expedition to search for the Northwest Passage near Juneau, Alaska. 1831 – Four hundred Shawnee people agree to relinquish their lands in Ohio in exchange for land west of the Mississippi River in the Treaty of Wapakoneta. 1844 – The Quorum of the Twelve Apostles, headed by Brigham Young, is reaffirmed as the leading body of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church). 1863 – American Civil War: Following his defeat in the Battle of Gettysburg, General Robert E. Lee sends a letter of resignation to Confederate President Jefferson Davis (which is refused upon receipt). 1863 – Tennessee Military Governor Andrew Johnson frees his personal slaves in Greeneville, Tennessee despite them being exempt from the Emancipation Proclamation, now commemorated as Emancipation Day in the state. 1870 – The Republic of Ploiești, a failed Radical-Liberal rising against Domnitor Carol of Romania. 1876 – Thomas Edison receives a patent for his mimeograph. 1897 – Italian anarchist Michele Angiolillo assassinates Spanish Prime Minister Antonio Cánovas del Castillo 1901–present 1903 – Black Saturday occurs, killing 12 in a stadium collapse in Philadelphia. 1908 – Wilbur Wright makes his first flight at a racecourse at Le Mans, France. It is the Wright Brothers' first public flight. 1918 – World War I: The Battle of Amiens begins a string of almost continuous Allied victories with a push through the German front lines (Hundred Days Offensive). 1919 – The Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 is signed. It establishes peaceful relations between Afghanistan and the UK, and confirms the Durand line as the mutual border. In return, the UK is no longer obligated to subsidize the Afghan government. 1929 – The German airship Graf Zeppelin begins a round-the-world flight. 1940 – The "Aufbau Ost" directive is signed by Wilhelm Keitel. 1942 – Quit India Movement is launched in India against the British rule in response to Mohandas Gandhi's call for swaraj or complete independence. 1945 – The London Charter is signed by France, the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union and the United States, establishing the laws and procedures for the Nuremberg trials. 1946 – First flight of the nuclear capable Convair B-36, heaviest mass-produced piston-engined aircraft at the time. 1956 – Marcinelle mining disaster in Belgium. 262 coal miners, including a substantial number of Italian migrant workers, were killed in one of the largest mining accidents in Belgian history. 1963 – Great Train Robbery: In England, a gang of 15 train robbers steal £2.6 million in bank notes. 1963 – The Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU), the current ruling party of Zimbabwe, is formed by a split from the Zimbabwe African People's Union. 1967 – The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) is founded by Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Singapore and Thailand. 1973 – Kim Dae-jung, a South Korean politician and later president of South Korea, is kidnapped. 1974 – President Richard Nixon, in a nationwide television address, announces his resignation from the office of the President of the United States effective noon the next day. 1988 – The 8888 Uprising begins in Rangoon (Yangon), Burma (Myanmar). Led by students, hundreds of thousands join in nationwide protests against the one-party regime. On September 18, the demonstrations end in a military crackdown, killing thousands. 1988 – The first night baseball game in the history of Chicago's Wrigley Field (game was rained out in the fourth inning). 1989 – Space Shuttle program: STS-28 Mission: Space Shuttle Columbia takes off on a secret five-day military mission. 1990 – Iraq occupies Kuwait and the state is annexed to Iraq. This would lead to the Gulf War shortly afterward. 1991 – The Warsaw radio mast, then the tallest construction ever built, collapses. 1993 – The 7.8 Guam earthquake shakes the island with a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX (Violent), causing around $250 million in damage and injuring up to 71 people. 1998 – Iranian consulate in Mazar-i-Sharif, Afghanistan is raided by Taliban leading to the deaths of ten Iranian diplomats and a journalist. 2000 – Confederate submarine H.L. Hunley is raised to the surface after 136 years on the ocean floor and 30 years after its discovery by undersea explorer E. Lee Spence. 2001 – Albanian rebels ambush a convoy of the Army of the Republic of Macedonia near Tetovo, killing 10 soldiers. 2004 – A tour bus belonging to the Dave Matthews Band dumps approximately 800 pounds of human waste onto a boat full of passengers. 2007 – An EF2 tornado touches down in Kings County and Richmond County, New York, the most powerful tornado in New York to date and the first in Brooklyn since 1889. 2007 – Space Shuttle program: STS-118 Mission: Endeavor takes off on a mission to the International Space Station. 2008 – A EuroCity express train en route from Kraków, Poland to Prague, Czech Republic strikes a part of a motorway bridge that had fallen onto the railroad track near Studénka railway station in the Czech Republic and derails, killing eight people and injuring 64 others. 2008 – The 29th modern summer Olympic Games took place in Beijing, China until August 24. 2009 – A Eurocopter AS350 Écureuil and Piper PA-32R collide over the Hudson River, killing nine people. 2010 – China Floods: A mudslide in Zhugqu County, Gansu, China, kills more than 1,400 people. 2013 – A suicide bombing at a funeral in the Pakistani city of Quetta kills at least 31 people. 2015 – Eight people are killed in a shooting in Harris County, Texas. 2016 – Terrorists attack a government hospital in Quetta, Pakistan with a suicide blast and shooting, killing between 70 and 94 people, and injuring around 130 others. 2019 – An explosion at the State Central Navy Testing Range in Nyonoksa, Russia, kills five people. 2022 – The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) executes a search warrant at former president Donald Trump's residence in Mar-a-Lago, Palm Beach, Florida. 2023 – Hawaii wildfires: Seventeen thousand acres of land are burned and at least 101 people are killed, with two others missing, when a series of wildfires break out on the island of Maui in Hawaii. 2024 – Nobel laureate Muhammad Yunus takes oath as Chief Adviser to form an interim government in Bangladesh. Births Pre-1600 422 – Casper, ruler of the Maya city of Palenque 1079 – Emperor Horikawa of Japan (d. 1107) 1170 – Saint Dominic, founder of the Dominicans (d. 1221) 1306 – Rudolf II, Duke of Bavaria (d. 1353) 1492 – Matteo Tafuri, Italian alchemist (d. 1582) 1518 – Conrad Lycosthenes, French-German scholar and author (d. 1561) 1558 – George Clifford, 3rd Earl of Cumberland, English noble (d. 1605) 1601–1900 1605 – Cecil Calvert, 2nd Baron Baltimore, English lawyer and politician, Governor of Newfoundland (d. 1675) 1640 – Amalia Catharina, German poet and composer (d. 1697) 1646 – Godfrey Kneller, German-English painter (d. 1723) 1673 – John Ker, Scottish spy (d. 1726) 1693 – Laurent Belissen, French composer (d. 1762) 1694 – Francis Hutcheson, Irish philosopher and academic (d. 1746) 1706 – Johan Augustin Mannerheim, Swedish nobleman and military leader (d. 1778) 1709 – Hermann Anton Gelinek, German-Italian monk and violinist (d. 1779) 1720 – Carl Fredrik Pechlin, Swedish general and politician (d. 1796) 1754 – Hipólito Ruiz López, Spanish botanist (d. 1816) 1758 – Friedrich Georg Weitsch, German painter (d. 1828) 1790 – Ferenc Kölcsey, Hungarian poet, critic, and politician (d. 1838) 1807 – Emilie Flygare-Carlén, Swedish author (d. 1892) 1814 – Esther Hobart Morris, American suffragette and judge (d. 1902) 1822 – George Stoneman, Jr., United States Army cavalry officer (d. 1894) 1839 – Nelson A. Miles, American general (d. 1925) 1851 – George Turner, Australian politician, 18th Premier of Victoria (d. 1916) 1856 – Thomas Anstey Guthrie, English journalist and author (d. 1934) 1857 – Cécile Chaminade, French pianist and composer (d. 1944) 1863 – Jean Leon Gerome Ferris, American painter (d. 1930) 1866 – Matthew Henson, American explorer (d. 1955) 1874 – Albert Stanley, 1st Baron Ashfield, English businessman and politician, President of the Board of Trade (d. 1948) 1875 – Artur Bernardes, Brazilian lawyer and politician, 12th President of Brazil (d. 1955) 1876 – Varghese Payyappilly Palakkappilly, Indian-Syrian priest, founded the Sisters of the Destitute (d. 1929) 1879 – Bob Smith, American physician and surgeon, co-founded Alcoholics Anonymous (d. 1950) 1879 – Emiliano Zapata, Mexican general and politician (d. 1919) 1880 – Earle Page, Australian lawyer, academic, and politician, 11th Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1961) 1881 – Paul Ludwig Ewald von Kleist, German field marshal (d. 1954) 1882 – Ladislas Starevich, Russian-French animator, screenwriter, and cinematographer (d. 1965) 1884 – Sara Teasdale, American poet and educator (d. 1933) 1889 – Hans Egede Budtz, Danish actor (d. 1968) 1889 – Jack Ryder, Australian cricketer (d. 1977) 1891 – Adolf Busch, German violinist and composer (d. 1952) 1896 – Marjorie Kinnan Rawlings, American author and academic (d. 1953) 1898 – Marguerite Bise, French chef (d. 1965) 1901–present 1901 – Ernest Lawrence, American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1958) 1902 – Paul Dirac, English-American physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1984) 1904 – Achille Varzi, Italian racing driver (d. 1948) 1905 – André Jolivet, French composer (d. 1974) 1907 – Benny Carter, American saxophonist, trumpet player, and composer (d. 2003) 1907 – Jimmy Steele (Irish republican), lifelong militant and editor (d. 1970)Coogan, Tim, (1981),The IRA, William Collins & Sons Ltd, Glasgow, UK, p. 208. 1908 – Arthur Goldberg, American jurist and politician, 6th United States Ambassador to the United Nations (d. 1990) 1909 – Charles Lyttelton, 10th Viscount Cobham, English cricketer and politician, 9th Governor-General of New Zealand (d. 1977) 1909 – Jack Renshaw, Australian politician, 31st Premier of New South Wales (d. 1987) 1909 – Bill Voce, England cricketer and coach (d. 1984) 1910 – Jimmy Murphy, Welsh-English footballer and manager (d. 1989) 1910 – Sylvia Sidney, American actress (d. 1999) 1911 – Rosetta LeNoire, American actress (d. 2002) 1915 – James Elliott, American runner and coach (d. 1981) 1919 – Dino De Laurentiis, Italian actor and producer (d. 2010) 1919 – John David Wilson, English animator and producer (d. 2013) 1920 – Leo Chiosso, Italian songwriter and producer (d. 2006) 1920 – Jimmy Witherspoon, American jump blues singer (d. 1997) 1921 – William Asher, American director, producer, and screenwriter (d. 2012) 1921 – Webb Pierce, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 1991) 1921 – Esther Williams, American swimmer and actress (d. 2013) 1922 – Rory Calhoun, American actor (d. 1999) 1922 – Rudi Gernreich, Austrian-American fashion designer, created the Monokini (d. 1985) 1922 – Gertrude Himmelfarb, American historian, author, and academic (d. 2019) 1922 – Károly Reich, Hungarian illustrator (d. 1988) 1925 – Alija Izetbegović, Bosnian lawyer and politician, 1st President of Bosnia and Herzegovina (d. 2003) 1925 – Aziz Sattar, Malaysian actor, comedian, singer and director (d. 2014) 1926 – Richard Anderson, American actor and producer (d. 2017) 1927 – Johnny Temple, American baseball player and coach (d. 1994) 1927 – Maia Wojciechowska, Polish-American author (d. 2002) 1928 – Don Burrows, Australian saxophonist, clarinet player, and flute player (d. 2020) 1929 – Larisa Bogoraz, Russian linguist and activist (d. 2004) 1929 – Luis García Meza Tejada, Bolivian general and politician, 68th President of Bolivia (d. 2018) 1929 – Ronnie Biggs, English criminal (d. 2013) 1930 – Terry Nation, Welsh-American author and screenwriter (d. 1997) 1930 – Jerry Tarkanian, American basketball player and coach (d. 2015) 1931 – Roger Penrose, English physicist, mathematician, and philosopher, Nobel Prize laureate 1932 – Mel Tillis, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (d. 2017) 1933 – Joe Tex, American soul singer-songwriter (d. 1982) 1934 – Sarat Pujari, Indian actor, director, and screenwriter (d. 2014) 1935 – Donald P. Bellisario, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1935 – John Laws, Papua New Guinean-Australian singer and radio host 1936 – Frank Howard, American baseball player and manager (d. 2023) 1936 – Jan Pieńkowski, Polish-English author and illustrator (d. 2022) 1937 – Dustin Hoffman, American actor and director 1937 – Sheila Varian, American horse breeder (d. 2016) 1937 – Cornelis Vreeswijk, Dutch-Swedish singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (d. 1987) 1938 – Jack Baldwin, English chemist and academic (d. 2020) 1938 – Jacques Hétu, Canadian composer and educator (d. 2010) 1938 – Connie Stevens, American actress and businesswoman 1939 – Jana Andrsová, Czech actress and ballerina (d. 2023) 1939 – Viorica Viscopoleanu, Romanian long jumper 1939 – Alexander Watson, American diplomat, United States Ambassador to Peru 1940 – Dilip Sardesai, Indian cricketer (d. 2007) 1940 – Dennis Tito, American engineer and businessman, founded Wilshire Associates 1942 – James Blanchard, American diplomat and politician, 45th Governor of Michigan 1942 – Dennis Canavan, Scottish educator and politician 1942 – John Gustafson, English singer-songwriter and bass player (d. 2014) 1942 – Vardo Rumessen, Estonian pianist and musicologist (d. 2015) 1944 – John C. Holmes, American film actor (d. 1988) 1944 – Michael Johnson, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and producer (d. 2017) 1944 – John Renbourn, English-Scottish guitarist and songwriter (d. 2015) 1944 – Simon Taylor, English journalist and author 1946 – Joe Bethancourt, American singer-songwriter (d. 2014) 1947 – Ken Dryden, Canadian ice hockey player, lawyer, and politician 1947 – Larry Wilcox, American actor, director, and producer 1948 – Svetlana Savitskaya, Russian engineer and astronaut 1948 – Margaret Urban Walker, American philosopher 1949 – Terry Burnham, American actress (d. 2013)Rubin, Steven Jay (2018). Twilight Zone Encyclopedia. Chicago, Ill: Chicago Review Press. 1949 – Keith Carradine, American actor 1949 – Ricardo Londoño, Colombian racing driver (d. 2009) 1950 – Willie Hall, American drummer and producer 1950 – Ken Kutaragi, Japanese businessman, created PlayStation 1951 – Martin Brest, American director, producer, and screenwriter 1951 – Phil Carlson, Australian cricketer (d. 2022) 1951 – Mohamed Morsi, Egyptian engineer, academic, and politician, 5th President of Egypt (d. 2019) 1951 – Mamoru Oshii, Japanese director, producer, and screenwriter 1951 – Randy Shilts, American journalist and author (d. 1994) 1951 – Louis van Gaal, Dutch footballer and manager 1952 – Anton Fig, South African-American drummer 1952 – Jostein Gaarder, Norwegian author 1952 – Doug Melvin, Canadian baseball player and manager 1952 – Robin Quivers, American nurse, radio host/personality, and author 1952 – Sudhakar Rao, Indian cricketer 1953 – Nigel Mansell, English racing driver 1953 – Don Most, American actor and singer 1954 – Nick Holtam, English bishop 1955 – Diddú, Icelandic singer-songwriter 1955 – Herbert Prohaska, Austrian footballer and manager 1955 – Michael Roe, Irish racing driver 1956 – Chris Foreman, English singer-songwriter and guitarist 1956 – David Grant, English singer 1956 – Cecilia Roth, Argentinian actress 1957 – Dennis Drew, American keyboard player 1958 – Deborah Norville, American journalist 1959 – Caroline Ansink, Dutch flute player, composer, and educator 1960 – Mustafa Balbay, Turkish journalist and politician 1960 – Ulrich Maly, German politician, 16th Mayor of Nuremberg 1961 – The Edge, British-Irish musician, singer and songwriter 1961 – Daniel House, American bass player and producer 1961 – Ron Klain, American lawyer and politician, White House Chief of Staff 1961 – Bruce Matthews, American football player and coach 1961 – Rikki Rockett, American glam rock drummer 1962 – Kool Moe Dee, American musician, singer and actor 1963 – Hur Jin-ho, South Korean director and screenwriter 1963 – Ron Karkovice, American baseball player and manager 1963 – Emi Shinohara, Japanese voice actress and singer (d. 2024) 1963 – Rika Fukami, Japanese voice actress and singer 1963 – Jon Turteltaub, American director and producer 1963 – Stephen Walkom, Canadian ice hockey player, referee, and manager 1964 – Anastasia M. Ashman, American blogger and author 1964 – Giuseppe Conte, Prime Minister of Italy 1964 – Scott Sandelin, American ice hockey player and coach 1964 – Paul Taylor, English cricketer 1965 – Angus Fraser, English cricketer, manager, and journalist 1965 – Kate Langbroek, Australian talk show host 1966 – Chris Eubank, English boxer 1966 – John Hudek, American baseball player and coach 1967 – Marcelo Balboa, American soccer player, coach, and sportscaster 1967 – Yūki Amami, Japanese theater and film actress 1968 – Yvie Burnett, Scottish soprano 1968 – Aldo Calderón van Dyke, Honduran journalist (d. 2013) 1968 – Abey Kuruvilla, Indian cricketer and coach 1968 – Huey Morgan, American singer-songwriter and guitarist 1969 – Monika Tsõganova, Estonian chess player 1969 – Faye Wong, Chinese singer-songwriter and actress 1970 – Trev Alberts, American football player and journalist 1970 – Ben G. Davis, English chemist and academic 1970 – José Francisco Molina, Spanish footballer and manager 1970 – Chester Williams, South African rugby player and coach (d. 2019) 1971 – Johnny Balentina, Dutch baseball player 1972 – Joely Collins, Canadian actress and producer 1972 – Andrea de Rossi, Italian rugby player and coach 1972 – Axel Merckx, Belgian cyclist 1972 – Steven Tweed, Scottish footballer and manager 1973 – Shane Lee, Australian cricketer and guitarist 1973 – Gert Olesk, Estonian footballer and manager 1973 – Scott Stapp, American singer-songwriter and producer 1973 – Mark Wills, American singer-songwriter 1973 – Ilka Agricola, German mathematician 1974 – Manjul Bhargava, Canadian-American mathematician and academic 1974 – Scott D'Amore, Canadian wrestler and manager 1974 – Brian Harvey, English singer-songwriter 1974 – Andy Priaulx, Guernseyan racing driver 1975 – Mick Moss, English singer-songwriter 1976 – JC Chasez, American singer and dancer 1976 – Drew Lachey, American singer and actor 1977 – Lindsay Sloane, American actress 1977 – Darren Manzella, American sergeant (d. 2013) 1977 – Rocky Thompson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach 1977 – Nicolas Vogondy, French cyclist 1977 – Mohammad Wasim, Pakistani cricketer 1978 – Alan Maybury, Irish footballer and coach 1978 – Louis Saha, French footballer 1978 – Miho Shiraishi, Japanese actress 1979 – Richard Harwood, English cellist 1979 – Rashard Lewis, American basketball player 1979 – Richard Lyons, Northern Irish racing driver 1980 – Shayna Baszler, American mixed martial artist and wrestler 1980 – Craig Breslow, American baseball pitcher and executive 1980 – Jack Cassel, American baseball player 1980 – Denisse Guerrero, Mexican singer-songwriter 1980 – Sabine Klaschka, German tennis player 1980 – Diego Markwell, Dutch baseball player 1980 – Pat Noonan, American soccer player 1980 – Michael Urie, American actor, director, and producer 1981 – Vanessa Amorosi, Australian singer-songwriter 1981 – Roger Federer, Swiss tennis player 1981 – Meagan Good, American actress and producer 1981 – Harel Skaat, Israeli singer-songwriter 1982 – David Florence, English canoe racer 1982 – Ross Ohlendorf, American baseball player 1983 – Guy Burnet, English actor and producer 1983 – Willie Tonga, Australian rugby league player 1984 – Kirk Broadfoot, Scottish footballer 1984 – Norbert Michelisz, Hungarian racing driver 1984 – Martrez Milner, American football player 1985 – Toby Flood, English rugby player 1985 – Ryan Koolwijk, Dutch footballer 1985 – James Morgan, Welsh actor and producer 1985 – Brett Ratliff, American football player 1985 – Anita Włodarczyk, Polish track and field athlete 1986 – Kateryna Bondarenko, Ukrainian tennis player 1986 – Jackie Cruz, Dominican-American actress and singer 1986 – Pierre Garçon, American football player 1986 – Chris Pressley, American football player 1987 – Pierre Boulanger, French actor 1987 – Katie Leung, Scottish actress 1987 – Tatjana Maria, German tennis player 1988 – Princess Beatrice, British royal 1988 – Danilo Gallinari, Italian basketball player 1988 – Rinku Singh, Indian baseball player and wrestler 1988 – Laura Slade Wiggins, American actress and singer 1989 – Ken Baumann, American actor and author 1989 – Anthony Rizzo, American baseball player 1989 – Hannah Miley, English-Scottish swimmer 1989 – Prajakta Mali, Indian actress 1990 – Vladimír Darida, Czech footballer 1990 – Parker Kligerman, American race car driver 1990 – Aleksandra Szwed, Polish actress and singer 1990 – Kane Williamson, New Zealand cricket captain 1991 – Yandy Díaz, Cuban baseball player 1991 – Nélson Oliveira, Portuguese footballer 1991 – Tyrone Peachey, Australian rugby league player 1991 – Joël Matip, Cameroonian footballer 1992 – Josip Drmić, Swiss footballer 1992 – Casey Cott, American actor 1993 – Emilie Mehl, Norwegian politician 1994 – Cameron Payne, American basketball player 1995 – S.Coups, South Korean rapper and singer 1996 – A'ja Wilson, American basketball player 1997 – Karim Walid, Egyptian footballer 1998 – Ryan Garcia, American boxer 1998 – Shawn Mendes, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist 2000 – Félix Auger-Aliassime, Canadian tennis player Deaths Pre-1600 117 – Trajan, Roman emperor (b. 53) 753 – Hildegar, bishop of Cologne 869 – Lothair II, Frankish king (b. 835) 998 – Sŏ Hŭi, Korean politician and diplomat (b. 942) 1002 – Almanzor, chief minister and de facto ruler of Córdoba 1171 – Henry of Blois, bishop of Winchester (b. 1111) 1303 – Henry of Castile the Senator, Spanish nobleman (b. 1230) 1533 – Lucas van Leyden, Dutch artist (b. 1494) 1555 – Oronce Finé, French mathematician and cartographer (b. 1494) 1588 – Alonso Sánchez Coello, Spanish painter (b. 1578) 1616 – Cornelis Ketel, Dutch painter (b. 1548) 1631 – Konstantinas Sirvydas, Lithuanian priest, lexicographer, and academic (b. 1579) 1684 – George Booth, 1st Baron Delamer, English politician (b. 1622) 1724 – Christoph Ludwig Agricola, German painter (b. 1665) 1747 – Madeleine de Verchères, Canadian raid leader (b. 1678) 1746 – Francis Hutcheson, Irish philosopher (b. 1694) 1759 – Carl Heinrich Graun, German tenor and composer (b. 1704) 1827 – George Canning, English lawyer and politician, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1770) 1828 – Carl Peter Thunberg, Swedish botanist and psychologist (b. 1743) 1858 – Marie-Claire Heureuse Félicité Bonheur, Haitian Empress (b. 1758) 1863 – Angus MacAskill, Scottish-Canadian giant (b. 1825) 1879 – Immanuel Hermann Fichte, German philosopher and academic (b. 1797) 1887 – Alexander William Doniphan, American colonel, lawyer, and politician (b. 1808) 1897 – Jacob Burckhardt, Swiss historian and academic (b. 1818) 1898 – Eugène Boudin, French painter (b. 1824) 1901–present 1902 – James Tissot, French painter and illustrator (b. 1836) 1902 – John Henry Twachtman, American painter and academic (b. 1853) 1909 – Mary MacKillop, Australian nun and saint, co-founded the Sisters of St Joseph of the Sacred Heart (b. 1842) 1911 – William P. Frye, American lawyer and politician (b. 1830) 1920 – Eduard Birnbaum, Polish-born German cantor (b. 1855) 1921 – Juhani Aho, Finnish journalist and author (b. 1861) 1928 – Stjepan Radić, Croatian politician (b. 1871) 1930 – Launceston Elliot, Scottish wrestler and weightlifter (b. 1874) 1934 – Wilbert Robinson, American baseball player, coach, and manager (b. 1863) 1937 – Jimmie Guthrie, Scottish motorcycle racer (b. 1897) 1940 – Johnny Dodds, American clarinet player and saxophonist (b. 1892) 1944 – Erwin von Witzleben, German field marshal (b. 1881) 1944 – Michael Wittmann, German commander (b. 1914) 1950 – Fergus McMaster, Australian businessman, founded Qantas (b. 1879) 1959 – Albert Namatjira, Australian painter (b. 1902) 1965 – Shirley Jackson, American novelist and short story writer (b. 1916) 1969 – Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer, German biologist and eugenicist (b. 1896) 1971 – Freddie Spencer Chapman, English lieutenant (b. 1907) 1973 – Vilhelm Moberg, Swedish historian and author (b. 1898) 1974 – Elisabeth Abegg, German anti-Nazi resistance fighter (b. 1882) 1975 – Cannonball Adderley, American saxophonist (b. 1928) 1979 – Nicholas Monsarrat, English lieutenant and author (b. 1910) 1980 – Paul Triquet, Canadian general, Victoria Cross recipient (b. 1910) 1981 – Thomas McElwee, Irish republican, PIRA volunteer and Hunger Striker (b. 1957) 1982 – Eric Brandon, English racing driver and businessman (b. 1920) 1984 – Richard Deacon, American actor (b. 1921) 1984 – Ellen Raskin, American author and illustrator (b. 1928) 1985 – Louise Brooks, American actress (b. 1906) 1987 – Danilo Blanuša, Croatian mathematician and physicist (b. 1903) 1988 – Félix Leclerc, Canadian singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1914) 1988 – Alan Napier, English actor (b. 1903) 1991 – James Irwin, American colonel, pilot, and astronaut (b. 1930) 1992 – Abu al-Qasim al-Khoei, Iranian religious leader and scholar (b. 1899) 1996 – Nevill Francis Mott, English physicist and academic, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1905) 1996 – Jüri Randviir, Estonian chess player and journalist (b. 1927) 1998 – Mahmoud Saremi, Iranian journalist (b. 1968) 2003 – Dirk Hoogendam, Dutch-German SS officer (b. 1922) 2003 – Falaba Issa Traoré, Malian director and playwright (b. 1930) 2004 – Leon Golub, American painter and academic (b. 1922) 2004 – Fay Wray, Canadian-American actress (b. 1907) 2005 – Barbara Bel Geddes, American actress (b. 1922) 2005 – Ahmed Deedat, South African missionary and author (b. 1918) 2005 – John H. Johnson, American publisher, founded the Johnson Publishing Company (b. 1918) 2005 – Gene Mauch, American baseball player and manager (b. 1925) 2005 – Dean Rockwell, American commander, wrestler, and coach (b. 1912) 2005 – Monica Sjöö, Swedish-English painter (b. 1938) 2007 – Ma Lik, Chinese journalist and politician (b. 1952) 2007 – Melville Shavelson, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1917) 2008 – Orville Moody, American golfer (b. 1933) 2009 – Daniel Jarque, Spanish footballer (b. 1983) 2010 – Patricia Neal, American actress (b. 1926) 2012 – Fay Ajzenberg-Selove, German-American physicist and academic (b. 1926) 2012 – Ruth Etchells, English poet and academic (b. 1931) 2012 – Surya Lesmana, Indonesian footballer and manager (b. 1944) 2012 – Kurt Maetzig, German director and screenwriter (b. 1911) 2013 – Karen Black, American actress (b. 1939) 2013 – Johannes Bluyssen, Dutch bishop (b. 1926) 2013 – Fernando Castro Pacheco, Mexican painter, engraver, and illustrator (b. 1918) 2013 – Igor Kurnosov, Russian chess player (b. 1985) 2013 – Regina Resnik, American soprano and actress (b. 1922) 2014 – Menahem Golan, Israeli director and producer (b. 1929) 2014 – Charles Keating, English-American actor (b. 1941) 2014 – Leonardo Legaspi, Filipino archbishop (b. 1935) 2014 – Peter Sculthorpe, Australian composer and conductor (b. 1929) 2014 – Red Wilson, American football and baseball player (b. 1929) 2015 – Sean Price, American rapper (b. 1972) 2015 – Gus Mortson, Canadian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1925) 2017 – Glen Campbell, American singer-songwriter, guitarist, and actor (b. 1936) 2018 – Nicholas Bett, Kenyan track and field athlete (b. 1990) 2020 – Gabriel Ochoa Uribe, Colombian football player and manager (b. 1929) 2020 – Alfredo Lim, former Philippine senator and Mayor of Manila (b. 1929) 2021 – Bill Davis, Canadian politician, 18th premier of Ontario (b. 1929) 2022 – Olivia Newton-John, English-Australian singer-songwriter and actress (b. 1948) 2023 – Rodriguez, American singer and songwriter (b. 1942) 2024 – Issa Hayatou, Cameroonian basketball player and football executive (b. 1946) 2024 – Mitzi McCall, American actress (b. 1930) 2024 – Chi-Chi Rodríguez, Puerto Rican professional golfer (b. 1935) 2024 – Steve Symms, American politician and lobbyist (b. 1938) Holidays and observances Ceasefire Day (end of Iran–Iraq War) (Iraqi Kurdistan) Christian Feast Day: Altmann of Passau Cyriacus Dominic de Guzmán, founder of the Dominican Order. Four Crowned Martyrs Largus Mary MacKillop Saint Smaragdus (and companions) Severus of Vienne August 8 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Father's Day or Bā bā Day (爸爸節), Bā Bā is Mandarin for "father" and "8-8", or August 8. (Mongolia, Taiwan) Happiness Happens Day International Cat Day Namesday of the Queen (Sweden) Nane Nane Day (Tanzania) Signal Troops Day (Ukraine) References External links

