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3404661

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hijri%20year

Hijri year

The Hijri year () or era ( at-taqwīm al-hijrī) is the era used in the Islamic lunar calendar. It begins its count from the Islamic New Year in which Muhammad and his followers migrated from Mecca to Yathrib (now Medina) in 622 CE. This event, known as the Hijrah, is commemorated in Islam for its role in the founding of the first Muslim community (ummah). In the West, this era is most commonly denoted as AH ( , 'in the year of the Hijra') in parallel with the Christian/Common (AD/CE) and Jewish eras (AM) and can similarly be placed before or after the date. In predominantly Muslim countries, it is also commonly abbreviated H ("Hijra") from its Arabic abbreviation hāʾ (). Years prior to AH 1 are reckoned in English as BH ("Before the Hijrah"), which should follow the date. A year in the Islamic lunar calendar consists of twelve lunar months and has only 354 or 355 days in its year. Consequently its New Year's Day occurs ten days earlier each year relative to the Gregorian calendar. The year  CE corresponds to the Islamic years AH – ; AH 1445 corresponds to 20232024 in the Common Era. Definition The Hijri era is calculated according to the Islamic lunar calendar, whose epoch (first year) is the year of Muhammad's Hijrah, and begins on the first day of the month of Muharram (equivalent to the Julian calendar date of July 16, 622 CE). The date of the Hijrah itself did not form the Islamic New Year. Instead, the system continues the earlier ordering of the months, with the Hijrah occurring around the 8th day of Rabi al-Awwal, 66 days into the first year. History Predecessors By the age of Muhammad, there was already an Arabian lunar calendar, with named months. Likewise, the years of its calendar used conventional names rather than numbers: for example, the year of the birth of Muhammad and of Ammar ibn Yasir (570 CE) was known as the "Year of the Elephant". The first year of the Hijra (622-23 CE) was named the "Permission to Travel" in this calendar. Establishment 17 years after the Hijra, a complaint from Abu Musa Ashaari prompted the caliph Umar to abolish the practice of named years and to establish a new calendar era. Umar chose as epoch for the new Muslim calendar the hijrah, the emigration of Muhammad and 70 Muslims from Mecca to Medina. Tradition credits Othman with the successful proposal, simply continuing the order of the months that had already been established by Prophet Muhammad, beginning with Muharram, as there was no set order of months during the pre-Islamic era (Age of Ignorance - Jahiliya). Adoption of this calendar was then enforced by Umar. Formula Different approximate conversion formulas between the Gregorian (AD or CE) and Islamic calendars (AH) are possible: AH = 1.030684 × (CE − 621.5643) CE = 0.970229 × AH + 621.5643 or AH = (CE − 622) × 33 ÷ 32 CE = AH × 32 ÷ 33 + 622 Given that the Islamic New Year does not begin January 1 and that a Hijri calendar year is about 11 days shorter than a Gregorian calendar year, there is no direct correspondence between years of the two eras. A given Hijri year will usually fall in two successive Gregorian years. A CE year will always overlap two or occasionally three successive Hijri years. For example, the year 2008 CE maps to the last week of AH 1428, all of 1429, and the first few days of 1430. Similarly, the year 1976 CE corresponded with the last few days of AH 1395, all of 1396, and the first week of 1397. Months The Hijri year has twelve months, whose precise lengths vary by sect of Islam. Each month of the Islamic calendar commences on the birth of the new lunar cycle. Traditionally this is based on actual observation of the moon's crescent () marking the end of the previous lunar cycle and hence the previous month, thereby beginning the new month. Consequently, each month can have 29 or 30 days depending on the visibility of the moon, astronomical positioning of the earth and weather conditions. However, certain sects and groups, most notably Bohras Muslims namely Alavis, Dawoodis and Sulaymanis and Shia Ismaili Muslims, use a tabular Islamic calendar in which odd-numbered months have thirty days (and also the twelfth month in a leap year) and even months have twenty nine. See also Notes References Further reading Arabic words and phrases Islamic calendar Islamic terminology Calendar eras Hijrah sv:Muslimska kalendern

3414795

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%28612911%29%202004%20XR190

(612911) 2004 XR190

, nicknamed Buffy, is a trans-Neptunian object, classified as both a scattered disc object and a detached object, located in the outermost region of the Solar System. It was first observed on 11 December 2004, by astronomers with the Canada–France Ecliptic Plane Survey at the Mauna Kea Observatories, Hawaii, United States. It is the largest known highly inclined (> 45°) object. With a perihelion of 51 AU, it belongs to a small and poorly understood group of very distant objects with moderate eccentricities. Discovery and naming was discovered on 11 December 2004. It was discovered by astronomers led by (Rhiannon) Lynne Allen of the University of British Columbia as part of the Canada–France Ecliptic Plane Survey (CFEPS) using the Canada–France–Hawaii Telescope (CFHT) near the ecliptic. The team included Brett Gladman, John Kavelaars, Jean-Marc Petit, Joel Parker and Phil Nicholson. In 2015, six precovery images from 2002 and 2003 were found in Sloan Digital Sky Survey data. The object was nicknamed "Buffy" by the discovery team, after the fictional vampire slayer Buffy Summers, and proposed several Inuit-based official names to the International Astronomical Union. Orbit and classification orbits the Sun at a distance of 51.1–63.4 AU once every 433 years and 3 months (158,242 days; semi-major axis of 57.26 AU). Its orbit has a moderate eccentricity of 0.11 and a high inclination of 47° with respect to the ecliptic. It belongs to the same group as , , and (also see diagram), that are poorly understood for their large perihelia combined with moderate eccentricities. Considered a scattered and detached object, is particularly unusual as it has an unusually circular orbit for a scattered-disc object (SDO). Although it is thought that traditional scattered-disc objects have been ejected into their current orbits by gravitational interactions with Neptune, the low eccentricity of its orbit and the distance of its perihelion (SDOs generally have highly eccentric orbits and perihelia less than 38 AU) seems hard to reconcile with such celestial mechanics. This has led to some uncertainty as to the current theoretical understanding of the outer Solar System. The theories include close stellar passages, unseen planet/rogue planets/planetary embryos in the early Kuiper belt, and resonance interaction with an outward-migrating Neptune. The Kozai mechanism is capable of transferring orbital eccentricity to a higher inclination. The object is the largest object with an inclination larger than 45°, traveling further "up and down" than "left to right" around the Sun when viewed edge-on along the ecliptic. Most distant objects came to aphelion around 1901. Other than long-period comets, it is currently about the thirteenth-most-distant known large body (57.5 AU) in the Solar System with a well-known orbit, after and Dysnomia (96.3 AU), Gonggong (87.4 AU), (85.9 AU), (84.0 AU), (83.3 AU), (83.3 AU), (80.3 AU), (70.5 AU), (60.3 AU), (59.8 AU), and (59.6 AU). Physical characteristics With assumed albedos between 0.04 and 0.25, and absolute magnitudes from 4.3 to 4.6, has an estimated diameter of 335 to 850 kilometers; the mean arrived at by considering the two single-figure estimates plus the centre points of the three ranges is 562 km, approximately a quarter the diameter of Pluto. As of 2018, no well-documented spectral type and color indices, nor a rotational lightcurve have been obtained from spectroscopic and photometric observations; however, the Johnston's Archive lists a "taxonomic type" of "BR", and a "B-R magnitude" of 1.24. The rotation period, pole and shape officially remain unknown. Gallery See also List of Solar System objects most distant from the Sun Notes References External links MPEC 2005-X72 : 2004 XR190, Minor Planet Electronic Circular, detailing discovery Discovery webpage by research team Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope Legacy Survey List Of Centaurs and Scattered-Disk Objects, Minor Planet Center 612911 612911 612911 20041211

3415008

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3360%20Syrinx

3360 Syrinx

3360 Syrinx (originally designated 1981 VA) is an Apollo and Mars crosser asteroid discovered in 1981. It approaches Earth to within 40 Gm three times in the 21st century: 33 Gm in 2039, 40 Gm in 2070, and 24 Gm in 2085. On 2012-Sep-20 it passed from the Earth at apparent magnitude 17.0. In opposition on 23 November 2012, it brightened to magnitude 16.0. It is a member of the Alinda group of asteroids with a 3:1 resonance with Jupiter that has excited the eccentricity of the orbit over the eons. As an Alinda asteroid it makes approaches to Jupiter, Earth, and Venus. For a time, it was the lowest numbered asteroid that had not been named. In November 2006, this distinction passed to 3708 Socus, and in May 2021 to (4596) 1981 QB. See also List of asteroids Syrinx References External links 003360 003360 Discoveries by R. Scott Dunbar Discoveries by Eleanor F. Helin Named minor planets 19811104

3417339

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sporobolus%20alterniflorus

Sporobolus alterniflorus

Sporobolus alterniflorus, or synonymously known as Spartina alterniflora, the smooth cordgrass, saltmarsh cordgrass, or salt-water cordgrass, is a perennial deciduous grass which is found in intertidal wetlands, especially estuarine salt marshes. It has been reclassified as Sporobolus alterniflorus after a taxonomic revision in 2014, but it is still common to see Spartina alterniflora and in 2019 an interdisciplinary team of experts coauthored a report published in the journal Ecology supporting Spartina as a genus. It grows tall and has smooth, hollow stems that bear leaves up to long and wide at their base, which are sharply tapered and bend down at their tips. Like its relative saltmeadow cordgrass S. patens, it produces flowers and seeds on only one side of the stalk. The flowers are a yellowish-green, turning brown by the winter. It has rhizoidal roots, which, when broken off, can result in vegetative asexual growth. The roots are an important food resource for snow geese. It can grow in low marsh (frequently inundated by the tide) as well as high marsh (less frequently inundated), but it is usually restricted to low marsh because it is outcompeted by salt meadow cordgrass in the high marsh. It grows in a wide range of salinities, from about 5 psu to marine (32 psu), and has been described as the "single most important marsh plant species in the estuary" of Chesapeake Bay. It is described as intolerant of shade. S. alterniflorus is noted for its capacity to act as an environmental engineer. It grows out into the water at the seaward edge of a salt marsh, and accumulates sediment and enables other habitat-engineering species, such as mussels, to settle. This accumulation of sediment and other substrate-building species gradually builds up the level of the land at the seaward edge, and other, higher-marsh species move onto the new land. As the marsh accretes, S. alterniflorus moves still further out to form a new edge. S. alterniflorus grows in tallest forms at the outermost edge of a given marsh, displaying shorter morphologies up onto the landward side of the Sporobolus belt. S. alterniflorus is native to the Atlantic coast of the Americas from Newfoundland, Canada, south to northern Argentina, where it forms a dominant part of brackish coastal saltmarshes. The caterpillars of Aaron's skipper (Poanes aaroni) have only been found on this species to date. Problems as an invasive species Sporobolus alterniflorus can become an invasive plant, either by itself or by hybridizing with native species and interfering with the propagation of the pure native strain. The grass can hinder water circulation and drainage or block boating channels. Meadows of S. alterniflorus can crowd out native species, reducing biodiversity and altering the environment; as a result of S. alterniflorus growth, invertebrates that live in mud flats disappear as their habitat is overgrown, and in turn, food sources shrink for birds who feed on those invertebrates. One example of an invasive Sporobolus alterniflorus hybrid is that of Sporobolus anglicus. S. anglicus is a fertile polyploid derived from the hybrid S.alterniflorus × townsendii (S. alterniflorus × S. maritimus), first found when American S. alterniflorus was introduced to southern England in about 1870 and came into contact with the local native S. maritimus. S. anglica has a variety of traits that allow it to outcompete native plants, including a high saline tolerance and the ability to perform photosynthesis at lower temperatures more productively than other similar plants. It can grow on a wider range of sediments than other species of the genus Sporobolus, and can survive inundation in salt water for longer periods of time. S. anglicus has since spread throughout northwest Europe, and (following introduction for erosion control) eastern North America. The world's largest invasion of Sporobolus alterniflorus is in China, where plants from multiple North American locations were intentionally planted starting in 1979 with the intention of providing shore protection and sediment capture. The invasion has spread to over 34,000 hectares in ten provinces and Hong Kong. In Willapa Bay of Washington state, Sporobolus alterniflorus was probably an accidental introduction during oyster transplants during the nineteenth century and may have dispersed from there to other parts of the state. At its peak of infestation in 2003, it covered approximately 3,000 solid hectares (more than 8,500 acres), spread across an area of . As of 2016, the infestation had been reduced to less than 3 solid hectares (7 acres). In California, four species of exotic Sporobolus (S. alterniflorus, S. densiflora, S. patens, and S. anglicus) have been introduced to the San Francisco Bay region. Sporobolus alterniflorus is well established in San Francisco Bay, and has had the greatest impact of all the cordgrasses in San Francisco Bay. It was introduced in 1973 by the Army Corps of Engineers in an attempt to reclaim marshland, and was spread and replanted around the bay in further restoration projects. It demonstrated an ability to outcompete the native S. foliosa, and to potentially eliminate it from San Francisco Bay. Sporobolus alterniflorus has also been found to hybridize with S. foliosa, producing offspring Sporobolus alterniflorus × S. foliosa that may be an even greater threat than S. alterniflorus by itself. The hybrid can physically modify the environment to the detriment of native species, and the hybrid populations have spread into creeks, bays, and more remote coastal locations. The hybrids produce enormous amounts of pollen, which swamp the stigmas of the native S. foliosa flowers to produce even larger numbers of hybrid offspring, leaving the affected native Sporobolus species little chance to produce unhybridized offspring. The hybrids also produce much larger numbers of fertile seeds than the native Sporobolus species, and are producing a hybrid population that, left unchecked, can increase not only in population size but also in its rate of population growth. The hybrids may also be able to fertilize themselves, which the native Sporobolus species cannot do, thus increasing the spread of the hybrid swarm even further. As of 2014, eradication efforts had reduced the infestation of S. alterniflorus and hybrids in the San Francisco Bay Area by 96%, from 323 net hectares at its peak to 12 net hectares. Taller than either of the parent species, the hybrid provides good shelter to Ridgway's rail, an occasional roadblock to its eradication. Several means of control and eradication have been employed against Sporobolus alterniflorus where it has become a pest. Hand pulling is ineffective because even small rhizome fragments that inevitably break off and get left in the soil are capable of sending up new shoots. Imazapyr, an herbicide, is approved for aquatic use and is used effectively in Washington and California to kill it. In Willapa Bay, leafhopper bugs (Prokelisia marginata) were employed to kill the plants, which threaten the oyster industry there, but this method did not contain the invasion. Surveys by air, land, and sea are conducted in infested and threatened areas near San Francisco to determine the spread of Sporobolus species. References External links Noxious Weed IVM Guide- Smooth Cordgrass (Spartina) Invasive Plant Council – Spartina alterniflora San Francisco Estuary Invasive Spartina Project alterniflora Flora of Northern America Flora of Southern America Halophytes Salt marsh plants Grasses of the United States Grasses of Canada Wetlands

3418022

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography%20%28Ptolemy%29

Geography (Ptolemy)

The Geography (, Geōgraphikḕ Hyphḗgēsis,  "Geographical Guidance"), also known by its Latin names as the and the , is a gazetteer, an atlas, and a treatise on cartography, compiling the geographical knowledge of the 2nd-century Roman Empire. Originally written by Claudius Ptolemy in Greek at Alexandria around AD 150, the work was a revision of a now-lost atlas by Marinus of Tyre using additional Roman and Persian gazetteers and new principles. Its translation into Arabic in the 9th century was highly influential on the geographical knowledge and cartographic traditions of the Islamic world. Alongside the works of Islamic scholars - and the commentary containing revised and more accurate data by Alfraganus - Ptolemy's work was subsequently highly influential on Medieval and Renaissance Europe. Manuscripts Versions of Ptolemy's work in antiquity were probably proper atlases with attached maps, although some scholars believe that the references to maps in the text were later additions. No Greek manuscript of the Geography survives from earlier than the 13th century. A letter written by the Byzantine monk Maximus Planudes records that he searched for one for Chora Monastery in the summer of 1295; one of the earliest surviving texts may have been one of those he then assembled. In Europe, maps were sometimes redrawn using the coordinates provided by the text, as Planudes was forced to do. Later scribes and publishers could then copy these new maps, as Athanasius did for the emperor Andronicus II Palaeologus. The three earliest surviving texts with maps are those from Constantinople (Istanbul) based on Planudes's work. The first Latin translation of these texts was made in 1406 or 1407 by Jacobus Angelus in Florence, Italy, under the name . It is not thought that his edition had maps, although Manuel Chrysoloras had given Palla Strozzi a Greek copy of Planudes's maps in Florence in 1397. Contents The Geography consists of three sections, divided among 8 books. Book I is a treatise on cartography and chorography, describing the methods used to assemble and arrange Ptolemy's data. From Book II through the beginning of Book VII, a gazetteer provides longitude and latitude values for the world known to the ancient Romans (the "ecumene"). The rest of Book VII provides details on three projections to be used for the construction of a map of the world, varying in complexity and fidelity. Book VIII constitutes an atlas of regional maps. The maps include a recapitulation of some of the values given earlier in the work, which were intended to be used as captions to clarify the map's contents and maintain their accuracy during copying. Cartographical treatise Maps based on scientific principles had been made in Europe since the time of Eratosthenes in the 3rd century BC. Ptolemy improved the treatment of map projections. He provided instructions on how to create his maps in the first section of the work. Gazetteer The gazetteer section of Ptolemy's work provided latitude and longitude coordinates for all the places and geographical features in the work. Latitude was expressed in degrees of arc from the equator, the same system that is used now, though Ptolemy used fractions of a degree rather than minutes of arc. His Prime Meridian, of 0 longitude, ran through the Fortunate Isles, the westernmost land recorded, at around the position of El Hierro in the Canary Islands. The maps spanned 180 degrees of longitude from the Fortunate Isles in the Atlantic to China. Ptolemy was aware that Europe knew only about a quarter of the globe. Atlas Ptolemy's work included a single large and less detailed world map and then separate and more detailed regional maps. The first Greek manuscripts compiled after Maximus Planudes's rediscovery of the text had as many as 64 regional maps. The standard set in Western Europe came to be 26: 10 European maps, 4 African maps, and 12 Asian maps. As early as the 1420s, these canonical maps were complemented by extra-Ptolemaic regional maps depicting, e.g., Scandinavia. Content An outline of the encyclopedia follows, with links to the appropriate Wikipedia article. Book 1 Book 2 Book 3 Book 4 Book 5 Image Gallery History Antiquity The original treatise by Marinus of Tyre that formed the basis of Ptolemy's Geography has been completely lost. A world map based on Ptolemy was displayed in Augustodunum (Autun, France) in late Roman times. Pappus, writing at Alexandria in the 4th century, produced a commentary on Ptolemy's Geography and used it as the basis of his (now lost) Chorography of the Ecumene. Later imperial writers and mathematicians, however, seem to have restricted themselves to commenting on Ptolemy's text, rather than improving upon it; surviving records actually show decreasing fidelity to real position. Nevertheless, Byzantine scholars continued these geographical traditions throughout the Medieval period. Whereas previous Greco-Roman geographers such as Strabo and Pliny the Elder demonstrated a reluctance to rely on the contemporary accounts of sailors and merchants who plied distant areas of the Indian Ocean, Marinus and Ptolemy betray a much greater receptiveness to incorporating information received from them. For instance, Grant Parker argues that it would be highly implausible for them to have constructed the Bay of Bengal as precisely as they did without the accounts of sailors. When it comes to the account of the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula) and the Magnus Sinus (i.e. Gulf of Thailand and South China Sea), Marinus and Ptolemy relied on the testimony of a Greek sailor named Alexandros, who claimed to have visited a far eastern site called "Cattigara" (most likely Oc Eo, Vietnam, the site of unearthed Antonine-era Roman goods and not far from the region of Jiaozhi in northern Vietnam where ancient Chinese sources claim several Roman embassies first landed in the 2nd and 3rd centuries). Medieval Islam Muslim cartographers were using copies of Ptolemy's Almagest and Geography by the 9th century. At that time, in the court of the caliph al-Maʾmūm, al-Khwārazmī compiled his Book of the Depiction of the Earth which mimicked the Geography in providing the coordinates for 545 cities and regional maps of the Nile, the Island of the Jewel, the Sea of Darkness, and the Sea of Azov. A 1037 copy of these are the earliest extant maps from Islamic lands. The text clearly states that al-Khwārazmī was working from an earlier map, although this could not have been an exact copy of Ptolemy's work: his Prime Meridian was 10° east of Ptolemy's, he adds some places, and his latitudes differ. C.A. Nallino suggests that the work was not based on Ptolemy but on a derivative world map, presumably in Syriac or Arabic. The coloured map of al-Maʾmūm constructed by a team including al-Khwārazmī was described by the Persian encyclopædist al-Masʿūdī around 956 as superior to the maps of Marinus and Ptolemy, probably indicating that it was built along similar mathematical principles. It included 4530 cities and over 200 mountains. Despite beginning to compile numerous gazetteers of places and coordinates indebted to Ptolemy, Muslim scholars made almost no direct use of Ptolemy's principles in the maps which have survived. Instead, they followed al-Khwārazmī's modifications and the orthogonal projection advocated by Suhrāb's early 10th-century treatise on the Marvels of the Seven Climes to the End of Habitation. Surviving maps from the medieval period were not done according to mathematical principles. The world map from the 11th-century Book of Curiosities is the earliest surviving map of the Muslim or Christian worlds to include a geographic coordinate system but the copyist seems to have not understood its purpose, starting it from the left using twice the intended scale and then (apparently realizing his mistake) giving up halfway through. Its presence does strongly suggest the existence of earlier, now-lost maps which had been mathematically derived in the manner of Ptolemy, al-Khwārazmi, or Suhrāb. There are surviving reports of such maps. Ptolemy's Geography was translated from Arabic into Latin at the court of King Roger II of Sicily in the 12th century AD. However, no copy of that translation has survived. Renaissance The Greek text of the Geography reached Florence from Constantinople in about 1400 and was translated into Latin by Jacobus Angelus of Scarperia around 1406. The first printed edition with maps, published in 1477 in Bologna, was also the first printed book with engraved illustrations. Many editions followed (more often using woodcut in the early days), some following traditional versions of the maps, and others updating them. An edition printed at Ulm in 1482 was the first one printed north of the Alps. Also in 1482, Francesco Berlinghieri printed the first edition in vernacular Italian. Ptolemy had mapped the whole world from the Fortunatae Insulae (Cape Verde or Canary Islands) eastward to the eastern shore of the Magnus Sinus. This known portion of the world was comprised within 180 degrees. In his extreme east Ptolemy placed Serica (the Land of Silk), the Sinarum Situs (the Port of the Sinae), and the emporium of Cattigara. On the 1489 map of the world by Henricus Martellus, which was based on Ptolemy's work, Asia terminated in its southeastern point in a cape, the Cape of Cattigara. Cattigara was understood by Ptolemy to be a port on the Sinus Magnus, or Great Gulf, the actual Gulf of Thailand, at eight and a half degrees north of the Equator, on the coast of Cambodia, which is where he located it in his Canon of Famous Cities. It was the easternmost port reached by shipping trading from the Graeco-Roman world to the lands of the Far East. In Ptolemy's later and better-known Geography, a scribal error was made and Cattigara was located at eight and a half degrees South of the Equator. On Ptolemaic maps, such as that of Martellus, Catigara was located on the easternmost shore of the Mare Indicum, 180 degrees East of the Cape St Vincent at, due to the scribal error, eight and a half degrees South of the Equator. Catigara is also shown at this location on Martin Waldseemüller's 1507 world map, which avowedly followed the tradition of Ptolemy. Ptolemy's information was thereby misinterpreted so that the coast of China, which should have been represented as part of the coast of eastern Asia, was falsely made to represent an eastern shore of the Indian Ocean. As a result, Ptolemy implied more land east of the 180th meridian and an ocean beyond. Marco Polo’s account of his travels in eastern Asia described lands and seaports on an eastern ocean apparently unknown to Ptolemy. Marco Polo’s narrative authorized the extensive additions to the Ptolemaic map shown on the 1492 globe of Martin Behaim. The fact that Ptolemy did not represent an eastern coast of Asia made it admissible for Behaim to extend that continent far to the east. Behaim’s globe placed Marco Polo’s Mangi and Cathay east of Ptolemy’s 180th meridian, and the Great Khan’s capital, Cambaluc (Beijing), on the 41st parallel of latitude at approximately 233 degrees East. Behaim allowed 60 degrees beyond Ptolemy’s 180 degrees for the mainland of Asia and 30 degrees more to the east coast of Cipangu (Japan). Cipangu and the mainland of Asia were thus placed only 90 and 120 degrees, respectively, west of the Canary Islands. The Codex Seragliensis was used as the base of a new edition of the work in 2006. This new edition was used to "decode" Ptolemy's coordinates of Books 2 and 3 by an interdisciplinary team of TU Berlin, presented in publications in 2010 and 2012. Influence on Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus modified this geography further by using 53⅔ Italian nautical miles as the length of a degree instead of the longer degree of Ptolemy, and by adopting Marinus of Tyre’s longitude of 225 degrees for the east coast of the Magnus Sinus. This resulted in a considerable eastward advancement of the longitudes given by Martin Behaim and other contemporaries of Columbus. By some process Columbus reasoned that the longitudes of eastern Asia and Cipangu respectively were about 270 and 300 degrees east, or 90 and 60 degrees west of the Canary Islands. He said that he had sailed 1100 leagues from the Canaries when he found Cuba in 1492. This was approximately where he thought the coast of eastern Asia would be found. On this basis of calculation he identified Hispaniola with Cipangu, which he had expected to find on the outward voyage at a distance of about 700 leagues from the Canaries. His later voyages resulted in further exploration of Cuba and in the discovery of South and Central America. At first South America, the Mundus Novus (New World) was considered to be a great island of continental proportions; but as a result of his fourth voyage, it was apparently considered to be identical with the great Upper India peninsula (India Superior) represented by Behaim – the Cape of Cattigara. This seems to be the best interpretation of the sketch map made by Alessandro Zorzi on the advice of Bartholomew Columbus (Christopher's brother) around 1506, which bears an inscription saying that according to the ancient geographer Marinus of Tyre and Christopher Columbus the distance from Cape St Vincent on the coast of Portugal to Cattigara on the peninsula of India Superior was 225 degrees, while according to Ptolemy the same distance was 180 degrees. Early modern Ottoman Empire Prior to the 16th century, knowledge of geography in the Ottoman Empire was limited in scope, with almost no access to the works of earlier Islamic scholars that superseded Ptolemy. His Geography would again be translated and updated with commentary into Arabic under Mehmed II, who commissioned works from Byzantine scholar George Amiroutzes in 1465 and the Florentine humanist Francesco Berlinghieri in 1481. Longitudes error and Earth size There are two related errors: Considering a sample of 80 cities amongst the 6345 listed by Ptolemy, those that are both identifiable and for which we can expect a better distance measurement since they were well known, there is a systematic overestimation of the longitude by a factor 1.428 with a high confidence (coefficient of determination r² = 0.9935). This error produces evident deformations in Ptolemy's world map most apparent for example in the profile of Italy, which is markedly stretched horizontally. Ptolemy accepted that the known Ecumene spanned 180° of longitude, but instead of accepting Eratosthenes's estimate for the circumference of the Earth of 252,000 stadia, he shrinks it to 180,000 stadia, with a factor of 1.4 between the two figures. This suggests Ptolemy rescaled his longitude data to fit with a figure of 180,000 stadia for the circumference of the Earth, which he described as a "general consensus". Ptolemy rescaled experimentally obtained data in many of his works on geography, astrology, music, and optics. Gallery See also Almagest, Ptolemy's astronomical work Description of Greece Bibliotheca historica Diodorus Siculus Geography and cartography in medieval Islam Strabo List of most expensive books and manuscripts Notes Citations References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Further reading Berggren, J. Lennart and Jones, Alexander. 2000. Ptolemy's Geography: An Annotated Translation of the Theoretical Chapters. Princeton University Press. Princeton and Oxford. . Blažek, Václav. "Etymological Analysis of Toponyms from Ptolemy's Description of Central Europe". In: Studia Celto-Slavica 3 (2010): 21–45. DOI: https://doi.org/10.54586/GTQF3679. Blažek, Václav. "The North-Eastern Border of the Celtic World". In: Studia Celto-Slavica 8 (2018): 7–21. DOI: https://doi.org/10.54586/ZMEE3109. Cosgrove, Dennis. 2003. Apollo's Eye: A Cartographic Genealogy of the Earth in the Western Imagination. Johns Hopkins University Press. Baltimore and London. Gautier Dalché, Patrick. 2009. La Géographie de Ptolémée en Occident (IVe-XVIe siècle). Terratum Orbis. Turnhout. Brepols, . Shalev, Zur, and Charles Burnett, eds. 2011. Ptolemy's Geography in the Renaissance. London; Turin. Warburg Institute; Nino Aragno. (In Appendix: Latin text of Jacopo Angeli's introduction to his translation of the Geography, with English translation by C. Burnett.) Stevenson, Edward Luther. Trans. and ed. 1932. Claudius Ptolemy: The Geography. New York Public Library. Reprint: Dover, 1991. This is the only complete English translation of Ptolemy's most famous work. Unfortunately, it is marred by numerous mistakes (see Diller) and the place names are given in Latinised forms, rather than in the original Greek. External links Primary sources Greek Claudii Ptolemaei Geographia, ed. Karl Friedrich August Nobbe, Sumptibus et typis Caroli Tauchnitii, 1843, tom. I (books 1-4, missing p. 126); 1845, tom. II (books 5-8); 1845, tom. III (indices). Latin La Cosmographie de Claude Ptolemée, Latin manuscript copied around 1411 Geography, digitized codex made in Italy between 1460 and 1477, translated to Latin by Jacobus Angelus at Somni. Also known as codex valentinus, it is the oldest manuscript of the codices with maps of Ptolemy with the donis projections. "Cosmographia" / Claudius Ptolemaeus. Translated into Latin by Jacobus Angelus, and edited by Nicolaus Germanus. - Ulm : Lienhart Holle. - 1482. (In the National Library of Finland.) Geographia Universalis, Basileae apud Henricum Petrum mense Martio anno M. D. XL. [of Basel, printed by Henricus Petrus in the month of March in the year 1540]. Geographia Cl. Ptolemaei Alexandrini, Venetiis : apud Vincentium Valgrisium, Venezia, 1562. Italian Geografia cioè descrittione vniuersale della terra partita in due volumi..., In Venetia : appresso Gio. Battista et Giorgio Galignani fratelli, 1598. Geografia di Claudio Tolomeo alessandrino, In Venetia : appresso gli heredi di Melchior Sessa, 1599. English Ptolemy's Geography at LacusCurtius (English translation) Extracts of Ptolemy on the country of the Seres (China) (English translation) 1st critical edition of Geography Book 8, by Aubrey Diller Geography Books 2.10-6.11 in English, with most Greece-related places geolocated, by John Brady Kiesling at ToposText Secondary material Ptolemy the Geographer Ptolemy's Geography of Asia - Selected problems of Ptolemy's Geography of Asia (in German) History of Cartography including a discussion of the Geographia Works by Ptolemy 2nd-century books Atlases Geographic information systems Map projections Geographic coordinate systems Land surveying systems History of geography Geography books Historic maps of the Roman Empire Maps

3421567

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University%20of%20Calgary%20Solar%20Car%20Team

University of Calgary Solar Car Team

The University of Calgary Solar Car Team is a multi-disciplinary student-run solar car racing team at the University of Calgary, based in Calgary, Alberta, Canada. It was established to design and build a solar car to compete internationally in the American Solar Challenge (ASC) (previously named the North American Solar Challenge) and the World Solar Challenge (WSC). The team is primarily composed of undergraduate students studying Engineering, Business, Science, Arts and Kinesiology. The mission of the University of Calgary Solar Car Team is to educate the community about sustainable energy and to serve as an interdisciplinary project through which students and faculty from various departments can collaborate in supporting sustainable energy. History The University of Calgary Solar Car Team was established by the University in the fall of 2004 in response to the North American Solar Challenge 2005 whose finish line was in Calgary, Alberta. The team's first vehicle was completed in 9 months and managed to place 13th despite their limited experience. Soleon Miracle workers The team performed a "miracle" by managing to establish a strong student base with which to construct the car, procure significant sponsorship and successfully build a highly successful vehicle with limited experience all in approximately 9 months. Established teams have two years to refine existing designs between races. The X1 (prototype) In preparation for its first rayce, the University of Calgary Solar Team constructed and tested a prototype of their designs before building the final car. The X1 was a mock-up of and predecessor to Soleon. The X1 was used for driver training and allowed the team to test various design decisions to help ensure a successful final product. The X1 was constructed from a steel chassis with a fibreglass shell which was coated with gelcoat which made the vehicle approximately twice the final weight of its sister car. First race results In its first year of existence, the University of Calgary Solar Team successfully competed in the NASC and the WSC. In the 2005 NASC, Soleon, their first generation rayce car placed 13th out of 17 cars that made it to the finish line. In the 2005 WSC Soleon placed 10th overall (out of 18) and first in its class. After hearing about this success, Seymour Schulich was inspired to donate $25 million (another $25 million was matched by the Alberta government) to the University of Calgary Engineering department, which was renamed the Schulich School of Engineering. Schulich I 2007 WSC race Since the success of Soleon in the 2005 races, the team had to redesign for the new regulations for WSC, and prepare for the harder competition it faced from changing class to the higher, more competitive Challenge class. This class included higher efficiency solar cells, upright seating, and teams that had been for the last 20 years. After shipping their new car to Australia, and testing it before scrutineering, the car had a rear tire blow out on the race track in Darwin, and resulted in the car spinning around having the tail section impacting into the guard rail and ripped from the car. The team then had to rebuild and redesign the tail section in one night before racing. Despite the higher competition and race track crash, the team managed to be the first (of six) Canadian teams to cross the timing finish line, finish 8th (out of 19) in the Challenge class, and 15th (out of 37) overall. 2008 NASC race Schulich I was improved after WSC 2007 for racing in the 2008 North American Solar Challenge. The rayce from Dallas, Texas to Calgary lasted ten days, with the University of Calgary Solar Team placing 6th (out of 15). Schulich Axiom 2010 ASC The University of Calgary Solar Car Team's 3rd generation car, Schulich Axiom, was first raced in the 2010 ASC. The race spanned 1770 km from Tulsa, Oklahoma to Chicago, Illinois. The team finished in 6th place (of 18 teams) and received both the Sportsmanship and Mechanical Engineering awards for the race. With regulation changes for the 2011 WSC, the team re-engineered the design of Schulich Axiom and completely rebuilt the solar car. Some of the changes made include switching to silicon solar cells and reducing the weight of the car. 2011 WSC The 2011 WSC took place on October 16–23, 2011 and was a road endurance race from Darwin, Northern Territory to Adelaide, South Australia, a total of over 3000km. The University of Calgary Solar Team entered the Schulich Axiom and placed Schulich Delta Design and Construction: Focused on Practicality Schulich Delta, the team's fourth generation vehicle, was designed over the course of eight months, and construction took another three months. Delta was a radical departure for the team, featuring two doors, cup holders, four wheels, a passenger seat and cargo space for the very first time. It was also Canada's first cruiser class car. 2013 WSC The team entered the Schulich Delta to compete in the Cruiser class in the 2013 World Solar Challenge that took place on October 6–13, 2013. The team placed 8th in the Cruiser Class. 2015 FSGP After some improvements to Delta's design, the team competed in the Formula Sun Grand Prix 2015 held at the Circuit of the Americas in Austin, Texas where it was the first cruiser-class vehicle to ever compete at the event. The event took place on Sunday, July 26 until Friday, July 31, 2016. The team completed 84 laps, placing 9th overall. Its fastest lap was 5:33.886. Schulich Elysia Design and construction The University of Calgary's sixth generation vehicle looked to make significant improvements of their cruiser class vehicle while keeping practicality their main focus. The team started the design phase in 2016 and crafted a catamaran inspired frame to help increase aerodynamics and reduce weight. Furthermore, the team implemented NACA ducts and fans to greatly improve on battery cooling performance. Another main focus was on the "every-day" user by implementing a touch-screen centre console info-tainment system, cupholders, back up cameras as well as speakers. The team also implemented a sophisticated charging system that includes the electric vehicle standard SAE-J1772 connector which allows the car to do level 1 or 2 type charging from the wall. 2019 FSGP After a 3-year build cycle, the University of Calgary Solar Car team raced the Schulich Elysia at the Formula Sun Grand Prix 2019 held at the Circuit of the Americas in Austin, Texas. This was the first year that the competition had a separate MOV (Multi-Occupancy Vehicle) category and the team finished first place in this class and fourth place overall out of 17 teams, completing 122 laps. Their fastest lap was 5:05.971. Awards At the FSGP 2019, the team was given four additional awards at the award ceremony: The Mechanical Design award, the MOV Charging System Award, Aesthetics Award and the Corner 8 Award. Achievements Cars X1 (prototype) Maximum Achieved Speed: ~70 km/h Solar Array Type: none (stickers merely for show) Chassis: Steel Space frame Shell Composition: Fibreglass & Gelcoat Commissioned: May 2005 Decommissioned: June 2006 Current Uses: X1 has been decommissioned. The chassis is all that remains. It is suspended against a wall in the University of Calgary Solar Team's workshop. Soleon Maximum Achieved Speed: 140 km/h Solar Array Type: Silicon Chassis: Aluminum Space frame Shell Composition: Carbon Fiber & Kevlar Weight: ~500 lbs Commissioned: June 2005 Decommissioned: July 2007 Current Uses: In the fall of 2008 Soleon was donated to the Calgary Telus World of Science and was on display for 2 years. Soleon is now retired and looking for a nice warm garage to rest. Schulich I Maximum Achieved Speed: 105 km/h Solar Array Type: Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Triple-junction Chassis: Steel Space frame Shell Composition: Carbon Fiber & Kevlar Weight: ~520 lbs Commissioned: September 2007 Decommissioned: May 2011 Current Uses: Participated in the 2007 Panasonic World Solar Challenge and the 2008 North American Solar Challenge. Since Axiom is now being used for driver training, mechanical testing and PR events, Schulich I has been retired. Schulich Axiom (2010) Maximum Achieved Speed: 130 km/h Solar Array Type: Gallium arsenide (GaAs) Triple-junction Chassis: Carbon Fiber & Kevlar Shell Composition: Carbon Fiber & Kevlar Weight: ~600 lbs Commissioned: October 2009 Current Uses: Placed 6th overall in the 2010 North American Solar Challenge. Schulich Axiom (2010) is now predominantly being used as a display vehicle. Schulich Axiom (2011) Maximum Achieved Speed: 110 km/h Solar Array Type: Silicon Monocrystalline (Si) UC Solar Embedded Chassis: Carbon Fiber Shell Composition: Carbon Fiber Weight: ~390 lbs Commissioned: May 2011 Current Uses: Planning on racing in the 2011 World Solar Challenge. All improvements have since been completed to Schulich Axiom. "It is evident from the previous race that weight is no minor detail. We have taken Axiom on its diet and the result is stunning. Axiom has dropped from around 600 lbs. without driver and ballast to 390 lbs. A loss of 210 lbs!" -Mico Madamesila References https://www.ucalgary.ca/news/utoday/november23-09/solarcar CTV.ca External links Official Team Website WSC Website NASC Website [1] http://americansolarchallenge.org/the-competition/2019-formula-sun-grand-prix/ University of Calgary Solar car racing Photovoltaics

3422423

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isopycnic

Isopycnic

An isopycnic surface is a surface of constant density inside a fluid. Isopycnic surfaces contrast with isobaric or isothermal surfaces, which describe surfaces of constant pressure and constant temperature respectively. Isopycnic surfaces are sometimes referred to as "iso-density" surfaces, although this is strictly incorrect. Isopycnic typically describes surfaces, not processes. Unless there is a flux of mass into or out of a control volume, a process which occurs at a constant density also occurs at a constant volume and is called an isochoric process and not an isopycnic process. The term "isopycnic" is commonly encountered in the fluid dynamics of compressible fluids, such as in meteorology and geophysical fluid dynamics, astrophysics, or the fluid dynamics of explosions or high Mach number flows. It may also be applied to other situations where a continuous medium has smoothly varying density, such as in the case of an inhomogeneous colloidal suspension. In general isopycnic surfaces will occur in fluids in hydrostatic equilibrium coinciding with equipotential surfaces formed by gravity. The term "isopycnic" is also encountered in biophysical chemistry, usually in reference to a process of separating particles, subcellular organelles, or other substances on the basis of their density. Isopycnic centrifugation refers to a method wherein a density gradient is either pre-formed or forms during high speed centrifugation. After this gradient is formed particles move within the gradient to the position having a density matching their own (this is in fact an incorrect description of the exact physical process but does describe the result in a meaningful way). This technique is extremely powerful. In geology, isopycnic surfaces occur especially in connection with cratons which are very old geologic formations at the core of the continents, little affected by tectonic events. These formations are often known as shields or platforms. These formations are, relative to other lithospheric formations, cooler and less dense but much more isopycnic. References See also isopycnic centrifugation Isosteric Atmospheric dynamics Tectonics

3424781

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerospace%20architecture

Aerospace architecture

Aerospace architecture is broadly defined to encompass architectural design of non-habitable and habitable structures and living and working environments in aerospace-related facilities, habitats, and vehicles. These environments include, but are not limited to: science platform aircraft and aircraft-deployable systems; space vehicles, space stations, habitats and lunar and planetary surface construction bases; and Earth-based control, experiment, launch, logistics, payload, simulation and test facilities. Earth analogs to space applications may include Antarctic, desert, high altitude, underground, undersea environments and closed ecological systems. The American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) Design Engineering Technical Committee (DETC) meets several times a year to discuss policy, education, standards, and practice issues pertaining to aerospace architecture. The role of Appearance in Aerospace architecture "The role of design creates and develops concepts and specifications that seek to simultaneously and synergistically optimize function, production, value and appearance." In connection with, and with respect to, human presence and interactions, appearance is a component of human factors and includes considerations of human characteristics, needs and interests. Appearance in this context refers to all visual aspects – the statics and dynamics of form(s), color(s), patterns, and textures in respect to all products, systems, services, and experiences. Appearance/esthetics affects humans both psychologically and physiologically and can effect/improving both human efficiency, attitude, and well-being. In reference to non-habitable design the influence of appearance is minimal if not non-existent. However, as the industry of aerospace continues to rapidly grow, and missions to put humans on Mars and back to the Moon are being announced. The role that appearance/esthetics to maintain crew well-being and health of multi-month or year missions becomes a monumental factor in mission success. Habitable Structures within Earth's Atmosphere Appearance/esthetics Appearance/esthetics in aerospace design must at least co-exist, if not be synergistic, with the overall/societal fundamentals/metrics of aerospace engineering design. These metrics, for atmospheric flight consist of overall/societal factors directed toward productivity, safety, environmental issues such as noise/emissions and accessibly/ affordability. Furthermore, technological parameters such as space, weight and drag minimization and propulsion efficiency highly dictate and restrain the boundaries of appearance/esthetic design. Major factors that need to be considered in atmospheric flight design include producibility, maintainability, reliability, flyability, inspectability, flexibility, repairability, operability, durability, and airport compatibility. Habitable Structures outside of Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) What is different concerning space in reference to human-centered design thinking is the nearly complete lack of human presence. Human-centered design influence wholly operates within the context of human interactions; how operations/ missions are run (operability) or how products, systems, services, or experiences (PSSE's) affect end users (usability). Currently the human presence involves the space station and the relatively few international rocket systems. Human-Centered Design Due to the large space boom and technological advancements, over the past decade numerous countries and companies have released statements that human expeditions to our solar system are far from done. With long duration confinement in limited interior space in micro-g with little-to-no real variability in environment, attention towards user [crew] subjects well-being, and mental alertness will pose complex human-centered design issues. Mars transit vehicles and surface habitats will constitute highly confined, technical settings characterized by social, emotional and physical deprivation while affording little opportunity to experience privacy and environmental variation. And esthetic/appearance measures for human exploration will emphasize upon “naturalistic countermeasures” to the innate/multitudinous stresses of such expeditions. Although human wants, needs, and limitations both physically and mentally need to be evaluated and address when designing for space. Design decisions must at least co-exist, if not be synergistic, with the overall metrics of aerospace engineering design. Ex. The International Space Station Toilet. Human factors and habitability design are important topics for all working and living spaces. For space exploration, they are vital. While human factors and certain habitability issues have been integrated into the design process of crewed spacecraft, there is a crucial need to move from mere survivability to factors that support thriving. As of today, the risk of an incompatible vehicle or habitat design has already been identified by NASA as recognized key risk to human health and performance in space. Habitability and human factors will become even more important determinants for the design of future long-term and commercial space facilities as larger and more diverse groups occupy off-earth habitats. Past Examples A study conducted in 1989 (reference 2) found that when given multiple photographs and paintings as potential decoration of the international space station. Test (crew) subjects all individually preferred those with naturalistic, irrespective themes, and a large depth of field. Other examples of human-centered design is using pastel paints on the International Space Station (ISS) to contrast and provide “up/down” cues in micro-g environments or the concept of dynamically and spatially adjusting lighting color and intensities to conform to daily and even seasonal biorhythms similar to earth to mitigate the societal separation effects experienced in space. See also Airborne observatory Atmosphere of Venus High Altitude Venus Operational Concept (HAVOC) Colonization of Venus Floating cities and islands in fiction References External links American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Design Engineering Technical Committee of the AIAA Spacearchitect.org Sasakawa International Center for Space Architecture (SICSA) MOTHER Aerospace Architecture consultancy Architecture and Vision, Design Studio specializing on Aerospace Architecture and Technology Transfer LIQUIFER Systems Group, interdisciplinary design team developing architecture, design and systems for Earth and Space Synthesis, a fundamental design collaborative with experts from Space Architecture, Engineering and Industrial Design Earth2Orbit, Satellite & Launch Services, Human Space Systems, Robotic Systems, Infrastructure and High-Tech Facilities, Consulting The Galactic Suite Space Hotel Galactic Suite Design Aerospace Architecture and Experiences Architectural styles Aerospace engineering Architecture

3428791

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue%20hour

Blue hour

The blue hour (from French ; ) is the period of twilight (in the morning or evening, around the nautical stage) when the Sun is at a significant depth below the horizon. During this time, the remaining sunlight takes on a mostly blue shade. This shade differs from the colour of the sky on a clear day, which is caused by Rayleigh scattering. The blue hour occurs when the Sun is far enough below the horizon so that the sunlight's blue wavelengths dominate due to the Chappuis absorption caused by ozone. Since the term is colloquial, it lacks an official definition such as dawn, dusk, or the three stages of twilight. Rather, blue hour refers to the state of natural lighting that usually occurs around the nautical stage of the twilight period (at dawn or dusk). Explanation and times of occurrence The still commonly presented incorrect explanation claims that Earth's post-sunset and pre-sunrise atmosphere solely receives and disperses the sun's shorter blue wavelengths and scatters the longer, reddish wavelengths to explain why the hue of this hour is so blue. In fact, the blue hour occurs when the Sun is far enough below the horizon so that the sunlight's blue wavelengths dominate due to the Chappuis absorption caused by ozone. When the sky is clear, the blue hour can be a colourful spectacle, with the indirect sunlight tinting the sky yellow, orange, red, and blue. This effect is caused by the relative diffusibility of shorter wavelengths (bluer rays) of visible light versus the longer wavelengths (redder rays). During the blue "hour", red light passes through space while blue light is scattered in the atmosphere, and thus reaches Earth's surface. Blue hour usually lasts about 20–96 minutes right after sunset and right before sunrise. Time of year, location, and air quality all have an impact on the exact timing of blue hour. For instance in Egypt (every 21st of June), when sunset is at 7:59 PM: blue hour occurs from 7:59 PM to 9:35 PM. When sunrise is at 5:54 AM: blue hour occurs from 4:17 AM to 5:54 AM. Golden hour occurs from 5:54 AM to 6:28 AM and from 7:25 PM to 7:59 PM. Blue hour in art Blue hour photography Many artists value this period for the quality of the soft light. Although the blue hour does not have an official definition, the blue color spectrum is most prominent when the Sun is between 4° and 8° below the horizon. Photographers use blue hour for the tranquil mood it sets. When photographing during blue hour it can be favourable to capture subjects that have artificial light sources, such as buildings, monuments, cityscapes, or bridges. See also Color temperature Green flash Golden hour (photography) Notes References External links Blue hour mobile application (iOS, Iphone/iPad) bluehoursite.com: Everything about Blue Hour and Night Photography (news, articles, tips and calculator) Twilight Calculator, Golden Hour/Blue Hour table Earth phenomena Parts of a day Visibility Night Atmospheric optical phenomena

3433115

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronostratigraphy

Chronostratigraphy

Chronostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy that studies the ages of rock strata in relation to time. The ultimate aim of chronostratigraphy is to arrange the sequence of deposition and the time of deposition of all rocks within a geological region, and eventually, the entire geologic record of the Earth. The standard stratigraphic nomenclature is a chronostratigraphic system based on palaeontological intervals of time defined by recognised fossil assemblages (biostratigraphy). The aim of chronostratigraphy is to give a meaningful age date to these fossil assemblage intervals and interfaces. Methodology Chronostratigraphy relies heavily upon isotope geology and geochronology to derive hard dating of known and well defined rock units which contain the specific fossil assemblages defined by the stratigraphic system. In practice, as it is very difficult to isotopically date most fossils and sedimentary rocks directly, inferences must be made in order to arrive at an age date which reflects the beginning of the interval. The methodology used is derived from the law of superposition and the principles of cross-cutting relationships. Because igneous rocks occur at specific intervals in time and are essentially instantaneous on a geologic time scale, and because they contain mineral assemblages which may be dated more accurately and precisely by isotopic methods, the construction of a chronostratigraphic column relies heavily upon intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks. Metamorphism, often associated with faulting, may also be used to bracket depositional intervals in a chronostratigraphic column. Metamorphic rocks can occasionally be dated, and this may give some limits to the age at which a bed could have been laid down. For example, if a bed containing graptolites overlies crystalline basement at some point, dating the crystalline basement will give a maximum age of that fossil assemblage. This process requires a considerable degree of effort and checking of field relationships and age dates. For instance, there may be many millions of years between a bed being laid down and an intrusive rock cutting it; the estimate of age must necessarily be between the oldest cross-cutting intrusive rock in the fossil assemblage and the youngest rock upon which the fossil assemblage rests. Units Chronostratigraphic units, with examples: eonothem – Phanerozoic erathem – Paleozoic system – Ordovician series – Upper Ordovician stage – Ashgill Differences from geochronology It is important not to confuse geochronologic and chronostratigraphic units. Chronostratigraphic units are geological material, so it is correct to say that fossils of the species Tyrannosaurus rex have been found in the Upper Cretaceous Series. Geochronological units are periods of time and take the same name as standard stratigraphic units but replacing the terms upper/lower with late/early. Thus it is also correct to say that Tyrannosaurus rex lived during the Late Cretaceous Epoch. Chronostratigraphy is an important branch of stratigraphy because the age correlations derived are crucial in drawing accurate cross sections of the spatial organization of rocks and in preparing accurate paleogeographic reconstructions. See also Biostratigraphy Chronozone Geochronology Geologic record Geologic time scale List of geochronologic names Tectonostratigraphy References Geochronological dating methods Stratigraphy Geologic time scales of Earth Geology terminology Subfields of paleontology

3433191

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%28524522%29%202002%20VE68

(524522) 2002 VE68

, provisional designation , is a sub-kilometer sized asteroid and temporary quasi-satellite of Venus. It was the first such object to be discovered around a major planet in the Solar System. In a frame of reference rotating with Venus, it appears to travel around it during one Venerean year but it actually orbits the Sun, not Venus. Discovery, orbit and physical properties It was discovered on 11 November 2002 at Lowell Observatory. As of February 2013, has been observed telescopically 457 times with a data-arc span of 2,947 days and it was the target of Doppler observations in 5 occasions; therefore, its orbit is very well determined. Its semi-major axis of 0.7237 AU is very similar to that of Venus but its eccentricity is rather large (0.4104) and its orbital inclination is also significant (9.0060°). The spectrum of implies that it is an X-type asteroid and hence an albedo of about 0.25 should be assumed. The body is calculated to measure 236 meters in diameter. Its rotational period is 13.5 hours and its light curve has an amplitude of 0.9 mag which hints at a very elongated body, perhaps a contact binary. Quasi-satellite dynamical state and orbital evolution The existence of retrograde satellites or quasi-satellites was first considered by J. Jackson in 1913 but none was discovered until almost 100 years later. was the first quasi-satellite to be discovered, in 2002, although it was not immediately recognized as such. was identified as a quasi-satellite of Venus by Seppo Mikkola, Ramon Brasser, Paul A. Wiegert and Kimmo Innanen in 2004, two years after the actual discovery of the object. From the perspective of a hypothetical observer in a frame of reference rotating with Venus, it appears to travel around the planet during one Venusian year although it does not orbit Venus but the Sun like any other asteroid. As quasi-satellite, this minor body is trapped in a 1:1 mean-motion resonance with Venus. Besides being a Venus co-orbital, this Aten asteroid is also a Mercury grazer and an Earth crosser. exhibits resonant (or near-resonant) behavior with Mercury, Venus and Earth. It seems to have been co-orbital with Venus for only the last 7,000 years, and is destined to be ejected from this orbital arrangement about 500 years from now. During this time, its distance to Venus has been and will remain larger than about 0.2 AU (3·107 km). Potentially hazardous asteroid is included in the Minor Planet Center list of Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (PHAs) because it comes relatively frequently to within 0.05 AU of Earth. Approaches as close as 0.04 AU occur with a periodicity of 8 years due to its near 8:13 resonance with Earth. was discovered during the close approaches of 11 November 2002. During the last close encounter on 7 November 2010, approached Earth within 0.035 AU (13.6 Lunar distances), brightening below 15th magnitude. Its next fly-by with Earth happened on 4 November 2018 at . Numerical simulations indicate that an actual collision with Earth during the next 10,000 years is not likely, although dangerously close approaches to about 0.002 AU are possible, a distance potentially within Earth's Hill sphere. Numbering and naming This minor planet was numbered by the Minor Planet Center on 18 May 2019 (). As of 2020, it has not been named. See also References Further reading Retrograde satellite orbits, by Jackson, J. 1913, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 74, pp. 62–82. Understanding the Distribution of Near-Earth Asteroids Bottke, W. F., Jedicke, R., Morbidelli, A., Petit, J.-M., Gladman, B. 2000, Science, Vol. 288, Issue 5474, pp. 2190–2194. A Numerical Survey of Transient Co-orbitals of the Terrestrial Planets Christou, A. A. 2000, Icarus, Vol. 144, Issue 1, pp. 1–20. Debiased Orbital and Absolute Magnitude Distribution of the Near-Earth Objects Bottke, W. F., Morbidelli, A., Jedicke, R., Petit, J.-M., Levison, H. F., Michel, P., Metcalfe, T. S. 2002, Icarus, Vol. 156, Issue 2, pp. 399–433. Asteroid 2002 VE68, a quasi-satellite of Venus, by Mikkola, S., Brasser, R., Wiegert, P., & Innanen, K. 2004, Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 351, Issue 3, pp. L63-L65. Transient co-orbital asteroids Brasser, R., Innanen, K. A., Connors, M., Veillet, C., Wiegert, P., Mikkola, S., Chodas, P. W. 2004, Icarus, Vol. 171, Issue 1, pp. 102–109. The population of Near Earth Asteroids in coorbital motion with Venus Morais, M. H. M., Morbidelli, A. 2006, Icarus, Vol. 185, Issue 1, pp. 29–38. On the dynamical evolution of 2002 VE68, by de la Fuente Marcos, Carlos; & de la Fuente Marcos, Raúl (2012), Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 427, Issue 1, pp. 728–739. Asteroid 2012 XE133: a transient companion to Venus de la Fuente Marcos, Carlos; de la Fuente Marcos, Raúl (2013), Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Vol. 432, Issue 2, pp. 886–893. External links List Of Aten Minor Planets, Minor Planet Center List of Potentially Hazardous Asteroids (PHAs) Image acquired during the last 2002 VE68 close approach, 7 November 2010 (Martin Mobberley's Astronomical Images web site) Light curve (Ondřejov NEO Photometric Program) 2002 VE68 Goldstone Radar Observations Aten asteroids Discoveries by LONEOS Venus co-orbital minor planets Potentially hazardous asteroids Venus-crossing asteroids Earth-crossing asteroids 20021111

3438088

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topcon

Topcon

is a Japanese manufacturer of optical equipment for ophthalmology and surveying. History September 1932—TOPCON was established based on the surveying instruments division of K. Hattori & Co., Ltd. (currently SEIKO HOLDINGS CORPORATION) in order to manufacture the optical instruments for the Japanese Army, which are surveying instruments, binoculars and cameras. Corporate Name: Tokyo Kogaku Kikai Kabushikikaisha (Tokyo Optical Co., Ltd.) Head Office: 2, Ginza 4-chome, Kyobashi-ku, Tokyo Factories: Toshima-ku and Takinogawa-ku, Tokyo April 1933—Built head office and main factory at 180, Shimura-motohasunuma-cho, Itabashi-ku, Tokyo (current address) and moved head office functions there. August 1945—Temporarily closed factories after the end of World War II. Received authorization from Tokyo governor to convert the factory for production of civil products and reopened factory to manufacture binoculars and surveying instruments. December 1946—Established Yamagata kikai kogyo kabushikikaisha. (currently Topcon Yamagata Co., Ltd.) in Yamagata-shi, Yamagata Prefecture. December 1947—Started selling lens meters. Started Ophthalmic and Medical Instruments business. May 1949—Listed its stock on Tokyo and Osaka Stock Exchanges. 1957-released its first SLR camera, the Topcon R with semi-auto lens and interchangeable finder March 1960—Became an affiliate of Tokyo Shibaura Electric Co., Ltd. (currently Toshiba Corporation). May 1963—Released the first single-lens reflex camera with through the lens metering (TTL) - TOPCON RE Super October 1969—Established Tokyo Kogaku Seiki Kabushikikaisha (currently OPTONEXUS Co., Ltd.) in Tamura-gun, Fukushima Prefecture. April 1970—Established Topcon Europe N.V.(currently Topcon Europe B.V.) in Rotterdam, The Netherlands. September 1970—Established Topcon Instrument Corporation of America (currently Topcon Medical Systems, Inc.) January 1975—Established Topcon Sokki Co., Ltd. (currently Topcon Sales corporation), a surveying instrument sales company. December 1976—Established Topcon Medical Japan Co., Ltd., a medical instrument sales company. April 1978—Started selling an electric distance meter DM-C1 adopting a near-infrared. October 1978—Started selling a refractometer RM-100 incorporating near-infrared beam and a television system. March 1979—Established Topcon Singapore Pte. Ltd. in Singapore. April 1986—Established Topcon Optical (H.K.) Ltd. in Hong Kong. September 1986 Listed on First Sections of Tokyo and Osaka Stock Exchanges. April 1989—Changed its corporate name to TOPCON CORPORATION. April 1991—Entry into electron beam business. December 1991—Built an engineering center in corporate premises. September 1994—Established Topcon Laser Systems, Inc. (currently Topcon Positioning Systems, Inc.) in California, U.S.A., acquired Advanced Grade Technology, advanced into machine control business. October 1994—Delivered a nationwide GPS continuous observation system to Geographical Survey Institute, Ministry of Construction, Japanese Government. S July 2000—Acquired Javad Positioning Systems Inc. in the United States and started selling precision GPS receivers and related system products. July 2001—Established Topcon America Corporation in New Jersey, U.S.A., as a holding company. Reorganized the subsidiaries in the United States dividing them into the ophthalmic and medical instrument business and the positioning business. July 2002—Liquidated Topcon Singapore Pte. Ltd. and established Topcon South Asia Pte. Ltd. in Singapore. February 2004—Established Topcon (Beijing) Opto-Electronics Corporation in Beijing, China. July 2005—Reorganized sales subsidiaries in Europe and newly established two firms in the European market - one overseeing eye care business and the other overseeing positioning business - with Topcon Europe B.V. as the holding company. July 2005—Transferred from part of the Hoya Corporation Vision Care Company's ophthalmic instruments segment in Japan. April 2006—Implemented two-for-one stock split. August 2006—Acquired ANKA Systems, Inc., in the United States for full-fledged entry into the ophthalmic network business in the United States. October 2006—Acquired KEE Technologies Pty Ltd., in Australia for entry into field of agriculture. April 2007—In order to build a global group and quick business expansion, Topcon adopted three business structure, Positioning Business Unit, Eye Care Business Unit and Finetech Business Unit. May 2007—Business rights for mobile control (navigation systems, ITS and others) transferred to U.S. subsidiary from Javad Navigation Systems, Inc. February 2008—Conducted a takeover bid for shares of Sokkia Co., Ltd. and made it a subsidiary to enhance competitiveness of the positioning business in the global market. July 2008—Established in Turin (Italy) TIERRA SPA, a joint venture with Divitech spa entering in the Telematic and Remote Diagnostic market segments June 2009—Acquired shares of Italian wireless communications manufacturer DESTURA s.r.l. to strengthen operations in mobile communications, machine controls, and agricultural IT market segments. October 2009—Established Topcon 3D Inspection Laboratories, Inc., a 3D inspection technology development/design company, in Canada. Entry into the 3D measurement and high-end print board fields. March 2010—Acquired InlandGEO Holding S.L., the largest dealer in Spain, to enhance sales channels for precision agricultural systems in the European, Middle-Eastern, and African markets. July 2010—Expanded Chinese subsidiary and established Topcon (Beijing) Opto-Electronics Development Corporation as a manufacturing base in the emerging Chinese market. July 2010—Reorganized sales subsidiary in Singapore, established Topcon Singapore Holdings Pte. Ltd. as a holding company. Established new Positioning and Eye Care sales companies. August 2010—Established Topcon Medical Laser Systems, Inc. by acquiring retina and glaucoma business of OptiMedica (U.S.A) and entered therapeutic laser market. January 2011—Established Topcon Positioning Middle East and Africa FZE to expand Positioning Business in Middle Eastern and African market. November 2014—Acquired Wachendorff Elektronik GmbH and Wachendorff Electronics Inc. September 2015—Toshiba sells its shares of Topcon April 2018—Established Topcon Healthcare Solutions, Inc. a medical software company based in Oakland, New Jersey. Their primary focus is the eye-care industry. July 2021—Topcon Corporation acquired VISIA Imaging S.r.l, an ophthalmic device manufacturer headquartered in suburban Florence, Italy Cameras Tokyo Kogaku produced cameras, beginning with a 6×4.5 cm medium format model, Lord in 1937. A 127 film camera followed the next year. The Primoflex I twin-lens reflex camera came out in 1951. The Topcon 35A was unveiled in 1953. In 1960 the company produced a 6x9 press camera on order from the Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department. It initially used a Mamiya lens; civilian models became available with Topcon lenses. With the 35 mm Topcon RE Super of 1963, the company pioneered full-aperture, through-the-lens metering. Round about 1973 the production of the SLR IC-1 AUTO started; „IC“ means „Integrated Circuit“, used for aperture control. The company continued to innovate until leaving that line of business in 1981. The Charles Beseler Company imported the camera line into the US, with the RE-Super being rebranded as the Super-D. In about 1965, the US Navy tested cameras from several Japanese and German manufacturers (including the Nikon F). The Topcon Super D was the winner of this competition, and was used exclusively by the Navy until 1977. In Australia Topcon has since 2003 started operations from their Brisbane office. Topcon has an office in Technology Park Adelaide at Mawson Lakes, South Australia, and representatives in Sydney. Topcon Positioning Systems Topcon Positioning Systems Inc., provides positioning technology for surveyors, civil engineers, construction contractors, equipment owners and operators. Topcon Corporation acquired Advanced Grade Technology in 1995 and became known as Topcon Laser Systems. In August 2000, Topcon acquired JPS Inc., of San Jose, California, a provider of precision GPS and GPS/GLONASS products. With the introduction of a series of positioning products, Topcon Laser Systems grew, and consolidated the survey instruments, GPS products and construction positioning products divisions in July 2001. Topcon Positioning Systems was formed. Topcon Healthcare In September 1970, Topcon established Topcon Instrument Corporation of America which is currently Topcon Medical Systems, Inc., a developer and supplier of diagnostic equipment for the ophthalmic community. In April 2018, Topcon established a medical software division, Topcon Healthcare Solutions, Inc., a developer of eyecare software and provider of related healthcare services. Topcon ophtalmic machines are widely used in many health centers in Western Europe, and are often interconnected to their surrounding IT systems through the RS232 protocol. Gallery References Electronics companies of Japan Photography companies of Japan Health care companies of Japan Lens manufacturers Navigation system companies Companies listed on the Tokyo Stock Exchange Manufacturing companies based in Tokyo Electronics companies established in 1932 1932 establishments in Japan Japanese brands

3438215

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diatreme

Diatreme

A diatreme, sometimes known as a maar-diatreme volcano, is a volcanic pipe associated with a gaseous explosion. When magma rises up through a crack in Earth's crust and makes contact with a shallow body of groundwater, rapid expansion of heated water vapor and volcanic gases can cause a series of explosions. A relatively shallow crater (known as a maar) is left, and a rock-filled fracture (the actual diatreme) in the crust. Where diatremes breach the surface they produce a steep, inverted cone shape. Etymology and Geology The word comes . The term diatreme has been applied more generally to any concave body of broken rock formed by explosive or hydrostatic forces, whether or not it is related to volcanism. Even within volcanology the term has been used more generally by some than others and in kimberlite terminology continues to be contentious. A current geological understanding is that diatreme describes the overall structure cut into the substrate (some have used the term “pipe” for this hence the common term volcanic pipe). In a simple diatreme, the structure narrows fairly regularly with depth, and eventually terminates in the dike (dyke), or part of a dike, that fed the eruption. The transition from diatreme to dike takes place in a “root zone” that is the lowest part of the diatreme structure, immediately above the dike itself, which comprises coherent igneous rock. Maar-diatreme volcanoes are volcanoes produced by explosive eruptions that cut deeply into the country rock with the maar being "the crater cut into the ground and surrounded by an ejecta ring". Global distribution Maar-diatreme volcanoes are not uncommon, reported as the second most common type of volcano on continents and islands. At the surface they may be hard to recognise if shallow and dry or eroded and can be up to wide, but are often much smaller. Igneous extrusions cause the formation of a diatreme only in the specific setting where groundwater exists; thus most igneous intrusions do not produce diatremes as they do not reach the surface so as to become extrusions, and further do not also intercept significant amount of groundwater when they become extrusions. Examples of diatremes include the Blackfoot diatreme and Cross diatreme in British Columbia, Canada. Economic importance Diatremes are sometimes associated with deposition of economically significant mineral deposits such as kimberlite magma, which originates in the upper mantle. When a diatreme is formed due to a kimberlite intrusion, there is a possibility that diamonds may be brought up, as diamonds are formed in the upper mantle at depths of 150-200 kilometers. Kimberlite magmas can sometimes include chunks of diamond as xenoliths, making them economically significant. References Kimberlite Emplacement Models Gannon, Megan, Maar-Diatreme Volcano Research May Help Geologists Predict Eruptions, Find Diamonds, Huffington Post, Posted: 10/07/2012 Kimberlite Diatremes, Colorado Geological Survey, 10-17-2012 Lorenz, Volker, Maar-Diatreme Volcanoes, their Formation, and their Setting in Hard-rock or Soft-rock Environments, Geolines, v. 15, 2003, pp. 72-83 External links Volcanism

3438818

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boreal%20Forest%20Conservation%20Framework

Boreal Forest Conservation Framework

The Boreal Forest Conservation Framework, was adopted December 1, 2003 to protect the Canadian boreal forest. The vision set out in the Framework is "to sustain the ecological and cultural integrity of the Canadian boreal region, in perpetuity." Its goal is to conserve the boreal region by: "protecting at least 50% of the region in a network of large interconnected protected areas, and supporting sustainable communities through world-leading ecosystem-based resource management practices and leading edge stewardship practices in the remaining landscape." Purpose of framework Canada's boreal biome comprises forest, wetlands, mountains, rivers and lakes. It is still largely intact ecologically; along with the Amazon Rainforest and Siberian Taiga, it is one of the Earth's largest remaining intact wilderness regions. Abundant wildlife, including some of the world's largest populations of caribou, bears, wolves and lynx are present here. It provides the summer range for one third of North America's songbirds and three fourths of its waterfowl. The Boreal Forest Conservation Framework promotes conservation of the entire boreal region. This is critical to achieving the sustainability and well-being of communities that rely on it, and preserve its ecological values. If the framework is acted upon, it will position Canada as a world leader in forest and wetlands conservation and management. The Framework supports the spirit of a 1999 report of the Senate of Canada that recommended the following goals: a long-range goal for the boreal of 20% in strict protected areas, 60% in conservation areas where maintaining ecological values was the primary goal, and 20% in intensive development. The Framework simplifies the Senate recommendation by redistributing the 60% identified for conservation equally between the protected areas other conservation areas. This allows for greater flexibility in decision-making with respect to protected areas. It also recognizes that to become truly sustainable, better land use practices will be needed in the connective lands and waters of the boreal between protected areas. The need for conservation planning This approach to large-scale conservation planning is supported by recent research in conservation biology and landscape ecology. Avoiding the effects of habitat fragmentation on wildlife populations requires conservation of at least 30-50% of original habitat. However, maintaining all ecological functions, natural services and cultural values will likely require conservation of significantly more than 50% of a landscape. This highlights the importance of protection and careful management of the remaining lands and waters. Moreover, given the importance of large-scale natural disturbances (such as fires) to ecosystem function of the boreal forest, planning must occur over very large areas. References External links The Boreal Forest Conservation Framework Canadian Boreal Initiative, www.borealcanada.ca. Boreal Songbird Initiative The Spiritual Ecology of the Boreal Forest The Earth Vision project, www.evsite.net. Forests of Canada Nature conservation organizations based in Canada Taiga and boreal forests Forest conservation Forestry in Canada

3439019

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Landlocked%20developing%20countries

