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The Algerian state's interest in film-industry activities can be seen in the annual budget of DZD 200 million (EUR 1.3 million) allocated to production, specific measures and an ambitious programme plan implemented by the Ministry of Culture in order to promote national production, renovate the cinema stock and remedy the weak links in distribution and exploitation. The financial support provided by the state, through the Fund for the Development of the Arts, Techniques and the Film Industry (FDATIC) and the Algerian Agency for Cultural Influence (AARC), plays a key role in the promotion of national production. Between 2007 and 2013, FDATIC subsidised 98 films (feature films, documentaries and short films). In mid-2013, AARC had already supported a total of 78 films, including 42 feature films, 6 short films and 30 documentaries. According to the European Audiovisual Observatory's LUMIERE database, 41 Algerian films were distributed in Europe between 1996 and 2013; 21 films in this repertoire were Algerian-French co-productions. [[Days of Glory (2006 film)|''Days of Glory'' (2006)]] and [[Outside the Law (2010 film)|''Outside the Law'' (2010)]] recorded the highest number of admissions in the European Union, 3,172,612 and 474,722, respectively. Algeria won the [[Palme d'Or]] for ''[[Chronicle of the Years of Fire]]'' (1975), two Oscars for [[Z (1969 film)|''Z'' (1969)]], and other awards for the Italian-Algerian movie ''[[The Battle of Algiers]]''.

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Algerian cuisine is rich and diverse. The country was considered as the "granary of Rome". It offers a component of dishes and varied dishes, depending on the region and according to the seasons. The cuisine uses cereals as the main products, since they are always produced with abundance in the country. There is not a dish where cereals are not present. Algerian cuisine varies from one region to another, according to seasonal vegetables. It can be prepared using meat, fish and vegetables. Among the dishes known, [[couscous]], [[chorba]], rechta, chakhchoukha, berkoukes, [[shakshouka]], mthewem, chtitha, mderbel, dolma, brik or bourek, garantita, lham'hlou, etc. [[Merguez]] sausage is widely used in Algeria, but it differs, depending on the region and on the added spices. Cakes are marketed and can be found in cities either in Algeria, in Europe or North America. However, traditional cakes are also made at home, following the habits and customs of each family. Among these cakes, there are Tamina, Baklawa, Chrik, Garn logzelles, Griouech, Kalb el-louz, Makroud, Mbardja, Mchewek, Samsa, Tcharak, Baghrir, Khfaf, Zlabia, Aarayech, Ghroubiya and Mghergchette. Algerian pastry also contains Tunisian or French cakes. Marketed and home-made bread products include varieties such as Kessra or Khmira or Harchaya, chopsticks and so-called washers Khoubz dar or Matloue. Other traditional meals sold often as street food include mhadjeb or mahjouba, karantika, doubara, chakhchoukha, hassouna, and t'chicha.

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Various games have existed in Algeria since antiquity. In the [[Aurès Mountains|Aures]], people played several games such as El Kherba or El khergueba ([[chess]] variant). Playing cards, [[checkers]] and chess games are part of Algerian culture. Racing ([[Fantasia (culture)|fantasia]]) and [[rifle shooting]] are part of cultural recreation of the Algerians. The first Algerian and African gold medalist is [[Boughera El Ouafi]] in [[1928 Summer Olympics|1928 Olympics of Amsterdam]] in the [[Marathon]]. The second Algerian Medalist was [[Alain Mimoun]] in [[1956 Summer Olympics]] in Melbourne. Several men and women were champions in athletics in the 1990s including [[Noureddine Morceli]], [[Hassiba Boulmerka]], [[Nouria Mérah-Benida|Nouria Merah-Benida]], and [[Taoufik Makhloufi]], all specialized in [[middle-distance running]]. [[Football in Algeria|Football]] is the most popular sport in Algeria. Several names are engraved in the history of the sport, including [[Lakhdar Belloumi]], [[Rachid Mekhloufi]], [[Hacène Lalmas|Hassen Lalmas]], [[Rabah Madjer]], [[Salah Assad]] and [[Djamel Zidane]]. The [[Algeria national football team]] qualified for the [[1982 FIFA World Cup]], [[1986 FIFA World Cup]], [[2010 FIFA World Cup]] and [[2014 FIFA World Cup]]. In addition, several football clubs have won continental and international trophies as the club [[ES Sétif]] or [[JS Kabylia]]. The [[Algerian Football Federation]] is an association of Algeria football clubs organizing national competitions and international matches of the selection of Algeria national football team.

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This is a list of characters in [[Ayn Rand]]'s 1957 novel ''[[Atlas Shrugged]].''

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Dagny Taggart is the [[protagonist]] of the novel. She is vice-president in Charge of Operations for Taggart Transcontinental, under her brother, James Taggart. Given James' incompetence, Dagny is responsible for all the workings of the railroad.

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Francisco d'Anconia is one of the central characters in ''Atlas Shrugged'', an owner by inheritance of the world's largest [[copper]] mining operation. He is a childhood friend, and the first love, of Dagny Taggart. A child prodigy of exceptional talents, Francisco was dubbed the "climax" of the d'Anconia line, an already prestigious family of skilled industrialists. He was a classmate of John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld and student of both Hugh Akston and Robert Stadler. He began working while still in school, proving that he could have made a fortune without the aid of his family's wealth and power. Later, Francisco bankrupts the d'Anconia business to put it out of others' reach. His full name is given as "Francisco Domingo Carlos Andres Sebastián d'Anconia".

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John Galt is the primary male hero of ''Atlas Shrugged''. He initially appears as an unnamed menial worker for Taggart Transcontinental, who often dines with Eddie Willers in the employees' cafeteria, and leads Eddie to reveal important information about Dagny Taggart and Taggart Transcontinental. Only Eddie's side of their conversations is given in the novel. Later in the novel, the reader discovers this worker's true identity. Before working for Taggart Transcontinental, Galt worked as an engineer for the Twentieth Century Motor Company, where he secretly invented a generator of usable electric energy from ambient static electricity, but abandoned his prototype, and his employment, when dissatisfied by an easily corrupted novel system of payment. This prototype was found by Dagny Taggart and Hank Rearden. Galt himself remains concealed throughout much of the novel, working a job and living by himself, where he unites the most skillful inventors and business leaders under his leadership. Much of the book's third division is given to his broadcast speech, which presents the author's philosophy of [[Objectivism (Ayn Rand)|Objectivism]].

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Henry (known as "Hank") Rearden is one of the central characters in ''Atlas Shrugged''. He owns the most important steel company in the United States, and invents Rearden Metal, an [[alloy]] stronger, lighter, cheaper and tougher than steel. He lives in [[Philadelphia]] with his wife Lillian, his brother Philip, and his elderly mother. Rearden represents a type of [[self-made man]] and eventually divorces Lillian, abandons his steel mills following a bloody assault by government-planted workers, and joins John Galt's strike.

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Edwin "Eddie" Willers is the Special Assistant to the Vice-President in Charge of Operations at Taggart Transcontinental. His father and grandfather worked for the Taggarts, and himself likewise. He is completely loyal to Dagny and to Taggart Transcontinental. Willers does not possess the creative ability of Galt's associates, but matches them in moral courage and is capable of appreciating and making use of their creations. After Dagny shifts her attention and loyalty to saving the captive Galt, Willers maintains the railroad until its collapse.

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One of Galt's first followers, and world-famous as a [[pirate]], who seizes relief ships sent from the United States to the People's States of Europe. He works to ensure that once those espousing Galt's philosophy are restored to their rightful place in society, they have enough capital to rebuild the world. Kept in the background for much of the book, Danneskjöld makes a personal appearance to encourage Rearden to persevere in his increasingly difficult situation, and gives him a bar of gold as compensation for the income taxes he has paid over the last several years. Danneskjöld is married to the actress Kay Ludlow; their relationship is kept hidden from the outside world, which only knows of Ludlow as a retired [[film star]]. Considered a misfit by Galt's other adherents, he views his actions as a means to speed the world along in understanding Galt's perspective. According to [[Barbara Branden]], who was closely associated with Rand at the time the book was written, there were sections written describing Danneskjöld's adventures at sea, cut from the final published text. In a 1974 comment at a lecture, Ayn Rand admitted that Danneskjöld's name was a tribute to Victor Hugo's novel, , wherein the hero becomes the first of the Counts of Danneskjöld. In the published book, Danneskjöld is always seen through the eyes of others (Dagny Taggart or Hank Rearden), except for a brief paragraph in the very last chapter.

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The President of Taggart Transcontinental and the book's most important antagonist. Taggart is an expert influence peddler but incapable of making operational decisions on his own. He relies on his sister, Dagny Taggart, to actually run the railroad, but nonetheless opposes her in almost every endeavor because of his various anti-capitalist moral and political beliefs. In a sense, he is the antithesis of Dagny. This contradiction leads to the recurring absurdity of his life: the desire to overcome those on whom his life depends, and the horror that he will succeed at this. In the final chapters of the novel, he suffers a complete mental breakdown upon realizing that he can no longer deceive himself in this respect.

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The unsupportive wife of Hank Rearden, who dislikes his habits and (secretly at first) seeks to ruin Rearden to prove her own value. Lillian achieves this, when she passes information to James Taggart about her husband's affair with his sister. This information is used to persuade Rearden to sign a Gift Certificate which delivers all the property rights of Rearden Metal to others. Lillian thereafter uses James Taggart for sexual satisfaction, until Hank abandons her.

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Ferris is a biologist who works as "co-ordinator" at the State Science Institute. He uses his position there to deride reason and productive achievement, and publishes a book entitled ''Why Do You Think You Think?'' He clashes on several occasions with Hank Rearden, and twice attempts to blackmail Rearden into giving up Rearden Metal. He is also one of the group of looters who tries to get Rearden to agree to the Steel Unification Plan. Ferris hosts the demonstration of the Project X weapon, and is the creator of the Ferris Persuader, a torture machine. When John Galt is captured by the looters, Ferris uses the device on Galt, but it breaks down before extracting the information Ferris wants from Galt. Ferris represents the group which uses brute force on the heroes to achieve the ends of the looters.

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A former professor at Patrick Henry University, and along with colleague Hugh Akston, mentor to Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He has since become a sell-out, one who had great promise but squandered it for social approval, to the detriment of the free. He works at the State Science Institute where all his inventions are perverted for use by the military, including a sound-based weapon known as Project X (Xylophone). He is killed when Cuffy Meigs (see below) drunkenly overloads the circuits of Project X, causing it to destroy itself and every structure and living thing in a 100-mile radius. The character was, in part, modeled on [[J. Robert Oppenheimer]], whom Rand had interviewed for an earlier project, and his part in the creation of [[nuclear weapon]].` To his former student Galt, Stadler represents the epitome of human evil, as the "man who knew better" but chose not to act for the good.

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The incompetent and treacherous lobbyist whom Hank Rearden reluctantly employs in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], who rises to prominence and authority throughout the novel through trading favours and disloyalty. In return for betraying Hank by helping broker the Equalization of Opportunity Bill (which, by restricting the number of businesses each person may own to one, forces Hank to divest most of his companies), he is given a senior position at the Bureau of Economic Planning and National Resources. Later in the novel he becomes its Top Co-ordinator, a position that eventually becomes Economic Dictator of the country.

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The following secondary characters also appear in the novel. (-) '''Hugh Akston''' is identified as "One of the last great advocates of reason." He was a renowned philosopher and the head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University, where he taught Francisco d'Anconia, John Galt, and Ragnar Danneskjöld. He was, along with Robert Stadler, a father figure to these three. Akston's name is so hallowed that a young lady, on hearing that Francisco had studied under him, is shocked. She thought he must have been one of those great names from an earlier century. He now works as a cook in a roadside diner, and proves extremely skillful at the job. When Dagny tracks him down, and before she discovers his true identity, he rejects her enthusiastic offer to manage the dining car services for Taggart Transcontinental. He is based on [[Aristotle]]. (-) '''Jeff Allen''' is a tramp who stows away on a Taggart train during one of Dagny's cross-country trips. Instead of throwing him out, she allows him to ride as her guest. It is from Allen that she learns the full story behind the collapse of the Twentieth Century Motor Company (Rand's extensive metaphor for the inherent flaws of communism), as well as a hint of John Galt's true background. (-) '''Calvin Atwood''' is owner of Atwood Light and Power Company and joins Galt's strike. (-) '''Mayor Bascom''' is the mayor of Rome, Wisconsin, who reveals part of the history of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. (-) '''Dr. Blodgett''' is the scientist who pulls the lever to demonstrate Project X. (-) '''Orren Boyle''' is the head of Associated Steel, antithesis of Hank Rearden and a friend of James Taggart. He is an investor in the San Sebastián Mines. He disappears from the story after having a nervous breakdown following the failed 'unification' of the steel industry. (-) '''Laura Bradford''' is an actress and Kip Chalmers' mistress. She is one of the passengers on his train, and dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster. (-) '''Bill Brent''' is the chief dispatcher for the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental, who tries to prevent the Taggart Tunnel disaster. (-) '''Cherryl Brooks''' is a dime store shopgirl who marries James Taggart after a chance encounter in her store the night the John Galt Line was falsely deemed his greatest success. She marries him thinking he is the heroic person behind Taggart Transcontinental. Cherryl is at first harsh towards Dagny, having believed Jim Taggart's descriptions of his sister, until she questions employees of the railroad. Upon learning that her scorn had been misdirected, Cherryl puts off apologizing to Dagny out of shame, but eventually admits to Dagny that when she married Jim, she thought he had the heroic qualities that she had looked up to - she thought she was marrying someone like Dagny. Shortly after making this admission, she commits suicide by jumping over a street guardrail to her death, unable to live with her worthless husband and seeing no way to escape him.