April 16

Events Pre-1600 1457 BC – Battle of Megido – the first battle to have been recorded in what is accepted as relatively reliable detail. 69 – Defeated by Vitellius' troops at Bedriacum, Roman emperor Otho commits suicide. 73 – Masada, a Jewish fortress, falls to the Romans after several months of siege, ending the First Jewish–Roman War.Duncan B. Campbell, "Capturing a desert fortress: Flavius Silva and the siege of Masada", Ancient Warfare Vol. The dating is explained on pp. 1346 – Stefan Dušan, "the Mighty", is crowned Emperor of the Serbs at Skopje, his empire occupying much of the Balkans. 1520 – The Revolt of the Comuneros begins in Spain against the rule of Charles V. 1582 – Spanish conquistador Hernando de Lerma founds the settlement of Salta, Argentina. 1601–1900 1746 – The Battle of Culloden is fought between the French-supported Jacobites and the British Hanoverian forces commanded by William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, in Scotland. 1780 – Franz Friedrich Wilhelm von Fürstenberg founds the University of Münster. 1799 – French Revolutionary Wars: The Battle of Mount Tabor: Napoleon drives Ottoman Turks across the River Jordan near Acre. 1818 – The United States Senate ratifies the Rush–Bagot Treaty, limiting naval armaments on the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain. 1838 – The French Army captures Veracruz in the Pastry War. 1847 – Shooting of a Māori by an English sailor results in the opening of the Wanganui Campaign of the New Zealand Wars. 1853 – The Great Indian Peninsula Railway opens the first passenger rail in India, from Bori Bunder to Thane. 1858 – The Wernerian Natural History Society, a former Scottish learned society, is dissolved. 1862 – American Civil War: Battle at Lee's Mills in Virginia. 1862 – American Civil War: The District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act, a bill ending slavery in the District of Columbia, becomes law. 1863 – American Civil War: During the Vicksburg Campaign, gunboats commanded by acting Rear Admiral David Dixon Porter run downriver past Confederate artillery batteries at Vicksburg. 1878 – The Senate of the Grand Duchy of Finland issues a declaration establishing a city of Kotka on the southern part islands from the old Kymi parish.Kotkan synty ja kasvu (in Finnish) 1881 – In Dodge City, Kansas, Bat Masterson fights his last gun battle. 1901–present 1908 – Natural Bridges National Monument is established in Utah. 1910 – The oldest existing indoor ice hockey arena still used for the sport in the 21st century, Boston Arena, opens for the first time. 1912 – Harriet Quimby becomes the first woman to fly an airplane across the English Channel. 1917 – Russian Revolution: Vladimir Lenin returns to Petrograd, Russia, from exile in Switzerland. 1919 – Mohandas Gandhi organizes a day of "prayer and fasting" in response to the killing of Indian protesters in the Jallianwala Bagh massacre by the British colonial troops three days earlier. 1919 – Polish–Lithuanian War: The Polish Army launches the Vilna offensive to capture Vilnius in modern Lithuania. 1922 – The Treaty of Rapallo, pursuant to which Germany and the Soviet Union re-establish diplomatic relations, is signed. 1925 – During the Communist St Nedelya Church assault in Sofia, Bulgaria, 150 are killed and 500 are wounded. 1941 – World War II: The Italian-German Tarigo convoy is attacked and destroyed by British ships. 1941 – World War II: The Nazi-affiliated Ustaše is put in charge of the Independent State of Croatia by the Axis powers after Operation 25 is effected. 1942 – King George VI awarded the George Cross to the people of Malta in appreciation of their heroism. 1943 – Albert Hofmann accidentally discovers the hallucinogenic effects of the research drug LSD. He intentionally takes the drug three days later on April 19. 1944 – World War II: Allied forces start bombing Belgrade, killing about 1,100 people. This bombing fell on the Orthodox Christian Easter. 1945 – World War II: The Red Army begins the final assault on German forces around Berlin, with nearly one million troops fighting in the Battle of the Seelow Heights. 1945 – The United States Army liberates Nazi Sonderlager (high security) prisoner-of-war camp Oflag IV-C (better known as Colditz). 1945 – More than 7,000 die when the German transport ship Goya is sunk by a Soviet submarine. 1947 – An explosion on board a freighter in port causes the city of Texas City, Texas, United States, to catch fire, killing almost 600 people. 1947 – Bernard Baruch first applies the term "Cold War" to describe the relationship between the United States and the Soviet Union. 1948 – The Organization of European Economic Co-operation is formed. 1961 – In a nationally broadcast speech, Cuban leader Fidel Castro declares that he is a Marxist–Leninist and that Cuba is going to adopt Communism. 1963 – U.S. civil rights campaigner Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. writes his open letter from Birmingham Jail, sometimes known as "The Negro Is Your Brother", while incarcerated in Birmingham, Alabama, for protesting against segregation. 1972 – Apollo program: The launch of Apollo 16 from Cape Canaveral, Florida. 2001 – India and Bangladesh begin a five-day border conflict, but are unable to resolve the disputes about their border. 2003 – The Treaty of Accession is signed in Athens admitting ten new member states to the European Union. 2007 – Virginia Tech shooting: Seung-Hui Cho guns down 32 people and injures 17 before committing suicide. 2008 – The U.S. Supreme Court rules in the Baze v. Rees decision that execution by lethal injection does not violate the Eighth Amendment ban against cruel and unusual punishment. 2012 – The trial for Anders Behring Breivik, the perpetrator of the 2011 Norway attacks, begins in Oslo, Norway. 2012 – The Pulitzer Prize winners were announced, it was the first time since 1977 that no book won the Fiction Prize. 2013 – A 7.8-magnitude earthquake strikes Sistan and Baluchestan province, Iran, killing at least 35 people and injuring 117 others. 2013 – The 2013 Baga massacre is started when Boko Haram militants engage government soldiers in Baga. 2014 – The South Korean ferry MV Sewol capsizes and sinks near Jindo Island, killing 304 passengers and crew and leading to widespread criticism of the South Korean government, media, and shipping authorities. 2016 – Ecuador's worst earthquake in nearly 40 years kills 676 and injures more than 230,000. 2018 – The New York Times and the New Yorker win the Pulitzer Prize for Public Service for breaking news of the Harvey Weinstein sexual abuse scandal. 2024 – The historic Børsen in Copenhagen, Denmark, is severely damaged by a fire. Births Pre-1600 1488 – Jungjong of Joseon (d. 1544) 1495 – Petrus Apianus, German mathematician and astronomer (d. 1557) 1516 – Tabinshwehti, Burmese king (d. 1550)(Hmannan Vol. AD 32) 665 – Fructuosus of Braga, French archbishop and saint 1090 – Sikelgaita, duchess of Apulia (b. c. 1040) 1113 – Sviatopolk II of Kiev (b. 1050) 1118 – Adelaide del Vasto, regent of Sicily, mother of Roger II of Sicily, queen of Baldwin I of Jerusalem 1198 – Frederick I, Duke of Austria (b. 1175) 1234 – Richard Marshal, 3rd Earl of Pembroke (b. 1191) 1375 – John Hastings, 2nd Earl of Pembroke, English nobleman and soldier (b. 1347) 1496 – Charles II, Duke of Savoy (b. 1489) 1587 – Anne Seymour, Duchess of Somerset (b. 1497) 1601–1900 1640 – Countess Charlotte Flandrina of Nassau (b. 1579) 1645 – Tobias Hume, Scottish soldier, viol player, and composer (b. 1569) 1687 – George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, English poet and politician, Lord Lieutenant of the West Riding of Yorkshire (b. 1628) 1689 – Aphra Behn, English author and playwright (b. 1640) 1742 – Stefano Benedetto Pallavicino, Italian poet and translator (b. 1672) 1756 – Jacques Cassini, French astronomer (b. 1677) 1783 – Christian Mayer, Czech astronomer and educator (b. 1719) 1788 – Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, French mathematician, cosmologist, and author (b. 1707) 1828 – Francisco Goya, Spanish-French painter and illustrator (b. 1746) 1846 – Domenico Dragonetti, Italian bassist and composer (b. 1763) 1850 – Marie Tussaud, French-English sculptor, founded the Madame Tussauds Wax Museum (b. 1761) 1859 – Alexis de Tocqueville, French historian and philosopher, French Minister of Foreign Affairs (b. 1805) 1879 – Bernadette Soubirous, French nun and saint (b. 1844) 1888 – Zygmunt Florenty Wróblewski, Polish physicist and chemist (b. 1845) 1899 – Emilio Jacinto, Filipino journalist and activist (b. 1875) 1901–present 1904 – Maximilian Kronberger, German poet and author (b. 1888) 1904 – Samuel Smiles, Scottish-English author (b. 1812) 1914 – George William Hill, American astronomer and mathematician (b. 1838) 1915 – Nelson W. Aldrich, American businessman and politician (b. 1841) 1925 – Stefan Nerezov, Bulgarian general (b. 1867) 1928 – Henry Birks, Canadian businessman, founded Henry Birks and Sons (b. 1840) 1928 – Roman Steinberg, Estonian wrestler (b. 1900) 1930 – José Carlos Mariátegui, Peruvian journalist, philosopher, and activist (b. 1894) 1935 – Panait Istrati, Romanian journalist and author (b. 1884) 1937 – Jay Johnson Morrow, American military engineer and politician, third Governor of the Panama Canal Zone (b. 1870) 1938 – Steve Bloomer, English footballer and manager (b. 1874) 1940 – Tony D'Arcy, Irish Republican died while on hunger strike (b. 1908) 1941 – Josiah Stamp, 1st Baron Stamp, English economist and civil servant (b. 1880) 1942 – Princess Alexandra of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (b. 1878) 1942 – Denis St. George Daly, Irish polo player (b. 1862) 1946 – Arthur Chevrolet, Swiss-American race car driver and engineer (b. 1884) 1947 – Rudolf Höss, German SS officer (b. 1900) 1950 – Eduard Oja, Estonian composer, conductor, and critic (b. 1905) 1950 – Anders Peter Nielsen, Danish target shooter (b. 1867) 1955 – David Kirkwood, Scottish engineer and politician (b. 1872) 1958 – Rosalind Franklin, English biophysicist and academic (b. 1920) 1960 – Mihály Fekete, Hungarian actor, screenwriter and film director (b. 1884) 1961 – Carl Hovland, American psychologist and academic (b. 1912) 1965 – Francis Balfour, English soldier and colonial administrator (b. 1884) 1965 – Sydney Chaplin, English actor, comedian, brother of Charlie Chaplin (b. 1885) 1966 – Eric Lambert, Australian author (b. 1918) 1968 – Fay Bainter, American actress (b. 1893) 1968 – Edna Ferber, American novelist, short story writer, and playwright (b. 1885) 1969 – Hem Vejakorn, Thai illustrator and painter (b. 1904) 1970 – Richard Neutra, Austrian-American architect, designed the Los Angeles County Hall of Records (b. 1892) 1970 – Péter Veres, Hungarian politician, Hungarian Minister of Defence (b. 1897) 1972 – Yasunari Kawabata, Japanese novelist and short story writer, Nobel Prize laureate (b. 1899) 1972 – Frank O'Connor, Australian public servant (b. 1894) 1973 – István Kertész, Hungarian conductor and educator (b. 1929) 1978 – Lucius D. Clay, American officer and military governor in occupied Germany (b. 1898) 1980 – Morris Stoloff, American composer (b. 1898) 1985 – Scott Brady, American actor (b. 1924) 1988 – Khalil al-Wazir, Palestinian commander, founded Fatah (b. 1935) 1988 – Youri Egorov, Russian pianist (b. 1954) 1989 – Jocko Conlan, American baseball player and umpire (b. 1899) 1989 – Kaoru Ishikawa Japanese author and educator (b. 1915) 1989 – Miles Lawrence, English cricketer (b. 1940) 1989 – Hakkı Yeten, Turkish footballer, manager and president (b. 1910) 1991 – David Lean, English director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1908) 1992 – Neville Brand, American actor (b. 1920) 1992 – Alexandru Nicolschi, Romanian spy and activist (b. 1915) 1992 – Andy Russell, American singer and actor (b. 1919) 1994 – Paul-Émilien Dalpé, Canadian labor unionist (b. 1919) 1994 – Ralph Ellison, American novelist and critic (b. 1913) 1996 – Lucille Bremer, American actress and dancer (b. 1917) 1997 – Esmeralda Arboleda Cadavid, Colombian politician (b. 1921) 1997 – Roland Topor, French actor, director, and painter (b. 1938) 1998 – Alberto Calderón, Argentinian-American mathematician and academic (b. 1920) 1998 – Fred Davis, English snooker player (b. 1913) 1998 – Marie-Louise Meilleur, Canadian super-centenarian (b. 1880) 1999 – Skip Spence, Canadian-American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1946) 2001 – Robert Osterloh, American actor (b. 1918) 2001 – Michael Ritchie, American director, producer, and screenwriter (b. 1938) 2001 – Alec Stock, English footballer and manager (b. 1917) 2002 – Billy Ayre, English footballer and manager (b. 1952) 2002 – Ruth Fertel, American businesswoman, founded Ruth's Chris Steak House (b. 1927) 2002 – Robert Urich, American actor (b. 1946) 2003 – Graham Jarvis, Canadian actor (b. 1930) 2003 – Graham Stuart Thomas, English horticulturalist and author (b. 1909) 2005 – Kay Walsh, English actress, singer, and dancer (b. 1911) 2007 – Frank Bateson, New Zealand astronomer (b. 1909) 2007 – Gaétan Duchesne, Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1962) 2007 – Maria Lenk, Brazilian swimmer (b. 1915) 2007 – Chandrabose Suthaharan, Sri Lankan journalist 2008 – Edward Norton Lorenz, American mathematician and meteorologist (b. 1917) 2010 – Rasim Delić, Bosnian general and convicted war criminal (b. 1949) 2010 – Daryl Gates, American police officer, created the D.A.R.E. Program (b. 1926) 2011 – Gerry Alexander, Jamaican cricketer and veterinarian (b. 1928) 2011 – Allan Blakeney, Canadian scholar and politician, tenth Premier of Saskatchewan (b. 1925) 2011 – Sol Saks, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1910) 2012 – Sári Barabás, Hungarian soprano (b. 1914) 2012 – Marian Biskup, Polish author and academic (b. 1922) 2012 – Alan Hacker, English clarinet player and conductor (b. 1938) 2012 – George Kunda, Zambian lawyer and politician, 11th Vice-President of Zambia (b. 1956) 2012 – Mærsk Mc-Kinney Møller, Danish businessman (b. 1913) 2012 – Carlo Petrini, Italian footballer and coach (b. 1948) 2013 – Charles Bruzon, Gibraltarian politician (b. 1938) 2013 – Ali Kafi, Algerian politician (b. 1928) 2013 – Siegfried Ludwig, Austrian politician, 18th Governor of Lower Austria (b. 1926) 2013 – Pentti Lund, Finnish-Canadian ice hockey player (b. 1925) 2013 – George Beverly Shea, Canadian-American singer-songwriter (b. 1909) 2013 – Pat Summerall, American football player and sportscaster (b. 1930) 2013 – Pedro Ramírez Vázquez, Mexican architect, designed the Tijuana Cultural Center and National Museum of Anthropology (b. 1919) 2014 – Gyude Bryant, Liberian businessman and politician (b. 1949) 2014 – Aulis Rytkönen, Finnish footballer and manager (b. 1929) 2014 – Ernst Florian Winter, Austrian-American historian and political scientist (b. 1923) 2015 – Valery Belousov, Russian ice hockey player and coach (b. 1948) 2015 – Stanislav Gross, Czech lawyer and politician, fifth Prime Minister of the Czech Republic (b. 1969) 2018 – Harry Anderson, American actor and magician (b. 1952) 2021 – Andrew Peacock, Australian politician (b. 1939) 2021 – Helen McCrory, British actress (b. 1968) 2021 – Liam Scarlett, British choreographer (b. 1986) 2021 – John Dawes, Welsh rugby union player (b. 1940) 2024 – Carl Erskine, American baseball player (b. 1926) 2024 – Bob Graham, American lawyer, author, and politician, 38th governor of Florida (b. 1936) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Benedict Joseph Labre Bernadette Soubirous Drogo Engratia Fructuosus of Braga Isabella Gilmore (Church of England) Martyrs of Zaragoza Molly Brant (Konwatsijayenni) (Anglican Church of Canada, Episcopal Church) Turibius of Astorga April 16 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Birthday of José de Diego (Puerto Rico, United States) Birthday of Queen Margrethe II (Denmark) Emancipation Day (Washington, D.C., United States) Memorial Day for the Victims of the Holocaust (Hungary) National Healthcare Decisions Day (United States) Remembrance of Chemical Attack on Balisan and Sheikh Wasan (Iraqi Kurdistan) World Voice Day References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on April 16