Landlocked developing countries

The landlocked developing countries (LLDC) are developing countries that are landlocked. The economic and other disadvantages experienced by such countries makes the majority of landlocked countries the least developed countries (LDCs), with inhabitants of these countries occupying the bottom billion tier of the world's population in terms of poverty. Outside of Europe, there is not a single highly developed landlocked country as measured by the Human Development Index (HDI), and nine of the twelve countries with the lowest HDI scores are landlocked. Landlocked European countries are exceptions in terms of development outcomes due to their close integration with the regional European market. Landlocked countries that rely on transoceanic trade usually suffer a cost of trade that is double that of their maritime neighbours. Landlocked countries experience economic growth 6% less than non-landlocked countries, holding other variables constant. 32 out of the world's 44 landlocked countries, including all the landlocked countries in Africa, Asia, and South America, have been classified as the Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs) by the United Nations. As of 2012, about 442.8 million people lived in these LLDCs. UN-OHRLLS The United Nations has an Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States (UN-OHRLLS). It mainly holds the view that high transport costs due to distance and terrain result in the erosion of competitive edge for exports from landlocked countries. In addition, it recognizes the constraints on landlocked countries to be mainly physical, including lack of direct access to the sea, isolation from world markets and high transit costs due to physical distance. It also attributes geographic remoteness as one of the most significant reasons why developing landlocked nations cannot alleviate themselves, while European landlocked cases are mostly developed because of short distances to the sea through well-developed countries. One other commonly cited factor is the administrative burdens associated with border crossings as there is a heavy load of bureaucratic procedures, paperwork, custom charges, and most importantly, traffic delay due to border wait times, which affect delivery contracts. Delays and inefficiency compound geographically, where a 2 to 3 week wait due to border customs between Uganda and Kenya makes it impossible to book ships ahead of time in Mombasa, furthering delivery contract delays. Despite these explanations, it is also important to consider the transit countries that neighbour LLDCs, from whose ports the goods of LLDCs are exported. Dependency problems Although Adam Smith and traditional thought hold that geography and transportation are the culprits for keeping LLDCs from realizing development gains, Faye, Sachs and Snow hold the argument that no matter the advancement of infrastructure or lack of geographic distance to a port, landlocked nations are still dependent on their neighbouring transit nations. Outlying this specific relationship of dependency, Faye et al. insist that though LLDCs vary across the board in terms of HDI index scores, LLDCs almost uniformly straddle at the bottom of HDI rankings in terms of region, suggesting a correlated dependency relationship of development for landlocked countries with their respective regions. In fact, HDI levels decrease as one moves inland along the major transit route that runs from the coast of Kenya, across the country before going through Uganda, Rwanda and then finally Burundi. Just recently, it has been economically modeled that if the economic size of a transit country is increased by just 1%, a subsequent increase of at least 2% is experienced by the landlocked country, which shows that there is hope for LLDCs if the conditions of their transit neighbours are addressed. In fact, some LLDCs are seeing the brighter side of such a relationship, with the Central Asian nations geographic location between three BRIC nations (China, Russia and India) hungry for the region's oil and mineral wealth serving to boost economic development. The three major factors that LLDCs are dependent on their transit neighbours are dependence on transit infrastructure, dependence on political relations with neighbours, and dependence on internal peace and stability within transit neighbours. Burundi Burundi has relatively good internal road networks, but it cannot export its goods using the most direct route to the sea since the inland infrastructure of Tanzania is poorly connected to the port of Dar es Salaam. Thus Burundi relies on Kenya's port of Mombasa for export; but this route was severed briefly in the 1990s when political relations with Kenya deteriorated. Further, Burundi's exports could not pass through Mozambique around the same time due to the Mozambican civil war (1977-1992). Thus, Burundi had to export its goods using a 4500 km route, crossing several borders and changing transport modes, to reach the port of Durban in South Africa. Other African countries Mali had problems exporting goods in the 1990s as nearly all its transit neighbours (Algeria, Togo, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea and Côte d'Ivoire) were engaged in civil war around the same time: the Algerian civil war (1991-2002), the Sierra Leone civil war (1991-2002), the Guinea-Bissau civil war involving Guinea (1999), the First Liberian Civil War (1989-1997), the Second Liberian Civil War (1999) and the First Ivorian Civil War (2002-2007). The lone exception was Ghana, which was under military rule but did not have an active civil war at the time. The Central African Republic's export routes are seasonal: in the rainy season Cameroon's roads are too poor to use; and during the dry season the Democratic Republic of Congo's Oubangui River water levels are too low for river travel. Central Asia The mineral resource-rich countries of Central Asia and Mongolia offer a unique set of landlocked cases to explore in more depth, as these are nations where economic growth has grown exceptionally in recent years. In Central Asia, oil and coal deposits have influenced development: Kazakhstan’s GDI per capita in purchasing power parity was five times greater than Kyrgyzstan's in 2009. Despite substantial development growth, these nations are not on a stable and destined path to being well developed, as the exploitation of their natural resources translates into an overall low average income and disparity of income, and because their limited deposits of resources allow growth only in the short term, and most importantly because dependence on unprocessed materials increases the risk of shocks due to variations in market prices. And though it is widely conceived that free trade can permit faster economic growth, Mongolia is now subjected to a new geopolitical game about the traffic on its railway lines between China and Russia. Russian Railways now effectively owns 50% of Mongolia's rail infrastructure, which could mean more efficient modernization and the laying of new rail lines, but in reality also translates into powerful leverage to pressure the government of Mongolia to concede unfair terms for license grants of coal, copper, and gold mines. Thus, it can be argued that these nations with extraordinary mineral wealth should pursue economic diversification. All of these nations possess education qualifications, as they are inheritors of the Soviet Union's social education system. This implies that it is due to poor economic policies that more than 40% of the labour force is bogged down in the agricultural sector instead of being diverted into secondary or tertiary economic activity. Yet, it cannot be ignored that Mongolia benefits exceptionally from its proximity to two giant BRIC nations, resulting in a rapid development of railway ports along its borders, especially along the Chinese border, as the Chinese seek to direct coking coal from Mongolia to China's northwestern industrial core, and, as well as for transportation southeast towards Japan and South Korea, resulting in revenue generation through the seaport of Tianjin. Armenia The Republic of Armenia is a landlocked country having geographic disadvantages and faces limitations on foreign policy options. It needs to transport its goods via coastal neighbors to access ports to participate in international trade, to which Azerbaijan and Turkey are hostile and deny its access. Therefore, Armenia mainly depends on the Georgian ports of Batumi and Poti and the Georgian train system to participate in international trade. Armenia also shares a small border with neighboring Iran, through which it trades despite American sanctions. Armenia remains heavily dependent on imports from and export of moderately unsophisticated goods to Russia. While Russia stayed Armenia's dominant trade partner, in 2020, trade with the EU accounted for around 18% of Armenia's total trade. As of 2020, European Union is Armenia's third biggest export market, with a 17% share in total Armenian exports, and the second largest source of Armenian imports, with an 18.6% share in total Armenian imports. Nepal Nepal is another landlocked country with extreme dependency on its transit neighbour India. India does not have poor relations with Nepal, nor does it lack relevant transport infrastructure or internal stability. However, there have been two cases of economic blockades imposed by the government of India on Nepal – the official 1989 blockade and the unofficial 2015 blockade – both of which left the nation in severe economic crisis. In the 1970s, Nepal suffered from large commodity concentration and a high geographic centralization in its export trade: over 98% of its exports were to India, and 90% of its imports came from India. As a result of all this, Nepal had a poor trade bargaining position. In the 1950s, Nepal was forced to comply with India's external tariffs as well as the prices of India's exports. This was problematic since the two countries have different levels of development, resulting in greater gains for India which was larger, more advanced and with more resources. It was feared that a parasitic relationship might emerge, since India had a head start in industrialization, and dominated Nepal in manufacturing, which could reduce Nepal to being just a supplier of raw materials. Because of these problems, and Nepal's inability to develop its own infant industries (as it could not compete with Indian manufactures) treaties were drafted in 1960 and 1971, with amendments to the equal tariffs conditions, and terms of trade have since progressed. Almaty Ministerial Conference In August, 2003, the International Ministerial Conference of Landlocked and Transit Developing Countries and Donor Countries on Transit Transport Cooperation (Almaty Ministerial Conference) was held in Almaty, Kazakhstan, setting the necessities of LLDCs in a universal document whereas there were no coordinated efforts on the global scale to serve the unique needs of LLDCs in the past. Other than acknowledging the main forms of dependency that must be addressed, it also acknowledged the additional dependency issue where neighbouring transit countries are often observed to export the same products as their landlocked neighbours. One result of the conference was a direct call for donor countries to step in to direct aid into setting up suitable infrastructure of transit countries to alleviate the burden of supporting LLDCs in regions of poor development in general. The general objectives of the Almaty Program of Action is as follows: Reduce customs processes and fees to minimize costs and transport delays Improve infrastructure with respect to existing preferences of local transport modes, where road should be focused in Africa and rail in South Asia Implement preferences for landlocked countries’ commodities to boost their competitiveness in the international market To establish relationships between donor countries with landlocked and transit countries for technical, financial and policy improvements Current LLDCs Africa (16 countries) Asia (12 countries) Europe (2 countries) South America (2 countries) See also Small Island Developing States References Notes Bibliography Bulag, U. E. (2010). Mongolia in 2009: From Landlocked to Land-linked Cosmopolitan. Asian Survey, 50(1), 97-103. Farra, F. (2012). OECD Presents… Unlocking Central Asia. Harvard International Review, 33(4), 76-79 Faye, M. L., McArthur, J. W., Sachs, J. D., & Snow, T. (2004). The Challenges Facing Landlocked Developing Countries. Journal of Human Development, 5(1), 31-68. Hagen, J. (2003). Trade Routes for Landlocked Countries. UN Chronicle, 40(4), 13-14. Jayaraman, T. K., Shrestha, O. L. (1976). Some Trade Problems of Landlocked Nepal. Asian Survey, 16(12), 1113-1123. Paudel R. C. (2012). Landlockedness and Economic Growth: New Evidence. Australian National University, Canberra, Australia. UN Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States. (2005). Landlocked Developing Countries. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20110928015547/http://www.un.org/special-rep/ohrlls/lldc/default.htm External links Office of the High Representative for the Landlocked Developing Countries, United Nations United Nations List of Landlocked Developing Countries (LLDCs) Map of Landlocked Developing Countries Geography International development

3439212

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small%20Island%20Developing%20States

Small Island Developing States

The Small Island Developing States (SIDS) are a grouping of developing countries which are small island countries and tend to share similar sustainable development challenges. These include small but growing populations, limited resources, remoteness, susceptibility to natural disasters, vulnerability to external shocks, excessive dependence on international trade, and fragile environments. Their growth and development are also held back by high communication, energy and transportation costs, irregular international transport volumes, disproportionately expensive public administration and infrastructure due to their small size, and little to no opportunity to create economies of scale. They consist of some of the most vulnerable countries to anthropogenic climate change. The SIDS were first recognized as a distinct group of developing countries at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in June 1992. The Barbados Programme of Action was produced in 1994 to assist the SIDS in their sustainable development efforts. The United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States (UN-OHRLLS) represents the group of states. List of SIDS As of 2023, the United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States (UN-OHRLLS) lists 57 such nations (39 sovereign states and 18 dependent territories). These nations are grouped into three geographical regions: the Caribbean; the Pacific; and Africa, Indian Ocean, Mediterranean and South China Sea (AIMS), including 18 Associate Members of the United Nations Regional Commissions. Each of these regions has a regional cooperation body: the Caribbean Community, the Pacific Islands Forum, and the Indian Ocean Commission respectively, which many SIDS are members or associate members of. In addition, most (but not all) SIDS are members of the Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS), which performs lobbying and negotiating functions for the SIDS within the United Nations System. Impacts of climate change The SIDS are some of the regions most vulnerable to anthropogenic climate change. Due to their oceanic environment, SIDS are especially vulnerable to the marine effects of climate change like sea level rise, ocean acidification, marine heatwaves, and the increase in cyclone intensity. Changing precipitation patterns could also cause droughts. Many citizens of SIDS live near a coastline, meaning that they have a high risk exposure to the effects of marine climate change. Additional climate change vulnerability comes through their economies: many SIDS have economies that are based on natural resources, such as ecotourism, fishing, or agriculture. Phenomena like sea level rise, coastal erosion, and severe storms have the potential to severely impact their economies. Sustainable Development Goals Small island development states are mentioned in several of the Sustainable Development Goals. For example, Target 7 of Sustainable Development Goal 14 ("Life below Water") states: "By 2030, increase the economic benefits to small island developing States and least developed countries from the sustainable use of marine resources, including through sustainable management of fisheries, aquaculture and tourism". Notes See also 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference Organisation of African, Caribbean and Pacific States (OACPS) Group of 77 Islands First (environmental organization) Landlocked developing countries List of island countries References External links About SIDS, United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States List of SIDS United Nations, Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States United Nations Mandates and Resolutions on SIDS AOSIS Members, Alliance of Small Island States Chris Becker, International Monetary Fund, 'Small Island States in the Pacific: the Tyranny of Distance?' 1992 establishments Geography International development + Politics of climate change

3439891

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5335%20Damocles

5335 Damocles

(5335) Damocles , provisional designation , is a centaur and the namesake of the damocloids, a group of minor planets which may be inactive nuclei of the Halley-type and long-period comets. It was discovered on 18 February 1991, by Australian astronomer Robert McNaught at Siding Spring Observatory in Australia. It is named after Damocles, a figure of Greek mythology. Description When Damocles was discovered, it was found to be on an orbit completely different from all others known. Damocless orbit reached from inside the aphelion of Mars to as far as Uranus. It seemed to be in transition from a near-circular outer Solar System orbit to an eccentric orbit taking it to the inner Solar System. Duncan Steel, Gerhard Hahn, Mark Bailey, and David Asher carried out projections of its long-term dynamical evolution, and found a good probability that it will become an Earth-crosser asteroid, and may spend a quarter of its life in such an orbit. Damocles has a stable orbit for tens of thousands of years before and after the present, because its highly inclined orbit does not take it near Jupiter or Saturn. There is some speculation that Damocles may have a meteor shower associated with it on Mars from the direction of Draco. The object has a Mars minimum orbit intersection distance (Mars MOID) of and a Uranus MOID of . , Damocles is 19.6 AU from the Sun with an apparent magnitude of 26.3 . It reached its furthest point from the Sun in 2011. The adjectival form is Damoclean, . The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 1 September 1993 (). See also The sword of Damocles – an over-hanging threat, a long-standing political metaphor from ancient Greece. References External links Centaurs (small Solar System bodies) 005335 005335 Discoveries by Robert H. McNaught Named minor planets 005335 19910218

3444247

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bing%20Maps

Bing Maps

Bing Maps (previously Live Search Maps, Windows Live Maps, Windows Live Local, and MSN Virtual Earth) is a web mapping service provided as a part of Microsoft's Bing suite of search engines and powered by the Bing Maps Platform framework which also support Bing Maps for Enterprise APIs and Azure Maps APIs. Since 2020, the map data is provided by TomTom, OpenStreetMap and others. History Bing Maps was originally launched as MSN Virtual Earth, which was released for beta testing on July 24, 2005. It was a continuation of previous Microsoft technologies such as Microsoft MapPoint and TerraServer. Its original stand out feature was the aerial imagery. The original version lacked many of its distinguishing features, including birds' eye view and 3D maps, and the Collections functionality was limited to a single "Scratchpad" of points of interest. In December 2005, Virtual Earth was replaced by Windows Live Local, featuring improvements, technologies from Pictometry International, and integrated with the Local Search index on Windows Live Search. On November 6, 2006, Microsoft added the ability to view the maps in 3D using a .NET managed control and managed interfaces to Direct3D. Microsoft subsequently referred to this product officially as "Live Search Maps", integrating it as part of its Live Search services. On June 3, 2009, Microsoft officially rebranded Live Search Maps as Bing Maps, and the Virtual Earth platform as Bing Maps for Enterprise. In 2010, Microsoft added an OpenStreetMap layer to Bing Maps. From 2012, Nokia (formerly Navteq) powered many aspects of Bing Maps as an extension to its Windows Phone 7 partnership with Microsoft, including mapping data, geocoding, traffic data and navigation. On June 1, 2020 it was announced the base map data of the Bing Maps Platform would now be sourced from TomTom. Updates v1 (Beagle) (July 2005) v2 (Calypso) (December 2005) - "Bird's-eye imagery" released v2.5 (February 2006) v3 (Discovery) (May 2006) - Real time traffic, collections, new API v4 (Endeavour) (September 2006) - People search, drawing on maps, new imagery v5 (Spaceland) (November 2006) - 3D viewer, building models in 15 cities Data update (December 2006) - New 3D models and high-resolution imagery for 6 new areas Data update (January 2007) - Over 100 European cities with bird's-eye coverage added Data update (29 March 2007) - 3.8TB of bird's-eye imagery, orthophotos and 3D models of 5 British cities v5.5 (Falcon) (3 April 2007) VE 3D plugin for Firefox, GeoRSS support, area calculations v6 (Gemini) (15 October 2007) - New data, party maps, traffic based routing, v6 MapControl, Bird's Eye in 3D, etc. v6.1 (GoliatH) (10 April 2008) - Improved quality of 3D models, improved KML support and new export capabilities, street labels on Bird's Eye imagery, MapCruncher integration, HD filming capabilities, Clearflow traffic report system v6.2 (Helios) (24 September 2008) - Multi-point driving directions, landmarks in directions, weather, real stars, new data Data Update (29 December 2008) - 48TB of road network data v6.2 (Ikonos) (14 April 2009) - Performance improvements Bing (3 June 2009) Bing Maps Silverlight Beta (2 December 2009) - Silverlight, Twitter, Streetside (Oslo) (11 June 2010) - Silverlight improvements (Boston M4) (December 2010) - New map style Venue maps Imagery updates Bing maps frequently update and expand the geographic areas covered by their imagery, with new updates being released on roughly a monthly basis. Each imagery release typically contains more than 10TB of imagery. However, the necessary time-lapse before images are updated means that aerial and Bird's-Eye images for a particular location can sometimes be several years out-of-date. This is particularly noticeable in locations that have undergone rapid recent development or experienced other dramatic changes since the imagery was taken, such as areas affected by natural disasters. Features Street maps Users can browse and search topographically-shaded street maps for many cities worldwide. Maps include certain points of interest built in, such as metro stations, stadiums, hospitals, and other facilities. It is also possible to browse public user-created points of interest. Searches can cover public collections, businesses or types of business, locations, or people. Five street map views are available: Road View, Aerial View, Bird's Eye View, Street Side View, and 3D View. Road view Road view is the default map view and displays vector imagery of roads, buildings, and geography. The data from which the default road map is rendered is licensed from Navteq. In certain parts of the world, road view maps from alternative data providers are also available. For example, when viewing a map of London, the user may see road data from the Collins Bartholomew London Street Map. In all parts of the UK, road data from the Ordnance Survey can also be displayed. A Bing Maps app is available that will display road data from OpenStreetMap. Aerial view Aerial view overlays satellite imagery onto the map and highlights roads and major landmarks for easy identification amongst the satellite images. Since end of November 2010, OpenStreetMap mappers have been able to use imagery of Bing Aerial as a map background. At the end of January 2012, both Bing Aerial and Birds Eye View imagery at military bases in Germany became blurred. This was on request of the German government obviously using data of OpenStreetMap. Bird's-eye view Bird's-eye view displays aerial imagery captured from low-flying aircraft. Unlike the top-down aerial view captured by satellite, Bird's-eye images are taken at an oblique 45-degree angle, showing the sides and roofs of buildings giving better depth perception for geography. With Bird's Eye views, many details such as signs, advertisements and pedestrians are clearly visible. Microsoft has occasionally removed Bird's Eye view from areas where it was previously available. Streetside Streetside provides 360-degree imagery of street-level scenes taken from special cameras mounted on moving vehicles. Launched in December 2009 it contains imagery for selected metro areas in the United States as well as selected areas in Vancouver and Whistler, British Columbia associated with the 2010 Winter Olympic Games (example: Richmond Olympic Oval). Selected cities in Europe were also made available in May 2012. Between August and September 2011, German customers were allowed to appeal against integration of their house or flat in Bing Streetside. According to some officials, the number of appeals was significantly lower than with Google Street View. Only 40,000 requests were sent to Microsoft. In May 2012, Streetside imagery captured in Germany was removed entirely due to numerous requests. For OpenStreetMap editors, display of Streetside tracks and images can be enabled via a map data layer checkbox. Venue maps Venue maps provide a way of seeing the layout of the venue. Currently, Bing Maps provides maps & level wise layouts of over 5300 venues across the world. The categories are: Airports, Amusement Parks, Buildings, Convention Centers, Hospitals, Malls, Museums, Parks, Racecourses, Racetracks, Resorts, Shopping Centers, Shopping Districts, Stadiums, Universities and Zoos. 3D maps The 3D maps feature allows users to see the environment (e.g. buildings) in 3D, with the added ability to rotate and tilt the angle in addition to panning and zooming. To attempt to achieve near-photorealism, all 3D buildings are textured using composites of aerial photography. To view the 3D maps, users must install a plugin, then enable the "3D" option on "Bing Maps". In addition to exploring the maps using a mouse and keyboard, it is possible to navigate the 3D environment using an Xbox 360 controller or another game controller in Windows 7, Windows Vista or Windows XP. More than 60 cities worldwide could be viewed in 3D, including most of the major cities in the United States and a few cities in Canada, the United Kingdom, and France. Some additional cities have had a select few important landmarks modelled in 3D, such as the Colosseum in Rome. Terrain data is available for the entire world. It is also possible to use a 3D modelling program called 3DVIA Shape for Maps to add one's own models to the 3D map. Since 2014, new 3D imagery has been introduced to a number of new cities. Driving, walking, and transit directions Users can get directions between two or more locations. In September 2010, Bing Maps added public transit directions (bus, subway, and local rail) to its available direction options. Although at the beginning it was only available in some cities: Boston, Chicago, Los Angeles, Minneapolis, Newark Metro Area, New York Metro Area, Philadelphia, San Francisco, Seattle, Vancouver BC, and Washington DC, now you can find information from all over the world. Currently, a wide coverage of transit information is being reached in other countries such as Spain, Germany, Italy, Austria, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Colombia and many others. Map apps Bing Map Apps is a collection of 1st and 3rd party applications that add additional functionality and content to Bing Maps. Examples of map apps include a parking finder, a taxi fare calculator, an app that maps out Facebook friends, and an app which lets users explore the day's newspaper front pages from around the world. These apps are only accessible through Bing Maps Silverlight. A source code is available on Microsoft Developer Network to explain integration of Maps in Web Applications. A sample ongoing project on locating Blood Donors on Maps is available here. Traffic information and ClearFlow Bing Maps shows users current traffic information for major highways and roads. The feature uses 4 color codes (black, red, yellow, green) to indicate traffic volume, from heaviest traffic to lightest traffic. Microsoft announced in March 2008 that it will release its latest software technology called "ClearFlow". It is a Web-based service for traffic-based driving directions available on Bing.com in 72 cities across the U.S. The tool took five years for Microsoft's Artificial Intelligence team to develop. ClearFlow provides real-time traffic data to help drivers avoid traffic congestion. ClearFlow gives information for alternative routes and supplies traffic conditions on city streets adjacent to highways. Clearflow anticipates traffic patterns, while taking into account sporting/arena events, time of day and weather conditions, and then reflects the back ups and their consequential spill over onto city streets. Often, ClearFlow found it may be faster to stay on the highway instead of seeking alternative side street routes, which involve traffic lights and congestion as well. Sharing and embedding maps Bing Maps allows users to share maps and embed maps into their websites. By clicking the e-mail icon in the bottom-left corner of Bing Maps, a window will open that displays a shareable URL so others can access the map currently being viewed. This window also provides HTML code to embed a small version of the map onto any web page. Design In August 2010, Bing Maps launched an overhauled design for its default view. The new colors create a more visually appealing backdrop for information delivery that helps content ‘pop’ on the map. The backdrop provides clear differentiation for pushpins, labels and red, yellow and green traffic overlays. These design principles also works well in black and white and creates differentiation for those with the most common forms of color blindness. Also, larger fonts correspond to larger roads to help customers more easily identify main roads in cities. More readable labels eliminate the need for bolding and less-attractive glows. The inclusion of neighborhood labels allows users to quickly find or convey locations in a commonly used and highly relevant format. Other features People, business, and location search The search box at the top of Bing Maps can be used to locate places, businesses and landmarks, and people. Search results appear both on a left-side rail and as pushpins on the map (linked together by numbers). Search results often include addresses, contact information, and reviews for businesses and landmarks. For relevant searches, the user will also see a description of the landmark or place (powered by Wikipedia) if a Wikipedia article exists. The search process can also be guided using local directories for numerous categories (restaurants, hotels, tourist attractions, retail stores, etc.). User contributions Bing Maps users can also view and add "user contributed" entries to the map. These user-contributions must be toggled on by users. Such items can include businesses, landmarks, buildings, and locations. Users can browse user-contributions by tags and subscribe to RSS feeds to receive updates of new user-contributions to a specific area. Dynamic labels In August 2010, Bing Maps added dynamic labels to its Silverlight experience (bing.com/maps/explore). Turn on the dynamic labels beta from the map style selector on bing.com/maps/explore and the labels become clickable. This allows users to quickly zoom down to a region or location anywhere on the map with just a few clicks. Zooming back out in a single click is also possible by using the ‘breadcrumb’ trail at the top left of the map. AJAX and Silverlight versions Bing Maps has two separate versions for users: an AJAX version (located at Bing.com/Maps) and an opt-in Silverlight version (located at Bing.com/Maps/Explore—not available anymore) that requires Microsoft Silverlight to be installed. The Silverlight version is positioned to offer richer, more dynamic features and a smoother experience. In November 2010, the AJAX and Silverlight versions were combined into a semi-hybrid site where Silverlight features such as Map Apps and Streetside could be enabled through the Bing.com/Maps site - these features still required Silverlight to be installed, but does not require use of a separate Bing Maps site. The AJAX and Silverlight site share the following features: Road View, Aerial View, Bird's-Eye View, Sharing Maps, People/Business/Location Search, Building Footprints, Driving Directions, Walking Directions. Silverlight users exclusively can use Map Apps, StreetSide View, Photosynths, and Dynamic Labels. Map apps Access Bing Map Apps are accessed either through the "Map Apps" button in the Bing Maps Explore Bar or through direct perma-links. The Map Apps button is only viewable if the user is in the Bing Maps Silverlight experience or in Windows 8. Third-party apps Bing Map Apps also allows third parties to create and submit map apps. The following are a list of 3rd party map apps: Map coverage Global Ortho Program In July 2010, Microsoft and DigitalGlobe, a provider of high-resolution earth imagery, announced the collection of the first imagery from the company's Advanced Ortho Aerial Program. Through a special agreement with Microsoft, the Advanced Ortho Aerial Program will provide wall-to-wall 30 cm aerial coverage of the contiguous United States and Western Europe that DigitalGlobe has the exclusive rights to distribute beyond Bing Maps. The program's first orthophoto mosaics are of Augusta, GA, San Diego, CA and Tampa, FL, and can be viewed on DigitalGlobe's website. Americas Africa Europe Asia / Oceania Middle East Compatibility Microsoft states that Bing Maps needs the following environment: Windows XP with SP2 or a later version Microsoft .NET Framework 2.0 Windows Imaging Component 250 MB or more of hard disk space A 1.0-gigahertz (GHz) processor (2.8 GHz or faster is recommended) 256 MB of system memory (1 GB is recommended) A 32-MB video card (256 MB is recommended) that supports Microsoft DirectX 9, with 3D hardware acceleration enabled A high-speed or broadband Internet connection Compatible browsers include Windows Internet Explorer 6 or later, Mozilla Firefox 3.0 or later, or Safari 3.1 or later. Opera is stated to be usable "with some functionality limitations". Users of browsers that are not considered compatible, as well as users of versions of compatible browsers that are not supported, will be directed away from viewing the map without an error message. The 3D Maps viewer plug-in requires Microsoft Windows XP Service Pack 2, Microsoft Windows Server 2003, Windows Vista, or Windows 7 with Internet Explorer 6/7/8 or Firefox 1.5/2.0/3.0. See also Tencent Maps Here WeGo Yahoo! Maps MapQuest Apple Maps Google Maps Google Earth OpenStreetMap References External links Bing Maps Bing Maps for different regions Bing Maps Interactive source SDK Official Bing Maps team blog Bing Maps for Enterprise and Government Maps Virtual globes Web mapping Web Map Services Keyhole Markup Language Route planning software Windows components Universal Windows Platform apps Computer-related introductions in 2011

3447624

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sansculottides

Sansculottides

The Sansculottides (; also Epagomènes; ) are holidays following the last month of the year on the French Republican calendar which was used following the French Revolution from approximately 1793 to 1805. The Sansculottides, named after the sans-culottes, append the twelve, 30-day months of the Republican Calendar with five complementary days in a common year or six complementary days in a leap year, so that the calendar year would approximately match the tropical year. They follow the last day of Fructidor, the last month of the year, and precede the first day of Vendémiaire. Each of the Sansculottides were assigned as one of the ten days of the week. Even though the five or six days were less than a full week, the following 1 Vendémiaire would still be a primidi, skipping four or five days of the week. The Sansculottides belong to the summer quarter. They begin on 17 or 18 September and approximately the end on the autumn equinox, on 22 or 23 September on the Gregorian calendar. History In the decree of 5 October 1793 (le 14 du 1er mois de l'an II; later: le 14 Vendémiaire de l'an II) by the National Convention, the days following the last month of the year were named jours complémentaires and numbered serially. Only the leap day (jour intercalaire) received a name: 1. premier jour complémentaire — First Complementary Day 2. second jour complémentaire — Second Complementary Day 3. troisième jour complémentaire — Third Complementary Day 4. quatrième jour complémentaire — Fourth Complementary Day 5. cinquième jour complémentaire — Fifth Complementary Day 6. jour de la Révolution — Revolution Day The other days, decades, and months were also serially numbered. On 24 October (le 3 du 2e mois; later: le 3 Brumaire) of the same year, the poet Philippe-François-Nazaire Fabre, known as Fabre d'Églantine, made public his dislike of this naming convention ("le premier jour de la première décade du premier mois de la première année"). He suggested proper names for the months, the days of the months, and the days of the decades. For the jours complémentaires, he introduced the name Sansculottides. The individual days should have the following names: 1. fête du génie — Celebration of Talent 2. fête du travail — Celebration of Labour 3. fête des actions — Celebration of Policy 4. fête des récompenses — Celebration of Honors 5. fête de l’opinion — Celebration of Convictions 6. la Sans-culottide / la Sanculottide — (rough meaning:) "Day of the Revolutionary" According to the proposal by Fabre d'Églantine: The fête du génie should be dedicated to the most precious and, for the nation, most useful achievements of the human mind accomplished in the past year. The fête du travail should be focused on industry, physical labour, and production of useful things. On the fête des actions, good and beneficial policies should be praised that have been helpful, even if only of benefit to individuals rather than to the nation. On the fête des récompenses, people should be rewarded for the merits exemplifying the previous three days' mottos. On the fête de l’opinion, people should criticise the administration, without fear of punishment, in the form of songs, caricatures, and ironic and sarcastic speeches. By this, d'Églantine meant: "I dare to say that this one day will cause public servants to do their duty more than even the laws of a Draco ever could." The Sanculottide, celebrated in leap years, should be the celebration of national unity. Representatives from all parts of the country should meet each other in the capital and celebrate together. On 24 November 1793 these proposals were accepted with slight modifications. It was decided that the name should be written fêtes Sansculotides (one 't'). The alternate spellings Sans-culotides and Sans-culottides were also used. The fête des actions was shifted to the first place and named fête de la vertu. The fête des récompenses went to the last place and the leap year day regained its old name: 1. fête de la vertu — Celebration of Virtue 2. fête du génie — Celebration of Talent 3. fête du travail — Celebration of Labour 4. fête de l’opinion — Celebration of Convictions 5. fête des récompenses — Celebration of Honors 6. fête de la Révolution — Celebration of the Revolution On 24 August 1795 (le 7 Fructidor de l'an III), the Sansculottides were renamed again to jours complémentaires (Complementary Days). The fête du travail was also known as the fête du labour. The fête de l'opinion was also termed fête de l'option (Celebration of Choice) or fête de la raison (Celebration of Reason). The Basque translation of the calendar for 1799 simply names the bethagail-egunak as bethagail-legun, bethagail-bigun,... ("complementary primidi", "complementary duodi",...). Conversion table References External links Summer Quarter of Year II (facsimile) Decree concerning the Republican Calendar, October 5, 1793 (facsimile) Fabre d’Églantine: Rapport sur le calendrier révolutionnaire (French) 1793 establishments in France 1805 disestablishments in France Recurring events established in 1793 Recurring events disestablished in 1805 French Republican calendar Autumn equinox September observances

3448135

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barkly%20Tableland

Barkly Tableland

The Barkly Tableland is a region in the Central East if the Northern Territory, extending into Western Queensland. The region was named after Sir Henry Barkly. The epithet “Tableland” is inaccurate, since the region is neither elevated relative to adjacent landforms, nor are the boundaries marked by a distinct change in elevation The Barkly Tableland is a poorly defined region. The name Barkly Tableland properly applies only to the areas of largely treeless, cracking-clay soils supporting grasslands dominated by Mitchell Grass (Astrebla spp.) A variety of terms such as “Barkly Tablelands Region, or “Barkly Region” have come into common use, referring to various circumscriptions of the region. All include portions of the Barkly Tablelands proper, along with varying adjoining landforms and vegetation types. Varying Barkly regions encompass: An area from Dunmarra south to Barrow Creek, and from the Tanami desert to the Queensland border. The Barkly Tableland proper, the associated Gulf Country, the upper Georgina River basin, and portions of the inland desert country. From the McArthur River in the north, parallel approximately 100 miles inland from the west coast of the Gulf of Carpentaria to the Queensland border in the east. The Barkly Shire local government area Barkly locality in Queensland. Various regions defined by Northern Territory and Australian Commonwealth government departments. In addition, there exists a Barkly Tablelands IBRA subregion which conforms approximately with parts of the Barkly Tablelands proper. History William Landsborough was the first non-Indigenous Australian person to explore the tableland, and named it after Sir Henry Barkly, then governor of Victoria. In 1877 the overlander, Nathaniel Buchanan and Sam Croker crossed the Barkly Tableland and rode on to the Overland Telegraph Line opening new land for settlement. It was not until the introduction of generous leasing arrangements on the Barkly in the late 1870s that the region became more settled. In 1883, Harry Readford, one of the inspirations for the literary character Captain Starlight, drove a mob of cattle to the Barkly and subsequently established Brunette Downs (then called Corella Creek), with outstations at Anthony Lagoon and Cresswell Creek, for Macdonald, Smith and Co. In 1884, 2,500 cattle were driven to Brunette Downs and in 1885, Readford brought in 1,200 mixed cattle from Burketown. Geography Black soil plains cover much of the Barkly Tableland. Rainfall in this inland area is low (350mm per year) and subject to extreme seasonal fluctuations with rains occurring from November to March during the hot (up to 40 °C) summer. Winters are cool and frost may occur, especially in the southern section of the plain in Queensland. The Barkly Tableland is a distinct physiographic province of the larger West Australian Shield division. It includes the Mueller Plateau and Sandover-Pituri Platform physiographic sections between the desert uplands in the west and Mount Isa, Queensland in the east. The Tableland drains into the Gulf of Carpentaria via the Flinders River while the southwestern plains drain into Lake Eyre via the Diamantina River or into the Simpson Desert via the Georgina River which has its source on the Tableland. Waterways of the Tableland itself are small as most water drains into the porous limestone, sometimes forming salt lakes. Tarrabool Lake, the largest wooded swamp in tropical Australia, is located in the west of the Tablelands. Other important water sources on the downs are the artesian springs. Some of the very large cattle stations located on the Tableland include Alexandria Station, Alroy Downs, Anthony Lagoon, Austral Downs, Avon Downs, Banka Banka, Brunette Downs, Creswell Downs, Eva Downs, Helen Springs, Newcastle Waters and Lake Nash Station. Ecology The dominant flora of the Tableland is semi-arid savanna of Mitchell grass. The grasslands are mostly used for cattle grazing and are home to some threatened species of plants and animals. Flora Mitchell grass is hardy with long roots so is well adapted to dry soils and periods of drought. The grasslands support other distinctive plants alongside the grasses but there are no areas of thick woodland, only acacia trees scattered across the plain, and red river gum along watercourses. Fauna The habitat of the Mitchell Grass Downs is mostly a uniform cover of grassland and therefore does not support a great variety of wildlife. The few mammals include the brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) and the Alexandria false antechinus (Pseudantechinus mimulus), a small carnivorous marsupial found only in a number of small, isolated localities in northern Australia, including Alexandria Station on the Barkly Tableland. Meanwhile, the section of the Mitchell grasslands in Queensland is home to another endangered marsupial, the Julia Creek dunnart. There are healthy populations of grassland birds such as the flock bronzewing. The seasonal wetlands of the downs are important habitats, particularly as breeding grounds for waterbirds. These include the Lake Woods and Lake Buchanan . There are also many snakes and other reptiles and amphibians adapted to the clay soils that crack in the long dry season and turn to mud after the rains. These include burrowing frogs that emerge to breed in the mud and the long-haired rat which erupts in huge numbers after the monsoon and spreads across the grasslands. Endemic reptiles of the downs include the dwarf dtella gecko (Gehyra minuta), some species of Ctenotus and Lerista skinks, an agamid lizard (Pogona henrylawsoni), and a monitor lizard (Spencer's goanna). The snakes include the Elapidae; speckled brown snake (Pseudonaja guttata), Ingram's brown snake (Pseudonaja ingrami), and Collett's snake, all of which are venomous. Insects include a number of endemic species of ant. Threats and preservation Some of the grassland is protected but most is pasture and although largely unspoilt, it is vulnerable to overgrazing, particularly areas of Queensland bluebush (Chenopodium auricomum). The downs are home to a number of endangered species and localised habitats that are threatened. Protected areas that contain Mitchell grassland include Connells Lagoon Conservation Reserve in the Northern Territory. References External links Barkly Tablelands info Barkly Region Biogeography of the Northern Territory IBRA subregions Regions of the Northern Territory Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands

3449255

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital%20pole

Orbital pole

An orbital pole is either point at the ends of the orbital normal, an imaginary line segment that runs through a focus of an orbit (of a revolving body like a planet, moon or satellite) and is perpendicular (or normal) to the orbital plane. Projected onto the celestial sphere, orbital poles are similar in concept to celestial poles, but are based on the body's orbit instead of its equator. The north orbital pole of a revolving body is defined by the right-hand rule. If the fingers of the right hand are curved along the direction of orbital motion, with the thumb extended and oriented to be parallel to the orbital axis, then the direction the thumb points is defined to be the orbital north. The poles of Earth's orbit are referred to as the ecliptic poles. For the remaining planets, the orbital pole in ecliptic coordinates is given by the longitude of the ascending node () and inclination (): In the following table, the planetary orbit poles are given in both celestial coordinates and the ecliptic coordinates for the Earth. When a satellite orbits close to another large body, it can only maintain continuous observations in areas near its orbital poles. The continuous viewing zone (CVZ) of the Hubble Space Telescope lies inside roughly 24° of Hubble's orbital poles, which precess around the Earth's axis every 56 days. Ecliptic Pole The ecliptic is the plane on which Earth orbits the Sun. The ecliptic poles are the two points where the ecliptic axis, the imaginary line perpendicular to the ecliptic, intersects the celestial sphere. The two ecliptic poles are mapped below. Due to axial precession, either celestial pole completes a circuit around the nearer ecliptic pole every 25,800 years. , the positions of the ecliptic poles expressed in equatorial coordinates, as a consequence of Earth's axial tilt, are the following: North: right ascension (exact), declination South: right ascension (exact), declination The North Ecliptic Pole is located near the Cat's Eye Nebula and the South Ecliptic Pole is located near the Large Magellanic Cloud. It is impossible anywhere on Earth for either ecliptic pole to be at the zenith in the night sky. By definition, the ecliptic poles are located 90° from the Sun's position. Therefore, whenever and wherever either ecliptic pole is directly overhead, the Sun must be on the horizon. The ecliptic poles can contact the zenith only within the Arctic and Antarctic circles. The galactic coordinates of the North ecliptic pole can be calculated as (see celestial coordinate system). See also Celestial pole Polar alignment Pole star Poles of astronomical bodies Notes & References Pole Astronomical coordinate systems

3452380

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alain%20Gerbault

Alain Gerbault

Alain Jacques Georges Marie Gerbault (November 17, 1893 – December 16, 1941) was a French sailor, writer and tennis champion, who made a circumnavigation of the world as a single-handed sailor. He eventually settled in the islands of south Pacific Ocean, where he wrote several books about the islanders' way of life. As a tennis player he was ranked the fifth on the French rankings in 1923. Early life Alain Gerbault was born on November 17, 1893, in Laval, Mayenne, to an upper-middle-class family. He spent much of his youth in Dinard, near the ancient port of St. Malo; he spent his summers playing tennis and football, as well as hunting and fishing. At college he studied civil engineering. He had a brother with whom they owned a lime factory in Laval. At the age of twenty-one, Gerbault joined in the Flying Corps, serving as an officer; by the end of the war, he was a decorated hero. After the war, he took up tennis, becoming the French champion, and also bridge, at which he achieved an international rating. Despite his achievements, he was still searching for something to do with his life, and considered attempting to fly the Atlantic Ocean. While visiting England in 1921 to play tennis, he came across Firecrest, an old British-designed 39-foot racing/cruising gaff sloop, at Southampton. He had already been toying with the idea of long-distance sailing, so he purchased the boat and spent a year or so sailing her around Cannes. Circumnavigation Firecrest The boat in which the circumnavigation was made was called Firecrest. It was an English racing cruiser designed by Dixon Kemp and built by P. T. Harris at Rowhedge, Essex, in 1892. She was 39 feet overall, 31 feet 6 inches on the waterline, with a beam of 8 feet 6 inches, and displaced 12 tons. She was long and narrow, with a deep keel and three and a half tons of lead for ballast. On June 6, 1923, Gerbault set off from Gibraltar in his boat Firecrest to make a single-handed circumnavigation of the world. The crossing of the Atlantic in a small boat was still considered a major and risky undertaking, and Gerbault was not well prepared for the voyage, either in terms of equipment or experience. Although the passage was extremely arduous, and troubled by a number of equipment failures, he made it to New York after 101 days at sea. Although he was not the first person to single-handedly sail the Atlantic, he was given a hero's welcome, and was awarded the Blue Water Medal by the Cruising Club of America for his achievement. While in New York, he started his book The Fight of the Firecrest. Leaving the boat behind, he made a trip home to France during which he was awarded the Légion d'honneur for his voyage. Firecrest was given a major refit in New York, including a conversion from gaff to bermuda rig. In September, 1923, Gerbault left New York to continue his circumnavigation, heading first for Bermuda. He arrived in Colón, Panama, on April 1, 1924, and after passing through the Panama Canal he entered and won the tennis championship of Panama. He sailed again on May 31, 1924, and after stopping in the Galapagos islands he arrived in Mangareva, in French Polynesia, after 49 days at sea. He went on to visit the Marquesas Islands, the Tuamotus, and Tahiti. At this time he began writing extensively on the history and society of the Pacific islands, and criticising the colonial exploitation of the natives. After more refitting, Firecrest set sail again on May 21, 1926, stopping in Bora Bora, Samoa, and the Wallis Islands, where the boat was badly damaged during a gale. Due to Gerbault's fame by this time, he was able to secure considerable assistance in salvaging and repairing the boat, and on December 9 Gerbault sailed again. He made his way gradually to the Torres Strait, and thence to the Indian Ocean, where he visited the Cocos (Keeling) Islands, Mauritius, and Madagascar, arriving at Durban in time for Christmas, 1927. Gerbault rounded the Cape of Good Hope and sailed north, stopping in Saint Helena, Ascension, and the Cape Verde islands, where he spent ten months working on another book. On May 6, 1929, he finally sailed for home, stopping at the Azores, and on July 21 he sailed into Cherbourg Harbour. He received another hero's welcome for his circumnavigation, the third single-handed circumnavigation of the world, during which he had spent 700 days at sea and covered more than 40,000 miles. Gallery Firecrest L'Alain Gerbault After returned home, Gerbault soon discovered that he missed the Pacific islands and decided to return there. Firecrest was by now well worn, so he decided to build a new boat. This boat was of the Colin Archer type. He had for long time admired the Norwegian rescue and pilot boats designed by Colin Archer and the rescue boat plans was published in Keble Chatterton's book. He also knew William Atkin's boats of the Colin Archer type and based on these, Gerbault designed his own version. The boat became 10.40 m long over deck (34 feet) with a beam of 3.20 m (10.5 feet) with a ballast keel of 3,5 tons and displacement 10 tons. The keel was later reduced to 2.75 tons due to a lot of heavy gear carried onboard. The boat was built by Paul Jouët boatyard and launched 4 June 1931 at Sartrouville and christened L'Alain Gerbault. Later life L'Alain Gerbault had international call sign O.Z.Y.U. hence the title of his last book, published posthumously. He sailed again for the South Pacific, and vanished from the public eye, spending years wandering from island to island. He wrote several books about life on the islands, and criticising the modern western way of life. Gerbault died on December 16, 1941, in Dili, East Timor of a tropical fever. His death was not widely reported until August 22, 1944, over three years later. A later report suggests that he had been imprisoned by the Japanese. In 1947, his body was recovered and buried on Bora Bora, where a monument to him was erected. Alain Gerbault's tomb in Vaitape, Bora Bora, was originally on the waterfront, but later development and building of port facilities now mean that his tomb is on the side of a market building. Local people are planning to move his tomb to new place. Works The fight of the Firecrest: The record of a lone-hand cruise from East to West across the Atlantic, Alain Gerbault, New York, D. Appleton and Co., 1926. In quest of the sun: The journal of the "Firecrest", Alain Gerbault, London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1930. The gospel of the sun, Alain Gerbault, London, Hodder and Stoughton, 1933. Un paradis se meurt (Le Grand dehors), Paris, Éditions Self (impr. de Le Moil et Pascaly), 1949. O.Z.Y.U. : "dernier journal" , Alain Gerbault, Paris, Bernard Grasset, 1952. References External links Gerbault and the Firecrest An illustrated article about Gerbault's adventure "Long Way Across The Atlantic", October 1931, Popular Mechanics 1893 births 1941 deaths French sailors Single-handed circumnavigating sailors Recipients of the Legion of Honour Blue Water Medal recipients French male tennis players French military personnel of World War I Deaths in East Timor

3452610

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abaangui

Abaangui

Abaan is the moon god in the mythology of the Guaraní people of central South America. According to the myth, Abaan had a huge nose, which he cut off. When he threw it into the sky, it became the Moon. He is described as being a culture hero of the Guaraní, with his brother Zaguaguayu. See also Guaraní mythology List of lunar deities References External links Abaangui Guaraní deities Lunar gods

3458864

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terai%E2%80%93Duar%20savanna%20and%20grasslands

Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands

The Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands is a narrow lowland ecoregion at the base of the Himalayas, about wide, and a continuation of the Indo-Gangetic Plain in India, Nepal and Bhutan. It is colloquially called Terai in the Ganges Basin east to Nepal, then Dooars in West Bengal, Bhutan and Assam east to the Brahmaputra River. It harbours the world's tallest grasslands, which are the most threatened and rare worldwide. Location and description This tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands biome stretches from western Bhutan to southern Nepal's Terai, westward to Banke, covering the Dang and Deukhuri Valleys along the Rapti River to India's Bhabar and Doon Valley. Each end crosses the border into India's states of Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The eastern and central areas are wetter than the western end. In Nepal, the wetlands of Koshi Tappu Wildlife Reserve, Beeshazar Tal in the bufferzone of Chitwan National Park, Jagdishpur Reservoir and Ghodaghodi Tal are designated Ramsar sites. The Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve is Nepal's largest patch of continuous grassland. Flora The Terai–Duar savanna and grasslands are a mosaic of tall riverside grasslands, savannas and evergreen and deciduous forests, depending on soil quality and the amount of rain each area receives. The grasslands of the Terai in Nepal are among the tallest in the world, and are maintained by silt deposited by the yearly monsoon floods. Important grasses include baruwa (Tripidium bengalense) and kans grass (Saccharum spontaneum), which quickly establishes itself after the retreat of the monsoon waters. In the hillier areas the dominant tree is sal (Shorea robusta), which can grow to a height of . The belt also contains riverside tropical deciduous forest comprising Mallotus philippensis, jamun, cotton tree, Mallotus nudiflorus, and Garuga pinnata. Fauna The ecoregion is habitat for a huge number of mammalian and bird species. Notable are the large numbers of the endangered greater one-horned rhinoceros and Bengal tigers as well as Asian elephants, sloth bears, Indian leopards. In Nepal's Chitwan National Park, more than 400 rhinos were sighted in 2008, and 125 adult tigers were recorded during a survey conducted from December 2009 to March 2010, which covered an area of . Nepal's Bardia National Park and Sukla Phanta Wildlife Reserve, and India's Valmiki and Dudhwa National Parks are home to nearly 100 tigers. Chitwan along with the adjoining Parsa National Park is of major importance, especially for tigers and clouded leopard. Grazing animals of the grasslands include five species of deer, barasingha, sambar, chital, hog deer and muntjac along with four large grazing animals, Asian elephant, rhinoceros, gaur and nilgai. Endangered mammals found here include the wild water buffalo and the near-endemic hispid hare (Caprolagus hispidus). The grasslands are also home to a number of reptiles including the gharial, mugger crocodile and soft-shelled turtles. The grasslands partly cover two BirdLife International Endemic Bird Areas, the Central Himalayas EBA in western Nepal and the western end of the Assam Plains EBA south of Bhutan. There are three near-endemic bird species including the vulnerable Manipur bush quail (Perdicula manipurensis). The 44 threatened and declining bird species of the grasslands include the Bengal florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis), lesser florican (Sypheotides indica), sarus crane (Grus antigone) and rufous-rumped grassbird (Graminicola bengalensis). Threats and conservation Although the population density has been low it is now growing, especially in the Terai belt. Much of the ecoregion has been converted to farmland since the forest was cut down for timber. Shuklaphanta National Park, Chitwan, Bardia and Dudhwa National Parks, Some protected areas preserve significant sections of habitat, and are home to some of the greatest concentrations of Indian rhinoceros and Bengal tiger remaining in South Asia. The areas with tall grasslands are of special conservation importance. The remaining forest is mostly in the drier bhabar belt, with some forest patches in Chitwan National Park. See also List of ecoregions in India References External links WWF: Map of ecoregions in Nepal, showing the Terai-Duar savanna and grasslands The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands: The Annotated Ramsar List of Nepal Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands Ecoregions of the Himalayas Grasslands of Bhutan Grasslands of India Grasslands of Nepal Ecoregions of India Ecoregions of Nepal Ecoregions of Bhutan . Geography of Uttarakhand Ecoregions of Asia Indomalayan ecoregions

3459279

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runaway%20greenhouse%20effect

Runaway greenhouse effect

A runaway greenhouse effect occurs when a planet's atmosphere contains greenhouse gas in an amount sufficient to block thermal radiation from leaving the planet, preventing the planet from cooling and from having liquid water on its surface. A runaway version of the greenhouse effect can be defined by a limit on a planet's outgoing longwave radiation which is asymptotically reached due to higher surface temperatures evaporating water into the atmosphere, increasing its optical depth. This positive feedback means the planet cannot cool down through longwave radiation (via the Stefan–Boltzmann law) and continues to heat up until it can radiate outside of the absorption bands of the water vapour. The runaway greenhouse effect is often formulated with water vapour as the condensable species. The water vapour reaches the stratosphere and escapes into space via hydrodynamic escape, resulting in a desiccated planet. This likely happened in the early history of Venus. A runaway greenhouse effect would have virtually no chance of being caused by people. Venus-like conditions on Earth require a large long-term forcing that is unlikely to occur until the sun brightens by some tens of percents, which will take a few billion years. History While the term was coined by Caltech scientist Andrew Ingersoll in a paper that described a model of the atmosphere of Venus, the initial idea of a limit on terrestrial outgoing infrared radiation was published by George Simpson in 1927. The physics relevant to the, later-termed, runaway greenhouse effect was explored by Makoto Komabayashi at Nagoya university. Assuming a water vapor-saturated stratosphere, Komabayashi and Ingersoll independently calculated the limit on outgoing infrared radiation that defines the runaway greenhouse state. The limit is now known as the Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit to recognize their contributions. Physics of the runaway greenhouse The runaway greenhouse effect is often formulated in terms of how the surface temperature of a planet changes with differing amounts of received starlight. If the planet is assumed to be in radiative equilibrium, then the runaway greenhouse state is calculated as the equilibrium state at which water cannot exist in liquid form. The water vapor is then lost to space through hydrodynamic escape. In radiative equilibrium, a planet's outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) must balance the incoming stellar flux. The Stefan–Boltzmann law is an example of a negative feedback that stabilizes a planet's climate system. If the Earth received more sunlight it would result in a temporary disequilibrium (more energy in than out) and result in warming. However, because the Stefan–Boltzmann response mandates that this hotter planet emits more energy, eventually a new radiation balance can be reached and the temperature will be maintained at its new, higher value. Positive climate change feedbacks amplify changes in the climate system, and can lead to destabilizing effects for the climate. An increase in temperature from greenhouse gases leading to increased water vapor (which is itself a greenhouse gas) causing further warming is a positive feedback, but not a runaway effect, on Earth. Positive feedback effects are common (e.g. ice–albedo feedback) but runaway effects do not necessarily emerge from their presence. Though water plays a major role in the process, the runaway greenhouse effect is not a result of water vapor feedback. The runaway greenhouse effect can be seen as a limit on a planet's outgoing longwave radiation that, when surpassed, results in a state where water cannot exist in its liquid form (hence, the oceans have all "boiled away"). A planet's outgoing longwave radiation is limited by this evaporated water, which is an effective greenhouse gas and blocks additional infrared radiation as it accumulates in the atmosphere. Assuming radiative equilibrium, runaway greenhouse limits on outgoing longwave radiation correspond to limits on the increase in stellar flux received by a planet to trigger the runaway greenhouse effect. Two limits on a planet's outgoing longwave radiation have been calculated that correspond with the onset of the runaway greenhouse effect: the Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit and the Simpson–Nakajima limit. At these values the runaway greenhouse effect overcomes the Stefan–Boltzmann feedback so an increase in a planet's surface temperature will not increase the outgoing longwave radiation. The Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit was the first to be analytically derived and only considers a grey stratosphere in radiative equilibrium. A grey stratosphere (or atmosphere) is an approach to modeling radiative transfer that does not take into account the frequency-dependence of absorption by a gas. In the case of a grey stratosphere or atmosphere, the Eddington approximation can be used to calculate radiative fluxes. This approach focuses on the balance between the outgoing longwave radiation at the tropopause,, and the optical depth of water vapor, , in the tropopause, which is determined by the temperature and pressure at the tropopause according to the saturation vapor pressure. This balance is represented by the following equationsWhere the first equation represents the requirement for radiative equilibrium at the tropopause and the second equation represents how much water vapor is present at the tropopause. Taking the outgoing longwave radiation as a free parameter, these equations will intersect only once for a single value of the outgoing longwave radiation, this value is taken as the Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit. At that value the Stefan–Boltzmann feedback breaks down because the tropospheric temperature required to maintain the Komabayashi–Ingersoll OLR value results in a water vapor optical depth that blocks the OLR needed to cool the tropopause. The Simpson–Nakajima limit is lower than the Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit, and is thus typically more realistic for the value at which a planet enters a runaway greenhouse state. For example, given the parameters used to determine a Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit of 385 W/m2, the corresponding Simpson–Nakajima limit is only about 293 W/m2. The Simpson–Nakajima limit builds off of the derivation of the Komabayashi–Ingersoll limit by assuming a convective troposphere with a surface temperature and surface pressure that determines the optical depth and outgoing longwave radiation at the tropopause. The moist greenhouse limit Because the model used to derive the Simpson–Nakajima limit (a grey stratosphere in radiative equilibrium and a convecting troposphere) can determine the water concentration as a function of altitude, the model can also be used to determine the surface temperature (or conversely, amount of stellar flux) that results in a high water mixing ratio in the stratosphere. While this critical value of outgoing longwave radiation is less than the Simpson–Nakajima limit, it still has dramatic effects on a planet's climate. A high water mixing ratio in the stratosphere would overcome the effects of a cold trap and result in a "moist" stratosphere, which would result in the photolysis of water in the stratosphere that in turn would destroy the ozone layer and eventually lead to a dramatic loss of water through hydrodynamic escape. This climate state has been dubbed the moist greenhouse effect, as the end-state is a planet without water, though liquid water may exist on the planet's surface during this process. Connection to habitability The concept of a habitable zone has been used by planetary scientists and astrobiologists to define an orbital region around a star in which a planet (or moon) can sustain liquid water. Under this definition, the inner edge of the habitable zone (i.e., the closest point to a star that a planet can be until it can no longer sustain liquid water) is determined by the outgoing longwave radiation limit beyond which the runaway greenhouse process occurs (e.g., the Simpson–Nakajima limit). This is because a planet's distance from its host star determines the amount of stellar flux the planet receives, which in turn determines the amount of outgoing longwave radiation the planet radiates back to space. While the inner habitable zone is typically determined by using the Simpson–Nakajima limit, it can also be determined with respect to the moist greenhouse limit, though the difference between the two is often small. Calculating the inner edge of the habitable zone is strongly dependent on the model used to calculate the Simpson–Nakajima or moist greenhouse limit. The climate models used to calculate these limits have evolved over time, with some models assuming a simple one-dimensional, grey atmosphere, and others using a full radiative transfer solution to model the absorption bands of water and carbon dioxide. These earlier models that used radiative transfer derived the absorption coefficients for water from the HITRAN database, while newer models use the more current and accurate HITEMP database, which has led to different calculated values of thermal radiation limits. More accurate calculations have been done using three-dimensional climate models that take into account effects such as planetary rotation and local water mixing ratios as well as cloud feedbacks. The effect of clouds on calculating thermal radiation limits is still in debate (specifically, whether or not water clouds present a positive or negative feedback effect). Runaway greenhouse effect in the Solar System Venus A runaway greenhouse effect involving carbon dioxide and water vapor likely occurred on Venus. In this scenario, early Venus may have had a global ocean if the outgoing thermal radiation was below the Simpson–Nakajima limit but above the moist greenhouse limit. As the brightness of the early Sun increased, the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere increased, increasing the temperature and consequently increasing the evaporation of the ocean, leading eventually to the situation in which the oceans evaporated. This scenario helps to explain why there is little water vapor in the atmosphere of Venus today. If Venus initially formed with water, the runaway greenhouse effect would have hydrated Venus' stratosphere, and the water would have escaped to space. Some evidence for this scenario comes from the extremely high deuterium to hydrogen ratio in Venus' atmosphere, roughly 150 times that of Earth, since light hydrogen would escape from the atmosphere more readily than its heavier isotope, deuterium. Venus is sufficiently strongly heated by the Sun that water vapor can rise much higher in the atmosphere and be split into hydrogen and oxygen by ultraviolet light. The hydrogen can then escape from the atmosphere while the oxygen recombines or bonds to iron on the planet's surface. The deficit of water on Venus due to the runaway greenhouse effect is thought to explain why Venus does not exhibit surface features consistent with plate tectonics, meaning it would be a stagnant lid planet. Carbon dioxide, the dominant greenhouse gas in the current Venusian atmosphere, owes its larger concentration to the weakness of carbon recycling as compared to Earth, where the carbon dioxide emitted from volcanoes is efficiently subducted into the Earth by plate tectonics on geologic time scales through the carbonate–silicate cycle, which requires precipitation to function. Earth Early investigations on the effect of atmospheric carbon dioxide levels on the runaway greenhouse limit found that it would take orders of magnitude higher amounts of carbon dioxide to take the Earth to a runaway greenhouse state. This is because carbon dioxide is not anywhere near as effective at blocking outgoing longwave radiation as water is. Within current models of the runaway greenhouse effect, carbon dioxide (especially anthropogenic carbon dioxide) does not seem capable of providing the necessary insulation for Earth to reach the Simpson–Nakajima limit. Debate remains, however, on whether carbon dioxide can push surface temperatures towards the moist greenhouse limit. Climate scientist John Houghton wrote in 2005 that "[there] is no possibility of [Venus's] runaway greenhouse conditions occurring on the Earth". However, climatologist James Hansen stated in Storms of My Grandchildren (2009) that burning coal and mining oil sands will result in runaway greenhouse on Earth. A re-evaluation in 2013 of the effect of water vapor in the climate models showed that James Hansen's outcome would require ten times the amount of CO2 we could release from burning all the oil, coal, and natural gas in Earth's crust. As with the uncertainties in calculating the inner edge of the habitable zone, the uncertainty in whether CO2 can drive a moist greenhouse effect is due to differences in modeling choices and the uncertainties therein. The switch from using HITRAN to the more current HITEMP absorption line lists in radiative transfer calculations has shown that previous runaway greenhouse limits were too high, but the necessary amount of carbon dioxide would make an anthropogenic moist greenhouse state unlikely. Full three-dimensional models have shown that the moist greenhouse limit on surface temperature is higher than that found in one-dimensional models and thus would require a higher amount of carbon dioxide to initiate a moist greenhouse than in one-dimensional models. Other complications include whether the atmosphere is saturated or sub-saturated at some humidity, higher CO2 levels in the atmosphere resulting in a less hot Earth than expected due to Rayleigh scattering, and whether cloud feedbacks stabilize or destabilize the climate system. Complicating the matter, research on Earth's climate history has often used the term "runaway greenhouse effect" to describe large-scale climate changes when it is not an appropriate description as it does not depend on Earth's outgoing longwave radiation. Though the Earth has experienced a diversity of climate extremes, these are not end-states of climate evolution and have instead represented climate equilibria different from that seen on Earth today. For example, it has been hypothesized that large releases of greenhouse gases may have occurred concurrently with the Permian–Triassic extinction event or Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum. Additionally, during 80% of the latest 500 million years, the Earth is believed to have been in a greenhouse state due to the greenhouse effect, when there were no continental glaciers on the planet, the levels of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases (such as water vapor and methane) were high, and sea surface temperatures (SSTs) ranged from 40 °C (104 °F) in the tropics to 16 °C (65 °F) in the polar regions. Distant future Most scientists believe that a runaway greenhouse effect is inevitable in the long term, as the Sun gradually becomes more luminous as it ages, and spell the end of all life on Earth. As the Sun becomes 10% brighter about one billion years from now, the surface temperature of Earth will reach (unless Albedo is increased sufficiently), causing the temperature of Earth to rise rapidly and its oceans to boil away until it becomes a greenhouse planet, similar to Venus today. According to the astrobiologists Peter Ward and Donald Brownlee in their book The Life and Death of Planet Earth, the current loss rate is approximately one millimeter of ocean per million years due to the colder upper layer of the troposphere acting as a cold trap currently preventing Earth from permanently losing its water to space at present, even with manmade global warming (this is why manmade climate change in the near future will make extreme weather patterns worse in the short term, as a warmer atmosphere can hold more moisture due to it still being too cold to allow water vapor to escape into space), as well as being overshadowed by shorter-term changes in sea level, such as the currently rising sea level due to the melting of glaciers and polar ice, but the rate is gradually accelerating, as the sun gets warmer, to perhaps as fast as one millimeter every 1000 years, by ultimately making the atmosphere so hot that the cold trap is pushed even higher up until it eventually fails to prevent the water from being lost to space. Ward and Brownlee predict that there will be two variations of the future warming feedback: the "moist greenhouse" in which water vapor dominates the troposphere and starts to accumulate in the stratosphere and the "runaway greenhouse" in which water vapor becomes a dominant component of the atmosphere such that the Earth starts to undergo rapid warming, which could send its surface temperature to over , causing its entire surface to melt and killing all life, perhaps about three billion years from now. In both cases, the moist and runaway greenhouse states the loss of oceans will turn the Earth into a primarily-desert world. The only water left on the planet would be in a few evaporating ponds scattered near the poles as well as huge salt flats around what was once the ocean floor, much like the Atacama Desert in Chile or Badwater Basin in Death Valley. The small reservoirs of water may allow life to remain for a few billion more years. As the Sun brightens, CO2 levels should decrease due to an increase of activity in the carbon-silicate cycle corresponding to the increase of temperature. That would mitigate some of the heating Earth would experience because of the Sun's increase in brightness. Eventually, however, as the water escapes, the carbon cycle will cease as plate tectonics come to a halt because of the need for water as a lubricant for tectonic activity. Runaway refrigerator effect Mars may have experienced the opposite of a runaway greenhouse effect: a runaway refrigerator effect. Through this effect, a runaway feedback process may have removed much of the carbon dioxide and water vapor from the atmosphere and cooled the planet. Water condensed on the surface, which led to carbon dioxide dissolving in the water and chemically binding to minerals. This reduced the greenhouse effect, lowering the temperature, causing more water to condense. The end result was lower temperatures, with water being frozen as subsurface permafrost, leaving only a thin atmosphere. See also Atmosphere of Venus, an example of a runaway greenhouse effect Greenhouse and icehouse Earth TRAPPIST-1b References Further reading Climate change feedbacks Climate forcing Atmosphere Climatology Natural environment

3461082

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elements%20of%20the%20Philosophy%20of%20Newton

Elements of the Philosophy of Newton

Elements of the Philosophy of Newton () is a book written by the philosopher Voltaire and co-authored by mathematician and physicist Émilie du Châtelet in 1738 that helped to popularize the theories and thought of Isaac Newton. This book, coupled with Letters on the English, written in 1733, demonstrated that Voltaire had moved beyond the simple poetry and plays he had written previously. A new edition was published in 1745 that contained an initial section on Newton's metaphysics, originally published separately in 1740. By 1745, when the edition of Voltaire's Éléments was published, the tides of thought were turning his way, and by 1750 the perception had become widespread that France had been converted from erroneous Cartesianism to modern Newtonianism thanks to Voltaire. Charles Coulston Gillispie says that "Voltaire explained Newtonian science to the educated public more successfully than any other writer, perhaps because he took more pains to understand it." Contents Chapter I What Light is, and in What manner it comes to us. Chapter II The Property, which Light has of reflecting itself, was not truly known. It is not reflected by the solid Parts of Bodies as vulgarly believed. Chapter III Of the property which Light has of refracting in passing from one Substance into another, and of taking a new Course in its Progression. Chapter IV Of the Form of the Eye, and in what manner Light enters and acts in that Organ. Chapter V Of Looking–Glasses, and Telescopes: Reasons given by Mathematicians for the Mysteries of Vision; that those Reasons are not altogether sufficient. Chapter VI In what Manner we know Distances, Magnitudes, Figures, and Situations. Chapter VII Of the Cause of the breaking of the Rays of Light in passing from one Medium to another; that this Cause is a general Law of Nature unknown before Newton; that the Inflection of Light is also an Effect of the same Cause. Voltaire discusses a case wherein Dr. William Cheselden healed the sight of a blind teenage boy. Voltaire notes that upon seeing for the first time, the boy thought the images were resting on his eyeballs. Chapter VIII The wonderful Effects of the Refraction of Light. The several Rays of Light have all possible Colours in themselves; what Refrangibility is. New Discoveries. Chapter IX The Cause of Refrangibility; from which it appears that there are indivisible Bodies in Nature. Chapter X Proof that there are indivisible Atoms, and that the simple Particles of Light are Atoms of that kind. Discoveries continued. Chapter XI Of the Rainbow; that Phenomenon a necessary Effect of the Laws of Refrangibility. Chapter XII New Discoveries touching the Cause of Colours, which confirm the preceding Doctrine; Demonstration that Colours are occasioned by the Density and Thickness of the Parts of which Bodies are composed (or the Thickness of the Parts that compose the Surfaces only). Chapter XIII Consequences of these Discoveries. The mutual Action of Bodies upon Light. Chapter XIV Of the Resemblance between the seven Primitive Colours and the seven Notes in Musick. Chapter XV Introductory Ideas concerning Gravity and the Laws of Attraction: That the Opinion of a subtil Matter, Vortices, and a Plenitude, ought to be rejected (But not that subtile Aether which Sir Isaac makes the Cause of Attraction, Refraction, Animal Motion, &c. which pervades the Universe). Chapter XVI That the Vortices and Plenitude of Descartes are impossible, and consequently that there is some other Cause of Gravity. Chapter XVII What is meant by Vacuity and Space, without which there could be neither Gravity nor Motion. Chapter XVIII Gravitation demonstrated from the Discoveries of Galileo and Newton: That the Moon revolves in her Orbit by the Force of this Gravitation. Chapter XIX That Gravitation and Attraction direct all the Planets in their Courses. Chapter XX Demonstrations of the Laws of Gravitation, drawn from the Rules of Kepler: That one of these Laws of Kepler demonstrates the Motion of the Earth. Chapter XXI New Proofs of Attraction. That the Inequalities of the Motion and Orbit of the Moon are necessarily the Effects of Attraction. Chapter XXII New Proofs and New Effects of Gravitation. That this Power is in every Particle of Matter. Discoveries dependent on this Principle. Chapter XXIII The Theory of our Planetary World. Chapter XXIV Of the Zodiacal Light, the Comets, and the fixed Stars. Chapter XXV Of the second Inequalities of the Motion of the Satellites, and the Phaenomena that depend thereon. Glossary Explanations of the hard Words used in this Treatise. References External links 1738 books Works by Voltaire

3462575

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quakesat

Quakesat

Quakesat is an Earth observation nanosatellite based on three CubeSats. It was designed to be a proof of concept for space-based detection of extremely low frequency signals, thought by some to be earthquake precursor signals. The science behind the concept is disputed. Mission The students working on the project hope that the detection of magnetic signals may have value in showing the onset of an earthquake. QuakeFinder, the company that put the satellites together, is from Palo Alto, California. They are gathering data on the extremely low magnetic field fluctuations that are associated with earthquakes to help better understand this area of study. The primary instrument is a magnetometer housed in a telescoping boom. The 30 June 2003, deployment of Quakesat was alongside other university CubeSats and one commercial CubeSat. The launch occurred on a Rokot rocket from Russia's Plesetsk Cosmodrome. See also List of CubeSats References QuakeFinder LLC Single axis search coil, small E-field dipole Earth observation satellites of the United States Spacecraft launched in 2003 CubeSats Spacecraft launched by Rokot rockets

3462587

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%20chondrite

L chondrite

The L type ordinary chondrites are the second most common group of meteorites, accounting for approximately 35% of all those catalogued, and 40% of the ordinary chondrites. The ordinary chondrites are thought to have originated from three parent asteroids, with the fragments making up the H chondrite, L chondrite and LL chondrite groups respectively. Name Their name comes from their relatively low iron abundance, with respect to the H chondrites, which are about 20–25% iron by weight. Historically, the L chondrites have been named hypersthene chondrites or olivine hypersthene chondrites for the dominant minerals, but these terms are now obsolete. Chemical composition Characteristic is the fayalite content (Fa) in olivine of 21 to 25 mol%. About 4–10% iron–nickel is found as a free metal, making these meteorites magnetic, but not as strongly as the H chondrites. Mineralogy The most abundant minerals are olivine and hypersthene (an orthopyroxene), as well as iron–nickel and troilite. Chromite, sodium-rich feldspar and calcium phosphates occur in minor amounts. Petrologic type 6 dominates, with over 60% of the L chondrites falling into this class. This indicates that the parent body was sizeable enough (greater than in diameter) to experience strong heating. Ordovician meteor event Many of the L chondrite meteors may have their origin in the Ordovician meteor event, radioisotope dated with uranium-lead method at around million years ago. Compared to other chondrites, a large proportion of the L chondrites have been heavily shocked, which is taken to imply that the parent body was catastrophically disrupted by a large impact. This impact has been dated via cosmic ray exposure at around million years ago. Earlier argon dating placed the event at around million years ago. Parent body The parent body/bodies for this group are not known, but plausible suggestions include 433 Eros and 8 Flora, or the Flora family as a whole. 433 Eros has been found to have a similar spectrum, while several pieces of circumstantial evidence for the Flora family exist: (1) the Flora family is thought to have formed about 1,000 to 500 million years ago; (2) the Flora family lies in a region of the asteroid belt that contributes strongly to the meteorite flux at Earth; (3) the Flora family consists of S-type asteroids, whose composition is similar to that of chondrite meteorites; and (4) the Flora family parent body was over in diameter. See also Glossary of meteoritics References External links The Catalogue of Meteorites fi:L-kondriitti