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(-) '''Millie Bush''' was "a mean, ugly little eight-year-old" girl voted to receive gold braces to straighten her teeth by the Marxist "family" committee who determined how pay was allocated at The Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her teeth are later knocked out by a man denied an allowance by the committee to purchase the things he valued. (-) '''Emma Chalmers''', Kip Chalmers' mother, gains some influence after his death. Known as "Kip's Ma," she starts a soybean-growing project in Louisiana and commandeers thousands of railroad freight cars to move the harvest. As a result, the year's wheat crop from Minnesota never reaches the rest of the country, but instead rots in storage; also, the soybean crop is lost, having been reaped too early. (-) '''Kip Chalmers''' is a Washington man who has decided to run for election as Legislator from California. On the way to a campaign rally, the Taggart Transcontinental train that is carrying him encounters a split rail, resulting in the destruction of its diesel engine. His demands lead to a coal-burning steam engine being attached to his train in its stead and used to pull it through an eight-mile tunnel. The result is the suffocation of all passengers and the destruction of the Taggart Tunnel. (-) '''Dan Conway''' is the middle-aged president of the Phoenix-Durango railroad. Running a railroad is just about the only thing he knows. When the Anti-dog-eat-dog Rule is used to drive his business out of [[Colorado]], he loses the will to fight, and resigns himself to a quiet life of books and fishing. He is ''not'' one of those who joined John Galt's strike, his resignation being a personal choice of his own. (-) '''Ken Danagger''' owns Danagger Coal in Pennsylvania. He helps Hank Rearden illegally make Rearden Metal, then later decides to quit and join Galt's strike moments before Dagny arrives to try to persuade him otherwise. (-) '''Quentin Daniels''' is an enterprising engineer hired by Dagny Taggart to reconstruct John Galt's motor. Partway through this process, Quentin withdraws his effort for the same reasons John Galt himself had. Dagny's pursuit of Quentin leads her to Galt's Gulch. Galt recognizes in him a younger version of himself, having emulated both Galt's achievements in physics and Galt's social reasoning. (-) '''Sebastian d'Anconia''' was the 16th (or 17th) Century founder of the d'Anconia dynasty. Escaped from Spain because of expressing his opinions too freely and coming in conflict with the [[Inquisition]], leaving behind a palace and his beloved. Started a small mine in South America, which became the beginning of a mining empire and a new fortune (and a new palace). Eventually sent for his beloved who had waited for him many years. He is the role model which Francisco d'Anconia looks to, as Dagny Taggart looks to Nathaniel Taggart. Francisco remarks that their respective ancestors would have liked each other.

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(-) '''Balph Eubank''' is called "the literary leader of the age", despite the fact that no book he has written has sold more than 3,000 copies. He complains that it is disgraceful that artists are treated as peddlers, and that there should be a law limiting the sales of books to 10,000 copies. He is a [[misogynist]] who thinks it disgusting that Dagny Taggart is a railroad vice-president. (-) The '''Fishwife''' is one of the strikers, who earns her living by providing the fish for Hammond's grocery market; she is described as having "dark, disheveled hair and large eyes", and is a writer. Galt says she "wouldn't be published outside. She believes that when one deals with words, one deals with the mind." According to Barbara Branden in her book ''[[The Passion of Ayn Rand]]'', "The [[Fishwife]] is Ayn's [[List of Alfred Hitchcock cameo appearances|Hitchcock-like]] appearance in ''Atlas Shrugged''." So says too Leonard Peikoff. (-) '''Lawrence Hammond''' runs Hammond Cars in Colorado, one of the few companies in existence that still produces top-quality vehicles. He eventually quits and joins the strike. (-) '''Richard Halley''' is Dagny Taggart's favorite composer, who mysteriously disappeared after the evening of his greatest triumph. Halley spent years as a struggling and unappreciated composer. At age 24, his opera ''[[Phaethon]]'' was performed for the first time, to an audience who booed and heckled it. After 19 years, ''Phaethon'' was performed again, but this time it was received to the greatest ovation the opera house had ever heard. The following day, Halley retired, sold the rights to his music, and disappeared. It is later revealed that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch. (-) '''Mrs. William Hastings''' is the widow of the chief engineer at the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Her husband quit shortly after Galt did and joined the strike some years later. Her lead allows Dagny to find Hugh Akston. (-) '''Dr. Thomas Hendricks''' is a famous brain surgeon who developed a new method of preventing strokes. He joined Galt's strike when the American medical system was put under government control. (-) '''Tinky Holloway''' is one of the "looters" and is frequently referred to and quoted by other characters in the story, but he has only one major appearance: during the Washington meeting with Hank Rearden. (-) '''Lee Hunsacker''' is in charge of a company called Amalgamated Service when takes over the Twentieth Century Motor Company. He files a lawsuit that eventually leads to Midas Mulligan and Judge Narragansett joining the strike. A failed businessman, he laments constantly that no-one ever gave him a chance. (-) '''Gwen Ives''' is Hank Rearden's secretary, described as being in her late twenties and remaining calm and professional despite the chaos that threatens his business. When Rearden abandons his mills and joins Galt's strike, she and many other employees do the same.

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(-) '''Gilbert Keith-Worthing''' is a British novelist of erstwhile fame, now neglected but still considered a "walking classic," and a proponent of the idea that freedom is an illusion. Kip Chalmers brings him along on the train to California, "for no reason that either of them could discover"; he dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster. (-) '''Owen Kellogg''' is Assistant to the Manager of the Taggart Terminal in New York. He catches Dagny Taggart's eye as one of the few competent men on staff. After seeing the sorry state of the Ohio Division, she decides to make him its new Superintendent. However, as soon as she returns to New York, Kellogg informs her that he is quitting his job. Owen Kellogg eventually reaches, and settles in, Galt's Gulch. (-) '''Fred Kinnan''' is a labor leader and member of the looter cabal. Unlike the others, however, Kinnan is straightforward and honest about his purpose. Kinnan is the only one to openly state the true motivations of himself and his fellow conspirators. At the end of Galt's three-hour speech, he expresses admiration for the man, as he says what he means. Despite this, Kinnan admits that he is one of the people Galt is out to destroy. (-) '''Paul Larkin''' is an unsuccessful, middle-aged businessman, a friend of the Rearden family. He meets with the other Looters to work out a plan to bring Rearden down. James Taggart knows he is friends with Hank Rearden and challenges his loyalty, and Larkin assures Taggart that he will go along with them. (-) '''Eugene Lawson''' heads the Community Bank of Madison, then gets a job with the government when it his bank goes bankrupt. One of the looter's cabal, he is a collectivist who abhors production and money-making. (-) '''Mort Liddy''' is a [[hack writer|hack]] composer who writes trite scores for movies and modern symphonies to which no one listens. He believes melody is a primitive vulgarity. He is one of Lillian Rearden's friends and a member of the cultural elite. (-) '''Clifton Locey''' is a friend of Jim Taggart who takes the position of vice-president of operation when Dagny Taggart quits. (-) '''Pat Logan''' is the engineer on the first run of the John Galt Line. He later strikes. (-) '''Kay Ludlow''' is a beautiful actress who quit Holywood because of the roles she was given and married secretly the pirate Ragnar Danneskjöld. (-) '''Dick McNamara''' is a contractor who finished the San Sebastian Line. Dagny Taggart plans to hire him to lay the new Rearden Metal track for the Rio Norte Line, but before she does so, he mysteriously disappears. She later discovers that he has joined the strike and settled in Galt's Gulch.

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(-) '''Cuffy Meigs''' is the Director of Unification for the railroad business. He carries a pistol and a lucky rabbit's foot, and he dresses in a military uniform, and has been described as "impervious to thought". Meigs seizes control of Project X and accidentally destroys it, demolishing the country's last railroad bridge across the Mississippi River and killing himself, his men, and Dr. Stadler. (-) '''Dave Mitchum''' is a state-hired superintendent of the Colorado Division of Taggart Transcontinental. He is partially responsible for the Taggart Tunnel disaster. (-) '''Chick Morrison''' holds the position of "Morale Conditioner" in the government. He quits when society begins to collapse and flees to a stronghold in Tennessee. His fellow looters consider it unlikely that he will survive. (-) '''Horace Bussby Mowen''' is the president of the Amalgamated Switch and Signal Company, Inc. of Connecticut. He is a businessman who sees nothing wrong with the moral code that is destroying society and would never dream of saying he is in business for any reason other than the good of society. Dagny Taggart hires Mowen to produce switches made of Rearden Metal. He is reluctant to build anything with this unproven technology, and has to be cajoled into accepting the contract. When pressured by public opinion, he discontinues production of the switches, forcing Dagny to find an alternative source. (-) '''Midas Mulligan''' is a wealthy banker who mysteriously disappeared in protest after he was given a court order to lend money to an incompetent applicant. When the order came down, he liquidated his entire business, paid off his depositors, and joined Galt's strike. He is the legal owner of the land where Galt's Gulch is located. Mulligan's birth name was Michael, but he had it legally changed after a news article called him "[[Midas]]" in a derogatory fashion, which Mulligan took as a compliment. (-) '''Judge Narragansett''' is an American jurist who ruled in favor of Midas Mulligan during the case brought against him by the incompetent loan applicant. When Narragansett's ruling was reversed on appeal, he retired and joined the strike. At the end of the novel, he is seen editing the [[United States Constitution]], crossing out the contradicting amendments of it and adding an amendment to prohibit Congress from passing laws that restrain freedom of trade. (-) '''Ben Nealy''' is a railroad contractor whom Dagny Taggart hires to replace the track on the Rio Norte Line with Rearden Metal. Nealy is incompetent, but Dagny can find no one better in all the country. Nealy believes that anything can get done with enough muscle power. He sees no role for intelligence in human achievement. He relies on Dagny and Ellis Wyatt to run things, and resents them for doing it, because it appears to him like they are just bossing people around. (-) '''Ted Nielsen''' is the head of Nielsen Motors. He eventually goes on strike, along with most of the other industrialist "producer" types, by closing his motor factory. Dagny later finds him when she visits Galt's Gulch for the first time.

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(-) '''Betty Pope''' is a wealthy socialite who is having a meaningless sexual affair with James Taggart. She is deliberately crude in a way that casts ridicule on her high social position. (-) '''Dr. Potter''' holds some undefined position with the State Science Institute. He is sent to try to obtain the rights to Rearden Metal. (-) '''Dr. Simon Pritchett''' is the prestigious head of the Department of Philosophy at Patrick Henry University and is considered the leading philosopher of the age. He believes that man is nothing but a collection of chemicals, reason is a superstition, it is futile to seek meaning in life, and the duty of a philosopher is to show that nothing can be understood. (-) '''Rearden's mother''', whose name is not mentioned, lives with Rearden at his home in Philadelphia. She is involved in charity work, and berates Rearden whenever she can. She dotes on her weak son Philip Rearden. (-) '''Philip Rearden''' is the younger brother of Hank Rearden. He lives in his brother's home in Philadelphia and is completely dependent on him. He is resentful of his brother's charity. (-) '''Dwight Sanders''' owns Sanders Aircraft, a producer of high-quality airplanes, and joins the strike. (-) '''Bertram Scudder''' is an editorial writer for the magazine ''The Future''. He typically bashes business and businessmen, but he never says anything specific in his articles, relying on innuendo, sneers, and denunciation. He wrote a hatchet job on Hank Rearden called ''The Octopus''. He is also vocal in support of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. Scudder claims that the most important thing in life is "brother love" but seems to have nothing but hatred for those around him. He loses his job after Dagny Taggart reveals her affair with Hank Rearden over air on his radio show. (-) '''Claude Slagenhop''' is president of political organization Friends of Global Progress and one of Lillian Rearden's friends. He believes that ideas are just air, that this is no time for talk, but for action. Global Progress is a sponsor of the Equalization of Opportunity Bill. (-) '''Gerald and Ivy Starnes''' are the two surviving children of Jed Starnes, the founder of the Twentieth Century Motor Company. Together with their since-deceased brother Eric, they instituted a communistic payment-and-benefits program that drove the company into bankruptcy. Gerald, a dying alcoholic, and Ivy, a [[New Age|pseudo-Buddhist]] ascetic, continue to insist that the plan was perfect and that the failure of their father's company was entirely due to the workers. Eric was a weak, attention-seeking man with a pathological desire to be loved. He committed suicide after the woman he loved married another man. Gerald claims that he always acted for the good of the employees, but he was vain and incompetent and often threw lavish parties using company funds. Ivy, on the other hand, is described as a sadist who relishes seeing others in poverty, but who has no desire for wealth of her own.