Associative property

In mathematics, the associative property is a property of some binary operations that means that rearranging the parentheses in an expression will not change the result. In propositional logic, associativity is a valid rule of replacement for expressions in logical proofs. Within an expression containing two or more occurrences in a row of the same associative operator, the order in which the operations are performed does not matter as long as the sequence of the operands is not changed. That is (after rewriting the expression with parentheses and in infix notation if necessary), rearranging the parentheses in such an expression will not change its value. Consider the following equations: Even though the parentheses were rearranged on each line, the values of the expressions were not altered. Since this holds true when performing addition and multiplication on any real numbers, it can be said that "addition and multiplication of real numbers are associative operations". Associativity is not the same as commutativity, which addresses whether the order of two operands affects the result. For example, the order does not matter in the multiplication of real numbers, that is, , so we say that the multiplication of real numbers is a commutative operation. However, operations such as function composition and matrix multiplication are associative, but not (generally) commutative. Associative operations are abundant in mathematics; in fact, many algebraic structures (such as semigroups and categories) explicitly require their binary operations to be associative. However, many important and interesting operations are non-associative; some examples include subtraction, exponentiation, and the vector cross product. In contrast to the theoretical properties of real numbers, the addition of floating point numbers in computer science is not associative, and the choice of how to associate an expression can have a significant effect on rounding error. Definition

The Apache Software Foundation

The Apache Software Foundation ( ; ASF) is an American nonprofit corporation (classified as a 501(c)(3) organization in the United States) to support a number of open-source software projects. The ASF was formed from a group of developers of the Apache HTTP Server, and incorporated on March 25, 1999. it includes approximately 1000 members. The Apache Software Foundation is a decentralized open source community of developers. The software they produce is distributed under the terms of the Apache License, a permissive open-source license for free and open-source software (FOSS). The Apache projects are characterized by a collaborative, consensus-based development process and an open and pragmatic software license, which is to say that it allows developers, who receive the software freely, to redistribute it under non-free terms. Each project is managed by a self-selected team of technical experts who are active contributors to the project. The ASF is a meritocracy, implying that membership of the foundation is granted only to volunteers who have actively contributed to Apache projects. Among the ASF's objectives are: to provide legal protection to volunteers working on Apache projects, and to prevent the "Apache" brand name from being used by other organizations without permission. The ASF also holds several ApacheCon conferences each year, highlighting Apache projects and related technology. History The history of the Apache Software Foundation is linked to the Apache HTTP Server, development beginning in February 1993. A group of eight developers started working on enhancing the NCSA HTTPd daemon. They came to be known as the Apache Group. On March 25, 1999, the Apache Software Foundation was formed. The first official meeting of the Apache Software Foundation was held on April 13, 1999. The initial members of the Apache Software Foundation consisted of the Apache Group: Brian Behlendorf, Ken Coar, Miguel Gonzales, Mark Cox, Lars Eilebrecht, Ralf S. Engelschall, Roy T. Fielding, Dean Gaudet, Ben Hyde, Jim Jagielski, Alexei Kosut, Martin Kraemer, Ben Laurie, Doug MacEachern, Aram Mirzadeh, Sameer Parekh, Cliff Skolnick, Marc Slemko, William (Bill) Stoddard, Paul Sutton, Randy Terbush and Dirk-Willem van Gulik. After a series of additional meetings to elect board members and resolve other legal matters regarding incorporation, the effective incorporation date of the Apache Software Foundation was set to June 1, 1999. Co-founder Brian Behlendorf states how the name 'Apache' was chosen: "I suggested the name Apache partly because the web technologies at the time that were launching were being called cyber this or spider that or something on those themes and I was like we need something a little more interesting, a little more romantic, not to be a cultural appropriator or anything like that, I had just seen a documentary about Geronimo and the last days of a Native American tribe called the Apaches right, who succumbed to the invasion from the West, from the United States, and they were the last tribe to give up their territory and for me that almost romantically represented what I felt we were doing with this web-server project..." Projects Apache divides its software development activities into separate semi-autonomous areas called "top-level projects" (formally known as a "Project Management Committee" in the bylaws), some of which have a number of sub-projects. Unlike some other organizations that host FOSS projects, before a project is hosted at Apache it has to be licensed to the ASF with a grant or contributor agreement. In this way, the ASF gains the necessary intellectual property rights for the development and distribution of all its projects. Board of directors The Board of Directors of The Apache Software Foundation (ASF) is responsible for management and oversight of the business and affairs of the corporation in accordance with the Bylaws. This includes management of the corporate assets (funds, intellectual property, trademarks, and support equipment), appointment of a President and corporate officers managing the core operations of the ASF, and allocation of corporate resources for the benefit of Apache projects. Technical decision-making authority for every Apache project is assigned to their independent project management committee; the participants in each project provide direction, not the board. The board is elected annually by the ASF membership. Since September 18, 2024, the board of directors has been: Rich Bowen Shane Curcuru Willem Ning Jiang Jeff Jirsa Justin Mclean Jean-Baptiste Onofré Craig L Russell Sander Striker Kanchana Pradeepika Welagedara See also List of Apache Software Foundation projects Apache Attic Apache Incubator Log4Shell CNCF Linux Foundation Notes Further reading Wikinomics: How Mass Collaboration Changes Everything (2006); Don Tapscott, Anthony D. Williams. External links ApacheCon website "Trillions and Trillions Served" – Feature documentary by the Apache Software Foundation detailing its history and impact on the open-source software community (2020

Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990

The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 or ADA is a civil rights law that prohibits discrimination based on disability. It affords similar protections against discrimination to Americans with disabilities as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which made discrimination based on race, religion, sex, national origin, and other characteristics illegal, and later sexual orientation and gender identity. In addition, unlike the Civil Rights Act, the ADA also requires covered employers to provide reasonable accommodations to employees with disabilities, and imposes accessibility requirements on public accommodations.42 U.S.C. 12112(b)(5), 12182–84 In 1986, the National Council on Disability had recommended the enactment of an Americans with Disabilities Act and drafted the first version of the bill which was introduced in the House and Senate in 1988. A broad bipartisan coalition of legislators supported the ADA, while the bill was opposed by business interests (who argued the bill imposed costs on business) and conservative evangelicals (who opposed protection for individuals with HIV). The final version of the bill was signed into law on July 26, 1990, by President George H. W. Bush. It was later amended in 2008 and signed by President George W. Bush with changes effective as of January 1, 2009. Disabilities included alt=April 28, 1988"A Bill to establish a prohibition of discrimination on the basis of handicap." Authored by Senator Tom Harkin

Apple I

The Apple Computer 1 (Apple-1), later known predominantly as the Apple I, is an 8-bit motherboard-only personal computer designed by Steve Wozniak and released by the Apple Computer Company (now Apple Inc.) in 1976. The company was initially formed to sell the Apple Iits first product and would later become the world's largest technology company. The idea of starting a company and selling the computer came from Wozniak's friend and Apple co-founder Steve Jobs. A differentiator of the Apple I was that it included video display terminal circuitry on its circuit board, allowing it to connect to a low-cost composite video monitor or television, whereas others avoided this and used more expensive monitors because business was used to more characters per displayed/typewritten line. It and the Sol-20 were some of the first home computers to have this capability. To finance the Apple I's development, Wozniak and Jobs sold some of their possessions for a few hundred dollars. Wozniak demonstrated the first prototype in July 1976 at the Homebrew Computer Club in Palo Alto, California, impressing an early computer retailer. After securing an order for 50 computers, Jobs was able to order the parts on credit and deliver the first Apple products after ten days. The Apple I was one of the first computers available that used the inexpensive MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor. An expansion included a BASIC interpreter, allowing users to utilize BASIC at home instead of at institutions with mainframe computers, greatly lowering the entry cost for computing with BASIC. Production was discontinued on September 30, 1977, after the June 10, 1977 introduction of its successor, the Apple II, which Byte magazine referred to as part of the "1977 Trinity" of personal computing (along with the PET 2001 from Commodore Business Machines and the TRS-80 Model I from Tandy Corporation). As relatively few computers were made before they were discontinued, coupled with their status as Apple's first product, surviving Apple I units are now displayed in computer museums.

Apatosaurus

Apatosaurus (; meaning "deceptive lizard") is a genus of herbivorous sauropod dinosaur that lived in North America during the Late Jurassic period. Othniel Charles Marsh described and named the first-known species, A. ajax, in 1877, and a second species, A. louisae, was discovered and named by William H. Holland in 1916. Apatosaurus lived about 152 to 151 million years ago (mya), during the late Kimmeridgian to early Tithonian age, and are now known from fossils in the Morrison Formation of modern-day Colorado, Oklahoma, New Mexico, Wyoming, and Utah in the United States. Apatosaurus had an average length of , and an average mass of . A few specimens indicate a maximum length of 11–30% greater than average and a mass of approximately . The cervical vertebrae of Apatosaurus are less elongated and more heavily constructed than those of Diplodocus, a diplodocid like Apatosaurus, and the bones of the leg are much stockier despite being longer, implying that Apatosaurus was a more robust animal. The tail was held above the ground during normal locomotion. Apatosaurus had a single claw on each forelimb and three on each hindlimb. The Apatosaurus skull, long thought to be similar to Camarasaurus, is much more similar to that of Diplodocus. Apatosaurus was a generalized browser that likely held its head elevated. To lighten its vertebrae, Apatosaurus had air sacs that made the bones internally full of holes. Like that of other diplodocids, its tail may have been used as a whip to create loud noises, or, as more recently suggested, as a sensory organ. The skull of Apatosaurus was confused with that of Camarasaurus and Brachiosaurus until 1909, when the holotype of A. louisae was found, and a complete skull just a few meters away from the front of the neck. Henry Fairfield Osborn disagreed with this association, and went on to mount a skeleton of Apatosaurus with a Camarasaurus skull cast. Apatosaurus skeletons were mounted with speculative skull casts until 1970, when McIntosh showed that more robust skulls assigned to Diplodocus were more likely from Apatosaurus. Apatosaurus is a genus in the family Diplodocidae. It is one of the more basal genera, with only Amphicoelias and possibly a new, unnamed genus more primitive. Although the subfamily Apatosaurinae was named in 1929, the group was not used validly until an extensive 2015 study. Only Brontosaurus is also in the subfamily, with the other genera being considered synonyms or reclassified as diplodocines. Brontosaurus has long been considered a junior synonym of Apatosaurus; its type species was reclassified as A.excelsus in 1903. A 2015 study concluded that Brontosaurus is a valid genus of sauropod distinct from Apatosaurus, but not all paleontologists agree with this division. As it existed in North America during the late Jurassic, Apatosaurus would have lived alongside dinosaurs such as Allosaurus, Camarasaurus, Diplodocus, and Stegosaurus.

Allosaurus

Allosaurus is an extinct genus of large carnosaurian theropod dinosaur that lived 155 to 145 million years ago during the Late Jurassic period (Kimmeridgian to late Tithonian ages). The name "Allosaurus" means "different lizard", alluding to its unique (at the time of its discovery) concave vertebrae. It is derived from the Greek words ("different", "strange", or "other") and ("lizard" or "reptile"). The first fossil remains that could definitively be ascribed to this genus were described in 1877 by famed paleontologist Othniel Charles Marsh. The genus has a very complicated taxonomy and includes at least three valid species, the best known of which is A. fragilis. The bulk of Allosaurus remains have come from North America's Morrison Formation, with material also known from the Alcobaça Formation and Lourinhã Formation in Portugal with teeth known from Germany. It was known for over half of the 20th century as Antrodemus, but a study of the abundant remains from the Cleveland-Lloyd Dinosaur Quarry returned the name "Allosaurus" to prominence. As one of the first well-known theropod dinosaurs, it has long attracted attention outside of paleontological circles. Allosaurus was a large bipedal predator for its time. Its skull was light, robust, and equipped with dozens of sharp, serrated teeth. It averaged in length for A. fragilis, with the largest specimens estimated as being long. Relative to the large and powerful legs, its three-fingered hands were small and the body was balanced by a long, muscular tail. It is classified as an allosaurid, a type of carnosaurian theropod dinosaur. As the most abundant large predator of the Morrison Formation, Allosaurus was at the top of the food chain and probably preyed on contemporaneous large herbivorous dinosaurs, with the possibility of hunting other predators. Potential prey included ornithopods, stegosaurids, and sauropods. Some paleontologists interpret Allosaurus as having had cooperative social behavior and hunting in packs, while others believe individuals may have been aggressive toward each other and that congregations of this genus are the result of lone individuals feeding on the same carcasses. Discovery and history Early discoveries and research The discovery and early study of Allosaurus is complicated by the multiplicity of names coined during the Bone Wars of the late 19th century. The first described fossil in this history was a bone obtained secondhand by Ferdinand Vandeveer Hayden in 1869. It came from Middle Park, near Granby, Colorado, probably from Morrison Formation rocks. The locals had identified such bones as "petrified horse hoofs". Hayden sent his specimen to Joseph Leidy, who identified it as half of a tail vertebra and tentatively assigned it to the European dinosaur genus Poekilopleuron as Poicilopleuron valens. He later decided it deserved its own genus, Antrodemus. Allosaurus itself is based on YPM 1930, a small collection of fragmentary bones including parts of three vertebrae, a rib fragment, a tooth, a toe bone, and (most useful for later discussions) the shaft of the right humerus (upper arm). Othniel Charles Marsh gave these remains the formal name Allosaurus fragilis in 1877. Allosaurus comes from the Greek words /, meaning "strange" or "different", and /, meaning "lizard" or "reptile". It was named 'different lizard' because its vertebrae were different from those of other dinosaurs known at the time of its discovery. The species epithet fragilis is Latin for "fragile", referring to lightening features in the vertebrae. The bones were collected from the Morrison Formation of Garden Park, north of Cañon City. O. C. Marsh and Edward Drinker Cope, who were in scientific competition with each other, went on to coin several other genera based on similarly sparse material that would later in the taxonomy of Allosaurus. These include Marsh's Creosaurus and Labrosaurus, as well as Cope's Epanterias. In their haste, Cope and Marsh did not always follow up on their discoveries (or, more commonly, those made by their subordinates). For example, after the discovery by Benjamin Mudge of the type specimen of Allosaurus in Colorado, Marsh elected to concentrate work in Wyoming. When work resumed at Garden Park in 1883, M. P. Felch found an almost complete Allosaurus and several partial skeletons. In addition, one of Cope's collectors, H. F. Hubbell, found a specimen in the Como Bluff area of Wyoming in 1879, but apparently did not mention its completeness and Cope never unpacked it. Upon unpacking it in 1903 (several years after Cope had died), it was found to be one of the most complete theropod specimens then known and the skeleton, now cataloged as AMNH 5753, was put on public view in 1908. This is the well-known mount poised over a partial Apatosaurus skeleton as if scavenging it, illustrated as such in a painting by Charles R. Knight. The multiplicity of early names complicated later research, with the situation compounded by the terse descriptions provided by Marsh and Cope. Even at the time, authors such as Samuel Wendell Williston suggested that too many names had been coined. For example, Williston pointed out in 1901 that Marsh had never been able to adequately distinguish Allosaurus from Creosaurus. The most influential early attempt to sort out the convoluted situation was produced by Charles W. Gilmore in 1920. He came to the conclusion that the tail vertebra named Antrodemus by Leidy was indistinguishable from those of Allosaurus and that Antrodemus should be the preferred name because, as the older name, it had priority. Antrodemus became the accepted name for this familiar genus for over 50 years, until James Henry Madsen published on the Cleveland-Lloyd specimens and concluded that Allosaurus should be used because Antrodemus was based on material with poor, if any, diagnostic features and locality information. For example, the geological formation that the single bone of Antrodemus came from is unknown. "Antrodemus" has been used informally for convenience when distinguishing between the skull Gilmore restored and the composite skull restored by Madsen.