3462620

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Land%20Before%20Time%20VII%3A%20The%20Stone%20of%20Cold%20Fire

The Land Before Time VII: The Stone of Cold Fire

The Land Before Time VII: The Stone of Cold Fire is a 2000 American direct-to-video animated adventure musical drama and the seventh film in The Land Before Time series, produced and directed by Charles Grosvenor. It stars the voices of Thomas Dekker, Anndi McAfee, Aria Curzon, Jeff Bennett and Rob Paulsen, and introduces Charles Kimbrough, Patti Deutsch, Jim Cummings and British actor Michael York. This was the only Land Before Time film to be written by Len Uhley. This is the first installment to not have John Ingle's narration. Starting with The Stone of Cold Fire, Taiwanese-American studio Wang Film Productions takes over the overseas animation work on the entire Land Before Time series until the 2007–08 television series of the same name and The Land Before Time XIII: The Wisdom of Friends, after South Korean studio AKOM provided their animation for the last five direct-to-video sequels: The Great Valley Adventure, The Time of the Great Giving, Journey Through the Mists, The Mysterious Island, and The Secret of Saurus Rock. Plot Late one night, Littlefoot sees a meteor fall from the sky and crashing into the volcano Threehorn's Peak. When Littlefoot describes it the next morning, the adults in Great Valley do not take it seriously, except for two newcomers, the mysterious "Rainbow Faces", who are dinosaurs with rainbow beaks and long necks. The Rainbow Faces tell them of possibilities of wonders beyond what they know, and suggest the rock may be a magic stone of cold fire. Littlefoot tries to tell Cera's father he knows where the flying rock was and how to find it. But Cera's father warns Littlefoot of the Mysterious Beyond, especially parts with volcanoes, are off-limits. Littlefoot's grandfather agrees and tells Littlefoot that until some far-walkers leave the Great Valley, it would be better for them to not worry about the flying rock. Pterano, the outcast uncle of Littlefoot's friend Petrie, overhears the conversation and conspires to find the rock to use its powers to control the valley. Pterano gets Petrie, who idolizes him, to tell him the rock's location. Littlefoot's friend Ducky overhears Pterano's plan, but before she can warn the others, Pterano and his cronies, Rinkus and Sierra, capture her and set out to find the Stone. Upon discovering Ducky's abduction, the adults tell the young ones how Pterano previously led some of their herd during their search for the valley and encountered a pack of Deinonychus. Pterano was able to escape, but the event left him emotionally scarred, and he was exiled as punishment for leading his followers into danger. Because the adults are slow to reach a decision, Littlefoot, Petrie, Cera, and Spike take off by themselves in search of Ducky. Meanwhile, Ducky escapes the Flyers and falls into a cave while fleeing. After the children find her, Ducky comforts Petrie, who is distraught about his uncle's actions, by stating she could tell that Pterano is the least wicked of the three Flyers and has potential to do good. Rinkus and Sierra suddenly re-capture Ducky and pursue the children in violation of Pterano's orders, but the children outsmart them. As the Flyers fly away, Petrie tells them not to go and a thunderstorm comes. Later, the adult dinosaurs meet and Grandpa Longneck tells Petrie's mother to find another flier to help her. Meanwhile, Sierra displays mutinous feelings towards Pterano, but Rinkus convinces him to hold off betraying him until they find the Stone. The children pursue the Flyers, hoping to reach the Stone before them. The Rainbow Faces help them get there, where they discover the Stone is just an ordinary meteorite. Lamenting over this realization, Pterano explains that he meant to create a paradise with the stone's power, not realizing that this paradise already exists in the form of the Great Valley. Unwilling to believe the Stone is not magic, Rinkus and Sierra betray Pterano. However, as they hit the Stone to make it give them power, the volcano begins to erupt. Petrie's mother arrives to evacuate the children, and they land back at the site where they camped earlier. Pterano is thanked for saving Ducky's life, and his exile is reduced to five years. Petrie cuts in and tries to plead against the punishment, begging the grown-ups to let Pterano live in the Valley forever, but Petrie's mother tells Petrie that even though Pterano may be sorry, it does not change what he did and he must still be held responsible. Pterano, agreeing with the banishment, tells Petrie that everyone has to take responsibility for their actions and assures Petrie that he should be fine. Accepting the result, Petrie tearfully bids Pterano farewell. That night, Littlefoot finds the Rainbow Faces, who tell him that the stone is not magic, but his search for it was what really mattered, and reiterate that there are many unknowns to be discovered. They then disappear as an object similar to the meteorite soars overhead. As his friends find him, Littlefoot reflects that there are many unknowns and that such unknowns make life wonderful. Voice cast Thomas Dekker as Littlefoot Anndi McAfee as Cera Aria Curzon as Ducky Jeff Bennett as Petrie / Spokes Dinosaur Michael York as Pterano Rob Paulsen as Rinkus/ Spike Jim Cummings as Sierra Kenneth Mars as Grandpa Longneck Miriam Flynn as Grandma Longneck John Ingle as Cera's father Tress MacNeille as Ducky's Mom / Petrie's Mom Charles Kimbrough as Rainbow Face #1 Patti Deutsch as Rainbow Face #2 (B.J. Ward performs Rainbow Face #2's singing voice) Production Production of the film had concluded by June 2000. This is the first film in the series to use Digital ink and paint rather than traditional cel animation that was used in the first 6 films. Songs All tracks are written by Michele Brourman and Amanda McBroom. Release December 5, 2000 (VHS and DVD) December 4, 2001 (VHS and DVD) December 2, 2003 (VHS and DVD - 4 Movie Dino Pack (Volume 2) and 9 Movie Dino Pack) November 29, 2005 (DVD - 2 Mysteries Beyond the Great Valley) Reception Entertainment Weekly gave the film a "B" and wrote that it "beats the heck out of Barney's infantile dinosaur tales", with its "velociraptor-fast pace and a minimum of treacle". In August 2014, the New York Post ranked each of the 13 Land Before Time films released up to that point and placed The Stone of Cold Fire at number 10, writing: "Though not quite as annoying as 'Tinysauruses', the name 'Rainbow Faces' comes pretty close". The film received nominations for "Best Animated Video Premier" and "Best Animated Character Performance" for Littlefoot and Pterano at the Video Premiere Awards in 2001, losing to Joseph: King of Dreams and Batman Beyond: Return of the Joker, respectively. Aria Curzon received an award for "Outstanding Young Voice-Over" at the 23rd Young Artist Awards in 2002 for her role as Ducky in this film, as well as V, VI, and VIII. See also List of films featuring dinosaurs References External links 2000 animated films 2000 direct-to-video films 2000 films 2000s American animated films American children's animated science fiction films Direct-to-video sequel films Films about ancient astronauts Films about child abduction Films directed by Charles Grosvenor Films scored by Michael Tavera The Land Before Time films Meteorites in culture UFO-related films Films about volcanoes Universal Animation Studios animated films Universal Pictures direct-to-video animated films Animated films about dinosaurs 2000s children's animated films 2000s English-language films

3463650

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foton%20%28satellite%29

Foton (satellite)

Foton (or Photon) is the project name of two series of Russian science satellite and reentry vehicle programs. Although uncrewed, the design was adapted from the crewed Vostok spacecraft capsule. The primary focus of the Foton project is materials science research, but some missions have also carried experiments for other fields of research including biology. The original Foton series included 12 launches from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome from 1985 to 1999. The second series, under the name Foton-M, incorporates many design improvements over the original Foton, and is still in use. So far, there have been four launch attempts of the Foton-M. The first was in 2002 from the Plesetsk Cosmodrome, which ended in failure due to a problem in the launch vehicle. The last three were from the Baikonur Cosmodrome, in 2005, 2007, and 2014; all were successful. Both the Foton and Foton-M series used Soyuz-U (11A511U and 11A511U2) rockets as launch vehicles. Starting with the Foton-7 mission, the European Space Agency has been a partner in the Foton program. Foton-M Foton-M is a new generation of Russian robotic spacecraft for research conducted in the microgravity environment of Earth orbit. The Foton-M design is based on the design of the Foton, with several improvements including a new telemetry and telecommand unit for increased data flow rate, increased battery capacity, and a better thermal control system. It is produced by TsSKB-Progress in Samara. The launch of Foton-M1 failed because of a malfunction of the Soyuz-U launcher. The second launch (of Foton-M2) was a success. Foton-M3 was launched on 14 September 2007, carried by a Soyuz-U rocket lifting off from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan with Nadezhda, a cockroach that became the first Earth creature to produce offspring that had been conceived in space. It returned successfully to Earth on 26 September 2007, landing in Kazakhstan at 7:58 GMT. Reentry The Foton capsule has limited thruster capability. As such, the reentry path and orientation can not be controlled after the capsule has separated from the engine system. This means that the capsule has to be protected from reentry heat on all sides, thus explaining the spherical design (as opposed to Project Mercury's conical design), which allows for maximum volume while minimizing the external surface. However, the lack of lift means the capsule experiences high forces on reentry, up to 8 to 9g. Foton launches See also Biosatellite Bion BIOPAN Animals in space References External links Foton (from Encyclopedia Astronautica) Russian Space Web Astrobiology Soyuz program Earth observation satellites of the Soviet Union Satellites of Russia

3463982

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earthscope

Earthscope

The EarthScope project was an National Science Foundation (NSF) funded earth science program that, from 2003-2018, used geological and geophysical techniques to explore the structure and evolution of the North American continent and to understand the processes controlling earthquakes and volcanoes. The project had three components: USArray, the Plate Boundary Observatory, and the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth. Organizations associated with the project included UNAVCO, the Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS), Stanford University, the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). Several international organizations also contributed to the initiative. EarthScope data are publicly accessible. Observatories There were three EarthScope observatories: the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD), the Plate Boundary Observatory (PBO), and the Seismic and Magnetotelluric Observatory (USArray). These observatories consist of boreholes into an active fault zone, global positioning system (GPS) receivers, tiltmeters, long-baseline laser strainmeters, borehole strainmeters, permanent and portable seismographs, and magnetotelluric stations. The various EarthScope components will provide integrated and highly accessible data on geochronology and thermochronology, petrology and geochemistry, structure and tectonics, surficial processes and geomorphology, geodynamic modeling, rock physics, and hydrogeology. Seismic and Magnetotelluric Observatory (USArray) USArray, managed by IRIS, is a 15-year program to place a dense network of permanent and portable seismographs across the continental United States. These seismographs record the seismic waves released by earthquakes that occur around the world. Seismic waves are indicators of energy disbursement within the earth. By analyzing the records of earthquakes obtained from this dense grid of seismometers, scientists can learn about Earth structure and dynamics and the physical processes controlling earthquakes and volcanoes. The goal of USArray is primarily to gain a better understanding of the structure and evolution of the continental crust, lithosphere, and mantle underneath North America. The USArray is composed of four facilities: a Transportable Array, a Flexible Array, a Reference Network, and a Magnetotelluric Facility. The Transportable Array is composed of 400 seismometers that are being deployed in a rolling grid across the United States over a period of 10 years. The stations are placed 70 km apart, and can map the upper 70 km of the Earth. After approximately two years, stations are moved east to the next site on the grid – unless adopted by an organization and made a permanent installation. Once the sweep across the United States is completed, over 2000 locations will have been occupied. The Array Network Facility is responsible for data collection from the Transportable Array stations. The Flexible Array is composed of 291 broadband stations, 120 short period stations, and 1700 active source stations. The Flexible Array allows sites to be targeted in a more focused manner than the broad Transportable Array. Natural or artificially created seismic waves can be used to map structures in the Earth. The Reference Network is composed of permanent seismic stations spaced about 300 km apart. The Reference Network provides a baseline for the Transportable Array and Flexible Array. EarthScope added and upgraded 39 stations to the already existing Advanced National Seismic System, which is part of the Reference Network. The Magnetotelluric Facility is composed of seven permanent and 20 portable sensors that record electromagnetic fields. It is the electromagnetic equivalent of the seismic arrays. The portable sensors are moved in a rolling grid similar to the Transportable Array grid, but are only in place about a month before they are moved to the next location. A magnetotelluric station consists of a magnetometer, four electrodes, and a data recording unit that are buried in shallow holes. The electrodes are oriented north-south and east-west and are saturated in a salt solution to improve conductivity with the ground. Plate Boundary Observatory (PBO) The Plate Boundary Observatory PBO consists of a series of geodetic instruments, Global Positioning System (GPS) receivers and borehole strainmeters, that have been installed to help understand the boundary between the North American Plate and Pacific Plate. The PBO network includes several major observatory components: a network of 1100 permanent, continuously operating Global Positioning System (GPS) stations many of which provide data at high-rate and in real-time, 78 borehole seismometers, 74 borehole strainmeters, 26 shallow borehole tiltmeters, and six long baseline laser strainmeters. These instruments are complemented by InSAR (interferometric synthetic aperture radar) and LiDAR (light detection and ranging) imagery and geochronology acquired as part of the GeoEarthScope initiative. PBO also includes comprehensive data products, data management and education and outreach efforts. These permanent networks are supplemented by a pool of portable GPS receivers that can be deployed for temporary networks to researchers, to measure the crustal motion at a specific target or in response to a geologic event. The Plate Boundary Observatory portion of EarthScope is operated by UNAVCO, Inc. UNAVCO is a non-profit, university-governed consortium that facilitates research and education using geodesy. San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) The San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD) consists of a main borehole that cuts across the active San Andreas Fault at a depth of approximately 3 km and a pilot hole about 2 km southwest of San Andreas Fault. Data from the instruments installed in the holes, which consist of geophone sensors, data acquisition systems, and GPS clocks, as well as samples collected during drilling, will help to better understand the processes that control the behavior of the San Andreas Fault. Data Products Data collected from the various observatories are used to create different types of data products. Each data product addresses a different scientific problem. P-Wave Tomography Tomography is a method of producing a three-dimensional image of the internal structures of a solid object (such as the human body or the earth) by the observation and recording of differences in the effects on the passage of energy waves impinging on those structures. The waves of energy are P-waves generated by earthquakes and are recording the wave velocities. The high quality data that is being collected by the permanent seismic stations of USArray and the Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS) will allow the creation of high resolution seismic imaging of the Earth's interior below the United States. Seismic tomography helps constrain mantle velocity structure and aids in the understanding of chemical and geodynamic processes that are at work. With the use of the data collected by USArray and global travel-time data, a global tomography model of P-wave velocity heterogeneity in the mantle can be created. The range and resolution of this technique will allow investigation into the suite of problems that are of concern in the North American mantle lithosphere, including the nature of the major tectonic features. This method gives evidence for differences in thickness and the velocity anomaly of the mantle lithosphere between the stable center of the continent and the more active western North America. This data is vital for the understanding of local lithosphere evolution, and when combined with additional global data, will allow the mantle to be imaged beyond the current extent of USArray. Receiver Reference Models EarthScope Automated Receiver Survey (EARS), has created a prototype of a system that will be used to address several key elements of the production of EarthScope products. One of the prototype systems is the receiver reference model. It will provide crustal thickness and average crustal Vp/Vs ratios beneath USArray transportable array stations. Ambient Seismic Noise The main function of the Advanced National Seismic System (ANSS) and USArray, is to provide high quality data for earthquake monitoring, source studies and Earth structure research. The utility of seismic data is greatly increased when noise levels, unwanted vibrations, are reduced; however broadband seismograms will always contain a certain level of noise. The dominant sources of noise are either from the instrumentation itself or from ambient Earth vibrations. Normally, seismometer self noise will be well below the seismic noise level, and every station will have a characteristic noise pattern that can be calculated or observed. Sources of seismic noise within the Earth are caused by any of the following: the actions of human beings at or near the surface of the Earth, objects moved by wind with the movement being transferred to the ground, running water (river flow), surf, volcanic activity, or long period tilt due to thermal instabilities from poor station design. A new approach to seismic noise studies will be introduced with the EarthScope project, in that there are no attempts to screen the continuous waveforms to eliminate body and surface waves from the naturally occurring earthquakes. Earthquake signals are not generally included in the processing of noise data, because they are generally low probability occurrences, even at low power levels. The two objectives behind the collection of the seismic noise data are to provide and document a standard method to calculate ambient seismic background noise, and to characterize the variation of ambient background seismic noise levels across the United States as a function of geography, season, and time of day. The new statistical approach will provide the ability to compute probability density functions (PDFs) to evaluate the full range of noise at a given seismic station, allowing the estimation of noise levels over a broad range of frequencies from 0.01–16 Hz (100-0.0625s period). With the use of this new method it will be much easier to compare seismic noise characteristics between different networks in different regions. Earthquake Ground Motion Animations Seismometers of USArray transportable array record the passage of numerous seismic waves through a given point near the Earth's surface, and classically these seismograms are analyzed to deduce properties of the Earth's structure and the seismic source. Given a spatially dense set of seismic recordings, these signals can also be used to visualize the actual continuous seismic waves, providing new insights and interpretation techniques into complex wave propagation effects. Using signals recorded by the array of seismometers, the EarthScope project will be able to animate seismic waves as they sweep across the USArray transportable array for selected larger earthquakes. This will be able to illustrate the regional and teleseismic wave propagation phenomena. The seismic data collected from both permanent and transportable seismic stations will be used to provide these computer generated animations. Regional Moment Tensors The seismic moment tensor is one of the fundamental parameters of earthquakes that can be determined from seismic observations. It is directly related to earthquake fault orientation and rupture direction. The moment magnitude, Mw derived from the moment tensor magnitude, is the most reliable quantity for comparing and measuring the size of an earthquake with other earthquake magnitudes. Moment tensors are used in a wide range of seismological research fields, such as earthquake statistics, earthquake scaling relationships, and stress inversion. The creation of regional moment tensor solutions, with the appropriate software, for moderate-to-large earthquakes in the U.S. will be from USArray transportable array and Advance National Seismic System broadband seismic stations. Results are obtained in the time and the frequency domain. Waveform fit and amplitude-phase match figures are provided to allow users to evaluate moment tensor quality. Geodetic Monitoring of the Western US and Hawaii Global Positioning System (GPS) equipment and techniques provide a unique opportunity for earth scientists to study regional and local tectonic plate motions and conduct natural hazards monitoring. Cleaned network solutions from several GPS arrays have merged into regional clusters in conjunction with the EarthScope project. The arrays include the Pacific Northwest Geodetic Array, EarthScope's Plate Boundary Observatory, the Western Canadian Deformation Array, and networks run by the US Geological Survey. The daily GPS measurements from ~1500 stations along the Pacific/North American plate boundary provide millimeter-scale accuracy and can be used monitor the displacements of the earths crust. With the use of data modeling software and the recorded GPS data, the opportunity to quantify crustal deformation caused by plate tectonics, earthquakes, landslides and volcanic eruptions will be possible. Time-dependent Strain The goal is to provide models of time-dependent strain associated with a number of recent earthquakes and other geologic events as constrained by GPS data. With the use of InSAR (Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar), a remote-sensing technique, and PBO (Plate Boundary Observatory), a fixed array of GPS receivers and strainmeters, the EarthScope project will provide spatially continuous strain measurements over wide geographic areas with decimeter to centimeter resolution. Global Strain Rate Map The Global Strain Rate Map (GSRM) is a project of the International Lithosphere Program whose mission is to determine a globally self-consistent strain rate and velocity field model, consistent with geodetic and geologic field observations collected by GPS, seismometers, and strainometers. GSRM is a digital model of the global velocity gradient tensor field associated with the accommodation of present-day crustal motions. The overall mission also includes: (1) contributions of global, regional, and local models by individual researchers; (2) archive existing data sets of geologic, geodetic, and seismic information that can contribute toward a greater understanding of strain phenomena; and (3) archive existing methods for modeling strain rates and strain transients. A completed global strain rate map will provide a large amount of information which will contribute to the understanding of continental dynamics and for the quantification of seismic hazards. Science There are seven topics that EarthScope will address with the use of the observatories. Convergent Margin Processes Convergent margins, also known as convergent boundaries, are active regions of deformation between two or more tectonic plates colliding with one another. Convergent margins create areas of tectonic uplift, such as mountain ranges or volcanoes. EarthScope is focusing on the boundary between the Pacific Plate and the North American Plate in the western United States. EarthScope will provide GPS geodetic data, seismic images, detailed seismicity, magnetotelluric data, InSAR, stress field maps, digital elevation models, baseline geology, and paleoseismology for a better understanding of convergent margin processes. A few questions hoping to be answered by EarthScope include: What controls the lithospheric architecture? What controls the locus of volcanism? How do convergent margin processes contribute to growth of the continent through time? Crustal Strain and Deformation Crustal strain and deformation is the change in shape and volume of continental and oceanic crust caused by stress applied to rock through tectonic forces. An array of variables including composition, temperature, pressure, etc., determines how the crust will deform. A few questions hoping to be answered by EarthScope include: How do crust and mantle rheology vary with rock type and with depth? How does lithospheric rheology change in the vicinity of a fault zone? What is the distribution of stress in the lithosphere? Continental Deformation Continental deformation is driven by plate interactions through active tectonic processes such as continental transform systems with extensional, strike-slip, and contractional regimes. EarthScope will provide velocity field data, portable and continuous GPS data, fault-zone drilling and sampling, reflection seismology, modern seismicity, pre-Holocene seismicity, and magnetotelluric and potential field data for a better understanding of continental deformation. A few questions hoping to be answered by EarthScope include: What are the fundamental controls on deformation of the continent? What is the strength profile(s) of the lithosphere? What defines tectonic regimes within the continent? Continent Structure and Evolution Earth's continents are compositionally distinct from the oceanic crust. The continents record four billion years of geologic history, while the oceanic crust gets recycled about every 180 million years. Because of the age of continental crusts, the ancient structural evolution of the continents can be studied. Data from EarthScope will be used to find the mean seismic structure of the continental crust, associated mantle, and crust-mantle transition. Variability in that structure will also be studied. EarthScope will attempt to define continental lithosphere formation and continent structure and to identify the relationship between continental structure and deformation. A few questions hoping to be answered by EarthScope include: How does magmatism modify, enlarge, and deform continental lithosphere? How are the crust and lithospheric mantle related? What is the role of extension, orogenic collapse, and rifting in constructing the continents? Faults and Earthquake Processes EarthScope is acquiring 3D and 4D data that will give scientists a more detailed insight into faulting and earthquakes than ever before. This project is providing a much needed data upgrade from work done in previous years thanks to many technological advances. New data will enable an improved study and understanding of faults and earthquakes that will increase our knowledge of the complete earthquake process, allowing for the continued development of building predictive models. Detailed information on internal fault zone architecture, crust and upper mantle structure, strain rates, and transitions between fault systems and deformation types; as well as heat flow, electromagnetic/magnetotelluric, and seismic waveform data, will all be made available. A few questions hoping to be answered by EarthScope include: How does strain accumulate and release at plate boundaries and within the North American plate? How do earthquakes start, rupture, and stop? What is the absolute strength of faults and the surrounding lithosphere? Deep Earth Structure Through the use of seismology, scientists will be able to collect and evaluate data from the deepest parts of our planet, from the continental lithosphere down to the core. The relationship between lithospheric and the upper mantle processes is something that is not completely known, including upper mantle processes below the United States and their effects on the continental lithosphere. There are many issues of interest, such as determining the source of forces originating in the upper mantle and their effects on the continental lithosphere. Seismic data will also give scientists more understanding and insight into the lower mantle and the Earth's core, as well as activity at the core-mantle boundary. A few questions hoping to be answered by EarthScope include: How is evolution of the continents linked to processes in the upper mantle? What is the level of heterogeneity in the mid-mantle? What is the nature and heterogeneity of the lower mantle and core-mantle boundary? Fluids and Magmas EarthScope hopes to provide a better understanding of the physics of fluids and magmas in active volcanic systems in relation to the deep Earth and how the evolution of continental lithosphere is related to upper mantle processes. The basic idea of how the various melts are formed is known, but not the volumes and rates of magma production outside of Mid-ocean ridge basalts. EarthScope will provide seismic data and tomographic images of the mantle to better understand these processes. A few questions hoping to be answered by EarthScope include: Over what temporal and spatial scales do earthquake deformation and volcanic eruptions couple? What controls eruption style? What are the predictive signs of imminent volcanic eruption? What are the structural, rheological, and chemical controls on fluid flow in the crust? Education and Outreach The Education and Outreach Program is designed to integrate EarthScope into both the classroom and the community. The program must reach out to scientific educators and students as well as industry professionals (engineers, land/resource managers, technical application/data users), partners of the project (UNAVCO, IRIS, USGS, NASA, etc.), and the general public. To accomplish this, the EOP offers a wide array of educational workshops and seminars, directed at various audiences, to offer support on data interpretation and implementation of data products into the classroom. Their job is to make sure that everyone understands what EarthScope is, what it is doing in the community, and how to use the data it is producing. By generating new research opportunities for students in the scientific community, the program also hopes to expand recruitment for future generations of earth scientists. Mission "To use EarthScope data, products, and results to create a measurable and lasting change on the way that Earth science is taught and perceived in the United States." Goals Create a high-profile public identity for EarthScope that emphasizes the integrated nature of the scientific discoveries and the importance of EarthScope research initiatives. Establish a sense of ownership among scientific, professional, and educational communities and the public so that a diverse group of individuals and organizations can and will make contributions to EarthScope. Promote science literacy and understanding of EarthScope among all audiences through informal education venues. Advance formal Earth science education by promoting inquiry-based classroom investigations that focus on understanding Earth and the interdisciplinary nature of EarthScope. Encourage use of EarthScope data, discoveries, and new technology in resolving challenging problems and improving our quality of life. EarthScope In the Classroom Education and outreach will be developing tools for educators and students across the United States to interpret and apply this information for solving a wide range of scientific issues within the earth sciences. The project tailors its products to the specified needs and requests of educators. K-12 Education One tool that has already been put into action is the EarthScope Education and Outreach Bulletin. The bulletin, targeted for grades 5-8, summarizes a volcanic or tectonic event documented by EarthScope and puts it into an easily interpretable format, complete with diagrams and 3D models. They follow specific content standards based on what a child should be learning at those grade levels. Another is the EarthScope Voyager, Jr. which allows students to explore and visualize the various types of data that are being collected. In this interactive map, the user can add various types of base maps, features, and plate velocities. Educators have access to real time GPS data of plate movement and influences through the UNAVCO website. University Level EarthScope promises to produce a large amount of geological and geophysical data that will open the door for numerous research opportunities in the scientific community. As the USArray Big Foot project moves across the country, universities are adopting seismic stations near their areas. These stations are then monitored and maintained by not only the professors, but their students as well. Scouting for future seismic station locations has created field work opportunities for students. The influx of data has already begun creating projects for undergraduate research, master's thesis, and doctoral dissertations. A list of currently funded proposals can be found on the NSF website. Legacy Many applications for EarthScope data currently exist, as mentioned above, and many more will arise as more data becomes available. The EarthScope program is dedicated to determining the three dimensional structure of the North American continent. Future uses of the data that it produces might include hydrocarbon exploration, aquifer boundary establishment, remote sensing technique development, and earthquake risk assessment. Due to the open and free-to-the-public data portals that EarthScope and its partners maintain, the applications are limited only by the creativity of those who wish to sort through the gigabytes of data. Also, because of its scale, the program will undoubtedly be the topic of casual conversation for many people outside of the geologic community. EarthScope chatter will be made by people in political, educational, social, and scientific arenas. Geologic Legacy The multidisciplinary character of EarthScope will create stronger network connections between geologists of all types and from around the country. Building an Earth model of this scale requires a complex community effort, and this model is likely to be the first EarthScope legacy. Researchers analyzing the data will leave us with a greater scientific understanding of geologic resources in the Great Basin and of the evolution of the plate boundary on the North American west coast. Another geologic legacy desired by the initiative, is to invigorate the Earth sciences community. Invigoration is self-perpetuating as evidenced by participation from thousands of organizations from around the world and from all levels of students and researchers. This leads to a significantly heightened awareness within the general public, including the next cohort of prospective Earth scientists. With further evolution of the EarthScope project, there may even be opportunities to create new observatories with greater capabilities, including extending the USArray over the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf of California. There is much promise for EarthScope tools and observatories, even after retirement, to be used by universities and professional geologists. These tools include the physical equipment, software invented to analyze the data, and other data and educational products initiated or inspired by EarthScope. Political Legacy The science produced by EarthScope and the researchers using its data products will guide lawmakers in environmental policy, hazard identification, and ultimately, federal funding of more large-scale projects like this one. Besides the three physical dimensions of North America's structure, a fourth dimension of the continent is being described through geochronology using EarthScope data. Improving understanding of the continent's geologic history will allow future generations to more efficiently manage and utilize geologic resources and live with geologic hazards. Environmental policy laws have been the subject of some controversy since the European settlement of North America. Specifically, water and mineral rights issues have been the focus of dispute. Representatives in Washington D.C. and the state capitals require guidance from authoritative science in drafting the soundest environmental laws for our country. The EarthScope research community is in a position to provide the most reliable course for government to take concerning environmental policy. Hazard identification with EarthScope is an application already in use. In fact, the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) has awarded the Arizona Geological Survey and its partner universities funding to adopt and maintain eight Transportable Array stations. The stations will be used to update Arizona's earthquake risk assessment. Social Legacy For EarthScope to live up to its potential in the Earth sciences, the connections between the research and the education and outreach communities must continue to be cultivated. Enhanced public outreach to museums, the National Park System, and public schools will ensure that these forward-thinking connections are fostered. National media collaboration with high-profile outlets such as Discovery Channel, Science Channel, and National Geographic may secure a lasting legacy within the social consciousness of the world. Earth science has already been promoted as a vital modern discipline, especially in today's “green” culture, to which EarthScope is contributing. The size of the EarthScope project augments the growing public awareness of the broad structure of the planet on which we live. See also EarthScope Consortium German Continental Deep Drilling Programme (KTB) Kola Superdeep Borehole San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth (SAFOD project) References External links Historic EarthScope program website archive EarthScope Consortium Incorporated Research Institutions for Seismology (IRIS) University NAVSTAR Consortium (UNAVCO) National Science Foundation (NSF) United States Geological Survey (USGS) Seismological observatories, organisations and projects Geophysics Geodesy Seismology Regional geology Satellite navigation Global Positioning System

3464663

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea%20Robin%20Pipeline

Sea Robin Pipeline

Sea Robin Pipeline is a submarine natural gas pipeline system which brings natural gas from the offshore oil wells in the Ship Shoal area of the central Gulf of Mexico onto the central Louisiana coast. Its West Area lines connect into the Henry Hub, a distribution hub of the natural gas pipeline system in Erath, Louisiana. Its East Area lines connect to processing plants near Morgan City, Louisiana. Its FERC code is 6. Responsible parties Sea Robin Pipeline Company, LLC is owned by CMS Panhandle Companies, a part of Energy Transfer Partners based in Dallas. Sea Robin was formerly owned by Sonat, Inc. through its subsidiary Southern Natural Gas Company. Sonat was required to sell the pipeline in 1999 in order to complete its merger with El Paso Corporation. See also References External links SERmessenger.energytransfer.com: official Sea Robin Pipeline Company, LLC website Natural gas pipelines in the United States Gulf of Mexico oil fields of the United States Submarine pipelines Energy infrastructure in Louisiana 1968 establishments in Louisiana Companies based in Dallas Energy companies established in 1968 Non-renewable resource companies established in 1968 1968 establishments in Texas Natural gas pipelines in Louisiana

3465350

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QuikSCAT

QuikSCAT

The NASA QuikSCAT (Quick Scatterometer) was an Earth observation satellite carrying the SeaWinds scatterometer. Its primary mission was to measure the surface wind speed and direction over the ice-free global oceans via its effect on water waves. Observations from QuikSCAT had a wide array of applications, and contributed to climatological studies, weather forecasting, meteorology, oceanographic research, marine safety, commercial fishing, tracking large icebergs, and studies of land and sea ice, among others. This SeaWinds scatterometer is referred to as the QuikSCAT scatterometer to distinguish it from the nearly identical SeaWinds scatterometer flown on the ADEOS-2 satellite. Mission description QuikSCAT was launched on 19 June 1999 with an initial 3-year mission requirement. QuikSCAT was a "quick recovery" mission replacing the NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT), which failed prematurely in June 1997 after just 9.5 months in operation. QuikSCAT, however, far exceeded these design expectations and continued to operate for over a decade before a bearing failure on its antenna motor ended QuikSCAT's capabilities to determine useful surface wind information on 23 November 2009. The QuikSCAT geophysical data record spans from 19 July 1999 to 21 November 2009. While the dish could not rotate after this date, its radar capabilities remained fully intact. It continued operating in this mode until full mission termination on October 2, 2018. Data from this mode of the mission was used to improve the accuracy of other satellite surface wind datasets by inter-calibrating other Ku-band scatterometers. QuikSCAT measured winds in measurement swaths 1,800 km wide centered on the satellite ground track with no nadir gap, such as occurs with fan-beam scatterometers such as NSCAT. Because of its wide swath and lack of in-swath gaps, QuikSCAT was able to collect at least one vector wind measurement over 93% of the World's Oceans each day. This improved significantly over the 77% coverage provided by NSCAT. Each day, QuikSCAT recorded over 400,000 measurements of wind speed and direction. This is hundreds of times more surface wind measurements than are collected routinely from ships and buoys. QuikSCAT provided measurements of the wind speed and direction referenced to 10 meters above the sea surface at a spatial resolution of 25 km. Wind information cannot be retrieved within 15–30 km of coastlines or in the presence of sea ice. Precipitation generally degrades the wind measurement accuracy, although useful wind and rain information can still be obtained in mid-latitude and tropical cyclones for monitoring purposes. In addition to measuring surface winds over the ocean, scatterometers such as QuikSCAT can also provide information on the fractional coverage of sea ice, track large icebergs (>5 km in length), differentiate types of ice and snow, and detect the freeze–thaw line in polar regions. While the rotating dish antenna can no longer spin as designed, the rest of the instrument remains functional and data transmission capabilities remain intact, although it cannot determine the surface vector wind. It can, however, still measure radar backscatter at a fixed azimuth angle. QuikSCAT is being used in this reduced mode to cross-calibrate other scatterometers in hopes of providing long-term and consistent surface wind datasets over multiple on-orbit scatterometer platforms, including the operational European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT) Advanced Scatterometer (ASCAT) on MetOp-A and MetOp-B, India's Oceansat-2 scatterometer operated by the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO), and the China's HaiYang-2A (HY-2A) scatterometer operated by China's National Satellite Ocean Application Service, as well as future NASA scatterometer missions in development. A NASA Senior Review panel in 2011 endorsed the continuation of the QuikSCAT mission with these modified objectives through 2018. QuikSCAT was declared fully decommissioned on October 2, 2018. Instrument description SeaWinds used a rotating dish antenna with two spot beams that sweep in a circular pattern. The antenna consists of a 1-meter diameter rotating dish that produces two spot beams, sweeping in a circular pattern. It radiates 110 W microwave pulses at a pulse repetition frequency (PRF) of 189 Hz. QuikSCAT operates at a frequency of 13.4 GHz, which is in the Ku-band of microwave frequencies. At this frequency, the atmosphere is mostly transparent to non-precipitating clouds and aerosols, although rain produces significant alteration of the signal. The spacecraft is in a Sun-synchronous orbit, with equatorial crossing times of ascending swaths at about 06:00 LST ±30 minutes. Along the equator, consecutive swaths are separated by 2,800 km. QuikSCAT orbits Earth at an altitude of 802 km and at a speed of about 7 km per second. Measurement description Wind measurement accuracy Measurement principles Scatterometers such as QuikSCAT emit pulses of low-power microwave radiation and measure the power reflected back to its receiving antenna from the wind-roughened sea surface. Gravity and capillary waves on the sea surface caused by the wind reflect or backscatter power emitted from the scatterometer radar primarily by means of a Bragg resonance condition. The wavelengths of these waves are roughly 1 cm and are usually in equilibrium with the local surface wind. Over water surfaces, the microwave backscatter is highly correlated with the surface wind speed and direction. The particular wavelength of the surface waves is determined by the wavelength of the microwave radiation emitted from the scatterometer's radar. QuikSCAT consists of an active microwave radar that infers surface winds from the roughness of the sea surface based on measurements of radar backscatter cross section, denoted as σ0. σ0 varies with surface wind speed and direction relative to the antenna azimuth, incidence angle, polarization, and radar frequency. QuikSCAT uses a dual-beam, conically scanning antenna that samples the full range of azimuth angles during each antenna revolution. Backscatter measurements are obtained at fixed incidence angles of 46° and 54°, providing up to four views of each region of the surface at different incidence angles. Standard processing of the QuikSCAT measurements yields a spatial resolution of about 25 km. A higher spatial resolution of 12.5 km is also achieved through special processing, but has significantly more measurement noise. An even higher spatial resolution of 5 km is also produced, but only for limited regions and special cases. The σ0 observations are calibrated to the wind speed and direction of the wind at a reference height of 10 meters above the sea surface. Construction and launch In 1996, the NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT) was launched aboard the Japanese Advanced Earth Observing Satellite (ADEOS-1). This satellite was designed to record surface winds over water across the world for several years. However, an unexpected failure in 1997 led to an early termination of the NSCAT project. Following this briefly successful mission, NASA began constructing a new satellite to replace the failed one. They planned to build it and have it prepared for launch as soon as possible to limit the gap in data between the two satellites. In just 12 months, the Quick Scatterometer (QuikSCAT) satellite was constructed and ready to be launched, faster than any other NASA mission since the 1950s. The QuikSCAT project was originally budgeted at $93 million, including the physical satellite, the launch rocket, and ongoing support for its science mission. A series of rocket failures in November 1998 grounded the Titan (rocket family) launcher fleet, delayed the launch of QuikSCAT, and added $5 million to this initial cost. A new instrument, the SeaWinds scatterometer, was carried on the satellite. The SeaWinds instrument, a specialized microwave radar system, measured both the speed and direction of winds near the ocean surface. It used two radars and a spinning antenna to record data across nine-tenths of the oceans of the world in a single day. It recorded roughly four hundred thousand wind measurements daily, each covering an area in width. Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the NSCAT team jointly managed the project of construction of the satellite at the Goddard Space Flight Center. Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corp. supplied the materials to construct the satellite. In light of the record-setting construction time, engineers who worked on the project were given the American Electronics Achievement Award. This was only achieved due to the new type of contract made specifically for this satellite. Instead of the usual year given to select a contract and initiate development, it was constrained to one month. The newly constructed satellite was set to launch on a Titan II rocket from Vandenberg Air Force Base in California. The rocket lifted off at 7:15 pm PDT on 19 June 1999. Roughly two minutes and thirty seconds after launch, the first engine was shut down and the second was engaged as it moved over the Baja California Peninsula. A minute later, the nose cone, at the top of the rocket, separated into two parts. Sixteen seconds later, the rocket was re-oriented to protect the satellite from the sun. For the next 48 minutes, the two crafts flew over Antarctica and later over Madagascar, where the rocket reached its desired altitude of . At 59 minutes after launch, the satellite separated from the rocket and was pushed into its circular orbit around Earth. Shortly after, the solar arrays were deployed and connection was established with the satellite at 8:32 pm PDT with a tracking station in Norway. For the next two weeks, the shuttle used bursts from its engine to fine-tune its location and correct its course to the desired motion. On July 7, eighteen days after take-off, the scatterometer was turned on and a team of 12 personnel made detailed reviews of function of QuikSCAT. A month after entering orbit, the team completed the checks, and QuikSCAT began collecting and transmitting backscatter measurements. Applications Weather Forecasting Many operational numerical weather prediction centers began assimilating QuikSCAT data in early 2002, with preliminary assessments indicating a positive impact. The U.S. National Centers for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) and the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) led the way by initiating assimilation of QuikSCAT winds beginning, respectively, on 13 January 2002 and 22 January 2002. QuikSCAT surface winds were an important tool for analysis and forecasting at the U.S. National Hurricane Center since becoming available in near–real time in 2000. QuikSCAT wind fields were also used as a tool in the analysis and forecasting of extratropical cyclones and maritime weather outside the tropics at the U.S. Ocean Prediction Center and the U.S. National Weather Service. Data was also provided in real-time over most of the ice-free global oceans, including traditionally data-sparse regions of the ocean where few observations exist, such as in the Southern Ocean and the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. QuikSCAT observations are provided to these operational users in near-real-time (NRT) in binary universal form for the representation of meteorological data (BUFR) format by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration/National Environmental Satellite, Data, and Information Service (NOAA/NESDIS). The data latency goal is 3 hours, and almost all data are available within 3.5 hours of measurement. To meet these requirements, the QuikSCAT NRT data processing algorithms combine the finest-grained backscatter measurements into fewer composites than the science data algorithms. Otherwise the QuikSCAT NRT processing algorithms are identical to the science data algorithms. Oceanography Land and Sea Ice Climate Variability Tropical Cyclones Applications of QuikSCAT in operational tropical cyclone analysis and forecasting at the National Hurricane Center include identifying and locating the center of tropical cyclones, estimating its intensity, and wind radii analysis. The scatterometer's ability to record wind speeds at the surface allows meteorologists to determine whether a low pressure area is forming and enhance the ability to predict sudden changes in structure and strength. The first tropical cyclone captured by the SeaWinds instrument was Typhoon Olga in the western Pacific basin. The system was monitored by the satellite from its generation on July 28 to its demise in early August. In 2007, Bill Proenza, the head of the National Hurricane Center at the time, stated in a public message that the loss of the QuikSCAT satellite would harm the quality of hurricane forecasts. This followed a battery anomaly in which the spacecraft was temporarily unable to perform nominal science observations due to limited power. He claimed that three-day forecasts would be roughly 16% less accurate following the loss of QuikSCAT. This position was controversial as it relied on unpublished data. Although the satellite aids in forecasting hurricane position and intensity, it does not do so exclusively. 2009 bearing failure In mid-2009, a gradual deterioration in the bearings of the antenna's rotation mechanism was noticed. Friction caused by this deterioration slowed the rotation rate of the antenna, leading to gaps in data recorded by QuikSCAT. The antenna ultimately failed on November 23, 2009. Upon failing, it was announced that the satellite was likely at the end of its mission and would no longer be used. The sensor on the satellite was confirmed to have failed around 0700 UTC. The loss only affected the real-time scanning equipment; the long-term data collection remained intact and operational. According to NASA, the failure resulted from the age of the satellite. The mechanism that seized was designed to last only five years; however, it remained operational for roughly ten years, twice its expected use. On November 24, NASA managers began to assess how extensively affected the satellite was and if it was possible to restart the spinning antenna. Contingency plans for what to do in the event of QuikSCAT's failure were also reviewed. A replacement for this spacecraft, ISS-RapidScat, was launched in 2014. See also Earth Observing System European Remote-Sensing Satellite References External links Jet Propulsion Laboratory homepage for QuikSCAT QuikSCAT on NOSA Earth observation satellites of the United States Spacecraft launched in 1999 Oceanographic satellites NASA satellites Spacecraft launched by Titan rockets

3465656

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plate%20Boundary%20Observatory

Plate Boundary Observatory

The Plate Boundary Observatory (PBO) was the geodetic component of the EarthScope Facility. EarthScope was an earth science program that explored the 4-dimensional structure of the North American Continent. EarthScope (and PBO) was a 15-year project (2003-2018) funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF) in conjunction with NASA. PBO construction (an NSF MREFC) took place from October 2003 through September 2008. Phase 1 of operations and maintenance concluded in September 2013. Phase 2 of operations ended in September 2018, along with the end of the EarthScope project. In October 2018, PBO was assimilated into a broader Network of the Americas (NOTA), along with networks in Mexico (TLALOCNet) and the Caribbean (COCONet), as part of the NSF's Geodetic Facility for the Advancement of Geosciences (GAGE). GAGE is operated by UNAVCO. PBO precisely measured Earth deformation resulting from the constant motion of the Pacific and North American tectonic plates in the western United States. These Earth movements can be very small and incremental and not felt by people, or they can be very large and sudden, such as those that occur during earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. The high-precision instrumentation of the PBO enabled detection of motions to a sub-centimeter level. PBO measured Earth deformation through a network of instrumentation including: high-precision Global Positioning System (GPS) and Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) receivers, strainmeters, seismometers, tiltmeters, and other geodetic instruments. The PBO GPS network included 1100 stations extending from the Aleutian Islands south to Baja and eastward across the continental United States. During the construction phase, 891 permanent and continuously operating GPS stations were installed, and another 209 existing stations were integrated (PBO Nucleus stations) into the network. Geodetic imaging data was transmitted, often in realtime, from a wide network of GPS stations, augmented by seismometers, strainmeters and tiltmeters, complemented by InSAR (interferometric synthetic aperture radar), LiDAR (light-activated radar), and geochronology. The GPS stations were categorized into clusters. The transform cluster is near the San Andreas Fault in California; the subduction cluster is in the Cascadia subduction zone (northern California, Oregon, Washington, and southern British Columbia); the extension cluster is in the Basin and Range region; the volcanic cluster is in the Yellowstone caldera, the Long Valley caldera, and the Cascade volcanoes; the backbone cluster is at 100–200 km intervals across the United States to provide complete spatial coverage. Data from the PBO was, and NOTA data continue to be, transmitted to UNAVCO to the data center where it is collected, archived and distributed. These data sets continue to be freely and openly available to the public, with equal access provided for all users. PBO data includes the raw data collected from each instrument, quality-checked data in formats commonly used by PBO's various user communities, and processed data such as calibrated time series, velocity fields, and error estimates. Some scientific questions that continue to be addressed by the EarthScope project and the PBO data include: How does accumulated strain lead to earthquakes? Are there recognizable precursors to earthquakes? How does the evolution of the continent influence the motions that are happening today? What happens to geologic structures at depth? What influences the location of features such as faults and mountain ranges? Is it inherited from earlier tectonic events or related to deeper processes in the mantle? How is magma generated? How does it travel from the mantle to reach the surface? What are the precursors to a volcanic eruption? References Global Positioning System Plate tectonics

3467245

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1863%20Antinous

1863 Antinous

1863 Antinous , provisional designation , is a stony asteroid and near-Earth object, approximately 2–3 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 7 March 1948 by American astronomer Carl Wirtanen at Lick Observatory on the summit of Mount Hamilton, California. It was named after Antinous from Greek mythology. Orbit and classification Antinous is also classified as a Mars-crosser and Apollo asteroid. The SU/Sq-type asteroid orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 0.9–3.6 AU once every 3 years and 5 months (1,240 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.61 and an inclination of 18° with respect to the ecliptic. It has an Earth Minimum orbit intersection distance (MOID) of 0.1836 AU. In the 20th century Antinous passed within 30 Gm of the Earth five times; it will do so only once in the 21st. The nearest distance increases each time, from 26 to 29 Gm. Physical characteristics In the Tholen and SMASS taxonomic scheme, Antinous is characterized as a SU and Sq type, respectively, which are subtypes of the broader group of S-type asteroids. The Apollo asteroid has a rotation period of 7.46 hours and an albedo between 0.10 and 0.240, Naming This minor planet was named after Antinous from Greek mythology. Antinous was one of the many unwelcome suitors for Penelope's hand while her husband, Odysseus, was away on his travels (also see 201 Penelope and 1143 Odysseus). Antinous, being the most insolent of all, was the first to be killed by Odysseus on his return. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 February 1976 (). Notes References External links Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info ) Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books 001863 Discoveries by Carl A. Wirtanen Named minor planets 001863 19480307

3467450

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1865%20Cerberus

1865 Cerberus

1865 Cerberus is a stony asteroid and near-Earth object of the Apollo group, approximately 1.6 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 26 October 1971, by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek at the Hamburger Bergedorf Observatory, Germany, and given the provisional designation . It was named for Cerberus from Greek mythology. Orbit and classification Cerberus orbits the Sun at a distance of 0.6–1.6 AU once every 1 years and 1 month (410 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.47 and an inclination of 16° with respect to the ecliptic. The Apollo asteroid has an Earth minimum orbital intersection distance of , which corresponds to 61 lunar distances. It passes within 30 gigametres (Gm) of the Earth 7 times from the year 1900 to the year 2100, each time at a distance of 24.4 Gm to 25.7 Gm. It also makes close approaches to Mars and Venus. Physical characteristics In the Tholen and SMASS taxonomy, Cerberus is a common stony S-type asteroid, composed of 65% plagioclase and 35% pyroxene. It has a rotation period of 6.804 hours and a geometric albedo of 0.220. With a maximum lightcurve range of 2.3, Cerberus may be cigar shaped like 1I/Oumuamua. Naming This minor planet is named after the figure from Greek mythology, Cerberus, a three-headed dog that guarded the entrance to Hades, the Underworld. His capture marked the last of the twelve labors of Hercules. It is also the name of an extinct constellation, Cerberus, now contained in the eastern part of Hercules. (It should not be confused with Kerberos, a moon of the dwarf planet Pluto.) The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 December 1974 (). References External links Les NEO (Near-Earth Objects), Michel-Alain Combes, (in French) Astrosurf, names of NEAs Les Noms des NEA – liste alphabétique (Excel spreadsheet in French) Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info ) Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books 001865 Discoveries by Luboš Kohoutek Named minor planets 001865 001865 19711026

3469713

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%20Geographic%20Reference%20System

World Geographic Reference System

The World Geographic Reference System (GEOREF) is a geocode, a grid-based method of specifying locations on the surface of the Earth. GEOREF is essentially based on the geographic system of latitude and longitude, but using a simpler and more flexible notation. GEOREF was used primarily in aeronautical charts for air navigation, particularly in military or inter-service applications, but it is rarely seen today. However, GEOREF can be used with any map or chart that has latitude and longitude printed on it. Quadrangles GEOREF is based on the standard system of latitude and longitude, but uses a simpler and more concise notation. GEOREF divides the Earth's surface into successively smaller quadrangles, with a notation system used to identify each quadrangle within its parent. Unlike latitude/longitude, GEOREF runs in one direction horizontally, east from the 180° meridian; and one direction vertically, north from the South Pole. GEOREF can easily be adapted to give co-ordinates with varying degrees of precision, using a 2–12 character geocode. GEOREF co-ordinates are defined by successive divisions of the Earth's surface, as follows: The first level of GEOREF divides the world into quadrangles each measuring 15 degrees of longitude by 15 degrees of latitude; this results in 24 zones of longitude and 12 bands of latitude. A longitude zone is identified by a letter from A to Z (omitting I and O) starting at 180 degrees and progressing eastward through the full 360 degrees of longitude; a latitude band is identified by a letter from A through M (omitting I) northward from the south pole. Hence, any 15 degree quadrangle can be identified by two letters; the easting (longitude) is given first, followed by the northing (latitude). These two letters are the first two characters of a full GEOREF coordinate. Each 15-degree quadrangle is further divided into smaller quadrangles, measuring 1 degree of longitude by 1 degree of latitude. These quadrangles are lettered A to Q (omitting I and O), running from west to east for longitude; and A to Q (omitting I and O), running south to north for latitude. These letters form the third and fourth characters of a full GEOREF coordinate. Four letters thus identify any 1-degree quadrangle in the world. Each of the 1-degree quadrangles is further subdivided into 60 1-minute longitude zones, numbered 00 through 59 from west to east, and 60 1-minute latitude bands, numbered 00 to 59 from south to north. These numbers are always written as two digits, with a leading zero if necessary, and the easting is always followed by the northing. Thus, 4 letters and 4 digits give the position of any 1-minute quadrangle. Each of the 1-minute quadrangles may be further divided into 10 or 100 smaller divisions both north–south and east–west, permitting the identification of 0.1-minute or 0.01-minute quadrangles. The GEOREF coordinate for any 0.1-minute quadrangle consists of four letters and six numbers; the GEOREF coordinate for any 0.01-minute quadrangle consists of four letters and eight numbers. The initial two letters of a GEOREF reference, designating the 15 degree quadrangle, can be omitted, if it is clear which 15 degree quadrangle the reference applies to (e.g., when working within a restricted geographical area). Example For example, on a GEOREF chart, Naval Air Station Patuxent River (38°17′10″N 76°24′42″W) / (38.286108, -76.4291704) is located (to the nearest minute) at position GJPJ3417. To locate the position from the coordinates, proceed as follows: Right from 180° longitude to longitude zone G Up from the South Pole to latitude zone J Right in zone GJ to the lettered 1° column P Up in zone GJ to the lettered 1° row J Right in the 1° horizontal zone to 34 minutes Up in the 1° vertical zone to 17 minutes The same co-ordinate shown in 6-digit (1/10 minute) format is GJPJ342171 and in 8-digit (1/100 minute) format is GJPJ34241716. Designation of area Extensions to the above notation allow the GEOREF system to be used to designate an area around a reference point. This is achieved by adding an area designation to a base GEOREF co-ordinate. The area designation can be the letter S, to specify the sides of a rectangle (separated by the letter X); or the letter R, to specify the radius of a circle. In both cases the units are nautical miles. In addition, the letter H can be added, followed by an altitude in thousands of feet. For example, the reference GJQJ0207S6X8 designates a rectangle centered on Deal Island (GJQJ0207), running east–west and north–south. Designation GJPJ4103R5 means a circle around Point Lookout (GJPJ4103) with a radius of . Designation GJPJ3716H17 means a height of 17,000 feet over GJPJ3716. See also List of geodesic-geocoding systems Global Area Reference System (GARS) Maximum elevation figure correlated to each GEOREF quadrangle on VFR aviation maps Military Grid Reference System (MGRS) Area minimum altitudes on IFR charts References GEOREF info from map-reading.com World Geographic Reference System (GEOREF), National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency Coordinate Systems Overview, from the University of Colorado Geocodes Geographic coordinate systems Military cartography

3470781

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mugham

Mugham

Mugham () or Mughamat () is one of the many classical compositions from Azerbaijan, contrasting with tasnif and ashik. It is a highly complex art form that weds classical poetry and musical improvisation in specific local modes. Mugham is a modal system. Unlike Western modes, "mugham" modes are associated not only with scales but with an orally transmitted collection of melodies and melodic fragments that performers use in the course of improvisation. Mugham is a compound composition of many parts. The choice of a particular mugham and a style of performance fits a specific event. The dramatic unfolding in performance is typically associated with increasing intensity and rising pitches, and a form of poetic-musical communication between performers and initiated listeners. Three major schools of mugham performance existed from the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the regions of Karabakh, Shirvan, and Baku. The town of Shusha of Karabakh, was particularly renowned for this art. A short selection of Azerbaijani mugham, played on the Azerbaijani wind instrument balaban, was included among many cultural achievements of humanity on the Voyager Golden Record, which was attached to the Voyager spacecraft to represent world music. In 2003, UNESCO proclaimed Azerbaijani Mugham a "Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity". It was added to the UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage Lists in 2008. History In the course of its long history, the people of Azerbaijan have retained their ancient musical tradition. Mugham belongs to the system of modal music and may have derived from Persian musical tradition. The Uighurs in Xinjiang (新疆) call this musical development muqam, the Uzbeks and Tajiks call it maqom (or shasmaqom), while Arabs call it maqam and Persians dastgah. The meta-ethnicity and intricate complexity of this music also becomes apparent in the fact that terms such as mugham, maqam, or dastgah, omnipresent in oriental music, can mean one thing in the Turkish tradition, while the same term in the music of Uzbekistan takes on quite another meaning, and yet another in the classical Arabic tradition. So, in one culture mugham may be related to a strictly fixed melodic type, while in another it is only the cadences, the melody endings that are associated with it. In a third culture it may only correspond to a specific type of tone scales. In the 16–17th centuries the art of mugham was passing through the development process as a professional music of the palace. In this period a dastgah form starts to develop in the structure and forms of mugham. New colors and shades as well as tasnifs developed in mugham performance. The masters of mugham of Azerbaijan sang gazals written in aruz genre by Fuzuli, Habibi and Khatai. The music events were held in most regions of today's Azerbaijan in the 19th century and mugham was performed at these events. In the 19th century famous French writer Alexandre Dumas who attended the ceremony in Shamakhy, wrote in his works about his trip saying he was greatly impressed by mugham that sounded there. Such events held in Azerbaijan were attended by khanendes from Karabakh, Baku and Tabriz which in turn caused the blending of singing traditions of different regions. In the early decades of the 20th century, a member of native intelligentsia, Uzeyir Hajibeyov, the author of the first national opera Leyli and Majnun, also formulated the theoretical basis of Azerbaijani mugham in his work The Principles of Azerbaijan Folk Music. Famous Azerbaijani composer Gara Garayev and Fikrat Amirov also made a great contribution to the development of the art of mugham through creating the mugham symphony. Hajibaba Huseynov was credited as a key figure in the popularization of mugham, and developing talented mugham khanandas such as Alim Qasimov, Aghakhan Abdullayev and Gadir Rustamov. As of 1985, Agdam Mugham School functions in Azerbaijan, which produced the "Karabakh Nightingales" mugham ensemble. Azerbaijan also has a great tradition of composers and musicians of western classical music. Uzeyir Hajibeyov with his Leyli and Majnun created the genre of mugham-opera. Fikret Amirov (1922–1984) was the first composer of symphonic mughams, namely Shur, Kurd Ovshari, and Gulistan Bayati Shiraz. Azerbaijani composers created a plethora of compositions that fused mugham and traditional European genres. Among those, for example, Vasif Adigozal's mugham oratorio Karabakh Shikastasi. Such works are obviously very different from traditional mugham formations but in fact incorporate many mugham idioms. On the level of musicians, there remains a strict separation between classical and "traditional" music in terms of training. Even if the musicians are educated at the same conservatorium they stick to one camp. In 2005, International Center of Mugham created under the decree of Azerbaijani president Ilham Aliyev. In August of same year, on the territory of the Baku Boulevard, Ilham Aliyev with his spouse, the Goodwill Ambassador of UNESCO Mehriban Aliyeva and UNESCO Director General Koichiro Matsuura, laid the first stone at the base of the complex. Opening of the complex took place on December 27, 2008. The total area of center is 7500 meters squared, which also includes concert saloon of 350 people, recording studio, rooms for rehearsals. In the foyer, visitors can find busts of famous mugham performers, also a rich collection of musical instruments. The modes of mugham In recent years, Azerbaijan folk music existed within the scope of folk art. The vocal-instrumental forms of folklore contain the elements of polyphony. The peculiarity of folk music clarifies itself firstly with the development of a modal system. It contains seven main modes – Rast, Shur, Segah (are especially common), Shushtar, Bayaty-Shiraz, Chahargah, Humayun and three collateral kinds – shahnaz, sarendj, chargah in some other form. Before, it was considered that each of the modes has its special vivid emotional meaning. Every mode represents a strongly organized scale, possessing a firm tonic prop (maye), and each step of the mode has its melodic function. Zarbi mugham includes nine modes – Heyrati, Arazbari, Samayi-Shams, Mansuriyya, Mani, Ovshari, Heydari, Karabakh Shikastasi and Kasma Shikastasi. Analysis Part of the confusion arises from the fact that the term itself can have two different, if related meanings. The famous Azerbaijani composer Gara Garayev has the following explanation: "The expression mugham is used in two senses in the folk music of Azerbaijan. On the one hand the word mugham describes the same thing as the term lad [Russian for key, mode, scale]. An analysis of Azerbaijani songs, dances and other folk-music forms show that they are always constructed according to one [of these] modes. On the other hand the term mugham refers to an individual, multi-movement form. This form combines elements of a suite and a rhapsody, is symphonic in nature, and has its own set of structural rules. In particular one should observe that the suite-rhapsody-mugham is constructed according to one particular mode-mugham and is subject to all of the particular requirements of this mode." (Sovetskaya Muzyka 1949:3). Azerbaijani conservatory throughout the 20th century produced significant scholars and scholarship. Among them, Rena Mamedova explored the philosophical content of mugham, as an Azerbaijani "formula of creative thinking". Elkhan Babayev wrote extensively on rhythmic aspect of mugham performance. The native scholars continued and expanded Hajibeyov's analysis of mugham. Mugham describes a specific type of musical composition and performance, which is hard to grasp with western concepts of music in another respect: for one, mugham composition is improvisational in nature. At the same time it follows exact rules. Furthermore, in the case of a suite-rhapsody-mugham the concept of improvisation is not really an accurate one, since the artistic imagination of the performers is based on a strict foundation of principles determined by the respective mode. The performance of mughams does therefore not present an amorphous and spontaneous, impulsive improvisation. With respect to the concept of improvisation, mugham music is often put in relation to jazz, a comparison that is accurate to a certain point only. Although mugham does allow for a wide margin of interpretation, an equation with jazz is oversimplified, since it fails to account for the different kinds of improvisation for different Mugham modes. The performance of a certain mugham may last for hours. (For the uninitiated listener it is close to impossible to know whether a musician is actually improvising or playing a prearranged composition.) Furthermore, as Garayev stresses, mugham music has a symphonic character. The songs are often based on the medieval and modern poetry of Azerbaijan, and although love is a common topic in these poems, to the uninitiated ear many of the intricacies and allusions are lost. For one, the poems do not primarily deal with worldly love but with the mystical love for god. Yet, strictly speaking, this is still secular music/poetry, as opposed to, say, Sufism. Nevertheless, mugham composition is designed very similarly to Sufism in that it seeks to achieve ascension from a lower level of awareness to a transcendental union with god. It is a spiritual search for god. Derivatives and offshoots Jazz mugham The famous Azerbaijani jazz musician Vagif Mustafazadeh, who died in 1979, is credited with fusing jazz with mugham. Jazz mugham is jazz based on the modal forms or scales of mughams, just as a mugham symphonies are symphonies based on mughams. Ordinary jazz is marked by metered rhythm. But mugham jazz does not follow a metered system. Both rhythm and scales are improvised. In recent years, interest to jazz mugham has seen rise in many western countries, particularly in the United States, Austria and Japan. In 1995, Jeff Buckley performed "What Will You Say" as a duet with Alim Qasimov at the Festival de la Musique Sacrée (Festival of Sacred Music) in France. Cultural significance In 2003, UNESCO has acknowledged the authenticity, richness and cultural significance of mugham both national and global culture, and in 2003 announced it as a "Masterpiece of Oral and Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity". Considered to be the classical music of Azerbaijan, the mugham is a traditional musical form characterized by a large degree of improvisation and draws upon popular stories and local melodies. The recent evolution of the cultural industry has threatened the improvisational nature and the ear-to-ear transmission of this art form. During his official visit to the country in August 2005, the Director-General of UNESCO, in the company of President Ilham Aliyev and several Goodwill Ambassadors, attended a foundation stone-laying ceremony of a Mugham Centre. In 2004, Mehriban Aliyeva, the First Lady of Azerbaijan, was named as a UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador for the oral and musical traditions. Since 2009, International World of Mugham Festival is held with the participations of famous artists from all over the world. Social impact The massive popularity of mugham resulted in a powerful impact on worldwide society. Many of mugham khanandas were known as country-loving, powerful, respectful characters, and mugham was popularly associated with sign of pain and hope during First Nagorno-Karabakh War. Mugham has lived and sounded in Azerbaijan in all periods, independently on political, public and economic situation and reserved its place in Azerbaijani culture. The mugham masters play tremendous role in transition of mugham from generations to generations. Notable performers Individuals Female Malakkhanim Ayyubova Shovkat Alakbarova Konul Khasiyeva Sara Gadimova Gandab Guliyeva Sakina Ismayilova Tukezban Ismayilova Yaver Kelenterli Farghana Qasimova Nazakat Mammadova Rubaba Muradova Basti Sevdiyeva Jahan Talyshinskaya Nazaket Teymurova Zuzu Zakaria Male Aghakhan Abdullayev Abulfat Aliyev Ahmed Agdamski Shakili Alasgar Janali Akbarov Gulu Asgarov Arif Babayev Bulbuljan Jabbar Garyagdyoglu Talat Gasimov Zahid Guliyev Hajibaba Huseynov Mansum Ibrahimov Kechachioghlu Muhammed Sabir Mirzayev Alibaba Mammadov Sakhavat Mammadov Yagub Mammadov Zabit Nabizadeh Alim Qasimov Islam Rzayev Gadir Rustamov Khan Shushinski Musa Shushinski Seyid Shushinski Musicians Elnur Ahmadov Firuz Aliyev Habil Aliyev Firuz Aliyev Elchin Hashimov Sahib Pashazade Kamil Jalilov Mansur Mansurov Mazahir Mammadov Bahram Mansurov Gurban Pirimov Sadigjan See also Franghiz Ali-Zadeh Vagif Mustafazadeh Aziza Mustafazadeh Music of Azerbaijan Culture of Azerbaijan History of Azerbaijan International Mugham Center of Azerbaijan Mugham triads References External links UNESCO proclaimes Mugham of Azerbaijan a Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity Mugham Society of America Declared Masterpiece of Oral World Heritage by UNESCO azer.com on Mugham Louis Werner about Mugham e-book "Principles of Azerbaijani Folk Music" Azerbaijani music Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity Modes (music) Classical and art music traditions Azerbaijani inventions Azerbaijani styles of music Azerbaijani words and phrases National symbols of Azerbaijan Articles containing video clips Contents of the Voyager Golden Record Maqam-based music tradition

3472310

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star%20tracker

Star tracker

A star tracker is an optical device that measures the positions of stars using photocells or a camera. As the positions of many stars have been measured by astronomers to a high degree of accuracy, a star tracker on a satellite or spacecraft may be used to determine the orientation (or attitude) of the spacecraft with respect to the stars. In order to do this, the star tracker must obtain an image of the stars, measure their apparent position in the reference frame of the spacecraft, and identify the stars so their position can be compared with their known absolute position from a star catalog. A star tracker may include a processor to identify stars by comparing the pattern of observed stars with the known pattern of stars in the sky. History In the 1950s and early 1960s, star trackers were an important part of early long-range ballistic missiles and cruise missiles, in the era when inertial navigation systems (INS) were not sufficiently accurate for intercontinental ranges. Consider a Cold War missile flying towards its target; it initially starts by flying northward, passes over the arctic, and then begins flying southward again. From the missile's perspective, stars behind it appear to move closer to the southern horizon while those in front are rising. Before flight, one can calculate the relative angle of a star based on where the missile should be at that instant if it is in the correct location. That can then be compared to the measured location to produce an "error off" signal that can be used to bring the missile back onto its correct trajectory. Due to the Earth's rotation, stars that are in a usable location change over the course of a day and the location of the target. Generally, a selection of several bright stars would be used and one would be selected at launch time. For guidance systems based solely on star tracking, some sort of recording mechanism, typically a magnetic tape, was pre-recorded with a signal that represented the angle of the star over the period of a day. At launch, the tape was forwarded to the appropriate time. During the flight, the signal on the tape was used to roughly position a telescope so it would point at the expected position of the star. At the telescope's focus was a photocell and some sort of signal-generator, typically a spinning disk known as a chopper. The chopper causes the image of the star to repeatedly appear and disappear on the photocell, producing a signal that was then smoothed to produce an alternating current output. The phase of that signal was compared to the one on the tape to produce a guidance signal. Star trackers were often combined with an INS. INS systems measure accelerations and integrate those over time to determine a velocity and, optionally, double-integrate to produce a location relative to its launch location. Even tiny measurement errors, when integrated, add up to an appreciable error known as "drift". For instance, the N-1 navigation system developed for the SM-64 Navaho cruise missile drifted at a rate of 1 nautical mile per hour, meaning that after a two-hour flight the INS would be indicating a position away from its actual location. This was outside the desired accuracy of about half a mile. In the case of an INS, the magnetic tape can be removed and those signals instead provided by the INS. The rest of the system works as before; the signal from the INS roughly positions the star tracker, which then measures the actual location of the star and produces an error signal. This signal is then used to correct the position being generated from the INS, reducing the accumulated drift back to the limit of the accuracy of the tracker. These "stellar inertial" systems were especially common from the 1950s through the 1980s, although some systems use it to this day. Current technology Many models are currently available. There also exist open projects designed to be used for the global CubeSat researchers and developers community. Star trackers, which require high sensitivity, may become confused by sunlight reflected from the spacecraft, or by exhaust gas plumes from the spacecraft thrusters (either sunlight reflection or contamination of the star tracker window). Star trackers are also susceptible to a variety of errors (low spatial frequency, high spatial frequency, temporal, ...) in addition to a variety of optical sources of error (spherical aberration, chromatic aberration, etc.). There are also many potential sources of confusion for the star identification algorithm (planets, comets, supernovae, the bimodal character of the point spread function for adjacent stars, other nearby satellites, point-source light pollution from large cities on Earth, ...). There are roughly 57 bright navigational stars in common use. However, for more complex missions, entire star field databases are used to determine spacecraft orientation. A typical star catalogue for high-fidelity attitude determination is originated from a standard base catalog (for example from the United States Naval Observatory) and then filtered to remove problematic stars, for example due to apparent magnitude variability, color index uncertainty, or a location within the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram implying unreliability. These types of star catalogs can have thousands of stars stored in memory on board the spacecraft, or else processed using tools at the ground station and then uploaded. See also Celestial navigation GoTo (telescopes) Sun sensor References Spacecraft attitude control Astrodynamics Orbits Spaceflight concepts Celestial navigation Navigational equipment

3472330

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun%20sensor

Sun sensor

A sun sensor is a navigational instrument used by spacecraft to detect the position of the sun. Sun sensors are used for attitude control, solar array pointing, gyro updating, and fail-safe recovery. In addition to spacecraft, sun sensors find use in ground-based weather stations and sun-tracking systems, and aerial vehicles including balloons and UAVs. Mechanism There are various types of sun sensors, which differ in their technology and performance characteristics. Sun presence sensors provide a binary output, indicating when the sun is within the sensor's field of view. Analog and digital sun sensors, in contrast, indicate the angle of the sun by continuous and discrete signal outputs, respectively. In typical sun sensors, a thin slit at the top of a rectangular chamber allows a line of light to fall on an array of photodetector cells at the bottom of the chamber. A voltage is induced in these cells, which is registered electronically. By orienting two sensors perpendicular to each other, the direction of the sun can be fully determined. Often, multiple sensors will share processing electronics. Criteria There are a number of design and performance criteria which dictate the selection of a sun sensor model: Field of view Angular resolution Accuracy and stability Mass and volume Input voltage and power Output characteristics (including electrical characteristics, update frequency, nonlinearity, and encoding) Durability (including radiation hardening and tolerance to vibration and thermal cycling) See also Celestial navigation Earth sensor Star tracker References Spacecraft attitude control Astrodynamics Orbits Spaceflight concepts Navigational equipment Celestial navigation