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(-) '''Andrew Stockton''' runs the Stockton Foundry in Stockton, Colorado. When he joins the strike, he opens a foundry in Galt's Gulch. (-) '''Nathaniel "Nat" Taggart''' was the founder of Taggart Transcontinental. He built his railroad without any government handouts, and ran the business for no other reason than to turn a profit. He began as a penniless adventurer and ended up as one of the wealthiest men in the country. He never earned money by force or fraud (except for bribing government officials and throwing an opponent down a flight of stairs), and never apologized for becoming wealthy and successful. He was one of the most hated men of his time. Dagny is often inspired by looking at a statue of Nat Taggart at the railroad headquarters, and draws a dollar sign on its base as a signal to Francisco when she is ready to join Galt's strike. It is suspected that he is modeled after James Jerome Hill, builder of the Great Northern Railroad. (-) '''Mr. Thompson''' is the "[[Head of state|Head of the State]]" for the United States. He is not particularly intelligent and has a very undistinguished look. He knows politics, however, and is a master of public relations and back-room deals. Rand's notes indicate that she modeled him on President [[Harry S. Truman]], and that she deliberately decided not to call him "President of the United States" as this title has "honorable connotations" which the character does not deserve. (-) '''Lester Tuck''' is the campaign manager for Kip Chalmers and one of his guests on the train trip to California. He dies in the Taggart Tunnel disaster. (-) '''Clem Weatherby''' is a government representative on the board of directors of Taggart Transcontinental. Dagny considers him the least bad of the government representatives, since he does have some real knowledge on the running of trains. She notices, however, that he is the least appreciated by his own bosses. (-) The '''Wet Nurse (Tony)''' is a young bureaucrat sent by the government to watch over Rearden's mills. Though he starts out as a cynical follower of the looters' code, his experience at the mills transforms him, and he comes to respect and admire the producers. He is shot attempting to inform Hank Rearden about a government plot, but does succeed in warning Rearden just before he dies.

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(-) '''Ellis Wyatt''' is the head of Wyatt Oil. He has almost single-handedly revived the economy of Colorado by discovering a new process for extracting more oil from what were thought to be exhausted oil wells. When first introduced, he is aggressive towards Dagny, whom he does not yet know and whom he blames for what are, in fact, her brother's policies which directly threaten his business. When the government passes laws and decrees which make it impossible for him to continue, he sets all his oil wells on fire, leaving a jeering note: "I am leaving it as I found it. Take over. It's yours." One particular burning well that resists all efforts to extinguish it becomes known as "Wyatt's Torch". Later Dagny meets him in Galt's Gulch.

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'''Anthropology''' is the [[Science|scientific study]] of [[human]], concerned with [[human behavior]], [[human biology]], [[cultures]] and [[society|societies]], in both the present and past, including [[Homo|past human species]]. [[Social anthropology]] studies patterns of behaviour, while [[cultural anthropology]] studies cultural meaning, including norms and values. [[Linguistic anthropology]] studies how language influences social life. [[Biological anthropology|Biological or physical anthropology]] studies the biological development of humans. [[Visual anthropology]], which is usually considered to be a part of social anthropology, can mean both [[ethnographic film]] (where photography, film, and [[new media]] are used for study) as well as the study of "visuals", including art, visual images, cinema etc. [[Oxford Bibliographies]] describes visual anthropology as "the anthropological study of the visual and the visual study of the anthropological". [[Archaeology]], which studies human activity through investigation of physical evidence, is considered a branch of anthropology in the United States and Canada, while in Europe it is viewed as a discipline in its own right or grouped under other related disciplines, such as history. A key distinguishing factor between archeology and anthropology is the focus on analyzing material remains in archaeology.

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The abstract noun ''[[wikt:anthropology|anthropology]]'' is first attested in reference to [[history]]. Its present use first appeared in [[German Renaissance|Renaissance]] [[Holy Roman Empire|Germany]] in the works of [[Magnus Hundt]] and [[Otto Casmann]]. Their [[New Latin]] '''' derived from the [[combining form]] of the [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] words ''ánthrōpos'' (, "[[human]]") and ''lógos'' (, "[[science|study]]"). (Its adjectival form appeared in the works of [[Aristotle]].) It began to be used in English, possibly via [[French language|French]] '''', by the early 18th century.

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In 1647, the Bartholins, founders of the [[University of Copenhagen]], defined '''' as follows: Sporadic use of the term for some of the subject matter occurred subsequently, such as the use by [[Étienne Serres]] in 1839 to describe the natural history, or paleontology, of man, based on comparative anatomy, and the creation of a chair in anthropology and ethnography in 1850 at the [[National Museum of Natural History, France|French National Museum of Natural History]] by [[Jean Louis Armand de Quatrefages de Bréau]]. Various short-lived organizations of anthropologists had already been formed. The [[Société Ethnologique de Paris]], the first to use the term ''[[ethnology]]'', was formed in 1839. Its members were primarily anti-slavery activists. When slavery was abolished in France in 1848, the ''Société'' was abandoned. Meanwhile, the Ethnological Society of New York, currently the [[American Ethnological Society]], was founded on its model in 1842, as well as the [[Ethnological Society of London]] in 1843, a break-away group of the [[Aborigines' Protection Society]]. These anthropologists of the times were liberal, anti-slavery, and pro-[[Human rights|human-rights activists.]] They maintained international connections. Anthropology and many other current fields are the intellectual results of the comparative methods developed in the earlier 19th century. Theorists in such diverse fields as [[Comparative anatomy|anatomy]], [[Comparative method (linguistics)|linguistics]], and [[ethnology]], making feature-by-feature comparisons of their subject matters, were beginning to suspect that similarities between animals, languages, and folkways were the result of processes or laws unknown to them then. For them, the publication of [[Charles Darwin]]'s ''[[On the Origin of Species]]'' was the epiphany of everything they had begun to suspect. Darwin himself arrived at his conclusions through comparison of species he had seen in [[agronomy]] and in the wild. Darwin and Wallace unveiled evolution in the late 1850s. There was an immediate rush to bring it into the social sciences. [[Paul Broca]] in Paris was in the process of breaking away from the [[Société de biologie]] to form the first of the explicitly anthropological societies, the [[Society of Anthropology of Paris|Société d'Anthropologie de Paris]], meeting for the first time in Paris in 1859. When he read Darwin, he became an immediate convert to ''Transformisme'', as the French called [[evolutionism]]. His definition now became "the study of the human group, considered as a whole, in its details, and in relation to the rest of nature". Broca, being what today would be called a [[Neurosurgery|neurosurgeon]], had taken an interest in the pathology of speech. He wanted to localize the difference between man and the other animals, which appeared to reside in speech. He discovered the speech center of the human brain, today called [[Broca's area]] after him. His interest was mainly in [[Biological anthropology]], but a German philosopher specializing in psychology, [[Theodor Waitz]], took up the theme of general and social anthropology in his six-volume work, entitled ''Die Anthropologie der Naturvölker'', 1859–1864. The title was soon translated as "The Anthropology of Primitive Peoples". The last two volumes were published posthumously.

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Waitz defined anthropology as "the science of the nature of man". Following Broca's lead, Waitz points out that anthropology is a new field, which would gather material from other fields, but would differ from them in the use of comparative anatomy, physiology, and psychology to differentiate man from "the animals nearest to him". He stresses that the data of comparison must be empirical, gathered by experimentation. The history of civilization, as well as ethnology, are to be brought into the comparison. It is to be presumed fundamentally that the species, man, is a unity, and that "the same laws of thought are applicable to all men". Waitz was influential among the British ethnologists. In 1863 the explorer [[Richard Francis Burton]] and the speech therapist [[James Hunt (speech therapist)|James Hunt]] broke away from the [[Ethnological Society of London]] to form the [[Anthropological Society of London]], which henceforward would follow the path of the new anthropology rather than just ethnology. It was the 2nd society dedicated to general anthropology in existence. Representatives from the French ''Société'' were present, though not Broca. In his keynote address, printed in the first volume of its new publication, ''The Anthropological Review'', Hunt stressed the work of Waitz, adopting his definitions as a standard. Among the first associates were the young [[Edward Burnett Tylor]], inventor of [[cultural anthropology]], and his brother [[Alfred Tylor]], a geologist. Previously Edward had referred to himself as an ethnologist; subsequently, an anthropologist. Similar organizations in other countries followed: The Anthropological Society of Madrid (1865), the [[American Anthropological Association]] in 1902, the Anthropological Society of Vienna (1870), the Italian Society of Anthropology and Ethnology (1871), and many others subsequently. The majority of these were evolutionist. One notable exception was the [[Berliner Gesellschaft für Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urgeschichte|Berlin Society for Anthropology, Ethnology, and Prehistory]] (1869) founded by [[Rudolph Virchow]], known for his vituperative attacks on the evolutionists. Not religious himself, he insisted that Darwin's conclusions lacked empirical foundation. During the last three decades of the 19th century, a proliferation of anthropological societies and associations occurred, most independent, most publishing their own journals, and all international in membership and association. The major theorists belonged to these organizations. They supported the gradual osmosis of anthropology curricula into the major institutions of higher learning. By 1898, 48 educational institutions in 13 countries had some curriculum in anthropology. None of the 75 faculty members were under a department named anthropology.

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This meager statistic expanded in the 20th century to comprise anthropology departments in the majority of the world's higher educational institutions, many thousands in number. Anthropology has diversified from a few major subdivisions to dozens more. Practical anthropology, the use of anthropological knowledge and technique to solve specific problems, has arrived; for example, the presence of buried victims might stimulate the use of a forensic archaeologist to recreate the final scene. The organization has reached global level. For example, the World Council of Anthropological Associations (WCAA), "a network of national, regional and international associations that aims to promote worldwide communication and cooperation in anthropology", currently contains members from about three dozen nations. Since the work of [[Franz Boas]] and [[Bronisław Malinowski]] in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, ''social'' anthropology in Great Britain and [[cultural anthropology|''cultural'' anthropology]] in the US have been distinguished from other social sciences by their emphasis on [[cross-cultural studies|cross-cultural comparisons]], long-term in-depth examination of context, and the importance they place on [[Participant observation|participant-observation]] or experiential immersion in the area of research. Cultural anthropology, in particular, has emphasized [[cultural relativism]], [[holism]], and the use of findings to frame cultural critiques. This has been particularly prominent in the United States, from [[Boasian anthropology|Boas' arguments]] against 19th-century racial [[ideology]], through [[Margaret Mead]]'s advocacy for [[gender equality]] and sexual liberation, to current criticisms of [[post-colonialism|post-colonial]] oppression and promotion of [[multiculturalism]]. [[Ethnography]] is one of its primary [[research design]] as well as the text that is generated from anthropological fieldwork. In Great Britain and the Commonwealth countries, the British tradition of [[social anthropology]] tends to dominate. In the United States, anthropology has traditionally been divided into the [[four field approach]] developed by [[Franz Boas]] in the early 20th century: [[Biological anthropology|''biological'' or ''physical'' anthropology]]; [[social anthropology|''social'']], [[cultural anthropology|''cultural'']], or [[sociocultural anthropology|''sociocultural'' anthropology]]; and [[archaeology]]; plus [[linguistic anthropology|anthropological linguistics]]. These fields frequently overlap but tend to use different methodologies and techniques. European countries with overseas colonies tended to practice more [[ethnology]] (a term coined and defined by [[Adam František Kollár|Adam F. Kollár]] in 1783). It is sometimes referred to as sociocultural anthropology in the parts of the world that were influenced by the European tradition.