AK-47

The AK-47, officially known as the Avtomat Kalashnikova (; also known as the Kalashnikov or just AK), is an assault rifle that is chambered for the 7.62×39mm cartridge. Developed in the Soviet Union by Russian small-arms designer Mikhail Kalashnikov, it is the originating firearm of the Kalashnikov (or "AK") family of rifles. After more than seven decades since its creation, the AK-47 model and its variants remain one of the most popular and widely used firearms in the world. Design work on the AK-47 began in 1945. It was presented for official military trials in 1947, and, in 1948, the fixed-stock version was introduced into active service for selected units of the Soviet Army. In early 1949, the AK was officially accepted by the Soviet Armed Forces and used by the majority of the member states of the Warsaw Pact. The model and its variants owe their global popularity to their reliability under harsh conditions, low production cost (compared to contemporary weapons), availability in virtually every geographic region, and ease of use. The AK has been manufactured in many countries and has seen service with armed forces as well as irregular forces and insurgencies throughout the world. , "of the estimated 500 million firearms worldwide, approximately 100 million belong to the Kalashnikov family, three-quarters of which are AK-47s". The model is the basis for the development of many other types of individual, crew-served, and specialized firearms. History Origins During World War II, the Sturmgewehr 44 rifle used by German forces made a deep impression on their Soviet counterparts. The select-fire rifle was chambered for a new intermediate cartridge, the 7.92×33mm Kurz, and combined the firepower of a submachine gun with the range and accuracy of a rifle. On 15 July 1943, an earlier model of the Sturmgewehr was demonstrated before the People's Commissariat of Arms of the USSR. The Soviets were impressed with the weapon and immediately set about developing an intermediate caliber fully automatic rifle of their own, to replace the PPSh-41 submachine guns and outdated Mosin–Nagant bolt-action rifles that armed most of the Soviet Army. The Soviets soon developed the 7.62×39mm M43 cartridge, used in the semi-automatic SKS carbine and the RPD light machine gun. Shortly after World War II, the Soviets developed the AK-47 rifle, which quickly replaced the SKS in Soviet service. Introduced in 1959, the AKM is a lighter stamped steel version and the most ubiquitous variant of the entire AK series of firearms. In the 1960s, the Soviets introduced the RPK light machine gun, an AK-type weapon with a stronger receiver, a longer heavy barrel, and a bipod, that eventually replaced the RPD light machine gun. Concept Mikhail Kalashnikov began his career as a weapon designer in 1941 while recuperating from a shoulder wound that he received during the Battle of Bryansk. Kalashnikov himself stated..."I was in the hospital, and a soldier in the bed beside me asked: 'Why do our soldiers have only one rifle for two or three of our men when the Germans have automatics?' So I designed one. I was a soldier, and I created a machine gun for a soldier. It was called an Avtomat Kalashnikova, the automatic weapon of Kalashnikov—AK—and it carried the year of its first manufacture, 1947." The AK-47 is best described as a hybrid of previous rifle technology innovations. "Kalashnikov decided to design an automatic rifle combining the best features of the American M1 Garand and the German StG 44." Kalashnikov's team had access to these weapons and did not need to "reinvent the wheel". Kalashnikov himself observed: "A lot of Russian Army soldiers ask me how one can become a constructor, and how new weaponry is designed. These are very difficult questions. Each designer seems to have his own paths, his own successes and failures. But one thing is clear: before attempting to create something new, it is vital to have a good appreciation of everything that already exists in this field. I myself have had many experiences confirming this to be so." Some claimed that Kalashnikov copied designs like Bulkin's TKB-415 or Simonov's AVS-31. Early designs Kalashnikov started work on a submachine gun design in 1942 and a light machine gun design in 1943. Early in 1944, Kalashnikov was given some 7.62×39mm M43 cartridges and informed that other designers were working on weapons for this new Soviet small-arms cartridge. It was suggested that a new weapon might well lead to greater things. He then undertook work on the new rifle. In 1944, he entered a design competition with this new 7.62×39mm, semi-automatic, gas-operated, long-stroke piston carbine, strongly influenced by the American M1 Garand. The new rifle was in the same class as the SKS-45 carbine, with a fixed magazine and gas tube above the barrel. However, the new Kalashnikov design lost out to a Simonov design. In 1946, a new design competition was initiated to develop a new rifle. Kalashnikov submitted a gas-operated rifle with a short-stroke gas piston above the barrel, a breechblock mechanism similar to his 1944 carbine, and a curved 30-round magazine. Kalashnikov's rifles, the AK-1 (with a milled receiver) and AK-2 (with a stamped receiver) proved to be reliable weapons and were accepted to a second round of competition along with other designs. These prototypes (also known as the AK-46) had a rotary bolt, a two-part receiver with separate trigger unit housing, dual controls (separate safety and fire selector switches), and a non-reciprocating charging handle located on the left side of the weapon. This design had many similarities to the StG 44. In late 1946, as the rifles were being tested, one of Kalashnikov's assistants, Aleksandr Zaitsev, suggested a major redesign to improve reliability. At first, Kalashnikov was reluctant, given that their rifle had already fared better than its competitors. Eventually, however, Zaitsev managed to persuade Kalashnikov.

Atanasoff–Berry computer

The Atanasoff–Berry computer (ABC) was the first automatic electronic digital computer. The device was limited by the technology of the day. The ABC's priority is debated among historians of computer technology, because it was neither programmable, nor Turing-complete. Conventionally, the ABC would be considered the first electronic ALU (arithmetic logic unit) which is integrated into every modern processor's design. Its unique contribution was to make computing faster by being the first to use vacuum tubes to do arithmetic calculations. Prior to this, slower electro-mechanical methods were used by Konrad Zuse's Z1 computer, and the simultaneously developed Harvard Mark I. The first electronic, programmable, digital machine,Colossus and the German Lorenz Cypher. Anthony Sale, Bletchley Park Trust. the Colossus computer from 1943 to 1945, used similar tube-based technology as ABC. Overview Conceived in 1937, the machine was built by Iowa State College mathematics and physics professor John Vincent Atanasoff with the help of graduate student Clifford Berry. It was designed only to solve systems of linear equations and was successfully tested in 1942. However, its intermediate result storage mechanism, a paper card writer/reader, was not perfected, and when John Vincent Atanasoff left Iowa State College for World War II assignments, work on the machine was discontinued. The ABC pioneered important elements of modern computing, including binary arithmetic and electronic switching elements, but its special-purpose nature and lack of a changeable, stored program distinguish it from modern computers. The computer was designated an IEEE Milestone in 1990. Atanasoff and Berry's computer work was not widely known until it was rediscovered in the 1960s, amid patent disputes over the first instance of an electronic computer. was considered to be the first computer in the modern sense, but in 1973 a U.S. District Court invalidated the ENIAC patent and concluded that the ENIAC inventors had derived the subject matter of the electronic digital computer from Atanasoff. When, in the mid-1970s, the secrecy surrounding the British World War II development of the Colossus computers that pre-dated ENIAC, was liftedRandell, Brian, Colossus: Godfather of the Computer, 1977 (reprinted in The Origins of Digital Computers: Selected Papers, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1982) and Colossus was described at a conference in Los Alamos, New Mexico, in June 1976, John Mauchly and Konrad Zuse were reported to have been astonished.

Ancylopoda

Ancylopoda is a group of browsing, herbivorous, mammals in the Perissodactyla that show long, curved and cleft claws. Morphological evidence indicates the Ancylopoda diverged from the tapirs, rhinoceroses and horses (Euperissodactyla) after the Brontotheria; however, earlier authorities such as Osborn sometimes considered the Ancylopoda to be outside Perissodactyla or, as was popular more recently, to be related to Brontotheriidae. Macrotherium, which is typically from the middle Miocene of Sansan, in Gers, France, may indicate a distinct genus. Limb-bones resembling those of Macrotherium, but relatively stouter, have been described from the Pliocene beds of Attica and Samos as Ancylotherium. In the Americas, the names Morothorium and Moropus have been applied to similar bones, in the belief that they indicated xenarthrans. Macrotherium magnum must have been an animal of about in length. References

Anbar (town)

Anbar (, Thomas A. Carlson et al., "Peruz Shapur — ܐܢܒܐܪ " in The Syriac Gazetteer last modified December 9, 2016, was an ancient and medieval town in central Iraq. It played a role in the Roman–Persian Wars of the 3rd–4th centuries, and briefly became the capital of the Abbasid Caliphate before the founding of Baghdad in 762. It remained a moderately prosperous town through the 10th century, but quickly declined thereafter. As a local administrative centre, it survived until the 14th century, but was later abandoned. Its ruins are near modern Fallujah. The city gives its name to the Al-Anbar Governorate.

Anadyr (river)

The Anadyr (; Yukaghir: Онандырь; ) is a river in the far northeast of Siberia which flows into the Gulf of Anadyr of the Bering Sea and drains much of the interior of Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. Its basin corresponds to the Anadyrsky District of Chukotka. Geography The Anadyr is long and has a basin of .Анадырь (река на Чукотке), Great Soviet Encyclopedia It is frozen from October to late May and has a maximum flow in June with the snowmelt. It is navigable in small boats for about to near Markovo. West of Markovo it is in the Anadyr Highlands (moderate mountains and valleys with a few trees) and east of Markovo it moves into the Anadyr Lowlands (very flat treeless tundra with lakes and bogs). The drop from Markovo to the sea is less than . It rises at about 67°N latitude and 171°E longitude in the Anadyr Highlands, near the headwaters of the Maly Anyuy, flows southwest receiving the waters of the rivers Yablon and Yeropol, turns east around the Shchuchy Range and passes Markvovo and the old site of Anadyrsk, turns north and east and receives the Mayn from the south, thereby encircling the Lebediny Zakaznik, turns northeast to receive the Belaya from the north in the Parapol-Belsky Lowlands, then past Ust-Belaya it turns southeast into the Anadyr Lowlands past the Ust-Tanyurer Zakaznik and receives the Tanyurer from the north. At Lake Krasnoye, it turns east and flows into the Onemen Bay of the Anadyr Estuary. If the Onemen Bay is considered part of the river, it also receives the Velikaya from the south and the Kanchalan from the north. Other important tributaries are the Yablon, Yeropol and Mamolina from the right and the Chineyveyem and Ubiyenka from the left. Its basin is surrounded by the Amguema and Palyavaam basins to the north, the Bolshoy Anyuy, Oloy and Kolyma basins to the northwest, and the Penzhina basin to the southwest.

André-Marie Ampère

André-Marie Ampère (, ;"Ampère". Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary. ; 20 January 177510 June 1836) was a French physicist and mathematician who was one of the founders of the science of classical electromagnetism, which he referred to as electrodynamics. He is also the inventor of numerous applications, such as the solenoid (a term coined by him) and the electrical telegraph. As an autodidact, Ampère was a member of the French Academy of Sciences and professor at the École polytechnique and the Collège de France. The SI unit of electric current, the ampere (A), is named after him. His name is also one of the 72 names inscribed on the Eiffel Tower. The term kinematic is the English version of his cinématique, which he constructed from the Greek kinema ("movement, motion"), itself derived from kinein ("to move"). Biography Early life André-Marie Ampère was born on 20 January 1775 in Lyon to Jean-Jacques Ampère, a prosperous businessman, and Jeanne Antoinette Desutières-Sarcey Ampère, during the height of the French Enlightenment. He spent his childhood and adolescence at the family property at Poleymieux-au-Mont-d'Or near Lyon. Jean-Jacques Ampère, a successful merchant, was an admirer of the philosophy of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, whose theories of education (as outlined in his treatise Émile) were the basis of Ampère's education. Rousseau believed that young boys should avoid formal schooling and pursue instead a "direct education from nature." Ampère's father actualized this ideal by allowing his son to educate himself within the walls of his well-stocked library. French Enlightenment masterpieces such as Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon's Histoire naturelle, générale et particulière (begun in 1749) and Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie (volumes added between 1751 and 1772) thus became Ampère's schoolmasters. The young Ampère, however, soon resumed his Latin lessons, which enabled him to master the works of Leonhard Euler and Daniel Bernoulli. French Revolution In addition, Ampère used his access to the latest books to begin teaching himself advanced mathematics at age 12. In later life Ampère claimed that he knew as much about mathematics and science when he was eighteen as ever he knew, but as a polymath, his reading embraced history, travels, poetry, philosophy, and the natural sciences. His mother was a devout Catholic, so Ampère was also initiated into the Catholic faith along with Enlightenment science. The French Revolution (1789–99) that began during his youth was also influential: Ampère's father was called into public service by the new revolutionary government, becoming a local judge (juge de paix) in a small town near Lyon. When the Jacobin faction seized control of the Revolutionary government in 1792, his father Jean-Jacques Ampère resisted the new political tides, and he was guillotined on 24 November 1793, as part of the Jacobin purges of the period. In 1796, Ampère met Julie Carron and, in 1799, they were married. Ampère took his first regular job in 1799 as a mathematics teacher, which gave him the financial security to marry Carron and father his first child, Jean-Jacques (named after his father), the next year. (Jean-Jacques Ampère eventually achieved his own fame as a scholar of languages.) Ampère's maturation corresponded with the transition to the Napoleonic regime in France, and the young father and teacher found new opportunities for success within the technocratic structures favoured by the new French First Consul. In 1802, Ampère was appointed a professor of physics and chemistry at the École Centrale in Bourg-en-Bresse, leaving his ailing wife and infant son Jean-Jacques Antoine Ampère in Lyon. He used his time in Bourg to research mathematics, producing Considérations sur la théorie mathématique du jeu (1802; "Considerations on the Mathematical Theory of Games"), a treatise on mathematical probability that he sent to the Paris Academy of Sciences in 1803.

Ammonia

Ammonia is an inorganic chemical compound of nitrogen and hydrogen with the formula . A stable binary hydride and the simplest pnictogen hydride, ammonia is a colourless gas with a distinctive pungent smell. Biologically, it is a common nitrogenous waste, and it contributes significantly to the nutritional needs of terrestrial organisms by serving as a precursor to fertilisers. Around 70% of ammonia produced industrially is used to make fertilisers in various forms and composition, such as urea and diammonium phosphate. Ammonia in pure form is also applied directly into the soil. Ammonia, either directly or indirectly, is also a building block for the synthesis of many chemicals. Ammonia occurs in nature and has been detected in the interstellar medium. In many countries, it is classified as an extremely hazardous substance. Ammonia is produced biologically in a process called nitrogen fixation, but even more is generated industrially by the Haber process. The process helped revolutionize agriculture by providing cheap fertilizers. The global industrial production of ammonia in 2021 was 235 million tonnes. Industrial ammonia is transported by road in tankers, by rail in tank wagons, by sea in gas carriers, or in cylinders. Ammonia boils at at a pressure of one atmosphere, but the liquid can often be handled in the laboratory without external cooling. Household ammonia or ammonium hydroxide is a solution of ammonia in water. Etymology Pliny, in Book XXXI of his Natural History, refers to a salt named hammoniacum, so called because of the proximity of its source to the Temple of Jupiter Amun (Greek Ἄμμων Ammon) in the Roman province of Cyrenaica. However, the description Pliny gives of the salt does not conform to the properties of ammonium chloride. According to Herbert Hoover's commentary in his English translation of Georgius Agricola's De re metallica, it is likely to have been common sea salt. In any case, that salt ultimately gave ammonia and ammonium compounds their name. Natural occurrence (abiological) Traces of ammonia/ammonium are found in rainwater. Ammonium chloride (sal ammoniac), and ammonium sulfate are found in volcanic districts. Crystals of ammonium bicarbonate have been found in Patagonia guano. Ammonia is found throughout the Solar System on Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto, among other places: on smaller, icy bodies such as Pluto, ammonia can act as a geologically important antifreeze, as a mixture of water and ammonia can have a melting point as low as if the ammonia concentration is high enough and thus allow such bodies to retain internal oceans and active geology at a far lower temperature than would be possible with water alone.Shannon, Francis Patrick (1938) Tables of the properties of aqua–ammonia solutions. Part 1 of The Thermodynamics of Absorption Refrigeration. Lehigh University studies. Science and technology seriesAn ammonia–water slurry may swirl below Pluto's icy surface. Purdue University (9 November 2015) Substances containing ammonia, or those that are similar to it, are called ammoniacal. Properties Ammonia is a colourless gas with a characteristically pungent smell. It is lighter than air, its density being 0.589 times that of air. It is easily liquefied due to the strong hydrogen bonding between molecules. Gaseous ammonia turns to a colourless liquid, which boils at , and freezes to colourless crystals at . Little data is available at very high temperatures and pressures, but the liquid-vapor critical point occurs at 405 K and 11.35 MPa. Solid The crystal symmetry is cubic, Pearson symbol cP16, space group P213 No.198, lattice constant 0.5125 nm. Liquid Liquid ammonia possesses strong ionising powers reflecting its high ε of 22 at . Liquid ammonia has a very high standard enthalpy change of vapourization (23.5 kJ/mol; for comparison, water's is 40.65 kJ/mol, methane 8.19 kJ/mol and phosphine 14.6 kJ/mol) and can be transported in pressurized or refrigerated vessels; however, at standard temperature and pressure liquid anhydrous ammonia will vaporize. Solvent properties Ammonia readily dissolves in water. In an aqueous solution, it can be expelled by boiling. The aqueous solution of ammonia is basic, and may be described as aqueous ammonia or ammonium hydroxide. The maximum concentration of ammonia in water (a saturated solution) has a specific gravity of 0.880 and is often known as '.880 ammonia'. Its most conspicuous property is its ability to dissolve alkali metals to form highly coloured, electrically conductive solutions containing solvated electrons. Apart from these remarkable solutions, much of the chemistry in liquid ammonia can be classified by analogy with related reactions in aqueous solutions. Comparison of the physical properties of with those of water shows has the lower melting point, boiling point, density, viscosity, dielectric constant and electrical conductivity. These differences are attributed at least in part to the weaker hydrogen bonding in . The ionic self-dissociation constant of liquid at −50 °C is about 10−33.

Amethyst

Amethyst is a violet variety of quartz. The name comes from the Koine Greek from - , "not" and (Ancient Greek) / (Modern Greek), "intoxicate", a reference to the belief that the stone protected its owner from drunkenness. Ancient Greeks wore amethyst and carved drinking vessels from it in the belief that it would prevent intoxication. Amethyst, a semiprecious stone, is often used in jewelry. Structure Amethyst is a violet variety of quartz and owes its violet color to irradiation, impurities of iron and in some cases other transition metals, and the presence of other trace elements, which result in complex crystal lattice substitutions. The irradiation causes the iron ions that replace Si in the lattice to lose an electron and form a color center. Amethyst is a three-dimensional network of tetrahedra where the silicon atoms are in the center and are surrounded by four oxygen atoms located at the vertices of a tetrahedron. This structure is quite rigid and results in quartz's hardness and resistance to weathering. The hardness of the mineral is the same as quartz, thus making it suitable for use in jewelry. Hue and tone Amethyst occurs in primary hues from a light lavender or pale violet to a deep purple. Amethyst may exhibit one or both secondary hues, red and blue. High-quality amethyst can be found in Siberia, Sri Lanka, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Far East. The ideal grade, called "Deep Siberian", has a primary purple hue of around 75–80%, with 15–20% blue and (depending on the light source) red secondary hues. "Rose de France" is defined by its markedly light shade of the purple, reminiscent of a lavender / lilac shade. These pale colors were once considered undesirable, but have recently become popular due to intensive marketing. Green quartz is sometimes called green amethyst; the scientific name is prasiolite. Other names for green quartz are vermarine and lime citrine. Amethyst frequently shows color zoning, with the most intense color typically found at the crystal terminations. One of gem cutters' tasks is to make a finished product with even color. Sometimes, only a thin layer of a natural, uncut amethyst is violet colored, or the color is very uneven. The uncut gem may have only a small portion that is suitable for faceting. The color of amethyst has been demonstrated to result from substitution by irradiation of trivalent iron (Fe3+) for silicon in the structure, in the presence of trace elements of large ionic radius, and to a certain extent, the amethyst color can naturally result from displacement of transition elements even if the iron concentration is low. Natural amethyst is dichroic in reddish violet and bluish violet, but when heated, turns yellow-orange, yellow-brown, or dark brownish and may resemble citrine, but loses its dichroism, unlike genuine citrine. When partially heated, amethyst can result in ametrine. Amethyst can fade in tone if overexposed to light sources, and can be artificially darkened with adequate irradiation. It does not fluoresce under either short-wave or long-wave UV light. Geographic distribution Amethyst is found in many locations around the world. Between 2000 and 2010, the greatest production was from Marabá and Pau d'Arco, Pará, and the Paraná Basin, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; Sandoval, Santa Cruz, Bolivia; Artigas, Uruguay; Kalomo, Zambia; and Thunder Bay, Ontario. Lesser amounts are found in many other locations in Africa, Brazil, Spain, Argentina, Russia, Afghanistan, South Korea, Mexico, and the United States.