3475555

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%2855637%29%202002%20UX25

(55637) 2002 UX25

is a trans-Neptunian object that orbits the Sun in the Kuiper belt beyond Neptune. This TNO briefly garnered scientific attention when it was found to have an unexpectedly low density of about 0.82 g/cm3. has an absolute magnitude of about 4.0, and Spitzer Space Telescope results estimate it to be about 681 km in diameter. The low density of this and many other mid sized TNOs implies that they have likely never compressed into fully solid bodies, let alone differentiated or collapsed into hydrostatic equilibrium, and so are highly unlikely to be dwarf planets. It was discovered on 30 October 2002, by the Spacewatch program. Numbering and naming This minor planet was numbered (55637) by the Minor Planet Center on 16 February 2003 (). , it has not been named. Classification has a perihelion of 36.7 AU, which it will next reach in 2065. As of 2020, is 40 AU from the Sun. The Minor Planet Center classifies as a cubewano while the Deep Ecliptic Survey (DES) classifies it as scattered-extended. The DES using a 10 My integration (last observation: 2009-10-22) shows it with a minimum perihelion (qmin) distance of 36.3 AU. It has been observed 212 times with precovery images dating back to 1991. Physical characteristics A variability of the visual brightness was detected which could be fit to a period of 14.38 or 16.78 h (depending on a single-peaked or double peaked curve). The light-curve amplitude is ΔM = . The analysis of combined thermal radiometry of from measurements by the Spitzer Space Telescope and Herschel Space Telescope indicates an effective diameter of and albedo of 0.107. Assuming equal albedos for the primary and secondary it leads to the size estimates of ~664 km and ~190 km, respectively. If the albedo of the secondary is half of that of the primary the estimates become ~640 and ~260 km, respectively. Using an improved thermophysical model slightly different sizes were obtained for UX25 and its satellite: 659 km and 230 km, respectively. has red featureless spectrum in the visible and near-infrared but has a negative slope in the K-band, which may indicate the presence of the methanol compounds on the surface. It is redder than Varuna, unlike its neutral-colored "twin" , in spite of similar brightness and orbital elements. Composition With a density of 0.82 g/cm3, assuming that the primary and satellite have the same density, is one of the largest known solid objects in the Solar System that is less dense than water. Why this should be is not well understood, because objects of its size in the Kuiper belt often contain a fair amount of rock and are hence pretty dense. To have a similar composition to others large KBOs, it would have to be exceptionally porous, which was believed to be unlikely given the compactability of water ice; this low density thus astonished astronomers. Studies by Grundy et al. suggest that at the low temperatures that prevail beyond Neptune, ice is brittle and can support significant porosity in objects significantly larger than , particularly if rock is present; the low density could thus be a consequence of this object failing to warm sufficiently during its formation to significantly deform the ice and fill these pore spaces. Satellite The discovery of a minor-planet moon was reported in IAUC 8812 on 22 February 2007. The satellite was detected using the Hubble Space Telescope in August 2005. The satellite was found at 0.16 arcsec from the primary with an apparent magnitude difference of 2.5. It orbits the primary in days, at a distance of , yielding a system mass of . The eccentricity of the orbit is . This moon is estimated to be in diameter. Assuming the same albedo as the primary, it would have a diameter of 190 km, assuming an albedo of 0.05 (typical of other cold, classical KBOs of similar size) a diameter of 260 km. References External links MPEC 2002-V08 Astronomers surprised by large space rock less dense than water, Ron Cowen, Nature, 13 November 2013 Scientist finds medium sized Kuiper belt object less dense than water, Bob Yirka, Phys.org, 14 November 2013 Classical Kuiper belt objects Discoveries by the Spacewatch project Possible dwarf planets Binary trans-Neptunian objects 20021030

3476719

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIMOSA

MIMOSA

MIMOSA (Micromeasurements of Satellite Acceleration), COSPAR 2003-031B, was a Czech scientific microsatellite. The satellite was nearly spherical with 28 sides and carried a microaccelerometer to monitor the atmospheric density profile by sensing the atmospheric drag on the approximated sphere. MIMOSA was launched on June 30, 2003, alongside other miniature satellites including MOST and several CubeSat-based satellites. It had a fairly eccentric orbit, with an initial perigee of and apogee of . The satellite never became fully functional due to several technical problems on board. It is no longer in orbit. NORAD reported it burnt into the atmosphere on December 11, 2011. See also 2003 in spaceflight References External links Informative English page A free paper model of MIMOSA to download and build 2003 in spaceflight Spacecraft which reentered in 2011 Spacecraft launched in 2003 Atmospheric sounding satellites Space program of the Czech Republic

3482270

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesper%20Olsen%20%28runner%29

Jesper Olsen (runner)

Jesper Olsen, or Jesper Kenn Olsen, is a multiple national record holder ultra distance runner from Denmark, and was the second person verified to have run around the world (16,000 miles: 2004-2005), as well as the first verified to have run around the world in a north-south rather than east-west direction (25,000 miles: 2008-2010, 2011-2012, due to 6-month illness and injury). Background Olsen has a master's degree in political science from Copenhagen University, Denmark. He also has a law degree. Running Olsen has been a marathon runner since the age of 15. He has achieved various milestones, including the European elite on 100 km and 24-hours; the national recordholder on 100 km, 24-hours and 6-days (6:58, 224 km, 549 km), the national elite on marathon (2:27), as well as the Cliff Young Australian 6-day race in November 2004, running 756 kilometres, and the South African 6-day race in April 2008 with a total of 685 kilometres. Following positive reception of his proposal of a world run in 2001, Olsen also founded the World Run project as the organization to undertake the attempt and its support. World runs World Run I The concept of Olsen's world run originated as a suggestion made in 2001 by Olsen to David Blaikie, who published it with an invitation for comments on his website ultramarathonworld.com. Olsen suggested that, without taking sides in then-current controversies in the ultra-running world, a professionally organized world run would be a "constructive" and "truly sportsman[like]" response to widespread ultrarunner community skepticism and discussion concerning Robert Garside's world run, which had been in progress since 1997 but was viewed with great skepticism by Blaikie and many ultra-runners and had not yet been authenticated by Guinness at the time. In his letter, Olsen stated that while he was "fairly new to the 'real' ultra-running" world, he did hold the Danish national record for the 100 km run (6:58:31) and for the 24-hour run (223 km), had been running marathons since around 1986 (15 years), and having finished a degree, was able to commit the time required if the proposal gained the necessary support from others. Olsen's run around the world took 22 months. It started on 1 January 2004 and finished on 23 October 2005. His route consisted of: London-Copenhagen-Moscow-Vladivostok-(air)-Niigata-Tokyo-(air)-Sydney-Perth-(air)-Los Angeles-Vancouver-New York-(air)-Shannon-Dublin-(air)-Liverpool-London. Olsen averaged a day, slightly more than a marathon. It totalled just over 16,000 miles (26,000 km), exceeding the distance of the first verified walk around the world (Dave Kunst, 1970-1974, 14,452 miles (23,123 km)) but around (or slightly under) half the distance of the first verified run around the world, when Garside's run was eventually verified by Guinness in 2007 (Robert Garside, 1997-2003, estimated 30,000 - 40,000 miles (48,000 - 64,000 km)) During most of the run, Olsen pushed a baby carriage, in which he kept food, beverages, a tent, and other equipment. While running through Russia and half of the U.S., he was aided by a support car transporting these supplies. From London to central Siberia he was accompanied by Alexander Korotkov of Russia, who planned to run around the world with Olsen but gave up in central Siberia. In October 2006, Jorden Rundt i Løb ("World Run" in English) was published. World Run II Olsen and Sarah Barnett ran the North-South route starting on 1 July 2008. The North-South run aimed to complete a distance of with GPS tracking and live coverage, thus making it the world's longest fully GPS-documented run. The run went from top to bottom of the globe and back, running across four continents and a huge range of temperatures and terrain. It can be seen as a run in a circle around the world in southern, later northern direction with the poles excluded. It started at North Cape, Norway (1 July 2008) passing Helsinki, Finland (4 August), Copenhagen, Denmark (25 August), Budapest, Hungary (25 September), and Istanbul, Turkey (5 November). On December 1, 2008, near Silifke, Turkey, Barnett had to give up after , and Olsen continued alone. He passed Cairo, Egypt (1 January 2009) and Addis Abeba, Ethiopia (16 April). Cape Town in South Africa was reached by 15 March 2010, thereby completing the first half of the run and the first documented run through Africa, a distance of . Olsen spent more than six months recovering in Denmark due to dysenteria, malaria, and two operations to eliminate deep infections in his right arm. He then continued his run on 1 January 2011 from Punta Arenas for the last half of the run, through South America and North America to Newfoundland . On 28 July 2012, Olsen announced on his website the completion of World Run 2 in Cape Spear, Newfoundland. Books In June 2014, Olsen's book "The Runner’s Guide to the Planet" was released on iTunes. Olsen also has two other books in Danish published on iTunes in January and April 2014. Personal bests 10 km - 31:29 min ½ marathon - 1:08:10 h Marathon - 2:27:57 h 100 km - 6:58:31 h 100 miles - 15:26:09 h 6-days - 780 km Longest run: 26,232 km /1 lap (Earth) - 662 days See also List of pedestrian circumnavigators References External links Olsen's profile at worldrun.org Olsen's World Run I media coverage Living people Danish ultramarathon runners Pedestrian circumnavigators of the globe 1971 births Danish male long-distance runners Male ultramarathon runners University of Copenhagen alumni Athletes from Copenhagen

3483804

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramadan%20%28calendar%20month%29

Ramadan (calendar month)

Ramadan (, ) is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, and the month in which the Quran is believed to be revealed to the Islamic prophet Muhammad. Fasting during the month of Ramadan is one of the Five Pillars of Islam. The month is spent by Muslims fasting during the daylight hours from dawn to sunset. According to Islam, the Quran was sent down to the lowest heaven during this month, thus being prepared for gradual revelation by Jibreel to Muhammad. Therefore, Muhammad told his followers that the gates of Heaven would be open for the entire month and the gates of Hell (Jahannam) would be closed. The first three days of the next month, Shawwal, are spent in celebration and are observed as the "Festival of Breaking Fast" or Eid al-Fitr. Timing The Islamic calendar is a lunar one: months begin when the first crescent of a new moon is sighted. Consequently, the Islamic year is 10 to 11 days shorter than the solar year and contains no intercalation, Ramadan migrates throughout the seasons. The Islamic day starts after sunset. The estimated start and end dates for Ramadan, based on the Umm al-Qura calendar of Saudi Arabia, are: Many Muslims insist on the local physical sighting of the moon to mark the beginning of Ramadan, but others use the calculated time of the new moon or the Saudi Arabian declaration to determine the start of the month. Since the new moon is not in the same state at the same time globally, the beginning and ending dates of Ramadan depend on what lunar sightings are received in each respective location. As a result, Ramadan dates vary in different countries, but usually only by a day. This is due to the cycle of the moon. Astronomical projections that approximate the start of Ramadan are available. Events Ramadan is observed by Muslims during the entire lunar month by the same name. The month of religious observances consists of fasting and extra prayers. Some important historical events during this month are generally believed to include: 2 Ramadan, the Torah was bestowed on Moses according to Islam. 10 Ramadan, death of Khadija bint Khuwaylid, the wife of Muhammad. 12 Ramadan, the Gospel was bestowed on Jesus according to Islam. 15 Ramadan, birth of Hasan ibn Ali. 17 Ramadan, birth of Ibn ʿArabi. 17 Ramadan, death of Aisha bint Abu Bakr – a wife of Muhammad. 17 Ramadan, the Battle of Badr was won by the Muslims. 18 Ramadan, the Psalms (Zabur) were bestowed on David (Dawood). 19 Ramadan, Imam Ali struck on the head during prayer by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muljam with a poisoned sword. 20 Ramadan, the Conquest of Mecca by Muhammad. 21 Ramadan, Caliph Ali martyred. Laylat al-Qadr is observed during one of the last ten days of the month (typically the odd nights). Muslims believe that this night which is also known as "The Night of Power" is better than a thousand months. This is often interpreted as praying throughout this night is rewarded equally with praying for a thousand months (just over 83 years i.e., a lifetime). Many Muslims spend the entire night in prayer. Hadith Prohibition to pronounce the word Ramadan by itself According to numerous hadiths Ramadan is one of the names of God in Islam, and as such it is prohibited to say only "Ramadan" in reference to the calendar month and that it is necessary to say the "month of Ramadan". Sunni Shia Zaydi See also Islamic holy books 19 Ramadan 21 Ramadan 23 Ramadan Notes References External links Islamic-Western Calendar Converter (Based on the Arithmetical or Tabular Calendar) The Umm al-Qura Calendar of Saudi Arabia Predicting the First Visibility of the Lunar Crescent (with lunar crescent visibility maps to 2024) Fasting in Islam 9

3487437

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xifengite

Xifengite

Xifengite (Fe5Si3) is a rare metallic iron silicide mineral. The crystal system of xifengite is hexagonal. It has a specific gravity of 6.45 and a Mohs hardness of 5.5. It occurs as steel gray inclusions within other meteorite derived nickel iron mineral phases. It was first described in 1984 and named for the eastern passageway, Xifengkou, of the Great Wall of China. The type locality is the Yanshan meteorite of the Hebei Province, China. It has also been reported from dredgings along the East Pacific Rise. The other known natural iron silicide minerals are gupeiite (), hapkeite (), linzhiite (), luobusaite (), naquite (), suessite (), and zangboite (). See also Glossary of meteoritics References Iron(II,III) minerals Meteorite minerals Hexagonal minerals Minerals in space group 193 Minerals described in 1984

3487972

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boreal%20%28age%29

Boreal (age)

In paleoclimatology of the Holocene, the Boreal was the first of the Blytt–Sernander sequence of north European climatic phases that were originally based on the study of Danish peat bogs, named for Axel Blytt and Rutger Sernander, who first established the sequence. In peat bog sediments, the Boreal is also recognized by its characteristic pollen zone. It was preceded by the Younger Dryas, the last cold snap of the Pleistocene, and followed by the Atlantic, a warmer and moister period than our most recent climate. The Boreal, transitional between the two periods, varied a great deal, at times having within it climates like today's. Subdividing the Boreal Subsequent to the original Blytt-Sernander scheme, the first stage of the Boreal was divided off as a Pre-boreal transitional phase, followed by the Boreal proper. Some current schemes based on pollen zones also distinguish a pre-Boreal (pollen zone IV), an early Boreal (pollen zone V) and a late Boreal (pollen zone VIa, b, and c). Dating One commonly cited date for the end of the Younger Dryas and the start of the Pre-Boreal is 11,500 Before Present calibrated. The start of the period is relatively sharply defined by a rise of 7 °C in 50 years in South Greenland. The date is based fairly solidly on Greenland ice cores, which give 11,640 BP for the late Younger Dryas and 11,400 BP for the early Pre-Boreal. But estimates of other dates vary by up to 1000 years, for a number of reasons. First, "Boreal" can identify a paleoclimate, a pollen zone or a temporally-fixed chronozone, and those three bases of definition allow quite different dates. Second, different dating methods obtain different dates. The underlying problem is that climate and pollen vary somewhat from region to region. The scientists of each region use the methods available in their region, whether lake varves, the annual layers of sediment from ancient or modern lake bottoms, ice cores or counts of tree rings (dendrochronology). Standardization has become of increasing concern to scientists everywhere. Dates from many methods continue to multiply as paleoclimatologists seek higher resolution. But it is unclear whether regional variation will allow high-resolution standardization. Yet, there are some solid dates of the Pre-Boreal and Boreal. The Saksunarvatn tephra (an ash layer of volcanic fall-out) is dated in Greenland ice to 10,180±60 BP; in lake deposits at Krakenes in Norway, to 10,010–9,980 years BP calibrated; in northwest German lakes, to 10,090 BP calibrated. The tephra occurs in early Boreal contexts. So, it seems certain that the early Boreal (pollen zone V) includes the year 10,000 BP. Similarly, the late Boreal includes the Kilian/Vasset tephra of Swiss and southwest German lakes at 8200 BP, all calibrated. But the borders are less certain. Studies of bogs in northwest Russia are the basis for a division of the PreBoreal (PB) into PB-1, 10,000–9800, and PB-2, 9800–9300 BP incal. The scheme goes on to divide the Boreal (BO) into BO-1, 9300–9000, BO-2, 9000–8500, and BO-3, 8500–8000, incal. CalPal used on these dates suggests overall boundaries of 11,500 and 10,500 BP for the Pre-Boreal, and the end of the Boreal at 8900. Dates given recently are usually earlier than those given more than 10 years ago. For example, Iverson (1973) and Rud (1979) give dates of 10,000–9000 BP for the PreBoreal and 9000–8000 BP for the Boreal, which are uncalibrated C-14 dates based on Scandinavian pollen stratigraphy. Presumably, more-recent dates are more accurate, as technology improves with time, often quite rapidly. Yet, pollen and climate phases also to some degree may depend on latitude, so no date can be regarded as certainly wrong. Scientists look for the overall pattern of the dates, but that technique is not 100% reliable, either. Description Before the Pre-Boreal, Eurasia was locked in the chill of the Younger Dryas and was a mostly continuous tundra belt, with regions of taiga, covered with a blanket of grasses, shrubs and other low plants typical of open land. Large numbers of herbivores wandered in herds over vast distances. The blanket teemed with small, rapidly reproducing species, which supported food chains of larger predators. The largest predators and humans hunted the mammals of the open tundra. The Pre-Boreal began with a sudden rise in temperature that abruptly changed this ecosystem. Forest replaced the open lands in Europe, and forest-dwelling animals spread from southern refugia and replaced the ice-age tundra mammals; new climax ecosystems developed. The old fauna persisted in Central Asia, but were soon hunted out, as they were not replenished by the larger areas formerly nourishing the ecosystem. The sea brought isolation by rising rapidly and many coastal areas becoming flooded and new islands formed. Forest had closed over the former European tundra. Humans had to adapt to the encroaching forest or move east with the large mammals. Those who stayed became hunter-gatherers of the forests and fishers of the numerous bays, inlets and shallow waters around the thousands of islands that now spangled the seas of Europe. They lived richly and were encouraged to enter the pre-productive phase that we call the Mesolithic. Those who moved east hunted out the last of wild big game and turned their best efforts into learning to herd what was left. In the Americas, humans had left the Paleoindian phase and were now in the Archaic. Meanwhile humanity toward the south of the north temperate zone had already turned to food production in a number of widely separated locations and were on the brink of civilization. There is no evidence of any extensive contact with the cultures of the north during the Boreal. The producers tended to live in dense centers without any interest in moving from there except when motivated to find new lands. The gatherers ranged widely over their lands, building only temporary settlements in which to spend the winter. Flora During the Pre-Boreal pollen zone IV, large quantities of tree pollen began to replace the pollen of open-land species, as the most mobile and flexible arboreal species colonized their way northward, replacing the ice-age tundra plants. Foremost among them were the birches, Betula pubescens and Betula pendula, accompanied by Sorbus aucuparia and quaking aspen, Populus tremula. Especially sensitive to temperature changes and moving northward almost immediately were Juniperus nana and J. communis, the dwarf and shrub juniper respectively, which reached a maximum density in the Pre-Boreal, before their niches were shaded out. Pine soon followed, for which reason the resulting open woodland is often called a birch or a pine-birch forest. In the yet warmer early Boreal pollen zone V, Corylus avellana (hazel) and pine expanded into the birch woodlands to such a degree that palynologists refer to the resulting ecology as the hazel-pine forest. In the late Boreal it was supplanted by the spread of a deciduous forest called the mixed-oak forest. Pine, birch and hazel were reduced in favor of Quercus, Ulmus, Tilia and Alnus. The former tundra was now closed by a canopy of dense forest. In the marshland Typha latifolia prevailed. Less cold-tolerant species such as ivy and mistletoe were to be found in Denmark. Fauna The new forest was populated with animals from refugia in Italy, Spain and the Balkans. Animals such as Emys orbicularis (European pond tortoise), which require warmer temperatures, were to be found in Denmark. The Eurasian golden plover came as far north as Norway. Forest ungulates included: Cervidae Cervus elaphus (red deer), Capreolus capreolus (roe deer), Alces alces (elk), Sus scrofa (wild pig), and Bos primigenius (aurochs). Predators included: Canis lupus (wolf), Ursus arctos (brown bear), Lynx lynx (lynx), Felis sylvestris (wildcat), and herbivores Lepus europaeus (European hare). The inland waters would have contained mammal species such as Castor fiber (beaver), Lutra lutra (otter) and species of fish such as Esox lucius (northern pike) and Siluris glanis (catfish). Humans The Preboreal-Boreal in Europe was a time of transition from the Palaeolithic cultures to the Mesolithic. Forests and drowned coastlands were places of plenty. Human settlements avoided the deep forest in favor of streams, lakes, and especially bays of the ocean. Pre-Boreal settlements have been found in north-central Europe, such as at Friesack. There an unusual find of net fragments made from plant fibers suggested that fishing was an important part of life. Finds from another settlement at Vis, near the Vychegda River in Russia, offer more details of life in a settlement of the Boreal. Plant fibers were used for baskets and for hafting bone points to shafts. Fishermen crossed the waters in bark boats plied by oars, and set nets. They also made hand-held nets from wooden hoops and plant fiber. Food gathering continued in winter: skis and sledge runners have been found. Reindeer continued to be hunted. Bows, arrows, and spears have been found. Implements were likely to be embellished by sculpting in wood or bone. Only a few motifs were used: the elk's head, the snake, and human. In Europe, the major culture was the Maglemosian (9000–6400 BC), extending into Denmark and Russia. Localized cultures included the Nieman of Lithuania, the Kunda of Latvia and Estonia, the Azilian of France, and the Epi-Gravettian of Italy. Towards the end of the Mesolithic, local traditions began to multiply, perhaps due to influences from the south, or due to the general advance of culture. In North America the San Dieguito complex and Lake Mojave Complex existed in this period, located in Southern California's coastal region and Mojave Desert, and in northern Mexico's Sonoran Desert in the Yuma Desert and Baja California peninsula. See also Doggerland Paleo-Indians References External links Early to mid Holocene calcareous tufa Paleoclimate Reconstruction The Flandrian Central Europe .02 Geological ages Blytt–Sernander system History of climate variability and change

3488509

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%98rsted%20%28satellite%29

Ørsted (satellite)

Ørsted is an Earth science satellite launched in 1999 to study the earth's geomagnetic field. It is Denmark's first satellite, named after Hans Christian Ørsted (1777–1851), a Danish physicist and professor at the University of Copenhagen, who discovered electromagnetism in 1820. Objectives The spacecraft's primary science objectives are to perform highly accurate and sensitive measurements of the geomagnetic field and to perform global monitoring of the high energy charged particle environment. Instruments The instrumentation consisted of two magnetometers (proton precession and fluxgate), a star imager for attitude determination, a solid-state charged particle detector package, and a GPS receiver. The Science Instrument Team is responsible for the design of the instruments, while the Science Team is responsible for the science mission planning and international science participation. The science data obtained during the planned one-year mission will be used to derive an updated model of the geomagnetic field and its secular variation and to study the magnetospheric field-aligned currents and their relationship to ionospheric and solar wind conditions. The principal research topics are in two areas: 1° studies of the generation of the magnetic field in the fluid core and the magnetic and electrical properties of the solid Earth; and 2° studies of Earth's magnetic field as the controlling parameter of the magnetosphere and of all the physical processes that take place in the Earth's plasma environment, including phenomena like aurora and magnetic storms. The primary scientific instruments on the Ørsted satellite are: An Overhauser Effect Scalar Magnetometer provides extremely accurate measurements of the strength of the geomagnetic field. The Overhauser magnetometer is situated at the end of an 8 meter long boom, in order to minimize disturbances from the satellite's electrical systems. A Compact Spherical Coil (CSC) Fluxgate Vector Magnetometer, used to measure the strength and direction of the geomagnetic field. The magnetometer is situated somewhat closer to the satellite body in the so-called "gondola", together with: A star tracker developed by the Danish Space Research Institute, to determine the orientation of the satellite. The other three instruments are located in the main body of the satellite: The Charged Particle Detector, used to measure the flux of fast electrons, protons and alpha particles around the satellite. A Turbo-Rogue GPS receiver, the main use of the receiver is to accurately determine the position of the satellite. Periodically this instrument may also be used to investigate the atmospheric pressure, temperature, and humidity beneath the satellite. To utilize the Ørsted science data return, the plan is to establish an internationally recognized research environment in the field of solar-terrestrial physics, a Solar-Terrestrial Physics Laboratory, comprising magnetospheric, ionospheric, and atmospheric physics in combination with research in the magnetic field of the Earth. Correlative studies will be carried out using observations from existing monitoring stations in Greenland and other polar regions. Mission The spacecraft was launched, on 23 February 1999 at 10:29:55 UTC, by a Delta II rocket, from the Vandenberg Air Force Base SLC-2W pad, as an auxiliary payload (primary payload was ARGOS and another auxiliary payload was SUNSAT; the auxiliary payload satellites were launched free of charge) into a near-sun synchronous elliptical polar orbit, it had a perigee of , an apogee of , an inclination of 96.1, and an orbital period of 100.0 minutes, and nodal drift rate 0.76°/day. It is gravity-gradient stabilized, with its extendable boom aligned to and pointing away from the center of the Earth. Active attitude control is achieved using three-axis magnetic torquing coils. The data system features onboard monitoring and pre-processing. Data is stored in a 16 Mbyte on-board memory and downlinked in a packetized format when a ground station is in view. In 2010, Ørsted passed within 500 meters of debris from the 2009 satellite collision but suffered no damage. Based on data from the Ørsted satellite, researchers from the Danish Space Research Institute concluded that the Earth's magnetic poles are moving, and that the speed with which they are moving has been increasing for the past few years. This apparent acceleration indicates that the Earth's magnetic field might be in the process of reversing, which could have serious consequences for land-based biological life. The results have been published in several prominent scientific journals, and printed on the cover pages of Geophysical Research Letters, Nature, and Eos. Ørsted was the first in a planned sequence of microsatellites to be flown under the now discontinued Danish Small Satellite Programme. After more than twenty years in orbit, the Ørsted satellite is still operational (as of 2023), and continues to downlink accurate measurements of the Earth's magnetic field. Ørsted was constructed by a team of Danish space companies, of which CRI was prime contractor. CRI was acquired by Terma A/S before Ørsted was launched, and the daily operations are run jointly by Terma A/S and the Danish Meteorological Institute. See also Swarm (ESA mission) Magsat References Science and technology in Denmark Geomagnetic satellites Spacecraft launched in 1999 Spacecraft launched by Delta II rockets First artificial satellites of a country

3490344

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronation%20Stone%2C%20Kingston%20upon%20Thames

Coronation Stone, Kingston upon Thames

The Coronation Stone is an ancient sarsen stone block which is believed to have been the site of the coronation of seven Anglo-Saxon kings. It is currently located next to the Guildhall in Kingston upon Thames, England. Kingston is now a town in the Royal Borough of Kingston Upon Thames in Greater London. Typonymy In Old English, tun, ton or don meant farmstead or settlement, so the name Kingston appears to mean farmstead of the kings. A local legend that these Saxon coronations gave Kingston its name is contradicted by the records of the 838 council. History Æthelstan was consecrated king at Kingston in 925, Eadred in 946 and Æthelred the Unready in 979. There is also some evidence that Edward the Elder, Edmund I, Eadwig and Edward the Martyr were consecrated in the town. According to John Stow, writing in the late sixteenth century, Æthelstan was crowned on a stage in the market place, but it was later believed that the kings were crowned in the ancient church of St Mary, which collapsed in 1730. A large stone block was recovered soon afterwards from the ruins of the chapel, and it has since been regarded as the "Coronation Stone" of the Kings of the English. It was used for a time in the late 18th century to the early 19th century as a mounting block, but in 1850 it was placed in the market place on a plinth in front of the old Town Hall (on the site now occupied by the 'Market House' today). which had the names of the seven kings believed to have been crowned on it inscribed around the side. Future plans In 2017, Kingston Council was considering an option of re-siting the coronation stone from the Guildhall's frontage back to its original location within the churchyard of Kingston's old parish church, All Saints‘ Church. See also Blarney Stone (Ireland) Stone of Scone (Scotland) Duke's Chair (Austria) Edward Faraday Odlum History of Scotland Lia Fáil (Ireland) Omphalos Prince's Stone (Slovenia) Stone of Jacob Stones of Mora (Sweden) Notes Further reading External links History of the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames Monuments and memorials in London Grade I listed buildings in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames English monarchy Anglo-Saxon archaeology Coronation stones Sacred rocks Tourist attractions in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames

3491796

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilhelm%20Gotthelf%20Lohrmann

Wilhelm Gotthelf Lohrmann

Wilhelm Gotthelf Lohrmann (31 January 1796 – 20 February 1840) was a Saxon cartographer, astronomer, meteorologist and patron of the sciences. He was born in Dresden, the son of a brickmaster. In 1810 he attended school at the Pfeilschmidtschen Garnisonsschule, then studied architecture. His mother died in 1812, his father in 1817, and his first wife Christiane Amalie died in 1827. The couple had married in 1819, and she had borne six children. Wilhelm would marry again in 1828 to Henriette. In 1821 he made observations of the Moon, enabling him to produce a Mondkärtchen (lunar map). This map was further developed in 1824 as Topographie der sichtbaren Mondoberfläche ("Topography of the visible surface of the moon"), and the four sections are now stored as a historical work at the Technische Universität Dresden library. His maps were completed in 1836, but were not published before his death. In 1878, Johann Schmidt edited and published all 25 sections of the map as Mondkarte in 25 Sektionen. These were republished in 1963. The maps used orthographic projection of the surface as viewed at mean libration. He was responsible for the founding of the Technische Bildungsanstalt Dresden (Dresden Technical School) on May 1, 1828, and was the first director of that institution. Wilhelm's instrument would later be used by Samuel Heinrich Schwabe for his observations of the Sun and sunspots. The asteroid 4680 Lohrmann was named after him, as was the crater Lohrmann on the Moon. References Lohrmann, WG, "Topographie der Sichtbaren Mondoberflache", Dresden-Leipzig, 1824. Lohrmann, Wilhelm Gotthelf; Schmidt, Johann Friedrich Julius; Ahnert, Paul, "Mondkarte in 25 Sektionen", Leipzig, J. A. Barth, 1963. Birmingham, J., "Review (Lohrmann's Lunar Map)", Astronomical Register, vol. 16, 1878. External links Über Lohrmann 19th-century German astronomers Selenographers Scientists from Dresden 1796 births 1840 deaths

3502474

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miracle%20of%20the%20Sun

Miracle of the Sun

The Miracle of the Sun (), also known as the Miracle of Fátima, is a series of events reported to have occurred miraculously on 13 October 1917, attended by a large crowd who had gathered in Fátima, Portugal in response to a prophecy made by three shepherd children, Lúcia Santos and Francisco and Jacinta Marto. The prophecy was that the Virgin Mary (referred to as Our Lady of Fátima), would appear and perform miracles on that date. Newspapers published testimony from witnesses who said that they had seen extraordinary solar activity, such as the Sun appearing to "dance" or zig-zag in the sky, careen towards the Earth, or emit multicolored light and radiant colors. According to these reports, the event lasted approximately ten minutes. The local bishop opened a canonical investigation of the event in November 1917, to review witness accounts and assess whether the alleged private revelations from Mary were compatible with Catholic theology. The local priest conducting the investigation was particularly convinced by the concurring testimony of extraordinary solar phenomena from secular reporters, government officials, and other skeptics in attendance. Bishop José da Silva declared the miracle "worthy of belief" on 13 October 1930, permitting "officially the cult of Our Lady of Fatima" within the Catholic Church. At a gathering on 13 October 1951 at Fátima, the papal legate, Cardinal Federico Tedeschini, told the million people attending that on 30 October, 31 October, 1 November, and 8 November 1950, Pope Pius XII himself witnessed the miracle of the Sun from the Vatican gardens. The early and enduring interest in the miracle and related prophecies has had a significant impact on the devotional practices of many Catholics. There has been much analysis of the event from critical sociological and scientific perspectives. According to critics, the eyewitness testimony was actually a collection of inconsistent and contradictory accounts. Proposed alternative explanations include witnesses being deceived by their senses due to prolonged staring at the Sun and then seeing something unusual as expected. Background Beginning in the spring of 1916, three Catholic shepherd children living near Fátima reported apparitions of an angel, and starting in May 1917, apparitions of the Virgin Mary, whom the children described as the Lady of the Rosary. The children reported a prophecy that prayer would lead to an end to the Great War, and that on 13 October of that year the Lady would reveal her identity and perform a miracle "so that all may believe." Newspapers reported the prophecies, and many pilgrims began visiting the area. The children's accounts were deeply controversial, drawing intense criticism from both local secular and religious authorities. A provisional administrator briefly took the children into custody, believing the prophecies were politically motivated in opposition to the officially secular First Portuguese Republic established in 1910. The event Estimates of the number of people present range from 30,000 and 40,000, by Avelino de Almeida writing for the Portuguese newspaper , to 100,000, estimated by lawyer José Almeida Garrett. Various claims have been made as to what actually happened during the event. According to many witnesses, after a period of rain, the dark clouds broke and the Sun appeared as an opaque, spinning disc in the sky. It was said to be significantly duller than normal, and to cast multicolored lights across the landscape, the people, and the surrounding clouds. The Sun was then reported to have careened towards the Earth before zig-zagging back to its normal position. Witnesses reported that their previously wet clothes became "suddenly and completely dry, as well as the wet and muddy ground that had been previously soaked because of the rain that had been falling". Not all witnesses reported seeing the Sun "dance". Some people only saw the radiant colors. Several people saw nothing. Skeptic Brian Dunning commented on an image commonly mistaken for a photograph of the Sun taken at Fatima: "An old black and white photograph of the actual sun miracle event shows a lot of dark rain clouds behind some trees and the sun poking through. There is certainly nothing in the photograph that looks unusual, but of course a photograph is static. Whatever the crowd saw was not interesting enough to be noticeable in a photograph". The photograph, originally published in 1951 by was subsequently determined to have been taken approximately eight years later in a different Portugal town of a different solar phenomenon. The misattributed image, however, continues to circulate on the internet. The three children (Lúcia dos Santos and her cousins Jacinta and Francisco Marto) who originally claimed to have seen Our Lady of Fátima also reported seeing a panorama of visions, including those of Jesus, Our Lady of Sorrows, Our Lady of Mount Carmel, and Saint Joseph blessing the people. In the fourth edition of her memoirs, written in 1941, Lúcia said that on the occasion of their third visit to the Cova da Iria, on 13 July 1917, she asked the Lady to tell them who she was, and to perform a miracle so that everyone would believe. The Lady told her that they should continue to come to the Cova each month until October, when the requested miracle would occur. De Marchi accounts Descriptions of the events reported at Fátima were collected by Father John De Marchi, an Italian Catholic priest and researcher. De Marchi spent seven years in Fátima, from 1943 to 1950, conducting research and interviewing the principals at length. In The Immaculate Heart (1952), De Marchi reported that, "[t]heir ranks (those present on 13 October) included believers and non-believers, pious old ladies and scoffing young men. Hundreds, from these mixed categories, have given formal testimony. Reports do vary; impressions are in minor details confused, but none to our knowledge has directly denied the visible prodigy of the sun." De Marchi authored several books on the subject, such as The True Story of Fátima. They include a number of witness descriptions: "The sun, at one moment surrounded with scarlet flame, at another aureoled in yellow and deep purple, seemed to be in an exceedingly swift and whirling movement, at times appearing to be loosened from the sky and to be approaching the earth, strongly radiating heat." — Domingos Pinto Coelho, writing for the Catholic newspaper Ordem. "The silver sun, enveloped in the same gauzy grey light, was seen to whirl and turn in the circle of broken clouds[.. The light turned a beautiful blue, as if it had come through the stained-glass windows of a cathedral, and spread itself over the people who knelt with outstretched hands[...] people wept and prayed with uncovered heads, in the presence of a miracle they had awaited. The seconds seemed like hours, so vivid were they." — Reporter for the Lisbon newspaper . "The sun's disc did not remain immobile. This was not the sparkling of a heavenly body, for it spun round on itself in a mad whirl when suddenly a clamor was heard from all the people. The sun, whirling, seemed to loosen itself from the firmament and advance threateningly upon the earth as if to crush us with its huge fiery weight. The sensation during those moments was terrible." — De Marchi attributes this description to Almeida Garrett, Professor of Natural Sciences at Coimbra University. Theologian Father Stanley L. Jaki wrote that it was actually given by José Almeida Garrett, a young lawyer, and is often mistakenly attributed to his father, a professor of natural sciences at the University of Coimbra, named Gonçalo de Almeida Garrett. "As if like a bolt from the blue, the clouds were wrenched apart, and the sun at its zenith appeared in all its splendor. It began to revolve vertiginously on its axis, like the most magnificent firewheel that could be imagined, taking on all the colors of the rainbow and sending forth multicolored flashes of light, producing the most astounding effect. This sublime and incomparable spectacle, which was repeated three distinct times, lasted for about ten minutes. The immense multitude, overcome by the evidence of such a tremendous prodigy, threw themselves on their knees." — Manuel Formigão, a professor at the seminary at Santarém, and a priest. "I feel incapable of describing what I saw. I looked fixedly at the sun, which seemed pale and did not hurt my eyes. Looking like a ball of snow, revolving on itself, it suddenly seemed to come down in a zig-zag, menacing the earth. Terrified, I ran and hid myself among the people, who were weeping and expecting the end of the world at any moment." — Rev. Joaquim Lourenço, describing his boyhood experience in Alburitel, from Fátima. "On that day of October 13, 1917, without remembering the predictions of the children, I was enchanted by a remarkable spectacle in the sky of a kind I had never seen before. I saw it from this veranda" — Portuguese poet Afonso Lopes Vieira. De Marchi also drew on the newspaper account written by Avelino de Almeida, a journalist sent by the newspaper , who described in detail the reactions of the crowd. Catholic Church recognition The event was declared of "supernatural character" by the Catholic Church in 1930. A shrine was built near the site in Fátima, which has been attended by thousands of faithful. Pope Pius XII approved the "Fatima apparitions" in 1940. Four times during the week that he declared the dogma of the Assumption of Mary (33 years after the actual event said to have occurred in Fátima), Pope Pius XII claimed to have witnessed the same "Miracle of the Sun". At 4:00p.m. on 30 October 1950, during a walk in the Vatican gardens, he arrived at the statue of Our Lady of Lourdes and began to see the miracle. He described himself in handwritten notes as "awestruck." He saw the same miracle on 31 October, again on 1 November (the date of the definition of the dogma) and then again on 8 November. He wrote that on other days at about the same time he tried to see if he could observe the Miracle of the Sun, but was unable to. He confided this information to a number of Vatican cardinals, to Sr. Pascalina Lehnert (the nun in charge of the papal apartments and his secretary) and finally to handwritten notes (discovered in 2008) that were later placed on display at the Vatican. In 2017, Pope Francis approved the recognition of a miracle involving two of the children involved in the Fátima event, Francisco and Jacinta Marto, which paved the way for their canonization. Believers' explanations Within Catholicism, the event is seen as the fulfillment of a promise by Mary, mother of Jesus, to the shepherd children who said she appeared to them several times before 13 October 1917. According to the children's accounts, Mary, referred to as the "Lady of Fátima", promised them she would perform a miracle to show people they were telling the truth, and so caused the crowds to see the Sun make "incredible" movements in the sky. Catholics have regarded Mary as a powerful "miracle worker" for centuries, and this view has continued into the present. Various theologians and apologetic scientists have discussed the limits of scientific explanations for the event and proposed possible mechanisms through which divine intervention caused the solar phenomenon. Fr Andrew Pinsent, research director of the Ian Ramsey Centre for Science and Religion at Oxford University, states that "a scientific perspective does not rule out miracles, and the event at Fatima is, in the view of many, particularly credible." He states that a usual prejudice involves a lack of understanding of the scope of scientific laws, which merely describe how natural systems behave isolated from free agents. Concluding that the event is "a public miracle of the most extraordinary kind and credibility", he sees the year of the event, as connected to significant historical milestones that call for Fátima's message of repentance: Protestantism in 1517, Freemasonry in 1717 and atheistic communism in 1917. Theologian, physicist, and priest Stanley L. Jaki, concurs, concluding that by divine intervention, a coordinated interplay of natural meteorological events, an enhancement of air lens with ice crystals, was made to occur at the exact time predicted, and this is the essence of the miracle. Jaki described the phenomenon: According to Jaki, the faithful should believe that a miracle occurred at Fátima, and "those who stake their purpose in life on Christ as the greatest and incomparably miraculous fact of history", need to pay attention to facts that support miracles. De Marchi believed related miraculous phenomena, such as the Sun's effect on standing water from heavy rains that immediately preceded the event, to be genuine. According to De Marchi, "...engineers that have studied the case reckoned that an incredible amount of energy would have been necessary to dry up those pools of water that had formed on the field in a few minutes as it was reported by witnesses." De Marchi wrote that the prediction of an unspecified "miracle", the abrupt beginning and end of the event, the varied religious backgrounds of the observers, the sheer numbers of people present, reports of sightings by people up to away, and the lack of any known scientific causative factor make a mass hallucination or mass hysteria unlikely. De Marchi concludes that "given the indubitable reference to God, and the general context of the story, it seems that we must attribute to Him alone the most obvious and colossal miracle of history." Leo Madigan, a former psychiatric nurse and local journalist at Fátima in the late 20th century, also dismisses suggestions from critics of mass hypnosis, and believes that astonishment, fear, exaltation and the spiritual nature of the phenomenon explain any inconsistency of witnesses descriptions. Madigan wrote that what people saw was "the reflection of the Lady's own light projected on the Sun itself". Philippe Dalleur, a priest and faculty philosophy at the Pontificial University of the Holy Cross in Rome, studied photographs of the crowd taken by "O Seculo" photographer Judah Ruah. In his analysis of shadows, Dalleur states there are two light sources, one being the "silver sun" described by witnesses – but at the wrong elevation to be the Sun. He states that testimonies of witnesses who observed the phenomenon from a distance place the "silver sun" neither at the azimuth of the real Sun, nor at any fixed azimuth – but invariably at the direction of Fatima, concluding that the "silver sun" was a real luminous object over Fatima. Skeptical explanations Theologians, scientists and skeptics have responded to claims that conflict with established scientific knowledge regarding the behavior of the Sun. Science writer Benjamin Radford points out that "The sun did not really dance in the sky. We know this because, of course, everyone on Earth is under the same sun, and if the closest dying star to us suddenly began doing celestial gymnastics a few billion other people would surely have reported it". Radford wrote that psychological factors such as the power of suggestion and pareidolia can better explain the reported events. According to Radford, "No one suggests that those who reported seeing the Miracle of the Sun—or any other miracles at Fátima or elsewhere—are lying or hoaxing. Instead, they very likely experienced what they claimed to, though that experience took place mostly in their minds." Regarding claims of miraculous drying up of rain water, Radford wrote "it's not clear precisely what the weather was at the time of the miracle", and photography from the time of the event does not show that it had been raining as much or as long as was reported. In The Evidence for Visions of the Virgin Mary (1983), former editor of the ASSAP's journal, Kevin McClure, wrote that the crowd at Cova da Iria may have been expecting to see signs in the Sun, since similar phenomena had been reported in the weeks leading up to the miracle. On this basis, he believes that the crowd saw what it wanted to see. McClure also stated that he had never seen such a collection of contradictory accounts of a case in any of the research that he had done in the previous ten years. According to theologian Lisa J. Schwebel, claims of the miracle present a number of difficulties. Schwebel states, "not only did all those present not see the phenomenon, but also there are considerable inconsistencies among witnesses as to what they did see". Schwebel also observes that there is no authentic photo of the solar phenomena claimed, "despite the presence of hundreds of reporters and photographers at the field", and one photo often presented as authentic is actually "a solar eclipse in another part of the world taken sometime before 1917". There is some evidence to the effect that the miracle was expected by witnesses. The witness Joaquim Gregorio Tavares, who was present at Fátima on October 13, states, "We must declare that, although we admit the possibility of some miraculous fact, we were there while having in mind conversations we had earlier with cool-headed persons who were anticipating some changes of colour in the Sun". The villagers in Alburitel were preparing for a Sun miracle too. According to Maria do Carmo, "It was anticipated that the miracle would involve the stars". This is likely because in the months of July, August and September people at Fátima claimed the Sun's light dimmed and the sky became dark enough for stars to become visible. This was denied too by many witnesses from the previous months. She also states that on the morning of October 13th, "the people of Alburitel were darkening bits of glass by exposing them to candle-smoke so that they might watch the Sun, with no harm to their eyes." Supernatural explanations, such as those by Father Pio Scatizzi, who argues that observers in Fátima could not be collectively deceived, or that the effect was not seen by observatories in distant places because of divine intervention have been dismissed by critics who say those taking part in the event could certainly be deceived by their senses, or they could have experienced a localized, natural phenomenon. According to Benjamin Radford, "It is of course dangerous to stare directly at the sun, and to avoid permanently damaging their eyesight, those at Fátima that day were looking up in the sky around the sun, which, if you do it long enough, can give the illusion of the sun moving as the eye muscles tire." Others, such as professor of physics Auguste Meessen, suggest that optical effects created by the human eye can account for the reported phenomenon. Meessen presented his analysis of apparitions and "Miracles of the Sun" at the International Symposium "Science, Religion and Conscience" in 2003. While Meessen felt those who claim to have experienced miracles were "honestly experiencing what they report", he stated Sun miracles cannot be taken at face value and that the reported observations were optical effects caused by prolonged staring at the Sun. Meessen contends that retinal after-images produced after brief periods of Sun gazing are a likely cause of the observed dancing effects. Similarly, Meessen concluded that the color changes witnessed were most likely caused by the bleaching of photosensitive retinal cells. Shortly after the miracle, the Catholic lawyer named Coelho said in his article that a few days later, he saw the exact same motions and colour changes in the Sun as he did on October 13. He says, "One doubt remained with us however. Was what we saw in the Sun an exceptional thing? Or could it be reproduced in analogous circumstances? Now it was precisely this analogy of circumstances that presented itself to us yesterday. We could see the Sun half overcast as on Saturday. And sincerely, we saw on that day the same succession of colors, the same rotary movement, etc." Meessen observes that Sun Miracles have been witnessed in many places where religiously charged pilgrims have been encouraged to stare at the Sun. He cites the apparitions at Heroldsbach, Germany (1949) as an example, where many people within a crowd of over 10,000 testified to witnessing similar observations as at Fátima. Meessen also cites a British Journal of Ophthalmology article that discusses some modern examples of Sun Miracles. Prof. Stöckl, a meteorologist from Regensburg, also proposed a similar theory and made similar observations. Critics also suggest that a combination of clouds, atmospheric effects and natural sunlight could have created the reported visual phenomena. Steuart Campbell, writing for the edition of Journal of Meteorology in 1989, postulated that a cloud of stratospheric dust changed the appearance of the Sun on 13 October, making it easy to look at, and causing it to to be yellow, blue, and violet, and to spin. In support of his hypothesis, Campbell reported that a blue and reddened Sun was reported in China as documented in 1983. Paul Simons, in an article entitled "Weather Secrets of Miracle at Fátima", stated that it is possible that some of the optical effects at Fátima may have been caused by a cloud of dust from the Sahara. Skeptical investigator Joe Nickell wrote that the "dancing sun" effects reported at Fátima were "a combination of factors, including optical effects and meteorological phenomena, such as the sun being seen through thin clouds, causing it to appear as a silver disc. Other possibilities include an alteration in the density of the passing clouds, causing the sun's image to alternately brighten and dim and so seem to advance and recede, and dust or moisture droplets in the atmosphere refracting the sunlight and thus imparting a variety of colors". Nickell also suggests that unusual visual effects could have resulted from temporary retinal distortion caused by staring at the intense light of the Sun, or have been caused by a sundog, a relatively common atmospheric optical phenomenon. Nickell also highlights the psychological suggestibility of the witnesses, noting that devout spectators often come to locations where Marian apparitions have been reported "fully expecting some miraculous event", such as the 1988 Lubbock apparition of Mary in Texas, the Mother Cabrini Shrine near Denver, Colorado, in 1992, and Conyers, Georgia, in the early to mid-1990s. See also Marian apparition The Miracle of Our Lady of Fatima, 1952 film Fatima, 2020 film References Bibliography (Online Text) External links Newspaper article in Portuguese that came out shortly after the alleged miracle. Picture of the Sun during the alleged miracle. (archive) Phil Plait. "When self-fulfilling prophecies Knock" BBC News article on Sun miracles at Knock Fátima in Sister Lucia's own words – Free online version of the memoir book written by Sister Lucia, O.C.D. The True Story of Fatima – Free online version of the book written by Father John de Marchi, I.M.C. The Fatima Message books and documents Christian miracles Our Lady of Fátima 1917 in Portugal Solar phenomena 20th-century Catholicism 1917 in Christianity October 1917 events Saint Joseph (husband of Mary)

3505966

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madu%20Ganga

Madu Ganga

Madu Ganga is a minor watercourse which originates near Uragasmanhandiya in the Galle District of Sri Lanka, before widening into the Madu Ganga Lake at Balapitiya. The river then flows for a further a before draining into the Indian Ocean. It is located south of Colombo and north of Galle. The Buddhist Amarapura Nikaya sect had its first upasampada (higher ordination ceremony) on a fleet of boats anchored upon it in 1803. The Buddhist Kothduwa temple is situated on an isolated island in the lake. Madu Ganga Lake, together with the smaller Randombe Lake, to which it is connected by two narrow channels, forms the Madu Ganga wetland. It's estuary and the many mangrove islets on it constitute a complex coastal wetland ecosystem. It has a high ecological, biological and aesthetic significance, being home to approximately 303 species of plants belonging to 95 families and to 248 species of vertebrate animals. The inhabitants of its islets produce peeled cinnamon and cinnamon oil. The Madu Ganga Wetland was formally declared in 2003, in terms of the Ramsar Convention. See also List of rivers of Sri Lanka References External links IUCN Sri Lanka, Maduganga mangrove estuary Dekshika Charmini Kodituwakku, 'WETLANDS POLICY IN SRI LANKA', Biosphere, 20-2 Article from Divaina Rivers of Sri Lanka Ramsar sites in Sri Lanka Mangroves Wetlands of Sri Lanka

3507155

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrobiology%20Field%20Laboratory

Astrobiology Field Laboratory

The Astrobiology Field Laboratory (AFL) (also Mars Astrobiology Field Laboratory or MAFL) was a proposed NASA rover that would have conducted a search for life on Mars. This proposed mission, which was not funded, would have landed a rover on Mars in 2016 and explore a site for habitat. Examples of such sites are an active or extinct hydrothermal deposit, a dry lake or a specific polar site. Had it been funded, the rover was to be built by NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory, based upon the Mars Science Laboratory rover design, it would have carried astrobiology-oriented instruments, and ideally, a core drill. The original plans called for a launch in 2016, however, budgetary constraints caused funding cuts. Mission The rover could have been the first mission since the Viking program landers of the 1970s to specifically look for the chemistry associated with life (biosignatures), such as carbon-based compounds along with molecules involving both sulfur and nitrogen. The mission strategy was to search for habitable zones by "following the water" and "finding the carbon." In particular, it was to conduct detailed analysis of geologic environments identified by the 2012 Mars Science Laboratory as being conducive to life on Mars and biosignatures, past and present. Such environments might include fine-grained sedimentary layers, hot spring mineral deposits, icy layers near the poles, or sites such as gullies where liquid water once flowed or may continue to seep into soils from melting ice packs. Planning The Astrobiology Field Laboratory (AFL) would have followed the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (launched in 2005), Phoenix lander (launched in 2007), and Mars Science Laboratory (launched in 2011). The AFL 'Science Steering Group' developed the following set of search strategies and assumptions for increasing the likelihood of detecting biosignatures: Life processes may produce a range of biosignatures such as lipids, proteins, amino acids, kerogen-like material or characteristic micropores in rock. However, the biosignatures themselves may become progressively destroyed by ongoing environmental processes. Sample acquisition will need to be executed in multiple locations and at depths below that point on the Martian surface where oxidation results in chemical alteration. The surface is oxidizing as a consequence of the absence of magnetic field or magnetosphere shielding from harmful space radiation and solar electromagnetic radiation —which may well render the surface sterile down to a depth greater than . To get under that potential sterile layer, a core drill design is currently being studied. As with any trade, the inclusion of the drill would come at the mass expense available for other payload elements. Analytical laboratory biosignature measurements require the pre-selection and identification of high-priority samples, which could be subsequently subsampled to maximize detection probability and spatially resolve potential biosignatures for detailed analysis. Payload The conceptual payload included a Precision Sample Handling and Processing System to replace and augment the functionality and capabilities provided by the Sample Acquisition Sample Processing and Handling system that was part of the 2009-configuration of Mars Science Laboratory rover (the system is known as SAM (Sample Analysis at Mars) in 2011-configuration of Mars Science Laboratory). The AFL payload was to attempt to minimize any conflicting positive detection of life by including a suite of instruments that provide at least three mutually confirming analytical laboratory measurements. For the purpose of discerning a reasonable estimate on which to base the rover mass, the conceptual payload was to include: Precision Sample Handling and Processing System. Forward Planetary Protection for Life-Detection Mission to a Special Region. Life Detection-Contamination Avoidance. Astrobiology Instrument Development. MSL Parachute Enhancement. Autonomous safe long-distance travel. Autonomous single-cycle instrument placement. Pinpoint landing (100–1000 m) (if necessary to reach specific science targets in hazardous regions). Mobility for highly sloped terrain 30° (if required to reach science targets). Power source It was suggested that the Astrobiology Field Laboratory use radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) as its power source, like the ones to be used on the Mars Science Laboratory. The radioactive RTG power source was to last for about one Martian year, or approximately two Earth years. RTGs can provide reliable, continuous power day and night, and waste heat can be used via pipes to warm systems, freeing electrical power for the operation of the vehicle and instruments. Science Though the AFL science justification did not include a pre-definition of potential life forms that might be found on Mars, the following assumptions were made: Life utilizes some form of carbon. Life requires an external energy source (sunlight or chemical energy) to survive. Life is packaged in cellular-type compartments (cells). Life requires liquid water. Within the region of surface operations, identify and classify Martian environments (past or present) with different habitability potential, and characterize their geologic context. Quantitatively assess habitability potential by: Measuring isotopic, chemical, mineralogical, and structural characteristics of samples, including the distribution and molecular complexity of carbon compounds. Assessing biologically available sources of energy, including chemical, thermal and electromagnetic. Determining the role of water (past or present) in the geological processes at the landing site. Investigate the factors that will affect the preservation of potential signs of life (past or present) This refers to the potential for a particular biosignature to survive and therefore be detected in a particular habitat. Also, post-collection preservation may be required for later sample retrieval, although that would necessitate a further assessment of precision landing of the Mars sample return mission. Investigate the possibility of prebiotic chemistry on Mars, including non-carbon biochemistry. Document any anomalous features that can be hypothesized as possible Martian biosignatures. It is fundamental to the AFL concept to understand that organisms and their environment constitute a system, within which any one part can affect the other. If life exists or has existed on Mars, scientific measurements to be considered would focus on understanding those systems that support or supported it. If life never existed while conditions were suitable for life formation, understanding why a Martian genesis never occurred would be a future priority. The AFL team stated that it is reasonable to expect that missions like AFL will play a significant role in this process, but unreasonable to expect that they will bring it to a conclusion. See also References External links Astrobiology Field Laboratory Summary Mars Astrobiology Field Lab Rover (AFL) Mission Profile Final report of the Astrobiology Field Laboratory Science Steering Group (September 2006) Cancelled spacecraft Mars rovers Proposed NASA space probes Missions to Mars Cancelled astrobiology space missions

3507365

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar%20panel

Solar panel

A solar panel is a device that converts sunlight into electricity by using photovoltaic (PV) cells. PV cells are made of materials that generate electrons when exposed to light. The electrons flow through a circuit and produce direct current (DC) electricity, which can be used to power various devices or be stored in batteries. Solar panels are also known as solar cell panels, solar electric panels, or PV modules. Solar panels are usually arranged in groups called arrays or systems. A photovoltaic system consists of one or more solar panels, an inverter that converts DC electricity to alternating current (AC) electricity, and sometimes other components such as controllers, meters, and trackers. A photovoltaic system can be used to provide electricity for off-grid applications, such as remote homes or cabins, or to feed electricity into the grid and earn credits or payments from the utility company. This is called a grid-connected photovoltaic system. Some advantages of solar panels are that they use a renewable and clean source of energy, reduce greenhouse gas emissions, and lower electricity bills. Some disadvantages are that they depend on the availability and intensity of sunlight, require cleaning, and have high initial costs. Solar panels are widely used for residential, commercial, and industrial purposes, as well as for space and transportation applications. History In 1839, the ability of some materials to create an electrical charge from light exposure was first observed by the French physicist Edmond Becquerel. Though these initial solar panels were too inefficient for even simple electric devices, they were used as an instrument to measure light. The observation by Becquerel was not replicated again until 1873, when the English electrical engineer Willoughby Smith discovered that the charge could be caused by light hitting selenium. After this discovery, William Grylls Adams and Richard Evans Day published "The action of light on selenium" in 1876, describing the experiment they used to replicate Smith's results. In 1881, the American inventor Charles Fritts created the first commercial solar panel, which was reported by Fritts as "continuous, constant and of considerable force not only by exposure to sunlight but also to dim, diffused daylight". However, these solar panels were very inefficient, especially compared to coal-fired power plants. In 1939, Russell Ohl created the solar cell design that is used in many modern solar panels. He patented his design in 1941. In 1954, this design was first used by Bell Labs to create the first commercially viable silicon solar cell. Solar panel installers saw significant growth between 2008 and 2013. Due to that growth many installers had projects that were not "ideal" solar roof tops to work with and had to find solutions to shaded roofs and orientation difficulties. This challenge was initially addressed by the re-popularization of micro-inverters and later the invention of power optimizers. Solar panel manufacturers partnered with micro-inverter companies to create AC modules and power optimizer companies partnered with module manufacturers to create smart modules. In 2013 many solar panel manufacturers announced and began shipping their smart module solutions. Theory and construction Photovoltaic modules consist of a large number of solar cells and use light energy (photons) from the Sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. Most modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can be either the top layer or the back layer. Cells must be protected from mechanical damage and moisture. Most modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones based on thin-film cells are also available. The cells are usually connected electrically in series, one to another to the desired voltage, and then in parallel to increase current. The power (in watts) of the module is the voltage (in volts) multiplied by the current (in amperes), and depends both on the amount of light and on the electrical load connected to the module. The manufacturing specifications on solar panels are obtained under standard conditions, which are usually not the true operating conditions the solar panels are exposed to on the installation site. A PV junction box is attached to the back of the solar panel and functions as its output interface. External connections for most photovoltaic modules use MC4 connectors to facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system. A USB power interface can also be used. Solar panels also use metal frames consisting of racking components, brackets, reflector shapes, and troughs to better support the panel structure. Cell connection techniques In solar modules, the cells themselves need to be connected together to form the module, with front electrodes blocking the solar cell front optical surface area slightly. To maximize frontal surface area available for sunlight and improve solar cell efficiency, manufacturers use varying rear electrode solar cell connection techniques: Passivated emitter rear contact (PERC) adds a polymer film to capture light Tunnel oxide passivated contact (TOPCon) adds an oxidation layer to the PERC film to capture more light Interdigitated back contact (IBC) Arrays of PV modules A single solar module can produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain multiple modules adding their voltages or currents. A photovoltaic system typically includes an array of photovoltaic modules, an inverter, a battery pack for energy storage, a charge controller, interconnection wiring, circuit breakers, fuses, disconnect switches, voltage meters, and optionally a solar tracking mechanism. Equipment is carefully selected to optimize output, and energy storage, reduce power loss during power transmission, and convert from direct current to alternating current. Smart solar modules Smart modules are different from traditional solar panels because the power electronics embedded in the module offers enhanced functionality such as panel-level maximum power point tracking, monitoring, and enhanced safety. Power electronics attached to the frame of a solar module, or connected to the photovoltaic circuit through a connector, are not properly considered smart modules. Several companies have begun incorporating into each PV module various embedded power electronics such as: Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) power optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems by compensating for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling on a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or more strings of cells in the module to fall to near zero, but not having the output of the entire module fall to zero. Solar performance monitors for data and fault detection Technology Most solar modules are currently produced from crystalline silicon (c-Si) solar cells made of polycrystalline or monocrystalline silicon. In 2021, crystalline silicon accounted for 95% of worldwide PV production, while the rest of the overall market is made up of thin-film technologies using cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) and amorphous silicon . Emerging, third-generation solar technologies use advanced thin-film cells. They produce a relatively high-efficiency conversion for a lower cost compared with other solar technologies. Also, high-cost, high-efficiency, and close-packed rectangular multi-junction (MJ) cells are usually used in solar panels on spacecraft, as they offer the highest ratio of generated power per kilogram lifted into space. MJ-cells are compound semiconductors and made of gallium arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor materials. Another emerging PV technology using MJ-cells is concentrator photovoltaics (CPV). Thin film In rigid thin-film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured on the same production line. The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate, and the electrical connections are created in situ, a so-called "monolithic integration". The substrate or superstrate is laminated with an encapsulant to a front or back sheet, usually another sheet of glass. The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, , a-Si+uc-Si tandem, and CIGS. Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion rate of 6–12%. Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line by depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible substrate. If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then monolithic integration can be used. If it is a conductor then another technique for electrical connection must be used. The cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent colourless fluoropolymer on the front side, typically ethylene tetrafluoroethylene (ETFE) or fluorinated ethylene propylene (FEP), and a polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other side. Mounting and tracking Ground Large utility-scale solar power plants usually use ground-mounted photovoltaic systems. Their solar modules are held in place by racks or frames that are attached to ground-based mounting supports. Ground based mounting supports include: Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in concrete. Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the solar module system in position and do not require ground penetration. This type of mounting system is well suited for sites where excavation is not possible such as capped landfills and simplifies decommissioning or relocation of solar module systems. Roof Roof-mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place by racks or frames attached to roof-based mounting supports. Roof-based mounting supports include: Rail mounts, which are attached directly to the roof structure and may use additional rails for attaching the module racking or frames. Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use weight to secure the panel system in position and do not require through penetration. This mounting method allows for decommissioning or relocation of solar panel systems with no adverse effect on the roof structure. All wiring connecting adjacent solar modules to the energy harvesting equipment must be installed according to local electrical codes and should be run in a conduit appropriate for the climate conditions Portable Portable solar panels can ensure electric current, enough to charge devices (mobile, radio, ...) via USB-port or to charge a powerbank f.e. Special features of the panels include high flexibility, high durability & waterproof characteristics. They are good for travel or camping. Tracking Solar trackers increase the energy produced per module at the cost of mechanical complexity and increased need for maintenance. They sense the direction of the Sun and tilt or rotate the modules as needed for maximum exposure to the light. Alternatively, fixed racks can hold modules stationary throughout the day at a given tilt (zenith angle) and facing a given direction (azimuth angle). Tilt angles equivalent to an installation's latitude are common. Some systems may also adjust the tilt angle based on the time of year. On the other hand, east- and west-facing arrays (covering an east–west facing roof, for example) are commonly deployed. Even though such installations will not produce the maximum possible average power from the individual solar panels, the cost of the panels is now usually cheaper than the tracking mechanism and they can provided more economically valuable power during morning and evening peak demands than north or south facing systems. Concentrator Some special solar PV modules include concentrators in which light is focused by lenses or mirrors onto smaller cells. This enables the cost-effective use of highly efficient, but expensive cells (such as gallium arsenide) with the trade-off of using a higher solar exposure area. Concentrating the sunlight can also raise the efficiency to around 45%. Light capture The amount of light absorbed by a solar cell depends on the angle of incidence of whatever direct sunlight hits it. This is partly because the amount falling on the panel is proportional to the cosine of the angle of incidence, and partly because at high angle of incidence more light is reflected. To maximize total energy output, modules are often oriented to face south (in the Northern Hemisphere) or north (in the Southern Hemisphere) and tilted to allow for the latitude. Solar tracking can be used to keep the angle of incidence small. Solar panels are often coated with an anti-reflective coating, which is one or more thin layers of substances with refractive indices intermediate between that of silicon and that of air. This causes destructive interference in the reflected light, diminishing the amount. Photovoltaic manufacturers have been working to decrease reflectance with improved anti-reflective coatings or with textured glass. Power curve In general with individual solar panels, if not enough current is taken, then power isn't maximised. If too much current is taken then the voltage collapses. The optimum current draw is roughly proportional to the amount of sunlight striking the panel. Solar panel capacity is specified by the MPP (maximum power point) value of solar panels in full sunlight. Inverters Solar inverters convert the DC power provided by panels to AC power. MPP (Maximum power point) of the solar panel consists of MPP voltage (V) and MPP current (I). Performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT), a solar inverter samples the output (I-V curve) from the solar cell and applies the proper electrical load to obtain maximum power. Micro-inverters work independently to enable each panel to contribute its maximum possible output for a given amount of sunlight, but can be more expensive. Module interconnection Module electrical connections are made with conducting wires that take the current off the modules and are sized according to the current rating and fault conditions, and sometimes include in-line fuses. Panels are typically connected in series of one or more panels to form strings to achieve a desired output voltage, and strings can be connected in parallel to provide the desired current capability (amperes) of the PV system. In string connections the voltages of the modules add, but the current is determined by the lowest performing panel. This is known as the "Christmas light effect". In parallel connections the voltages will be the same, but the currents add. Arrays are connected up to meet the voltage requirements of the inverters and to not greatly exceed the current limits. Blocking and bypass diodes may be incorporated within the module or used externally to deal with partial array shading, in order to maximize output. For series connections, bypass diodes are placed in parallel with modules to allow current to bypass shaded modules which would otherwise severely limit the current. For paralleled connections, a blocking diode may be placed in series with each module's string to prevent current flowing backwards through shaded strings thus short-circuiting other strings. Connectors Outdoor solar panels usually include MC4 connectors. Automotive solar panels may also include an auxiliary power outlet and/or USB adapter. Indoor panels (including solar pv glasses, thin films and windows) can integrate a microinverter (AC Solar panels). Efficiency Each module is rated by its DC output power under standard test conditions (STC) and hence the on field output power might vary. Power typically ranges from 100 to 365 Watts (W). The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module given the same rated output an 8% efficient 230 W module will have twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 W module. Some commercially available solar modules exceed 24% efficiency. Currently, the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency) is around 21.5% in new commercial products typically lower than the efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The most efficient mass-produced solar modules have power density values of up to 175 W/m2 (16.22 W/ft2). The current versus voltage curve of a module provides useful information about its electrical performance. Manufacturing processes often cause differences in the electrical parameters of different modules photovoltaic, even in cells of the same type. Therefore, only the experimental measurement of the I–V curve allows us to accurately establish the electrical parameters of a photovoltaic device. This measurement provides highly relevant information for the design, installation and maintenance of photovoltaic systems. Generally, the electrical parameters of photovoltaic modules are measured by indoor tests. However, outdoor testing has important advantages such as no expensive artificial light source required, no sample size limitation, and more homogeneous sample illumination. Scientists from Spectrolab, a subsidiary of Boeing, have reported development of multi-junction solar cells with an efficiency of more than 40%, a new world record for solar photovoltaic cells. The Spectrolab scientists also predict that concentrator solar cells could achieve efficiencies of more than 45% or even 50% in the future, with theoretical efficiencies being about 58% in cells with more than three junctions. Capacity factor of solar panels is limited primarily by geographic latitude and varies significantly depending on cloud cover, dust, day length and other factors. In the United Kingdom, seasonal capacity factor ranges from 2% (December) to 20% (July), with average annual capacity factor of 10–11%, while in Spain the value reaches 18%. Globally, capacity factor for utility-scale PV farms was 16.1% in 2019. Overheating is the most important factor for the efficiency of the solar panel. Radiation-dependent efficiency Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar radiation range (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence, much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into six to eight different wavelength ranges that will produce a different color of light, and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges. Performance and degradation Module performance is generally rated under standard test conditions (STC): irradiance of 1,000 W/m2, solar spectrum of AM 1.5 and module temperature at 25 °C. The actual voltage and current output of the module changes as lighting, temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at which the module operates. Performance varies depending on geographic location, time of day, the day of the year, amount of solar irradiance, direction and tilt of modules, cloud cover, shading, soiling, state of charge, and temperature. Performance of a module or panel can be measured at different time intervals with a DC clamp meter or shunt and logged, graphed, or charted with a chart recorder or data logger. For optimum performance, a solar panel needs to be made of similar modules oriented in the same direction perpendicular to direct sunlight. Bypass diodes are used to circumvent broken or shaded panels and optimize output. These bypass diodes are usually placed along groups of solar cells to create a continuous flow. Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open-circuit voltage (VOC), short-circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power, (watt-peak, Wp), and module efficiency (%). Open-circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage the module can produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. VOC can be measured with a voltmeter directly on an illuminated module's terminals or on its disconnected cable. The peak power rating, Wp, is the maximum output under standard test conditions (not the maximum possible output). Typical modules, which could measure approximately , will be rated from as low as 75 W to as high as 600 W, depending on their efficiency. At the time of testing, the test modules are binned according to their test results, and a typical manufacturer might rate their modules in 5 W increments, and either rate them at +/- 3%, +/-5%, +3/-0% or +5/-0%. Influence of temperature The performance of a photovoltaic (PV) module depends on the environmental conditions, mainly on the global incident irradiance G in the plane of the module. However, the temperature T of the p–n junction also influences the main electrical parameters: the short circuit current ISC, the open circuit voltage VOC and the maximum power Pmax. In general, it is known that VOC shows a significant inverse correlation with T, while for ISC this correlation is direct, but weaker, so that this increase does not compensate for the decrease in VOC. As a consequence, Pmax decreases when T increases. This correlation between the power output of a solar cell and the working temperature of its junction depends on the semiconductor material, and is due to the influence of T on the concentration, lifetime, and mobility of the intrinsic carriers, i.e., electrons and gaps. inside the photovoltaic cell. Temperature sensitivity is usually described by temperature coefficients, each of which expresses the derivative of the parameter to which it refers with respect to the junction temperature. The values of these parameters can be found in any data sheet of the photovoltaic module; are the following: - β: VOC variation coefficient with respect to T, given by ∂VOC/∂T. - α: Coefficient of variation of ISC with respect to T, given by ∂ISC/∂T. - δ: Coefficient of variation of Pmax with respect to T, given by ∂Pmax/∂T. Techniques for estimating these coefficients from experimental data can be found in the literature Degradation The ability of solar modules to withstand damage by rain, hail, heavy snow load, and cycles of heat and cold varies by manufacturer, although most solar panels on the U.S. market are UL listed, meaning they have gone through testing to withstand hail. Potential-induced degradation (also called PID) is a potential-induced performance degradation in crystalline photovoltaic modules, caused by so-called stray currents. This effect may cause power loss of up to 30%. Advancements in photovoltaic technologies have brought about the process of "doping" the silicon substrate to lower the activation energy thereby making the panel more efficient in converting photons to retrievable electrons. Chemicals such as boron (p-type) are applied into the semiconductor crystal in order to create donor and acceptor energy levels substantially closer to the valence and conductor bands. In doing so, the addition of boron impurity allows the activation energy to decrease twenty-fold from 1.12 eV to 0.05 eV. Since the potential difference (EB) is so low, the boron is able to thermally ionize at room temperatures. This allows for free energy carriers in the conduction and valence bands thereby allowing greater conversion of photons to electrons. The power output of a photovoltaic (PV) device decreases over time. This decrease is due to its exposure to solar radiation as well as other external conditions. The degradation index, which is defined as the annual percentage of output power loss, is a key factor in determining the long-term production of a photovoltaic plant. To estimate this degradation, the percentage of decrease associated with each of the electrical parameters. The individual degradation of a photovoltaic module can significantly influence the performance of a complete string. Furthermore, not all modules in the same installation decrease their performance at exactly the same rate. Given a set of modules exposed to long-term outdoor conditions, the individual degradation of the main electrical parameters and the increase in their dispersion must be considered. As each module tends to degrade differently, the behavior of the modules will be increasingly different over time, negatively affecting the overall performance of the plant. There are several studies dealing with the power degradation analysis of modules based on different photovoltaic technologies available in the literature. According to a recent study, the degradation of crystalline silicon modules is very regular, oscillating between 0.8% and 1.0% per year. On the other hand, if we analyze the performance of thin-film photovoltaic modules, an initial period of strong degradation is observed (which can last several months and even up to 2 years), followed by a later stage in which the degradation stabilizes, being then comparable to that of crystalline silicon. Strong seasonal variations are also observed in such thin-film technologies because the influence of the solar spectrum is much greater. For example, for modules of amorphous silicon, micromorphic silicon or cadmium telluride, we are talking about annual degradation rates for the first years of between 3% and 4%. However, other technologies, such as CIGS, show much lower degradation rates, even in those early years. Maintenance Solar panel conversion efficiency, typically in the 20% range, is reduced by the accumulation of dust, grime, pollen, and other particulates on the solar panels, collectively referred to as soiling. "A dirty solar panel can reduce its power capabilities by up to 30% in high dust/pollen or desert areas", says Seamus Curran, associate professor of physics at the University of Houston and director of the Institute for NanoEnergy, which specializes in the design, engineering, and assembly of nanostructures. The average soiling loss in the world in 2018 is estimated to be at least 3% – 4%. Paying to have solar panels cleaned is a good investment in many regions, as of 2019. However, in some regions, cleaning is not cost-effective. In California as of 2013 soiling-induced financial losses were rarely enough to warrant the cost of washing the panels. On average, panels in California lost a little less than 0.05% of their overall efficiency per day. There are also occupational hazards with solar panel installation and maintenance. A 2015–2018 study in the UK investigated 80 PV-related incidents of fire, with over 20 "serious fires" directly caused by PV installation, including 37 domestic buildings and 6 solar farms. In of the incidents a root cause was not established and in a majority of others was caused by poor installation, faulty product or design issues. The most frequent single element causing fires was the DC isolators. A 2021 study by kWh Analytics determined median annual degradation of PV systems at 1.09% for residential and 0.8% for non-residential ones, almost twice that previously assumed. A 2021 module reliability study found an increasing trend in solar module failure rates with 30% of manufacturers experiencing safety failures related to junction boxes (growth from 20%) and 26% bill-of-materials failures (growth from 20%). Cleaning methods for solar panels can be divided into 5 groups: manual tools, mechanized tools (such as tractor mounted brushes), installed hydraulic systems (such as sprinklers), installed robotic systems, and deployable robots. Manual cleaning tools are by far the most prevalent method of cleaning, most likely because of the low purchase cost. However, in a Saudi Arabian study done in 2014, it was found that "installed robotic systems, mechanized systems, and installed hydraulic systems are likely the three most promising technologies for use in cleaning solar panels". Waste and recycling There were 30 thousand tonnes of PV waste in 2021, and the annual amount was estimated by Bloomberg NEF to rise to more than 1 million tons by 2035 and more than 10 million by 2050. For comparison 750 million tons of fly ash waste was produced by coal power in 2022. In the United States, around 90% of decommissioned solar panels end up in landfills as of 2023. Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 95% of certain semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Some private companies and non-profit organizations are currently engaged in take-back and recycling operations for end-of-life modules. EU law requires manufacturers to ensure their solar panels are recycled properly. Similar legislation is underway in Japan, India, and Australia. A 2023 Australian report said that there is a market for quality used panels and made recommendations for increasing reuse. A 2021 study by Harvard Business Review indicates that, unless reused, by 2035 the discarded panels would outweigh new units by a factor of 2.56. They forecast the cost of recycling a single PV panel by then would reach $20–30, which would increase the LCOE of PV by a factor 4. Analyzing the US market, where no EU-like legislation exists as of 2021, HBR noted that without mandatory recycling legislation and with the cost of sending it to a landfill being just $1–2 there was a significant financial incentive to discard the decommissioned panels. The study assumed that consumers would replace panels halfway through a 30-year lifetime to make a profit. However prices of new panels increased in the year after the study. A 2022 study found that modules were lasting longer than previously estimated, and said that might result in less PV waste than had been thought. Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used in the modules: Silicon based modules: aluminum frames and junction boxes are dismantled manually at the beginning of the process. The module is then crushed in a mill and the different fractions are separated – glass, plastics and metals. It is possible to recover more than 80% of the incoming weight. This process can be performed by flat glass recyclers since morphology and composition of a PV module is similar to those flat glasses used in the building and automotive industry. The recovered glass, for example, is readily accepted by the glass foam and glass insulation industry. Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such as the use of chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor materials. For cadmium telluride modules, the recycling process begins by crushing the module and subsequently separating the different fractions. This recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of the semiconductor materials contained. Some commercial-scale recycling facilities have been created in recent years by private companies. For aluminium flat plate reflector: the trendiness of the reflectors has been brought up by fabricating them using a thin layer (around 0.016 mm to 0.024 mm) of aluminum coating present inside the non-recycled plastic food packages. Since 2010, there is an annual European conference bringing together manufacturers, recyclers and researchers to look at the future of PV module recycling. Production The production of PV systems has followed a classic learning curve effect, with significant cost reduction occurring alongside large rises in efficiency and production output. With over 100% year-on-year growth in PV system installation, PV module makers dramatically increased their shipments of solar modules in 2019. They actively expanded their capacity and turned themselves into gigawatt GW players. According to Pulse Solar, five of the top ten PV module companies in 2019 have experienced a rise in solar panel production by at least 25% compared to 2019. The basis of producing solar panels revolves around the use of silicon cells. These silicon cells are typically 10–20% efficient at converting sunlight into electricity, with newer production models now exceeding 22%. In 2018, the world's top five solar module producers in terms of shipped capacity during the calendar year of 2018 were Jinko Solar, JA Solar, Trina Solar, Longi solar, and Canadian Solar. Price The price of solar electrical power has continued to fall so that in many countries it has become cheaper than fossil fuel electricity from the electricity grid since 2012, a phenomenon known as grid parity. Average pricing information divides in three pricing categories: those buying small quantities (modules of all sizes in the kilowatt range annually), mid-range buyers (typically up to 10 MWp annually), and large quantity buyers (self-explanatory—and with access to the lowest prices). Over the long term there is clearly a systematic reduction in the price of cells and modules. For example, in 2012 it was estimated that the quantity cost per watt was about US$0.60, which was 250 times lower than the cost in 1970 of US$150. A 2015 study shows price/kWh dropping by 10% per year since 1980, and predicts that solar could contribute 20% of total electricity consumption by 2030, whereas the International Energy Agency predicts 16% by 2050. Real-world energy production costs depend a great deal on local weather conditions. In a cloudy country such as the United Kingdom, the cost per produced kWh is higher than in sunnier countries like Spain. Following to RMI, Balance-of-System (BoS) elements, this is, non-module cost of non-microinverter solar modules (as wiring, converters, racking systems and various components) make up about half of the total costs of installations. For merchant solar power stations, where the electricity is being sold into the electricity transmission network, the cost of solar energy will need to match the wholesale electricity price. This point is sometimes called 'wholesale grid parity' or 'busbar parity'. Some photovoltaic systems, such as rooftop installations, can supply power directly to an electricity user. In these cases, the installation can be competitive when the output cost matches the price at which the user pays for their electricity consumption. This situation is sometimes called 'retail grid parity', 'socket parity' or 'dynamic grid parity'. Research carried out by UN-Energy in 2012 suggests areas of sunny countries with high electricity prices, such as Italy, Spain and Australia, and areas using diesel generators, have reached retail grid parity. Standards Standards generally used in photovoltaic modules: IEC 61215 (crystalline silicon performance), 61646 (thin film performance) and 61730 (all modules, safety), 61853 (Photovoltaic module performance testing & energy rating) ISO 9488 Solar energy—Vocabulary. UL 1703 from Underwriters Laboratories UL 1741 from Underwriters Laboratories UL 2703 from Underwriters Laboratories CE mark Electrical Safety Tester (EST) Series (EST-460, EST-22V, EST-22H, EST-110). Applications There are many practical applications for the use of solar panels or photovoltaics. It can first be used in agriculture as a power source for irrigation. In health care solar panels can be used to refrigerate medical supplies. It can also be used for infrastructure. PV modules are used in photovoltaic systems and include a large variety of electric devices: Solar canals Photovoltaic power stations Rooftop solar PV systems Standalone PV systems Solar hybrid power systems Concentrated photovoltaics Floating solar; water-borne solar panels Solar planes Solar-powered water purification Solar-pumped lasers Solar vehicles Solar water heating Solar panels on spacecraft and space stations Limitations Impact on electricity network With the increasing levels of rooftop photovoltaic systems, the energy flow becomes 2-way. When there is more local generation than consumption, electricity is exported to the grid. However, an electricity network traditionally is not designed to deal with the 2- way energy transfer. Therefore, some technical issues may occur. For example, in Queensland Australia, more than 30% of households used rooftop PV by the end of 2017. The duck curve appeared often for a lot of communities from 2015 onwards. An over-voltage issue may result as the electricity flows from PV households back to the network. There are solutions to manage the over voltage issue, such as regulating PV inverter power factor, new voltage and energy control equipment at the electricity distributor level, re-conducting the electricity wires, demand side management, etc. There are often limitations and costs related to these solutions. For rooftop solar to be able to provide enough backup power during a power cut a battery is often also required. Solar module quality assurance Solar module quality assurance involves testing and evaluating solar cells and Solar Panels to ensure the quality requirements of them are met. Solar modules (or panels) are expected to have a long service life between 20 and 40 years. They should continually and reliably convey and deliver the power anticipated. modules presented to a wide exhibit of climate conditions alongside use in various temperatures. Solar modules can be tested through a combination of physical tests, laboratory studies, and numerical analyses. Furthermore, solar modules need to be assessed throughout the different stages of their life cycle. Various companies such as Southern Research Energy & Environment, SGS Consumer Testing Services, TÜV Rheinland, Sinovoltaics, Clean Energy Associates (CEA), CSA Solar International and Enertis provide services in solar module quality assurance."The implementation of consistent traceable and stable manufacturing processes becomes mandatory to safeguard and ensure the quality of the PV Modules" Stages of testing The lifecycle stages of testing solar modules can include: the conceptual phase, manufacturing phase, transportation and installation, commissioning phase, and the in-service phase. Depending on the test phase, different test principles may apply. Conceptual phase The first stage can involve design verification where the expected output of the module is tested through computer simulation. Further, the modules ability to withstand natural environment conditions such as temperature, rain, hail, snow, corrosion, dust, lightning, horizon and near-shadow effects is tested. The layout for design and construction of the module and the quality of components and installation can also be tested at this stage. Manufacturing phase Inspecting manufacturers of components is carried through visitation. The inspection can include assembly checks, material testing supervision and Non Destructive Testing (NDT). Certification is carried our according to ANSI/UL1703, IEC 17025, IEC 61215, IEC 61646, IEC 61701 and IEC 61730-1/-2. AC module An AC (Alternating Current) module is a photovoltaic module which has a small DC to AC microinverter mounted onto its back side which produces AC power with no external DC connector. AC modules are defined by Underwriters Laboratories as the smallest and most complete system for harvesting solar energy. See also Daisy chain (electrical engineering) Digital modeling and fabrication Domestic energy consumption Grid-tied electrical system Growth of photovoltaics Solar charger Solar cooker Solar still References Photovoltaics Panel Smart devices Solar power