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Anthropology is a global discipline involving humanities, social sciences and natural sciences. Anthropology builds upon knowledge from [[natural science]], including the discoveries about the origin and evolution of ''[[Human|Homo sapiens]]'', human physical traits, [[human behavior]], the variations among different groups of humans, how the evolutionary past of ''Homo sapiens'' has influenced its social organization and culture, and from [[social science]], including the organization of human social and cultural relations, institutions, social conflicts, etc. Early anthropology originated in Classical Greece and Persia and studied and tried to understand observable cultural diversity, such as by [[Al-Biruni]] of the [[Islamic Golden Age]]. As such, anthropology has been central in the development of several new (late 20th century) interdisciplinary fields such as [[cognitive science]], [[global studies]], and various [[ethnic studies]]. According to [[Clifford Geertz]], [[Sociocultural anthropology]] has been heavily influenced by [[structuralism|structuralist]] and postmodern theories, as well as a shift toward the analysis of modern societies. During the 1970s and 1990s, there was an [[epistemological]] shift away from the [[positivist]] traditions that had largely informed the discipline. During this shift, enduring questions about the nature and production of knowledge came to occupy a central place in cultural and social anthropology. In contrast, archaeology and biological anthropology remained largely positivist. Due to this difference in epistemology, the four sub-fields of anthropology have lacked cohesion over the last several decades.

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Sociocultural anthropology draws together the principle axes of [[cultural anthropology]] and [[social anthropology]]. Cultural anthropology is the comparative study of the manifold ways in which people ''make sense'' of the world around them, while social anthropology is the study of the ''relationships'' among individuals and groups. Cultural anthropology is more related to [[philosophy]], literature and [[the arts]] (how one's culture affects the experience for self and group, contributing to a more complete understanding of the people's knowledge, customs, and institutions), while social anthropology is more related to [[sociology]] and history. In that, it helps develop an understanding of social structures, typically of others and other populations (such as minorities, subgroups, dissidents, etc.). There is no hard-and-fast distinction between them, and these categories overlap to a considerable degree. Inquiry in sociocultural anthropology is guided in part by [[cultural relativism]], the attempt to understand other societies in terms of their own cultural symbols and values. Accepting other cultures in their own terms moderates reductionism in cross-cultural comparison. This project is often accommodated in the field of [[ethnography]]. Ethnography can refer to both a methodology and the product of ethnographic research, i.e. an ethnographic [[monograph]]. As a methodology, ethnography is based upon long-term fieldwork within a community or other research site. [[Participant observation]] is one of the foundational methods of social and cultural anthropology. [[Ethnology]] involves the systematic comparison of different cultures. The process of participant-observation can be especially helpful to understanding a culture from an [[emic]] (conceptual, vs. [[etic]], or technical) point of view. The study of [[kinship]] and [[social organization]] is a central focus of sociocultural anthropology, as kinship is a [[human universal]]. Sociocultural anthropology also covers [[Economic anthropology|economic]] and [[Political anthropology|political organization]], law and conflict resolution, patterns of consumption and exchange, material culture, technology, infrastructure, gender relations, ethnicity, childrearing and socialization, religion, myth, symbols, values, etiquette, worldview, sports, music, nutrition, recreation, games, food, festivals, and language (which is also the object of study in linguistic anthropology). Comparison across cultures is a key element of method in sociocultural anthropology, including the industrialized (and de-industrialized) West. The [[Standard Cross-Cultural Sample]] (SCCS) includes 186 such cultures.

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Biological anthropology and physical anthropology are synonymous terms to describe anthropological research focused on the study of humans and non-human primates in their biological, evolutionary, and demographic dimensions. It examines the biological and social factors that have affected the evolution of humans and other primates, and that generate, maintain or change contemporary genetic and physiological variation.

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[[Archaeology]] is the study of the human past through its material remains. Artifacts, faunal remains, and human altered landscapes are evidence of the cultural and material lives of past societies. Archaeologists examine material remains in order to deduce patterns of past human behavior and cultural practices. Ethnoarchaeology is a type of archaeology that studies the practices and material remains of living human groups in order to gain a better understanding of the evidence left behind by past human groups, who are presumed to have lived in similar ways.

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[[Linguistic anthropology]] (not to be confused with [[anthropological linguistics]]) seeks to understand the processes of human communications, verbal and non-verbal, variation in [[language]] across time and space, the social uses of language, and the relationship between language and culture. It is the branch of anthropology that brings linguistic methods to bear on anthropological problems, linking the analysis of linguistic forms and processes to the interpretation of sociocultural processes. Linguistic anthropologists often draw on related fields including [[sociolinguistics]], [[pragmatics]], [[cognitive linguistics]], [[semiotics]], [[discourse analysis]], and [[narrative]] analysis.

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One of the central problems in the anthropology of art concerns the universality of 'art' as a cultural phenomenon. Several anthropologists have noted that the Western categories of 'painting', 'sculpture', or 'literature', conceived as independent artistic activities, do not exist, or exist in a significantly different form, in most non-Western contexts. To surmount this difficulty, anthropologists of art have focused on formal features in objects which, without exclusively being 'artistic', have certain evident 'aesthetic' qualities. Boas' ''Primitive Art'', [[Claude Lévi-Strauss]]' ''The Way of the Masks'' (1982) or Geertz's 'Art as Cultural System' (1983) are some examples in this trend to transform the anthropology of 'art' into an anthropology of culturally specific 'aesthetics'.

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Media anthropology (also known as the anthropology of media or mass media) emphasizes [[ethnography|ethnographic studies]] as a means of understanding producers, audiences, and other cultural and social aspects of mass media. The types of ethnographic contexts explored range from contexts of media production (e.g., ethnographies of newsrooms in newspapers, journalists in the field, film production) to contexts of media reception, following audiences in their everyday responses to media. Other types include [[cyber anthropology]], a relatively new area of [[internet research]], as well as ethnographies of other areas of research which happen to involve media, such as development work, [[social movement]], or health education. This is in addition to many classic ethnographic contexts, where media such as radio, [[newspaper|the press]], [[new media]], and television have started to make their presences felt since the early 1990s.

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[[Ethnomusicology]] is an academic field encompassing various approaches to the study of music (broadly defined), that emphasize its cultural, social, material, cognitive, biological, and other dimensions or contexts instead of or in addition to its isolated sound component or any particular repertoire. [[Ethnomusicology]] can be used in a wide variety of fields, such as teaching, politics, cultural anthropology etc.  While the origins of ethnomusicology date back to the 18th and 19th centuries, it was formally introduced as “ethnomusicology” by Dutch scholar [[Jaap Kunst]] around 1950. Later, the influence of study in this area spawned the creation of the periodical ''[[Ethnomusicology (academic journal)|Ethnomusicology]]'' and the [[Society for Ethnomusicology|Society of Ethnomusicology]].

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Visual anthropology is concerned, in part, with the study and production of [[ethnography|ethnographic]] photography, film and, since the mid-1990s, [[new media]]. While the term is sometimes used interchangeably with [[ethnographic film]], visual anthropology also encompasses the anthropological study of visual representation, including areas such as performance, museums, art, and the production and [[reception theory|reception]] of [[anthropology of media|mass media]]. Visual representations from all cultures, such as sandpaintings, tattoos, sculptures and reliefs, cave paintings, scrimshaw, jewelry, hieroglyphics, paintings, and photographs are included in the focus of visual anthropology.

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Economic anthropology attempts to explain human economic behavior in its widest historic, geographic and cultural scope. It has a complex relationship with the discipline of economics, of which it is highly critical. Its origins as a sub-field of anthropology begin with the Polish-British founder of anthropology, [[Bronisław Malinowski]], and his French compatriot, [[Marcel Mauss]], on the nature of gift-giving exchange (or [[Reciprocity (cultural anthropology)|reciprocity]]) as an alternative to market exchange. Economic Anthropology remains, for the most part, focused upon exchange. The school of thought derived from Marx and known as Political Economy focuses on production, in contrast. Economic anthropologists have abandoned the primitivist niche they were relegated to by economists, and have now turned to examine corporations, banks, and the [[global financial system]] from an anthropological perspective.

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Political economy in anthropology is the application of the theories and methods of [[historical materialism]] to the traditional concerns of anthropology, including, but not limited to, non-capitalist societies. Political economy introduced questions of history and colonialism to ahistorical anthropological theories of social structure and culture. Three main areas of interest rapidly developed. The first of these areas was concerned with the "pre-capitalist" societies that were subject to evolutionary "tribal" stereotypes. Sahlin's work on hunter-gatherers as the "original affluent society" did much to dissipate that image. The second area was concerned with the vast majority of the world's population at the time, the peasantry, many of whom were involved in complex revolutionary wars such as in Vietnam. The third area was on colonialism, imperialism, and the creation of the capitalist [[world-system]]. More recently, these political economists have more directly addressed issues of industrial (and post-industrial) capitalism around the world.

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Applied anthropology refers to the application of the method and theory of anthropology to the analysis and solution of practical problems. It is a "complex of related, research-based, instrumental methods which produce change or stability in specific cultural systems through the provision of data, initiation of direct action, and/or the formulation of policy". More simply, applied anthropology is the practical side of anthropological research; it includes researcher involvement and activism within the participating community. It is closely related to [[development anthropology]] (distinct from the more critical [[anthropology of development]]).

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Anthropology of development tends to view development from a ''critical'' perspective. The kind of issues addressed and implications for the approach simply involve pondering why, if a key development goal is to alleviate poverty, is poverty increasing? Why is there such a gap between plans and outcomes? Why are those working in development so willing to disregard history and the lessons it might offer? Why is development so externally driven rather than having an internal basis? In short, why does so much planned development fail?

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''Kinship'' can refer both to ''the study of'' the patterns of social relationships in one or more human cultures, or it can refer to ''the patterns of social relationships'' themselves. Over its history, anthropology has developed a number of related concepts and terms, such as "[[kinship|descent]]", "[[descent group]]", "[[lineage (anthropology)|lineages]]", "[[affinity (law)|affines]]", "[[cognatic kinship|cognates]]", and even "[[fictive kinship]]". Broadly, kinship patterns may be considered to include people related both by descent (one's social relations during development), and also relatives by marriage. Within kinship you have two different families. People have their biological families and it is the people they share DNA with. This is called consanguineal relations or "blood ties". People can also have a chosen family Finding Connection Through "Chosen Family" in which they chose who they want to be a part of their family. In some cases people are closer with their chosen family more than with their biological families.

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Feminist anthropology is a four field approach to anthropology ([[archaeology|archeological]], [[biological anthropology|biological]], [[cultural anthropology|cultural]], [[linguistic anthropology|linguistic]]) that seeks to reduce male bias in research findings, anthropological hiring practices, and the scholarly production of knowledge. Anthropology engages often with feminists from non-Western traditions, whose perspectives and experiences can differ from those of white feminists of Europe, America, and elsewhere. From the perspective of the [[Western world]], historically such 'peripheral' perspectives have been ignored, observed only from an outsider perspective, and regarded as less-valid or less-important than knowledge from the Western world. Exploring and addressing that double bias against women from marginalized racial or ethnic groups is of particular interest in [[intersectional]] feminist anthropology. Feminist anthropologists have claimed that their research helps to correct these systematic biases in mainstream [[feminist theory]], [[history]], [[linguistics]], [[archaeology]], and anthropology. Feminist anthropologists are centrally concerned with the construction of [[gender]] across societies. Gender constructs are of particular interest when studying [[sexism]]. The first [[African-American]] female [[anthropologist]] and [[Caribbeanist]] is said to be [[Vera Mae Green]] who studied ethnic and family relations in the [[Caribbean]] as well as the United States, and thereby tried to improve the way black life, experiences, and culture were studied. Feminist anthropology is inclusive of the anthropology of birth as a specialization, which is the anthropological study of [[pregnancy]] and [[childbirth]] within cultures and societies.

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Medical anthropology is an interdisciplinary field which studies "human health and disease, health care systems, and biocultural adaptation". It is believed that William Caudell was the first to discover the field of medical anthropology. Currently, research in medical anthropology is one of the main growth areas in the field of anthropology as a whole. It focuses on the following six basic fields: Other subjects that have become central to medical anthropology worldwide are violence and social suffering (Farmer, 1999, 2003; Beneduce, 2010) as well as other issues that involve physical and psychological harm and suffering that are not a result of illness. On the other hand, there are fields that intersect with medical anthropology in terms of research methodology and theoretical production, such as ''cultural psychiatry'' and ''transcultural psychiatry'' or ''ethnopsychiatry''.