Albertosaurus

Albertosaurus (; meaning "Alberta lizard") is a genus of large tyrannosaurid theropod dinosaur that lived in northwestern North America during the early to middle Maastrichtian age of the Late Cretaceous period, about 71 million years ago. The type species, A. sarcophagus, was apparently restricted in range to the modern-day Canadian province of Alberta, after which the genus is named, although an indeterminate species ("cf. Albertosaurus sp.") has been discovered in the Corral de Enmedio and Packard Formations of Mexico. Scientists disagree on the content of the genus and some recognize Gorgosaurus libratus as a second species. As a tyrannosaurid, Albertosaurus was a bipedal predator with short arms, two-fingered hands, and a massive head with dozens of large, sharp teeth, a strong sense of smell, powerful binocular vision, and a bone crushing bite force. It may have even been the apex predator in its local ecosystem. While Albertosaurus was certainly large for a theropod, it was still much smaller than its larger and more famous relative Tyrannosaurus rex, growing up to in length and weighing . Since the first discovery in 1884, fossils of more than 30 individuals have been recovered that provide scientists with a more detailed knowledge of Albertosaurus anatomy than what is available for most other tyrannosaurids. The discovery of 26 individuals in one particular site provides evidence of gregarious behavior and allows for studies of ontogeny and population biology. These are near impossible with lesser-known dinosaurs because their remains are rarer and more fragmentary when compared to those of Albertosaurus.

Assembly language

In computer programming, assembly language (alternatively assembler language or symbolic machine code), often referred to simply as assembly and commonly abbreviated as ASM or asm, is any low-level programming language with a very strong correspondence between the instructions in the language and the architecture's machine code instructions. Assembly language usually has one statement per machine instruction (1:1), but constants, comments, assembler directives, symbolic labels of, e.g., memory locations, registers, and macros are generally also supported. The first assembly code in which a language is used to represent machine code instructions is found in Kathleen and Andrew Donald Booth's 1947 work, Coding for A.R.C.. Assembly code is converted into executable machine code by a utility program referred to as an assembler. The term "assembler" is generally attributed to Wilkes, Wheeler and Gill in their 1951 book The Preparation of Programs for an Electronic Digital Computer, who, however, used the term to mean "a program that assembles another program consisting of several sections into a single program". The conversion process is referred to as assembly, as in assembling the source code. The computational step when an assembler is processing a program is called assembly time. Because assembly depends on the machine code instructions, each assembly languageOther than meta-assemblers is specific to a particular computer architecture. Sometimes there is more than one assembler for the same architecture, and sometimes an assembler is specific to an operating system or to particular operating systems. Most assembly languages do not provide specific syntax for operating system calls, and most assembly languages can be used universally with any operating system,However, that does not mean that the assembler programs implementing those languages are universal. as the language provides access to all the real capabilities of the processor, upon which all system call mechanisms ultimately rest. In contrast to assembly languages, most high-level programming languages are generally portable across multiple architectures but require interpreting or compiling, much more complicated tasks than assembling. In the first decades of computing, it was commonplace for both systems programming and application programming to take place entirely in assembly language. While still irreplaceable for some purposes, the majority of programming is now conducted in higher-level interpreted and compiled languages. In "No Silver Bullet", Fred Brooks summarised the effects of the switch away from assembly language programming: "Surely the most powerful stroke for software productivity, reliability, and simplicity has been the progressive use of high-level languages for programming. Most observers credit that development with at least a factor of five in productivity, and with concomitant gains in reliability, simplicity, and comprehensibility." Today, it is typical to use small amounts of assembly language code within larger systems implemented in a higher-level language, for performance reasons or to interact directly with hardware in ways unsupported by the higher-level language. For instance, just under 2% of version 4.9 of the Linux kernel source code is written in assembly; more than 97% is written in C. Assembly language syntax Assembly language uses a mnemonic to represent, e.g., each low-level machine instruction or opcode, each directive, typically also each architectural register, flag, etc. Some of the mnemonics may be built-in and some user-defined. Many operations require one or more operands in order to form a complete instruction. Most assemblers permit named constants, registers, and labels for program and memory locations, and can calculate expressions for operands. Thus, programmers are freed from tedious repetitive calculations and assembler programs are much more readable than machine code. Depending on the architecture, these elements may also be combined for specific instructions or addressing modes using offsets or other data as well as fixed addresses. Many assemblers offer additional mechanisms to facilitate program development, to control the assembly process, and to aid debugging. Some are column oriented, with specific fields in specific columns; this was very common for machines using punched cards in the 1950s and early 1960s. Some assemblers have free-form syntax, with fields separated by delimiters, e.g., punctuation, white space. Some assemblers are hybrid, with, e.g., labels, in a specific column and other fields separated by delimiters; this became more common than column-oriented syntax in the 1960s. Terminology A macro assembler is an assembler that includes a macroinstruction facility so that (parameterized) assembly language text can be represented by a name, and that name can be used to insert the expanded text into other code. Open code refers to any assembler input outside of a macro definition. A cross assembler (see also cross compiler) is an assembler that is run on a computer or operating system (the host system) of a different type from the system on which the resulting code is to run (the target system). Cross-assembling facilitates the development of programs for systems that do not have the resources to support software development, such as an embedded system or a microcontroller. In such a case, the resulting object code must be transferred to the target system, via read-only memory (ROM, EPROM, etc. ), a programmer (when the read-only memory is integrated in the device, as in microcontrollers), or a data link using either an exact bit-by-bit copy of the object code or a text-based representation of that code (such as Intel hex or Motorola S-record). A high-level assembler is a program that provides language abstractions more often associated with high-level languages, such as advanced control structures (IF/THEN/ELSE, DO CASE, etc.) and high-level abstract data types, including structures/records, unions, classes, and sets. A microassembler is a program that helps prepare a microprogram to control the low level operation of a computer. "Meta-Symbol" assemblers for the SDS 9 Series and SDS Sigma series of computers are meta-assemblers. Sperry Univac also provided a Meta-Assembler for the UNIVAC 1100/2200 series. inline assembler (or embedded assembler) is assembler code contained within a high-level language program. This is most often used in systems programs which need direct access to the hardware. Key concepts Assembler An assembler program creates object code by translating combinations of mnemonics and syntax for operations and addressing modes into their numerical equivalents. This representation typically includes an operation code ("opcode") as well as other control bits and data. The assembler also calculates constant expressions and resolves symbolic names for memory locations and other entities. The use of symbolic references is a key feature of assemblers, saving tedious calculations and manual address updates after program modifications. Most assemblers also include macro facilities for performing textual substitution – e.g., to generate common short sequences of instructions as inline, instead of called subroutines. Some assemblers may also be able to perform some simple types of instruction set-specific optimizations. One concrete example of this may be the ubiquitous x86 assemblers from various vendors. Called jump-sizing, most of them are able to perform jump-instruction replacements (long jumps replaced by short or relative jumps) in any number of passes, on request. Others may even do simple rearrangement or insertion of instructions, such as some assemblers for RISC architectures that can help optimize a sensible instruction scheduling to exploit the CPU pipeline as efficiently as possible. Assemblers have been available since the 1950s, as the first step above machine language and before high-level programming languages such as Fortran, Algol, COBOL and Lisp. There have also been several classes of translators and semi-automatic code generators with properties similar to both assembly and high-level languages, with Speedcode as perhaps one of the better-known examples. There may be several assemblers with different syntax for a particular CPU or instruction set architecture. For instance, an instruction to add memory data to a register in a x86-family processor might be add eax,[ebx], in original Intel syntax, whereas this would be written addl (%ebx),%eax in the AT&T syntax used by the GNU Assembler. Despite different appearances, different syntactic forms generally generate the same numeric machine code. A single assembler may also have different modes in order to support variations in syntactic forms as well as their exact semantic interpretations (such as FASM-syntax, TASM-syntax, ideal mode, etc., in the special case of x86 assembly programming). One-pass assemblers process the source code once. For symbols used before they are defined, the assembler will emit "errata" after the eventual definition, telling the linker or the loader to patch the locations where the as yet undefined symbols had been used. Multi-pass assemblers create a table with all symbols and their values in the first passes, then use the table in later passes to generate code. In both cases, the assembler must be able to determine the size of each instruction on the initial passes in order to calculate the addresses of subsequent symbols. This means that if the size of an operation referring to an operand defined later depends on the type or distance of the operand, the assembler will make a pessimistic estimate when first encountering the operation, and if necessary, pad it with one or more "no-operation" instructions in a later pass or the errata. In an assembler with peephole optimization, addresses may be recalculated between passes to allow replacing pessimistic code with code tailored to the exact distance from the target. The original reason for the use of one-pass assemblers was memory size and speed of assembly – often a second pass would require storing the symbol table in memory (to handle forward references), rewinding and rereading the program source on tape, or rereading a deck of cards or punched paper tape. Later computers with much larger memories (especially disc storage), had the space to perform all necessary processing without such re-reading. The advantage of the multi-pass assembler is that the absence of errata makes the linking process (or the program load if the assembler directly produces executable code) faster. Example: in the following code snippet, a one-pass assembler would be able to determine the address of the backward reference BKWD when assembling statement S2, but would not be able to determine the address of the forward reference FWD when assembling the branch statement S1; indeed, FWD may be undefined. A two-pass assembler would determine both addresses in pass 1, so they would be known when generating code in pass 2. B ... EQU * ... EQU * ... B High-level assemblers More sophisticated high-level assemblers provide language abstractions such as: High-level procedure/function declarations and invocations Advanced control structures (IF/THEN/ELSE, SWITCH) High-level abstract data types, including structures/records, unions, classes, and sets Sophisticated macro processing (although available on ordinary assemblers since the late 1950s for, e.g., the IBM 700 series and IBM 7000 series, and since the 1960s for IBM System/360 (S/360), amongst other machines) Object-oriented programming features such as classes, objects, abstraction, polymorphism, and inheritance See Language design below for more details. Assembly language A program written in assembly language consists of a series of mnemonic processor instructions and meta-statements (known variously as declarative operations, directives, pseudo-instructions, pseudo-operations and pseudo-ops), comments and data. Assembly language instructions usually consist of an opcode mnemonic followed by an operand, which might be a list of data, arguments or parameters. Some instructions may be "implied", which means the data upon which the instruction operates is implicitly defined by the instruction itself—such an instruction does not take an operand. The resulting statement is translated by an assembler into machine language instructions that can be loaded into memory and executed. For example, the instruction below tells an x86/IA-32 processor to move an immediate 8-bit value into a register. The binary code for this instruction is 10110 followed by a 3-bit identifier for which register to use. The identifier for the AL register is 000, so the following machine code loads the AL register with the data 01100001. 10110000 01100001 This binary computer code can be made more human-readable by expressing it in hexadecimal as follows. B0 61 Here, B0 means "Move a copy of the following value into AL", and 61 is a hexadecimal representation of the value 01100001, which is 97 in decimal. Assembly language for the 8086 family provides the mnemonic MOV (an abbreviation of move) for instructions such as this, so the machine code above can be written as follows in assembly language, complete with an explanatory comment if required, after the semicolon. This is much easier to read and to remember. MOV AL, 61h ; Load AL with 97 decimal (61 hex) In some assembly languages (including this one) the same mnemonic, such as MOV, may be used for a family of related instructions for loading, copying and moving data, whether these are immediate values, values in registers, or memory locations pointed to by values in registers or by immediate (a.k.a. direct) addresses. Other assemblers may use separate opcode mnemonics such as L for "move memory to register", ST for "move register to memory", LR for "move register to register", MVI for "move immediate operand to memory", etc. If the same mnemonic is used for different instructions, that means that the mnemonic corresponds to several different binary instruction codes, excluding data (e.g. the 61h in this example), depending on the operands that follow the mnemonic. For example, for the x86/IA-32 CPUs, the Intel assembly language syntax MOV AL, AH represents an instruction that moves the contents of register AH into register AL. The hexadecimal form of this instruction is: 88 E0 The first byte, 88h, identifies a move between a byte-sized register and either another register or memory, and the second byte, E0h, is encoded (with three bit-fields) to specify that both operands are registers, the source is AH, and the destination is AL. In a case like this where the same mnemonic can represent more than one binary instruction, the assembler determines which instruction to generate by examining the operands. In the first example, the operand 61h is a valid hexadecimal numeric constant and is not a valid register name, so only the B0 instruction can be applicable. In the second example, the operand AH is a valid register name and not a valid numeric constant (hexadecimal, decimal, octal, or binary), so only the 88 instruction can be applicable. Assembly languages are always designed so that this sort of lack of ambiguity is universally enforced by their syntax. For example, in the Intel x86 assembly language, a hexadecimal constant must start with a numeral digit, so that the hexadecimal number 'A' (equal to decimal ten) would be written as 0Ah or 0AH, not AH, specifically so that it cannot appear to be the name of register AH. (The same rule also prevents ambiguity with the names of registers BH, CH, and DH, as well as with any user-defined symbol that ends with the letter H and otherwise contains only characters that are hexadecimal digits, such as the word "BEACH".) Returning to the original example, while the x86 opcode 10110000 (B0) copies an 8-bit value into the AL register, 10110001 (B1) moves it into CL and 10110010 (B2) does so into DL. Assembly language examples for these follow. MOV AL, 1h ; Load AL with immediate value 1 MOV CL, 2h ; Load CL with immediate value 2 MOV DL, 3h ; Load DL with immediate value 3 The syntax of MOV can also be more complex as the following examples show. MOV EAX, [EBX] ; Move the 4 bytes in memory at the address contained in EBX into EAX MOV [ESI+EAX], CL ; Move the contents of CL into the byte at address ESI+EAX MOV DS, DX ; Move the contents of DX into segment register DS In each case, the MOV mnemonic is translated directly into one of the opcodes 88-8C, 8E, A0-A3, B0-BF, C6 or C7 by an assembler, and the programmer normally does not have to know or remember which. Transforming assembly language into machine code is the job of an assembler, and the reverse can at least partially be achieved by a disassembler. Unlike high-level languages, there is a one-to-one correspondence between many simple assembly statements and machine language instructions. However, in some cases, an assembler may provide pseudoinstructions (essentially macros) which expand into several machine language instructions to provide commonly needed functionality. For example, for a machine that lacks a "branch if greater or equal" instruction, an assembler may provide a pseudoinstruction that expands to the machine's "set if less than" and "branch if zero (on the result of the set instruction)". Most full-featured assemblers also provide a rich macro language (discussed below) which is used by vendors and programmers to generate more complex code and data sequences. Since the information about pseudoinstructions and macros defined in the assembler environment is not present in the object program, a disassembler cannot reconstruct the macro and pseudoinstruction invocations but can only disassemble the actual machine instructions that the assembler generated from those abstract assembly-language entities. Each computer architecture has its own machine language. Computers differ in the number and type of operations they support, in the different sizes and numbers of registers, and in the representations of data in storage. While most general-purpose computers are able to carry out essentially the same functionality, the ways they do so differ; the corresponding assembly languages reflect these differences. Multiple sets of mnemonics or assembly-language syntax may exist for a single instruction set, typically instantiated in different assembler programs. In these cases, the most popular one is usually that supplied by the CPU manufacturer and used in its documentation. Two examples of CPUs that have two different sets of mnemonics are the Intel 8080 family and the Intel 8086/8088. Because Intel claimed copyright on its assembly language mnemonics (on each page of their documentation published in the 1970s and early 1980s, at least), some companies that independently produced CPUs compatible with Intel instruction sets invented their own mnemonics. The Zilog Z80 CPU, an enhancement of the Intel 8080A, supports all the 8080A instructions plus many more; Zilog invented an entirely new assembly language, not only for the new instructions but also for all of the 8080A instructions. For example, where Intel uses the mnemonics MOV, MVI, LDA, STA, LXI, LDAX, STAX, LHLD, and SHLD for various data transfer instructions, the Z80 assembly language uses the mnemonic LD for all of them. A similar case is the NEC V20 and V30 CPUs, enhanced copies of the Intel 8086 and 8088, respectively. Like Zilog with the Z80, NEC invented new mnemonics for all of the 8086 and 8088 instructions, to avoid accusations of infringement of Intel's copyright. (It is questionable whether such copyrights can be valid, and later CPU companies such as AMD and Cyrix republished Intel's x86/IA-32 instruction mnemonics exactly with neither permission nor legal penalty.) It is doubtful whether in practice many people who programmed the V20 and V30 actually wrote in NEC's assembly language rather than Intel's; since any two assembly languages for the same instruction set architecture are isomorphic (somewhat like English and Pig Latin), there is no requirement to use a manufacturer's own published assembly language with that manufacturer's products. "Hello, world!" on x86 Linux In 32-bit assembly language for Linux on an x86 processor, "Hello, world!" can be printed like this. ', 0xa len equ $ - msg Language design Basic elements There is a large degree of diversity in the way the authors of assemblers categorize statements and in the nomenclature that they use. In particular, some describe anything other than a machine mnemonic or extended mnemonic as a pseudo-operation (pseudo-op). A typical assembly language consists of 3 types of instruction statements that are used to define program operations: Opcode mnemonics Data definitions Assembly directives Opcode mnemonics and extended mnemonics Instructions (statements) in assembly language are generally very simple, unlike those in high-level languages. Generally, a mnemonic is a symbolic name for a single executable machine language instruction (an opcode), and there is at least one opcode mnemonic defined for each machine language instruction. Each instruction typically consists of an operation or opcode plus zero or more operands. Most instructions refer to a single value or a pair of values. Operands can be immediate (value coded in the instruction itself), registers specified in the instruction or implied, or the addresses of data located elsewhere in storage. This is determined by the underlying processor architecture: the assembler merely reflects how this architecture works. Extended mnemonics are often used to specify a combination of an opcode with a specific operand, e.g., the System/360 assemblers use as an extended mnemonic for with a mask of 15 and ("NO OPeration" – do nothing for one step) for with a mask of 0. Extended mnemonics are often used to support specialized uses of instructions, often for purposes not obvious from the instruction name. For example, many CPU's do not have an explicit NOP instruction, but do have instructions that can be used for the purpose. In 8086 CPUs the instruction is used for , with being a pseudo-opcode to encode the instruction . Some disassemblers recognize this and will decode the instruction as . Similarly, IBM assemblers for System/360 and System/370 use the extended mnemonics and for and with zero masks. For the SPARC architecture, these are known as synthetic instructions. Some assemblers also support simple built-in macro-instructions that generate two or more machine instructions. For instance, with some Z80 assemblers the instruction is recognized to generate followed by . These are sometimes known as pseudo-opcodes. Mnemonics are arbitrary symbols; in 1985 the IEEE published Standard 694 for a uniform set of mnemonics to be used by all assemblers. The standard has since been withdrawn. Data directives There are instructions used to define data elements to hold data and variables. They define the type of data, the length and the alignment of data. These instructions can also define whether the data is available to outside programs (programs assembled separately) or only to the program in which the data section is defined. Some assemblers classify these as pseudo-ops. Assembly directives Assembly directives, also called pseudo-opcodes, pseudo-operations or pseudo-ops, are commands given to an assembler "directing it to perform operations other than assembling instructions". Sometimes the term pseudo-opcode is reserved for directives that generate object code, such as those that generate data. The names of pseudo-ops often start with a dot to distinguish them from machine instructions. Pseudo-ops can make the assembly of the program dependent on parameters input by a programmer, so that one program can be assembled in different ways, perhaps for different applications. Or, a pseudo-op can be used to manipulate presentation of a program to make it easier to read and maintain. Another common use of pseudo-ops is to reserve storage areas for run-time data and optionally initialize their contents to known values. Symbolic assemblers let programmers associate arbitrary names (labels or symbols) with memory locations and various constants. Usually, every constant and variable is given a name so instructions can reference those locations by name, thus promoting self-documenting code. In executable code, the name of each subroutine is associated with its entry point, so any calls to a subroutine can use its name. Inside subroutines, GOTO destinations are given labels. Some assemblers support local symbols which are often lexically distinct from normal symbols (e.g., the use of "10$" as a GOTO destination). Some assemblers, such as NASM, provide flexible symbol management, letting programmers manage different namespaces, automatically calculate offsets within data structures, and assign labels that refer to literal values or the result of simple computations performed by the assembler. Labels can also be used to initialize constants and variables with relocatable addresses. Assembly languages, like most other computer languages, allow comments to be added to program source code that will be ignored during assembly. Judicious commenting is essential in assembly language programs, as the meaning and purpose of a sequence of binary machine instructions can be difficult to determine. The "raw" (uncommented) assembly language generated by compilers or disassemblers is quite difficult to read when changes must be made. Macros Many assemblers support predefined macros, and others support programmer-defined (and repeatedly re-definable) macros involving sequences of text lines in which variables and constants are embedded. The macro definition is most commonly a mixture of assembler statements, e.g., directives, symbolic machine instructions, and templates for assembler statements. This sequence of text lines may include opcodes or directives. Once a macro has been defined its name may be used in place of a mnemonic. Macros in this sense date to IBM autocoders of the 1950s. Macro assemblers typically have directives to, e.g., define macros, define variables, set variables to the result of an arithmetic, logical or string expression, iterate, conditionally generate code. Some of those directives may be restricted to use within a macro definition, e.g., MEXIT in HLASM, while others may be permitted within open code (outside macro definitions), e.g., AIF and COPY in HLASM. In assembly language, the term "macro" represents a more comprehensive concept than it does in some other contexts, such as the pre-processor in the C programming language, where its #define directive typically is used to create short single line macros. Assembler macro instructions, like macros in PL/I and some other languages, can be lengthy "programs" by themselves, executed by interpretation by the assembler during assembly. Since macros can have 'short' names but expand to several or indeed many lines of code, they can be used to make assembly language programs appear to be far shorter, requiring fewer lines of source code, as with higher level languages. They can also be used to add higher levels of structure to assembly programs, optionally introduce embedded debugging code via parameters and other similar features. Macro assemblers often allow macros to take parameters. Some assemblers include quite sophisticated macro languages, incorporating such high-level language elements as optional parameters, symbolic variables, conditionals, string manipulation, and arithmetic operations, all usable during the execution of a given macro, and allowing macros to save context or exchange information. Thus a macro might generate numerous assembly language instructions or data definitions, based on the macro arguments. This could be used to generate record-style data structures or "unrolled" loops, for example, or could generate entire algorithms based on complex parameters. For instance, a "sort" macro could accept the specification of a complex sort key and generate code crafted for that specific key, not needing the run-time tests that would be required for a general procedure interpreting the specification. An organization using assembly language that has been heavily extended using such a macro suite can be considered to be working in a higher-level language since such programmers are not working with a computer's lowest-level conceptual elements. Underlining this point, macros were used to implement an early virtual machine in SNOBOL4 (1967), which was written in the SNOBOL Implementation Language (SIL), an assembly language for a virtual machine. The target machine would translate this to its native code using a macro assembler. This allowed a high degree of portability for the time. Macros were used to customize large scale software systems for specific customers in the mainframe era and were also used by customer personnel to satisfy their employers' needs by making specific versions of manufacturer operating systems. This was done, for example, by systems programmers working with IBM's Conversational Monitor System / Virtual Machine (VM/CMS) and with IBM's "real time transaction processing" add-ons, Customer Information Control System CICS, and ACP/TPF, the airline/financial system that began in the 1970s and still runs many large computer reservation systems (CRS) and credit card systems today. It is also possible to use solely the macro processing abilities of an assembler to generate code written in completely different languages, for example, to generate a version of a program in COBOL using a pure macro assembler program containing lines of COBOL code inside assembly time operators instructing the assembler to generate arbitrary code. IBM OS/360 uses macros to perform system generation. The user specifies options by coding a series of assembler macros. Assembling these macros generates a job stream to build the system, including job control language and utility control statements. This is because, as was realized in the 1960s, the concept of "macro processing" is independent of the concept of "assembly", the former being in modern terms more word processing, text processing, than generating object code. The concept of macro processing appeared, and appears, in the C programming language, which supports "preprocessor instructions" to set variables, and make conditional tests on their values. Unlike certain previous macro processors inside assemblers, the C preprocessor is not Turing-complete because it lacks the ability to either loop or "go to", the latter allowing programs to loop. Despite the power of macro processing, it fell into disuse in many high level languages (major exceptions being C, C++ and PL/I) while remaining a perennial for assemblers. Macro parameter substitution is strictly by name: at macro processing time, the value of a parameter is textually substituted for its name. The most famous class of bugs resulting was the use of a parameter that itself was an expression and not a simple name when the macro writer expected a name. In the macro: foo: macro a load a*b the intention was that the caller would provide the name of a variable, and the "global" variable or constant b would be used to multiply "a". If foo is called with the parameter a-c, the macro expansion of load a-c*b occurs. To avoid any possible ambiguity, users of macro processors can parenthesize formal parameters inside macro definitions, or callers can parenthesize the input parameters. Support for structured programming Packages of macros have been written providing structured programming elements to encode execution flow. The earliest example of this approach was in the Concept-14 macro set, originally proposed by Harlan Mills (March 1970), and implemented by Marvin Kessler at IBM's Federal Systems Division, which provided IF/ELSE/ENDIF and similar control flow blocks for OS/360 assembler programs. This was a way to reduce or eliminate the use of GOTO operations in assembly code, one of the main factors causing spaghetti code in assembly language. This approach was widely accepted in the early 1980s (the latter days of large-scale assembly language use). IBM's High Level Assembler Toolkit includes such a macro package. Another design was A-Natural, a "stream-oriented" assembler for 8080/Z80 processors from Whitesmiths Ltd. (developers of the Unix-like Idris operating system, and what was reported to be the first commercial C compiler). The language was classified as an assembler because it worked with raw machine elements such as opcodes, registers, and memory references; but it incorporated an expression syntax to indicate execution order. Parentheses and other special symbols, along with block-oriented structured programming constructs, controlled the sequence of the generated instructions. A-natural was built as the object language of a C compiler, rather than for hand-coding, but its logical syntax won some fans. There has been little apparent demand for more sophisticated assemblers since the decline of large-scale assembly language development. In spite of that, they are still being developed and applied in cases where resource constraints or peculiarities in the target system's architecture prevent the effective use of higher-level languages. Assemblers with a strong macro engine allow structured programming via macros, such as the switch macro provided with the Masm32 package (this code is a complete program): include \masm32\include\masm32rt.inc ; use the Masm32 library .code demomain: REPEAT 20 switch rv(nrandom, 9) ; generate a number between 0 and 8 mov ecx, 7 case 0 print "case 0" case ecx ; in contrast to most other programming languages, print "case 7" ; the Masm32 switch allows "variable cases" case 1 .. 3 .if eax==1 print "case 1" .elseif eax==2 print "case 2" .else print "cases 1 to 3: other" .endif case 4, 6, 8 print "cases 4, 6 or 8" default mov ebx, 19 ; print 20 stars .Repeat print "*" dec ebx .Until Sign? ; loop until the sign flag is set endsw print chr$(13, 10) ENDM exit end demomain Use of assembly language When the stored-program computer was introduced programs were written in machine code, and loaded into the computer from punched paper tape or toggled directly into memory from console switches. Kathleen Booth "is credited with inventing assembly language" based on theoretical work she began in 1947, while working on the ARC2 at Birkbeck, University of London following consultation by Andrew Booth (later her husband) with mathematician John von Neumann and physicist Herman Goldstine at the Institute for Advanced Study. In late 1948, the Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) had an assembler (named "initial orders") integrated into its bootstrap program. It used one-letter mnemonics developed by David Wheeler, who is credited by the IEEE Computer Society as the creator of the first "assembler". Reports on the EDSAC introduced the term "assembly" for the process of combining fields into an instruction word. SOAP (Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program) was an assembly language for the IBM 650 computer written by Stan Poley in 1955. Assembly languages eliminated much of the error-prone, tedious, and time-consuming first-generation programming needed with the earliest computers, freeing programmers from tedium such as remembering numeric codes and calculating addresses. They were once widely used for all sorts of programming. By the late 1950s their use had largely been supplanted by higher-level languages in the search for improved programming productivity. Today, assembly language is still used for direct hardware manipulation, access to specialized processor instructions, or to address critical performance issues. Typical uses are device drivers, low-level embedded systems, and real-time systems (see ). Numerous programs were written entirely in assembly language. The Burroughs MCP (1961) was the first computer for which an operating system was not developed entirely in assembly language; it was written in Executive Systems Problem Oriented Language (ESPOL), an Algol dialect. Many commercial applications were written in assembly language as well, including a large amount of the IBM mainframe software developed by large corporations. COBOL, FORTRAN and some PL/I eventually displaced assembly language, although a number of large organizations retained assembly-language application infrastructures well into the 1990s. Assembly language was the primary development language for 8-bit home computers such as the Apple II, Atari 8-bit computers, ZX Spectrum, and Commodore 64. Interpreted BASIC on these systems did not offer maximum execution speed and full use of facilities to take full advantage of the available hardware. Assembly language was the default choice for programming 8-bit consoles such as the Atari 2600 and Nintendo Entertainment System. Key software for IBM PC compatibles such as MS-DOS, Turbo Pascal, and the Lotus 1-2-3 spreadsheet was written in assembly language. As computer speed grew exponentially, assembly language became a tool for speeding up parts of programs, such as the rendering of Doom, rather than a dominant development language. In the 1990s, assembly language was used to maximise performance from systems such as the Sega Saturn, and as the primary language for arcade hardware using the TMS34010 integrated CPU/GPU such as Mortal Kombat and NBA Jam. Current usage There has been debate over the usefulness and performance of assembly language relative to high-level languages. Although assembly language has specific niche uses where it is important (see below), there are other tools for optimization. , the TIOBE index of programming language popularity ranks assembly language at 11, ahead of Visual Basic, for example. Assembler can be used to optimize for speed or optimize for size. In the case of speed optimization, modern optimizing compilers are claimed to render high-level languages into code that can run as fast as hand-written assembly, despite some counter-examples. The complexity of modern processors and memory sub-systems makes effective optimization increasingly difficult for compilers and assembly programmers alike. Increasing processor performance has meant that most CPUs sit idle most of the time, with delays caused by predictable bottlenecks such as cache misses, I/O operations and paging, making raw code execution speed a non-issue for many programmers. There are still certain computer programming domains in which the use of assembly programming is more common: Writing code for systems with that have limited high-level language options such as the Atari 2600, Commodore 64, and graphing calculators. Programs for these computers of the 1970s and 1980s are often written in the context of demoscene or retrogaming subcultures. Code that must interact directly with the hardware, for example in device drivers and interrupt handlers. In an embedded processor or DSP, high-repetition interrupts require the shortest number of cycles per interrupt, such as an interrupt that occurs 1000 or 10000 times a second. Programs that need to use processor-specific instructions not implemented in a compiler. A common example is the bitwise rotation instruction at the core of many encryption algorithms, as well as querying the parity of a byte or the 4-bit carry of an addition. Stand-alone executables that are required to execute without recourse to the run-time components or libraries associated with a high-level language, such as the firmware for telephones, automobile fuel and ignition systems, air-conditioning control systems,and security systems. Programs with performance-sensitive inner loops, where assembly language provides optimization opportunities that are difficult to achieve in a high-level language. For example, linear algebra with BLAS or discrete cosine transformation (e.g. SIMD assembly version from x264). Programs that create vectorized functions for programs in higher-level languages such as C. In the higher-level language this is sometimes aided by compiler intrinsic functions which map directly to SIMD mnemonics, but nevertheless result in a one-to-one assembly conversion specific for the given vector processor. Real-time programs such as simulations, flight navigation systems, and medical equipment. For example, in a fly-by-wire system, telemetry must be interpreted and acted upon within strict time constraints. Such systems must eliminate sources of unpredictable delays, which may be created by interpreted languages, automatic garbage collection, paging operations, or preemptive multitasking. Choosing assembly or lower-level languages for such systems gives programmers greater visibility and control over processing details. Cryptographic algorithms that must always take strictly the same time to execute, preventing timing attacks. Video encoders and decoders such as rav1e (an encoder for AV1) and dav1d (the reference decoder for AV1) contain assembly to leverage AVX2 and ARM Neon instructions when available. Modify and extend legacy code written for IBM mainframe computers. Situations where complete control over the environment is required, in extremely high-security situations where nothing can be taken for granted. Computer viruses, bootloaders, certain device drivers, or other items very close to the hardware or low-level operating system. Instruction set simulators for monitoring, tracing and debugging where additional overhead is kept to a minimum. Situations where no high-level language exists, on a new or specialized processor for which no cross compiler is available. Video games (also termed ROM hacking), which is possible via several methods. The most widely employed method is altering program code at the assembly language level. Assembly language is still taught in most computer science and electronic engineering programs. Although few programmers today regularly work with assembly language as a tool, the underlying concepts remain important. Such fundamental topics as binary arithmetic, memory allocation, stack processing, character set encoding, interrupt processing, and compiler design would be hard to study in detail without a grasp of how a computer operates at the hardware level. Since a computer's behaviour is fundamentally defined by its instruction set, the logical way to learn such concepts is to study an assembly language. Most modern computers have similar instruction sets. Therefore, studying a single assembly language is sufficient to learn the basic concepts, recognize situations where the use of assembly language might be appropriate, and to see how efficient executable code can be created from high-level languages. Typical applications Assembly language is typically used in a system's boot code, the low-level code that initializes and tests the system hardware prior to booting the operating system and is often stored in ROM. (BIOS on IBM-compatible PC systems and CP/M is an example.) Assembly language is often used for low-level code, for instance for operating system kernels, which cannot rely on the availability of pre-existing system calls and must indeed implement them for the particular processor architecture on which the system will be running. Some compilers translate high-level languages into assembly first before fully compiling, allowing the assembly code to be viewed for debugging and optimization purposes. Some compilers for relatively low-level languages, such as Pascal or C, allow the programmer to embed assembly language directly in the source code (so called inline assembly). Programs using such facilities can then construct abstractions using different assembly language on each hardware platform. The system's portable code can then use these processor-specific components through a uniform interface. Assembly language is useful in reverse engineering. Many programs are distributed only in machine code form which is straightforward to translate into assembly language by a disassembler, but more difficult to translate into a higher-level language through a decompiler. Tools such as the Interactive Disassembler make extensive use of disassembly for such a purpose. This technique is used by hackers to crack commercial software, and competitors to produce software with similar results from competing companies. Assembly language is used to enhance speed of execution, especially in early personal computers with limited processing power and RAM. Assemblers can be used to generate blocks of data, with no high-level language overhead, from formatted and commented source code, to be used by other code. See also Compiler Comparison of assemblers Disassembler Hexadecimal Instruction set architecture Little man computer – an educational computer model with a base-10 assembly language Nibble Typed assembly language Notes References Further reading (2+xiv+270+6 pages) ("An online book full of helpful ASM info, tutorials and code examples" by the ASM Community, archived at the internet archive.) External links Assembly Language and Learning Assembly Language pages on WikiWikiWeb Assembly Language Programming Examples *Assembly language