3507829

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R.%20Scott%20Dunbar

R. Scott Dunbar

Roy Scott Dunbar is an American astronomer, planetologist and discoverer of comets and minor planets. Dunbar played an active role in the Palomar Planet-Crossing Asteroid Survey. The Minor Planet Center credits him with the (co-)discovery of 10 numbered minor planets during 1981–1987. His most notable discoveries include the potentially hazardous object and Aten asteroid 3362 Khufu, which he co-discovered with Maria A. Barucci, as well as the near-Earth object, Mars-crosser and Aten asteroid, 3551 Verenia. Together with Eleanor Helin he co-discovered the minor planets 3360 Syrinx, 6065 Chesneau, 6435 Daveross and 7163 Barenboim. Dunbar and Helin also claimed the discovery of comet 1980 p, which turned out not to exist. It was a ghost image of Alpha Leonis. The main-belt asteroid 3718 Dunbar, discovered by Eleanor Helin and Schelte Bus, is named after him. Naming citation was published on 2 April 1988 (). References External links Report and disconfirmation of ghost discovery 1980 p 21st-century American astronomers Discoverers of asteroids Living people Year of birth missing (living people)

3509797

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1130%20Skuld

1130 Skuld

1130 Skuld, provisional designation , is a stony Florian asteroid from the inner regions of the asteroid belt, approximately 10 kilometers in diameter. It was named after Skuld from Norse mythology. Discovery Skuld was discovered on 2 September 1929, by German astronomer Karl Reinmuth at Heidelberg Observatory in southwest Germany. The body was independently discovered by astronomers and fellow countrymen Arnold Schwassmann and Arno Wachmann at the Hamburger Bergedorf Observatory ten nights later. It was first identified as at Heidelberg in 1906, extending the asteroid's observation arc by 23 years prior to its official discovery observation. Orbit and classification Skuld is a member of the Flora family, one of the largest groups of stony S-type asteroids in the main-belt. It orbits the Sun in the inner main-belt at a distance of 1.8–2.7 AU once every 3 years and 4 months (1,215 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.20 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic. Naming This minor planet was named after Skuld, one of the three Norns in Norse mythology. The asteroids 167 Urda and 621 Werdandi are named after the other two Norns. Naming citation was first mentioned in The Names of the Minor Planets by Paul Herget in 1955 (). Physical characteristics Rotation period In January 2004, the first rotational lightcurves of Skuld were obtained by Henk de Groot and by a group of Polish and French astronomers. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of 4.73 and 4.8079 hours with a brightness variation of 0.46 and 0.40 magnitude, respectively (). In 2009 and 2011, astronomers Robert Buchheim and Larry Robinson obtained two well-defined lightcurves from photometric observations. They gave a refined period of 4.810 and 4.807 hours with an amplitude of 0.50 and 0.26 magnitude, respectively (). Diameter and albedo According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Skuld measures between 9.63 and 11.009 kilometers in diameter and its surface has an albedo between 0.1995 and 0.302. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes an albedo of 0.24 – derived from 8 Flora, the largest member and namesake of this orbital family – and calculates a diameter of 9.99 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 12.17. Notes References External links Lightcurve Database Query (LCDB), at www.minorplanet.info Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Geneva Observatory, Raoul Behrend Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center 001130 Discoveries by Karl Wilhelm Reinmuth Named minor planets 001130 19290902

3514812

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How%20Sharper%20Than%20a%20Serpent%27s%20Tooth

How Sharper Than a Serpent's Tooth

"How Sharper Than a Serpent's Tooth" is the fifth and penultimate episode of the second season of the American animated science fiction television series Star Trek: The Animated Series, the 21st episode overall. It first aired in the NBC Saturday morning lineup on October 5, 1974, and was written by Russell Bates and David Wise. The title comes from Act 1, Scene 4 of William Shakespeare's King Lear: "How sharper than a serpent's tooth it is to have a thankless child!" In this episode, the Enterprise must contend with alien entity that demands it be worshiped as a god. The Animated Series won the Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Children's Series for this episode. Plot On stardate 6063.4, following a signal from a mysterious probe, the Federation starship Enterprise is immobilized by an alien whose ship resembles a winged serpent. The alien claims to be Kukulkan, god of the ancient Maya and Aztec peoples of Earth. He says that he is actually a very long-lived, benevolent entity who wants the humans to worship him, as the Mayas and Aztecs did. Upon resistance by the crew, he proclaims them "thankless". Kukulkan transports Captain Kirk, Chief Medical Officer Dr. McCoy, Chief Engineer Scott and Ensign Walking Bear to his ship. By using technology similar to a holodeck, Kukulkan makes them believe they are standing in the middle of an ancient city. Kukulkan warns them that he will only appear before them once they've solved the riddle of the city. The city combines the architectures of many ancient Earth cultures: Egyptian, Aztec, Chinese, etc. Kirk concludes that Kukulkan had visited many of the peoples on Earth, but each only took a portion of what he taught them. So none of them ever fulfilled the complete instructions to signal his return. By chance, Kirk scales a huge pyramid in the center of the city. There, he concludes that the sun will activate Kukulkan's signalling device. He orders Bones and Scotty to turn huge serpent-headed statues toward the pyramid. In doing so, the now focused sunlight ignites the signalling device. Kukulkan responds, "Behold, my design is complete. See me now with your own eyes!" Kukulkan does appear and turns out to be an alien winged serpent. The city disappears, only to make the group realize that they were never really there. They now realize that the collection of animals they see before them in small glass "cages" was exactly how they experienced the city. The animals are unaware of being on Kukulkan's ship, much as the group thought they were actually in an ancient city. Kukulkan demands that the humans worship him, just as the ancients on Earth did. He grows angry when Kirk explains that mankind has "grown up" and no longer needs to worship him. In the meantime, Science Officer Spock has figured out a way to release the Enterprise from Kukulkan's beam and breaks free. This, too, angers Kukulkan who exclaims that he will "smash" the Enterprise. To buy Spock some time, Kirk and Bones decide to break loose a Capellan Power Cat from one of Kukulkan's glass cages. The distraction works, as the Enterprise is able to use its phasers to disable Kukulkan's ship. With the Power Cat threatening Kukulkan, Kirk leaps at the animal and is able to sedate it with a hypo. Kirk again attempts to reason with Kukulkan, conceding that while the alien did help humanity when it needed it, they no longer need his guidance. The alien reluctantly agrees, and departs. Production Russel Bates knew the series' story editor, D. C. Fontana, through Star Trek: The Original Series producer Gene L. Coon, whom Bates had apprenticed under. Fontana told Bates about The Animated Series, asking him to try writing something for it. Bates did pitch several stories for the show's first season, but all of them were rejected. Bates met David Wise at the Clarion Science Fiction Writer's Workshop. Wise suggested that after the workshop was over they collaborate to try to sell a story for Star Trek. Bates was a Kiowa, and the story incorporated Native American elements. Reception This episode won a Daytime Emmy Award for Outstanding Entertainment Children's Series in 1975. This made it the first Star Trek episode to win an Emmy award. Notes References See also "Who Mourns for Adonais?" – An Original Series episode about an alien that had long ago visited Earth and now demands worship as a god by the Enterprise crew. Star Trek V: The Final Frontier – A motion picture in which the Enterprise encounters a being asserting himself to be the God of Abraham (among others). External links "How Sharper Than a Serpent's Tooth" at Curt Danhauser's Guide to the Animated Star Trek "How Sharper Than a Serpent's Tooth" Full episode for viewing at StarTrek.com 1974 American television episodes Star Trek: The Animated Series episodes Television episodes about ancient astronauts Fiction about alien zoos Quetzalcoatl

3515776

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3551%20Verenia

3551 Verenia

3551 Verenia, provisional designation , is an Amor asteroid and a Mars crosser discovered on 12 September 1983 by R. Scott Dunbar. Although Verenia passed within 40 Gm of the Earth in the 20th century, it will never do so in the 21st. In 2028 it will come within 0.025 AU of Ceres. 3551 Verenia was named for the first vestal virgin consecrated by the legendary Roman king Numa Pompilius. See also V-type asteroid HED meteorite 4 Vesta 4055 Magellan 3908 Nyx References External links Catchall Catalog of Minor Planets NeoDys 003551 Discoveries by R. Scott Dunbar Named minor planets 003551 19830912

3516652

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudo-range%20multilateration

Pseudo-range multilateration

Pseudo-range multilateration, often simply multilateration (MLAT) when in context, is a technique for determining the position of an unknown point, such as a vehicle, based on measurement of the times of arrival (TOAs) of energy waves traveling between the unknown point and multiple stations at known locations. When the waves are transmitted by the vehicle, MLAT is used for surveillance; when the waves are transmitted by the stations, MLAT is used for navigation (hyperbolic navigation). In either case, the stations' clocks are assumed synchronized but the vehicle's clock is not. Prior to computing a solution, the common time of transmission (TOT) of the waves is unknown to the receiver(s), either on the vehicle (one receiver, navigation) or at the stations (multiple receivers, surveillance). Consequently, also unknown is the wave times of flight (TOFs) the ranges of the vehicle from the stations divided by the wave propagation speed. Each pseudo-range is the corresponding TOA multiplied by the propagation speed with the same arbitrary constant added (representing the unknown TOT). In navigation applications, the vehicle is often termed the "user"; in surveillance applications, the vehicle may be termed the "target". For a mathematically exact solution, the ranges must not change during the period the signals are received (between first and last to arrive at a receiver). Thus, for navigation, an exact solution requires a stationary vehicle; however, multilateration is often applied to the navigation of moving vehicles whose speed is much less than the wave propagation speed. If is the number of physical dimensions being considered (thus, vehicle coordinates sought) and is the number of signals received (thus, TOAs measured), it is required that . Then, the fundamental set of measurement equations is: TOAs ( measurements) = TOFs ( unknown variables embedded in expressions) + TOT (one unknown variable replicated times). Processing is usually required to extract the TOAs or their differences from the received signals, and an algorithm is usually required to solve this set of equations. An algorithm either: (a) determines numerical values for the TOT (for the receiver(s) clock) and vehicle coordinates; or (b) ignores the TOT and forms (at least ) time difference of arrivals (TDOAs), which are used to find the vehicle coordinates. Almost always, (e.g., a plane or the surface of a sphere) or (e.g., the real physical world). Systems that form TDOAs are also called hyperbolic systems, for reasons discussed below. A multilateration navigation system provides vehicle position information to an entity "on" the vehicle (e.g., aircraft pilot or GPS receiver operator). A multilateration surveillance system provides vehicle position to an entity "not on" the vehicle (e.g., air traffic controller or cell phone provider). By the reciprocity principle, any method that can be used for navigation can also be used for surveillance, and vice versa (the same information is involved). Systems have been developed for both TOT and TDOA (which ignore TOT) algorithms. In this article, TDOA algorithms are addressed first, as they were implemented first. Due to the technology available at the time, TDOA systems often determined a vehicle location in two dimensions. TOT systems are addressed second. They were implemented, roughly, post-1975 and usually involve satellites. Due to technology advances, TOT algorithms generally determine a user/vehicle location in three dimensions. However, conceptually, TDOA or TOT algorithms are not linked to the number of dimensions involved. Background Multilateration definition Prior to deployment of GPS and other global navigation satellite systems (GNSSs), pseudo-range multilateration systems were often defined as (synonymous with) TDOA systems i.e., systems that measured TDOAs or formed TDOAs as the first step in processing a set of measured TOAs. However, as result of deployment of GNSSs (which must determine TOT), two issues arose: (a) What system type are GNSSs (pseudo-range multilateration, true-range multilateration, or another system type)? (b) What are the defining characteristic(s) of a pseudo-range multilateration system? (There are no deployed multilateration surveillance systems that determine TOT, but they have been analyzed.) The technical answer to (a) has long been known: GNSSs are a variety (or sub-species) of multilateration navigation systems having moving transmitters. However, because the transmitters are synchronized not only with each other but also with a time standard, GNSS receivers are also sources of timing information. This requires different solution algorithms than TDOA systems. Thus, a case can also be made that GNSSs are a separate category of systems. There is no authoritative answer to (b). However, a reasonable two-part answer is (1) a system whose only measurements are TDOAs or TOAs (or, if the propagation speed is accounted for, only measures pseudo-ranges); and (2) a system whose station clocks must be synchronized. (Note: wave propagation is required by this definition.) This definition is used here, and includes GNSSs as well as TDOA systems. TDOA systems are explicitly hyperbolic while TOA systems are implicitly hyperbolic. Applications overview Pseudo-range multilateration systems have been developed for waves that follow straight-line and curved earth trajectories and virtually every wave phenomena—electromagnetic (various frequencies and waveforms), acoustic (audible or ultrasound, in water or air), seismic, etc. The multilateration technique was apparently first used during World War I to locate the source of artillery fire using audible sound waves (TDOA surveillance). Multilateration surveillance is related to passive towed array sonar target localization (but not identification), which was also first used during World War I. Longer distance radio-based navigation systems became viable during World War II, with the advancement of radio technologies. For about 1950–2000, TDOA multilateration was a common technique in Earth-fixed radio navigation systems, where it was known as hyperbolic navigation. These systems are relatively undemanding of the user receiver, as its "clock" can have low performance/cost and is usually unsynchronized with station time. The difference in received signal timing can even be measured visibly using an oscilloscope. The introduction of the microprocessor greatly simplified operation, increasing popularity during the 1980s. The most popular TDOA hyperbolic navigation system was Loran-C, which was used around the world until the system was largely shut down. The development of atomic clocks for synchronizing widely separated stations was instrumental in the development of the GPS and other GNSSs. The widespread use of satellite navigation systems like the Global Positioning System (GPS) have made Earth-fixed TDOA navigation systems largely redundant, and most have been decommissioned. Owing to its high accuracy at low cost of user equipage, today multilateration is the concept most often selected for new navigation and surveillance systems—e.g., surveillance of flying (alternative to radar) and taxiing (alternative to visual) aircraft. Multilateration is commonly used in civil and military applications to either (a) locate a vehicle (aircraft, ship, car/truck/bus or wireless phone carrier) by measuring the TOAs of a signal from the vehicle at multiple stations having known coordinates and synchronized "clocks" (surveillance application) or (b) enable the vehicle to locate itself relative to multiple transmitters (stations) at known locations and having synchronized clocks based on measurements of signal TOAs (navigation application). When the stations are fixed to the earth and do not provide time, the measured TOAs are almost always used to form one fewer TDOAs. For vehicles, surveillance or navigation stations (including required associated infrastructure) are often provided by government agencies. However, privately funded entities have also been (and are) station/system providers e.g., wireless phone providers. Multilateration is also used by the scientific and military communities for non-cooperative surveillance. Advantages and disadvantages The following table summarizes the advantages and disadvantages of pseudo-range multilateration, particularly relative to true-range measurements. The advantages of systems employing pseudo-ranges largely benefit the vehicle/user/target. The disadvantages largely burden the system provider. Principle Frequencies and waveforms Pseudo-range multilateration navigation systems have been developed utilizing a variety of radio frequencies and waveforms — low-frequency pulses (e.g., Loran-C); low-frequency continuous sinusoids (e.g., Decca); high-frequency continuous wide-band (e.g., GPS). Pseudo-range multilateration surveillance systems often use existing pulsed transmitters (if suitable) — e.g., Shot-Spotter, ASDE-X and WAM. Coordinate frame Virtually always, the coordinate frame is selected based on the wave trajectories. Thus, two- or three-dimensional Cartesian frames are selected most often, based on straight-line (line-of-sight) wave propagation. However, polar (also termed circular/spherical) frames are sometimes used, to agree with curved earth-surface wave propagation paths. Given the frame type, the origin and axes orientation can be selected, e.g., based on the station locations. Standard coordinate frame transformations may be used to place results in any desired frame. For example, GPS receivers generally compute their position using rectangular coordinates, then transform the result to latitude, longitude and altitude. TDOA formation Given received signals, TDOA systems form differences of TOA pairs (see "Calculating TDOAs or TOAs from received signals" below). All received signals must be a member of at least one TDOA pair, but otherwise the differences used are arbitrary (any two of the several sets of TDOAs can be related by an invertible linear transformation). Thus, when forming a TDOA, the order of the two TOAs involved is not important. Some operational TDOA systems (e.g., Loran-C) designate one station as the "master" and form their TDOAs as the difference of the master's TOA and the "secondary" stations' TOAs. When , there are possible TDOA combinations, each corresponding to a station being the de facto master. When , there are possible TDOA sets, of which do not have a de facto master. When , there are possible TDOA sets, of which do not have a de facto master. TDOA principle / surveillance If a pulse is emitted from a vehicle, it will generally arrive at slightly different times at spatially separated receiver sites, the different TOAs being due to the different distances of each receiver from the vehicle. However, for given locations of any two receivers, a set of emitter locations would give the same time difference (TDOA). Given two receiver locations and a known TDOA, the locus of possible emitter locations is one half of a two-sheeted hyperboloid. In simple terms, with two receivers at known locations, an emitter can be located onto one hyperboloid (see Figure 1). Note that the receivers do not need to know the absolute time at which the pulse was transmitted only the time difference is needed. However, to form a useful TDOA from two measured TOAs, the receiver clocks must be synchronized with each other. Consider now a third receiver at a third location which also has a synchronized clock. This would provide a third independent TOA measurement and a second TDOA (there is a third TDOA, but this is dependent on the first two TDOAs and does not provide additional information). The emitter is located on the curve determined by the two intersecting hyperboloids. A fourth receiver is needed for another independent TOA and TDOA. This will give an additional hyperboloid, the intersection of the curve with this hyperboloid gives one or two solutions, the emitter is then located at one of the two solutions. With four synchronized receivers there are 3 independent TDOAs, and three independent parameters are needed for a point in three dimensional space. (And for most constellations, three independent TDOAs will still give two points in 3D space). With additional receivers enhanced accuracy can be obtained. (Specifically, for GPS and other GNSSs, the atmosphere does influence the traveling time of the signal and more satellites does give a more accurate location). For an over-determined constellation (more than 4 satellites/TOAs) a least squares method can be used for 'reducing' the errors. Averaging over longer times can also improve accuracy. The accuracy also improves if the receivers are placed in a configuration that minimizes the error of the estimate of the position. The emitter may, or may not, cooperate in the multilateration surveillance process. Thus, multilateration surveillance is used with non-cooperating "users" for military and scientific purposes as well as with cooperating users (e.g., in civil transportation). TDOA principle / navigation Multilateration can also be used by a single receiver to locate itself, by measuring signals emitted from synchronized transmitters at known locations (stations). At least three emitters are needed for two-dimensional navigation (e.g., the Earth's surface); at least four emitters are needed for three-dimensional navigation. Although not true for real systems, for expository purposes, the emitters may be regarded as each broadcasting narrow pulses (ideally, impulses) at exactly the same time on separate frequencies (to avoid interference). In this situation, the receiver measures the TOAs of the pulses. In actual TDOA systems, the received signals are cross-correlated with an undelayed replica to extract the pseudo delay, then differenced with the same calculation for another station and multiplied by the speed of propagation to create range differences. Several methods have been implemented to avoid self-interference. A historic example is the British Decca system, developed during World War II. Decca used the phase-difference of three transmitters. Later, Omega elaborated on this principle. For Loran-C, introduced in the late 1950s, all transmitters broadcast pulses on the same frequency with different, small time delays. GNSSs continuously transmitting on the same carrier frequency modulated by different pseudo random codes (GPS, Galileo, revised GLONASS). TOT principle The TOT concept is illustrated in Figure 2 for the surveillance function and a planar scenario (). Aircraft A, at coordinates , broadcasts a pulse sequence at time . The broadcast is received at stations , and at times , and respectively. Based on the three measured TOAs, the processing algorithm computes an estimate of the TOT , from which the range between the aircraft and the stations can be calculated. The aircraft coordinates are then found. When the algorithm computes the correct TOT, the three computed ranges have a common point of intersection which is the aircraft location (the solid-line circles in Figure 2). If the computed TOT is after the actual TOT, the computed ranges do not have a common point of intersection (dashed-line circles in Figure 2). It is clear that an iterative TOT algorithm can be found. In fact, GPS was developed using iterative TOT algorithms. Closed-form TOT algorithms were developed later. TOT algorithms became important with the development of GPS. GLONASS and Galileo employ similar concepts. The primary complicating factor for all GNSSs is that the stations (transmitters on satellites) move continuously relative to the Earth. Thus, in order to compute its own position, a user's navigation receiver must know the satellites' locations at the time the information is broadcast in the receiver's time scale (which is used to measure the TOAs). To accomplish this: (1) satellite trajectories and TOTs in the satellites' time scales are included in broadcast messages; and (2) user receivers find the difference between their TOT and the satellite broadcast TOT (termed the clock bias or offset). GPS satellite clocks are synchronized to UTC (to within a published offset of a few seconds), as well as with each other. This enables GPS receivers to provide UTC time in addition to their position. Measurement geometry and related factors Rectangular/Cartesian coordinates Consider an emitter (E in Figure 3) at an unknown location vector which we wish to locate (surveillance problem). The source is within range of receivers at known locations The subscript refers to any one of the receivers: The distance () from the emitter to one of the receivers in terms of the coordinates is For some solution algorithms, the math is made easier by placing the origin at one of the receivers (P0), which makes its distance to the emitter Spherical coordinates Low-frequency radio waves follow the curvature of the Earth (great-circle paths) rather than straight lines. In this situation, equation is not valid. Loran-C and Omega are examples of systems that use spherical ranges. When a spherical model for the Earth is satisfactory, the simplest expression for the central angle (sometimes termed the geocentric angle) between vehicle and station is where latitudes are denoted by , and longitudes are denoted by . Alternative, better numerically behaved equivalent expressions can be found in great-circle navigation. The distance from the vehicle to station is along a great circle will then be where is the assumed radius of the Earth, and is expressed in radians. Time of transmission (user clock offset or bias) Prior to GNSSs, there was little value to determining the TOT (as known to the receiver) or its equivalent in the navigation context, the offset between the receiver and transmitter clocks. Moreover, when those systems were developed, computing resources were quite limited. Consequently, in those systems (e.g., Loran-C, Omega, Decca), receivers treated the TOT as a nuisance parameter and eliminated it by forming TDOA differences (hence were termed TDOA or range-difference systems). This simplified solution algorithms. Even if the TOT (in receiver time) was needed (e.g., to calculate vehicle velocity), TOT could be found from one TOA, the location of the associated station, and the computed vehicle location. With the advent of GPS and subsequently other satellite navigation systems: (1) TOT as known to the user receiver provides necessary and useful information; and (2) computing power had increased significantly. GPS satellite clocks are synchronized not only with each other but also with Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) (with a published offset) and their locations are known relative to UTC. Thus, algorithms used for satellite navigation solve for the receiver position and its clock offset (equivalent to TOT) simultaneously. The receiver clock is then adjusted so its TOT matches the satellite TOT (which is known by the GPS message). By finding the clock offset, GNSS receivers are a source of time as well as position information. Computing the TOT is a practical difference between GNSSs and earlier TDOA multilateration systems, but is not a fundamental difference. To first order, the user position estimation errors are identical. TOA adjustments Multilateration system governing equations which are based on "distance" equals "propagation speed" times "time of flight" assume that the energy wave propagation speed is constant and equal along all signal paths. This is equivalent to assuming that the propagation medium is homogeneous. However, that is not always sufficiently accurate; some paths may involve additional propagation delays due to inhomogeneities in the medium. Accordingly, to improve solution accuracy, some systems adjust measured TOAs to account for such propagation delays. Thus, space-based GNSS augmentation systems e.g., Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) and European Geostationary Navigation Overlay Service (EGNOS) provide TOA adjustments in real time to account for the ionosphere. Similarly, U.S. Government agencies used to provide adjustments to Loran-C measurements to account for soil conductivity variations. Calculating TDOAs or TOAs from received signals Assume a surveillance system calculates the time differences ( for ) of wavefronts touching each receiver. The TDOA equation for receivers and is (where the wave propagation speed is and the true vehicle-receiver ranges are and ) The quantity is often termed a pseudo-range. It differs from the true range between the vehicle and station by an offset, or bias, which is the same for every signal. Differencing two pseudo-ranges yields the difference of the same two true-ranges. Figure 4a (first two plots) show a simulation of a pulse waveform recorded by receivers and . The spacing between , and is such that the pulse takes 5 time units longer to reach than . The units of time in Figure 4 are arbitrary. The following table gives approximate time scale units for recording different types of waves: The red curve in Figure 4a (third plot) is the cross-correlation function . The cross-correlation function slides one curve in time across the other and returns a peak value when the curve shapes match. The peak at time = 5 is a measure of the time shift between the recorded waveforms, which is also the value needed for equation . Figure 4b shows the same type of simulation for a wide-band waveform from the emitter. The time shift is 5 time units because the geometry and wave speed is the same as the Figure 4a example. Again, the peak in the cross-correlation occurs at . Figure 4c is an example of a continuous, narrow-band waveform from the emitter. The cross-correlation function shows an important factor when choosing the receiver geometry. There is a peak at time = 5 plus every increment of the waveform period. To get one solution for the measured time difference, the largest space between any two receivers must be closer than one wavelength of the emitter signal. Some systems, such as the LORAN C and Decca mentioned at earlier (recall the same math works for moving receiver and multiple known transmitters), use spacing larger than 1 wavelength and include equipment, such as a phase detector, to count the number of cycles that pass by as the emitter moves. This only works for continuous, narrow-band waveforms because of the relation between phase , frequency and time : The phase detector will see variations in frequency as measured phase noise, which will be an uncertainty that propagates into the calculated location. If the phase noise is large enough, the phase detector can become unstable. Navigation systems employ similar, but slightly more complex, methods than surveillance systems to obtain delay differences. The major change is DTOA navigation systems cross-correlate each received signal with a stored replica of the transmitted signal (rather than another received signal). The result yields the received signal time delay plus the user clock's bias (pseudo-range scaled by ). Differencing the results of two such calculations yields the delay difference sought ( in equation ). TOT navigation systems perform similar calculations as TDOA navigation systems. However, the final step, subtracting the results of one cross-correlation from another, is not performed. Thus, the result is received signal time delays plus the user clock's bias ( in equation ). Solution algorithms General algorithm behavior Generally, using a direct (non-iterative) algorithm, measurement equations can be reduced to a single scalar nonlinear "solution equation" having one unknown variable (somewhat analogous to Gauss–Jordan elimination for linear equations) e.g., a quadratic polynomial in one vehicle Cartesian coordinate. The vehicle position and TOT then readily follow in sequence. When , the measurement equations generally have two solution sets (but sometimes four), only one of which is "correct" (yields the true TOT and vehicle position in the absence of measurement errors). The "incorrect" solution(s) to the solution equation do not correspond to the vehicle position and TOT and are either ambiguous (yield other vehicle positions which have the same measurements) or extraneous (do not provide vehicle positions which have the same measurements, but are the result of mathematical manipulations). Without redundant measurements (i.e., ), all valid algorithms yield the same "correct" solution set (but perhaps one or more different sets of "incorrect" solutions). Of course, statistically larger measurement errors result in statistically larger errors in the correct computed vehicle coordinates and TOT. With redundant measurements (i.e., ), a loss function or cost function (also called an error function) is minimized (a quadratic loss function is common). With redundant measurements in the absence of measurement errors, the measurement equations usually have a unique solution. If measurement errors are present, different algorithms yield different "correct" solutions; some are statistically better than others. Algorithm selection considerations There are multiple categories of multilateration algorithms, and some categories have multiple members. Perhaps the first factor that governs algorithm selection: Is an initial estimate of the user's position required (as do iterative algorithms) or is it not? Direct (closed-form) algorithms estimate the user's position using only the measured TOAs and do not require an initial position estimate. A related factor governing algorithm selection: Is the algorithm readily automated, or conversely, is human interaction needed/expected? Most direct (closed form) algorithms have multiple solutions, which is detrimental to their automation. A third factor is: Does the algorithm function well with both the minimum number () TOA measurements and with additional (redundant) measurements? Direct algorithms can be further categorized based on energy wave propagation path—either straight-line or curved. The latter is applicable to low-frequency radio waves, which follow the earth's surface; the former applies to higher frequency (say, greater than one megahertz) and to shorter ranges (hundreds of miles). This taxonomy has five categories: four for direct algorithms and one for iterative algorithms (which can be used with either or more measurements and either propagation path type). However, it appears that algorithms in only three of these categories have been implemented. When redundant measurements are available for either wave propagation path, iterative algorithms have been strongly favored over closed-form algorithms. Often, real-time systems employ iterative algorithms while off-line studies utilize closed-form algorithms. All multilateration algorithms assume that the station locations are known at the time each wave is transmitted. For TDOA systems, the stations are fixed to the earth and their locations are surveyed. For TOA systems, the satellites follow well-defined orbits and broadcast orbital information. (For navigation, the user receiver's clock must be synchronized with the transmitter clocks; this requires that the TOT be found.) Equation is the hyperboloid described in the previous section, where 4 receivers (0 ≤ m ≤ 3) lead to 3 non-linear equations in 3 unknown Cartesian coordinates (x,y,z). The system must then solve for the unknown user (often, vehicle) location in real time. (A variation: air traffic control multilateration systems use the Mode C SSR transponder message to find an aircraft's altitude. Three or more receivers at known locations are used to find the other two dimensions — either (x,y) for an airport application, or latitude/longitude for off-airport applications.) Steven Bancroft was apparently the first to publish a closed-form solution to the problem of locating a user (e.g., vehicle) in three dimensions and the common TOT using four or more TOA measurements. Bancroft's algorithm, as do many, reduces the problem to the solution of a quadratic algebraic equation; its solution yields the three Cartesian coordinates of the receiver as well as the common signal TOT. Other, comparable solutions were subsequently developed. Notably, all closed-form solutions were found a decade or more after the GPS program was initiated using iterative methods. The solution for the position of an aircraft having a known altitude using 3 TOA measurements requires solving a quartic (fourth-order) polynomial. Multilateration systems and studies employing spherical-range measurements (e.g., Loran-C, Decca, Omega) utilized a variety of solution algorithms based on either iterative methods or spherical trigonometry. Three-dimensional Cartesian algorithms For Cartesian coordinates, when four TOAs are available and the TOT is needed, Bancroft's or another closed-form (direct) algorithm are options, even if the stations are moving. When the four stations are stationary and the TOT is not needed, extension of Fang's algorithm (based on DTOAs) to three dimensions is an option. Another option, and likely the most utilized in practice, is the iterative Gauss–Newton Nonlinear Least-Squares method. Most closed-form algorithms reduce finding the user vehicle location from measured TOAs to the solution of a quadratic equation. One solution of the quadratic yields the user's location. The other solution is either ambiguous or extraneous – both can occur (which one depends upon the dimensions and the user location). Generally, eliminating the incorrect solution is not difficult for a human, but may require vehicle motion and/or information from another system. An alternative method used in some multilateration systems is to employ the Gauss–Newton NLLS method and require a redundant TOA when first establishing surveillance of a vehicle. Thereafter, only the minimum number of TOAs is required. Satellite navigation systems such as GPS are the most prominent examples of 3-D multilateration. Wide Area Multilateration (WAM), a 3-D aircraft surveillance system, employs a combination of three or more TOA measurements and an aircraft altitude report. Two-dimensional Cartesian algorithms For finding a user's location in a two dimensional (2-D) Cartesian geometry, one can adapt one of the many methods developed for 3-D geometry, most motivated by GPS—for example, Bancroft's or Krause's. Additionally, there are specialized TDOA algorithms for two-dimensions and stations at fixed locations — notable is Fang's method. A comparison of 2-D Cartesian algorithms for airport surface surveillance has been performed. However, as in the 3-D situation, it is likely the most utilized algorithms are based on Gauss–Newton NLLS. Examples of 2-D Cartesian multilateration systems are those used at major airports in many nations to surveil aircraft on the surface or at very low altitudes. Two-dimensional spherical algorithms Razin developed a closed-form algorithm for a spherical earth. Williams and Last extended Razin's solution to an osculating sphere earth model. When necessitated by the combination of vehicle-station distance (e.g., hundreds of miles or more) and required solution accuracy, the ellipsoidal shape of the earth must be considered. This has been accomplished using the Gauss–Newton NLLS method in conjunction with ellipsoid algorithms by Andoyer, Vincenty and Sodano. Examples of 2-D 'spherical' multilateration navigation systems that accounted for the ellipsoidal shape of the earth are the Loran-C and Omega radionavigation systems, both of which were operated by groups of nations. Their Russian counterparts, CHAYKA and Alpha (respectively), are understood to operate similarly. Cartesian solution with limited computational resources Consider a three-dimensional Cartesian scenario. Improving accuracy with a large number of receivers (say, , numbered ) can be a problem for devices with small embedded processors, because of the time required to solve several simultaneous, non-linear equations (, , ). The TDOA problem can be turned into a system of linear equations when there are three or more receivers, which can reduce the computation time. Starting with equation , solve for , square both sides, collect terms and divide all terms by : Removing the term will eliminate all the square root terms. That is done by subtracting the TDOA equation of receiver from each of the others () Focus for a moment on equation . Square , group similar terms and use equation  to replace some of the terms with . Combine equations and , and write as a set of linear equations (for ) of the unknown emitter location Use equation to generate the four constants from measured distances and time for each receiver . This will be a set of inhomogeneous linear equations. There are many robust linear algebra methods that can solve for , such as Gaussian elimination. Chapter 15 in Numerical Recipes describes several methods to solve linear equations and estimate the uncertainty of the resulting values. Iterative algorithms The defining characteristic and major disadvantage of iterative methods is that a 'reasonably accurate' initial estimate of the 'vehicle's' location is required. If the initial estimate is not sufficiently close to the solution, the method may not converge or may converge to an ambiguous or extraneous solution. However, iterative methods have several advantages: Can use redundant measurements Can utilize uninvertible measurement equations — Enables, e.g., use of complex problem geometries such as an ellipsoidal earth's surface. Can utilize measurements lacking an analytic expression (e.g., described by a numerical algorithm and/or involving measured data) — What is required is the capability to compute a candidate solution (e.g., user-station range) from hypothetical user position quantities (e.g., latitude and longitude) Amenable to automated processing (avoids the extraneous and ambiguous solutions which occur in direct algorithms) Can treat random measurement errors linearly, which when allows averaging and thus minimizes their effect on position error. Many real-time multilateration systems provide a rapid sequence of user's position solutions — e.g., GPS receivers typically provide solutions at 1 sec intervals. Almost always, such systems implement: (a) a transient 'acquisition' (surveillance) or 'cold start' (navigation) mode, whereby the user's location is found from the current measurements only; and (b) a steady-state 'track' (surveillance) or 'warm start' (navigation) mode, whereby the user's previously computed location is updated based current measurements (rendering moot the major disadvantage of iterative methods). Often the two modes employ different algorithms and/or have different measurement requirements, with (a) being more demanding. The iterative Gauss-Newton algorithm is often used for (b) and may be used for both modes. When there are more TOA measurements than the unknown quantities – e.g., 5 or more GPS satellite TOAs – the iterative Gauss–Newton algorithm for solving non-linear least squares (NLLS) problems is often preferred. Except for pathological station locations, an over-determined situation eliminates possible ambiguous and/or extraneous solutions that can occur when only the minimum number of TOA measurements are available. Another important advantage of the Gauss–Newton method over some closed-form algorithms is that it treats measurement errors linearly, which is often their nature, thereby reducing the effect measurement errors by averaging. The Gauss–Newton method may also be used with the minimum number of measurements. While the Gauss-Newton NLLS iterative algorithm is widely used in operational systems (e.g., ASDE-X), the Nelder-Mead iterative method is also available. Example code for the latter, for both TOA and TDOA systems, are available. Accuracy Multilateration is often more accurate for locating an object than true-range multilateration or multiangulation, as (a) it is inherently difficult and/or expensive to accurately measure the true range (distance) between a moving vehicle and a station, particularly over large distances, and (b) accurate angle measurements require large antennas which are costly and difficult to site. Accuracy of a multilateration system is a function of several factors, including: The geometry of the receiver(s) and transmitter(s) for electronic, optical or other wave phenomenon. The synchronization accuracy of the transmitters (navigation) or the receivers (surveillance), including the thermal stability of the clocking oscillators. Propagation effects -— e.g., diffraction or reflection changes from the assumed line of sight or curvilinear propagation path. The bandwidth of the emitted signals—e.g., the rise-time of the pulses employed with pulse coded signals. Inaccuracies in the locations of the transmitters or receivers when used as known locations. The accuracy can be calculated by using the Cramér–Rao bound and taking account of the above factors in its formulation. Additionally, a configuration of the sensors that minimizes a metric obtained from the Cramér–Rao bound can be chosen so as to optimize the actual position estimation of the target in a region of interest. Concerning the first issue (user-station geometry), planning a multilateration system often involves a dilution of precision (DOP) analysis to inform decisions on the number and location of the stations and the system's service area (two dimensions) or volume (three dimensions). In a DOP analysis, the TOA measurement errors are assumed to be statistically independent and identically distributed. This reasonable assumption separates the effects of user-station geometry and TOA measurement errors on the error in the calculated user position. Station synchronization Multilateration requires that spatially separated stations – either transmitters (navigation) or receivers (surveillance) – have synchronized 'clocks'. There are two distinct synchronization requirements: (1) maintain synchronization accuracy continuously over the life expectancy of the system equipment involved (e.g., 25 years); and (2) for surveillance, accurately measure the time interval between TOAs for each 'vehicle' transmission. Requirement (1) is transparent to the user, but is an important system design consideration. To maintain synchronization, station clocks must be synchronized or reset regularly (e.g., every half-day for GPS, every few minutes for ASDE-X). Often the system accuracy is monitored continuously by "users" at known locations - e.g., GPS has five monitor sites. Multiple methods have been used for station synchronization. Typically, the method is selected based on the distance between stations. In approximate order of increasing distance, methods have included: Hard-wired clockless stations (navigation and surveillance) – Clockless stations are hard-wired to a central location having the single system clock. Wire lengths are generally equal, but that may not be possible in all applications. This method has been used for locating artillery fire (stations are microphones). Radio-linked clockless stations (navigation and surveillance) - Clockless stations are radio-linked or microwave-linked to a central location having the single system clock. Link delays are equalized. This method is used by some wide area multilateration (WAM) systems. Test target (surveillance) – A test target is installed at a fixed, known location that's visible to all receivers. The test target transmits as an ordinary user would, and its position is calculated from the TOAs. Its known position is used to adjust the receiver clocks. ASDE-X uses this method. Fixed transmitter delays (navigation) – One transmitter is designated the master; the others are secondaries. The master transmits first. Each secondary transmits a fixed (short) time after receiving the master's transmission. Loran-C originally used this method. Continuously broadcast phase information (navigation) - Phase information is continuously broadcast on different frequencies. Used by Decca. Broadcast pulsed phase information (navigation) - Pulsed phase information is broadcast on the same frequency according to a known schedule. Used by Omega. Satellite time transfer (navigation and surveillance) – There are multiple methods for transferring time from a reference site to a remote station via satellite. The simplest is to synchronize the stations to GPS time. Some WAM systems use this method. Atomic clocks (navigation and surveillance) – Each station has one or more synchronized atomic clocks. GNSSs use this method and Omega did. Loran-C switched to it. Even atomic clocks drift, and a monitoring and/or correction system may be required. Service area or volume Sensitivity of accuracy to vehicle-station geometry While the performance of all navigation and surveillance systems depends upon the user's location relative to the stations, multilateration systems are more sensitive to the user-station geometry than are most systems. To illustrate, consider a hypothetical two-station surveillance system that monitors the location of a railroad locomotive along a straight stretch of track—a one dimensional situation . The locomotive carries a transmitter and the track is straight in both directions beyond the stretch that's monitored. For convenience, let the system origin be mid-way between the stations; then occurs at the origin. Such a system would work well when a locomotive is between the two stations. When in motion, a locomotive moves directly toward one station and directly away from the other. If a locomotive is distance away from the origin, in the absence of measurement errors, the TDOA would be (where is the known wave propagation speed). Thus, (ignoring the scale-factor ) the amount of displacement is doubled in the TDOA. If true ranges were measured instead of pseudo-ranges, the measurement difference would be identical. However, this one-dimensional pseudo-range system would not work at all when a locomotive is not between the two stations. In either extension region, if a locomotive moves between two transmissions, necessarily away from both stations, the TDOA would not change. In the absence of errors, the changes in the two TOAs would perfectly cancel in forming the TDOA. In the extension regions, the system would always indicate that a locomotive was at the nearer station, regardless of its actual position. In contrast, a system that measures true ranges would function in the extension regions exactly as it does when the locomotive is between the stations. This one-dimensional system provides an extreme example of a multilateration system's service area. In a multi-dimensional (i.e., or ) situation, the measurement extremes of a one-dimensional scenario rarely occur. When it is within the perimeter enclosing the stations, a vehicle usually moves partially away from some stations and partially toward other stations. It is highly unlikely to move directly toward any one station and simultaneously directly away from another; moreover, it cannot move directly toward or away from all stations at the same time. Simply put, inside the stations' perimeter, consecutive TDOAs will typically amplify but not double vehicle movement which occurred during that interval—i.e., . Conversely, outside the perimeter, consecutive TDOAs will typically attenuate but not cancel associated vehicle movement—i.e., . The amount of amplification or attenuation will depend upon the vehicle's location. The system's performance, averaged over all directions, varies continuously as a function of user location. Dilution Of Precision (DOP) When analyzing a 2D or 3D multilateration system, dilution of precision (DOP) is usually employed to quantify the effect of user-station geometry on position-determination accuracy. The basic DOP metric is The symbol conveys the notion that there are multiple "flavors" of DOP the choice depends upon the number of spatial dimensions involved and whether the error for the TOT solution is included in the metric. The same distance units must be used in the numerator and denominator of this fraction e.g., meters. ?DOP is a dimensionless factor that is usually greater than one, but is independent of the pseudo-range (PR) measurement error. (When redundant stations are involved, it is possible to have 0 < ?DOP < 1.) HDOP is usually employed (? = H, and XXX = horizontal position) when interest is focused on a vehicle position on a plane. Pseudo-range errors are assumed to add to the measured TOAs, be Gaussian-distributed, have zero mean (average value) and have the same standard deviation regardless of vehicle location or the station involved. Labeling the orthogonal axes in the plane as and , the horizontal position error is characterized statistically as Mathematically, each DOP "flavor" is a different sensitivity ("derivative") of a solution quantity (e.g., horizontal position) standard deviation with respect to the pseudo-range error standard deviation. (Roughly, DOP corresponds to the condition .) That is, ?DOP is the rate of change of the standard deviation of a solution quantity from its correct value due to measurement errors assuming that a linearized least squares algorithm is used. (It is also the smallest variance for any algorithm.) Specifically, HDOP is the sensitivity ("derivative") of the user's horizontal position standard deviation (i.e., its sensitivity) to the pseudo-range error standard deviation. For three stations, multilateration accuracy is quite good within almost the entire triangle enclosing the stations—say, 1 < HDOP < 1.5 and is close to the HDOP for true ranging measurements using the same stations. However, a multilateration system's HDOP degrades rapidly for locations outside the station perimeter. Figure 5 illustrates the approximate service area of two-dimensional multilateration system having three stations forming an equilateral triangle. The stations are M–U–V. BLU denotes baseline unit (station separation ). The inner circle is more "conservative" and corresponds to a "cold start" (no knowledge of vehicle's initial position). The outer circle is more typical, and corresponds to starting from a known location. The axes are normalized by the separation between stations. Figure 6 shows the HDOP contours for the same multilateration system. The minimum HDOP, 1.155, occurs at the center of the triangle formed by the stations (and would be the same value for true range measurements). Beginning with HDOP = 1.25, the contours shown follow a factor-of-2 progression. Their roughly equal spacing (outside of the three V-shaped areas between the baseline extensions) is consistent with the rapid growth of the horizontal position error with distance from the stations. The system's HDOP behavior is qualitatively different in the three V-shaped areas between the baseline extensions. HDOP is infinite along the baseline extensions, and is significantly larger in these area. (HDOP is mathematically undefined at the stations; hence multiple DOP contours can terminate on a station.) A three-station system should not be used between the baseline extensions. For locations outside the stations' perimeter, a multilateration system should typically be used only near the center of the closest baseline connecting two stations (two dimensional planar situation) or near the center of the closest plane containing three stations (three dimensional situation). Additionally, a multilateration system should only be employed for user locations that are a fraction of an average baseline length (e.g., less than 25%) from the closest baseline or plane. For example: To ensure that users were within the station perimeter, Loran-C stations were often placed at locations that many persons would consider "remote", e.g. to provide navigation service to ships and aircraft in the North Atlantic area, there were stations at Faroe Islands (Denmark), Jan Mayen Island (Norway) and Angissq (Greenland). While GPS users on/near the Earth's surface are always outside the perimeter of the visible satellites, a user is typically close to the center of the nearest plane containing three low-elevation-angle satellites and is between 5% and 10% of a baseline length from that plane. When more than the required minimum number of stations are available (often the case for a GPS user), HDOP can be improved (reduced). However, limitations on use of the system outside the polygonal station perimeter largely remain. Of course, the processing system (e.g., GPS receiver) must be able to utilize the additional TOAs. This is not an issue today, but has been a limitation in the past. Example applications GPS (U.S.), GLONASS (Russia), Galileo (E.U.) – Global navigation satellite systems. Two complicating factors relative to TDOA systems are: (1) the transmitter stations (satellites) are moving; and (2) receivers must compute TOT, requiring a more complex algorithm (but providing accurate time to users). Sound ranging – Using sound to locate the source of artillery fire. Electronic targets – Using the Mach wave of a bullet passing a sensor array to determine the point of arrival of the bullet on a firing range target. Decca Navigator System – A system used from the end of World War II to the year 2000, employing the phase-difference of multiple transmitters to locate on the intersection of hyperboloids Omega Navigation System – A worldwide system, technically similar to Decca but providing service for much longer range;, shut down in 1997 Gee (navigation) – British aircraft location system used during World War II Loran-C – Navigation system using TDOA of signals from multiple synchronized transmitters; shut down in the U.S. and Europe; Russian Chayka system was similar Passive ESM (electronic support measures) multilateration non-cooperative surveillance systems, including Kopáč, Ramona, Tamara, VERA and possibly Kolchuga – located a transmitter using multiple receivers Mobile phone tracking – using multiple base stations to estimate phone location, either by the phone itself (navigation, industry term is downlink multilateration), or by the phone network (surveillance, industry term is uplink multilateration) Reduced Vertical Separation Minima (RVSM) monitoring to determine the accuracy of Mode C/S aircraft transponder altitude information. Application of multilateration to RVSM was first demonstrated by Roke Manor Research Limited in 1989. Wide area multilateration (WAM) – Surveillance system for airborne aircraft that measures the TOAs of emissions from the aircraft transponder (on 1090 MHz); in operational service in several countries Airport Surface Detection Equipment, Model X (ASDE-X) – Surveillance system for aircraft and other vehicles on the surface of an airport; includes a multilateration sub-system that measures the TOAs of emissions from the aircraft transponder (on 1090 MHz); ASDE-X is U.S. FAA terminology, similar systems are in service in several countries. Flight Test "Truth" – Locata Corporation offers a ground-based local positioning system that augments GPS and is used by NASA and the U.S. military Seismic Event Location – Events (e.g., earthquakes) are monitored by measuring TOAs at different locations and employing multilateration algorithms Towed array sonar / SURTASS / SOFAR (SOund Fixing And Ranging) – Systems employed by the U.S. Navy (and likely similar systems by other navies). Purposes are to detect and determine the direction and rough distance of a sound source (e.g., submarine) from listening. Sensors move, which is unusual for surveillance systems. MILS and SMILS Missile Impact Location Systems – Acoustic systems deployed to determine the 'splash down' points in the South Atlantic of Polaris, Poseidon and Trident missiles that were test-fired from Cape Canaveral, FL. Passive Sonar - Utilizes acoustic waves (TOAs and other features) to detect (and perhaps localize) ships Atlantic Undersea Test and Evaluation Center (AUTEC) – U.S. Navy facility that measures trajectories of undersea boats and weapons using acoustics Ultrasonic Indoor Positioning - 3D position of a smartphone within a building "room" can be obtained through an ultrasound system ShotSpotter - Gunfire location system See also Ranging True Range Multilateration Rangefinder Hyperbolic navigation – Alternative term (to multilateration) for TDOA navigation systems with stationary transmitters FDOA – Frequency difference of arrival using differential Doppler measurements. Triangulation – Location by angular measurement on lines of bearing that intersect Trilateration – Location by multiple distances, typically three distances on a plane; a specific technique used in surveying. Mobile phone tracking Multidimensional scaling Positioning system Radiolocation Radio navigation Real-time locating – International standard for asset and staff tracking using wireless hardware and real-time software Real time location system – General techniques for asset and staff tracking using wireless hardware and real-time software Great-circle navigation – Provides the basic mathematics for addressing spherical ranges Non-linear least squares - Form of least-squares analysis when non-linear equations are involved; used for multilateration when (a) there are more range-difference measurements than unknown variables, and/or (b) the measurement equations are too complex to be inverted (e.g., those for an ellipsoidal earth), and/or (c) tabular data must be utilized (e.g., conductivity of the earth over which radio wave propagated). Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) - Time standard provided by GPS receivers (with published offset) Clock synchronization - Methods for synchronizing clocks at remote stations Atomic clock – Sometimes used to synchronize multiple widely separated stations Dilution of precision – Analytic technique often applied to the design of multilateration systems Gauss–Newton algorithm – Iterative solution method used by several operational multilateration systems Loss function - Also termed cost function or error function; used to convert redundant TOA measurements to a single equation Rotation of axes - Addresses rotating from one Cartesian coordinate frame to another Real-time locating system (RTLS) - Multilateration can be employed in a RTLS indoor surveillance system. Unilateration - A type of real time locating system (RTLS) Notes Categories Elementary geometry Euclidean geometry Radio navigation Geopositioning Ubiquitous computing Wireless locating

3517890

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/153P/Ikeya%E2%80%93Zhang

153P/Ikeya–Zhang

Comet Ikeya–Zhang (Japanese, Chinese: 池谷-張彗星, officially designated 153P/Ikeya–Zhang) is a comet discovered independently by two astronomers from Japan and China in 2002. It has by far the longest orbital period of the numbered periodic comets. It was last observed in October 2002 when it was about from the Sun. On February 1, 2002, Chinese astronomer Zhang Daqing from Kaifeng discovered a new comet in the constellation Cetus, and reported it to the IAU. He found that Japanese astronomer Kaoru Ikeya had discovered it earlier than he had, as the time of sunset is earlier than China. According to tradition, since they discovered the new comet independently, the comet was named after both of them. The comet was initially designated as C/2002 C1 (Ikeya–Zhang). The comet was observed in 1661, 341 years earlier, by Polish astronomer Johannes Hevelius. A bright comet had also been recorded by Chinese astronomers in 1661. The permanent designation "153P" was given to the comet. It has the longest known orbital period of any periodic comet (366.51 years). Its orbital speed around the Sun varies from 59 km/s at perihelion to 0.29 km/s at aphelion. The comet passed perihelion on March 18, 2002, and with apparent magnitude 2.9. With a multi-hundred year orbit involving asymmetric outgassing the next perihelion passage is expected between 2362–2363. During March–April 2002, protons from the comet tail may have been detected by the Cassini spacecraft. This data suggested the comet tail had a length greater than , making it the longest yet detected. See also Johannes Hevelius List of Solar System objects by greatest aphelion Notes References Cometography.com: 153P/Ikeya–Zhang External links Orbital simulation from JPL (Java) / Horizons Ephemeris 153P/Ikeya–Zhang (2002) Periodic comets 0153

3518219

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astra%201C

Astra 1C

Astra 1C was a geostationary communications satellite launched in 1993 by the Société Européenne des Satellites (SES), now SES Astra. The satellite remained in service until 2011 and is now derelict. History Astra 1C was the third communications satellite placed in orbit by SES, and was originally deployed at the Astra 19.2°E orbital position. The satellite was intended to be replaced in 2002, along with Astra 1B, by Astra 1K but this satellite failed to reach its intended orbit. It was eventually relieved of its remaining television/radio payloads by Astra 1KR in 2006. In November 2006, prior to the launch of Astra 1L to the 19.2° East position, Astra 1C was placed in an inclined orbit and moved first to 2.0° East for tests, and then in February 2007 to 4.6° East, notionally part of the Astra 5°E cluster of satellites but largely unused. After November 2008, the satellite operated back at 2.0° East, in an inclined orbit. On 2 November 2011, the satellite was taken out of use as Eutelsat, the rightholder for the 3° allocation, came on air with Eutelsat 3A and current rules ask for a minimum of 2° separation. In the summer of 2014, the satellite was moved to 73° West, close to SES' AMC-6 satellite, to 1.2° West, to 152° West, to 40° West next to SES-6, to 91° East in January 2015 and continuously moving west by approximately 5.2° per day to reach 164° East at the end of 2015. See also Astra 19.2°E previous orbital position Astra 5°E previous orbital position SES S.A. satellite owner References External links official SES website SES fleet information and map SES Astra website SES guide to channels broadcasting on Astra satellites (archived) Astra satellites Derelict satellites orbiting Earth Satellites using the BSS-601 bus 1993 in Luxembourg Satellites of Luxembourg Spacecraft launched in 1993

3518262

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astra%201D

Astra 1D

Astra 1D is a geostationary communications satellite launched in 1994 by the Société Européenne des Satellites (SES). , the craft remains in service for occasional use. Astra 1D was the fourth, and under original plans, last Astra communications satellite from SES. It was launched to SES' original solitary operational position at 19.2° East, and was intended as an in-orbit spare for Astra's Astra 1A, 1B and 1C and to carry digital TV transmissions. However, development of digital reception equipment in Europe was not sufficiently advanced for Astra 1D to be SES' first digital satellite (the later Astra 1E fulfilled that role) and demand for additional capacity for both British and German television channels led to 12 of the satellite's transponders being leased to broadcast analogue TV channels before the satellite had been launched. History After launch to 19.2° East, Astra 1D served two periods as a spare at the Astra 28.2°E position colocated with Astra 2A, for seven months in 1998 and for 13 months from December 1999. In between these two periods, it returned to the Astra 19.2°E position. During this time, some small numbers of transponders were used for regular service. After other Astra craft (Astra 2B, Astra 2D) either arrived or were ordered for the slot, it moved to 24.2° East where it spent over two years carrying little more than test cards or feeds, until a move to 23° East (November 2003) and then 23.5° East (September 2004) where Euro1080 began to use it as their main transmitting craft. When the satellite originally went on air in January 1995, several of its transponders were used by British Sky Broadcasting for new channels such as Granada Talk TV. These transponders broadcast on frequencies outside (below) the tuning range offered by the original Sky set-top-box receiver (with a 950-1750 MHz IF tuning range) and a standard Astra Low-noise block downconverter (LNB) (with a 10.00 GHz local oscillator) so Sky produced a frequency shifter ("ADX Plus Channel Expander"), comprising a small box connected between the LNB and the receiver (and powered by the receiver) with a single manual switch to select between Astra 1A and Astra 1D reception. Switched to Astra 1D reception, this shifted up the IF signal from the LNB by 250 MHz to bring the new frequencies within the receiver's tuning range. Subsequent Sky receivers had an 'extended' 950-2150 MHz IF tuning range and were used with an 'Enhanced LNB' with a 9.75 GHz local oscillator to enable reception of all the transponders used on the Astra 1A-1D satellites. In November 2007, Astra 1D was replaced at the Astra 23.5°E position by Astra 1E, and was moved to 31.5° East, where it operated in inclined orbit, to replace Optus A3, and was joined in April 2008 by Astra 5A to officially open the Astra 31.5°E position. On 16 January 2009, Astra 5A suffered a technical failure and all traffic ceased. Much of it (especially channels for German cable service, Kabel Deutschland) transferred to Astra 23.5° East as Astra 1D was not suitable for the transmission of these services because it was in an inclined orbit. In May 2009, Astra 2C was moved from the 28.2° East position to Astra 31.5° East to take over Astra 5A's mission with Astra 1D as ultimate backup. In June 2010, Astra 1G was moved from Astra 23.5° East to Astra 31.5° East (following the launch of Astra 3B to 23.5° East), where it could take over all broadcasting activity from Astra 2C, releasing Astra 2C for backup, and releasing Astra 1D for use elsewhere. Astra 1D then commenced movement westwards and in August 2010 arrived at 1.8° East where, with Astra 1C at 2.0° East it was used for occasional traffic such as outside broadcast news feeds. Astra 1D returned 23.5° East in 2012 with two transponders active for several months (both carrying the Luxembourg terrestrial channel, RTL Télé Lëtzebuerg). In June 2013, the satellite moved east from 23.5° East (although it remained listed in the SES website as at this position ) to 52.2° East. In February 2014, Astra 1D began moving westward, reaching its destination of 67.5° West in June 2014, where it was joined by Astra 1H in August 2014, moved from 19.2° East. Both Astra 1D and Astra 1H were moved close to NSS-806 at 47.5° West in the Spring/Summer of 2015. In 2017, Astra 1D was moved to 73° West. Since November 2021, 1D has been non-operational and drifting west at approximately 4.8°/day. Transponders The channels broadcast on Astra 1D during its time at 19.2° East (1994-2000) include: See also Astra 31.5°E previous orbital position Astra 19.2°E original orbital position SES satellite operator Astra satellite family References External links Official SES website Highlights of SES history SES fleet information and map SES guide to channels broadcasting on Astra satellites Astra satellites Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Satellites using the BSS-601 bus 1994 in Luxembourg Satellites of Luxembourg Spacecraft launched in 1994