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Nutritional anthropology is a synthetic concept that deals with the interplay between [[economic systems]], [[nutrition|nutritional status]] and [[food security]], and how changes in the former affect the latter. If economic and environmental changes in a community affect access to food, food security, and dietary health, then this interplay between culture and biology is in turn connected to broader historical and economic trends associated with globalization. Nutritional status affects overall health status, work performance potential, and the overall potential for economic development (either in terms of human development or traditional western models) for any given group of people.

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Psychological anthropology is an interdisciplinary subfield of anthropology that studies the interaction of [[cultural anthropology|cultural]] and [[psychology|mental processes]]. This subfield tends to focus on ways in which humans' development and [[enculturation]] within a particular cultural group – with its own history, language, practices, and conceptual categories – shape processes of human [[cognition]], [[emotion]], [[perception]], [[motivation]], and [[mental health]]. It also examines how the understanding of cognition, emotion, motivation, and similar psychological processes inform or constrain our models of cultural and social processes.

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Cognitive anthropology seeks to explain patterns of shared knowledge, cultural [[innovation]], and transmission over time and space using the methods and [[theories]] of the [[cognitive sciences]] (especially [[experimental psychology]] and [[evolutionary biology]]) often through close collaboration with historians, ethnographers, archaeologists, linguists, musicologists and other specialists engaged in the description and [[interpretation (logic)|interpretation]] of cultural forms. Cognitive anthropology is concerned with what people from different groups know and how that implicit knowledge changes the way people perceive and relate to the world around them.

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Transpersonal anthropology studies the relationship between [[altered states of consciousness]] and culture. As with [[transpersonal psychology]], the field is much concerned with altered states of consciousness (ASC) and [[transpersonal experience]]. However, the field differs from mainstream transpersonal psychology in taking more cognizance of cross-cultural issues – for instance, the roles of [[Mythology|myth]], [[ritual]], [[diet (nutrition)|diet]], and [[Literature|texts]] in evoking and interpreting extraordinary experiences.

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Political anthropology concerns the structure of [[Form of government|political systems]], looked at from the basis of the structure of societies. Political anthropology developed as a discipline concerned primarily with politics in stateless societies, a new development started from the 1960s, and is still unfolding: anthropologists started increasingly to study more "complex" social settings in which the presence of states, bureaucracies and markets entered both ethnographic accounts and analysis of local phenomena. The turn towards complex societies meant that political themes were taken up at two main levels. Firstly, anthropologists continued to study [[political organization]] and political phenomena that lay outside the state-regulated sphere (as in patron-client relations or tribal political organization). Secondly, anthropologists slowly started to develop a disciplinary concern with states and their institutions (and on the relationship between formal and informal political institutions). An anthropology of the state developed, and it is a most thriving field today. Geertz' comparative work on "Negara", the Balinese state, is an early, famous example.

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Legal anthropology or anthropology of law specializes in "the cross-cultural study of social ordering". Earlier legal anthropological research often focused more narrowly on conflict management, crime, sanctions, or formal regulation. More recent applications include issues such as [[human rights]], [[legal pluralism]], and political uprisings.

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Public anthropology was created by Robert Borofsky, a professor at Hawaii Pacific University, to "demonstrate the ability of anthropology and anthropologists to effectively address problems beyond the discipline – illuminating larger social issues of our times as well as encouraging broad, public conversations about them with the explicit goal of fostering social change".

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Cyborg anthropology originated as a sub-focus group within the [[American Anthropological Association]]'s annual meeting in 1993. The sub-group was very closely related to [[science and technology studies|STS]] and the [[Society for the Social Studies of Science]]. [[Donna Haraway]]'s 1985 ''[[Cyborg Manifesto]]'' could be considered the founding document of cyborg anthropology by first exploring the philosophical and sociological ramifications of the term. Cyborg anthropology studies humankind and its relations with the technological systems it has built, specifically modern technological systems that have reflexively shaped notions of what it means to be human beings.

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Digital anthropology is the study of the relationship between humans and digital-era technology, and extends to various areas where anthropology and [[technology]] intersect. It is sometimes grouped with [[cultural anthropology|sociocultural anthropology]], and sometimes considered part of [[material culture]]. The field is new, and thus has a variety of names with a variety of emphases. These include techno-anthropology, digital ethnography, cyberanthropology, and virtual anthropology.

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Ecological anthropology is defined as the "study of [[cultural adaptation]] to environments". The sub-field is also defined as, "the study of relationships between a population of humans and their [[biophysical environment]]". The focus of its research concerns "how cultural [[beliefs]] and practices helped human populations adapt to their environments, and how their environments change across space and time. The contemporary perspective of environmental anthropology, and arguably at least the backdrop, if not the focus of most of the ethnographies and cultural fieldworks of today, is [[political ecology]]. Many characterize this new perspective as more informed with culture, politics and power, globalization, localized issues, century anthropology and more. The focus and data interpretation is often used for arguments for/against or creation of policy, and to prevent corporate exploitation and damage of land. Often, the observer has become an active part of the struggle either directly (organizing, participation) or indirectly (articles, documentaries, books, ethnographies). Such is the case with environmental justice advocate Melissa Checker and her relationship with the people of Hyde Park.

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Ethnohistory is the study of [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] cultures and [[Indigenous peoples|indigenous]] customs by examining [[History|historical records]]. It is also the study of the history of various [[ethnic group]] that may or may not exist today. Ethnohistory uses both historical and ethnographic data as its foundation. Its historical methods and materials go beyond the standard use of documents and manuscripts. Practitioners recognize the utility of such source material as maps, music, paintings, photography, [[folklore]], oral tradition, site exploration, archaeological materials, museum collections, enduring customs, language, and place names.

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The anthropology of religion involves the study of religious institutions in relation to other social institutions, and the comparison of religious beliefs and practices across cultures. Modern anthropology assumes that there is complete continuity between [[magical thinking]] and religion, and that every religion is a cultural product, created by the human [[community]] that worships it.

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Urban anthropology is concerned with issues of [[urbanization]], poverty, and [[neoliberalism]]. [[Ulf Hannerz]] quotes a 1960s remark that traditional anthropologists were "a notoriously [[agoraphobic]] lot, anti-urban by definition". Various social processes in the [[Western World]] as well as in the "[[Third World]]" (the latter being the habitual focus of attention of anthropologists) brought the attention of "[[Anthropology#Focus on the "other cultures"|specialists in 'other cultures']]" closer to their homes. There are two main approaches to urban anthropology: examining the types of cities or examining the social issues within the cities. These two methods are overlapping and dependent of each other. By defining different types of cities, one would use social factors as well as economic and political factors to categorize the cities. By directly looking at the different social issues, one would also be studying how they affect the dynamic of the city.

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[[Anthrozoology]] (also known as "human–animal studies") is the study of interaction between living things. It is an [[interdisciplinary]] field that overlaps with a number of other disciplines, including anthropology, [[ethology]], medicine, [[psychology]], [[veterinary medicine]] and [[zoology]]. A major focus of anthrozoologic research is the quantifying of the positive effects of human-animal relationships on either party and the study of their interactions. It includes scholars from a diverse range of fields, including anthropology, sociology, biology, and philosophy.

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Biocultural anthropology is the [[scientific]] exploration of the relationships between [[human biology]] and culture. [[Biological anthropology|Physical anthropologists]] throughout the first half of the 20th century viewed this relationship from a [[Race (classification of human beings)|racial]] perspective; that is, from the assumption that [[Typology (anthropology)|typological]] human biological differences lead to cultural differences. After World War II the emphasis began to shift toward an effort to explore the role culture plays in shaping human biology.

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Evolutionary anthropology is the interdisciplinary study of the [[human evolution|evolution]] of [[human physiology]] and [[human behaviour]] and the relation between [[hominins]] and non-hominin [[primate]]. Evolutionary anthropology is based in [[natural science]] and [[social science]], combining the [[Human development (biology)|human development]] with socioeconomic factors. Evolutionary anthropology is concerned with both biological and cultural evolution of humans, past and present. It is based on a [[scientific]] approach, and brings together fields such as [[archaeology]], [[behavioral ecology]], [[psychology]], [[primatology]], and [[genetics]]. It is a dynamic and [[interdisciplinary]] field, drawing on many lines of evidence to understand the human experience, past and present.

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Forensic anthropology is the application of the science of [[physical anthropology]] and human [[osteology]] in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of [[decomposition]]. A forensic anthropologist can assist in the identification of deceased individuals whose remains are decomposed, burned, mutilated or otherwise unrecognizable. The adjective "forensic" refers to the application of this subfield of science to a court of law.

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Paleoanthropology combines the disciplines of [[paleontology]] and [[physical anthropology]]. It is the study of ancient humans, as found in [[fossil]] [[Hominidae|hominid]] evidence such as [[Petrifaction|petrifacted]] bones and footprints. Genetics and morphology of specimens are crucially important to this field. Markers on specimens, such as [[enamel fracture]] and [[Tooth decay|dental decay]] on [[Tooth|teeth]], can also give insight into the behaviour and diet of past populations.

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Contemporary anthropology is an established science with academic departments at most universities and colleges. The single largest organization of anthropologists is the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA), which was founded in 1903. Its members are anthropologists from around the globe. In 1989, a group of European and American scholars in the field of anthropology established the [[European Association of Social Anthropologists]] (EASA) which serves as a major professional organization for anthropologists working in Europe. The EASA seeks to advance the status of anthropology in Europe and to increase visibility of marginalized anthropological traditions and thereby contribute to the project of a global anthropology or world anthropology. Hundreds of other organizations exist in the various sub-fields of anthropology, sometimes divided up by nation or region, and many anthropologists work with collaborators in other disciplines, such as [[geology]], [[physics]], [[zoology]], [[paleontology]], [[anatomy]], [[music theory]], [[art history]], [[sociology]] and so on, belonging to professional societies in those disciplines as well.

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(-) [[American Anthropological Association]] (-) [[American Ethnological Society]] (-) [[AIBR. Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red|Asociación de Antropólogos Iberoamericanos en Red, AIBR]] (-) [[Moving Anthropology Student Network]] (-) [[Anthropological Society of London]] (-) [[Center for World Indigenous Studies]] (-) [[Ethnological Society of London]] (-) [[Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology]] (-) [[Network of Concerned Anthropologists]] (-) [[N.N. Miklukho-Maklai Institute of Ethnology and Anthropology]] (-) [[Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland]] (-) [[Society for anthropological sciences]] (-) [[Society for Applied Anthropology]] (-) [[USC Center for Visual Anthropology]]

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As the field has matured it has debated and arrived at ethical principles aimed at protecting both the subjects of anthropological research as well as the researchers themselves, and professional societies have generated codes of ethics. Anthropologists, like other researchers (especially historians and scientists engaged in field research), have over time assisted state policies and projects, especially colonialism. Some commentators have contended: (-) That the discipline grew out of colonialism, perhaps was in league with it, and derives some of its key notions from it, consciously or not. (See, for example, Gough, Pels and Salemink, but cf. Lewis 2004). (-) That ethnographic work is often [[Ahistoricism|ahistorical]], writing about people as if they were "out of time" in an "ethnographic present" (Johannes Fabian, ''Time and Its Other''). (-) In his article "The Misrepresentation of Anthropology and Its Consequence," [[Herbert S. Lewis]] critiqued older anthropological works that presented other cultures as if they were strange and unusual. While the findings of those researchers should not be discarded, the field should learn from its mistakes.

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As part of their quest for [[scientific objectivity]], present-day anthropologists typically urge [[cultural relativism]], which has an influence on all the sub-fields of anthropology. This is the notion that cultures should not be judged by another's values or viewpoints, but be examined dispassionately on their own terms. There should be no notions, in good anthropology, of one culture being better or worse than another culture. Ethical commitments in anthropology include noticing and documenting [[genocide]], [[infanticide]], [[racism]], [[sexism]], [[mutilation]] (including [[circumcision]] and [[subincision]]), and [[torture]]. Topics like racism, slavery, and human sacrifice attract anthropological attention and theories ranging from nutritional deficiencies, to genes, to [[acculturation]], to [[colonialism]], have been proposed to explain their origins and continued recurrences. To illustrate the depth of an anthropological approach, one can take just one of these topics, such as "racism" and find thousands of anthropological references, stretching across all the major and minor sub-fields.