Ambrose

Ambrose of Milan (; 4 April 397), venerated as Saint Ambrose, was a theologian and statesman who served as Bishop of Milan from 374 to 397. He expressed himself prominently as a public , fiercely promoting Roman Christianity against Arianism and paganism. He left a substantial collection of writings, of which the best known include the ethical commentary De officiis ministrorum (377–391), and the exegetical (386–390). Ambrose was serving as the Roman governor of Aemilia-Liguria in Milan when he was unexpectedly made Bishop of Milan in 374 by popular acclamation. As bishop, he took a firm position against Arianism and attempted to mediate the conflict between the emperors Theodosius I and Magnus Maximus. Tradition credits Ambrose with developing an antiphonal chant, known as Ambrosian chant, and for composing the "Te Deum" hymn, though modern scholars now reject both of these attributions. Ambrose's authorship on at least four hymns, including the well-known "Veni redemptor gentium", is secure; they form the core of the Ambrosian hymns, which includes others that are sometimes attributed to him. He also had a notable influence on Augustine of Hippo (354–430), whom he helped convert to Christianity. Western Christianity identified Ambrose, along with Augustine, Jerome and pope Gregory the Great, as one of the four Great Latin Church Fathers, declared Doctors of the Church in 1298. He is considered a saint by the Catholic Church, Eastern Orthodox Church, Anglican Communion, and various Lutheran denominations, and venerated as the patron saint of Milan and beekeepers. Background and career Legends about Ambrose had spread through the empire long before his biography was written, making it difficult for modern historians to understand his true character and fairly place his behaviour within the context of antiquity. Most agree he was the personification of his era. This would make Ambrose a genuinely spiritual man who spoke up and defended his faith against opponents, an aristocrat who retained many of the attitudes and practices of a Roman governor, and also an ascetic who served the poor.

Ambracia

Ambracia (; , occasionally , Ampracia) was a city of ancient Greece on the site of modern Arta. It was founded by the Corinthians in 625 BC and was situated about from the Ambracian Gulf, on a bend of the navigable river Arachthos (or Aratthus), in the midst of a fertile wooded plain. Name It was named after Ambracia, who according to some myths was Augeas daughter, while others describe her as Apollo's granddaughter and the daughter of Melaneus, king of the Dryope.A Dictionary of Greek and Roman biography and mythology, Ambracia According to a different story, the town was named after Ambrax, Thesprotus son and Lycaon's grandson. History Ambracia was founded between 650 and 625 BC by Gorgus, son of the Corinthian tyrant Cypselus, at which time its economy was based on farmlands, fishing, timber for shipbuilding, and the exportation of the produce of Epirus. After the expulsion of Gorgus's son Periander its government developed into a strong democracy. The early policy of Ambracia was determined by its loyalty to Corinth (for which it probably served as an entrepot in the Epirus trade), and its consequent aversion to Corcyra (as Ambracia participated on the Corinthian side at the Battle of Sybota, which took place in 433 BC between the rebellious Corinthian colony of Corcyra (modern Corfu) and Corinth). Ambraciot politics featured many frontier disputes with the Amphilochians and Acarnanians. Hence it took a prominent part in the Peloponnesian War until the crushing defeat at Idomene (426), which crippled its resources. In the 4th century BC, it continued its traditional policy but in 338 was besieged by Philip II of Macedon. With the assistance of Corinth and Athens, it escaped complete domination at Philip's hands but was nevertheless forced to accept a Macedonian garrison. In 294 BC, after forty-three years of semi-autonomy under Macedonian suzerainty, Ambracia was given by the son of Cassander to Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who made it his capital and adorned it with palaces, temples, and theatres. In the wars of Philip V of Macedon and the Epirotes against the Aetolian League (220–205), Ambracia passed from one alliance to the other but ultimately joined the latter confederacy. During the struggle of the Aetolians against Rome, it withstood a stubborn siege, including the first known use of poison gas against the Romans' siege tunnels.Polybius 21.28 There was an ancient book, titled Ambrakika (Ἀμβρακικά), by the writer Athanadas, that detailed the history of Ambracia. No copies of the work survive, but it was referred to by later writers such as Antoninus Liberalis as an authority on the subject. Ambracia was captured and plundered by Marcus Fulvius Nobilior in 189 BC, after which it was declared by Rome a "free city" and gradually fell into insignificance. The foundation by Augustus of Nicopolis, into which the remaining inhabitants were drafted, left the site desolate. In Byzantine times a new settlement took its place under the name of Arta. Some fragmentary walls of large, well-dressed blocks near this latter town indicate the early prosperity of Ambracia. Ambraciotes Artists Epigonus of Ambracia, 6th BC musician Nicocles, auletes Hippasus, tragic actor Epicrates of Ambracia, c. 4th BC comic poetbiographical sketch online. Athletes Sophron, Stadion Olympics 432 BC Tlasimachus, Tethrippon and Synoris Olympics 296 BC Andromachus, Stadion Olympics 60 BC Various Silanus of Ambracia, 5th BC seer Cleombrotus of Ambracia, student of Plato See also List of cities in ancient Epirus List of ancient Greek cities References Attribution