3528649

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonization%20of%20Venus

Colonization of Venus

The colonization of Venus has been a subject of many works of science fiction since before the dawn of spaceflight, and is still discussed from both a fictional and a scientific standpoint. However, with the discovery of Venus's extremely hostile surface environment, attention has largely shifted towards the colonization of the Moon and Mars instead, with proposals for Venus focused on habitats floating in the upper-middle atmosphere and on terraforming. Background Space colonization is a step beyond space exploration, and implies the permanent or long-term presence of humans in an environment outside Earth. Colonization of space was claimed by Stephen Hawking to be the best way to ensure the survival of humans as a species. Other reasons for colonizing space include economic interests, long-term scientific research best carried out by humans as opposed to robotic probes, and sheer curiosity. Venus is the second largest terrestrial planet and Earth's closest neighbor, which makes it a potential target. Advantages Venus has certain similarities to Earth which, if not for the hostile conditions, might make colonization easier in many respects in comparison with other possible destinations. These similarities, and its proximity, have led Venus to be called Earth's "sister planet". At present it has not been established whether the gravity of Mars, 0.38 times that of the Earth, would be sufficient to avoid bone decalcification and loss of muscle tone experienced by astronauts living in a micro-g environment. In contrast, Venus is close in size and mass to the Earth, resulting in a similar surface gravity (0.904 g) that would likely be sufficient to prevent the health problems associated with weightlessness. Most other space exploration and colonization plans face concerns about the damaging effect of long-term exposure to fractional g or zero gravity on the human musculoskeletal system. Venus's relative proximity makes transportation and communications easier than for most other locations in the Solar System. With current propulsion systems, launch windows to Venus occur every 584 days, compared to the 780 days for Mars. Flight time is also somewhat shorter; the Venus Express probe that arrived at Venus in April 2006 spent slightly over five months en route, compared to nearly six months for Mars Express. This is because at closest approach, Venus is from Earth (approximated by perihelion of Earth minus aphelion of Venus) compared to for Mars (approximated by perihelion of Mars minus aphelion of Earth) making Venus the closest planet to Earth. Venus's atmosphere is made mostly out of carbon dioxide. Because nitrogen and oxygen are lighter than carbon-dioxide, breathable-air-filled balloons will float at a height of about . At this height, the temperature is a manageable . At higher, it is a temperate (see ). The atmosphere also provides the various elements required for human life and agriculture: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur. Additionally, the upper atmosphere could provide protection from harmful solar radiation comparable to the protection provided by Earth's atmosphere. The atmosphere of Mars, as well as the Moon provide little such protection. Difficulties Venus also presents several significant challenges to human colonization. Surface conditions on Venus are difficult to deal with: the temperature at the equator averages around , higher than the melting point of lead, which is 327 °C. The atmospheric pressure on the surface is also at least ninety times greater than on Earth, which is equivalent to the pressure experienced under a kilometer of water. These conditions have caused missions to the surface to be extremely brief: the Soviet Venera 5 and Venera 6 probes were crushed by high pressure while still 18 km above the surface. Following landers such as Venera 7 and Venera 8 succeeded in transmitting data after reaching the surface, but these missions were brief as well, surviving no more than a single hour on the surface. Furthermore, water, in any form, is almost entirely absent from Venus. The atmosphere is devoid of molecular oxygen and is primarily carbon dioxide. In addition, the visible clouds are composed of corrosive sulfuric acid and sulfur dioxide vapor. Exploration and research Over 20 successful space missions have visited Venus since 1962. The last European probe was ESA's Venus Express, which was in polar orbit around the planet from 2006 to 2014. A Japanese probe, Akatsuki, failed in its first attempt to orbit Venus, but successfully reinserted itself into orbit on 7 December 2015. Other low-cost missions have been proposed to further explore the planet's atmosphere, as the area above the surface where gas pressure is at the same level as Earth has not yet been thoroughly explored. Aerostat habitats and floating cities At least as early as 1971 Soviet scientists had suggested that rather than attempting to settle Venus' hostile surface, humans might attempt to settle the Venusian atmosphere. Geoffrey A. Landis of NASA's Glenn Research Center has summarized the perceived difficulties in colonizing Venus as being merely from the assumption that a colony would need to be based on the surface of a planet: Landis has proposed aerostat habitats followed by floating cities, based on the concept that breathable air (21:79 oxygen/nitrogen mixture) is a lifting gas in the dense carbon dioxide atmosphere, with over 60% of the lifting power that helium has on Earth. In effect, a balloon full of human-breathable air would sustain itself and extra weight (such as a colony) in midair. At an altitude of above the Venusian surface, the environment is the most Earth-like in the Solar System beyond Earth itself – a pressure of approximately 1 atm or 1000 hPa and temperatures in the range. Protection against cosmic radiation would be provided by the atmosphere above, with shielding mass equivalent to Earth's. At the top of the clouds the wind speed on Venus reaches up to , circling the planet approximately every four Earth days, in a phenomenon known as "super-rotation". Compared to the Venusian solar day of 118 Earth days, colonies freely floating in this region could therefore have a much shorter day-night cycle. Allowing a colony to move freely would also reduce structural stress from the wind that they would experience if tethered to the ground. At its most extreme, the entirety of Venus could be covered in aerostats, forming an artificial planetary surface. This would be supported by the atmosphere compressed beneath it. Advantages Because there is not a significant pressure difference between the inside and the outside of the breathable-air balloon, any rips or tears would cause gases to diffuse at normal atmospheric mixing rates rather than an explosive decompression, giving time to repair any such damages. In addition, humans would not require pressurized suits when outside, merely air to breathe, protection from the acidic rain and on some occasions low level protection against heat. Alternatively, two-part domes could contain a lifting gas like hydrogen or helium (extractable from the atmosphere) to allow a higher mass density. Therefore, putting on or taking off suits for working outside would be easier. Working outside the vehicle in non-pressurized suits would also be easier. Remaining problems Structural and industrial materials would be hard to retrieve from the surface and expensive to bring from Earth/asteroids. The sulfuric acid itself poses a further challenge in that the colony would need to be constructed of or coated in materials resistant to corrosion by the acid, such as PTFE (a compound consisting wholly of carbon and fluorine). Studies In 2015, NASA developed the High Altitude Venus Operational Concept (HAVOC) for exploring the possibility of setting up an atmospheric crewed mission. Also planning a hypothetical float sky station with key supplies and communication. Terraforming Venus has been the subject of a number of terraforming proposals. The proposals seek to remove or convert the dense carbon dioxide atmosphere, reduce Venus's surface temperature, and establish a day/night light cycle closer to that of Earth. Many proposals involve deployment of a solar shade or a system of orbital mirrors, for the purpose of reducing insolation and providing light to the dark side of Venus. Another common thread in most proposals involves some introduction of large quantities of hydrogen or water. Proposals also involve either freezing most of Venus's atmospheric CO2, or converting it to carbonates, urea or other forms. See also Colonization of Mars Colonization of the Moon Colonization of the Solar System Manned Venus flyby Observations and explorations of Venus Aerospace architecture References External links A Floating City on Venus – article from The Space Monitor NASA's Incredible, Futuristic, And Totally Real Plan To Establish A Human Colony On Venus – article from Business Insider UK Colonization Colonization Venus

3536702

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telkom-2

Telkom-2

Telkom-2 was a geosynchronous communications satellite built by Orbital Sciences Corporation (OSC) for Indonesia's state-owned telecommunications company, PT Telekomunikasi Indonesia Tbk (PT Telkom). Telkom-2 was successfully launched on 16 November 2005, at 23:46:00 UTC and positioned in geostationary orbit, at 118° East for replaced Palapa-B4. History Based on Orbital's highly successful and flight-proven STAR-2 satellite bus, Telkom-2 featured state-of-the-art communications satellite technology, and 24 C-band transponders. The new spacecraft replaced PT Telkom's on-orbit Palapa-B4 satellite, improved communications coverage across Indonesia, and allowed PT Telkom to expand its coverage area into southeast Asia and the Indian subcontinent. Orbital also supplemented Telkom's existing ground station, and offered extensive mission operations support. There were several postponements prior to Telkom-2's launch. Three launch delays happened in November 2005 due to technical problems with the Ariane 5 launch vehicle. Multiple delayed took place between November 2004 and October 2005 due to different problems including technical problems with the satellite. Orbital's contract with PT Telkom included an optional order for another geostationary satellite. Telkom-2 was finally launched on 16 November 2005. Telkom-2 successfully operated for 15 years. The satellite was retired and placed into a graveyard orbit in June 2021. Specification of Telkom-2 satellite: Owner: PT Telkomunikasi Indonesia Tbk (PT Telkom) Mission: C-band communications for Indonesia Performance: Repeater - two groups of 15-for-12 linearized traveling-wave tube assemblies (TWTA) Transponders Power - 39 watts RF Stabilization - three-axis, zero momentum Redundancy: Full dual string Solar arrays: 2 panel wings with improved triple-junction GaAs cells Propulsion: Liquid bi-propellant transfer orbit system; monopropellant (hydrazine) on-orbit Repeater: Two groups of 15-for-12 linear traveling wave tube assemblies (TWTAs) Antenna: Two 2.0 m (6.6 ft) dual-griddled shaped-beam reflectors Also Article Satelit Telkom-2 telah Diluncurkan, internet: https://web.archive.org/web/20070623104954/http://pribadi.or.id/diary/2005/11/17/satelit-telkom-2-telah-diluncurkan/ References External links Telkom-2 Telkom-1 Satellites in Space, (orbital.com) Communications satellites Communications in Indonesia Satellites of Indonesia Communications satellites in geostationary orbit Spacecraft launched in 2005 Satellites using the GEOStar bus 2005 in Indonesia

3539240

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Emblem%20of%20Libya

National Emblem of Libya

Since 2011, Libya currently does not have an official national emblem. The Constitutional Declaration issued by the National Transitional Council on August 2011 defines the flag of Libya, but does not make any provisions for a coat of arms. A new biometric Libyan passport was revealed in February 2013. The cover of the new passport depicts a star and crescent as its central feature, as found in the flag of Libya. Thus, the symbol can be considered a de facto emblem for Libya. The Government of National Unity, established in March 2021 has adopted an official seal incorporating a crescent moon and star and the name of the state and government in Arabic. History Pre-independence Kingdom of Libya (1951–1969) The coat of arms of the Kingdom of Libya was used from 1952–1969. A royal decree from 1952 described the coat of arms of the United Kingdom of Libya as follows: The emblem of the United Kingdom of Libya would be a silver crescent and star, resting on a background of black surrounded by a green frame; all crested with a small golden crown, standing on a black base; all in the centre of a red mantle and surrounded by 9 (nine) golden stars, the mantle decorated with golden ornaments; all crested with a crown of a golden diadem with five hoops set with stars and bearing the crescent and star. Libya under Gaddafi (1969–2011) In 1970, Libya adopted as its coat of arms the Eagle of Saladin, which had become a symbol of Arab nationalism following its prominence in the Egyptian revolution of 1952, after which it was used in the coat of arms of Egypt, the United Arab Republic, Yemen, Iraq, and Palestine. In 1972, Libya's participation in the Federation of Arab Republics led both it and Egypt to abandon the Eagle of Saladin, and to adopt as their coats of arms the Hawk of Quraish, the emblem of the tribe of Muhammad used by Syria, which became the coat of arms of the Federation. On Libya's exit from the Federation in 1977 followed by its adaption of Gaddafi's system of Jamahiriya, the Hawk of the Quraish was retained, but modified to reflect the new all green flag that Libya also adopted at that time. The hawk was also changed to face in the other direction. The phrase (ittiħād al-jumhūriyyāt al-`arabiyya "Federation (literally Union) of Arab Republics") still remained written on the banner clutched in the feet of the hawk. Libya under the National Transitional Council (2011–2012) The National Transitional Council, supported as the legitimate administration by the United Nations since September 2011, used a seal that depicts a crescent moon and star, represented in the colors of the Libyan flag (red, black, and green), with the names of the council (al-majlis al-waṭanī al-intiqālī, "The Transitional National Council") and of the state (Lībiyā, Libya) displayed in Arabic and English. The interim Prime Minister's office and departments of the interim government used a different seal. The main charge of this emblem is an outline map of Libya in the design of the Libyan flag. Libya under the General National Congress (2012–2014) The General National Congress which served as the legislature of Libya between 2012 and 2014 had adopted which depicted a crescent moon and star surrounded by the name of the congress written in Arabic and English. It was used to certify documents issued and laws passed by the congress. An emblem was also adopted for governmental purposes and formed the basis of the seals used by the Prime Minister's office and the departments of the Libyan government. This emblem consisted of a crescent moon and star surrounded by olive branches similar to those found on the emblem of the United Nations. Libya under the House of Representatives (2014–2016) The House of Representatives elected in 2014 and currently based in Tobruk has adopted a seal for official use. This depicts a crescent moon, arches and the name House of Representatives in English and Arabic. The seals and emblems adopted for the Libyan Government during the term of the General National Congress, remained in use during this period. Libya under the Government of National Accord (2016–2021) The Government of National Accord was formed as a result of the Libyan Political Agreement signed in December 2015 and has been endorsed by the United Nations Security Council as the sole legitimate government of Libya. The Government of National Accord uses a seal depicting its name and the name of the state in Arabic and English surrounding a crescent moon and star. Symbols of the rival Tobruk-based Government (2016–2021) A rival Tobruk-based Government was formed in Tobruk under actual guidance of the Field Marshal Khalifa Haftar, and used an emblem depicting the Hawk of Quraish and a shield. Libya under the Government of National Unity (2021–present) A Government of National Unity was formed in March 2021 following on from meetings of the Libyan Political Dialogue Forum. The unity government has adopted an official seal incorporating a crescent moon and star and surrounded by the words "Government of National Unity – State of Libya". The seal was designed by Adly al-Akkari. See also Flag of Libya National Anthem of Libya Notes References National symbols of Libya Libya Libya

3539942

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1834%20Palach

1834 Palach

1834 Palach, provisional designation , is a stony Eoan asteroid from the outer region of the asteroid belt, approximately 19 kilometers in diameter. It was discovered on 22 August 1969 by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek at Bergedorf Observatory in Hamburg, Germany, and named after Czech student Jan Palach. Orbit and classification Palach is a member of the Eos family (), the largest asteroid family in the outer main belt consisting of nearly 10,000 asteroids. It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.8–3.2 AU once every 5 years and 3 months (1,922 days). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.07 and an inclination of 9° with respect to the ecliptic. As no precoveries were taken, and no prior identifications were made, Palachs observation arc begins with its official discovery observation in 1969. Physical characteristics Rotation period In September 2006, a rotational lightcurve for Palach was obtained from photometric observations made by French amateur astronomer Laurent Bernasconi at St. Michel sur Meu. It gave a rotation period of 3.139 hours with a brightness amplitude of 0.16 magnitude (). In May 2010, a second lightcurve, obtained by Zachary Pligge at Oakley Southern Sky Observatory, Australia, gave a period of 3.1358 hours with an amplitude of 0.13 (). Diameter and albedo According to the surveys carried out by the Japanese Akari satellite and NASA's Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Palach measures between 17.16 and 20.23 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo between 0.109 and 0.151. The Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for Eoan asteroids of 0.14 and calculates a diameter of 19.52 kilometers with an absolute magnitude of 11.3. Naming It was named in memory of Czech student Jan Palach (1948–1969), who burned himself to death, as a protest against the Soviet occupation of Czechoslovakia that followed and ended the national reform movement known as the Prague Spring. The official naming citation was published by the Minor Planet Center on 25 August 1991 (). References External links Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info ) Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books Asteroids and comets rotation curves, CdR – Observatoire de Genève, Raoul Behrend Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center 001834 Discoveries by Luboš Kohoutek Named minor planets 19690822

3539954

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1840%20Hus

1840 Hus

1840 Hus (prov. designation: ) is a stony Koronis asteroid from the outer regions of the asteroid belt, approximately in diameter. It was discovered on 26 October 1971, by Czech astronomer Luboš Kohoutek at the Bergedorf Observatory in Hamburg, Germany. The S-type asteroid has a rotation period of 4.8 hours and is likely elongated in shape. It was later named after 15th-century theologian Jan Hus. Orbit and classification Hus is a core member of the Koronis family (), a very large asteroid family of almost 6,000 known asteroids with nearly co-planar ecliptical orbits. It orbits the Sun in the outer main-belt at a distance of 2.9–3.0 AU once every 5 years (1,821 days; semi-major axis of 2.92 AU). Its orbit has an eccentricity of 0.02 and an inclination of 2° with respect to the ecliptic. Hus was first observed as at the Lowell Observatory in October 1931. The body's observation arc begins with its observation as at the Goethe Link Observatory in January 1953, more than 18 years prior to its official discovery observation at Hamburg. Naming This minor planet was named after Czech Jan Hus (1372–1415), a fifteenth century Bohemian theologian, rector of Charles University in Prague and forerunner of the protestant reformation. He was condemned to death by the Council of Constance and burned at the stake for his reformation ideas. Jan Hus is also known as John Huss in the English speaking world. The official was published by the Minor Planet Center on 20 December 1974 (). Physical characteristics Based on the asteroid's membership to the Koronis family and its relatively high geometric albedo determined by the Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer (WISE), Hus is very likely a stony S-type asteroid. Rotation period and pole In June 2006, a rotational lightcurve of Hus was obtained from photometric observations taken by Maurice Clark at the Chiro Observatory in Western Australia. Lightcurve analysis gave a rotation period of hours with a high brightness variation of 0.85 magnitude (), strongly indicative of an elongated, non-spherical shape. In March 2016, a synthetic lightcurve gave a similar period of hours, using sparse-in-time photometry data from the Lowell Photometric Database (). More recent lightcurve analysis during observations of the 1840 Hus apparition in 2020, from the MIT Koronis Family Asteroids Rotation Lightcurve Observing Program, gave a secure rotation period of hours. Diameter and albedo According to the survey carried out by NASA's WISE telescope with its subsequent NEOWISE mission, Hus measures 12.4 and 12.6 kilometers in diameter, and its surface has an albedo of 0.261 and 0.255, respectively. Conversely, the Collaborative Asteroid Lightcurve Link assumes a standard albedo for carbonaceous asteroids of 0.057, rather than one for a stony body, as indicated by WISE/NEOWISE – and calculates therefore a twice as large diameter of 25.4 kilometers, as the lower the albedo, the larger the body's diameter for a constant absolute magnitude. References External links A Simple Guide to NEOWISE Data Problems, Nathan Myhrvold, 25 May 2016 Asteroid Lightcurve Database (LCDB), query form (info ) Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, Google books Discovery Circumstances: Numbered Minor Planets (1)-(5000) – Minor Planet Center 001840 Discoveries by Luboš Kohoutek Named minor planets 1840 Hus 19711026

3541686

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston%2C%20We%27ve%20Got%20a%20Problem

Houston, We've Got a Problem

Houston, We've Got a Problem is a 1974 American made-for-television drama film about the Apollo 13 spaceflight, directed by Lawrence Doheny and starring Ed Nelson in the role of NASA Flight Director Gene Kranz. Technical and historical accuracy The title of the film is a misquotation of the ominous announcement made by Commander Jim Lovell following the explosion of an oxygen tank which tore off the side of the spacecraft's service module. Lovell actually said, "Houston, we've had a problem". The film does not focus on the spaceflight itself, but rather on the crises in Mission Control. Jim Lovell wrote a letter to TV Guide about the film, saying that the crises in Mission Control were dramatized. Lovell called the film "fictitious and in poor taste." Executive producer Herman Saunders said he could have never sold the television station on a documentary and that warnings were added to the film to indicate it was fictitious. References External links 1974 films 1974 television films Films about the Apollo program American television films American films based on actual events Films produced by Harve Bennett Films set in 1970 Films set in Houston Films shot in Houston Apollo 13

3549513

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolamo%20Sersale

Gerolamo Sersale

Gerolamo Sersale (in Latin, Hieronymus Sirsalis) (Naples, 1584–Naples, 1 December 1654) was an Italian Jesuit astronomer and selenographer. His surname is from a noble Neapolitan family that originated in Sorrento. The town Sersale, a commune in the southern Italian province of Catanzaro, was founded in 1620. A Jesuit priest, Sersale drew a fairly precise map of a full moon observed on 13 July 1650. The map was engraved in 1651 and was studied by other astronomers, like Grimaldi and praised and mentioned in Riccioli's Almagestum novum and Astronomia reformata. However, today it can be seen in the Naval Observatory of San Fernando in Cadiz, Spain. With his telescope, the Jesuit Father Daniele Bartoli was able to see two spots on Mars in Naples in 1644. The lunar crater Sirsalis is named after him. See also List of Jesuit scientists List of Roman Catholic scientist-clerics References Sources Geschichte der Mondkarten Jesuit Lunar Craters 1584 births 1654 deaths 17th-century Italian astronomers 17th-century Italian Jesuits Selenographers Jesuit scientists

3550910

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine%20Mammal%20Protection%20Act

Marine Mammal Protection Act

The Marine Mammal Protection Act (MMPA) was the first act of the United States Congress to call specifically for an ecosystem approach to wildlife management. Authority MMPA was signed into law on October 21, 1972, by President Richard Nixon and took effect 60 days later on December 21, 1972. It prohibits the "taking" of marine mammals, and enacts a moratorium on the import, export, and sale of any marine mammal, along with any marine mammal part or product within the United States. The Act defines "take" as "the act of hunting, killing, capture, and/or harassment of any marine mammal; or, the attempt at such." The MMPA defines harassment as "any act of pursuit, torment or annoyance which has the potential to either: a. injure a marine mammal in the wild, or b. disturb a marine mammal by causing disruption of behavioral patterns, which includes, but is not limited to, migration, breathing, nursing, breeding, feeding, or sheltering." The MMPA provides for enforcement of its prohibitions, and for the issuance of regulations to implement its legislative goals. Authority to manage the MMPA was divided between the Secretary of the Interior through the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Service), and the Secretary of Commerce, which is delegated to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). Subsequently, a third federal agency, the Marine Mammal Commission (MMC), was established to review existing policies and make recommendations to the Service and the NOAA better implement the MMPA. Coordination between these three federal agencies is necessary in order to provide the best management practices for marine mammals. Under the MMPA, the Service is responsible for ensuring the protection of sea otters and marine otters, walruses, polar bears, three species of manatees, and dugongs. NOAA was given responsibility to conserve and manage pinnipeds including seals and sea lions and cetaceans such as whales and dolphins. NOAA Responsibilities The NOAA enforces the Marine Mammal Protection Act through the implementation and enforcement of various policies and regulations to properly manage marine mammal populations. The NOAA does this through the identification of violations of the MMPA, coordinating efforts to aid stranded and entangled mammals, and conduct proper rehabilitation and release of injured marine mammals. The NOAA is also responsible for providing stock assessment reports on marine mammals under their jurisdiction which includes whales, dolphins, porpoises, seals, and sea lions. Stock assessment reports serve to identify trends in marine mammal populations, identify potential threats to said population, and whether current conservation efforts are effective and if adjustments need to be made to ensure effective enforcement of the MMPA. The specific information that is included in all stock assessments are the geographic range of the stock being studied, current trends and productivity rates for the stock, potential biological removal levels which is defined under the MMPA as “the maximum number of animals, not including natural mortalities, that may be removed from a marine mammal stock while allowing that stock to reach or maintain its optimum sustainable population”, an estimation of mortality and injury rate caused by humans, potential threats to conservation efforts and current status of the stock and a minimum population estimation. These stock assessments are created through research conducted by programs at NOAA research science centers which are located in Hawaii, Massachusetts, Alaska, Florida, Washington, and California. Research contributions are also made by researchers not affiliated with the previously mentioned programs as well. Marine Mammal Commission Responsibilities The Marine Mammal Commission (MMC) was created in 1972 through the MMPA to serve as an organization that provides oversight over conservation policies, regulations and programs being carried out to ensure they are carried out effectively by the federal agencies responsible for them. Their responsibilities also include ensuring the United States adhere to international agreements that relate to marine mammal conservation “including, but not limited to, the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, the Whaling Convention Act of 1949, the Interim Convention on the Conservation of North Pacific Fur Seals, and the Fur Seal Act of 1966.” The MMC is also responsible for the review of the research programs conducted for the purpose of the MMPA as well as authorizing permits for the purpose of research, conservation or public display. If the MMC finds that the current conservation efforts are shown to be ineffective in protecting species identified under the MMPA, they are responsible for effectively communicating with federal officials such as the Secretaries of State, Commerce or the Interior the recommended measures needed to be taken to ensure the effectiveness of the MMPA and the protection of marine mammals under this act. These recommendations can come in the form of implementation of international agreements, revisions to the endangered and threatened species list as deemed appropriate under the Endangered Species Act of 1973, and provisions that may need to be made to the MMPA. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services Responsibilities The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services are responsible for managing the take through the use of permits and other authorization as well as financially supporting efforts to help marine mammals that fall victim to stranding and relevant research efforts. Similar to the NOAA, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Services conduct stock assessments of marine mammal populations under their jurisdiction which include walrus, manatees, sea otters, and polar bears. They are also responsible for the creation and implementation of conservation plans which often occur in collaboration with industries which can potentially impact marine mammal populations of particular concern. Marine mammal permits and international coordination The MMPA prohibits the take and exploitation of any marine mammal without appropriate authorization, which may only be given by the Service. Permits may be issued for scientific research, public display, and the importation/exportation of marine mammal parts and products upon determination by the Service that the issuance is consistent with the MMPA’s regulations. The two types of permits issued by the National Marine Fisheries Service's Office of Protected Resources are incidental and directed. Incidental permits, which allow for some unintentional taking of small numbers of marine mammal, are granted to U.S. citizens who engage in a specified activity other than commercial fishing in a specified geographic area. Directed permits are required for any proposed marine mammal scientific research activity that involves taking marine mammals. Applications for such permits are reviewed and issued the Service's Division of Management Authority, through the International Affairs office. This office also houses the Division of International Conservation, which is directly responsible for coordinating international activities for marine mammal species found in both U.S. and International waters, or are absent from U.S. waters. Marine mammal species inhabiting both U.S. and International waters include the West Indian manatee, sea otter, polar bear, and Pacific walrus. Species not present in U.S. waters include the West African and Amazonian manatee, dugong, Atlantic walrus, and marine otter. Marine mammal conservation in the field In efforts to conserve and manage marine mammal species, the Service has appointed field staff dedicated to working with partners to conduct population censuses, assess population health, develop and implement conservation plans, promulgate regulations, and create cooperative relationships internationally. Various Marine Mammal Management offices are located on either coast. The Service's Marine Mammal Management office in Anchorage, Alaska is responsible for the management and conservation of polar bears, Pacific walruses, and northern sea otters in Alaska. Northern sea otters present in Washington state are managed by the Western Washington Field Office, while southern sea otters residing in California are managed by the Ventura Field Office. West Indian manatee populations extend from Texas to Rhode Island, and are also present in the Caribbean Sea; however, this species is most prevalent near Florida (the Florida subspecies) and Puerto Rico (the Antillean subspecies). The Service’s Jacksonville Field Office manages the Florida manatee, while the Boqueron Field Office manages the Antillean manatee. The polar bear, southern sea otter, marine otter, all three species of manatees, and the dugong are also concurrently listed under the Endangered Species Act (ESA). Amendments Amendments enacted in 1981 established conditions for permits to be granted to take marine mammals "incidentally" in the course of commercial fishing. In addition, the amendments provided additional conditions and procedures for transferring management authority to the States, and authorized appropriations through FY 1984. Policies created in 1982 Some marine mammal species or stocks may be in danger of extinction or depletion as a result of human activities. These species or stocks must not be permitted to fall below their optimum sustainable population level (depleted) Measures should be taken to replenish these species or stocks There is inadequate knowledge of the ecology and population dynamics Marine mammals have proven to be resources of great international significance. The 1984 amendments established conditions to be satisfied as a basis for importing fish and fish products from nations engaged in harvesting yellowfin tuna with purse seines and other commercial fishing technology, as well as authorized appropriations for agency activities through FY 1988. Amended in 1988 the establishment of conditions and procedures for the Secretaries of Commerce and Interior to review the status of populations to determine if they should be listed as "depleted" (below optimal, sustainable population numbers or listed as threatened or endangered); the preparation of conservation plans for any species listed as depleted, including a requirement that such plans be modeled after recovery plans developed pursuant to the Endangered Species Act; the listing of conditions under which permits may be issued to take marine mammals for the protection and welfare of the animals, including importation, public display, scientific research, and enhancing the survival or recovery of a species; and a reward system under which the Secretary of the Treasury can pay up to $2500 to individuals providing information leading to convictions for violations of the Act. Amended in 1994 Certain exceptions to the take prohibitions, such as for Alaska Native subsistence and permits and authorizations for scientific research; A program to authorize and control the taking of marine mammals incidental to commercial fishing operations; Preparation of stock assessments for all marine mammal stocks in waters under U.S. jurisdiction; and Studies of pinniped-fishery interactions. Co-management With Indigenous Communities Under the MMPA amended in 1994, in Section 119, NMFS and FWS was authorized to form the cooperative agreements (co-management plan) with Alaska Native Organizations (ANOs). This allows indigenous tribal government can engage in their territorial marine mammal protection and subsistence taking issues through individual co-management agreements which can be established with NOAA, USFWS, MMC, or other MMPA-affiliated agencies. Co-management is viewed as the practice of indigenous sovereignty and self-determination.  Co-management under Section 119 includes the following activities: Collecting and analyzing data on marine mammal populations Monitoring the subsistence harvest of marine mammals Participating in marine mammal research conducted by federal and state governments, academic institutions, and private organizations; and, Developing co-management structures with federal and state agencies.Alaska Nanuuq Commission (ANC) represents tribes for polar bears management with USFWS. In this partnership, the subsistence take of polar bear is legal according to MMPA, yet the prohibition is placed on taking females with cubs and harassment. Along with the co-management, Alaska Scientific Review Group is set up, with indigenous entities involved, to advise stock assessment and revise method for assessment. Alaska Beluga Whale Committee (ABWC) was founded in 1988 to manage beluga subsistence hunting in Alaska. After the MMPA amended, ABWC starts to develop a co-management plan with National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) aiming to become an "umbrella organization  concerned  with statewide, national and international affairs." With the founding from NMFS, ABWC focus on facilitating scientific communication for the public, harvest monitoring, beluga tracking, aerial survey, genetics-based stock studies. The regional groups of ABWC are designate to "develop  local management  plans,  hunting guide-lines and means of enforcement." Effectiveness The Marine Mammal Protection Act has conservation benefits beyond US boundaries. The Act requires imported fisheries products to minimize incidental mortality and severe injury of marine mammals aligning to the US domestic standards. Yet it is difficult to expect this comparability from all exporting countries due to lack of fisheries records on bycatches and standardized protective measures which is causing unintentional harms. The Act emphasizes the recovery and prevention the depletion of strategic marine mammal stocks. Under Section 118, Take Reduction Plan aims within six months of implementation to reduce incidental mortality and severe injury from fishery and approach zero mortality rate in five years. The Plan includes: Review of the final stock assessment report for each marine mammal addressed by the Plan and any substantial new information. Estimate of the total number and, if possible, age and gender, of animals from the stock that is incidentally killed or seriously injured each year during the course of commercial fishing operations, by fishery. Recommended regulatory or voluntary measures for the reduction of incidental mortality and serious injury. Recommended dates for achieving the specific objectives of the plan. The plan is developed with a team involving representatives from fishing industry, management councils, governmental agencies, scientific community, and conservation organization. The consensus from the representatives is then submitted to NOAA for review then through the public comment. As the Plan is finalized, NOAA has the duty to monitor its implementation with the team. Yet, the Plans are uneven or unstandardized in practice to meet its statutory requirement. Successful plans are often based upon mandated, quantitative metrics, and consistent monitoring programs. Findings Congress found that: all species and population stocks of marine mammals are, or may be, in danger of extinction or depletion due to human activities; these mammals should not be permitted to diminish below their optimum sustainable population; measures should be taken immediately to replenish any of these mammals that have diminished below that level, and efforts should be made to protect essential habitats; there is inadequate knowledge of the ecology and population dynamics of these mammals; negotiations should be undertaken immediately to encourage international arrangements for research and conservation of these mammals. Congress declared that marine mammals are resources of great international significance (aesthetic, recreational and economic), and should be protected and encouraged to develop to the greatest extent feasible commensurate with sound policies of resource management. The primary management objective should be to maintain the health and stability of the marine ecosystem. The goal is to obtain an optimum sustainable population within the carrying capacity of the habitat. See also Endangered Species Act National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Society for Animal Protective Legislation Tuna-Dolphin GATT Case (I and II) References US Fish and Wildlife Service: Habitat and Resource Conservation External links Full text of MMPA of 1972 50 CFR Part 218 - regulations that implement the MMPA. Marine Mammal Commission Marine Mammal Commission in the Federal Register United States federal environmental legislation 1972 in American law Animal welfare and rights legislation in the United States 1972 in the environment Marine conservation Mammal conservation Whaling in the United States Whale conservation Seal conservation Nature conservation in the United States Wildlife law in the United States

3551421

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum%20of%20World%20Culture

Museum of World Culture

The National Museum of World Culture () opened in Gothenburg, Sweden, in 2004. It is a part of the public authority Swedish National Museums of World Cultures and builds on the collections of the former Göteborgs Etnografiska Museum that closed down in the year 2000. Its aim is to interpret the subject of world culture in an interdisciplinary way. The museum is situated next to the Universeum science centre and the amusement park Liseberg, and close to Korsvägen. "The museum interprets the concept of world culture in a dynamic and open-ended manner. On the one hand, various cultures are incorporating impulses from each other and becoming more alike. On the other hand, local, national, ethnic and gender differences are shaping much of that process. World culture is not only about communication, reciprocity, and interdependence, but the specificity, concretion and uniqueness of each and every individual." (From the background info on the museums homepage.) The opening exhibitions of the museum were: No Name Fever: AIDS in the age of globalization Horizons: Voices from a global Africa Sister of Dreams: People and myths of the Orinoco Fred Wilson: Site unseen - Dwellings of the Demons 390 m2 Spirituality Architecture The cement and glass building, located on a slope leading up to the Liseberg amusement park, is graceful, compact and modernistic. Its four-storey glass atrium looks out on mountains and woods. The exhibition halls are in the closed part of the building, facing Södra vägen road. The upper storeys hang freely over a footpath. A long section of a display window provides passers-by with a view straight into the largest exhibition hall. The architects behind the museum, who were chosen after an international competition, were the French-Cuban-English couple Cécile Brisac and Edgar Gonzalez of Brisac Gonzalez Architects. In December 2020, the movement, a peoples movement against modernist architecture, voted the building the ugliest building in Gothenburg and the 12th ugliest building in Sweden. Controversies In February 2005 the museum decided to remove the painting "Scène d'Amour" by Louzla Darabi. The painting was part of a temporary exhibition about HIV/AIDS, and depicted a man and a woman having sexual intercourse. The artist and the curator had received numerous death threats from Muslims saddened and frustrated over the Koran quotations which were featured in a corner of the painting. Some threats were telling the artist to "learn from the Netherlands", referring to the murder of van Gogh and threats against Hirsi Ali. References External links The Museum of World Culture Brisac Gonzalez Architects Virtual Collection of Masterpieces Virtual tour of the Museum of World Culture provided by Google Arts & Culture World Anthropology museums 2004 establishments in Sweden Museums established in 2004 Global studies Cross-cultural studies

3552356

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace%20Fountain

Peace Fountain

The Peace Fountain is a sculpture and fountain located next to the Cathedral of St. John the Divine in the Morningside Heights section of Manhattan in New York City. It was commissioned in 1985 by Greg Wyatt, sculptor-in-residence at the cathedral. Description The sculpture depicts the struggle of good and evil, as well as a battle between the Archangel Michael and Satan. The sculpture also contains the Sun, the Moon, and several animals. Although it is called a fountain, there is currently no water on the site. A plaque at the base contains the following inscription: Peace Fountain celebrates the triumph of Good over Evil, and sets before us the world's opposing forces—violence and harmony, light and darkness, life and death—which God reconciles in his peace.When the fountain operates, four courses of water cascade down the freedom pedestal into a maelstrom evoking the primordial chaos of Earth. Foursquare around the base, flames of freedom rise in witness to the future. Ascending from the pool, the freedom pedestal is shaped like the double helix of DNA, the key molecule of life. Atop the pedestal a giant crab reminds us of life's origins in sea and struggle. Facing West, a somnolent Moon reflects tranquility from a joyous Sun smiling to the East. The swirls encircling the heavenly bodies bespeak the larger movements of the cosmos with which earthly life is continuous. Nine giraffes—among the most peaceable of animals—nestle and prance about the center. One rests its head on the bosom of the winged Archangel Michael, described in the bible as the leader of the heavenly host against the forces of Evil. St. Michael's sword is vanquishing his chief opponent, Satan, whose decapitated figure plunges into the depths, his head dangling beneath the crab's claw. Tucked away next to the Sun, a lion and lamb relax together in the peace of God's kingdom, as foretold by the prophet Isaiah. The fountain is encircled by small bronze animals, sculpted by schoolchildren of a variety of ages, collectively called the Children’s Sculpture Garden. Surrounding the periphery of the sunken plaza in which the fountain sits are plaques, rendered in a style artistically similar to that of the fountain itself, depicting various philosophers, thinkers and artists, most accompanied by a quote by the individual depicted. Despite the Peace Fountain's associating with a Christian (Episcopalian) cathedral, many of the luminaries thus depicted are non-Christian icons, such as Gandhi, Socrates, Albert Einstein and John Lennon, whose image is accompanied by a quote from the lyrics of his song "Imagine". References External links Natural History magazine A Look at the Splashiest Shows in Town – New York Times Peace Fountain Information on website for Cathedral Church of St. John the Divine 1985 sculptures Fountains in New York City Outdoor sculptures in Manhattan Statues in New York City Giraffes in art Sculptures of crustaceans Sculptures of lions Moon in art Michael (archangel) Peace monuments and memorials Sun in art Morningside Heights, Manhattan

3554316

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great%20Pacific%20garbage%20patch

Great Pacific garbage patch

The Great Pacific garbage patch (also Pacific trash vortex and North Pacific garbage patch) is a garbage patch, a gyre of marine debris particles, in the central North Pacific Ocean. It is located roughly from 135°W to 155°W and 35°N to 42°N. The collection of plastic and floating trash originates from the Pacific Rim, including countries in Asia, North America, and South America. Despite the common public perception of the patch existing as giant islands of floating garbage, its low density () prevents detection by satellite imagery, or even by casual boaters or divers in the area. This is because the patch is a widely dispersed area consisting primarily of suspended "fingernail-sized or smaller"—often microscopic—particles in the upper water column known as microplastics. Researchers from The Ocean Cleanup project claimed that the patch covers consisting of of plastic as of 2018. The same 2018 study found that, while microplastics dominate the area by count, 92% of the mass of the patch consists of larger objects which have not yet fragmented into microplastics. Some of the plastic in the patch is over 50 years old, and includes items (and fragments of items) such as "plastic lighters, toothbrushes, water bottles, pens, baby bottles, cell phones, plastic bags, and nurdles". Research indicates that the patch is rapidly accumulating. The patch is believed to have increased "10-fold each decade" since 1945. The gyre contains approximately six pounds of plastic for every pound of plankton. A similar patch of floating plastic debris is found in the Atlantic Ocean, called the North Atlantic garbage patch. This growing patch contributes to other environmental damage to marine ecosystems and species. History The patch was described in a 1988 paper published by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). The description was based on research by several Alaska-based researchers in 1988 who measured neustonic plastic in the North Pacific Ocean. Researchers found relatively high concentrations of marine debris accumulating in regions governed by ocean currents. Extrapolating from findings in the Sea of Japan, the researchers hypothesized that similar conditions would occur in other parts of the Pacific where prevailing currents were favorable to the creation of relatively stable waters. They specifically indicated the North Pacific Gyre. Charles J. Moore, returning home through the North Pacific Gyre after competing in the Transpacific Yacht Race in 1997, claimed to have come upon an enormous stretch of floating debris. Moore alerted the oceanographer Curtis Ebbesmeyer, who subsequently dubbed the region the "Eastern Garbage Patch" (EGP). The area is frequently featured in media reports as an exceptional example of marine pollution. The JUNK Raft Project was a 2008 trans-Pacific sailing voyage made to highlight the plastic in the patch, organized by the Algalita Marine Research Foundation. In 2009, two project vessels from Project Kaisei/Ocean Voyages Institute; the New Horizon and the Kaisei, embarked on a voyage to research the patch and determine the feasibility of commercial scale collection and recycling. The Scripps Institute of Oceanography's 2009 SEAPLEX expedition in part funded by Ocean Voyages Institute/Project Kaisei also researched the patch. Researchers were also looking at the impact of plastic on mesopelagic fish, such as lanternfish. In 2010, Ocean Voyages Institute conducted a 30-day expedition in the gyre which continued the science from the 2009 expeditions and tested prototype cleanup devices. in July/August 2012 Ocean Voyages Institute conducted a voyage from San Francisco to the Eastern limits of the North Pacific Gyre north, (ultimately ending in Richmond British Columbia) and then made a return voyage which also visited the Gyre. The focus on this expedition was surveying the extent of tsunami debris from the Japanese earthquake-tsunami. Sources of the plastic In 2015, a study published in the journal Science sought to discover where exactly all of this garbage is coming from. According to the researchers, the discarded plastics and other debris floats eastward out of countries in Asia from six primary sources: China, Indonesia, the Philippines, Vietnam, Sri Lanka and Thailand. The study – which used data as of 2010 – indicated that China was responsible for approximately 30% of worldwide plastic ocean pollution at the time. In 2017, the Ocean Conservancy reported that China, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam dump more plastic in the sea than all other countries combined. Efforts to slow land generated debris and consequent marine debris accumulations have been undertaken by the Coastal Conservancy, Earth Day, and World Cleanup Day. According to National Geographic, "80 percent of plastic in the ocean is estimated to come from land-based sources, with the remaining 20 percent coming from boats and other marine sources. These percentages vary by region, however. A 2018 study found that synthetic fishing nets made up nearly half the mass of the Great Pacific garbage patch, largely due to ocean current dynamics and increased fishing activity in the Pacific Ocean." An open access study published in 2022 concluded that 75% up to 86% of the plastic pollution is from fishing and agriculture with most identified emissions originating from Japan, China, South Korea, the US and Taiwan. The study analysed 6,093 debris items greater than 5 cm found in the North Pacific garbage patch, of which 99% of the rigid items by count and represented 90% of the total debris mass (514 kg) were plastics. These were later sorted, counted, weighed and their sources traced back to five industrialised fishing nations, suggesting the important role the fishing industry plays in the global plastic waste issue. Predominantly, the composition of the hard plastic waste includes unidentifiable fragments, fishing and aquaculture gear such as fish boxes, oyster spacers, and eel traps and other plastic items associated with food, drinks and household items. They also represent a substantial amount of accumulated floating plastic mass. The 201 plastic objects analysed carried language writings with the most common languages identified being Chinese, Japanese, English and Korean, in that order. Constitution The Great Pacific garbage patch formed gradually as a result of ocean or marine pollution gathered by ocean currents. It occupies a relatively stationary region of the North Pacific Ocean bounded by the North Pacific Gyre in the horse latitudes. The gyre's rotational pattern draws in waste material from across the North Pacific, incorporating coastal waters off North America and Japan. As the material is captured in the currents, wind-driven surface currents gradually move debris toward the center, trapping it. In a 2014 study researchers sampled 1571 locations throughout the world's oceans and determined that discarded fishing gear such as buoys, lines and nets accounted for more than 60% of the mass of plastic marine debris. According to a 2011 EPA report, "The primary source of marine debris is the improper waste disposal or management of trash and manufacturing products, including plastics (e.g., littering, illegal dumping) ... Debris is generated on land at marinas, ports, rivers, harbors, docks, and storm drains. Debris is generated at sea from fishing vessels, stationary platforms, and cargo ships." Constituents range in size from miles-long abandoned fishing nets to micro-pellets used in cosmetics and abrasive cleaners. A computer model predicts that a hypothetical piece of debris from the U.S. west coast would head for Asia, and return to the U.S. in six years; debris from the east coast of Asia would reach the U.S. in a year or less. While microplastics make up 94% of the estimated 1.8 trillion plastic pieces, they amount to only 8% of the of plastic there, with most of the rest coming from the fishing industry. A 2017 study concluded that of the of plastic produced since 1950, close to are no longer in use. The authors estimate that 9% was recycled, 12% was incinerated, and the remaining are in the oceans and land. Animals In a 2021 study, researchers who examined plastic from the patch identified more than 40 animal species on 90 percent of the debris they studied. Discovery of a thriving ecosystem of life at the Great Pacific garbage patch in 2022 suggested that cleaning up garbage here may adversely remove this plastisphere. A 2023 study found that the plastic is home to coastal species surviving in the open ocean and reproducing. These coastal species, including jellyfish and sponges, are commonly found in the western Pacific coast and are surviving alongside open-ocean species on the plastic. Some scientists are concerned that this mix of coastal and open-ocean species may result in unnatural or "neopelagic communities," in which coastal creatures could be competing with or even consuming open-ocean species. Size estimates The size of the patch is indefinite, as is the precise distribution of debris because large items are uncommon. Most debris consists of small plastic particles suspended at or just below the surface, evading detection by aircraft or satellite. Instead, the size of the patch is determined by sampling. The estimated size of the garbage patch is (about twice the size of Texas or three times the size of France). Such estimates, however, are conjectural given the complexities of sampling and the need to assess findings against other areas. Further, although the size of the patch is determined by a higher-than-normal degree of concentration of pelagic debris, there is no standard for determining the boundary between "normal" and "elevated" levels of pollutants to provide a firm estimate of the affected area. In August 2009, the Scripps Institution of Oceanography/Project Kaisei SEAPLEX survey mission of the Gyre found that plastic debris was present in 100 consecutive samples taken at varying depths and net sizes along a path of through the patch. The survey found that, although the patch contains large pieces, it is on the whole made up of smaller items that increase in concentration toward the gyre's centre, and these 'confetti-like' pieces that are visible just beneath the surface suggests the affected area may be much smaller. 2009 data collected from Pacific albatross populations suggest the presence of two distinct debris zones. In March 2018, The Ocean Cleanup published a paper summarizing their findings from the Mega- (2015) and Aerial Expedition (2016). In 2015, the organization crossed the Great Pacific garbage patch with 30 vessels, to make observations and take samples with 652 survey nets. They collected a total of 1.2 million pieces, which they counted and categorized into their respective size classes. In order to also account for the larger, but more rare debris, they also overflew the patch in 2016 with a C-130 Hercules aircraft, equipped with LiDAR sensors. The findings from the two expeditions, found that the patch covers with a concentration of . They estimate an in the patch, with 1.8 trillion plastic pieces, out of which 92% of the mass is to be found in objects larger than . NOAA stated: In a 2001 study, researchers found concentrations of plastic particles at with a mean mass of , in the neuston. The overall concentration of plastics was seven times greater than the concentration of zooplankton in many of the sampled areas. Samples collected deeper in the water column found much lower concentrations of plastic particles (primarily monofilament fishing line pieces). In 2012, researchers Goldstein, Rosenberg and Cheng found that microplastic concentrations in the gyre had increased by two orders of magnitude in the prior four decades. On 11 April 2013, artist Maria Cristina Finucci founded The Garbage Patch State at UNESCO – Paris in front of Director General Irina Bokova. Environmental issues Debris removal efforts Ocean Voyages Institute's Project Kaisei In 2009, Ocean Voyages Institute removed over of plastic during the initial Project Kaisei cleanup initiative while testing a variety of cleanup prototype devices. In 2019, over a 25-day expedition, Ocean Voyages Institute set the record for largest cleanup in the garbage patch, removing over of plastic from the ocean. In 2020, over the course of 2 expeditions, Ocean Voyages Institute again set the record for the largest cleanup removing of plastic from the ocean. The first 45-day expedition removed of plastic and the second expedition removed of plastic from the garbage patch. In 2022, over the course of 2 summer expeditions, Ocean Voyages Institute removed of plastic ghostnets, consumer items and mixed plastic debris from the garbage patch. The Ocean Cleanup On 9 September 2018, the first collection system was deployed to the gyre to begin the collection task. This initial trial run of the Ocean Cleanup Project started towing its "Ocean Cleanup System 001" from San Francisco to a trial site some away. The initial trial of the "Ocean Cleanup System 001" ran for four months and provided the research team with valuable information relevant to the designing of the "System 001/B". In 2021, The Ocean Cleanup collected of plastic using their "System 002". The mission started in July 2021 and concluded on October 14, 2021. In July 2022, The Ocean Cleanup announced that they had reached a milestone of removing the first of plastic from the Great Pacific garbage patch using "System 002" and announced its transition to "System 03", which is claimed to be 10 times as effective as its predecessor. The group expects larger nets to enable it starting in 2024 to remove garbage faster than it is being deposited, and to clean up the entire patch within ten years. Other removal efforts The 2012 Algalita/5 Gyres Asia Pacific Expedition began in the Marshall Islands on 1 May, investigated the patch, collecting samples for the 5 Gyres Institute, Algalita Marine Research Foundation, and several other institutions, including NOAA, Scripps, IPRC and Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute. In 2012, the Sea Education Association conducted research expeditions in the gyre. One hundred and eighteen net tows were conducted and nearly 70,000 pieces of plastic were counted. See also Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre Indian Ocean garbage patch North Atlantic garbage patch Ocean Conservancy Plastisphere South Pacific garbage patch World Cleanup Day References Notes Further reading Density of plastic particles found in zooplankton trawls from coastal waters of California to the North Pacific Central Gyre – Charles J Moore, Gwen L Lattin and Ann F Zellers (2005) External links Pacific Garbage Patch – Smithsonian Ocean Portal "Plastic Surf" The Unhealthful Afterlife of Toys and Packaging: Small remnants of toys, bottles and packaging persist in the ocean, harming marine life and possibly even us by Jennifer Ackerman, Scientific American August 2010 Plastic Paradise Movie – independent documentary by Angela Sun uncovering the mystery of the Great Pacific Garbage Patch known as the Plastic Paradise The source of the garbage patches, pictures Irish Examiner article Climate change, meet your apocalyptic twin: oceans poisoned by plastic. Public Radio International. 13 December 2016 By 2050, the oceans could have more plastic than fish. Business Insider. 27 January 2017. Marine garbage patches Pacific Ocean Plastics and the environment Articles containing video clips

3561180

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%2091001%E2%80%9392000

Meanings of minor planet names: 91001–92000

91001–91100 |-id=006 | 91006 Fleming || || Alexander Fleming (1881–1955) was a Scottish biologist and pharmacologist. His best-known achievements are the discovery of the enzyme lysozyme and isolation of the antibiotic substance penicillin, for which he shared a Nobel Prize in 1945 with Florey and Chain. || |-id=007 | 91007 Ianfleming || || Ian Fleming (1908–1964) was a British writer and journalist. Fleming is best remembered for creating the character of British Secret Service agent James Bond ("007") and chronicling his adventures in twelve novels and nine short stories. || |-id=023 | 91023 Lutan || || Lu Tan (born 1932), a Chinese astrophysicist and academician of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, has made contributions in the fields of compact-star physics, cosmology and high-energy astrophysics, especially gamma-ray bursts and afterglow physics. || |-id=024 | 91024 Széchenyi || || Count István Széchenyi (1791–1860), known as "The Greatest Hungarian", was a writer, reformer and patriot. In addition to promoting the first permanent bridge between Buda and Pest, he became famous for donating a year's income toward the foundation of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences. || |} 91101–91200 |-id=199 | 91199 Johngray || || John Gray (born 1948), is a British philosopher who considers morality to be an illusion and mankind a rapacious species engaged in wiping out other forms of life while destroying its natural environment. || |} 91201–91300 |-id=213 | 91213 Botchan || || Botchan is one of the most popular novels in Japan, written by Soseki Natsume in 1906. The story is based on the author's personal experience as a Tokyo-born young teacher being transferred to the city of Matsuyama, which is the stage of the novel || |-id=214 | 91214 Diclemente || || Aldo Di Clemente (born 1948), an Italian amateur astronomer, has worked as a technician at the Campo Imperatore station of the Astronomical Observatory of Rome since 1982. His assistance has been valuable in conducting the Campo Imperatore Near- Earth Object Survey. amateur astronomer, technician at the Campo Imperatore station of the Rome Observatory. || |-id=275 | 91275 Billsmith || || William S. Smith Jr. (born 1947) was for 15 years president of the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy (AURA), which operates NSO, NOAO, STScI, Gemini and LSST. Bill was a strong advocate for diversity in the astronomical community. || |-id=287 | 91287 Simon-Garfunkel || || Simon & Garfunkel, American popular music duo of the 1960s. Paul Simon and Art Garfunkel were both born in 1941 and bred in Queens, New York. They became one of the most successful duos in the history of popular music. Their magic is heard through the beautiful high tenor voice of Garfunkel, as it gently wraps around Simon's natural talent of combining poetic lyrics with memorable melodies. || |} 91301–91400 |-id=395 | 91395 Sakanouenokumo || || Saka no Ue no Kumo (Clouds Above the Hill) is a Japanese novel, written by Ryōtarō Shiba between 1968 and 1972. Based on the true story of three young men who lived in Matsuyama in the Meiji Period, this novel expresses the aspiration to western culture in Japan, which was en route to modernization. || |} 91401–91500 |-id=422 | 91422 Giraudon || 1999 OH || Edmond Giraudon (born 1924), a French professor in mechanical engineering and a popularizer of astronomy, initiated the construction of five observatories in several high schools in the Provence Alpes, Côte d´Azur and Languedoc Roussillon regions of France. || |-id=428 | 91428 Cortesi || || Sergio Cortesi (born 1932), a Swiss astronomer who has been the director of the Istituto Ricerche Solari Locarno (Specola Solare Locarno-Monti, see IRSOL) since 1957. He was one of the co-founders and for a long time the president of the Ticino Astronomical Society (Src and Src). || |-id=429 | 91429 Michelebianda || || Michele Bianda (born 1956) a Swiss physicist who studied at ETH Zurich and is now the scientific director of the Istituto Ricerche Solari in Locarno, IRSOL. || |} 91501–91600 |-id=553 | 91553 Claudedoom || || Claude Doom (born 1958) edited the Belgian astronomical magazine Heelal during 1994–1998 and is still a board member of the Flemish Amateur Astronomers Association. He wrote his Ph.D. thesis on the evolution of massive stars. The name was suggested by S. De Jonge, C. Steyaert and J. Meeus || |} 91601–91700 |-id=604 | 91604 Clausmadsen || || Claus Madsen (born 1951), a Dutch photographic scientist and senior counsellor for international relations at the European Southern Observatory, who has played a crucial role in increasing public awareness and interest in astronomy. He helped create the European Association for Astronomy Education and was key in having the U.N. pass the IYA resolution (Src). || |-id=607 | 91607 Delaboudiniere || || Jean-Pierre Delaboudinière (born 1940), a French astronomer, is a pioneer of the exploration of the solar UV resonance spectroscopy of Helium, and the Principal Investigator of the solar EUV imaging spectroscopy experiments on the CNES D2B and the ESA/NASA Solar and Heliospheric Observatory missions. || |} 91701–91800 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 91801–91900 |-id=888 | 91888 Tomskilling || || Tom Skilling (born 1952) is an American meteorologist on WGN-TV in Chicago who is revered for the accuracy of his forecasts. He conducts annual free seminars at Fermilab on meteorology that are attended by several thousand people. He also includes much astronomical information in his weather reports. || |-id=890 | 91890 Kiriko Matsuri || || Kiriko Matsuri, is the name of a number of festivals that take place on the Japanese Noto Peninsula. A kiriko is an object like a big lantern; the biggest one is 15 meters high and weighs 2 tons. Many people carry kirikos on their shoulders and run with them. || |-id=898 | 91898 Margnetti || || Giuseppe Margnetti (born 1960) is a Swiss winemaker and artist living with his wife Danila (née Cosner) in the town of Camorino. || |} 91901–92000 |-id=907 | 91907 Shiho || || Shiho Ochi (born 1984), born in Ehime prefecture, is the vocalist of the band Superfly. Since their major debut in 2007 with "Hello Hello", her rich voice and the band's soulful rock-and-roll music have fascinated many fans in Japan, including the discoverer || |} References 091001-092000

3564170

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/From%20Nine%20to%20Nine

From Nine to Nine

From Nine to Nine or Between Nine and Nine (German title: Zwischen neun und neun; original title: Freiheit) is a novel by Leo Perutz first published in 1918. It is about a turbulent day in the life of an impoverished student in Imperial Vienna. The commission of a desperate crime at the beginning of the novel triggers a chain reaction during which the protagonist is thrown into a series of grotesque situations while all around him people carry on with their normal lives without noticing anything out of the ordinary. Originally serialized in various newspapers in Prague, Vienna, and Berlin, From Nine to Nine became a very popular book and was translated into eight languages during the 1920s. In 1922 Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer bought the film rights, but the film was never made. Plot summary Stanislaus Demba, an honest, well-intentioned student with little money at his disposal, is desperately in love with Sonja Hartmann, an office girl easily impressed by young men with money—a superficial young woman who, by common consent, is not worthy of his love and adoration. When Demba learns that Sonja is about to go on a holiday with another man, he tries to sell some valuable old library tomes which he has borrowed but never returned to a shady antiques dealer so that he can offer Sonja a more expensive trip. The prospective buyer of the books, however, calls the police, and Demba is arrested. While he is being handcuffed Demba jumps out of an attic window and makes his escape. It is nine o'clock in the morning, and Demba embarks on his odyssey by furtively wandering around the streets of Vienna while hiding his handcuffed hands under his overcoat. His two immediate aims now are (a) to get rid of his handcuffs by some means or other without being caught by the police and (b) to raise the money necessary for a trip to, say, Venice, Italy. People who realize that he is unwilling to show his hands either believe he is some kind of freak with a deformity or a dangerous criminal carrying a pistol. Throughout the first part of the novel, Demba repeatedly refers to "his hands being tied", but everyone—including the majority of readers—assumes that he is speaking metaphorically. There is a twist ending to the novel. Translations From Nine to Nine - Translated by Lily Lore. 1926 The Viking Press Between Nine and Nine - Translated by Edward Larkin and Thomas Ahrens. 2009 Ariadne Press References Hans-Harald Müller: "Begegnung mit dem Tod ohne Folgen", Zwischen neun und neun (Munich: Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, 2004), pp. 215ff. Read on Ambrose Bierce: "An Occurrence at Owl Creek Bridge" (short story, 1891) William Golding: Pincher Martin (novel, 1956) External links Zwischen neun und neun, original German text at Project Gutenberg 1918 German-language novels 1918 speculative fiction novels Austrian speculative fiction novels Novels set in Vienna Novels first published in serial form Works originally published in newspapers Viking Press books 20th-century Austrian novels Novels set in one day

3565161

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dodgeball%20%28service%29

Dodgeball (service)

Dodgeball was a location-based social networking software provider for mobile devices. Users texted their locations to the service, which then notified them of crushes, friends, friends' friends, and interesting venues nearby. Google acquired Dodgeball in 2005 and discontinued it in 2009, replacing it with Google Latitude. Overview Dodgeball was founded in 2000 by New York University students Dennis Crowley and Alex Rainert. The company was acquired by Google in 2005. In April 2007, Crowley and Rainert left Google, with Crowley describing their experience there as "incredibly frustrating". After leaving Google, Crowley created a similar service known as Foursquare with the help of Naveen Selvadurai. Dodgeball was available for the cities of Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, Los Angeles, Las Vegas, San Diego, Phoenix, Dallas–Fort Worth, Austin, Houston, New Orleans, Miami, Atlanta, Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, New York City, Boston, Detroit, Chicago, Madison, Minneapolis–St. Paul and Denver. In January 2009 Vic Gundotra, Vice President of Engineering at Google, announced that the company would "discontinue Dodgeball.com in the next couple of months, after which this service will no longer be available." Dodgeball was shut down and succeeded in February 2009 by Google Latitude. Google Latitude was eventually shut down in 2013. See also Location-based service Mobile dating Geosocial networking Foursquare References External links Dodgeball (archive) Defunct websites Geosocial networking Discontinued Google acquisitions Google acquisitions Defunct social networking services Internet properties established in 2000 Internet properties disestablished in 2009

3569672

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese%20calendar

Vietnamese calendar

The Vietnamese calendar (; chữ Hán: 陰曆) is a lunisolar calendar that is mostly based on the lunisolar Chinese calendar. As Vietnam's official calendar has been the Gregorian calendar since 1954, the Vietnamese calendar is used mainly to observe lunisolar holidays and commemorations, such as Tết Nguyên Đán and Tết Trung Thu. Historical developments After Vietnam regained independence following the third Chinese domination of Vietnam, the following dynasties established their own calendars based on Chinese prototypes, and every subsequent dynasty had appointed officers to man and create the calendar to be used in the realm. According to the Đại Việt sử lược historical chronicles, the Vietnamese rulers started building astronomical/astrological facilities in the capital Thăng Long (chữ Hán: 昇龍; i.e. modern Hanoi) as early as 1029. Beginning in 1324, the Chinese Yuan dynasty introduced the Thụ Thời () calendar to the Vietnamese Trần dynasty. Beginning in 1954, Vietnamese administrative offices officially used the Gregorian calendar, while the civilian populace continued to use a variety of local calendars derived from French, Chinese and Japanese sources, including the Hiệp Kỷ calendar. On 8 August 1967, the North Vietnamese government issued a decree to change Vietnamese standard time from UTC+8 to UTC+7, as well as make the Gregorian calendar the sole official calendar, restricting lunisolar calendar use to holidays and commemorations. South Vietnam would later join this change at the end of the Vietnam War in 1975. Differences from the Chinese calendar The Chinese calendar is based on astronomical observations and is therefore dependent on what is considered the local standard time. North Vietnam switched from UTC+8 to UTC+7 on 8 August 1967, with South Vietnam doing likewise in 1975 at the end of the Vietnam War. As a result of the shift, North and South Vietnam celebrated Tết 1968 on different days. This effect would see the solstice falling on 21 December in Hanoi, while it was 22 December for Beijing. As the 11th month of the Chinese calendar must contain the winter solstice, it is not the month from 23 November 1984 to 21 December 1984 as per the Vietnamese calendar, but rather the one from 22 December 1984 to 20 January 1985. The effect of this is that the Vietnamese New Year would fall on 21 January 1985, whereas the Chinese New Year would fall on 20 February 1985, a one-month difference. The two calendars agreed again after a leap month lasting from 21 March to 19 April of that year was inserted into the Vietnamese calendar. In the Vietnamese zodiac, the cat replaces the Rabbit in the Chinese zodiac. So, a child born in the Chinese year of the Rabbit will be born in the Vietnamese year of the Cat (mẹo/mão). The Vietnamese zodiac uses the same animals as the Chinese zodiac for the remaining 11 years, though the Ox of the Chinese zodiac is usually considered to be a water buffalo (sửu/trâu) in the Vietnamese zodiac. Examples The title page lists the publishing date, "皇朝辛卯年孟秋上浣新刊" (Hoàng triều Tân mão niên mạnh thu thượng hoán tân san) on the right of the title (三千字解音). The date can be translated as "In the Tân Mão (辛卯) year of the imperial dynasty, during the early autumn, a newly published edition [is released]." (1831) Typically other books will denote the era name of the emperors' reign in the publishing date such as the date in book, 千字文解音 Thiên tự văn giải âm, where the date listed is as "成泰庚寅年孟春上浣新刊" (Thành Thái canh dần niên mạnh xuân thượng hoán tân san). It can be translated as "In the Canh Dần (庚寅) year during the reign of Thành Thái, during the early spring, a newly published edition [is released]." (1890). The title page lists the publishing date, "紹治柒年柒月朔日重刊" (Thiệu Trị thất niên thất nguyệt sóc nhật trùng san) on the right of the title (大報父母恩重經). The date can be translated as "On the first day of the seventh month in the seventh year of the Thiệu Trị era, a republished edition [is released]." (11 August 1847) Gallery See also Chinese zodiac Lunar calendar Lunisolar calendar Sexagenary cycle References Time in Vietnam Lunisolar calendars Specific calendars Vietnamese culture

3570616

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS%20for%20the%20visually%20impaired