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Anthropologists' involvement with the U.S. government, in particular, has caused bitter controversy within the discipline. Franz Boas publicly objected to US participation in World War I, and after the war he published a brief expose and condemnation of the participation of several American archaeologists in espionage in Mexico under their cover as scientists. But by the 1940s, many of Boas' anthropologist contemporaries were active in the allied war effort against the [[Axis Powers]] (Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Imperial Japan). Many served in the armed forces, while others worked in intelligence (for example, [[Office of Strategic Services]] and the [[Office of War Information]]). At the same time, [[David Price (anthropologist)|David H. Price]]'s work on American anthropology during the Cold War provides detailed accounts of the pursuit and dismissal of several anthropologists from their jobs for communist sympathies. Attempts to accuse anthropologists of complicity with the CIA and government intelligence activities during the Vietnam War years have turned up surprisingly little. Many anthropologists (students and teachers) were active in the antiwar movement. Numerous resolutions condemning the war in all its aspects were passed overwhelmingly at the annual meetings of the [[American Anthropological Association]] (AAA). Professional anthropological bodies often object to the use of anthropology for the benefit of the [[State (polity)|state]]. Their codes of ethics or statements may proscribe anthropologists from giving secret briefings. The [[Association of Social Anthropologists of the UK and Commonwealth]] (ASA) has called certain scholarship ethically dangerous. The "Principles of Professional Responsibility" issued by the American Anthropological Association and amended through November 1986 stated that "in relation with their own government and with host governments ... no secret research, no secret reports or debriefings of any kind should be agreed to or given." The current "Principles of Professional Responsibility" does not make explicit mention of ethics surrounding state interactions. Anthropologists, along with other social scientists, are working with the US military as part of the US Army's strategy in Afghanistan. ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'' reports that "Counterinsurgency efforts focus on better grasping and meeting local needs" [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|in Afghanistan]], under the ''[[Human Terrain System]]'' (HTS) program; in addition, HTS teams are working with the [[US military in Iraq]]. In 2009, the American Anthropological Association's Commission on the Engagement of Anthropology with the US Security and Intelligence Communities released its final report concluding, in part, that, "When ethnographic investigation is determined by military missions, not subject to external review, where data collection occurs in the context of war, integrated into the goals of counterinsurgency, and in a potentially coercive environment – all characteristic factors of the HTS concept and its application – it can no longer be considered a legitimate professional exercise of anthropology. In summary, while we stress that constructive engagement between anthropology and the military is possible, CEAUSSIC suggests that the AAA emphasize the incompatibility of HTS with disciplinary ethics and practice for job seekers and that it further recognize the problem of allowing HTS to define the meaning of "anthropology" within DoD."

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Before [[WWII]] British 'social anthropology' and American 'cultural anthropology' were still distinct traditions. After the war, enough British and American anthropologists borrowed ideas and methodological approaches from one another that some began to speak of them collectively as 'sociocultural' anthropology.

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There are several characteristics that tend to unite anthropological work. One of the central characteristics is that anthropology tends to provide a comparatively more [[Holism|holistic]] account of phenomena and tends to be highly empirical. The quest for holism leads most anthropologists to study a particular place, problem or phenomenon in detail, using a variety of methods, over a more extensive period than normal in many parts of academia. In the 1990s and 2000s, calls for clarification of what constitutes a culture, of how an observer knows where his or her own culture ends and another begins, and other crucial topics in writing anthropology were heard. These dynamic relationships, between what can be observed on the ground, as opposed to what can be observed by compiling many local observations remain fundamental in any kind of anthropology, whether cultural, biological, linguistic or archaeological. Biological anthropologists are interested in both human variation and in the possibility of human universals (behaviors, ideas or concepts shared by virtually all human cultures). They use many different methods of study, but modern population [[genetics]], [[participant observation]] and other techniques often take anthropologists "into the field," which means traveling to a community in its own setting, to do something called "fieldwork." On the biological or physical side, human measurements, genetic samples, nutritional data may be gathered and published as articles or monographs. Along with dividing up their project by theoretical emphasis, anthropologists typically divide the world up into relevant time periods and geographic regions. Human time on Earth is divided up into relevant cultural traditions based on material, such as the [[Paleolithic]] and the [[Neolithic]], of particular use in archaeology. Further cultural subdivisions according to tool types, such as [[Olduwan]] or [[Mousterian]] or [[Levallois technique|Levalloisian]] help archaeologists and other anthropologists in understanding major trends in the human past. Anthropologists and geographers share approaches to [[culture regions]] as well, since mapping cultures is central to both sciences. By making comparisons across cultural traditions (time-based) and cultural regions (space-based), anthropologists have developed various kinds of [[comparative method]], a central part of their science.

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Because anthropology developed from so many different enterprises (see [[History of anthropology]]), including but not limited to [[Fossil collecting|fossil-hunting]], [[Exploration|exploring]], documentary film-making, [[paleontology]], [[primatology]], antiquity dealings and curatorship, [[philology]], [[etymology]], [[genetics]], regional analysis, [[ethnology]], history, [[philosophy]], and [[religious studies]], it is difficult to characterize the entire field in a brief article, although attempts to write histories of the entire field have been made. Some authors argue that anthropology originated and developed as the study of "other cultures", both in terms of time (past societies) and space (non-European/non-Western societies). For example, the classic of [[urban anthropology]], [[Ulf Hannerz]] in the introduction to his seminal ''Exploring the City: Inquiries Toward an Urban Anthropology'' mentions that the "[[Third World]]" had habitually received most of attention; anthropologists who traditionally specialized in "other cultures" looked for them far away and started to look "across the tracks" only in late 1960s. Now there exist many works focusing on peoples and topics very close to the author's "home". It is also argued that other fields of study, like History and [[Sociology]], on the contrary focus disproportionately on the West. In France, the study of Western societies has been traditionally left to [[sociologist]], but this is increasingly changing, starting in the 1970s from scholars like Isac Chiva and journals like ''[[Terrain (journal)|Terrain]]'' ("fieldwork"), and developing with the center founded by [[Marc Augé]] (''[[École des hautes études en sciences sociales|Le Centre d'anthropologie des mondes contemporains]]'', the Anthropological Research Center of Contemporary Societies). Since the 1980s it has become common for social and cultural anthropologists to set ethnographic research in the North Atlantic region, frequently examining the connections between locations rather than limiting research to a single locale. There has also been a related shift toward broadening the focus beyond the daily life of ordinary people; increasingly, research is set in settings such as scientific laboratories, social movements, governmental and nongovernmental organizations and businesses.

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'''Agricultural science''' is a broad multidisciplinary field of [[biology]] that encompasses the parts of exact, natural, economic and [[social science]] that are used in the practice and understanding of [[agriculture]]. Professionals of the agricultural science are called agricultural scientists or [[agriculturists]].

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In the 18th century, [[Johann Friedrich Mayer (agriculturist)|Johann Friedrich Mayer]] conducted experiments on the use of [[gypsum]] (hydrated [[calcium sulphate]]) as a fertilizer. In 1843, [[John Lawes]] and [[Joseph Henry Gilbert]] began a set of long-term field experiments at [[Rothamsted Research Station]] in England, some of which are still running as of 2018. In the United States, a scientific revolution in agriculture began with the [[Hatch Act of 1887]], which used the term "agricultural science". The Hatch Act was driven by farmers' interest in knowing the constituents of early artificial fertilizer. The [[Smith-Hughes Act]] of 1917 shifted agricultural education back to its vocational roots, but the scientific foundation had been built. After 1906, public expenditures on agricultural research in the US exceeded private expenditures for the next 44 years.

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(-) [[Robert Bakewell (farmer)|Robert Bakewell]] (-) [[Norman Borlaug]] (-) [[Luther Burbank]] (-) [[George Washington Carver]] (-) [[Carl Henry Clerk]] (-) [[George C. Clerk]] (-) [[René Dumont]] (-) [[Sir Albert Howard]] (-) [[Kailas Nath Kaul]] (-) [[Justus von Liebig]] (-) [[Jay Lush]] (-) [[Gregor Mendel]] (-) [[Louis Pasteur]] (-) [[M. S. Swaminathan]] (-) [[Jethro Tull (agriculturist)|Jethro Tull]] (-) [[Artturi Ilmari Virtanen]] (-) [[Sewall Wright]] (-) [[Wilbur Olin Atwater]]

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(-) [[Agricultural biotechnology]] (-) [[Agricultural chemistry]] (-) [[Agricultural diversification]] (-) [[Agricultural education]] (-) [[Agricultural economics]] (-) [[Agricultural engineering]] (-) [[Agricultural geography]] (-) [[Agricultural philosophy]] (-) [[Agricultural marketing]] (-) [[Agricultural soil science]] (-) [[Agroecology]] (-) [[Agrophysics]] (-) [[Animal science]] (-) [[Animal breeding]] (-) [[Animal husbandry]] (-) [[Animal nutrition]] (-) [[Farm management]] (-) [[Agronomy]] (-) [[Botany]] (-) [[Theoretical production ecology]] (-) [[Horticulture]] (-) [[Plant breeding]] (-) [[fertilizer|Plant fertilization]] (-) [[Aquaculture]] (-) [[Biological engineering]] (-) [[Genetic engineering]] (-) [[Nematology]] (-) [[Microbiology]] (-) [[Plant pathology]] (-) [[Range management]] (-) [[Environmental science]] (-) [[Entomology]] (-) [[Food science]] (-) [[Human nutrition]] (-) [[Irrigation]] and [[water management]] (-) [[Soil science]] (-) [[Agrology]] (-) [[Waste management]] (-) [[Weed]] science (-) [[Agricultural biotechnology]]

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Agriculture, agricultural science, and agronomy are often confused. However, they cover different concepts: (-) Agriculture is the set of activities that transform the environment for the production of animals and plants for human use. Agriculture concerns techniques, including the application of agronomic research. (-) [[Agronomy]] is [[research and development]] related to studying and improving plant-based crops.

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Agricultural sciences include research and development on: (-) Improving [[agricultural productivity]] in terms of quantity and quality (e.g., selection of [[drought]]-resistant crops and animals, development of new [[pesticide]], yield-sensing technologies, simulation models of crop growth, in-vitro [[cell culture]] techniques) (-) Minimizing the effects of pests ([[weed]], [[insect]], [[pathogen]], [[mollusk]], [[nematode]]) on crop or animal production systems. (-) Transformation of primary products into end-consumer products (e.g., production, preservation, and packaging of [[dairy product]]) (-) Prevention and correction of adverse environmental effects (e.g., [[soil retrogression and degradation|soil degradation]], [[waste management]], [[bioremediation]]) (-) [[Theoretical production ecology]], relating to crop production modeling (-) Traditional agricultural systems, sometimes termed [[subsistence agriculture]], which feed most of the poorest people in the world. These systems are of interest as they sometimes retain a level of integration with natural ecological systems greater than that of [[industrial agriculture]], which may be more sustainable than some modern agricultural systems. (-) Food production and demand on a global basis, with special attention paid to the major producers, such as China, India, Brazil, the US and the EU. (-) Various sciences relating to agricultural resources and the environment (e.g. soil science, agroclimatology); biology of agricultural crops and animals (e.g. crop science, animal science and their included sciences, e.g. ruminant nutrition, farm animal welfare); such fields as agricultural economics and rural sociology; various disciplines encompassed in [[agricultural engineering]].