Amalaric

Amalaric (;Kelsie B. Harder, Names and their varieties: a collection of essays in onomastics, American Name Society, University Press of America, 1984, pp. 10-11 Spanish and Portuguese: Amalarico; 502–531) was king of the Visigoths from 522 until his assassination. He was a son of king Alaric II and his first wife Theodegotha, daughter of Theodoric the Great. Biography When Alaric II was killed while fighting Clovis I, king of the Franks, in the Battle of Vouillé (507), his kingdom fell into disarray. "More serious than the destruction of the Gothic army," writes Herwig Wolfram, "than the loss of both Aquitanian provinces and the capital of Toulose, was the death of the king. "Herwig Wolfram, History of the Goths, translated by Thomas J. Dunlap (Berkeley: University of California, 1988), p. 244 Alaric had made no provision for a successor, and although he had two sons, one was of age but illegitimate and the other, Amalaric, the offspring of a legal marriage but still a child. Amalaric was carried for safety into Spain, which country and Provence were thenceforth ruled by his maternal grandfather, Theodoric the Great, acting through his vice-regent, an Ostrogothic nobleman named Theudis. The older son, Gesalec, was chosen as king but his reign was disastrous. King Theodoric of the Ostrogoths sent an army, led by his sword-bearer Theudis, against Gesalec, ostensibly on behalf of Amalaric; Gesalec fled to Africa. The Ostrogoths then drove back the Franks and their Burgundian allies, regaining possession of "the south of Novempopulana, Rodez, probably even Albi, and even Toulose". Following the 511 death of Clovis, Theodoric negotiated a peace with Clovis' successors, securing Visigothic control of the southernmost portion of Gaul for the rest of the existence of their kingdom.Wolfram, History of the Goths, p. 245 In 522, the young Amalaric was proclaimed king, and four years later, on Theodoric's death, he assumed full royal power, although relinquishing Provence to his cousin Athalaric. His kingdom was faced with a Frankish threat from the north; according to Peter Heather, this was his motivation for marrying Chrotilda, the daughter of Clovis.Peter Heather, The Goths (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), p. 277 However, this was not successful, for according to Gregory of Tours, Amalaric pressured her to forsake Orthodoxy and convert to Arian Christianity, at one point beating her until she bled; she sent to her brother Childebert I, king of Paris, a towel stained with her own blood.Gregory of Tours, Decem Libri Historiarum, III.10; translated by Lewis Thorpe, History of the Franks (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1974), pp. Ian Wood noted that although Gregory provides the fullest information for this period, where it touches Merovingian affairs, he often "allowed his religious bias to determine his interpretation of the events. "Wood, The Merovingian Kingdoms: 450-751 (London: Longman, 1994), p. 171 Peter Heather agrees with Wood's implication in this instance: "I doubt that this is the full story, but the effects of Frankish intervention are clear enough." Childebert defeated the Visigothic army and took Narbonne. Amalaric fled south to Barcelona, where according to Isidore of Seville, he was assassinated by his own men.Isidore of Seville, History of the Goths, chapter 40. Translation by Guido Donini and Gordon B. Ford, Isidore of Seville's History of the Goths, Vandals, and Suevi, second revised edition (Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1970), p. 19 According to Peter Heather, Theodoric's former governor Theudis was implicated in Amalaric's murder, "and was certainly its prime beneficiary. "Heather, The Goths, p. 278 As for Chrotilda, in Gregory's words, she died on the journey home "by some ill chance". Childebert had her body brought to Paris where she was buried alongside her father Clovis. Notes External links Further reading Edward Gibbon, History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Chapter 39

Alligatoridae

The family Alligatoridae of crocodylians includes alligators, caimans and their extinct relatives.

Amos Bronson Alcott

Amos Bronson Alcott (; November 29, 1799 – March 4, 1888) was an American teacher, writer, philosopher, and reformer. As an educator, Alcott pioneered new ways of interacting with young students, focusing on a conversational style, and avoided traditional punishment. He hoped to perfect the human spirit and, to that end, advocated a plant-based diet. He was also an abolitionist and an advocate for women's rights. Born in Wolcott, Connecticut, in 1799, Alcott had only minimal formal schooling before attempting a career as a traveling salesman. Worried that the itinerant life might have a negative impact on his soul, he turned to teaching. His innovative methods, however, were controversial, and he rarely stayed in one place very long. His most well-known teaching position was at the Temple School in Boston. His experience there was turned into two books: Records of a School and Conversations with Children on the Gospels. Alcott became friends with Ralph Waldo Emerson and became a major in transcendentalism. His writings on behalf of that movement, however, are heavily criticized for being incoherent. Based on his ideas for human perfection, Alcott founded Fruitlands, a transcendentalist experiment in community living. The project failed after seven months. Alcott and his family struggled financially for most of his life. Nevertheless, he continued focusing on educational projects and opened a new school at the end of his life in 1879. He died in 1888. Alcott married Abby May in 1830, and they had four surviving children, all daughters. Their second was Louisa May, who fictionalized her experience with the family in her novel Little Women in 1868. Life and work Early life A native New Englander, Amos Bronson Alcott was born in Wolcott, Connecticut (then recently renamed from "Farmingbury") on November 29, 1799. His parents were Joseph Chatfield Alcott and Anna Bronson Alcott. The family home was in an area known as Spindle Hill, and his father, Joseph Alcox, traced his ancestry to colonial-era settlers in eastern Massachusetts. The family originally spelled their name "Alcock", later changed to "Alcocke" then "Alcox". Amos Bronson, the oldest of eight children, later changed the spelling to "Alcott" and dropped his first name. At age six, young Bronson began his formal education in a one-room schoolhouse in the center of town but learned how to read at home with the help of his mother. The school taught only reading, writing, and spelling, and he left this school at the age of 10. At age 13, his uncle, Reverend Tillotson Bronson, invited Alcott into his home in Cheshire, Connecticut, to be educated and prepared for college. Bronson gave it up after only a month and was self-educated from then on. He was not particularly social and his only close friend was his neighbor and second cousin William Alcott, with whom he shared books and ideas. Bronson Alcott later reflected on his childhood at Spindle Hill: "It kept me pure ... I dwelt amidst the hills ... God spoke to me while I walked the fields." Starting at age 15, he worked for clockmaker Seth Thomas in the nearby town of Plymouth. At age 17, Alcott passed the exam for a teaching certificate but had trouble finding work as a teacher. Instead, he left home and became a traveling salesman in the American South, peddling books and merchandise. He hoped the job would earn him enough money to support his parents, "to make their cares, and burdens less ... and get them free from debt", though he soon spent most of his earnings on a new suit. At first, he thought it an acceptable occupation but soon worried about his spiritual well-being. In March 1823, Alcott wrote to his brother: "Peddling is a hard place to serve God, but a capital one to serve Mammon." Near the end of his life, he fictionalized this experience in his book, New Connecticut, originally circulated only among friends before its publication in 1881. Early career and marriage By the summer of 1823, Alcott returned to Connecticut in debt to his father, who had bailed him out after his last two unsuccessful sales trips. He took a job as a schoolteacher in Cheshire with the help of his Uncle Tillotson. He quickly set about reforming the school. He added backs to the benches on which students sat, improved lighting and heating, de-emphasized rote learning, and provided individual slates to each student—paid for by himself. Alcott had been influenced by educational philosophy of the Swiss pedagogue Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi and even renamed his school "The Cheshire Pestalozzi School".

Arachnophobia

Arachnophobia is the fear of spiders and other arachnids such as scorpions and ticks. The word "arachnophobia" comes from the Greek words arachne and phobia. Signs and symptoms People with arachnophobia tend to feel uneasy in any area they believe could harbour spiders or that has visible signs of their presence, such as webs. If arachnophobes see a spider, they may not enter the general vicinity until they have overcome the panic attack that is often associated with their phobia. Some people scream, cry, have emotional outbursts, experience trouble breathing, sweat and experience increased heart rates when they come in contact with an area near spiders or their webs. In some extreme cases, even a picture, a toy, or a realistic drawing of a spider can trigger intense fear. Reasons Arachnophobia may be an exaggerated form of an instinctive response that helped early humans to survive or a cultural phenomenon that is most common in predominantly European societies. Evolutionary An evolutionary reason for the phobia remains unresolved. One view, especially held in evolutionary psychology, is that the presence of venomous spiders led to the evolution of a fear of spiders, or made the acquisition of a fear of spiders especially easy. However, there is no evidence that during the Pleistocene there were a sufficient number of venomous African spider fauna to trigger such an evolutionary fear. Like all traits, there is variability in the intensity of fear of spiders, and those with more intense fears are classified as phobic. Being relatively small, spiders do not fit the usual criterion for a threat in the animal kingdom where size is a factor, but they can have medically significant venom and/or cause skin irritation with their setae. However, a phobia is an irrational fear as opposed to a rational fear. By ensuring that their surroundings were free from spiders, arachnophobes would have had a reduced risk of being bitten in ancestral environments, giving them a slight advantage over non-arachnophobes in terms of survival. However, having a disproportionate fear of spiders in comparison to other, potentially dangerous creatures present during Homo sapiens environment of evolutionary adaptiveness may have had drawbacks. In The Handbook of the Emotions (1993), psychologist Arne Öhman studied pairing an unconditioned stimulus with evolutionarily-relevant fear-response neutral stimuli (snakes and spiders) versus evolutionarily-irrelevant fear-response neutral stimuli (mushrooms, flowers, physical representation of polyhedra, firearms, and electrical outlets) on human subjects and found that ophidiophobia (fear of snakes) and arachnophobia required only one pairing to develop a conditioned response while mycophobia, anthophobia, phobias of physical representations of polyhedra, firearms, and electrical outlets required multiple pairings and went extinct without continued conditioning while the conditioned ophidiophobia and arachnophobia were permanent. Psychiatrist Randolph M. Nesse notes that while conditioned fear responses to evolutionarily novel dangerous objects such as electrical outlets is possible, the conditioning is slower because such cues have no prewired connection to fear, noting further that despite the emphasis of the risks of speeding and drunk driving in driver's education, it alone does not provide reliable protection against traffic collisions and that nearly one-quarter of all deaths in 2014 of people aged 15 to 24 in the United States were in traffic collisions. Nesse, psychiatrist Isaac Marks, and evolutionary biologist George C. Williams have noted that people with systematically deficient responses to various adaptive phobias (e.g. arachnophobia, ophidiophobia, basophobia) are more temperamentally careless and more likely to receive unintentional injuries that are potentially fatal and have proposed that such deficient phobia should be classified as "hypophobia'" due to its selfish genetic consequences. The researchers suggested that this was because fast response to spiders was more relevant to human evolution.Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). "Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass". Journal of Experimental Psychology: 130 (3), 466–478. Cultural An alternative view is that the dangers, such as from spiders, are overrated and not sufficient to influence evolution. Instead, inheriting phobias would have restrictive and debilitating effects upon survival, rather than being an aid. For some communities, such as in Papua New Guinea and Cambodia, spiders are included in traditional foods. This suggests arachnophobia may, at least in part, be a cultural rather than genetic trait. Stories about spiders in the media often contain errors and use sensationalistic vocabulary, which could contribute to the fear of spiders. Treatments The fear of spiders can be treated by any of the general techniques suggested for specific phobias. The first line of treatment is systematic desensitization – also known as exposure therapy. Before engaging in systematic desensitization, it is common to train the individual with arachnophobia in relaxation techniques, which will help keep the patient calm. Systematic desensitization can be done in vivo (with live spiders) or by getting the individual to imagine situations involving spiders, then modelling interaction with spiders for the person affected and eventually interacting with real spiders. This technique can be effective in just one session, although it generally takes more time. Recent advances in technology have enabled the use of virtual or augmented reality spiders for use in therapy. These techniques have proven to be effective. It has been suggested that exposure to short clips from the Spider-Man movies may help to reduce an individual's arachnophobia. Epidemiology Arachnophobia affects 3.5 to 6.1 percent of the global population. See also Apiphobia, fear of bees Entomophobia, fear of insects Myrmecophobia, fear of ants References External links National Geographic: "Fear of Snakes, Spiders Rooted in Evolution, Study Finds

Ahab

Ahab (; ; ; ; ) was the son and successor of King Omri and the husband of Jezebel of Sidon according to the Hebrew Bible. He was widely criticized for causing "moral decline" in Israel, according to the Yahwists, though modern scholars argue that Ahab was a Yahwist himself.Grabbe, Lester (2017). Ancient Israel: What Do We Know and How Do We Know It?. Bloomsbury. “His chief palace overseer Obadiah was a devoted Yhwh worshipper, and Ahab could hardly have been ignorant of that (1 Kgs 17.3). Furthermore, his two sons had theophoric names that contained a form of the divine name Yhwh (Ahaziah [1 Kgs 22.40] and Jehoram [2 Kgs 1.17]), which would hardly have been the case if he had been a Baal worshipper.” The existence of Ahab is historically supported outside the Bible. The contemporary Kurkh Monolith inscription of king Shalmaneser IIIRainey, Anson F. "Stones for Bread: Archaeology versus History". Near Eastern Archaeology, Vol. 140–149 from the Neo-Assyrian Empire documented in 853 BC that Shalmaneser III defeated an alliance of a dozen kings in the Battle of Qarqar; one of these was Ahab. Though not named, he is also mentioned on the inscriptions of the Mesha Stele. Ahab became king of Israel in the thirty-eighth year of King Asa of Judah, and reigned for twenty-two years, according to 1 Kings 16:29. William F. Albright dated his reign to 869–850 BC, while Edwin R. Thiele offered the dates 874–853 BC. Most recently, Michael Coogan has dated Ahab's reign to 871–852 BC. Reign As Omri's successor, Ahab married Jezebel, the daughter of Ithobaal I of Tyre. Under Jezebel's influence, he abandoned Yahweh and established Baal and Asherah cults in Israel according to 1 Kings 16:29–33. For example, he allowed Hiel the Bethelite to rebuild Jericho, even though it was 'cursed' by Yahweh (1 Kings 16:34), and helped his wife kill opponents, such as the "servants of Yahweh" and possibly, the priests of Jeroboam's cult (1 Kings 18:3–16). Edward Lipiński argues that the "Baal" worshipped by Ahab and Jezebel was the "YHWH of Samaria", which was opposed as Yahwist heresy by the Judean priests.Edward Lipiński "Studia z dziejów i kultury starożytnego Bliskiego Wschodu" Nomos Press, 2013, Others disagree based on archaeological evidence and extrabiblical sources about Jezebel's upbringing.Merrill F. Unger, Unger’s Bible Dictionary (Chicago: Moody Press, 1977) 327. In terms of foreign policy, Ahab continued Omri's policies against Moab, which was a tributary state of Israel (2 Kings 1:1). According to the Moabite Mesha Stele, Omri and Ahab "oppressed Moab for many days". By marriage, he allied with Jehoshaphat, who was the king of Judah (2 Kings 8:16–18). Aram-Damascus was the only foreign state that Ahab opposed but he made peace with them after their king promised to withdraw from conquered territory. He also allowed Ahab to conquer Aramean territory to compensate (1 Kings 20:34).

ASIC (disambiguation)

In the realm of electronic technology, ASIC stands for application-specific integrated circuit, an integrated circuit customized for a specific task. ASIC may also refer to: Accreditation Service for International Colleges, an educational accreditation agency in the UK Acid-sensing ion channels, a protein family Air and Space Interoperability Council, former name of the Air Force Interoperability Council Arfoire Syndicate of International Crime, the antagonist group in the video game Hyperdimension Neptunia mk2 ASIC programming language, a dialect of BASIC Associated Signature Containers (ASiC), specifies the use of container structures to bind together one or more signed objects with either advanced electronic signatures or time-stamp tokens into one single digital container Association Scientifique Internationale pour le Café, a scientific organization based in France Australian Securities & Investments Commission, Australia's corporate regulator Aviation Security Identification Card, an Australian identification card See also Asics, an athletic equipment company

Dasyproctidae

Dasyproctidae is a family of large South American rodents, comprising the agoutis and acouchis. Their fur is a reddish or dark colour above, with a paler underside. They are herbivorous, often feeding on ripe fruit that falls from trees. They live in burrows, and, like squirrels, will bury some of their food for later use. Dasyproctids exist in Central and South America, which are the tropical parts of the New World. The fossil record of this family can be traced back to the Late Oligocene (Deseadan in the SALMA classification). As with all rodents, members of this family have incisors, pre-molars, and molars, but no canines. The cheek teeth are hypsodont and flat-crowned. Classification Fossil taxa follow McKenna and Bell, with modifications following Kramarz. Family Dasyproctidae Genus †Alloiomys Genus †Australoprocta Genus †Branisamys Genus †Incamys Genus †Neoreomys Genus †Megastus Genus †Palmiramys Genus Dasyprocta Azara's agouti, D. azarae Coiban agouti, D. coibae Crested agouti, D. cristata Black agouti, D. fuliginosa Orinoco agouti, D. guamara Kalinowski's agouti, D. kalinowskii Red-rumped agouti, D. leporina Mexican agouti, D. mexicana Black-rumped agouti, D. prymnolopha Central American agouti, D. punctata Ruatan Island agouti, D. ruatanica Genus Myoprocta Green acouchi, M. pratti Red acouchi, M. acouchy The pacas (genus Cuniculus) are placed by some authorities in Dasyproctidae, but molecular studies have demonstrated they do not form a monophyletic group. References External links Central American agouti at Smithsonian Dasyproctidae at Animaldiversity.org 2014 - Figueira et al. - Carrion consumption by Dasyprocta leporina (Rodentia: Dasyproctidae) and a review of meat use by agoutis

Algol

Algol , designated Beta Persei (β Persei, abbreviated Beta Per, β Per), known colloquially as the Demon Star, is a bright multiple star in the constellation of Perseus and one of the first non-nova variable stars to be discovered. Algol is a three-star system, consisting of Beta Persei Aa1, Aa2, and Ab – in which the hot luminous primary β Persei Aa1 and the larger, but cooler and fainter, β Persei Aa2 regularly pass in front of each other, causing eclipses. Thus Algol's magnitude is usually near-constant at 2.1, but regularly dips to 3.4 every 2.86 days during the roughly 10-hour-long partial eclipses. Algol gives its name to its class of eclipsing variable, known as Algol variables.

Amazing Grace

Amazing Grace" is a Christian hymn published in 1779, written in 1772 by English Anglican clergyman and poet John Newton (1725–1807). It is possibly the most sung and most recorded hymn in the world, and especially popular in the United States, where it is used for both religious and secular purposes. Newton wrote the words from personal experience; he grew up without any particular religious conviction, but his life's path was formed by a variety of twists and coincidences that were often put into motion by others' reactions to what they took as his recalcitrant insubordination. He was pressed into service with the Royal Navy, and after leaving the service, he became involved in the Atlantic slave trade. In 1748, a violent storm battered his vessel off the coast of County Donegal, Ireland, so severely that he called out to God for mercy. While this moment marked his spiritual conversion, he continued slave trading until 1754 or 1755, when he ended his seafaring altogether. Newton began studying Christian theology and later became an abolitionist. Ordained in the Church of England in 1764, Newton became the curate of Olney, Buckinghamshire, where he began to write hymns with poet William Cowper. "Amazing Grace" was written to illustrate a sermon on New Year's Day of 1773. It is unknown if there was any music accompanying the verses; it may have been chanted by the congregation. It debuted in print in 1779 in Newton's and Cowper's Olney Hymns, but settled into relative obscurity in England. In the United States, "Amazing Grace" became a popular song used by Baptist and Methodist preachers as part of their evangelizing, especially in the American South, during the Second Great Awakening of the early 19th century. It has been associated with more than 20 melodies. In 1835, American composer William Walker set it to the tune known as "New Britain" in a shape note format; this is the version most frequently sung today. With the message that forgiveness and redemption are possible regardless of sins committed and that the soul can be delivered from despair through the mercy of God, "Amazing Grace" is one of the most recognisable songs in the English-speaking world. American historian Gilbert Chase writes that it is "without a doubt the most famous of all the folk hymns"Chase, p. 181. and Jonathan Aitken, a Newton biographer, estimates that the song is performed about 10 million times annually. It has had particular influence in folk music, and has become an emblematic black spiritual. Its universal message has been a significant factor in its crossover into secular music. "Amazing Grace" became newly popular during the 1960s revival of American folk music, and it has been recorded thousands of times during and since the 20th century. John Newton's conversion According to the Dictionary of American Hymnology, "Amazing Grace" is John Newton's spiritual autobiography in verse. "Amazing Grace How Sweet the Sound", Dictionary of American Hymnology. Retrieved 31 October 2009. In 1725, Newton was born in Wapping, a district in London near the Thames. His father was a shipping merchant who was brought up as a Catholic but had Protestant sympathies, and his mother was a devout Independent, unaffiliated with the Anglican Church. She had intended Newton to become a clergyman, but she died of tuberculosis when he was six years old.Martin (1950), pp. For the next few years, while his father was at sea Newton was raised by his emotionally distant stepmother. He was also sent to boarding school, where he was mistreated.Newton (1824), p. 12. At the age of eleven, he joined his father on a ship as an apprentice; his seagoing career would be marked by headstrong disobedience. As a youth, Newton began a pattern of coming very close to death, examining his relationship with God, then relapsing into bad habits. As a sailor, he denounced his faith after being influenced by a shipmate who discussed with him Characteristicks of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times, a book by the Third Earl of Shaftesbury. In a series of letters Newton later wrote, "Like an unwary sailor who quits his port just before a rising storm, I renounced the hopes and comforts of the Gospel at the very time when every other comfort was about to fail me. His disobedience caused him to be pressed into the Royal Navy, and he took advantage of opportunities to overstay his leave. He deserted the navy to visit Mary "Polly" Catlett, a family friend with whom he had fallen in love.Martin (1950), p. 23. After enduring humiliation for deserting, he was traded as crew to a slave ship. He began a career in slave trading.