GPS for the visually impaired

Since the Global Positioning System (GPS) was introduced in the late 1980s there have been many attempts to integrate it into a navigation-assistance system for blind and visually impaired people. Software Android RightHear RightHear was first released in December 2015. It uses data from OpenStreetMap alongside their own databases and with this information, RightHear provides their users with multilingual audio-descriptions of the environment, indoors and outdoors. RightHear main features are as follow: Informing the user about their current location on request and automatically in predefined intervals. Also, providing the user with a link to a relevant online destination (if applicable) like the menu at restaurants and description of exhibits at monuments. Saving user points of interest as recordings. Users can be notified when they approach these points and hear their personal recordings. Automatic announcements of public points of interest, street intersections, and points saved by the user. Supporting third-party public transportation apps like Moovit, Uber, Lyft, Gett, and many more. RightHear users can create their journey from their current location to their destination and can look up schedules and routes to their destination. Simulation of locations, letting users explore distant places before traveling there. Announcing public and user points of interest and intersections located in the direction the user points their device in. RightHear also provides 3D sounds which allow the user to hear the information from the relevant direction when his headphones are on. Announcing the Sky direction that the user is facing by holding the device vertically. Indoor navigation via Bluetooth beacons. RightHear support the open Wayfindr standard. Calling for a local assistant if needed from the relevant person at the RightHear enabled building (like receptions at hotels). Corsair GPS Corsair is a GPS for pedestrians. It allows you to discover places around you and take you there. A new way of guidance has been developed by using the smartphone's vibration feature to indicate the direction to follow. This solution is particularly useful for people with visual impairments. Cydalion Cydalion is a navigation aid for people with visual impairments for Tango-enabled devices. Cydalion detects objects (including their height), offers custom sounds, and has a personalized user interface. Lazarillo Lazarillo is based on Google Maps, OpenStreetMap and Foursquare alongside they own databases and with this information, Lazarillo collects the necessary data about the surroundings of the user to support the following features: Exploration: Can provide you guidance through voice notifications/warnings. It will tell you where you are and what services are around you Specific Searches: By the "search" tab you can obtain search a specific location. Search by categories: Look for places around you, using categories; such as restaurants, health centers and services of transportation. Save favorites: In order to quickly access your favorite spots in the city, click on "save" so they become immediately available. Customize: Modify the voice that will pilot you through the city. Routing or guiding from one point to another: By walking, car, bus or subway, you will get from one point to other by the guidance service. Following the place you want to reach, an alarm will announce if you are getting closer to the spot. This feature also works if the scan mode is paused. ANGEO Was designed in France to compensate for the limitations of traditional GPS and smartphone applications for the blind and visually impaired . The fruit of 8 years of research in collaboration with the CNRS, ANGEO is the only device capable of discretely, reliably guiding you when crossing areas where GPS satellites are masked. iOS When Apple introduced the iPhone 3GS in 2009, it was the first ever touch screen device accessible to the blind. iOS device usage has steadily increased among the blind and visually impaired population and numerous GPS apps targeting this user group have been developed since. Ariadne GPS Ariadne GPS, developed by Luca Giovanni Ciaffoni, was released in June 2011 and was one of the first GPS apps specifically designed for blind and visually impaired users. It is based on Google map data and has the following features: Informing the user about their location on request and in configurable intervals. Letting the user save points that are important to them. The app will alert the user when they approach the point. The users can define the alert distance separately for each point. Accessible map: The user can slide their finger on the screen and the app will announce the area or street address (depending on zoom) under their finger. Ciaffoni has developed his own accessible map for Ariadne GPS. His solution was available before Apple's accessible maps came out in iOS 6. Import and export of points of interest. BlindSquare BlindSquare is developed by MIPsoft and was first released in May 2012. It uses data from Foursquare and OpenStreetMap and offers a large feature set covering the needs of blind and visually impaired travelers. It is based on Foursquare, OpenStreetMap, and Apple Maps data and supports the following features: Informing the user about their current location on request and automatically in predefined intervals. Saving user points of interest. Users can be notified when they approach these points at a distance of their choice, which can be defined individually for each point. Automatic announcement of public points of interest, street intersections, and points saved by the user. Sending coordinates of destinations to third-party navigation apps. BlindSquare works in conjunction with more than nine third-party navigation apps. Supporting third-party public transportation apps, BlindSquare lets users send the coordinates of their current location and their destination to several apps so they can look up schedules and routes to their destination. Audio menu allowing users to activate many BlindSquare functions by pressing buttons on their headsets instead of using the touch screen of their iOS device. Simulation of places, letting users explore distant places before traveling there. Integrated accessible map. Announcing public and user points of interest and intersections located in the direction the user points their device in. Indoor navigation via Bluetooth beacons. It uses its own system BlindSquare Beacon Positioning System (BPS), but also the open Wayfindr standard. iMove iMove has been developed by EveryWare Technologies and was first released in January 2013. It is unique, because it lets users record sound clips and associate them with saved locations. iMove offers the following features: Reporting public points of interest as the user walks. Saving user points and alerting the user when these points are approached. Recording of short sound clips, which are linked to saved locations and are played back when approaching the location. MyWay Classic MyWay Classic was first released in January 2012 and is developed by the Swis Federation of the Blind. It has evolved into an app with a large set of features covering the needs of blind and visually impaired travelers. It uses OpenStreetMap data and includes the following features: Inform users about their current location on request and automatically. Users can record their own points of interest and be alerted when they approach them. Users can record their own routes and be guided by the app when they walk one of the recorded routes. Once the necessary OpenStreetMap data has been downloaded and imported into the app, MyWay can announce street intersections and public points of interest as the user approaches them. Once the necessary OpenStreetMap files have been downloaded and imported into the app, the user can filter the categories of public points of interest to be announced by editing the files or by creating their own files and pasting the required data into the newly created files. Using OpenStreetMap data, MyWay offers turn-by-turn navigation. Import and export of points of interest. Support of indoor navigation using Bluetooth beacons. Seeing Assistant Move Seeing Assistant move is developed by Transition Technologies S.A. and was first released in March 2013. It is the only GPS app designed for blind and visually impaired people that lets the user operate the app through predefined speech commands. It is based on OpenStreetMap and supports the following features: Announcing current location of user Automatic announcement of public points of interest, provided the necessary OpenStreetMap files have been downloaded. Saving user points of interest and announcing these points when they are approached. Announcing points of interest located in the direction the user points their device in. Simulation of places, letting users explore distant places before traveling there. Recording of user-defined routes and walking of these routes. Integrated accessible map. App operation through predefined speech commands. Sending coordinates of point to Apple Maps or Google Maps to initiate turn-by-turn navigation. Sendero Seeing Eye GPS Sendero Seeing Eye GPS is developed by the Sendero Group in collaboration with several organizations for the blind (Seeing Eye, RNIB, Guide Dogs NSW ACT) and was first released in July 2013. The Seeing Eye GPS is a fully accessible turn-by-turn GPS iPhone app developed by Sendero Group. It has all the normal navigation features plus features unique to blind users, such as simple menu structure, automatic announcements of intersections and points of interest, and routes for both pedestrian and vehicle with heads-up announcements for approaching turns. It uses Foursquare and Google Places for points of interest and Google Maps for street info. Seeing Eye is not available globally and is offered under various names: Seeing Eye GPS (subscription, North America) Seeing Eye XT (onetime purchase, North America) RNIB Navigator (subscription, UK, Ireland, Germany, France) Guide Dogs NSW ACT (subscription, Australia) The Sendero apps include the following features: Turn-by-turn navigation. Saving of user points of interest. Automatic announcement of public and user points of interest and intersections. Description of intersections. Announcing public and user points of interest and intersections located in the direction the user points their device in. ViaOpta Nav ViaOpta Nav is developed by Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation and was first released in August 2014. It is available for both IOS and Android devices. It is the only GPS app targeting blind and visually impaired users that offers the possibility to search for accessibility information for example information about intersections, tactile paving, and audible traffic signals. Although OpenStreetMap supports respective categories, this information is not very widely available yet in the map data itself. ViaOpta Nav uses Apple Maps (on iOS devices) and Google Maps (on Android devices) for address retrieval, and OpenStreetMap for route calculation, intersection information, and public points of interest. ViaOpta Nav supports the following main features: Announcing user's current location. Spoken turn-by-turn navigation. Automatic announcement of intersections. Saving of user points of interest. Exploring of public points of interest nearby and selecting them as a destination. However, these points are not announced as the user walks. Headset support lets users request some information by pressing buttons on their headset. Symbian OS Loadstone GPS The Loadstone project is developing an open source software for satellite navigation for blind and visually impaired users. The software is free and runs currently on many different Nokia devices with the S60 platform under all versions of the Symbian operating system. A GPS receiver must be connected to the cell phone by Bluetooth. Many blind people around the world are using Nokia cell phones because there are two screen reader products for the S60 Symbian platform; Talks from Nuance Communications and Mobile Speak from the Spanish company Code Factory. This makes these devices accessible by output of synthetic speech and also allow the use of third-party software, such as Loadstone GPS. The Loadstone developers, who are blind, are from Vancouver, Glasgow, and Amsterdam. Many users from around the world have contributed improvement proposals as they know exactly what functionality helps to increase their pedestrian mobility. Monty Lilburn and Shawn Kirkpatrick started the project in 2004. After the first development successes, they made it public in May 2006. Since then, other volunteers have found their way to this project of global self-help. The program is under the GNU General Public License (GPL), and was financed entirely by the private developers and by donations of users. This product provides blind people with more independence from the trading policy and prices of the few global vendors of accessible satellite navigation solutions. In large rural regions and developing or newly industrializing countries, nearly no exact map data is available in common map databases. As such, the Loadstone software provides users an option to create and store their own waypoints for navigation and share them with others. The Loadstone community is working on importing coordinates from free sources, such as the OpenStreetMap project. In addition they are searching for a sponsor of licenses for commercial map data, such as is offered by the company Tele Atlas. The other major supplier is Navteq, which belongs to Nokia. Lodestone is the name of a natural magnetic iron that was used throughout history in the manufacturing of compasses. Sighted owners of S60 devices can use Loadstone for leisure-time activities geocaching. JavaME LoroDux LoroDux was a project by Fachhochschule Hannover. Like in Loadstone the user is led by direction and distance information. The text on the screen is read out by a screenreader. Vibration-Only navigation is possible. Data can be imported from the OpenStreetMap project. The development is discontinued because the team prefers to use Java on Android for the future. Windows Mobile Mobile Geo Mobile Geo is Code Factory's GPS navigation software for Windows Mobile-based Smartphones, Pocket PC phones and personal digital assistants (PDAs). Powered by GPS and mapping technology from the Sendero Group, Mobile Geo is the first solution specifically designed to serve as a navigation aid for people with a visual impairment which works with a wide range of mainstream mobile devices. Though it is a separately licensed product, Mobile Geo is seamlessly integrated with Code Factory's popular screen readers – Mobile Speak for Pocket PCs and Mobile Speak for Windows Mobile Smartphones. Standalone Devices Nordic Evolution digital guidance Developed in Sweden and available since 2022. The system consists of a high precision GPS module connected to your smartphone and earphones that signals that the blind person stays along a pre-recorded digital path. Used for walking, running, skiing etc. outside without a companion. Trekker The Victor Trekker, designed and manufactured by HumanWare (previously known as VisuAide), was launched in March 2003. It is a personal digital assistant (PDA) application operating on a Dell Axim 50/51 or later replaced by HP IPAQ 2490B Pocket PC, adapted for the blind and visually impaired with talking menus, talking maps, and GPS information. Fully portable (weight 600g), it offered features enabling a blind person to determine position, create routes and receive information on navigating to a destination. It also provided search functions for an exhaustive database of point of interests, such as restaurants, hotels, etc. The PDA's touch screen is made accessible by a tactile keypad with buttons that is held in place with an elastic strap. It is fully upgradeable, so it can expand to accommodate new hardware platforms and more detailed geographic information. Trekker and Maestro, which is the first off-the-shelf accessible PDA based on Windows Mobile Pocket PC, are integrated and available since May 2005. The Trekker is no longer sold by Humanware; the successor "Trekker Breeze" is a standalone unit. The software has fewer features than the original Trekker. Trekker Breeze The Trekker Breeze is standalone hardware. Routes need to be recorded before they can be used. POIs are supported. BrailleNote GPS The BrailleNote GPS device is developed by Sendero Group, LLC, and Pulse Data International, now called HumanWare, in 2002. It is like a combination of a personal digital assistant, Map-quest software and a mechanical voice. With a receiver about the size of a small cell phone, the BrailleNote GPS utilizes the GPS network to pinpoint a traveler's position on earth and nearby points of interest. The BrailleNote receives radio signals from satellites to chart the location of users and direct them to their destination with spoken information from the speech synthesizer. The system uses satellites to triangulate the carrier's position, much like a ship finding its location at sea. Users can record points of interest such as local restaurants or any other location into the PDA's database. Afterward, they can use keyboard commands on the unit's keyboard to direct themselves to a specific point of interest. Navigation systems that are not designed for blind people, but are accessible Kapsys Kapten The French company Kapsys offers a navigation system without a display, that works with speech input and output, called Kapten. It was originally developed for cyclists but soon became a favourite in blind communities because of its low price compared to other accessible navigation solutions. Later Versions took feedback about accessibility into account. Historical or research projects Trinetra The Trinetra project aims to develop cost-effective, independence-enhancing technologies to benefit blind people. One such system addresses accessibility concerns of blind people using public transportation systems. Using GPS receivers and staggered Infrared sensors, information is relayed to a centralized fleet management server via a cellular modem. Blind people, using common text-to-speech enabled cell phones can query estimated time of arrival, locality, and current bus capacity using a web browser. Trinetra, spearheaded by Professor Priya Narasimhan, is an ongoing project at the Electrical and Computer Engineering department of Carnegie Mellon University. Additional research topics include item-level UPC and RFID identification while grocery shopping and indoor navigation in retail settings. MoBIC MoBIC means Mobility of Blind and Elderly people Interacting with Computers, which was carried out from 1994 to 1996 supported by the Commission of the European Union. It was developing a route planning system which is designed to allow a blind person access to information from many sources such as bus and train timetables as well as electronic maps of the locality. The planning system helps blind people to study and plan their routes in advance, indoors. With the addition of devices to give the precise current position and orientation of the blind pedestrian, the system could then be used outdoors. The outdoor positioning system is based on signals and satellites which give the longitude and latitude to within a metre; the computer converts this data to a position on an electronic map of locality. The output from the system is in the form of spoken messages. Drishti Drishti is a wireless pedestrian navigation system. It integrates several technologies including wearable computers, voice recognition and synthesis, wireless networks, geographic information system (GIS) and GPS. It augments contextual information to the visually impaired and computed optimized routes based on user preference, temporal constraints (e.g. traffic congestion), and dynamic obstacles (e.g. ongoing ground work, road blockade for special events). The system constantly guides the blind user to navigate based on static and dynamic data. Environmental conditions and landmark information queries from a spatial database along their route are provided on the fly through detailed explanatory voice cues. The system also provides capability for the user to add intelligence, as perceived by the blind user, to the central server hosting the spatial database. UCSB Personal Guidance System In 1985, Jack Loomis, a professor of psychology at the University of California, Santa Barbara, came up with the idea of a GPS-based navigation system for the visually impaired. A short unpublished paper (Loomis, 1985) outlined the concept and detailed some ideas for implementation, including the idea of a virtual sound interface. Loomis directed the project for over 20 years, in collaboration with Reginald Golledge (1937–2009), Professor of Geography at UCSB, and Roberta Klatzky, Professor of Psychology (now at Carnegie Mellon University). Their combination of development and applied research was supported by three multi-year grants from the National Eye Institute (NEI) and another multi-year consortium grant from the National Institute on Disability and Rehabilitation Research (NIDRR), headed by Michael May of Sendero Group. In 1993, the UCSB group first publicly demonstrated the Personal Guidance System (PGS) using a bulky prototype carried in a backpack. Since then, they created several versions of the PGS, one of which was carried in a small pack worn at the waist. Their project mostly focused on the user interface and the resulting research has defined the legacy of the project. As indicated earlier in this entry, several wearable systems are now commercially available. These systems provide verbal guidance and environmental information via speech and braille displays. But just as drivers and pilots want pictorial information from their navigation systems, survey research by the UCSB group has shown that visually impaired people often want direct perceptual information about the environment. Most of their R&D has dealt with several types of "spatial display", with researchers Jim Marston and Nicholas Giudice contributing to the recent efforts. The first is a virtual acoustic display, which provides auditory information to the user via earphones (as proposed in the 1985 concept paper). With this display, the user hears important environmental locations, such as turn points along the route and points of interest. The labels of these locations are converted to synthetic speech and then displayed using auditory direction and distance cues, such that the spoken labels appear in the auditory space of the user. A second type of display, which the group calls a "haptic pointer interface", was inspired by the hand-held receiver used in the Talking Signs© system of remote signage. The user holds a small wand, to which are attached an electronic compass and a small loudspeaker or vibrator. When the hand is pointing toward some location represented in the computer database, the user hears a tone or feels a vibration. Supplementary verbal information can be provided by synthetic speech. The user moves toward the desired location by aligning the body with the hand while maintaining the "on-course" auditory or vibratory signal. Other variants of the pointer interface involve putting the compass on the body or head and turning the body or head until the on-course signal is perceived. Six published route-guidance studies indicate that spatial displays provide effective route guidance, entail less cognitive load than speech interfaces, and are generally preferred by visually impaired users. Brunel navigation system for the blind Prof. W. Balachandran is the pioneer and the head of GPS research group at Brunel University. He and his research team are pursuing research on navigation system for blind and visually impaired people. The system is based on the integration of state of the art current technologies, including high-accuracy GPS positioning, GIS, electronic compass and wireless digital video transmission (remote vision) facility with an accuracy of 3~4m. It provides an automated guidance using the information from daily updated digital map datasets e.g. roadworks. If required the remote guidance of visually impaired pedestrians by a sighted human guide using the information from the digital map and from the remote video image provides flexibility. The difficulties encountered include the availability of up to date information and what information to offer including the navigation protocol. Levels of functionality have been created to tailor the information to the user's requirements. NOPPA NOPPA navigation and guidance system was designed to offer public transport passenger and route information using GPS technology for the visually impaired. This was a three-year (2002~2004) project in VTT Industrial Systems in Finland. The system provides an unbroken trip chain for a pedestrian using buses, commuter trains and trams in three neighbor cities' area. It is based on an information server concept, which has user-centered and task oriented approach for solving information needs of special needs groups. In the system, the Information Server is an interpreter between the user and Internet information systems. It collects, filters and integrates information from different sources and delivers results to the user. The server handles speech recognition and functions requiring either heavy calculations or data transfer. The data transfer between the server and the client is minimized. The user terminal holds speech synthesis and most of route guidance. NOPPA can currently offer basic route planning and navigation services in Finland. In practice, map data can have outdated information or inaccuracies, positioning can be unavailable or inaccurate, or wireless data transmission is not always available. Navig NAVIG is a multidisciplinary project, with fundamental and applied aspects. The main objective is to increase the autonomy of blind people in their navigation capabilities. Reaching a destination while avoiding obstacles is one of the most difficult issue that blind individuals have to face. Achieving autonomous navigation will be pursued indoor and outdoor, in known and unknown environments. The project consortium is composed by two research centers in computer sciences specialized in human-machine interaction (IRIT) for handicapped people and in auditory perception, spatial cognition, sound design and augmented reality (LIMSI). Another research center is specialized in human and computer vision (CERCO), and two industrial partners are active in artificial vision (Spikenet Technology) and in pedestrian geolocalisation (Navocap). The last member of the consortium is an educational research center for the visually impaired (CESDV – IJA, Institute of Blind Youth). TANIA TANIA is a project founded at the University of Stuttgart, Germany. The hardware is based on GPS and RFID. It allows navigation for blind and deafblind persons with step accuracy. It only works where special maps have been created for the system. Wayfinder access Wayfinder Access was a GPS solution from the Swedish company Wayfinder Systems AB. This application for Symbian phones was designed especially to work with screen readers, such as Mobile Speak from Code Factory or TALKS from Nuance Communications and offers text-to-speech technology. It is able to take the special needs of the blind and visually impaired into consideration. Symbian screen reader software offers more than just the reading of the application's screens, but also supports braille devices. Highlights of Wayfinder Access include, but are not limited to: Information provided for both pedestrian and vehicular navigation. A database of 20 million points of interest. Online maps that are regularly updated. The "Where am I?" feature that readily gives information about your current location. The "What is in my surrounding?" feature that initiates a scan of the immediate area to inform you of street names, intersections and nearby points of interest such as restaurants, banks, and much more. The new "Vicinity View" feature that allows you to hear audible references for an area with a scope that you can later adjust based on the radius of the scanned vicinity. Feedback on points of Interest (POI), crossings or favorites that can be restricted, prioritized, and presented according to their distance from your location. The Wayfinder Access Service was shut down in 2011 after the company was taken over by Vodafone. References External links Nordic Evolution digital guides for visually impaired Loadstone project Wayfinder Access (discontinued) Trekker Breeze (Humanware) Sendero Group Sense Nav (GW Micro) Mobile Geo LoroDux, an OpenStreetMap subproject Kapsys BlindSquare Research Jack Loomis Personal Website Trinetra BNSB (Brunel navigation system for the blind) Summary of related research references CASBlip (cognitive aid system for the blind people) Mobile Sorcery (Sweden) Navig (France) Collection of accessible Navigation Systems (German) Global Positioning System Blindness equipment

3571605

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osculating%20orbit

Osculating orbit

In astronomy, and in particular in astrodynamics, the osculating orbit of an object in space at a given moment in time is the gravitational Kepler orbit (i.e. an elliptic or other conic one) that it would have around its central body if perturbations were absent. That is, it is the orbit that coincides with the current orbital state vectors (position and velocity). Etymology The word osculate is Latin for "kiss". In mathematics, two curves osculate when they just touch, without (necessarily) crossing, at a point, where both have the same position and slope, i.e. the two curves "kiss". Kepler elements An osculating orbit and the object's position upon it can be fully described by the six standard Kepler orbital elements (osculating elements), which are easy to calculate as long as one knows the object's position and velocity relative to the central body. The osculating elements would remain constant in the absence of perturbations. Real astronomical orbits experience perturbations that cause the osculating elements to evolve, sometimes very quickly. In cases where general celestial mechanical analyses of the motion have been carried out (as they have been for the major planets, the Moon, and other planetary satellites), the orbit can be described by a set of mean elements with secular and periodic terms. In the case of minor planets, a system of proper orbital elements has been devised to enable representation of the most important aspects of their orbits. Perturbations Perturbations that cause an object's osculating orbit to change can arise from: A non-spherical component to the central body (when the central body can be modeled neither with a point mass nor with a spherically symmetrical mass distribution, e.g. when it is an oblate spheroid). A third body or multiple other bodies whose gravity perturbs the object's orbit, for example the effect of the Moon's gravity on objects orbiting Earth. A relativistic correction. A non-gravitational force acting on the body, for example force arising from: Thrust from a rocket engine Releasing, leaking, venting or ablation of a material Collisions with other objects Atmospheric drag Radiation pressure Solar wind pressure Switch to a non-inertial reference frame (e.g. when a satellite's orbit is described in a reference frame associated with the precessing equator of the planet). Parameters An object's orbital parameters will be different if they are expressed with respect to a non-inertial reference frame (for example, a frame co-precessing with the primary's equator), than if it is expressed with respect to a (non-rotating) inertial reference frame. Put in more general terms, a perturbed trajectory can be analysed as if assembled of points, each of which is contributed by a curve out of a sequence of curves. Variables parameterising the curves within this family can be called orbital elements. Typically (though not necessarily), these curves are chosen as Keplerian conics, all of which share one focus. In most situations, it is convenient to set each of these curves tangent to the trajectory at the point of intersection. Curves that obey this condition (and also the further condition that they have the same curvature at the point of tangency as would be produced by the object's gravity towards the central body in the absence of perturbing forces) are called osculating, while the variables parameterising these curves are called osculating elements. In some situations, description of orbital motion can be simplified and approximated by choosing orbital elements that are not osculating. Also, in some situations, the standard (Lagrange-type or Delaunay-type) equations furnish orbital elements that turn out to be non-osculating. References External links Diagram of a sequence of osculating orbits for the escape from Earth orbit by the ion-driven SMART-1 spacecraft: ESA Science & Technology - SMART-1 Osculating Orbit up to 25.08.04 A sequence of osculating orbits for the approach to the Moon by the SMART-1 spacecraft: ESA Science & Technology - SMART-1 Osculating Orbit up to 09.01.05 Videos Astrodynamics Orbital perturbations

3572231

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper%20orbital%20elements

Proper orbital elements

The proper orbital elements or proper elements of an orbit are constants of motion of an object in space that remain practically unchanged over an astronomically long timescale. The term is usually used to describe the three quantities: proper semimajor axis (ap), proper eccentricity (ep), and proper inclination (ip). The proper elements can be contrasted with the osculating Keplerian orbital elements observed at a particular time or epoch, such as the semi-major axis, eccentricity, and inclination. Those osculating elements change in a quasi-periodic and (in principle) predictable manner due to such effects as perturbations from planets or other bodies, and precession (e.g. perihelion precession). In the Solar System, such changes usually occur on timescales of thousands of years, while proper elements are meant to be practically constant over at least tens of millions of years. For most bodies, the osculating elements are relatively close to the proper elements because precession and perturbation effects are relatively small (see diagram). For over 99% of asteroids in the asteroid belt, the differences are less than 0.02 AU (for semi-major axis a), 0.1 (for eccentricity e), and 2° (for inclination i). Nevertheless, this difference is non-negligible for any purposes where precision is of importance. As an example, the asteroid Ceres has osculating orbital elements (at epoch November 26, 2005) while its proper orbital elements (independent of epoch) are A notable exception to this small-difference rule are asteroids lying in the Kirkwood gaps, which are in strong orbital resonance with Jupiter. To calculate proper elements for an object, one usually conducts a detailed simulation of its motion over timespans of several millions of years. Such a simulation must take into account many details of celestial mechanics including perturbations by the planets. Subsequently, one extracts quantities from the simulation which remain unchanged over this long timespan; for example, the mean inclination, mean eccentricity, and mean semi-major axis. These are the proper orbital elements. Historically, various approximate analytic calculations were made, starting with those of Kiyotsugu Hirayama in the early 20th century. Later analytic methods often included thousands of perturbing corrections for each particular object. Presently, the method of choice is to use a computer to numerically integrate the equations of celestial dynamics, and extract constants of motion directly from a numerical analysis of the predicted positions. At present the most prominent use of proper orbital elements is in the study of asteroid families, following in the footsteps of the pioneering work of Hirayama. A Mars-crosser asteroid 132 Aethra is the lowest numbered asteroid to not have any proper orbital elements. See also Hirayama family Perturbation (astronomy) References Further reading Z. Knežević et al., The Determination of Asteroid Proper Elements, pp. 603–612 in Asteroids III, University of Arizona Press (2002). Z. Knežević: COMPUTATION OF ASTEROID PROPER ELEMENTS: RECENT ADVANCES, Serbian Astronomical Journal, vol. 195, pp. 1-8 (2017). External links Latest calculations of proper elements for numbered minor planets at astDys. Asteroid proper orbital elements dataset at Asteroid Families Portal Orbits

3572234

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terrace%20%28geology%29

Terrace (geology)

In geology, a terrace is a step-like landform. A terrace consists of a flat or gently sloping geomorphic surface, called a tread, that is typically bounded on one side by a steeper ascending slope, which is called a "riser" or "scarp". The tread and the steeper descending slope (riser or scarp) together constitute the terrace. Terraces can also consist of a tread bounded on all sides by a descending riser or scarp. A narrow terrace is often called a bench. The sediments underlying the tread and riser of a terrace are also commonly, but incorrectly, called terraces, leading to confusion. Terraces are formed in various ways. Fluvial terraces Fluvial terraces are remnants of the former floodplain of a stream or river. They are formed by the downcutting of a river or stream channel into and the abandonment and lateral erosion of its former floodplain. The downcutting, abandonment, and lateral erosion of a former floodplain can be the result of either changes in sea level, local or regional tectonic uplift; changes in local or regional climate; changes in the amount of sediment being carried by the river or stream; change in discharge of the river; or a complex mixture of these and other factors. The most common sources of the variations in rivers and streams that create fluvial terraces are vegetative, geomorphic, and hydrologic responses to climate. More recently, the direct modification of rivers and streams and their watersheds by cultural processes have resulted in the development of terraces along many rivers and streams. Kame terraces Kame terraces are formed on the side of a glacial valley and are the deposits of meltwater streams flowing between the ice and the adjacent valley side. Marine terraces A marine terrace represents the former shoreline of a sea or ocean. It can be formed by marine abrasion or erosion of materials comprising the shoreline (marine-cut terraces or wave-cut platforms); the accumulations of sediments in the shallow-water to slightly emerged coastal environments (marine-built terraces or raised beach); or the bioconstruction by coral reefs and accumulation of reef materials (reef flats) in intertropical regions. The formation of a marine terrace follows this general process: A wave cut platform must be carved into bedrock (high wave energy is needed for this process). Although this is the first step to the process for the formation of a marine terrace, not all wave cut platforms will become a marine terrace. After the wave cut platform is formed it must be removed from interaction with the high wave energy. This process happens by either change in sea level due to glacial-interglacial cycles or tectonically rising landmasses. When the wave cut has been raised above sea level it is preserved. The terraces are most commonly preserved in flights along the coastline. Lacustrine terraces A lake (lacustrine) terrace represents the former shoreline of either a nonglacial, glacial, or proglacial lake. As with marine terraces, a lake terrace can be formed by either the abrasion or erosion of materials comprising the shoreline, the accumulations of sediments in the shallow-water to slightly emerged environments, or some combination of these. Given the smaller size of lakes relative to the size of typical marine water bodies, lake terraces are overall significantly narrower and less well developed than marine terraces. However, not all lake terraces are relict shorelines. In case of the lake terraces of ancient ice-walled lakes, some proglacial lakes, and alluvium-dammed (slackwater) lakes, they often represent the relict bottom of these lakes. Finally, glaciolacustrine kame terraces are either the relict deltas or bottoms of ancient ice marginal lakes. Structural terraces In geomorphology, a structural terrace is a terrace created by the differential erosion of flat-lying or nearly flat-lying layered strata. The terrace results from preferential stripping by erosion of a layer of softer strata from an underlying layer of harder strata. The preferential removal of softer material exposes the flat surface of the underlying harder layer, creating the tread of a structural terrace. Structural terraces are commonly paired and not always associated with river valleys. Travertine terraces A travertine terrace is formed when geothermally heated supersaturated alkaline waters emerge to the surface and form waterfalls of precipitated carbonates. See also Terrace Crossing - a geographical zone between the sedimentation (downstream) part and the erosion (upstream) part of a river References External links Here is a good example of a river terrace: http://www.geographie.uni-erlangen.de/mrichter/gallery/photos/asia/images/river_terraces_near_kasbeki.jpg Landforms Geomorphology Riparian zone Archaeological features Lacustrine landforms

3572621

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian%20sun%20temple

Egyptian sun temple

Egyptian sun temples were ancient Egyptian temples to the sun god Ra. The term has come to mostly designate the temples built by six or seven pharaohs of the Fifth Dynasty during the Old Kingdom period. However, sun temples would make a reappearance a thousand years later under Akhenaten in the New Kingdom with his building of the Karnak Temple in Thebes. Fifth Dynasty sun temples were built in two localities, Abu Gorab and Abusir, within of each other and around south of modern-day Cairo. They may have been modeled after an earlier sun temple in Heliopolis. Six or seven temples are thought to have been built, but only two have been uncovered: that of Userkaf and that of Nyuserre. The six kings associated with having built sun temples are: Userkaf, Sahure, Neferirkare, Reneferef or Neferefre, Nyuserre, and Menkauhor. Djedkare Isesi, the eighth king of the 5th Dynasty, seems to have abruptly stopped the building of sun temples. The uncovered temple of Nyuserre near the village of Abu Gorab still holds impressive remains, in particular the central altarpiece which includes a well-preserved sacrificial altar composed of a number of alabaster parts. The two found sun temples (thus far) are so destroyed that excavators rely mostly on the hieroglyphic signs in the temples' names in order to reconstruct the shape of a characteristic Egyptian sun temple features like the obelisk. However, ruins suggest that these were open air worship structured instead of enclosed. Mythology and factual basis According to a tale from Middle Kingdom period, "Tale of Djedi and the Magicians", the first few kings of the Fifth Dynasty were triplets and the actual progeny of the sun god Ra. There appears to be some truth behind this myth: not only were the second and third kings of the fifth dynasty brothers, but these rulers also started an unusually strong devotion to Ra that lasted throughout the V and VI Dynasties. Discovery The sun temples' meaning and evolution are ingrained into both the architectural and religious history of the Old Kingdom, specifically the Fifth Dynasty of Egypt and Sixth Dynasty of Egypt. The first sun temple was discovered at the end of the nineteenth century. The first of these temples discovered was Niuserre's. The second excavated was Userkaf's. Study of this type of temple did not really start until the 1950s. Function Debate exists as to what exactly the functions of these temples were, since they seem to have been for more than just royal funerary purposes, unlike Egyptian pyramids, but nevertheless seem to have been part of the cultic worship of kingship, since it was essential for each king to have a personal temple. According to the scholar Massimiliano Nuzzolo, during the V and VI Dynasties, "The Pharaoh appears to have acquired a new socio-religious meaning as 'sun-king' and 'sun god'". This correlates well with the fact that these sun temples are the first found instances of Egyptian monarchs dedicating large structures made from stone entirely separate from funerary pyramids. Importance and different temples Due to the fact that there are six to seven different names of sun temples mentioned in primary sources from this period, it is suggested there are at least six different temples. However, there is no specific term for sun temple in ancient Egyptian. The temples were also a source of great wealth and importance in ancient Egypt. The founder of the Fifth Dynasty, Userkaf, built the first temple to Ra in Abusir, a few kilometres north of the necropolis of Saqqara, where he had built his pyramid. In total, the following temples were built: Nekhenre (Nekhen-Ra), "The fortress of Re", built by Userkaf Sekhetre, "The field of Re", built by Sahure Setibre, "The favourite place of Re", built by Neferirkare Kakai Hetepre, "The offering place of Re", built by Neferefre Conjectural: Hotepibre, "Satisfied is the heart of Re", started by Shepseskare Shesepibre "Joy of the heart of Re", built by Nyuserre Ini Akhetre, "The horizon of Re", built by Menkauhor Kaiu. Only the solar temples of Userkaf and Nyuserre have been discovered to date. Nyuserre's temple contains a large catalogue of inscriptions and reliefs from this king's reign. Structure The sun temples were built on the west bank of the Nile and like pyramids had one way in and one way out. Each sun temple seems to have had three main sections: first, there appears to have been a small valley temple near a canal or cultivation site; second, a short causeway led up to the desert from the small valley temple; on the desert plateau stood the third and most important part, the sun temple proper. References Memphis, Egypt Sun temples

3574692

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%2065001%E2%80%9366000

Meanings of minor planet names: 65001–66000

65001–65100 |- | 65001 Teodorescu || || Ana Maria Teodorescu, Romanian astronomer and wife of co-discoverer Fabrizio Bernardi. Her research includes modeling the evolution of X-ray binaries and the discovery of planetary nebulae in elliptical galaxies. || |-id=091 | 65091 Saramagrin || 2002 CF || Sara Magrin (born 1976), Italian astronomer, active member of the Asiago-DLR Asteroid Survey || |-id=100 | 65100 Birtwhistle || || Peter Birtwhistle (born 1958), British amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets || |} 65101–65200 |-id=159 | 65159 Sprowls || || Marlene Sprowls Durig, mother of the discoverer Douglas Tybor Durig || |} 65201–65300 |-id=210 | 65210 Stichius || 2002 EG || Stichius, a Greek warrior at Troy, who together with Menestheus, carried the body of Amphimachus back to the Archaen troops. This prevented Hektor from stealing Amphimachus's helm || |-id=213 | 65213 Peterhobbs || || Englishman Peter Hobbs (born 1925), a master draughtsman for the British National Coal Board, a lifelong member of Mensa and a perfect-pitch pianist who teaches many students. || |-id=241 | 65241 Seeley || || Bob Seeley (born 1928), an accomplished Detroit pianist, playing music from Gershwin and Debussy to Scott Joplin. || |-id=244 | 65244 Ianwong || || Ian Wong (born 1990) is a postdoctoral fellow at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Cambridge, MA). His studies include photometric colors and spectroscopic measurements of Hilda asteroids, Jupiter Trojans, centaurs and Kuiper Belt Objects. || |} 65301–65400 |-id=357 | 65357 Antoniucci || || Simone Antoniucci (born 1977), an Italian astronomer who obtained his degree in physics at "La Sapienza" University of Rome in 2003, with a thesis on infrared spectroscopy of protostars. He is currently a Ph.D. student in astronomy at Tor Vergata University, Rome, studying Young Stellar Objects using infrared high resolution spectroscopy and interferometry. || |-id=363 | 65363 Ruthanna || || Ruthanna Dellinger Powell (1933–2003), aunt of American amateur astronomer Joseph A. Dellinger who discovered this minor planet. She was the youngest child of a large Indiana farm family. The devoted lifelong wife of Tommy Powell and mother of three, she brought peace, love and joy to all around her and faced life with quiet courage through tragedy and illness (Img). || |} 65401–65500 |-id=487 | 65487 Divinacommedia || || The Divine Comedy ("Divina Commedia") is the most important poem by Dante Alighieri (1265–1321). It is considered one of the greatest works in world literature and includes many astronomical concepts of the time. This naming occurs on the 700th anniversary of Dante's death. || |-id=489 | 65489 Ceto || || Ceto, mythological monstrous sea creature, child of Gaia and Pontus; together with its sibling Phorcys (65489 Ceto I Phorcys), it produced numerous offspring, the Phorcydides || |} 65501–65600 |-id=541 | 65541 Kasbek || 9593 P-L || Kasbek, high inactive volcano in the Georgian Caucasus, near the Russian border || |-id=583 | 65583 Theoklymenos || 4646 T-2 || Theoklymenos, son of Mantios and grandson of Melampus, Greek seer who, in the Odyssey, prophesies Odysseus' return to Ithaca and the death of Penelope's suitors || |-id=590 | 65590 Archeptolemos || 1305 T-3 || Archeptolemos, Trojan charioteer of Hector, killed by Teucer with the help of Apollo || |} 65601–65700 |-id=637 | 65637 Tsniimash || || TsNIIMash is an acronym for the Central Research Institute of Mechanical Engineering, which is an institute of the Russian Federal Space Agency. || |-id=657 | 65657 Hube || || Douglas P. Hube (born 1941), Canadian astronomer and president of the Royal Astronomical Society of Canada from 1994 to 1996 || |-id=658 | 65658 Gurnikovskaya || || Renata Yur'evna Gurnikovskaya (born 1974) is the older daughter of the discoverer || |-id=672 | 65672 Merrick || 1988 QD || In spite of facing the challenge of a rare form of leukemia, Dawson Tate Merrick (1999–2009) excelled at all he attempted, from his academic studies to sports || |-id=675 | 65675 Mohr-Gruber || || Curate Josef Mohr (1792–1848) and his organist Franz Xaver Gruber (1787–1863), Austrian musicians, composers of the Christmas carol "Silent Night! Holy Night!" (Stille Nacht, heilige Nacht) || |-id=685 | 65685 Behring || || Emil von Behring (1854–1917), German medical doctor and Nobelist, founder of the science of immunology || |-id=692 | 65692 Trifu || || Romanian-born Cezar I. Trifu (born 1954) studies the physics of seismic sources and induced seismicity as senior scientist and adjunct professor at Queen's University, Canada. He is the author of many papers and books. Trifu is also a world-famous short-wave radio operator. Name proposed by the first discoverer. || |-id=694 | 65694 Franzrosenzweig || || Franz Rosenzweig (1886–1929), modern Jewish religious thinker || |-id=696 | 65696 Pierrehenry || || Pierre Henry Senegas-Lowe (born 1989), son of the discoverer Andrew Lowe || |-id=697 | 65697 Paulandrew || || Paul Andrew Senegas-Lowe (born 1992), son of the discoverer Andrew Lowe || |-id=698 | 65698 Emmarochelle || || Emma Rochelle Slater (born 1989), stepdaughter of the discoverer Andrew Lowe || |} 65701–65800 |-id=708 | 65708 Ehrlich || || Paul Ehrlich (1854–1915), German Nobelist, pioneer of hematology, immunology and chemotherapy || |-id=712 | 65712 Schneidmüller || || Bernd Schneidmüller (born 1954), a German historian || |-id=716 | 65716 Ohkinohama || || Ohkinohama is a 1.5-kilometer-long beach adjacent to the eastern part of Ashizurimisaki promontory at the southern end of Shikoku Island || |-id=769 | 65769 Mahalia || || Mahalia Jackson (1911–1972), American "Queen of Gospel Song" || |-id=770 | 65770 Leonardotestoni || || Leonardo Testoni (born 2017) is the first nephew of one of the co-discoverers of this minor planet. || |-id=775 | 65775 Reikotosa || || Reiko Tosa (born 1976), Japanese long-distance runner || |-id=784 | 65784 Naderayama || || Naderayama mountain (height 660 meters), located in the west of Yonezawa city, Yamagata prefecture || |-id=785 | 65785 Carlafracci || || Carla Fracci (1936–2021) was an Italian ballet dancer and actress, recognized for her interpretations of romantic and dramatic roles || |} 65801–65900 |-id=803 | 65803 Didymos || 1996 GT || Greek for "twin" as the object was named after its binarity was confirmed in 2003 || |-id=821 | 65821 De Curtis || || Antonio De Curtis (1898–1967), nicknamed "Tot", was an Italian artist, comedian, film and theatre actor, writer, singer and songwriter. || |-id=848 | 65848 Enricomari || || Enrico Mari (1978–2007), a cousin of the discoverer and a member of the Montelupo Astronomical Group || |-id=852 | 65852 Alle || || Alessandro Colombini (born 2018), son of Alberto and Elena, and nephew of Italian amateur astronomer Ermes Colombini, who observes at the San Vittore Observatory where this minor planet was discovered. || |-id=859 | 65859 Mädler || || Johann Heinrich von Mädler (1794–1874) German astronomer and selenographer || |-id=885 | 65885 Lubenow || || Alexander Lubenow (1956–2005), American program coordinator at the Space Telescope Science Institute (Src) || |-id=894 | 65894 Echizenmisaki || || Echizenmisaki is a promontory in Fukui prefecture that projects into the Sea of Japan. It is a famous tourist attraction. || |} 65901–66000 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} References 065001-066000

3583208

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meanings%20of%20minor%20planet%20names%3A%2038001%E2%80%9339000

Meanings of minor planet names: 38001–39000

38001–38100 |-id=018 | 38018 Louisneefs || || Louis Neefs (1937–1980), a well-known Flemish singer || |-id=019 | 38019 Jeanmariepelt || || Jean-Marie Pelt (1933–2015), French botanist at the Université de Metz, founder of the European Institute of Ecology , author of La Cannelle et le panda || |-id=020 | 38020 Hannadam || 1998 MP || Hanna Smigiel (born 1971) and her son, Adam (born 1993), are Polish friends of Luciano Tesi, who co-discovered this minor planet. || |-id=024 | 38024 Melospadafora || 1998 OB || Melo Spadafora (born 1962), a Panamanian amateur astronomer and member of the Panamanian Association of Amateur Astronomy (), who has been instrumental in the setup of the Panamanian Observatory (Observatorio Panameño en San Pedro de Atacama), in Chile. The observatory does follow-up observations of newly discovered small Solar System bodies. || |-id=044 | 38044 Michaellucas || || Michael Lucas (born 1965) is a research associate in the Department of Earth and Planetary Sciences at the University of Tennessee. He studies the geochemical histories of asteroids using telescopic spectroscopy of asteroids and petrology and spectroscopy of analog meteorites. || |-id=046 | 38046 Krasnoyarsk || || Krasnoyarsk, Siberia, Russia, where in 1772 the German zoologist and botanist Peter Simon Pallas identified a 700-kg stony-iron meteorite, now known as a pallasite || |-id=050 | 38050 Bias || || Bias from Greek mythology. He was an Athenian warrior, described as stalwart, who fought to prevent Hector from reaching the Greek ships. || |-id=070 | 38070 Redwine || || Kelley K. Redwine (born 1974), an American occupational therapist in Tucson, Arizona || |-id=083 | 38083 Rhadamanthus || || Rhadamanthus, mythological son of Zeus and Europa, one of the three judges of the dead in Elysium (together with Aeacus and Minos) || |-id=086 | 38086 Beowulf || 1999 JB || Beowulf, hero of one of the oldest surviving texts from early Britain || |} 38101–38200 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 38201–38300 |-id=203 | 38203 Sanner || 1999 MJ || Glen Sanner, American co-author of the two-volume Night Sky Observer's Guide, and member of the Huachuca Astronomy Club || |-id=237 | 38237 Roche || 1999 OF || Édouard Roche (1820–1883), French astronomer and mathematician || |-id=238 | 38238 Holíč || 1999 OW || The town of Holíč in western Slovakia || |-id=245 | 38245 Marcospontes || || Marcos Pontes (born 1963), Brazilian astronaut || |-id=246 | 38246 Palupín || || The village of Palupín in the Bohemian-Moravian Highlands. It was first mentioned in 1368. St. Wenceslaus church was built by a local landlord in 1617. The family roots of co-discoverer Jana Tichá lie in this village. || |-id=250 | 38250 Tartois || || Lucien Tartois (1924–2011), French amateur astronomer || |-id=268 | 38268 Zenkert || || Arnold Zenkert (1923–2013), German author, amateur astronomer, and director of the Bruno H. Bürgel Memorial Plaza in Potsdam, Germany || |-id=269 | 38269 Gueymard || || Adolphe G. Gueymard (1913–?), American businessman, benefactor of the George Observatory || |-id=270 | 38270 Wettzell || || Geodetic Fundamental Station Wettzell in the Bavarian Forest, which supplies observational contributions to the International Terrestrial Reference System with satellite radio interferometry and laser ranging || |} 38301–38400 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 38401–38500 |-id=442 | 38442 Szilárd || || Leó Szilárd (1898–1964), Hungarian-German-American nuclear physicist and molecular biologist || |-id=454 | 38454 Boroson || || Todd A. Boroson (born 1954), American astronomer, deputy director of the National Optical Astronomy Observatory || |-id=461 | 38461 Jiřítrnka || || Jiří Trnka (1912–1969), Czech graphic artist, painter, puppet-maker, film-maker, author and illustrator || |-id=470 | 38470 Deleflie || || Florent Deleflie (born 1975) is a French astronomer at IMCCE of the Paris Observatory, specializing in celestial mechanics, dynamics of artificial satellites, and long term orbit propagation. || |} 38501–38600 |-id=540 | 38540 Stevens || || Berton L. Stevens (born 1951), American amateur astronomer and discoverer of minor planets at the Desert Moon Observatory near Las Cruces, New Mexico || |-id=541 | 38541 Rustichelli || || Vittorio Rustichelli (born 1927), Italian telescope maker and amateur astronomer || |} 38601–38700 |-id=628 | 38628 Huya || || Huya, rain god of the Wayuu Indians of Venezuela and Colombia || |-id=636 | 38636 Kitazato || || Kohei Kitazato (born 1980) is a planetary scientist who contributed to JAXA's Hayabusa and Hayabusa2 missions. His research includes physical and chemical properties of near-Earth asteroids. || |-id=641 | 38641 Philpott || || Lydia Philpott (born 1983) is a planetary geophysicist at the University of British Columbia. Lydia is a member of the OSIRIS-Rex mission to the asteroid (101955) Bennu, where she is a critical part of the team that developed shape models. || |-id=669 | 38669 Michikawa || || Michikawa is the name of the area in Yurihonjo City, Akita Prefecture, Japan. || |-id=671 | 38671 Verdaguer || || Jacint Verdaguer (1845–1902), Spanish (Catalan) poet || |-id=674 | 38674 Těšínsko || || The region of Těšínsko in south-eastern part of Silesia, in 1920 divided between Czechoslovakia and Poland || |-id=684 | 38684 Velehrad || || The village of Velehrad, Moravia, in the Czech Republic. It is the traditional seat of the great Moravian princes and of Archbishop Methodius || |} 38701–38800 |-bgcolor=#f2f2f2 | colspan=4 align=center | |} 38801–38900 |-id=821 | 38821 Linchinghsia || || Brigitte Lin (Lin Ching Hsia; born 1954), Chinese actress || |} 38901–39000 |-id=960 | 38960 Yeungchihung || 2000 TS || Yeung Chi-hung (1953–2010), an avid stargazer since he was a teenager, was one of the founding members of the Hong Kong Astronomical Society. || |-id=962 | 38962 Chuwinghung || || Chu Wing Hung (Alan Chu; born 1946), Chinese amateur astronomer, compiler of the lunar atlas || |-id=966 | 38966 Deller || || Jakob Deller (born 1985) is a postdoctoral researcher at the Max Planck Institute in Göttingen, Germany. He studies the formation, evolution, and internal structures of near-Earth asteroids and comets from spacecraft measurements. || |-id=976 | 38976 Taeve || 2000 UR || Nickname of Gustav Adolf Schur (born 1931), German cyclist || |-id=980 | 38980 Gaoyaojie || || Gao Yaojie (born 1927), Chinese medical doctor, pioneer of AIDS prevention in China and winner of the 2001 Jonathan Mann Award for Global Health and Human Rights and of Vital Voices || |} References 038001-039000

3589660

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweden%20Solar%20System

Sweden Solar System

The Sweden Solar System is the world's largest permanent scale model of the Solar System. The Sun is represented by the Avicii Arena in Stockholm, the second-largest hemispherical building in the world. The inner planets can also be found in Stockholm but the outer planets are situated northward in other cities along the Baltic Sea. The system was started by Nils Brenning, professor at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, and Gösta Gahm, professor at the Stockholm University. The model represents the Solar System on the scale of 1:20 million. The system The bodies represented in this model include the Sun, the planets (and some of their moons), dwarf planets and many types of small bodies (comets, asteroids, trans-Neptunians, etc.), as well as some abstract concepts (like the Termination Shock zone). Because of the existence of many small bodies in the real Solar System, the model can always be further increased. The Sun is represented by the Avicii Arena (Globen), Stockholm, which is the second-largest hemispherical building in the world, in diameter. To respect the scale, the globe represents the Sun including its corona. Inner planets Mercury ( in diameter) is placed at Stockholm City Museum, from the Globe. The small metallic sphere was built by the artist Peter Varhelyi. Venus ( in diameter) is placed at Vetenskapens Hus at KTH (Royal Institute of Technology), from the Globe. The previous model, made by the United States artist Daniel Oberti, was inaugurated on 8 June 2004, during a Venus transit and placed at KTH. It fell and shattered around 11 June 2011. Due to construction work at the location of the previous model of Venus it was removed and as of October 2012 cannot be seen. The current model now at Vetenskapens Hus was previously located at the Observatory Museum in Stockholm (now closed). Earth ( in diameter) is located at the Swedish Museum of Natural History (Cosmonova), from the Globe. Satellite images of the Earth are exhibited beside the Globe. An elaborate model of the Moon ( in diameter) is also on display, about 20 meters from the model of Earth. Mars ( in diameter) is located at Mörby centrum, a shopping centre and Stockholm metro station in Danderyd, a suburb of Stockholm. It is from the Globe. The model, made in copper by the Finnish artist Heikki Haapanen, is connected by an "umbilical cord" to a steel plate on the floor having an Earth image. The globe also features marks that represent some typical Martian chemical elements. Gas giants Jupiter ( in diameter) is placed inside the Clarion Hotel located at Stockholm Arlanda Airport in Sigtuna Municipality, from the Globe. Previously, it was made as a flower decoration, with different flowers representing different zones of the giant gas planet. Today, the planet is depicted as a ring light above a lobby. Saturn ( in diameter) is placed outside the old observatory of Anders Celsius, in the so-called Celsius Square, in the centre of Uppsala, from the Globe. Inaugurated during the International Year of Astronomy, the model is a mat with a picture of Saturn, but will eventually grow to crown a school planetarium in the city. In addition, several schools in Uppsala are to provide moons of Saturn: the first completed was Enceladus (diameter ) at Kvarngärdesskolan. Uranus ( in diameter) was vandalized and the new model was reconstructed behind Stora magasinet in Lövstabruk in 2012. It is an outdoor model made of blue steel bars. The rotation axis of the planet is marked in red. Neptune (2.5 m in diameter) is located by the river Söderhamnsån in Söderhamn, a coast town with tradition of fishing and sailing (which relates to Neptune being the deity of the seas). Placed from the Globe, the model is made of acrylic and, at night, shines with a blue light. Trans-Neptunian objects Pluto ( in diameter) and its largest moon Charon are placed near the southern of the Dellen lakes, in Delsbo, from the Globe. The lakes are thought to be formed by a meteorite impact 90 million years ago. The two bodies' sculptures are supported by two gravelike pillars (as Pluto is the deity for death), made up with dellenite, a rare mineral formed at that place by the meteorite impact. Haumea (8.5cm (3.3 in) in diameter) and its moons are depicted in the 2047 Science Centre, Borlänge, 200 km (124 mi) from the Globe. Quaoar (6cm (2.4 in) in diameter) is located in the library in Gislaved, 340 km from the Globe. Ixion ( in diameter), a dwarf planet candidate, is located at Technichus, a science center in Härnösand, 360 km (224 mi) from the Globe. The sculpture is an orb held by a hand with the arm. This plutino was discovered by a team which included scientists from Uppsala. Makemake (7cm (2.8 in) in diameter) is located at Slottsskogsobservatoriet, an observatory in Gothenburg, 400 km (249 mi) from the Globe. 'Oumuamua (0.3 mm (0.012 in) in diameter) is placed in the village of Plönninge, Halland, 440 km (273 mi) from the Globe. Gonggong (7.5 cm (3.0 in) in diameter) is placed near the Tycho Brahe Observatory in Oxie, Malmö, 500 km (311 mi) from the Globe. Eris ( in diameter) is located at Umestans Företagspark, Umeå, from the Globe. Made by Theresa Berg, the golden model is inspired by the mythical story of Eris sparking a quarrel between three Greek goddesses with a golden apple bearing the inscription καλλίστῃ ("to the most beautiful one"). Sedna ( in diameter), another dwarf planet candidate, is located at Teknikens Hus, a science center in Luleå, from the Globe. Other bodies The near-Earth Object Eros is located at Mörbyskolan, a school in Danderyd Municipality (where Mars is located), from the Globe. It was created as a Valentine's Day project in gold, modeled after Eros, the god of love. The dimensions are 2 × 0.7 × 0.7 mm (). The asteroid 36614 Saltis is located at Saltsjöbaden's Kunskapsskola, a school near the Stockholm Observatory. The asteroid was discovered by A. Brandeker in 2000, using a telescope at the observatory, and the body was named after the observatory's location, Saltsjöbaden. The asteroid Vesta is located at Åva gymnasium, a public secondary school in Täby. The asteroid Palomar-Leiden ( in diameter) is located in a park in Alsike, Knivsta Municipality, from the Globe. It is not a sculpture but a dot on a map of the System, placed in front of Erik Ståhl's monumental cosmic sculptures. Halley's Comet is located at Balthazar Science Center, in Skövde. Inaugurated on 16 December 2009, there are actually four models of the comet: three placed outdoors, based on schoolchildren's drawings, plus one indoors, consisting of a laser passing through a block of glass. Comet Swift-Tuttle is placed at Kreativum, a science center in Karlshamn. The comet's orbit is closest to the Globe in inner Stockholm and farthest in Karlshamn, away. The Termination Shock is at the edge of the heliosphere: it is the boundary where the solar wind transitions to subsonic velocity. No sculpture currently represents the termination shock, but a foundation for a future sculpture exists at the Institute of Space Physics, from the Globe, in Kiruna, above the Arctic Circle. List of objects Gallery See also Nine Views Somerset Space Walk References External links Sweden Solar System's webpage Scale modeling Space art Science and technology in Sweden Buildings and structures in Sweden Tourist attractions in Sweden Solar System models

3590421

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus%20%28Marvel%20Comics%29

Venus (Marvel Comics)

Venus is the name of two fictional characters appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The first, originally based on the goddess Venus (Aphrodite) from Roman and Greek mythology, was retconned to actually be a siren that only resembles the goddess. The second is stated to be the true goddess, who now wishes only to be referred to by her Greek name, Aphrodite. The similarities between the two characters are a point of conflict in the comics. Venus Venus is a fictional character in the Marvel Comics universe, originally based on the goddess Venus (Aphrodite) from Greek and Roman mythology; however, it is later revealed that she is a Siren and not the true goddess. The Marvel version of the character first appeared in Venus #1 (August 1948). Publication history In the original 1940s Venus series, Venus dwelled on the planet Venus with her female companions. She traveled to Earth and took on the human identity of Victoria "Vicki" Nutley Starr, a journalist and editor for Beauty magazine. She developed a romantic relationship with Beauty editor Whitney Hammond; he and Venus' rival, Della Mason, were among the few people to meet Venus who did not believe her when she claimed that she was a goddess. She helps people repair their broken relationships. The series began as a light-hearted humor/fantasy series, but as the series continued, its focus shifted towards darker fantasy and horror themes. Through the course of the series, the Marvel Comics interpretations of several mythological figures appeared, including Hercules, Zeus, various other Olympians, Satan, and, in their first Marvel appearance, the Norse gods Thor and Loki. Venus was canceled with issue #19. The character drifted into obscurity after her series ended, and Venus did not reappear for 20 years, when she resurfaced in Sub-Mariner #57 (Jan. 1973). Venus manipulated Namor into defeating Ares, who was attempting to force her to love him. Venus was now a guide for young activists such as Namorita, searching for ways to promote peace, and to end modern warfare. At this time, she wore only a swimsuit or a revealing white gown. Fictional character biography Venus was born an immortal siren, one of the daughters of the river god Achelous and the divine muse of dance Terpsichore. The sirens lived on the Sirenum scopuli islands and eventually fell into the service of the ocean elemental Phorcys, who used their "siren song" to lure mortal sailors to watery deaths. In the late 19th century AD, two ships from Asia encountered one of these sirens while on a voyage to Morocco. The first ship's crew became mesmerized by the siren's song and crashed their vessel on the rocks, but the Sorcerer Supreme Yao saved the second ship from a similar fate by mystically imbuing the siren with a soul. Horrified at her past behavior, the repentant siren fled and lived at a convent for years. At some point in the distant past, this siren had a relationship with the Shinto god Susanoo. In the mid-20th century, the siren, still ashamed of her past, adopted the name "Venus" and impersonated the Olympian goddess of love and beauty Aphrodite, claiming to have sacrificed many of her divine powers so she could walk among mortals and teach them to love. In recent decades, she has used the secret identity on Earth of humanities professor Victoria N. Starr as a cover for her activities as an adventurer. The series Marvel: The Lost Generation revealed that Venus and several other heroes who had been active in the 1950s briefly banded together, but did not remain as a team. This team has recently re-banded in Agents of Atlas and Venus has rejoined the team. Venus' true origins were revealed by Namora: this Venus was actually a soulless Siren that lured sailing ships to her with her voice and fed on the sailors. To prevent his ship and his crew from being feed on, the captain of a merchant ship hired a mystic to kill her. The mystic instead gave her a soul. The Siren then took the form of a beautiful woman (forbidding herself to speak again) and was taken in by a nunnery, where she lived for decades and believed herself a mute servant girl, until she joined a chorus, filling the visiting clergy with lust. She was then expelled from the nunnery. Learning how to use her voice for good, she blocked out all memories of her previous life and assumed that she was Venus reborn, based on the legends she had heard about a beautiful, immortal girl wandering the world as a goddess in a human body and winning her battles with the power of "love". 'Venus' resurfaced in the 1940s and acted as a superhero. Learning the truth about her past, Venus fell into despair and nearly destroyed her companions with her song. Jimmy Woo resisted her song and reminded her of all the good she had done, restoring her belief in herself, which allowed her to reverse the effects on the others. She had since elected to stay with the Agents of Atlas, using her restored powers to soothe and calm her opponents, while traveling around the world in Marvel Boy's ship, along with her teammates, shutting down the villainous branch of the former Atlas Foundation. She eventually came up with the idea to alter Spider-Man's perception of a common fight, leaving him with false memories of having helped someone else instead of mindwiping him. Subsequently, she was abducted by the true Olympian goddess Aphrodite, angry at her for assuming her name and guise. Rescued by the group, they have further battles with Aphrodite, until in a climactic battle of song, the goddess decides to appoint Venus in her place, recognizing that she has not been truly dedicated to love since Troy. After Hercules' death, she and Namora roam the world, bringing his financial affairs in order. She uses her gifts to comfort many who are devastated by his loss. Powers and abilities Venus has the power to project images or illusions of herself and to control the emotions of others, as well as the ability to fly at high speeds, shield herself from mortal sight, and shift her physical form into other beings. Before the retcon, she was considered to be an Olympian goddess, and thought to possess the enhanced physical characteristics typical of Olympian gods in the Marvel Universe, including superhuman stamina, durability, agility, and reflexes, extraordinary vitality, and virtual immortality. After her memories were restored, Venus realized her empathic abilities were really derived from a powerful "siren song" — she is able to heal and restore, curing people's souls by giving them a moment of true bliss in which they can live their most prized fantasy. Her voice is mystically empowered with advanced mind-control abilities, related to her mood: when she speaks in joy, she fills her listeners with bliss and fanatical love for her; when she cries in sadness, her listeners drown in despair too. Her power was strong enough to immediately subdue the Sentry into helping her find Norman Osborn during "Dark Reign." Like many characters with vocal-based abilities, it has been shown that Venus' siren song can be disabled if she is gagged. Other versions What if? What If #9 showed Venus as a member of a 1950s Avengers team called the G-Men which assembled to defeat the Yellow Claw. Aphrodite Aphrodite is a fictional character in the comic book, The Incredible Hercules published by Marvel Comics. Aphrodite is an Olympian based on the goddess of the same name from Greek Mythology first appearing in X-Men vs. Agents of Atlas #2 (Nov. 2009) by Jeff Parker and Carlo Pagulayan. Fictional character biography Venus is the Olympian goddess of love and beauty who is Zeus' daughter by the oracular goddess Dione. She was born off the coast of the Isle of Kythira and grew to become the most beautiful and desired of the Olympian goddesses. Venus wears an enchanted girdle called the Cestus which enables her to arouse love and passion in others at will and to transform weapons into objects that can be used for peaceful purposes. Aphrodite later became the wife of Hephaestus, whom she was given to by Hera in order to make amends for casting him out of Olympus when he was just a child. However, Aphrodite never loved Hephaestus who she found to be hideous due to his physical handicap and instead desired Hephaestus' brother, Ares. The marriage was ended after Hephaestus caught the lovers in bed together, and with a net made of adamantine brought them before Zeus for retribution. However, the union between Aphrodite and Ares produced the cherubic god of lust Cupid, known as "Eros" to the Greeks. X-Men Vs. Agents of Atlas With the help of Hera, Aphrodite locates Venus, whom she views as an imposter and sends one of her centaurs to kidnap her. Venus is bound and gagged and brought back to Aphrodite's temple where she is chained, branded with a poker and put before a statue of Aphrodite. Through the statue Aphrodite expresses her outrage that Venus has stolen her name and form. The Agents of Atlas, with the help of the X-Men, track Venus using Cerebro and rescues her from the temple. Aphrodite, still angered, sends Phorcys, Venus' creator to reclaim her but is halted by the Agents of Atlas. Assault on New Olympus After the destruction of Olympus and the death and rebirth of Zeus, Hera takes control of the Olympus Group, a corporation that handles the Olympians' Earthly enterprises, and uses her power to create a product that would bring about mankind's extinction. In order to stop her, Athena and Amadeus Cho devise a plan which first involves seeking Aphrodite's help. Aphrodite agrees to stall Ares from defending the Olympus Group by sleeping with him and in turn Athena agreed to aid Aphrodite in confronting Venus. While The New Avengers, the Mighty Avengers and Athena stage a frontal assault on the Olympus Group, the Agents of Atlas try to infiltrate the corporation from underground. They are stopped by Aphrodite who confronts Venus. During the ensuing battle, Aphrodite comes to the realization that she hasn't felt love in centuries, since the Trojan War. Aphrodite then passes the title of 'goddess of love' and the girdle Cestus to Venus. Powers and abilities Aphrodite possesses the typical powers of an Olympian, including superhuman strength, speed, durability, and reflexes, and virtual immortality. Like all Olympians she has some resistance to magic and is immune to all terrestrial diseases, aging and poisons. As the goddess of love, Aphrodite has more power to sense, inspire and control the emotions of love and sexual desire than any other god. Her powers have been demonstrated to be powerful enough to influence Zeus himself. The only known beings who were immune to her influence were her half-sisters, Athena and Artemis and her aunt, Hestia. She also possesses the range of abilities endemic to most Olympian gods. Aphrodite can teleport between Olympus and Earth. She can fly/levitate. She can change her own shape and appearance and that of others. Aphrodite can turn invisible (demonstrated when she saved the Trojan prince Paris from his Greek rival Menelaus in the Trojan War). She is able to use telekinesis. The goddess can generate fields of defensive energy (force fields) as when she similarly saved her son Aeneas from the Greek Diomedes. Like other gods, she also possesses some localized control over weather, the elements and animals. Aphrodite is the original owner of the Cestus, a magical girdle created by Hephaestus which enhances even further her already formidable powers over love and desire. It also enables her to transform weapons into objects that can be used for peaceful purposes. Reception Accolades In 2011, Comics Buyer's Guide ranked Venus/Aphrodite was ranked 8th in their "100 Sexiest Women in Comics" list. In 2019, CBR.com ranked Venus/Aphrodite 10th in their "Marvel Comics: The 10 Most Powerful Olympians" list. In 2020, CBR.com ranked Venus/Aphrodite 4th in their "Marvel: 10 Best Golden Age Heroines" list. In 2021, CBR.com ranked Venus/Aphrodite 10th in their "Marvel: 10 Most Powerful Olympians" list. In 2022, Sportskeeda ranked Venus/Aphrodite 2nd in their "10 best Greek gods from Marvel comics " list. References External links Venus (Aphrodite) at Marvel.com Venus (siren) at Marvel.com 1948 comics debuts Articles about multiple fictional characters Comics characters introduced in 1948 Comics characters introduced in 2009 Fictional characters with energy-manipulation abilities Fictional activists Fictional goddesses Fictional illusionists Fictional models Golden Age superheroes Classical mythology in Marvel Comics Greek and Roman deities in fiction Marvel Comics characters who are shapeshifters Marvel Comics characters who can move at superhuman speeds Marvel Comics characters who use magic Marvel Comics characters with accelerated healing Marvel Comics characters with immortality Marvel Comics characters with superhuman durability or invulnerability Marvel Comics characters with superhuman strength Marvel Comics female superheroes Marvel Comics titles Sirens (mythology) Timely Comics characters Venus in art

3592035

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerberus%20%28Mars%29

Cerberus (Mars)

Cerberus is a large "dark spot" (an albedo feature) located on Mars and named after the mythical dog Cerberus. The arcuate (curved) markings in the upper right are in the Amazonis plains and may be sand drifts. The volcano Elysium Mons, a yellow area north of Cerberus, has several channels radiating from its flanks. The three bright spots, upper left, are volcanoes partially veiled by thin clouds. High resolution images show the bulk of the Cerberus plains is covered by platy-ridged and inflated lavas, which are interpreted as insulated sheet flows. Eastern Cerberus plains lavas originate at Cerberus Fossae fissures and shields. Some flows extend for 2000 km through Marte Vallis into Amazonis Planitia. The Athabasca Valles are both incised into pristine lavas and embayed by pristine lavas, indicating that Athabascan fluvial events were contemporaneous with volcanic eruptions. Deposits of the Medusae Fossae Formation lie both over and under lavas, suggesting the deposition of this formation was contemporaneous with volcanism. Statistics of small craters indicate lavas in the western Cerberus plains may be less than a million years old, but the model isochrons may be unreliable if the small crater population is dominated by secondary craters (craters formed by material ejected from larger impacts). Images showing no large craters with diameters larger than 500 meters superimposed on western Cerberus plains lavas indicate the same surface is younger than 49 Ma (million years). See also Geography of Mars Sources External links Google Mars - zoomable map centered on Cerberus Albedo features on Mars

3592351

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mangala%20Valles

Mangala Valles

The Mangala Valles are a complex system of criss-crossing channels on Mars, located in the Tharsis region and in the Memnonia quadrangle. They originated in the Hesperian and Amazonian epochs. They are thought to be an outflow channel system, carved by catastrophic floods, and the release of vast quantities of water across the Martian surface. This flooding was probably initiated by tectonic stretching and the formation of a graben, Mangala Fossa, at the channels' head, perhaps breaching a pressurized aquifer trapped beneath a thick "cryosphere" (layer of frozen ground) beneath the surface. The Mangala Valles contain several basins; after they filled, the overflow went through a series of spillways. One source of waters for the system was the Memonia Fossae, but water also probably came from a large basin centered at 40 degrees S. A recent study that used photogeologic analysis, geomorphic surface mapping, cratering statistics, and relative stratigraphy, demonstrated that the Mangala Valles were flooded by water at least twice and covered with lava at least three times during the Late Amazonian. The presence of scoured bedrock at the base of the mapped stratigraphy, together with evidence from crater retention ages, suggests that fluvial activity came before lava flows. These alternating periods of aqueous flooding and volcanism are similar to that of other outflow systems on Mars, such as Ravi Vallis and the Kasei Valles. There are wind-sculpted ridges, or yardangs, covering many of the surfaces in the Mangala Valles region. "Mangala" is the name for Mars in Jyotish (or Hindu) astrology. Gallery In fiction The Mangala Valles are referred to in Michael Crichton's book Sphere. In Stephen Baxter's novel Voyage, they are the location of the first crewed Mars landing. They are mentioned in Terry Pratchett's and Stephen Baxter's novel The Long Mars. They are also the location of the first crewed Mars base in See also Graben Memnonia quadrangle Outburst flood Outflow channels References External links Lunar and Planetary Institute Valleys and canyons on Mars Memnonia quadrangle

3592415

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazonis%20Planitia

Amazonis Planitia

Amazonis Planitia (, Latin Amāzŏnis) is one of the smoothest plains on Mars. It is located between the Tharsis and Elysium volcanic provinces, to the west of Olympus Mons, in the Amazonis and Memnonia quadrangles, centered at . The plain's topography exhibits extremely smooth features at several different lengths of scale. A large part of the Medusae Fossae Formation lies in Amazonis Planitia. Its name derives from one of the classical albedo features observed by early astronomers, which was in turn named after the Amazons, a mythical race of warrior women. Age and composition Only approximately 100 million years old, these plains provide some of the fewest sedimentary layers impeding viewing of the Martian terrain, and closely resemble the composition of Earth's Iceland. Formed by free-flowing lava across great plains, Amazonis has been described by William Hartmann as a "bright dusty volcanic desert crossed by many fresh-looking lava flows." Amazonis has become the primary focus of modern research efforts both because of its geological composition and because of its relative youth compared to other Martian regions, which are often hundreds of millions of years older. Hartman writes that the plain closely resembles Iceland's surface, with its "strange cobweb-like networks of ridges and crags [on both planets, divide] smoother areas into a pattern something like fragments of a broken plate." Both land masses' shapes have been formed by lava flows from volcanic eruptions, causing both surfaces to be covered by a thick layer of hardened lava. Findings from aerial footage of both Amazonis and Iceland have shown nearly identical terrain patterns, signifying the comparative ages of the two regions. The entire contemporary era on Mars has been named the Amazonian Epoch because researchers originally (and incorrectly) thought Amazonis Planitia to be representative of all Martian plains. Instead, over the past two decades, researchers have realized that the area's youth and extremely smooth surface actually distinguish the area from its neighbors. It is even possible that the area possessed distinctive characteristics when all of Mars was under water. Although the full implications of Amazonis's youth have not yet been determined, the nature of the area (i.e. lack of sedimentary rock) has at least provided researchers evidence that the areas are the most likely to provide future discoveries, and as such, has been proposed as a future site for most NASA landings. Medusae Fossae Formation The Medusae Fossae Formation is a soft, easily eroded deposit that extends for nearly 1,000 km along the equator of Mars. The surface of the formation has been eroded by the wind into a series of linear ridges called yardangs. These ridges generally point in direction of the prevailing winds that carved them and demonstrate the erosive power of Martian winds. The easily eroded nature of the Medusae Fossae Formation suggests that it is composed of weakly cemented particles, Linear ridge networks Linear ridge networks are found in various places on Mars in and around craters. Ridges often appear as mostly straight segments that intersect in a lattice-like manner. They are hundreds of meters long, tens of meters high, and several meters wide. It is thought that impacts created fractures in the surface, these fractures later acted as channels for fluids. Fluids cemented the structures. With the passage of time, surrounding material was eroded away, thereby leaving hard ridges behind. Since the ridges occur in locations with clay, these formations could serve as a marker for clay which requires water for its formation. Water here could have supported past life in these locations. Clay may also preserve fossils or other traces of past life. Streamlined shapes When a fluid moves by a feature like a mound, it will become streamlined. Often flowing water makes the shape and later lava flows spread over the region. In the pictures below this has occurred. Lava flows Dark slope streaks Many places on Mars show dark streaks on steep slopes, such as crater walls. It seems that the youngest streaks are dark and they become lighter with age. Often they begin as a small narrow spot then widen and extend downhill for hundreds of meters. Several ideas have been advanced to explain the streaks. Some involve water, or even the growth of organisms. The streaks appear in areas covered with dust. Much of the Martian surface is covered with dust because at more or less regular intervals dust settles out of the atmosphere covering everything. We know a lot about this dust because the solar panels of Mars rovers get covered with dust. The power of the Rovers has been saved many times by the wind, in the form of dust devils that have cleared the panels and boosted the power. So we know that dust falls from the atmosphere frequently. It is most generally accepted that the streaks represent avalanches of dust. Streaks appear in areas covered with dust. When a thin layer of dust is removed, the underlying surface appears dark. Much of the Martian surface is covered with dust. Dust storms are frequent, especially when the spring season begins in the southern hemisphere. At that time, Mars is 40% closer to the sun. The orbit of Mars is much more elliptical than the Earth's. That is, the difference between the farthest point from the sun and the closest point to the sun is very great for Mars, but only slight for the Earth. Also, every few years, the entire planet is engulfed in a global dust storm. When NASA's Mariner 9 craft arrived there, nothing could be seen through the dust storm. Other global dust storms have also been observed, since that time. Brain terrain Brain terrain is common in many places on Mars. It is formed when ice sublimates along cracks. The ridges of brain terrain may contain a core of ice. Shadow measurements from HiRISE indicate the ridges are 4–5 meters high. More Images from Amazonis Planitia Interactive Mars map See also Amazonian (Mars) Dark slope streaks Geography of Mars List of plains on Mars Medusae Fossae Formation References External links Google Mars zoomable map centered on Amazonis Planitia HiRISE image of faulting in Amazonis Planitia Plains on Mars Amazonis quadrangle Memnonia quadrangle

3592569

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elysium%20%28volcanic%20province%29

Elysium (volcanic province)

Elysium, located in the Elysium and Cebrenia quadrangles, is the second largest volcanic region on Mars, after Tharsis. The region includes the volcanoes (from north to south) Hecates Tholus, Elysium Mons and Albor Tholus. The province is centered roughly on Elysium Mons at . Elysium Planitia is a broad plain to the south of Elysium, centered at . Another large volcano, Apollinaris Mons, lies south of Elysium Planitia and is not part of the province. Besides having large volcanoes, Elysium has several areas with long trenches, called fossa or fossae (plural) on Mars. They include the Cerberus Fossae, Elysium Fossae, Galaxias Fossae, Hephaestus Fossae, Hyblaeus Fossae, Stygis Fossae and Zephyrus Fossae. Composition The southeastern portion of the province is geochemically distinct from the northwest. The southeast is composed of sedimentary and porous rocks. The majority of the southeastern portion is made up of Amazonian-Hesperian volcanic units. Most of the remaining southeastern volcanic units are late Amazonian in nature. In recent history, there were significant groundwater deposits in the region. It has been hard to study the composition of this province, due to the layer of dust that sits on top of the crust. Investigations in relatively dust-free regions indicate that it is made primarily of high-calcium pyroxene and olivine. To a lesser degree, the province is made up of hematite and hydrated silica, among other things. There are no strong magnetic fields in the region. There are some extant near-surface glacial deposits in the caldera of Hecates Tholus, a volcano in the province. Formation The southeastern portion of the province is approximately 0.85 billion years younger than the northwestern. The region as a whole has been volcanically active for at least 3.9 billion years, with a peak 2.2 billion years ago, although activity has decreased considerably in the last billion years. Crater counting done on the lava flows in the southern region show low cratering rates, which would indicate younger volcanic activity, as recent as 10 Myr. The most recent volcanic activity dates to 2 million years ago. The southeastern portion overlaps with Cerberus Fossae; features in this region are thought to have formed due to volcanic and water-related processes, such as phreatomagmatism, relict ice flows, and interactions between lava and water. In general, many flow units in Elysium Planitia (such as Rahway Valles and Marte Vallis) are thought to have their origins in lava originating from this region. Hecates Tholus erupted ~350 million years ago, with glacial deposits in the resulting caldera dating between 5 and 24 million years ago. Craters in the region are not generally typical of impacts; rather, they are thought to have formed due to explosive volcanism or collapse due to subsurface lava withdrawal. Elysium contains numerous lava flow units with variable histories as well as volcanic and fluvial channels.The three major volcanoes of the region sit on top of a 1700 x 2400 km broad dome. The summit of Hecates Tholus shows evidence of pyroclastic activity. Martian volcanism has been dominated by effusive eruption styles and there is limited evidence to support widespread explosive or pyroclastic volcanic eruptions on Mars. Elysium Mons is approximately 1.5 times as steep as any other Martian volcano at approximately 7-7.5°. The caldera at the summit of Elysium Mons is approximately 13.5 km in diameter. Extending past the rim of this central caldera are at least 18 sinuous channels thought to be the remnants of collapsed lava tubes and lava channels. Observation history The Elysium volcanic province was first noticed as a distinct Martian region as a result of data obtained from the Mariner 9 mission, in the 1970s. The Viking orbiter noted that volcanic province of Elysium experienced more diverse types of volcanism than the Tharsis volcanic region. In 2004, ESA's Mars Express orbiter's HRSC observed the volcanoes in the region. The InSight Lander landed just south of the province in 2018, in Elysium Planitia, and has detected marsquakes emanating from this region. The main science goals of the lander are to monitor the level of seismic activity occurring on Mars and to understand how Mars formed and how the planet has been evolving ever since. Volcanoes of Elysium Troughs (fossae) in Elysium See also Fossa (geology) Geography of Mars Geology of Mars List of quadrangles on Mars Volcanism on Mars Notes References External links Google Mars - zoomable map centered on Elysium Planitia, with three main volcanoes of Elysium visible google mars - Cerebrus Fossae fissures Volcanoes of Mars Mountains on Mars Surface features of Mars Lava plateaus