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'''Alchemy''' (from [[Arabic]]: ''al-kīmiyā''; from [[Ancient Greek]]: ''khumeía'') is an ancient branch of [[natural philosophy]], a [[philosophical]] and [[protoscience|protoscientific]] tradition practiced throughout [[Europe]], [[Africa]], [[China]] and throughout [[Asia]], observable in [[Chinese alchemy|Chinese]] text from around 73–49 BCE and [[Egypt (Roman province)|Greco-Roman Egypt]] in the first few centuries CE. Alchemists attempted to purify, mature, and perfect certain materials. Common aims were [[chrysopoeia]], the [[Transmutation of elements|transmutation]] of "[[base metal]]" (e.g., [[lead]]) into "[[noble metal]]" (particularly [[gold]]); the creation of an [[Elixir of life|elixir of immortality]]; the creation of [[Panacea (medicine)|panaceas]] able to cure any disease; and the development of an [[alkahest]], a universal [[solvent]]. The perfection of the [[human body]] and [[soul]] was thought to permit or result from the [[Magnum opus (alchemy)|alchemical ''magnum opus'']] and, in the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] and [[Western mystery tradition]], the achievement of [[gnosis]]. In Europe, the creation of a [[philosopher's stone]] was variously connected with all of these projects. In [[English language|English]], the term is often limited to descriptions of European alchemy, but similar practices existed in the [[Chinese alchemy|Far East]], the [[Rasayana|Indian subcontinent]], and the [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Muslim world]]. In Europe, following the [[Renaissance of the 12th century|12th-century Renaissance]] produced by the [[Latin translations of the 12th century|translation]] of [[Science in the medieval Islamic world|Medieval Islamic works on science]] and the [[Recovery of Aristotle|rediscovery of Aristotelian philosophy]], [[List of alchemists|alchemists]] played a significant role in [[Early modern era|early modern]] science (particularly [[History of chemistry|chemistry]] and [[History of medicine|medicine]]). Islamic and European alchemists developed a structure of basic [[laboratory techniques]], theory, terminology, and [[experimental method]], some of which are still in use today. However, they continued [[Classical antiquity|antiquity]]'s belief in [[four elements]] and guarded their work in secrecy including [[History of cryptography|cyphers]] and cryptic symbolism. Their work was guided by [[Hermeticism|Hermetic principles]] related to [[Magic (paranormal)|magic]], [[mythology]], and [[religion]]. Modern discussions of alchemy are generally split into an examination of its [[exoteric]] practical applications and its [[esoteric]] spiritual aspects, despite criticisms by scholars such as [[Eric John Holmyard|Holmyard]] and [[Marie-Louise von Franz|von Franz]] that they should be understood as complementary. The former is pursued by [[History of the physical sciences|historians of the physical sciences]] who examine the subject in terms of [[History of chemistry|early chemistry]], [[History of medicine|medicine]], and [[charlatanism]], and the [[philosophical]] and [[Religion|religious]] contexts in which these events occurred. The latter interests historians of [[esotericism]], [[History of psychology|psychologists]], and some philosophers and [[Spirituality|spiritualists]]. The subject has also made an ongoing impact on literature and the arts. Despite this split, which von Franz believes has existed since the Western traditions' origin in a mix of [[Greek philosophy]] that was mixed with [[Ancient Egyptian technology|Egyptian]] and [[Mesopotamian science|Mesopotamian technology]], numerous sources have stressed an integration of esoteric and exoteric approaches to alchemy as far back as [[Pseudo-Democritus]]'s first-century AD ''On Physical and Mystical Matters'' (). Although alchemy is popularly associated with magic, historian [[Lawrence M. Principe]] argues that recent historical research has revealed that medieval and early modern alchemy embraced a much more diverse set of ideas, goals, techniques, and practices:

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Most readers probably are aware of several common claims about alchemy—for example, ... that it is akin to magic, or that its practice then or now is essentially deceptive. These ideas about alchemy emerged during the eighteenth century or after. While each of them might have limited validity within a narrow context, none of them is an accurate depiction of alchemy in general.

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The word alchemy comes from [[Old French]] ''alquemie'', ''alkimie'', used in [[Medieval Latin]] as . This name was itself brought from the [[Arabic]] word ''al-kīmiyā'' ( or ) composed of two parts: the [[Late Greek]] term ''khēmeía'' (χημεία), also spelled ''khumeia'' (χυμεία) and ''khēmía'' (χημία) - see below, and the Arabic [[definite article]] ''[[al-]]'' (), meaning 'The'. Together this association can be interpreted as 'the process of [[Magnum opus (alchemy)|transmutation]] by which to fuse or reunite with the divine or original form'. Several etymologies have been proposed for the Greek term. The first was proposed by Zosimos of Panopolis (3rd–4th centuries), who derived it from the name of a book, the ''Khemeu.'' Hermanm Diels argued in 1914 that it rather derived from χύμα, used to describe metallic objects formed by casting. Others trace its roots to the [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] name ''kēme'' (hieroglyphic 𓆎𓅓𓏏𓊖 ''khmi'' ), meaning 'black earth', which refers to the fertile and [[wikt:auriferous|auriferous]] soil of the Nile valley, as opposed to red desert sand. According to the Egyptologist [[Wallis Budge]], the Arabic word ''al-kīmiyaʾ'' actually means "the Egyptian [science]", borrowing from the [[Coptic language|Coptic]] word for "Egypt", ''kēme'' (or its equivalent in the Mediaeval [[Bohairic]] dialect of Coptic, ''khēme''). This Coptic word derives from [[Demotic Egyptian|Demotic]] ''kmỉ'', itself from ancient [[Egyptian language|Egyptian]] ''kmt''. The ancient Egyptian word referred to both the country and the colour "black" (Egypt was the "Black Land", by contrast with the "Red Land", the surrounding desert); so this etymology could also explain the nickname "Egyptian black arts".

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Alchemy encompasses several philosophical traditions spanning some four millennia and three continents. These traditions' general penchant for cryptic and symbolic language makes it hard to trace their mutual influences and "genetic" relationships. One can distinguish at least three major strands, which appear to be mostly independent, at least in their earlier stages: [[Chinese alchemy]], centered in China and [[Rasayana|Indian alchemy]], centered on the [[Indian subcontinent]]; and Western alchemy, which occurred around the [[Mediterranean Basin|Mediterranean]] and whose center has shifted over the millennia from [[Egypt (Roman province)|Greco-Roman Egypt]] to the [[Muslim world|Islamic world]], and finally [[Middle Ages|medieval Europe]]. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoism]] and Indian alchemy with the [[Indian religions|Dharmic faiths]]. In contrast, Western alchemy developed its philosophical system mostly independent of but influenced by various [[Western religion]]. It is still an open question whether these three strands share a common origin, or to what extent they influenced each other.

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The start of Western alchemy may generally be traced to ancient and [[Hellenistic Egypt]], where the city of [[Alexandria]] was a center of alchemical knowledge, and retained its pre-eminence through most of the Greek and Roman periods. Following the work of André-Jean Festugière, modern scholars see alchemical practice in the Roman Empire as originating from the Egyptian goldsmith's art, Greek philosophy and different religious traditions. Tracing the origins of the alchemical art in Egypt is complicated by the [[pseudepigraphic]] nature of texts from the Greek alchemical corpus. The treatises of [[Zosimos of Panopolis]], the earliest historically attested author ([[Floruit|fl.]] c. 300 CE), can however help in situating the other authors. Zosimus based his work on that of older alchemical authors, such as [[Mary the Jewess]], [[Pseudo-Democritus]], and [[Agathodaemon (alchemist)|Agathodaimon]], but very little is known about any of these authors. The most complete of their works, The ''Four Books'' of [[Pseudo-Democritus]], were probably written in the first century AD. Recent scholarship tend to emphasizes the testimony of Zosimus, who traced the alchemical arts back to Egyptian metallurgical and ceremonial practices. It has also been argued that early alchemical writers borrowed the vocabulary of Greek philosophical schools but did not implement any of its doctrines in a systematic way. Zosimos of Panopolis wrote in the ''Final Abstinence'' (also known as the "Final Count"). Zosimos explains that the ancient practice of "tinctures" (the technical Greek name for the alchemical arts) had been taken over by certain "demons" who taught the art only to those who offered them sacrifices. Since Zosimos also called the demons "gardians of places" (οἱ κατὰ τόπον ἔφοροι) and those who offered them sacrifices "priests" (ἱερέα), it is fairly clear that he was referring to the gods of Egypt and their priests. While critical of the kind alchemy he associated with the Egyptian priests and their followers, Zosimos nonetheless saw the tradition's recent past as rooted in the rites of the Egyptian temples. '''Mythology''' – Zosimos of Panopolis asserted that alchemy dated back to [[Ancient Egypt|Pharaonic Egypt]] where it was the domain of the priestly class, though there is little to no evidence for his assertion. Alchemical writers used Classical figures from Greek, Roman, and Egyptian mythology to illuminate their works and allegorize alchemical transmutation. These included the pantheon of gods related to the Classical planets, [[Isis]], [[Osiris]], [[Jason]], and many others. The central figure in the mythology of alchemy is [[Hermes Trismegistus]] (or Thrice-Great Hermes). His name is derived from the [[deity|god]] [[Thoth]] and his Greek counterpart [[Hermes]]. Hermes and his [[caduceus]] or serpent-staff, were among alchemy's principal symbols. According to [[Clement of Alexandria]], he wrote what were called the "forty-two books of Hermes", covering all fields of knowledge. The ''[[Hermetica]]'' of Thrice-Great Hermes is generally understood to form the basis for Western alchemical philosophy and practice, called the [[hermeticism|hermetic philosophy]] by its early practitioners. These writings were collected in the first centuries of the common era.

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'''Technology''' – The dawn of Western alchemy is sometimes associated with that of [[metallurgy]], extending back to 3500 BC. Many writings were lost when the [[Roman Emperor|emperor]] [[Diocletian]] ordered the burning of alchemical books after suppressing a revolt in Alexandria (AD 292). Few original Egyptian documents on alchemy have survived, most notable among them the [[Stockholm papyrus]] and the [[Leyden papyrus X]]. Dating from AD 250–300, they contained recipes for dyeing and making artificial gemstones, cleaning and fabricating pearls, and manufacturing of imitation gold and silver. These writings lack the mystical, philosophical elements of alchemy, but do contain the works of [[Bolus of Mendes]] (or [[Pseudo-Democritus]]), which aligned these recipes with theoretical knowledge of astrology and the [[classical elements]]. Between the time of Bolus and Zosimos, the change took place that transformed this metallurgy into a Hermetic art. '''Philosophy''' – Alexandria acted as a melting pot for philosophies of [[Pythagoreanism]], [[Platonism]], [[Stoicism]] and [[Gnosticism]] which formed the origin of alchemy's character. An important example of alchemy's roots in Greek philosophy, originated by [[Empedocles]] and developed by Aristotle, was that all things in the universe were formed from only four elements: [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Water (classical element)|water]], and [[Fire (classical element)|fire]]. According to Aristotle, each element had a sphere to which it belonged and to which it would return if left undisturbed. The four elements of the Greek were mostly qualitative aspects of matter, not quantitative, as our modern elements are; "...True alchemy never regarded earth, air, water, and fire as corporeal or chemical substances in the present-day sense of the word. The four elements are simply the primary, and most general, qualities by means of which the amorphous and purely quantitative substance of all bodies first reveals itself in differentiated form." Later alchemists extensively developed the mystical aspects of this concept. Alchemy coexisted alongside emerging [[Christianity]]. [[Lactantius]] believed Hermes Trismegistus had prophesied its birth. [[Augustine of Hippo|St Augustine]] later affirmed this in the 4th & 5th centuries, but also condemned Trismegistus for idolatry. Examples of Pagan, Christian, and Jewish alchemists can be found during this period. Most of the Greco-Roman alchemists preceding Zosimos are known only by pseudonyms, such as [[Moses of Alexandria|Moses]], Isis, [[Cleopatra the Alchemist|Cleopatra]], [[Pseudo-Democritus|Democritus]], and [[Ostanes]]. Others authors such as Komarios, and [[Chymes]], we only know through fragments of text. After AD 400, Greek alchemical writers occupied themselves solely in commenting on the works of these predecessors. By the middle of the 7th century alchemy was almost an entirely mystical discipline. It was at that time that [[Khalid Ibn Yazid]] sparked its migration from Alexandria to the Islamic world, facilitating the translation and preservation of Greek alchemical texts in the 8th and 9th centuries.

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Greek alchemy is preserved in medieval Greek (Byzantine) manuscripts, and yet historians have only relatively recently begun to pay attention to the study and development of Greek alchemy in the Byzantine period.