AOL

AOL (formerly a company known as AOL Inc. and originally known as America Online) is an American web portal and online service provider based in New York City, and a brand marketed by Yahoo! The service traces its history to an online service known as PlayNET. PlayNET licensed its software to Quantum Link (Q-Link), which went online in November 1985. A new IBM PC client was launched in 1988, and eventually renamed as America Online in 1989. AOL grew to become the largest online service, displacing established players like CompuServe and The Source. By 1995, AOL had about three million active users. AOL was at one point the most recognized brand on the Web in the United States. AOL once provided a dial-up Internet service to millions of Americans and pioneered instant messaging and chat rooms with AOL Instant Messenger (AIM). In 1998, AOL purchased Netscape for US$4.2 billion. By 2000, AOL was providing internet service to over 20 million consumers, dominating the market of Internet service providers (ISPs). In 2001, at the height of its popularity, it purchased the media conglomerate Time Warner in the largest merger in US history. AOL shrank rapidly thereafter, partly due to the decline of dial-up and rise of broadband. AOL was eventually spun off from Time Warner in 2009, with Tim Armstrong appointed the new CEO. Under his leadership, the company invested in media brands and advertising technologies. On June 23, 2015, AOL was acquired by Verizon Communications for $4.4 billion. On May 3, 2021, Verizon announced it would sell Yahoo and AOL to private equity firm Apollo Global Management for $5 billion. On September 1, 2021, AOL became part of the new Yahoo! Inc. History 1983–1991: early years AOL began in 1983, as a short-lived venture called Control Video Corporation (CVC), founded by William von Meister. Its sole product was an online service called GameLine for the Atari 2600 video game console, after von Meister's idea of buying music on demand was rejected by Warner Bros. Subscribers bought a modem from the company for $49.95 and paid a one-time $15 setup fee. GameLine permitted subscribers to temporarily download games and keep track of high scores, at a cost of $1 per game. The telephone disconnected and the downloaded game would remain in GameLine's Master Module, playable until the user turned off the console or downloaded another game. In January 1983, Steve Case was hired as a marketing consultant for Control Video on the recommendation of his brother, investment banker Dan Case. In May 1983, Jim Kimsey became a manufacturing consultant for Control Video, which was near bankruptcy. Kimsey was brought in by his West Point friend Frank Caufield, an investor in the company. In early 1985, von Meister left the company. On May 24, 1985, Quantum Computer Services, an online services company, was founded by Kimsey from the remnants of Control Video, with Kimsey as chief executive officer and Marc Seriff as chief technology officer. The technical team consisted of Seriff, Tom Ralston, Ray Heinrich, Steve Trus, Ken Huntsman, Janet Hunter, Dave Brown, Craig Dykstra, Doug Coward, and Mike Ficco. In 1987, Case was promoted again to executive vice-president. Kimsey soon began to groom Case to take over the role of CEO, which he did when Kimsey retired in 1991. Kimsey changed the company's strategy, and in 1985, launched a dedicated online service for Commodore 64 and 128 computers, originally called Quantum Link ("Q-Link" for short). The Quantum Link software was based on software licensed from PlayNet, Inc., which was founded in 1983 by Howard Goldberg and Dave Panzl. The service was different from other online services as it used the computing power of the Commodore 64 and the Apple II rather than just a "dumb" terminal. It passed tokens back and forth and provided a fixed-price service tailored for home users. In May 1988, Quantum and Apple launched AppleLink Personal Edition for Apple II and Macintosh computers. In August 1988, Quantum launched PC Link, a service for IBM-compatible PCs developed in a joint venture with the Tandy Corporation. After the company parted ways with Apple in October 1989, Quantum changed the service's name to America Online. Case promoted and sold AOL as the online service for people unfamiliar with computers, in contrast to CompuServe, which was well established in the technical community. From the beginning, AOL included online games in its mix of products; many classic and casual games were included in the original PlayNet software system. The company introduced many innovative online interactive titles and games, including: Graphical chat environments Habitat (1986–1988) from LucasArts. The first online interactive fiction series QuantumLink Serial by Tracy Reed (1988). Quantum Space, the first fully automated play-by-mail game (1989–1991).

AV

AV, Av or A.V. may refer to: Arts and entertainment The abbreviation of audiovisual, possessing both a sound and a visual component A.V. (film), a 2005 Hong Kong film directed by Pang Ho-Cheung Adult video, an alternative name/synonym of a pornographic film AV The Hunt, a 2020 Turkish thriller film directed by Emre Akay Businesses and organizations America Votes, an American 501(c)4 organization that promotes progressive causes Ambulance Victoria, an ambulance service operated in the Australian state of Victoria Anonymous for the Voiceless, a grassroots animal rights organization specializing in street activism Aston Villa F.C., an English professional football club AV Akademikerverlag GmbH & Co. KG an imprint of the German group VDM Publishing (now OmniScriptum) Avaya, a technology company formerly listed on the New York Stock Exchange with symbol "AV" Avianca (IATA airline code AV) Aviva, British insurance company, listed on the New York Stock Exchange and London Stock Exchange as "AV" AeroVironment, manufacturer of unmanned military aircraft and systems Amusement Vision, the former name of Ryu Ga Gotoku Studio People Av or Avrum Gross (1936–2018), American lawyer and Attorney General of Alaska Av or Avrom Isaacs (1926–2016), Canadian art dealer Av Westin (1929–2022), American television producer Arun Vijay (born 1977), Indian actor Places Anguilla (FIPS country code and obsolete NATO diagram AV) Antelope Valley, a valley in Southern California Province of Avellino, a province of Italy Science and technology Anatomy and medicine Aerobic vaginitis, vaginal infection associated with overgrowth of aerobic bacteria Arteriovenous (disambiguation) Atrioventricular (disambiguation) Electronics and computing Access violation, a computer software error Age verification, system for checking a user's age Antivirus software, used to prevent, detect and remove malicious software Audio and video connector, a cable between two devices Analog video AV Linux, a Linux-based operating system Fluid dynamics Annular velocity, speed of the drilling fluid's movement in a column called an annulus in oil wells Apparent viscosity, shear stress divided by shear rate Vehicles AV (cyclecar), a British cyclecar manufactured between 1919 and 1924 Bavarian A V, an 1853 steam locomotive model A US Navy hull classification symbol: Seaplane tender (AV) Autonomous vehicles Other uses in science and technology A-type main-sequence star, in astronomy, abbreviated A V Aperture value mode, setting on cameras that allows to choose a specific aperture value Other uses Alternative vote, an electoral system used to elect a single winner from a field of more than two candidates Approval voting, a non-ranking vote system Authorised Version of the Bible (also known as King James Version) Av (month), a month in the Hebrew calendar av, the Avar language's ISO 639-1 code Av. or Ave, an abbreviation for Avenue (landscape) or AV from Latin aurum (avrvm), a numismatic abbreviation for "gold" A.V., the putative mark of ébéniste Adam Weisweiler Aviation, abbreviated Av in military use Andhra Vidyalaya College, aka A. V. College, a school in Hyderabad, India See also 2023 AV, an asteroid that passed closed to the Earth in 2023 A5 (disambiguation) α5 (disambiguation) AV idol, a type of Japanese porn star

Alcuin

He was born around 735 and became the student of Archbishop Ecgbert at York. At the invitation of Charlemagne, he became a leading scholar and teacher at the Carolingian court, where he remained a in the 780s and 790s. Before that, he was also a court chancellor in Aachen. "The most learned man anywhere to be found", according to Einhard's Life of Charlemagne (–833), he is considered among the most important intellectual architects of the Carolingian Renaissance. Among his pupils were many of the dominant intellectuals of the Carolingian era. Alcuin wrote many theological and dogmatic treatises, as well as a few grammatical works and a number of poems. In 796, he was made abbot of Marmoutier Abbey, in Tours, where he worked on perfecting the Carolingian minuscule script. He remained there until his death.

Angilbert

Angilbert, Count of Ponthieu ( – 18 February 814) was a noble Frankish poet who was educated under Alcuin and served Charlemagne as a secretary, diplomat, and son-in-law. He is venerated as a pre-Congregation saint and is still honored on the day of his death, 18 February.

April 29

Events Pre-1600 801 – An earthquake in the Central Apennines hits Rome and Spoleto, damaging the basilica of San Paolo Fuori le Mura. 1091 – Battle of Levounion: The Pechenegs are defeated by Byzantine Emperor Alexios I Komnenos. 1429 – Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orléans. 1483 – Gran Canaria, the main island of the Canary Islands, is conquered by the Kingdom of Castile. 1521 – Swedish War of Liberation: Swedish troops defeat a Danish force in the Battle of Västerås. 1601–1900 1760 – French forces commence the siege of Quebec which is held by the British. 1770 – James Cook arrives in Australia at Botany Bay, which he names. 1781 – American Revolutionary War: British and French ships clash in the Battle of Fort Royal off the coast of Martinique. 1826 – The galaxy Centaurus A or NGC 5128 is discovered by James Dunlop. Centaurus A is listed on p. 138 as entry number 482. A sketch of Centaurus A appears as Fig. 20 on the plate between pages 114 and 115. 1861 – Maryland in the American Civil War: Maryland's House of Delegates votes not to secede from the Union. 1862 – American Civil War: The Capture of New Orleans by Union forces under David Farragut. 1864 – Theta Xi fraternity is founded at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, the only fraternity to be founded during the American Civil War. ; 1901–present 1903 – A landslide kills 70 people in Frank, in the District of Alberta, Canada. 1910 – The Parliament of the United Kingdom passes the People's Budget, the first budget in British history with the expressed intent of redistributing wealth among the British public. 1911 – Tsinghua University, one of mainland China's leading universities, is founded. 1916 – World War I: The UK's 6th Indian Division surrenders to Ottoman Forces at the Siege of Kut in one of the largest surrenders of British forces up to that point. 1916 – Easter Rising: After six days of fighting, Irish rebel leaders surrender to British forces in Dublin, bringing the Easter Rising to an end. 1945 – World War II: The Surrender of Caserta is signed by the commander of German forces in Italy. 1945 – World War II: Airdrops of food begin over German-occupied regions of the Netherlands. 1945 – World War II: Adolf Hitler marries his longtime partner Eva Braun in a Berlin bunker and designates Admiral Karl Dönitz as his successor. 1945 – Dachau concentration camp is liberated by United States troops. 1946 – The International Military Tribunal for the Far East convenes and indicts former Prime Minister of Japan Hideki Tojo and 28 former Japanese leaders for war crimes. 1952 – Pan Am Flight 202 crashes into the Amazon basin near Carolina, Maranhão, Brazil, killing 50 people. 1953 – The first U.S. experimental 3D television broadcast shows an episode of Space Patrol on Los Angeles ABC affiliate KECA-TV. 1967 – After refusing induction into the United States Army the previous day, Muhammad Ali is stripped of his boxing title. 1970 – Vietnam War: United States and South Vietnamese forces invade Cambodia to hunt Viet Cong. 1974 – Watergate scandal: United States President Richard Nixon announces the release of edited transcripts of White House tape recordings relating to the scandal. 1975 – Vietnam War: Operation Frequent Wind: The U.S. begins to evacuate U.S. citizens from Saigon before an expected North Vietnamese takeover. U.S. involvement in the war comes to an end. 1975 – Vietnam War: The North Vietnamese army completes its capture of all parts of South Vietnam-held Trường Sa Islands. 1986 – A fire at the Central library of the Los Angeles Public Library damages or destroys 400,000 books and other items. 1986 – The United States Navy aircraft carrier becomes the first nuclear-powered aircraft carrier to transit the Suez Canal, navigating from the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea to relieve the . 1991 – A cyclone strikes the Chittagong district of southeastern Bangladesh with winds of around , killing at least 138,000 people and leaving as many as ten million homeless. 1991 – The 7.0 Racha earthquake affects Georgia with a maximum MSK intensity of IX (Destructive), killing 270 people. 1992 – Riots in Los Angeles begin, following the acquittal of police officers charged with excessive force in the beating of Rodney King. Over the next three days 63 people are killed and hundreds of buildings are destroyed. 1997 – The Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993 enters into force, outlawing the production, stockpiling and use of chemical weapons by its signatories. 2004 – The final Oldsmobile is built in Lansing, Michigan, ending 107 years of vehicle production. 2011 – The Wedding of Prince William and Catherine Middleton takes place at Westminster Abbey in London. 2013 – A powerful explosion occurs in an office building in Prague, believed to have been caused by natural gas, and injures 43 people. 2013 – National Airlines Flight 102, a Boeing 747-400 freighter aircraft, crashes during takeoff from Bagram Airfield in Parwan Province, Afghanistan, killing all seven people on board. 2015 – A baseball game between the Baltimore Orioles and the Chicago White Sox sets the all-time low attendance mark for Major League Baseball. Zero fans were in attendance for the game, as the stadium was officially closed to the public due to the 2015 Baltimore protests. 1024) 1380 – Catherine of Siena, Italian mystic, philosopher and saint (b. 1347) 1594 – Thomas Cooper, English bishop, lexicographer, and theologian (b. 1517) 1601–1900 1630 – Agrippa d'Aubigné, French soldier and poet (b. 1552) 1658 – John Cleveland, English poet and author (b. 1613) 1676 – Michiel de Ruyter, Dutch admiral (b. 1607) 1707 – George Farquhar, Irish-English actor and playwright (b. 1678) 1768 – Georg Brandt, Swedish chemist and mineralogist (b. 1694) 1776 – Edward Wortley Montagu, English explorer and author (b. 1713) 1833 – William Babington, Anglo-Irish physician and mineralogist (b. 1756) 1848 – Chester Ashley, American politician (b. 1790) 1854 – Henry Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey, English field marshal and politician, Lord Lieutenant of Ireland (b. 1768) 1901–present 1903 – Godfrey Carter, Australian businessman and politician, 39th Mayor of Melbourne (b. 1830) 1903 – Paul Du Chaillu, French-American anthropologist and zoologist (b. 1835) 1905 – Ignacio Cervantes, Cuban pianist and composer (b. 1847) 1916 – Jørgen Pedersen Gram, Danish mathematician and academic (b. 1850) 1917 – Florence Farr, British actress, composer and director (b. 1860) 1922 – Richard Croker, Irish American political boss (b. 1843) 1924 – Ernest Fox Nichols, American educator and physicist (b. 1869) 1925 – Ralph Delahaye Paine, American journalist and author (b. 1871) 1933 – Clay Stone Briggs, American politician (b. 1876) 1933 – Constantine P. Cavafy, Greek poet and journalist (b. 1863) 1935 – Leroy Carr, American singer, songwriter and pianist (b. 1905) 1937 – William Gillette, American actor and playwright (b. 1853) 1943 – Joseph Achron, Russian composer and violinist (b. 1886) 1943 – Ricardo Viñes, Spanish pianist (b. 1875) 1944 – Billy Bitzer, American cinematographer (b. 1872) 1944 – Pyotr Stolyarsky, Soviet violinist (b. 1871) 1947 – Irving Fisher, American economist and statistician (b. 1867) 1951 – Ludwig Wittgenstein, Austrian-English philosopher and academic (b. 1889) 1956 – Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb, German field marshal (b. 1876) 1959 – Kenneth Anderson, English soldier and Governor of Gibraltar (b. 1891) 1966 – William Eccles, English physicist and engineer (b. 1875) 1966 – Paula Strasberg, American actress and acting coach (b. B. Lenoir, American singer-songwriter and guitarist (b. 1929) 1968 – Aasa Helgesen, Norwegian midwife (b. 1877) 1968 – Lin Zhao, Chinese dissident (b. 1932) 1978 – Theo Helfrich, German race car driver (b. 1913) 1979 – Muhsin Ertuğrul, Turkish actor and director (b. 1892) 1979 – Hardie Gramatky, American author and illustrator (b. 1907) 1980 – Alfred Hitchcock, English-American director and producer (b. 1899) 1982 – Raymond Bussières, French actor, producer and screenwriter (b. 1907) 1992 – Mae Clarke, American actress (b. 1910) 1993 – Michael Gordon, American actor and director (b. 1909) 1993 – Mick Ronson, English guitarist, songwriter and producer (b. 1946) 1997 – Mike Royko, American journalist and author (b. 1932) 2000 – Phạm Văn Đồng, Vietnamese lieutenant and politician, 2nd Prime Minister of Vietnam (b. 1906) 2001 – Arthur B. C. Walker Jr., American physicist and academic (b. 1936) 2002 – Bob Akin, American race car driver and journalist (b. 1936) 2003 – Janko Bobetko, Croatian Army general and Chief of the General Staff (b. 1919) 2004 – John Henniker-Major, British diplomat and civil servant (b. Bell, American screenwriter and producer (b. 1927) 2005 – Louis Leithold, American mathematician and academic (b. 1924) 2006 – John Kenneth Galbraith, Canadian-American economist and diplomat, United States Ambassador to India (b. 1908) 2007 – Josh Hancock, American baseball player (b. 1978) 2007 – Dick Motz, New Zealand cricketer and rugby player (b. 1940) 2007 – Ivica Račan, Croatian politician, 7th Prime Minister of Croatia (b. 1944) 2008 – Gordon Bradley, English-American footballer (b. 1933) 2008 – Albert Hofmann, Swiss chemist and academic (b. 1906) 2010 – Avigdor Arikha, French-Israeli artist, printmaker and art historian (b. 1929) 2011 – Siamak Pourzand, Iranian journalist and critic (b. 1931) 2011 – Joanna Russ, American writer, academic and radical feminist (b. 1937) 2012 – Shukri Ghanem, Libyan politician, 22nd Prime Minister of Libya (b. 1942) 2012 – Joel Goldsmith, American composer and conductor (b. French engineer, invented the smart card (b. 1945) 2012 – Kenny Roberts, American singer-songwriter (b. 1926) 2013 – Alex Elisala, New Zealand-Australian rugby player (b. 1992) 2013 – Pesah Grupper, Israeli politician, 13th Israel Minister of Agriculture (b. 1924) 2013 – John La Montaine, American pianist and composer (b. 1920) 2013 – Kevin Moore, English footballer (b. 1958) 2013 – Marianna Zachariadi, Greek pole vaulter (b. 1990) 2014 – Iveta Bartošová, Czech singer and actress (b. 1966) 2014 – Al Feldstein, American author and illustrator (b. 1925) 2014 – Bob Hoskins, English actor (b. 1942) 2015 – François Michelin, French businessman (b. 1926) 2015 – Jean Nidetch, American businesswoman, co-founded Weight Watchers (b. 1923) 2015 – Calvin Peete, American golfer (b. 1943) 2015 – Dan Walker, American lawyer and politician, 36th Governor of Illinois (b. 1922) 2016 – Renato Corona, Filipino lawyer and jurist, 23rd Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines (b. 1948) 2017 – R. Vidyasagar Rao, Indian bureaucrat and activist (b. 1939) 2018 – Luis García Meza, Bolivian general, 57th President of Bolivia (b. 1929) 2018 – Michael Martin, British politician (b. 1945) 2019 – Josef Šural, Czech footballer (b. 1990) 2020 – Irrfan Khan, Indian actor (b. 1967) 2020 – Guido Münch, Mexican astronomer and astrophysicist (b. 1921) 2021 – Cate Haste, English author (b. 1945) 2022 – Joanna Barnes, American actress and writer (b. 1934) 2023 – Padma Desai, Indian-American development economist (b. 1931) Holidays and observances Christian feast day: Catherine of Siena (Catholic, Lutheran and Anglican Church) Hugh of Cluny Robert of Molesme Wilfrid II April 29 (Eastern Orthodox liturgics) Day of Remembrance for all Victims of Chemical Warfare (United Nations) International Dance Day (UNESCO) Shōwa Day, traditionally the start of the Golden Week holiday period, which is April 29 and May 3–5. (Japan) References External links BBC: On This Day Historical Events on April 29