3596363

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiddush%20club

Kiddush club

"Kiddush club" is a slang term applied to an informal group of Jewish adults who congregate during Shabbat (Sabbath) prayer services to make kiddush over wine or liquor, and socialize. Traditionally it has been a male-bonding experience, especially in Orthodox communities. Custom Kiddush clubs are a fixture of Saturday morning shacharit services in Orthodox, and particularly Modern Orthodox synagogues. In a typical kiddush club, members of the "club"–generally men–leave the synagogue's prayer hall during either the Torah reading, the haftarah reading or the rabbi's sermon which generally follows it, and go to another room in the synagogue to drink and socialize. Depending on the club, participants may or may not return to the prayer hall for mussaf, the remaining portion of the prayer service. Kiddush clubs vary in offerings, although hard alcohol and wine are typical. More extravagant kiddush clubs may include various appetizers similar to a regular kiddush, such as pickles, whitefish spread, or pickled herring. Kiddush clubs may also sometimes raise money for the synagogue or other charities through membership fees or "bottle sponsorships". Some kiddush clubs congregate in members' homes after services have concluded to avoid disrupting services. Additionally, some synagogues refer to regular kiddush or other social activities hosted by the synagogue as "kiddush clubs". History There is evidence that practices similar to modern kiddush clubs have been present in Jewish communities for hundreds of years. A 16th century text, Sefer Yefeh Nof includes a responsa from Rabbi Moshe Yitzhak M’zia opining that leaving the synagogue to drink whisky during the Torah service is permissible as long as the participants do not eat a full meal. Criticism Kiddush clubs have been met with criticism, particularly in the United States. In December 2004, the Orthodox Union (OU) called for the elimination of such practices. OU Executive Vice President Rabbi Dr. Tzvi Hersh Weinreb criticized "Kiddush Clubs" for detracting from the honor of the synagogue, promoting gossip, reducing decorum, and enabling substance abuse. Some synagogues have tried banning the clubs, but this is often unsuccessful as club members are often influential congregants of the synagogue. External links "The International Kiddush Club" - Promoting the Joy of Judaism through charitable acts References Jewish clubs and societies Shabbat Judaism and alcohol

3597243

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grado.%20S%C3%BC%C3%9Fe%20Nacht

Grado. Süße Nacht

Grado. Süße Nacht (Grado. Sweet Night) is a short novel by Gustav Ernst first published in 2004. Set in Grado, Italy, on a summer's evening, the book is a long monologue spoken by a middle-aged Austrian man alone on holiday. Over dinner, he addresses a woman he has just met whose "offer" to have sex with him right after their three-course meal he refuses, detailing all the reasons why he thinks each of them will be better off if they do not succumb to carnal knowledge. However, right from the start, he is aware that the woman has actually never made him an offer. Grado contains sexually explicit language and, according to the publisher, should not be read by people under 18. References 2004 novels Austrian erotic novels Novels set in Italy Province of Gorizia Friuli-Venezia Giulia 21st-century Austrian novels Novels set in one day

3601462

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock%20diamond

Shock diamond

Shock diamonds (also known as Mach diamonds or thrust diamonds) are a formation of standing wave patterns that appear in the supersonic exhaust plume of an aerospace propulsion system, such as a supersonic jet engine, rocket, ramjet, or scramjet, when it is operated in an atmosphere. The "diamonds" are actually a complex flow field made visible by abrupt changes in local density and pressure as the exhaust passes through a series of standing shock waves and expansion fans. Mach diamonds are named after Ernst Mach, the physicist who first described them. Mechanism Shock diamonds form when the supersonic exhaust from a propelling nozzle is slightly over-expanded, meaning that the static pressure of the gases exiting the nozzle is less than the ambient air pressure. The higher ambient pressure compresses the flow, and since the resulting pressure increase in the exhaust gas stream is adiabatic, a reduction in velocity causes its static temperature to be substantially increased. The exhaust is generally over-expanded at low altitudes, where air pressure is higher. As the flow exits the nozzle, ambient air pressure will compress the flow. The external compression is caused by oblique shock waves inclined at an angle to the flow. The compressed flow is alternately expanded by Prandtl-Meyer expansion fans, and each "diamond" is formed by the pairing of an oblique shock with an expansion fan. When the compressed flow becomes parallel to the center line, a shock wave perpendicular to the flow forms, called a normal shock wave or Mach disk. This locates the first shock diamond, and the space between it and the nozzle is called the "zone of silence". The distance from the nozzle to the first shock diamond can be approximated by where x is the distance, D0 is the nozzle diameter, P0 is flow pressure, and P1 is atmospheric pressure. As the exhaust passes through the normal shock wave, its temperature increases, igniting excess fuel and causing the glow that makes the shock diamonds visible. The illuminated regions either appear as disks or diamonds, giving them their name. Eventually the flow expands enough so that its pressure is again below ambient, at which point the expansion fan reflects from the contact discontinuity (the outer edge of the flow). The reflected waves, called the compression fan, cause the flow to compress. If the compression fan is strong enough, another oblique shock wave will form, creating a second Mach disk and shock diamond. The pattern of disks and diamonds would repeat indefinitely if the gases were ideal and frictionless; however, turbulent shear at the contact discontinuity causes the wave pattern to dissipate with distance. Diamond patterns can similarly form when a nozzle is under-expanded (exit pressure higher than ambient), in lower atmospheric pressure at higher altitudes. In this case, the expansion fan is first to form, followed by the oblique shock. Alternative sources Shock diamonds are most commonly associated with jet and rocket propulsion, but they can form in other systems. Natural gas pipeline blowdowns Shock diamonds can be seen during gas pipeline blowdowns because the gas is under high pressure and exits the blowdown valve at extreme speeds. Artillery When artillery pieces are fired, gas exits the cannon muzzle at supersonic speeds and produces a series of shock diamonds. The diamonds cause a bright muzzle flash which can expose the location of gun emplacements to the enemy. It was found that when the ratio between the flow pressure and atmospheric pressure is close, which can be achieved with a flash suppressor, the shock diamonds were greatly minimized. Adding a muzzle brake to the end of the muzzle balances the pressures and prevents shock diamonds. Radio jets Some radio jets, powerful jets of plasma that emanate from quasars and radio galaxies, are observed to have regularly-spaced knots of enhanced radio emissions. The jets travel at supersonic speed through a thin "atmosphere" of gas in space, so it is hypothesized that these knots are shock diamonds. See also Index of aviation articles Plume (hydrodynamics) Rocket engine nozzle References External links "Methane blast" - shock diamonds forming in NASA's methane engine built by XCOR Aerospace, NASA website, 4 May 2007 "Shock Diamonds and Mach Disks" - This link has useful diagrams. Aerospaceweb.org is a non-profit site operated by engineers and scientists in the aerospace field. Physical phenomena Shock waves Aerospace Aerodynamics

3602838

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memnonia%20quadrangle

Memnonia quadrangle

The Memnonia quadrangle is one of a series of 30 quadrangle maps of Mars used by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) Astrogeology Research Program. The Memnonia quadrangle is also referred to as MC-16 (Mars Chart-16). The quadrangle is a region of Mars that covers latitude -30° to 0° and longitude 135° to 180°. The western part of Memnonia is a highly cratered highland region that exhibits a large range of crater degradation. Memnonia includes these topographical regions of Mars: Arcadia Planitia Amazonis Planitia Lucus Planum Terra Sirenum Daedalia Planum Terra Cimmeria Recently, evidence of water was found in the area. Layered sedimentary rocks were found in the wall and floor of Columbus Crater. These rocks could have been deposited by water or by wind. Hydrated minerals were found in some of the layers, so water may have been involved. Many ancient river valleys including Mangala Vallis, have been found in the Memnonia quadrangle. Mangala appears to have begun with the formation of a graben, a set of faults that may have exposed an aquifer. Dark slope streaks and troughts (fossae) are present in this quadrangle. Part of the Medusae Fossae Formation is found in the Memnonia quadrangle. Layers Columbus Crater contains layers, also called strata. Many places on Mars show rocks arranged in layers. Sometimes the layers are of different colors. Light-toned rocks on Mars have been associated with hydrated minerals like sulfates. The Mars rover Opportunity examined such layers close-up with several instruments. Some layers are probably made up of fine particles because they seem to break up into fine dust. Other layers break up into large boulders so they are probably much harder. Basalt, a volcanic rock, is thought to in the layers that form boulders. Basalt has been identified on Mars in many places. Instruments on orbiting spacecraft have detected clay (also called phyllosilicate) in some layers. Recent research with an orbiting near-infrared spectrometer, which reveals the types of minerals present based on the wavelengths of light they absorb, found evidence of layers of both clay and sulfates in Columbus crater. This is exactly what would appear if a large lake had slowly evaporated. Moreover, because some layers contained gypsum, a sulfate which forms in relatively fresh water, life could have formed in the crater. Scientists are excited about finding hydrated minerals such as sulfates and clays on Mars because they are usually formed in the presence of water. Places that contain clays and/or other hydrated minerals would be good places to look for evidence of life. Rock can form layers in a variety of ways. Volcanoes, wind, or water can produce layers. Mangala Vallis Mangala Vallis is a major channel system that contains several basins which filled, then the overflow went through a series of spillways. One source of waters for the system was Memonia Fossae, but water also probably came from a large basin centered at 40 degrees S. Craters Impact craters generally have a rim with ejecta around them, in contrast volcanic craters usually do not have a rim or ejecta deposits. As craters get larger (greater than 10 km in diameter) they usually have a central peak. The peak is caused by a rebound of the crater floor following the impact. Sometimes craters will display layers. Since the collision that produces a crater is like a powerful explosion, rocks from deep underground are tossed unto the surface. Hence, craters can show us what lies deep under the surface. At times, bright rays surround craters because the impact has gone down to a bright layer of rocks, then thrown out the bright rocks on the darker surface. An image below from Mars Global Surveyor shows this. Ridges Ridges on Mars may be due to different causes. Long straight ridges are thought to be dikes. Curved and branched ridges may be examples of inverted topography, and groups of straight ridges that cross each other may be the result of impacts. These intersecting box-like ridges are called linear ridge networks. Linear ridge networks are found in various places on Mars in and around craters. Ridges often appear as mostly straight segments that intersect in a lattice-like manner. They are hundreds of meters long, tens of meters high, and several meters wide. It is thought that impacts created fractures in the surface, these fractures later acted as channels for fluids. Fluids cemented the structures. With the passage of time, surrounding material was eroded away, thereby leaving hard ridges behind. Yardangs Yardangs are common in some regions on Mars, especially in what's called the "Medusae Fossae Formation." They are formed by the action of wind on sand sized particles; hence they often point in the direction that the winds were blowing when they were formed. , Dark slope streaks Many places on Mars show dark slope streaks on steep slopes like crater walls. It seems that the youngest streaks are dark; they become lighter with age. Often they begin as a small narrow spot then widen and extend downhill for hundreds of meters. Several ideas have been advanced to explain the streaks. Some involve water. or even the growth of organisms. The streaks appear in areas covered with dust. Much of the Martian surface is covered with dust. Fine dust settles out of the atmosphere covering everything. We know a lot about this dust because the solar panels of Mars Rovers get covered with dust. The power of the Rovers has been saved many times by the wind, in the form of dust devils, that have cleared the panels and boosted the power. From these observations with the Rovers, we know that the process of dust coming out of the atmosphere then returning happens over and over. It is most generally accepted that the streaks represent avalanches of dust. The streaks appear in areas covered with dust. When a thin layer of dust is removed, the underlying surface is dark. Much of the Martian surface is covered with dust. Dust storms are frequent, especially when the spring season begins in the southern hemisphere. At that time, Mars is 40% closer to the sun. The orbit of Mars is much more elliptical then the Earth's. That is the difference between the farthest point from the sun and the closest point to the sun is very great for Mars, but only slight for the Earth. Also, every few years, the entire planet is engulfed in a global dust storm. When NASA's Mariner 9 craft arrived there, nothing could be seen through the dust storm. Other global dust storms have also been observed, since that time. Dark streaks can be seen in the image below taken with HiRISE of the central mound in Nicholson Crater. At least one streak in the image splits into two when encountering an obstacle. Research, published in January 2012 in Icarus, found that dark streaks were initiated by airblasts from meteorites traveling at supersonic speeds. The team of scientists was led by Kaylan Burleigh, an undergraduate at the University of Arizona. After counting some 65,000 dark streaks around the impact site of a group of 5 new craters, patterns emerged. The number of streaks was greatest closer to the impact site. So, the impact somehow probably caused the streaks. Also, the distribution of the streaks formed a pattern with two wings extending from the impact site. The curved wings resembled scimitars, curved knives. This pattern suggests that an interaction of airblasts from the group of meteorites shook dust loose enough to start dust avalanches that formed the many dark streaks. At first it was thought that the shaking of the ground from the impact caused the dust avalanches, but if that was the case the dark streaks would have been arranged symmetrically around the impacts, rather than being concentrated into curved shapes. Fossa on Mars Large troughs (long narrow depressions) are called fossae in the geographical language used for Mars. This term is derived from Latin; therefore fossa is singular and fossae is plural. Troughs form when the crust is stretched until it breaks. The stretching can be due to the large weight of a nearby volcano. A trough often has two breaks with a middle section moving down, leaving steep cliffs along the sides; such a trough is called a graben. Lake George, in northern New York State, is a lake that sits in a graben. Other ideas have been suggested for the formation of fossae. There is evidence that they are associated with dikes of magma. Magma might move along, under the surface, breaking the rock and more importantly melting ice. The resulting action would cause a crack to form at the surface. Dikes caused both by tectonic stretching (extension) and by dikes are found in Iceland. An example of a graben caused by a dike is shown below in the image Memnonia Fossae, as seen by HiRISE. It appears that the water started coming out of the surface to form Mangala Vallis when a graben was formed. Valles There is enormous evidence that water once flowed in river valleys on Mars. Images of curved channels have been seen in images from Mars spacecraft dating back to the early seventies with the Mariner 9 orbiter. Vallis (plural valles) is the Latin word for valley. It is used in planetary geology for the naming of landform features on other planets, including what could be old river valleys that were discovered on Mars, when probes were first sent to Mars. The Viking Orbiters caused a revolution in our ideas about water on Mars; huge river valleys were found in many areas. Space craft cameras showed that floods of water broke through dams, carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Some valles on Mars (Mangala Vallis, Athabasca Vallis, Granicus Vallis, and Tinjar Valles) clearly begin at graben. On the other hand, some of the large outflow channels begin in rubble-filled low areas called chaos or chaotic terrain. It has been suggested that massive amounts of water were trapped under pressure beneath a thick cryosphere (layer of frozen ground), then the water was suddenly released, perhaps when the cryosphere was broken by a fault. Lava flows Lava is common on Mars, as it is on many other planetary bodies. Fifty Years of Mars Imaging: from Mariner 4 to HiRISE On October 3, 2017, HiRISE acquired a picture of Mars in the Memnonia quadrangle of a spot that has been imaged by 7 different cameras on different spacecraft over the past 50 years. The pictures from the Red Planet started with one of the pictures from Mariner 4 in the summer of 1965. The following pictures show these pictures with their increasing resolution over the years. The resolution in the first image by Mariner 4 was 1.25 km/pixel; that compares to the approximate 50 cm/pixel resolution of HiRISE. More features of Memnonia quadrangle Other Mars quadrangles Interactive Mars map See also Climate of Mars Dark slope streaks Fossa (geology) Geology of Mars Groundwater on Mars HiRISE High Resolution Stereo Camera - HRSC HiWish program Impact crater Lakes on Mars List of quadrangles on Mars Linear ridge networks Lucus Planum Mariner 4 Mars Express Mars Global Surveyor Mars Orbiter Camera Mars Orbiter Mission 2001 Mars Odyssey MAVEN Thermal Emission Imaging System- THEMIS Viking program Vallis Valley networks (Mars) Water on Mars Yardang Yardangs on Mars References External links Lpi.usra.edu Ralphaeschliman.com Uapress.arizona.edu Mars

3605255

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Last%20Temptation%20of%20Homer

The Last Temptation of Homer

"The Last Temptation of Homer" is the ninth episode of the fifth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons. It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 9, 1993. In the episode, an attractive female employee named Mindy is hired at the nuclear power plant. Homer and Mindy find themselves attracted to each other after bonding over their shared interests of beer, donuts and television. Although Homer is tempted to sleep with Mindy, he remains faithful to his wife Marge. Meanwhile, Bart becomes an outcast after medical treatments make him look like a nerd. The episode was written by Frank Mula and directed by Carlos Baeza. It features cultural references to films such as The Wizard of Oz, It's A Wonderful Life, and A Christmas Carol. It did not get the usual amount of laughs at the test screenings, which made the staff worry the show was not as funny as they expected. Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics; guest star Michelle Pfeiffer was especially praised for her performance as Mindy, which was highlighted on Entertainment Weekly's list of the 16 best guest appearances on The Simpsons. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12.7, and was the highest-rated show on the Fox network the week it aired. Plot After Homer and his coworkers barely escape from a gas leak at the nuclear power plant, Homer's coworker is fired when he asks Mr. Burns to put in a real emergency exit after the one they had turned out to be painted on the wall. When Burns breaks numerous labor laws in hiring a replacement — such as hiring undocumented workers and ducks — the United States Department of Labor demands that he hire at least one female worker. A beautiful woman, Mindy Simmons, is hired and Homer falls in love with her. Barney advises Homer to talk to Mindy because they will most likely have nothing in common. To his horror, Homer finds they have exactly the same interests. Marge gets sick with a bad cold, which makes her unattractive to Homer. Bart is sent to an eye doctor, who finds Bart has a lazy eye and fits him with thick glasses he must wear for two weeks. A dermatologist treats Bart's dry scalp by matting his hair down with a medicated salve, parting his hair to both sides. He receives a pair of oversized shoes from the podiatrist to help his posture, and the otolaryngologist sprays his throat. These changes make Bart look and sound like a nerd, causing school bullies to pick on him. Bart eventually returns to school in his normal guise after his treatments end, but the bullies pummel him anyway. Homer decides to tell Mindy they should avoid each other because of their mutual attraction. However, they are chosen to represent the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant at the National Energy Convention in Capital City. After a romantic dinner as an award for winning the convention, Homer and Mindy return to their hotel room. Mindy tells Homer how she feels about him, but assures him that he can decide how far their relationship will go. Although he is very tempted by her, Homer declares his faithfulness to Marge. Mindy accepts his decision and leaves after they share a kiss. Later, Marge and Homer share a romantic evening together in the same room. Production The episode was written by Frank Mula and directed by Carlos Baeza. The idea was conceived by the then-show runner David Mirkin. When he was hired to work on The Simpsons, one of his goals was to study the aspect of Homer's character if he was "really tempted away" from Marge. Mirkin wanted to find out what would happen in a situation where Homer finds himself attracted to another woman. The Simpsons creator Matt Groening had previously written an episode for the show's third season, called "Colonel Homer", where Homer finds himself attracted to a country singer named Lurleen Lumpkin. In that episode, Lurleen immediately had a "crush" on Homer, but Homer was not aware of it until later on. With this episode, Mirkin wanted Homer to immediately know he was attracted to Mindy. Mirkin thought it was a "great exploration" to see what happened to Homer in this particular case. The episode did not get the usual amount of laughs at the animatic test screening, which made the staff worry it was not as funny as they expected. Mirkin said it had to do with the fact that because there were very "subtle" performances in the episode, the animation had to be "exactly right" for it to be funny. Baeza and David Silverman, another animation director on the show, worked "hard" on the episode. Mirkin said from the very beginning it was a "huge group effort" from both the writing and the animation staff. Many scenes in the animatic portrayed Mindy as flirty. Mirkin did not like this because the secret of the episode was Homer and Mindy are two good people who are thrown into the situation and "can't help that their libidos are going crazy upon seeing each other". He added that the two characters have "so much in common" that it is "not just a physical relationship, but a mental connection as well", and that Mindy is not a seductress but rather a woman just as nervous as Homer. Mirkin also pointed out that while Homer is being tempted by a "seemingly perfect" woman at work, his wife could not be more "imperfect" since she has got a cold and looks sick. "He's trying to connect with his family, but with Marge looking sick and Bart looking like a nerd, everything is just not working," Mirkin said. American actress Michelle Pfeiffer provided the voice of Mindy Simmons in the episode. All the writers showed up at the recording studio in West Los Angeles to see her record her lines. When Pfeiffer entered the room with her daughter, Pfeiffer was "mobbed" by the energy of the writers and directors, who were excited to see her. Mirkin, who directed Pfeiffer in the studio, was nervous because he thought she was a beautiful woman who was on a "completely different level" than the other actors and actresses he had directed on the show. Pfeiffer was also nervous because she had never voiced an animated character. Mirkin told her: "You're gonna love this more than anything you have ever done because it's calm and pleasant, and we have so much time to play and experiment." This helped her calm down and by the end of the session, she was "really relaxed" and they had a "fantastic" time. Silverman told Pfeiffer to not sound too flirty, and that she should just act herself. In one scene in the episode, Mindy drools as she eats doughnuts, much like Homer does. To get the right drool sound, Pfeiffer put broccoli and water in her mouth. Mirkin said he did not have to give much direction during the recording of Homer and Mindy's final scene together, in which Mindy tells Homer how she feels about him. Pfeiffer "hit it really well" and they did it several times to get it "more and more real". Mirkin also thought that Pfeiffer completely understood the part and played it perfectly. He described her as "one of those actresses that you don't even have to see to know they're great, instead you can hear from her voice what a brilliant actress she is." Dan Castellaneta was also praised by Mirkin for his performance as Homer. Castellaneta struggled to be "sweet" and "moving" in his performance. When Homer calls a marriage counseling hotline in the episode, he accidentally knocks himself unconscious in the phone booth. In a dream, he is approached by his guardian angel. The angel initially takes the form of Isaac Newton, but since Homer has no idea who that is, instead takes the form of Colonel Klink, then shows Homer what his life would be like without Marge (in the style of It's A Wonderful Life). Colonel Klink is a character on the American television series Hogan's Heroes. Klink's actor in Hogan's Heroes, Werner Klemperer, provided the voice of Klink in this episode. Mirkin said Klemperer was a "fantastic sport" to do the character. Since Hogan's Heroes had gone off the air in 1971, he had forgotten how to play Klink. Mirkin therefore had to do an impression of Klink that Klemperer could imitate to get it right. This cameo was Klemperer's last credited role before his death in 2000. Cultural references The title is a reference to the 1988 film "The Last Temptation of Christ". When Homer first meets Mindy, he imagines her as Venus in Sandro Botticelli's painting The Birth of Venus. To deal with Homer and Mindy charging room service to the company, Mr. Burns unleashes flying monkeys in the manner of the Wicked Witch of the West, as seen in the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz. However, the attempt fails as the monkeys all fall to their deaths. The scene where Homer meets his guardian angel in the guise of Isaac Newton (who changes into Colonel Klink from Hogan's Heroes because Homer has no idea who Newton is), wondering what his life would have been like if he married Mindy and not Marge, draws from the films It's A Wonderful Life and A Christmas Carol. When Homer meets Mindy in the elevator, he thinks "unsexy thoughts" to avoid being seduced by her. He imagines Barney in a bikini and humming the theme tune to the American sitcom I Dream of Jeannie. At home, Homer watches a TV show about the 'secret affairs' of Kennedy, Eisenhower, Bush and Clinton. Homer attempts to read the notes for Mindy that he wrote on his hand, but they have smeared out because of sweat. In his attempt, Homer unknowingly babbles the Nam Myoho Renge Kyo, a Japanese Buddhist chant in Nichiren Buddhism and Soka Gakkai. This is a reference to an Akbar and Jeff cartoon, written by Matt Groening, in which the same mantra is used. When Homer notices the sweat, he says he is "sweating like [film critic] Roger Ebert". In the bathroom, Homer sings a rough version of the song "Mandy" by Barry Manilow, replacing "Mandy" with "Mindy"; when Homer panics upon realizing Lisa heard him singing and tries to cover the song up, Lisa glumly says "It sounds like you're infatuated with a woman named Mindy. (pause) Or a man named Andy." Homer refers to comic strip Ziggy when he wonders if Mindy agrees the title character has become "too preachy". Barry White's song "Can't Get Enough of Your Love, Babe" is played in the episode's final scene where Homer and Marge make out at the hotel room; the song was previously featured in the fourth season episode "Whacking Day". Reception Critical reception Since airing, the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics. In 2003, it was placed tenth on Entertainment Weekly's top 25 The Simpsons episode list, and The Daily Telegraph characterized the episode as one of "The 10 Best Simpsons Television Episodes". Nancy Basile of About.com named it one of her top twenty favorite episodes of the show, and said Michelle Pfeiffer "is so elegant and beautiful, that the irony of her playing a burping love interest for Homer Simpson is funny enough." She added "the thorny issue of adultery is tackled in a way only The Simpsons could," and "though Homer is contemplating cheating, he's a sympathetic and almost innocent character." During a review of the 2008 episode "Dangerous Curves", Robert Canning of IGN called the episode "smart, touching and funny", and said "it did a great job showing Homer's struggle to deal with the flirtations of a co-worker." The authors of the book I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, called it a "wonderfully scripted episode". DVD Movie Guide's Colin Jacobson said, "Given Homer’s utter devotion to Marge, it may seem off-character for him to fall for Mindy, but the show makes it fit, as his obsession doesn’t come across as inconsistent." He added the plot with Bart becoming a nerd is the "funnier one" of the two. Bill Gibron of DVD Talk called it a "jest fest loaded with insight into the human heart and hilarious over-the-top goofiness." TV DVD Reviews's Kay Daly called it the season's finest episode with the "greatest foray into emotional resonance". Matt Groening thought it was an amazing episode with "a lot of fun" in it. David Mirkin said Frank Mula's script was great. In a 2008 article, Entertainment Weekly named Pfeiffer's role as Mindy one of the 16 best guest appearances on The Simpsons. She also appeared on AOL's list of their top favorite guest stars on the show. Brett Buckalew of Metromix Indianapolis wrote that Pfeiffer "gives arguably the best celebrity guest-vocal performance in series history." Total Film'''s Nathan Ditum ranked her performance as the 15th best guest appearance in the show's history. When the inspectors visit the plant, they mention finding an entire Brazilian soccer team working there, and Burns says that they have to because their plane crashed on his property. This scene was mentioned by various media outlets after the 2016 disaster that killed most players on the Brazilian team Chapecoense. Ratings In its original American broadcast, "The Last Temptation of Homer" finished 24th (tied with The Fresh Prince of Bel Air'') in the ratings for the week of December 6–12, 1993. It acquired a Nielsen rating of 12.7. The episode was the highest-rated show on the Fox network that week. References External links The Simpsons (season 5) episodes 1993 American television episodes Television episodes about adultery Cultural depictions of Isaac Newton

3606454

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krystyna%20Chojnowska-Liskiewicz

Krystyna Chojnowska-Liskiewicz

Krystyna Chojnowska-Liskiewicz (15 July 1936 – 13 June 2021) was a Polish naval engineer and sailor as well as the first woman to have sailed single-handed (i.e. solo) around the world, repeating the accomplishment of Joshua Slocum. She sailed from the Canary Islands on 28 March 1976, and returned there on 21 April 1978, completing a circumnavigation of 31,166 nautical miles (57,719 km) in 401 days. The boat Krystyna Chojnowska-Liskiewicz carried out her westabout (east to west) voyage on Mazurek, a Conrad 32 sloop built in Poland. Mazurek was 9.51 metres (31.2 ft) long, with a beam of 2.70 metres (8.86 ft) and a sail area of 35 square metres (376.7 ft²). Mazurek's construction team was headed by Chojnowska-Liskiewicz's husband. The voyage She set sail from the Canary Islands on 28 February 1976, crossing the Atlantic Ocean to Barbados. She then sailed through the Caribbean Sea to the Panama Canal, and hence to the Pacific Ocean. After crossing the Pacific, Chojnowska-Liskiewicz sailed via Tahiti and Fiji to Australia, and then west across the Indian Ocean via Mauritius. After passing the Cape of Good Hope, she sailed north, and crossed her outbound track on 20 March 1978 at latitude 16° 08.5' north and longitude 35° 50' west. Chojnowska-Liskiewicz completed her voyage when she entered the port of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria on 21 April 1978, having sailed in 401 days. On 18 June 1978, she returned to Poland, where, after a period of relative obscurity, she is again seen as a national hero. Other contenders for the title In completing her voyage, Chojnowska-Liskiewicz only narrowly beat Naomi James, who completed her own single-handed circumnavigation on 8 June 1978. James' voyage is itself notable, however; she completed a fast (although not non-stop) circumnavigation in just 272 days, thus improving on Sir Francis Chichester's solo round-the-world sailing record by two days. She also became the first woman to single-handedly sail the clipper route, eastabout and south of the three great capes, starting and finishing in the English Channel (a requirement for speed records). In 1988, Kay Cottee of Australia became the first woman to complete a non-stop single-handed circumnavigation, on Blackmore's First Lady. Orders Polonia Restituta Commander's Cross References Bibliography Krystyna Chojnowska-Liskiewicz - Polish Sailing Encyclopedia External links Information on the yacht Mazurek - Polish Sailing Encyclopedia 1936 births Polish female sailors (sport) Single-handed circumnavigating sailors 2021 deaths Sportspeople from Warsaw People from Ostróda

3606916

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congratulations%3A%2050%20Years%20of%20the%20Eurovision%20Song%20Contest

Congratulations: 50 Years of the Eurovision Song Contest

Congratulations: 50 Years of the Eurovision Song Contest was a television programme organised by the European Broadcasting Union (EBU) to commemorate the Eurovision Song Contest's fiftieth anniversary and to determine the contest's most popular entrant of its fifty years. Hosted by Katrina Leskanich and Renārs Kaupers, the event took place at Forum, in Copenhagen on 22 October 2005. The host was Danish broadcaster DR. Fourteen songs from the contest's first half-century, chosen through an internet poll and by a jury, contested the event. Thirty-one EBU-member countries broadcast the concert (although notably , and the did not) and televoting and juries in these countries decided the winner. A total of 2.5 million votes were cast during the live broadcast. The event was won by Swedish group ABBA, who did not attend, with the song "Waterloo"; the band had originally won the Contest for Sweden in 1974. To coincide with the event, the EBU released two double album CDs featuring Eurovision songs from the previous fifty years. Two DVDs with original Eurovision performances of these songs were also released. Organisation In November 2002, Jürgen Meier-Beer from the Reference Group of the EBU announced plans to organize a special jubilee programme in 2005 to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Eurovision Song Contest. At the time no host broadcaster was announced, with German broadcaster Norddeutscher Rundfunk (NDR) and the Dutch broadcasting organization Nederlandse Omroep Stichting (NOS) reportedly as potential hosts. Change of host broadcaster In June 2004, the EBU announced that it was to hold a concert to celebrate fifty years of the contest. The event was to be held on 16 October 2005 at the Royal Albert Hall in London, England. The BBC was to be the host broadcaster for the concert. The Royal Albert Hall was reportedly unavailable, so in August 2004 the EBU announced that DR would stage the event instead. Eurovision Song Contest supervisor Svante Stockselius said that Denmark's previous experience of hosting Eurovision events (the 2001 Contest and the first Junior Eurovision Song Contest in 2003) were influential in the Union's choice. The event was codenamed Extravaganza. 1998 Eurovision winner Dana International, who appeared at the event, later went to suggest that the reason behind the change of host country was also due to the fact that the BBC wanted to present the show "with humour" as though to poke fun at the Contest, an idea that proved to be less popular with the EBU. The BBC ended up not broadcasting the show from Copenhagen, and went on to broadcast their own 50th anniversary programme, Boom Bang-a-Bang: 50 Years of Eurovision, in May 2006. The programme featured archive footage and highlights of past contests, along with a performance of that year's UK entry by Daz Sampson and was hosted by Terry Wogan. Selection of venue and hosts On 25 October 2004 Copenhagen was confirmed as the host city for the event, which was now scheduled to take place on 22 October 2005. In May 2005 Congratulations was confirmed as the official name of the concert. A month later DR announced that Forum Copenhagen would host the programme. The chosen venue had previously hosted the first edition of the Junior Eurovision Song Contest. On 9 September 2005, DR announced that Katrina Leskanich and Renārs Kaupers would present the concert. Leskanich was the lead singer of Katrina and The Waves, who won the Contest for the United Kingdom in . Kaupers is the lead singer of Latvian group Brainstorm, who represented on its debut in the Contest in . Tickets for the event went on sale on 22 August 2005 from 10:00 (CET) and sold out in just over one hour. The event was attended by an audience of 6,000. Participating songs Fourteen songs competed in Congratulations. In May 2005, the EBU opened a poll on its website to decide ten songs that would contest the event. Voters chose their two favourite songs from each of five decades: 1956 to 1965, 1966 to 1975, 1976 to 1985, 1986 to 1995 and 1996 to 2005. The remaining four songs would be selected by the EBU's Reference Group. On 16 June 2005 the fourteen chosen songs were announced, although no indication was given as to which had been chosen online and which by the Reference Group. Eleven of the fourteen songs were Eurovision winners; only "Nel blu, dipinto di blu", "Congratulations" and "Eres tú" (which all finished in the top three at the contest) were not. Two countries, the and , were represented twice on the list. Johnny Logan, who won the contest twice for Ireland as a singer, had both of his songs featured on the list. First round All 31 countries broadcasting the contest voted in the first round. The five songs that are marked in orange qualified to the second and final round. Second round All 31 countries broadcasting the contest voted in the second round. Scoreboard Both juries and televoting were used at Congratulations; both having an equal influence over the vote. In the first round of voting, the number of songs was reduced to five. Each country awarded points from one to eight, then ten and finally twelve for their ten most popular songs. Unlike in the Contest proper, viewers were allowed to vote for songs which had represented their country. The top five songs were then subjected to another round of voting, where only six points and above were awarded. The voting was conducted in private, and the results were not announced until after the show. The song with the most points in the second round was the winner. The full scoreboard is as follows: First round 12 points Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points each country awarded in the first round: Second round 12 points Below is a summary of the maximum 12 points each country awarded in the second round: Performances The show started with the traditional Eurovision "Te Deum" theme followed by a message from Cliff Richard. After a quick montage of all 14 songs, the orchestra began playing "Ding-a-Dong" (Netherlands 1975), with dancers on stage. "A-Ba-Ni-Bi" (Israel 1978), "Le dernier qui a parlé..." (France 1991), and "Dschinghis Khan" (Germany 1979) was also played and accompanied by choreography, which was then followed by "Love Shine a Light" (UK 1997) sung by the co-host, Katrina Leskanich, who came out with flag holders of all the countries that have participated in Eurovision up to that point. Throughout the telecast, a number of highlights segments were presented which showed montages of various Eurovision performances which were either interesting, notable or unorthodox. There were 6 assortments, which were under the categories described by the hosts as 'past winners', 'political, daring, larger than life', 'cute men', 'unforgettable interpretation of dance', 'girlpower' and 'close/narrow second-place finishers'. A number of former Eurovision artists returned to help introduce and present the show, including Carola Häggkvist, Massiel, Dana International, Birthe Wilke, Anne-Marie David, Sandra Kim, Elisabeth Andreassen, Hanne Krogh, Olsen Brothers, Emilija Kokić, Marie Myriam, Sertab Erener, Helena Paparizou, Nicole and Hugo, Cheryl Baker and Lys Assia. Cliff Richard and Nicole gave pre-recorded messages as they were unable to attend. During the show, there were many presentations by various guest artists during the voting and tallying period. These consisted of the Finnish shouting choir Mieskuoro Huutajat, Riverdance (the 1994 interval act), Ronan Keating (the 1997 co-host), and Johnny Logan, singing his new single "When a Woman Loves a Man", as well as an appearance by the Belgian duo of 1973, Nicole and Hugo. There were three medleys, consisting of performances of past Eurovision songs. The first consisted of : Dana International, singing "Parlez-vous Francais" (originally performed by Baccara for Luxembourg in Eurovision Song Contest 1978); Carola Haggkvist, singing "Främling" (1983, 3rd place); Alsou, singing "Solo" (2000, 2nd); Fabrizio Faniello, singing "Another Summer Night" (2001, 9th); Marie Myriam, singing "L'amour est bleu" (originally performed by Vicky Leandros for Luxembourg in 1967); Richard Herrey, singing "Let Me Be the One" (originally performed by The Shadows for United Kingdom in 1975); and Thomas Thordarson, singing "Vi maler byen rød" (originally performed by Birthe Kjær for Denmark in 1989). The second consisted of: Gali Atari, singing "Hallelujah" (1979, winner); Bobbysocks!, singing "La det swinge" (1985, winner); Anne-Marie David, singing "Après toi" (originally sung by Vicky Leandros for Luxembourg in 1972, winner); Lys Assia, singing "Refrain" (1956, winner), Sandra Kim singing "Non ho l'età" (originally sung by Gigliola Cinquetti for Italy in 1964, winner) and Bucks Fizz singing "Making Your Mind Up" (1981, winner). The final medley was sung by Eimear Quinn, Charlie McGettigan, Jakob Sveistrup and Linda Martin, the Eurovision winners of 1996, 1994 and 1992, and (in Sveistrup's case), the 2005 Danish representative. All four acted as backup singers during the show. They were also joined by the Olsen Brothers for a brief, Eurovision-themed version of their song "Walk Right Back". Medleys Opening medley : "Ding-a-dong" by Teach-In : "A-Ba-Ni-Bi" by Izhar Cohen and the Alphabeta : "Le Dernier qui a parlé..." by Amina : "Dschinghis Khan" by Dschinghis Khan : "Love Shine a Light" by Katrina and the Waves Winners of Eurovision : "Refrain" by Lys Assia : "Een beetje" by Teddy Scholten : "Dansevise" by Grethe and Jørgen Ingmann : "Merci, Chérie" by Udo Jürgens : "Vivo cantando" by Salomé : "All Kinds of Everything" by Dana : "Tu te reconnaîtras" by Anne-Marie David : "L'Oiseau et l'Enfant" by Marie Myriam : "Making Your Mind Up" by Bucks Fizz : "Diggi-Loo Diggi-Ley" by Herreys : "In Your Eyes" by Niamh Kavanagh : "Nocturne" by Secret Garden : "Take Me to Your Heaven" by Charlotte Nilsson : "I Wanna" by Marie N Unforgettable performances : "Sámiid ædnan" by Sverre Kjelsberg and Mattis Hætta : "Making Your Mind Up" by Bucks Fizz : Host Lill Lindfors suffering a wardrobe malfunction live in the show. : "Wadde hadde dudde da?" by Stefan Raab : "Euro-Vision" by Telex : "Sameach" by PingPong : "Razom nas bahato" by GreenJolly : "I Wanna" by Marie N : "Samo ljubezen" by Sestre : "Minn hinsti dans" by Paul Oscar : "In My Dreams" by Wig Wam : "Pump-Pump" by Fredi and the Friends : "Baby, Baby" by Nicole and Hugo : "Wenn du da bist" by Marty Brem : "Shir Habatlanim" by Datner and Kushnir : "Brazil" by Bebi Dol : "When Spirits Are Calling My Name" by Roger Pontare : "Trödler und Co" by Peter, Sue and Marc, Pfuri, Gorps and Kniri : "Je suis un vrai garçon" by Nina Morato : "Guildo hat euch lieb!" by Guildo Horn : "Boonika bate doba" by Zdob și Zdub : "Weil der Mensch zählt" by Alf Poier : "Skibet skal sejle i nat" by Birthe Wilke and Gustav Winckler Men in Eurovision : "Printemps, avril carillonne" by Jean-Paul Mauric : "Llámame" by Víctor Balaguer : "Jennifer Jennings" by Louis Neefs : "Stress" by Odd Børre : "Gwendolyne" by Julio Iglesias : "Varjoon – suojaan" by Fredi : "Jij en ik" by Bill van Dijk : "Ring-A-Ding Girl" by Ronnie Carroll : "Se piangi, se ridi" by Bobby Solo : "Natati La Khayay" by Poogy : "Baby, Baby" by Nicole and Hugo : "Fleur de liberté" by Jacques Hustin : "Chansons pour ceux qui s'aiment" by Jürgen Marcus : "Wohin, kleines Pony?" by Bob Martin : "Non so che darei" by Alan Sorrenti : "Come Back to Stay" by Dickie Rock : "Just nu!" by Tomas Ledin : "Der K und K Kalypso aus Wien" by Ferry Graf : "Kolybelnaya dlya vulkana" by Philipp Kirkorov : "Tænker altid på dig" by Bamses Venner : "Venedig im Regen" by Thomas Forstner : "Gleðibankinn" by ICY : "Singing This Song" by Renato Dancing in Eurovision : "Heute Abend wollen wir tanzen geh'n" by Alice and Ellen Kessler : "Rendez-vous" by Pas de Deux : "Stop – mens legen er go'" by Ulla Pia : "Şarkım Sevgi Üstüne" by Seyyal Taner and Lokomotif : "Telegram" by Silver Convention : "One Step Further" by Bardo : "Boom Boom Boomerang" by Schmetterlinge : "Parlez-vous français ?" by Baccara : "Dschinghis Khan" by Dschinghis Khan : "Sonntag" by Mess : "Enséñame a cantar" by Micky : "Krøller eller ej" by Tommy Seebach and Debbie Cameron : "Baby, Baby" by Nicole and Hugo : "I'm Never Giving Up" by Sweet Dreams : "Kloden drejer" by Gry Johansen : "Bra vibrationer" by Kikki Danielsson : "Bem bom" by Doce : "Romeo" by Ketil Stokkan : "The Wages of Love" by Muriel Day : "S.A.G.A.P.O." by Michalis Rakintzis : "À chaque pas" by Jonatan Cerrada : "Džuli" by Daniel : "Only the Light" by Rikki : "Shake It" by Sakis Rouvas : "Fernando en Filippo" by Milly Scott Women in Eurovision : "En gång i Stockholm" by Monica Zetterlund : "Estando contigo" by Conchita Bautista : "Bandido" by Azúcar Moreno : "Ein Lied kann eine Brücke sein" by Joy Fleming : "Vrede" by Ruth Jacott : "I anixi" by Sophia Vossou : "¿Quién maneja mi barca?" by Remedios Amaya : "Ooh Aah... Just a Little Bit" by Gina G : "Primadonna" by Alla Pugacheva : "Intet er nytt under solen" by Åse Kleveland : "Boum-Badaboum" by Minouche Barelli : "Desfolhada portuguesa" by Simone de Oliveira : "¡Qué bueno, qué bueno!" by Conchita Bautista : "Everything I Want" by Vesna Pisarović : "Never Let You Go" by Mando : "Baby, Baby" by Nicole and Hugo : "Mata Hari" by Anne-Karine Strøm : "Il doit faire beau là-bas" by Noëlle Cordier : "Rapsodia" by Mia Martini : "Marija Magdalena" by Doris Dragović : "Ele e ela" by Madalena Iglésias : "Un banc, un arbre, une rue" by Séverine : "'t Is genoeg" by Conny Vandenbos : "Voltarei" by Dora Eurovision favourites : "Parlez-vous français ?" (English version) by Baccara (performed by Dana International) : "Främling" by Carola : "Solo" by Alsou : "Another Summer Night" by Fabrizio Faniello : "L'amour est bleu" by Vicky Leandros (performed by Marie Myriam) : "Let Me Be the One" by The Shadows (performed by Richard Herrey) : "Vi maler byen rød" by Birthe Kjær (performed by Tomas Thordarson) Eurovision winners medley : "Hallelujah" (English version) by Gali Atari (of Milk and Honey) : "La det swinge" by Bobbysocks! : "Après toi" by Anne-Marie David : "Refrain" by Lys Assia : "Non ho l'età" by Gigliola Cinquetti (performed by Sandra Kim) : "Making Your Mind Up" by Bucks Fizz (Cheryl Baker, Mike Nolan and Shelley Preston) Second places : "Un, deux, trois" by Catherine Ferry : "Beg, Steal or Borrow" by The New Seekers : "Are You Sure?" by The Allisons : "Su canción" by Betty Missiego : "Lass die Sonne in dein Herz" by Wind : "Le Dernier qui a parlé..." by Amina : "Johnny Blue" by Lena Valaitis : "Hora" by Avi Toledano : "T'en va pas" by Esther Ofarim : "Vuelve conmigo" by Anabel Conde : "Giorgio" by Lys Assia : "All Out of Luck" by Selma : "White and Black Blues" by Joëlle Ursull : "Nygammal vals" by Lill Lindfors and Svante Thuresson : "Never Ever Let You Go" by Rollo and King : "I evighet" by Elisabeth Andreassen Medley "backing vocals" : "The Voice" performed by Eimear Quinn : "Rock 'n' Roll Kids" performed by Charlie McGettigan and Jakob Sveistrup : "Talking to You" performed by Jakob Sveistrup : "Why Me?" performed by Linda Martin Broadcasts A total of thirty-five countries broadcast the event, but only thirty-one participated in the voting. Viewing figures Non-participating countries Countries that have previously competed but were not involved with the broadcast or voting of the contest; The BBC (UK), RAI (Italy) and France Télévisions chose not to broadcast the event. Søren Therkelsen, the commissioning editor of the event, said he was "disappointed" at the broadcasters' decision not to transmit the show. The BBC chose not to carry the event as it was "too remote" for British audiences. Official album To coincide with the broadcast of the programme, an official compilation album for the 50th anniversary titled The Very Best of the Eurovision Song Contest (also known as Congratulations: 50 Years of the Eurovision Song Contest), was put together by the European Broadcasting Union and released by CMC International on 21 October 2005. The compilation featured over 100 songs, including all Eurovision Song Contest winners from 1956 until 2005 and a selection of all-time favourites, that was divided into 2 separate double CDs: 1956–1980 and 1981–2005. The 22-page booklet includes information about the entries, contestants and venues. Notes References External links 2005 song contests 2005 in music Television shows about the Eurovision Song Contest Eurovision Song Contest 2005 2005 in Copenhagen October 2005 events in Europe Events in Copenhagen Anniversaries Nostalgia television shows

3609096

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Funny%20Thing%20Happened%20on%20the%20Way%20to%20the%20Moon

A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Moon

A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Moon is a 2001 film written, produced and directed by Nashville-based filmmaker Bart Sibrel. Sibrel is a proponent of the conspiracy theory that the six Apollo Moon landing missions between 1969 and 1972 were elaborate hoaxes perpetrated by the United States government, including NASA. The film is narrated by British stage actress Anne Tonelson. Overview Sibrel claims that the Moon landing was a hoax, making claims about supposed photographic anomalies; disasters such as the destruction of Apollo 1; technical difficulties experienced in the 1950s and 1960s; and the problems of traversing the Van Allen radiation belts. Sibrel proposes that the most condemning evidence is a piece of footage that he claims was secret, and inadvertently sent to him by NASA; he alleges that the footage shows Apollo 11 astronauts attempting to create the illusion that they were from Earth (or roughly halfway to the Moon) when, he claims, they were only in a low Earth orbit. The film also asserts that NASA's early inexperience in rocket technology and inconsistencies in NASA's records could point to a possible hoax, and that the Space Race was actually a race to develop armaments with the huge budget allocated to the Apollo missions. The film's premise is that NASA perpetrated a fraud because of the perception that if the United States could land men on the Moon before the Soviet Union, it would be a major victory in the Cold War, since the Soviets had been the first to achieve a successful space launch (Sputnik 1 in 1957), the first crewed space flight (Vostok 1 in 1961), and the first spacewalk (Voskhod 2 in 1965). Criticisms Amanda Hess of The New York Times characterized the film as a "quasi-investigation". She referred to the film as a documentary, in scare quotes, and to Sibrel as a "sincere kook", writing: "[A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Moon] mashed up moon footage with ominous shots from the Soviet Union and Vietnam, was narrated by a severe British woman and was sold on a website called MoonMovie.com." Jim McDade, writing in The Birmingham News, wrote that A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Moon is "full of falsehoods, innuendo, strident accusations, half-truths, flawed logic and premature conclusions." According to McDade, the "only thing new and weird" in the film is that the claim that video views of Earth were actually filmed through a small hole to give the impression that Apollo 11 was not in low Earth orbit. "Bart has misinterpreted things that are immediately obvious to anyone who has extensively read Apollo history and documentation or anyone who has ever been inside an Apollo Command Module or accurate mockup", says McDade. See also Astronauts Gone Wild Moon landing conspiracy theories References External links 2001 films American documentary films Films about Apollo 11 Moon landing conspiracy theories Documentary films about conspiracy theories 2000s English-language films 2000s American films

3611353

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Monday%20%281894%29

Black Monday (1894)

The Newfoundland Bank Crash of 1894, known as Black Monday, was one of the turning points in Newfoundland's pre-Confederation history. The financial woes of the former British colony were worsened when two of the colony's commercial banks, the Union Bank of Newfoundland (established in 1854) and the Commercial Bank of Newfoundland (established in 1858), both located in St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada, closed their doors to the public on December 10, 1894. Fish merchants sat on the boards of directors of both banks and had approved large and risky loans to themselves, which left the banks with dangerously-low cash reserves leading into the crash. London banks suspended credit to the Commercial Bank of Newfoundland and requested payment on some of its loans. It was unable to meet these demands and was forced to close two days later. A bank run ensued on both the Union and the Savings Banks. The government-run Savings bank was able to weather the storm, but the Union was forced to close that day, never to reopen. Aftermath The crash had a disastrous effect on commerce and employment in the colony. Many families were left destitute. The crash brought Newfoundland to the brink of bankruptcy and resulted in the Canada Newfoundland Confederation talks. It also highlighted the weakness of its economy and the truck credit system on which it depended. Over a million dollars in bank notes from both the Commercial and Union banks were rendered worthless, at least temporarily. Savings accounts suddenly decreased in value and the country was in danger of defaulting in its public debt. The banks' directors were arrested and charged with larceny and conspiracy (they were all acquitted in 1897). Unemployed workers held street demonstrations demanding food and jobs. The government faced growing instability and went through three prime ministers in two months. Canadian banks began arriving within two weeks of the crash: the Bank of Nova Scotia, the Bank of Montreal, the Canadian Bank of Commerce, and the Merchant's Bank of Halifax (now the Royal Bank of Canada). The Bank of Montreal accepted the government's account in early 1895, and the country adopted Canadian currency in January of that year. It was the beginning of heavy involvement by Canadian banks in the Newfoundland economy, which was an important factor in Newfoundland eventually joining Confederation in 1949. External links Newfoundland and Labrador Heritage Newfoundland Museum Notes - Newfoundland Banking Institutions and Currency 1894 in North America Bank failures History of St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador Pre-Confederation Newfoundland 1894 in economics Financial history of Canada Financial crises 1890s in Newfoundland 1894 in the British Empire

3613493

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quasi-Zenith%20Satellite%20System

Quasi-Zenith Satellite System

The Quasi-Zenith Satellite System (QZSS), also known as , is a four-satellite regional satellite navigation system and a satellite-based augmentation system developed by the Japanese government to enhance the United States-operated Global Positioning System (GPS) in the Asia-Oceania regions, with a focus on Japan. The goal of QZSS is to provide highly precise and stable positioning services in the Asia-Oceania region, compatible with GPS. Four-satellite QZSS services were available on a trial basis as of 12 January 2018, and officially started on 1 November 2018. A satellite navigation system independent of GPS is planned for 2023 with seven satellites. In May 2023 it was announced that the system would expand to eleven satellites. History In 2002, the Japanese government authorized the development of QZSS, as a three-satellite regional time transfer system and a satellite-based augmentation system for the United States operated Global Positioning System (GPS) to be receivable within Japan. A contract was awarded to Advanced Space Business Corporation (ASBC), that began concept development work, and Mitsubishi Electric, Hitachi, and GNSS Technologies Inc. However, ASBC collapsed in 2007, and the work was taken over by the Satellite Positioning Research and Application Center (SPAC), which is owned by four Japanese government departments: the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications, the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism. The first satellite "Michibiki" was launched on 11 September 2010. Full operational status was expected by 2013. In March 2013, Japan's Cabinet Office announced the expansion of QZSS from three satellites to four. The US$526 million contract with Mitsubishi Electric for the construction of three satellites was scheduled for launch before the end of 2017. The third satellite was launched into orbit on 19 August 2017, and the fourth was launched on 10 October 2017. The basic four-satellite system was announced as operational on 1 November 2018. Orbit QZSS uses one geostationary satellite and three satellites in Tundra-type highly inclined, slightly elliptical, geosynchronous orbits. Each orbit is 120° apart from the other two. Because of this inclination, they are not geostationary; they do not remain in the same place in the sky. Instead, their ground traces are asymmetrical figure-8 patterns (analemmas), designed to ensure that one is almost directly overhead (elevation 60° or more) over Japan at all times. The nominal orbital elements are: Satellites QZSS and positioning augmentation The primary purpose of QZSS is to increase the availability of GPS in Japan's numerous urban canyons, where only satellites at very high elevation can be seen. A secondary function is performance enhancement, increasing the accuracy and reliability of GPS derived navigation solutions. The Quasi-Zenith Satellites transmit signals compatible with the GPS L1C/A signal, as well as the modernized GPS L1C, L2C signal and L5 signals. This minimizes changes to existing GPS receivers. Compared to standalone GPS, the combined system GPS plus QZSS delivers improved positioning performance via ranging correction data provided through the transmission of submeter-class performance enhancement signals L1-SAIF and LEX from QZSS. It also improves reliability by means of failure monitoring and system health data notifications. QZSS also provides other support data to users to improve GPS satellite acquisition. According to its original plan, QZSS was to carry two types of space-borne atomic clocks; a hydrogen maser and a rubidium (Rb) atomic clock. The development of a passive hydrogen maser for QZSS was abandoned in 2006. The positioning signal will be generated by a Rb clock and an architecture similar to the GPS timekeeping system will be employed. QZSS will also be able to use a Two-Way Satellite Time and Frequency Transfer (TWSTFT) scheme, which will be employed to gain some fundamental knowledge of satellite atomic standard behavior in space as well as for other research purposes. Signals and services The QZSS provides the following classes of public service: The PNT (Positioning, Navigation and Timing) service complements the signals used by the GPS system, essentially acting as extra satellites. The QZSS satellites sync their clocks with GPS satellites. The service broadcasts at frequency bands L1C/A, L1C, L2C, and L5C, the same as GPS. The SLAS (Sub-meter Level Augmentation) service provides a form of GNSS augmentation for GPS interoperable with other GPS-SBAS systems. The principle of operation is similar to that of, e.g. Wide Area Augmentation System. It transmits on L1. The CLAS (Centimeter Level Augmentation) service provides high-precision positioning compatible with the higher-precision E6 service of Galileo. The band is referred to as L6 or LEX, for "experimental". The MADOCA-PPP (Multi-GNSS Advanced Orbit and Clock Augmentation – Precise Point Positioning) service is a L6 augmentation service independent from CLAS. The DC Report (Satellite Report for Disaster and Crisis Management) service broadcasts on L1S and provides information on floods and earthquakes. The other classes of service are not publicly available: The PTV (Positioning Technology Verification) service broadcasts on L5S. The documentation only describes a "null" message type. The Q-ANPI (QZSS Safety Confirmation Service) is an authorized short message service. QZSS timekeeping and remote synchronization Although the first generation QZSS timekeeping system (TKS) will be based on the Rb clock, the first QZSS satellites will carry a basic prototype of an experimental crystal clock synchronization system. During the first half of the two year in-orbit test phase, preliminary tests will investigate the feasibility of the atomic clock-less technology which might be employed in the second generation QZSS. The mentioned QZSS TKS technology is a novel satellite timekeeping system which does not require on-board atomic clocks as used by existing navigation satellite systems such as BeiDou, Galileo, Global Positioning System (GPS), GLONASS or NavIC system. This concept is differentiated by the employment of a synchronization framework combined with lightweight steerable on-board clocks which act as transponders re-broadcasting the precise time remotely provided by the time synchronization network located on the ground. This allows the system to operate optimally when satellites are in direct contact with the ground station, making it suitable for a system like the Japanese QZSS. Low satellite mass and low satellite manufacturing and launch cost are significant advantages of this system. An outline of this concept as well as two possible implementations of the time synchronization network for QZSS were studied and published in Remote Synchronization Method for the Quasi-Zenith Satellite System and Remote Synchronization Method for the Quasi-Zenith Satellite System: study of a novel satellite timekeeping system which does not require on-board atomic clocks. See also Multi-functional Satellite Augmentation System (MSAS) Inclined orbit Tundra orbit References Petrovski, Ivan G. QZSS - Japan's New Integrated Communication and Positioning Service for Mobile Users. GPS World Online. 1 June 2003 Kallender-Umezu, Paul. Japan Seeking 13 Percent Budget Hike for Space Activities. Space.com 7 September 2004 QZSS / MSAS Status Kogure, Satoshi. Presentation at the 47th Meeting of the Civil Global Positioning System Service Interface Committee (CGSIC) 25 September 2007 External links Government Of Japan QZSS site JAXA QZSS site JAXA MICHIBIKI data site JAXA MICHIBIKI data site, English subsite JAXA Quasi-Zenith Satellite-1 "MICHIBIKI" JAXA MICHIBIKI Special Site ESA Navipedia QZSS article Navigation satellite constellations Satellite-based augmentation systems Space program of Japan Spacecraft launched by H-II rockets

3617677

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbcomm

Orbcomm

ORBCOMM is an American company that offers industrial internet and machine to machine (M2M) communications hardware, software and services designed to track, monitor, and control fixed and mobile assets in markets including transportation, heavy equipment, maritime, oil and gas, utilities and government. The company provides hardware devices, modems, web applications, and data services delivered over multiple satellite and cellular networks. As of June 30, 2021, ORBCOMM has more than 2.3 million billable subscriber communicators, serving original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) such as Caterpillar Inc., Doosan Infracore America, Hitachi Construction Machinery Co., Ltd., John Deere, Komatsu Limited, and Volvo Construction Equipment, as well as other customers such as J. B. Hunt, C&S Wholesale Grocers, Canadian National Railways, C.R. England, Hub Group, KLLM Transport Services, Marten Transport, Swift Transportation, Target, Tropicana, Tyson Foods, Walmart and Werner Enterprises. ORBCOMM owns and operates a global network of 31 low Earth orbit (LEO) communications satellites and accompanying ground infrastructure, including 16 gateway Earth stations (GESs) around the world. ORBCOMM is licensed to provide service in more than 130 countries and territories worldwide. History Founding and development of low Earth orbit satellite system The ORBCOMM low Earth orbit (LEO) system was conceived by Orbital Sciences Corporation (Orbital) in the late 1980s. In 1990, Orbital filed the world's first license application with the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) for the operation of a network of small LEO spacecraft to provide global satellite services of commercial messaging and data communications services via the company's ORBCOMM program. During the initial stages of the program, Orbital pursued a multi-pronged approach: regulatory approvals, ground infrastructure development and procurement of sites, modem development, and country licensing. In 1992, the World Administrative Radio Conference (WARC) supported the spectrum allocation for non-voice, non-geostationary mobile-satellite service. With WARC approval, Orbital set up a specific ORBCOMM program to develop satellites and ground infrastructure, and ORBCOMM became a wholly owned subsidiary of Orbital. In 1995, ORBCOMM was granted a full license to operate a network with up to 200,000 mobile Earth stations (MESs). ORBCOMM began procuring gateway Earth station (GES) locations and contracted with a division of Orbital Sciences, located in Mesa, Arizona, to develop and build four sets of GESs and associated spares. Land for the four GESs was procured or leased in Arizona, Washington, New York, and Georgia. After the 1992 WARC approval, ORBCOMM signed contracts with three modem developers and manufacturers: Kyushu Matsushita Electric Company, a division of Panasonic; Elisra Electronic Systems, an Israeli company with expertise in electronic warfare systems; and Torrey Science & Technology, a small San Diego-based company with long ties to Orbital Sciences. Panasonic provided the first ORBCOMM-approved MES in March 1995. Elisra followed with the EL2000 in late 1995, and Torrey Science provided the ComCore 200 in April 1996. During equipment development, ORBCOMM also pursued licensing and regulatory approvals in several countries. By 1995, ORBCOMM had obtained regulatory approval in 19 countries, with several additional countries well into the regulatory process. ORBCOMM was also in initial negotiations with groups in Indonesia, and Italy for becoming ORBCOMM licensees and GES operators in their respective regions. During the conceptual stages of the LEO satellite communications system, Orbital Sciences purchased a small company in Boulder, Colorado, specializing in small-satellite design. This company built the first three satellites in the ORBCOMM system: ORBCOMM X, Communications Demonstration Satellite (CDS) 1, and CDS 2. ORBCOMM X was lost after a single orbit. To validate the feasibility of commercially tracking and communicating with a LEO satellite, Orbital built an additional communications payload and flew this payload on an SR-71 in 1992. These tests were successful, and work on CDS 1 and 2 continued. CDS 1 and CDS 2 were launched in February and April 1992, respectively. These satellites were used to validate the design of the network further and were showcased in Orbital's plans to sign up an equity partner for the completion of the ORBCOMM System. In June 1992, Orbital created an equal partnership called ORBCOMM Global L.P. with Teleglobe Mobile Partners (Teleglobe Mobile), an affiliate of Teleglobe Inc., for the design and development of the LEO satellite system. Teleglobe Mobile invested $85 million in the project and provided international service distribution. Orbital agreed to construct and launch satellites for the ORBCOMM system and to construct the satellite control center, the network control center, and four U.S. gateway Earth stations. Two satellites (F Plane) were launched in April 1995, and the ORBCOMM global mobile data communications network was tested in the summer. Teleglobe Mobile invested an additional $75 million in the project that year and joined Orbital as a full joint-venture partner in ORBCOMM. In February 1996, ORBCOMM initiated the world's first commercial service for global mobile data communications provided by LEO satellites. ORBCOMM also raised an additional $170 million. In October 1996, ORBCOMM licensed Malaysian partner Technology Resources Industries Bhd. (TRI) to sell ORBCOMM's global two-way messaging service in Singapore, Malaysia, and Brunei. TRI became the owner of a 15% stake in ORBCOMM, Teleglobe owning 35%, and the rest held by Orbital. In December 1997, ORBCOMM launched eight satellites (A Plane). In 1998 ORBCOMM launched two satellites (G Plane) in February, eight satellites (B Plane) in August, and eight satellites (C Plane) in September. After a short hiatus, ORBCOMM launched seven more satellites (D Plane) in December 1999. With the launch and operation of the C Plane satellites, ORBCOMM became the first commercial provider of global LEO satellite data and messaging communications services. ORBCOMM inaugurated full commercial service with its satellite-based global data communications network on November 30, 1998. In March 1998, the FCC expanded ORBCOMM's original license from 36 to 48 satellites. In January 2000, Orbital halted funding of ORBCOMM, and Teleglobe and Orbital signed a new partnership agreement with 67% ownership to Teleglobe and 33% to Orbital. In May 2000, Teleglobe ceased funding ORBCOMM. Like its voice-centric competitors Iridium and Globalstar, it filed for Chapter 11 protection, in September 2000. New ownership In 2001, a group of private investors purchased ORBCOMM and its assets out of an auction process, and ORBCOMM LLC was organized on April 4, 2001. On April 23, 2001, this group of investors acquired substantially all of the non-cash assets of ORBCOMM Global L.P. and its subsidiaries, which included the in-orbit satellites and supporting U.S. ground infrastructure equipment that the company owns today. At the same time, ORBCOMM LLC also acquired the FCC licenses required to own and operate the communications system from a subsidiary of Orbital Sciences Corporation, which was not in bankruptcy, in a related transaction. ORBCOMM issued a public offering of stock in November 2006. The company sold 9.23 million shares of common stock. In September 2007, ORBCOMM Inc. was sued for its IPO prospectus containing inaccurate statements of material fact. It failed to disclose that demand for the company's products was weakening. In 2009, a payment of $2,450,000 was agreed upon. In September 2009, ORBCOMM signed a contract with SpaceX to launch ORBCOMM's next-generation OG2 satellite constellation. ORBCOMM launched its commercial satellite Automatic Identification System (AIS) service in 2009. AIS technology is used mainly for collision avoidance and maritime domain awareness, search and rescue, and environmental monitoring. ORBCOMM leased the capabilities of two additional satellites, VesselSat-1 and VesselSat-2, launched in October 2011 and January 2012, respectively, for its AIS service from Luxspace. On July 14, 2014, ORBCOMM launched six next-generation OG2 satellites aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida. In December 2015, the company launched eleven OG2 satellites from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida with the launch of the SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. This dedicated launch marked ORBCOMM's second and final OG2 mission to complete its next-generation satellite constellation. In September 2021, the company announced the completion of its acquisition by GI Partners in an all-cash transaction that values ORBCOMM at approximately $1.1 billion, including net debt. As a result, ORBCOMM is a privately held company, and its common stock is no longer listed on the Nasdaq Stock Market. Acquisitions Since 2011, ORBCOMM has acquired several companies including: StarTrak Systems PAR Logistics Management Systems MobileNet GlobalTrak SENS Asset Tracking Euroscan InSync Software SkyWave Mobile Communications WAM Technologies Skygistics Inthinc Blue Tree Systems Satellites The first-generation OG1 satellites each weigh . Two disc-shaped solar panels articulate in 1-axis to track the sun and provide 160 watts of power. Communication with subscriber units is done using SDPSK modulation at 4800 bit/s for the downlink and 2400 bit/s for the uplink. Each satellite has a 56 kbit/s backhaul that utilizes the popular TDMA multiplexing scheme and QPSK modulation. ORBCOMM is the only current satellite licensee operating in the 137-150 MHz VHF band, which was allocated globally for "Little LEO" systems. Several such systems were planned in the early to mid-1990s, but ORBCOMM was the only one to launch successfully. In the continental United States, ORBCOMM statistically relays 90% of the text messages within six minutes, but gaps between satellites can result in message delivery times of 15 minutes or more. ORBCOMM reported during an earnings report call in early 2007 that 50% of subscriber-initiated reports (messages of six bytes in size) were received in less than one minute, 90% in less than 4 minutes, and 98% in less than 15 minutes. With the current constellation of ORBCOMM satellites, there is likely to be a satellite within range of almost any spot on Earth at any time of the day or night. Every satellite has an onboard GPS receiver for positioning. Typical data payloads are 6 bytes to 30 bytes, adequate for sending GPS position data or simple sensor readings. ORBCOMM Global launched 35 satellites in the mid to late 1990s. Of the original 35, 24 remain operational today, according to company filings. The plane F polar satellite, one of the original prototype first-generation satellites launched in 1995, was retired in April 2007 due to intermittent service. Two additional satellites (one from each of Plane B and Plane D) were retired in 2008 also due to intermittent service. The other five satellites that are not operational experienced failures earlier. The absence of these eight satellites can increase system latency and decrease overall capacity. ORBCOMM has invested in replacement satellites as the first generation is at or nearing end of life. On 19 June 2008, six additional ORBCOMM satellites were launched with the Cosmos-3M rocket: one ORBCOMM CDS weighing 80 kg, and five ORBCOMM Quick Launches weighing 115 kg each. These new satellites were built by German OHB System AG (platform) and by Orbital Sciences Corporation (payload) and included a secondary AIS. Design and production of the satellite platform was subcontracted by OHB System to Russian KB Polyot. On November 9, 2009, ORBCOMM filed a report to the US Securities and Exchange Commission stating that since its launch, communications capability for three of the quick-launch satellites and the CDS has been lost. The failed satellites experienced attitude control system anomalies as well as anomalies with its power systems, which resulted in the satellites not pointing towards the sun and the earth as expected and as a consequence has reduced power generation. The company filed a $50 million claim with its insurers covering the loss of all six satellites and received $44.5 million in compensation. OG2 On 3 September 2009, a deal was announced between ORBCOMM and Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) to launch 18 second-generation satellites with SpaceX launch vehicles between 2010 and 2014. SpaceX originally planned to use Falcon 1e rocket, but on March 14, 2011, it was announced that SpaceX would use Falcon 9 to carry the first two ORBCOMM next-generation OG2 satellites to orbit in 2011. On Oct. 7, 2012, the first SpaceX Falcon 9 launch of a prototype OG2 ORBCOMM communications satellite from Cape Canaveral failed to achieve the proper orbit, and the company filed a $10 million claim with its insurers. The ORBCOMM satellite was declared a total loss and burned up in the atmosphere upon reentry on October 10, 2012. On July 14, 2014, ORBCOMM launched six next-generation OG2 satellites aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida. In September 2014, ORBCOMM announced that, after in-orbit testing, the six satellites had been properly spaced within their orbital planes and were processing over 20% of the network's M2M traffic. In June 2015, the company lost communication with one of the in-orbit OG2 satellites. The company recorded an impairment charge of $12.7 million to write off the net book value of this satellite as of June 30, 2015. The company stated that the loss of this one satellite is not expected to have a material adverse effect on network communications services. In October 2015, the company announced that SpaceX plans to launch eleven OG2 satellites from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida on the next launch of the SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket. The satellites were deployed on December 21, 2015. This dedicated launch marked ORBCOMM's second and final OG2 mission to complete its next-generation satellite constellation. Compared to its current OG1 satellites, ORBCOMM's OG2 satellites are designed for faster message delivery, larger message sizes, and better coverage at higher latitudes, while increasing network capacity. In addition, the OG2 satellites are equipped with an Automatic Identification System (AIS) payload to receive and report transmissions from AIS-equipped vessels for ship tracking and other maritime navigational and safety efforts. Network services ORBCOMM provides satellite data services. As of May 2016, ORBCOMM has more than 1.6 million billable subscriber communicators. ORBCOMM has control centers in the United States, Brazil, Japan, and South Korea, as well as U.S. ground stations in New York, Georgia, Arizona, Washington and international ground stations in Curaçao, Italy, Australia, Kazakhstan, Brazil, Argentina, Morocco, Japan, South Korea, and Malaysia. Plans for additional ground station locations are underway. The ORBCOMM satellite network best suits users who send small amounts of data. To avoid interference, terminals are not permitted to be active more than 1% of the time, and thus they may only execute a 450 ms data burst twice every fifteen minutes. The latency inherent in ORBCOMM's network design prevents it from supporting certain safety-critical applications. ORBCOMM's acquisition of SkyWave Mobile Communications in January 2015 gave the company access to higher bandwidth, lower-latency satellite products and services that leverage IsatData Pro (IDP) technology over Inmarsat's global L-band satellite network. ORBCOMM's direct competition includes Globalstar's simplex services (which ORBCOMM also resells) and L-band leased capacity services such as those offered by SkyBitz. ORBCOMM's most significant competitor is Iridium Communications, which offers the Iridium SBD service, which features data packet, latency, and antenna capabilities similar to that of IDP technology, which is now jointly owned by ORBCOMM and Inmarsat. ORBCOMM satellite services can be easily integrated with business applications. Customer data can be retrieved or auto-forwarded via SMTP or HTTP/XML feed directly over the Internet or through a dedicated link. ORBCOMM also partners with seven different cellular providers to offer wireless connectivity, cellular airtime data plans, and SIM cards for M2M and IoT applications. ORBCOMM's other network service business is Automatic Identification System, or AIS, a widely deployed system to track ocean vessels. Six satellites with AIS capability were launched in June 2008, referred to as the Quick Launch satellites. However, all six satellites eventually failed prematurely. When ORBCOMM's next-generation satellites launched on July 14, 2014, each one was equipped with an Automatic Identification System (AIS) payload to receive and report transmissions from AIS-equipped vessels for ship tracking and other maritime applications. ORBCOMM combines its satellite AIS data with a variety of terrestrial feeds to track over 150,000 vessels daily for around 100 customers in a variety of government and commercial organizations. Military Contracting On December 10, 2020, US Army Contracting Command, Rock Island Arsenal, Illinois, contracted ORBCOMM for transponders. See also Mobile-satellite service Satellite phone Globalstar Globalsat Group Gonets Gurtam ICO Global Communications Inmarsat Iridium Satellite LLC O3b Networks Solaris Mobile Sky and Space Global SkyTerra SkyWave Mobile Communications TerreStar Corporation References Communications satellite operators Satellite Internet access Telecommunications companies of the United States Companies that filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2000 Companies formerly listed on the Nasdaq