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The 2nd millennium BC text [[Vedas]] describe a connection between eternal life and gold. A considerable knowledge of metallurgy has been exhibited in a third-century CE text called [[Arthashastra]] which provides ingredients of explosives (Agniyoga) and salts extracted from fertile soils and plant remains (Yavakshara) such as saltpetre/[[Niter|nitre]], perfume making (different qualities of perfumes are mentioned), granulated (refined) Sugar. [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] texts from the 2nd to 5th centuries mention the transmutation of base metals to gold. According to some scholars Greek alchemy may have influenced Indian alchemy but there are no hard evidences to back this claim. The 11th-century [[Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam|Persian chemist]] and [[Medicine in medieval Islam|physician]] [[Abū Rayhān Bīrūnī]], who visited Gujarat as part of the court of [[Mahmud of Ghazni]], reported that they The goals of alchemy in India included the creation of a divine body (Sanskrit ''divya-deham'') and immortality while still embodied (Sanskrit ''jīvan-mukti''). Sanskrit alchemical texts include much material on the manipulation of mercury and sulphur, that are homologized with the semen of the god Śiva and the menstrual blood of the goddess Devī. Some early alchemical writings seem to have their origins in the [[Kaula (Hinduism)|Kaula]] tantric schools associated to the teachings of the personality of [[Matsyendranath]]. Other early writings are found in the Jaina medical treatise ''Kalyāṇakārakam'' of Ugrāditya, written in South India in the early 9th century. Two famous early Indian alchemical authors were [[Nagarjuna (metallurgist)|Nāgārjuna Siddha]] and Nityanātha Siddha. Nāgārjuna Siddha was a Buddhist monk. His book, ''Rasendramangalam'', is an example of Indian alchemy and medicine. Nityanātha Siddha wrote ''Rasaratnākara'', also a highly influential work. In Sanskrit, ''rasa'' translates to "mercury", and Nāgārjuna Siddha was said to have developed a method of converting mercury into gold. Scholarship on Indian alchemy is in the publication of ''The Alchemical Body'' by David Gordon White. A modern bibliography on Indian alchemical studies has been written by White. The contents of 39 Sanskrit alchemical treatises have been analysed in detail in G. Jan Meulenbeld's ''History of Indian Medical Literature''. The discussion of these works in HIML gives a summary of the contents of each work, their special features, and where possible the evidence concerning their dating. Chapter 13 of HIML, ''Various works on rasaśāstra and ratnaśāstra'' (or ''Various works on alchemy and gems'') gives brief details of a further 655 (six hundred and fifty-five) treatises. In some cases Meulenbeld gives notes on the contents and authorship of these works; in other cases references are made only to the unpublished manuscripts of these titles. A great deal remains to be discovered about Indian alchemical literature. The content of the Sanskrit alchemical corpus has not yet (2014) been adequately integrated into the wider general history of alchemy.

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After [[the Fall of the Roman Empire]], the focus of alchemical development moved to the Islamic World. Much more is known about [[Islam]] alchemy because it was better documented: indeed, most of the earlier writings that have come down through the years were preserved as Arabic translations. The word ''alchemy'' itself was derived from the Arabic word ''al-kīmiyā'' (الكيمياء). The early Islamic world was a melting pot for alchemy. [[Plato]] and [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] thought, which had already been somewhat appropriated into hermetical science, continued to be assimilated during the late 7th and early 8th centuries through [[Syriac language|Syriac]] translations and scholarship. In the late ninth and early tenth centuries, the Arabic works attributed to [[Jābir ibn Hayyān]] (Latinized as "Geber" or "Geberus") introduced a new approach to alchemy. [[Paul Kraus (Arabist)|Paul Kraus]], who wrote the standard reference work on Jabir, put it as follows: Islamic philosophers also made great contributions to alchemical hermeticism. The most influential author in this regard was arguably Jabir. Jabir's ultimate goal was ''[[Takwin]]'', the artificial creation of life in the alchemical laboratory, up to, and including, human life. He analyzed each Aristotelian element in terms of four basic qualities of ''hotness'', ''coldness'', ''dryness'', and ''moistness''. According to Jabir, in each metal two of these qualities were interior and two were exterior. For example, lead was externally cold and dry, while gold was hot and moist. Thus, Jabir theorized, by rearranging the qualities of one metal, a different metal would result. By this reasoning, the search for the [[philosopher's stone]] was introduced to Western alchemy. Jabir developed an elaborate [[numerology]] whereby the root letters of a substance's name in Arabic, when treated with various transformations, held correspondences to the element's physical properties. The elemental system used in medieval alchemy also originated with Jabir. His original system consisted of seven elements, which included the five [[classical element]] ([[aether (classical element)|aether]], [[Air (classical element)|air]], [[Earth (classical element)|earth]], [[Fire (classical element)|fire]], and [[Water (classical element)|water]]) in addition to two [[chemical element]] representing the metals: [[Sulfur|sulphur]], "the stone which burns", which characterized the principle of combustibility, and [[Mercury (element)|mercury]], which contained the idealized principle of metallic properties. Shortly thereafter, this evolved into eight elements, with the Arabic concept of the three metallic principles: sulphur giving flammability or combustion, mercury giving volatility and stability, and [[Salt (chemistry)|salt]] giving solidity. The [[atomic theory]] of [[corpuscularianism]], where all physical bodies possess an inner and outer layer of minute particles or corpuscles, also has its origins in the work of Jabir. From the 9th to 14th centuries, alchemical theories faced criticism from a variety of practical Muslim chemists, including [[Al-Kindi|Alkindus]], [[Abū al-Rayhān al-Bīrūnī]], [[Avicenna]] and [[Ibn Khaldun]]. In particular, they wrote refutations against the idea of the [[Philosopher's stone|transmutation of metals]].

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Whereas European alchemy eventually centered on the transmutation of base metals into noble metals, Chinese alchemy had a more obvious connection to medicine. The philosopher's stone of European alchemists can be compared to the [[Elixir of life|Grand Elixir of Immortality]] sought by Chinese alchemists. However, in the hermetic view, these two goals were not unconnected, and the philosopher's stone was often equated with the [[Panacea (medicine)|universal panacea]]; therefore, the two traditions may have had more in common than initially appears. [[Black powder]] may have been an important invention of Chinese alchemists. As previously stated above, [[China|Chinese]] alchemy was more related to medicine. It is said that the Chinese invented gunpowder while trying to find a [[potion]] for eternal life. Described in 9th-century texts and used in [[fireworks]] in China by the 10th century, it was used in [[cannon]] by 1290. From China, the use of [[gunpowder]] spread to Japan, the [[Mongol]], the Muslim world, and Europe. Gunpowder was used by the Mongols against the Hungarians in 1241, and in Europe by the 14th century. Chinese alchemy was closely connected to [[Taoist]] forms of [[traditional Chinese medicine]], such as [[Acupuncture]] and [[Moxibustion]]. In the early [[Song dynasty]], followers of this Taoist idea (chiefly the elite and upper class) would ingest [[cinnabar|mercuric sulfide]], which, though tolerable in low levels, led many to suicide. Thinking that this consequential death would lead to freedom and access to the Taoist heavens, the ensuing deaths encouraged people to eschew this method of alchemy in favor of external sources (the aforementioned Tai Chi Chuan, mastering of the [[qi]], etc.)

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The introduction of alchemy to Latin Europe may be dated to 11 February 1144, with the completion of [[Robert of Chester]]'s translation of the Arabic ''[[The Book of the Composition of Alchemy|Book of the Composition of Alchemy]]''. Although European craftsmen and technicians pre-existed, Robert notes in his preface that alchemy (though here still referring to the [[philosophers' stone|elixir]] rather than to the art itself) was unknown in Latin Europe at the time of his writing. The translation of Arabic texts concerning numerous disciplines including alchemy flourished in 12th-century [[Toledo, Spain]], through contributors like [[Gerard of Cremona]] and [[Adelard of Bath]]. Translations of the time included the [[Turba Philosophorum]], and the works of [[Avicenna]] and al-Razi. These brought with them many new words to the European vocabulary for which there was no previous Latin equivalent. Alcohol, carboy, elixir, and athanor are examples. Meanwhile, theologian contemporaries of the translators made strides towards the reconciliation of faith and experimental rationalism, thereby priming Europe for the influx of alchemical thought. The 11th-century [[Anselm of Canterbury|St Anselm]] put forth the opinion that faith and rationalism were compatible and encouraged rationalism in a Christian context. In the early 12th century, [[Peter Abelard]] followed Anselm's work, laying down the foundation for acceptance of Aristotelian thought before the first works of Aristotle had reached the West. In the early 13th century, [[Robert Grosseteste]] used Abelard's methods of analysis and added the use of observation, experimentation, and conclusions when conducting scientific investigations. Grosseteste also did much work to reconcile Platonic and Aristotelian thinking. Through much of the 12th and 13th centuries, alchemical knowledge in Europe remained centered on translations, and new Latin contributions were not made. The efforts of the translators were succeeded by that of the encyclopaedists. In the 13th century, [[Albertus Magnus]] and [[Roger Bacon]] were the most notable of these, their work summarizing and explaining the newly imported alchemical knowledge in Aristotelian terms. Albertus Magnus, a [[Dominican Order|Dominican friar]], is known to have written works such as the ''Book of Minerals'' where he observed and commented on the operations and theories of alchemical authorities like Hermes and Democritus and unnamed alchemists of his time. Albertus critically compared these to the writings of Aristotle and Avicenna, where they concerned the transmutation of metals. From the time shortly after his death through to the 15th century, more than 28 alchemical tracts were misattributed to him, a common practice giving rise to his reputation as an accomplished alchemist. Likewise, alchemical texts have been attributed to Albert's student [[Thomas Aquinas]].

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Roger Bacon, a [[Franciscan Order|Franciscan friar]] who wrote on a wide variety of topics including [[optics]], [[comparative linguistics]], and medicine, composed his ''[[Opus Majus|Great Work]]'' () for as part of a project towards rebuilding the [[medieval university]] curriculum to include the new learning of his time. While alchemy was not more important to him than other sciences and he did not produce allegorical works on the topic, he did consider it and astrology to be important parts of both natural philosophy and theology and his contributions advanced alchemy's connections to [[soteriology]] and Christian theology. Bacon's writings integrated morality, salvation, alchemy, and the prolongation of life. His correspondence with Clement highlighted this, noting the importance of alchemy to the papacy. Like the Greeks before him, Bacon acknowledged the division of alchemy into practical and theoretical spheres. He noted that the theoretical lay outside the scope of Aristotle, the natural philosophers, and all Latin writers of his time. The practical, however, confirmed the theoretical thought experiment, and Bacon advocated its uses in natural science and medicine. In later European legend, however, Bacon became an archmage. In particular, along with Albertus Magnus, he was credited with the forging of a [[brazen head]] capable of answering its owner's questions. Soon after Bacon, the influential work of [[Pseudo-Geber]] (sometimes identified as [[Paul of Taranto]]) appeared. His ''Summa Perfectionis'' remained a staple summary of alchemical practice and theory through the medieval and renaissance periods. It was notable for its inclusion of practical chemical operations alongside sulphur-mercury theory, and the unusual clarity with which they were described. By the end of the 13th century, alchemy had developed into a fairly structured system of belief. Adepts believed in the macrocosm-microcosm theories of Hermes, that is to say, they believed that processes that affect minerals and other substances could have an effect on the human body (for example, if one could learn the secret of purifying gold, one could use the technique to purify the [[soul|human soul]]). They believed in the four elements and the four qualities as described above, and they had a strong tradition of cloaking their written ideas in a labyrinth of coded [[jargon]] set with traps to mislead the uninitiated. Finally, the alchemists practiced their art: they actively experimented with chemicals and made [[observation]] and [[theory|theories]] about how the universe operated. Their entire philosophy revolved around their belief that man's soul was divided within himself after the fall of Adam. By purifying the two parts of man's soul, man could be reunited with God.

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In the 14th century, alchemy became more accessible to Europeans outside the confines of Latin speaking churchmen and scholars. Alchemical discourse shifted from scholarly philosophical debate to an exposed social commentary on the alchemists themselves. [[Dante]], [[Piers Plowman]], and [[Chaucer]] all painted unflattering pictures of alchemists as thieves and liars. [[Pope John XXII]]'s 1317 edict, ''[[Spondent quas non-exhibent]]'' forbade the false promises of transmutation made by pseudo-alchemists. In 1403, Henry IV of England banned the practice of multiplying metals (although it was possible to buy a licence to attempt to make gold alchemically, and a number were granted by Henry VI and Edward IV). These critiques and regulations centered more around pseudo-alchemical charlatanism than the actual study of alchemy, which continued with an increasingly Christian tone. The 14th century saw the Christian imagery of death and resurrection employed in the alchemical texts of [[Petrus Bonus]], [[John of Rupescissa]], and in works written in the name of Raymond Lull and Arnold of Villanova. [[Nicolas Flamel]] is a well-known alchemist, but a good example of [[pseudepigraphy]], the practice of giving your works the name of someone else, usually more famous. Although the historical Flamel existed, the writings and legends assigned to him only appeared in 1612. Flamel was not a religious scholar as were many of his predecessors, and his entire interest in the subject revolved around the pursuit of the [[philosopher's stone]]. His work spends a great deal of time describing the processes and reactions, but never actually gives the formula for carrying out the transmutations. Most of 'his' work was aimed at gathering alchemical knowledge that had existed before him, especially as regarded the philosopher's stone. Through the [[late Middle Ages|14th and 15th centuries]], alchemists were much like Flamel: they concentrated on looking for the philosophers' stone. [[Bernard Trevisan]] and [[George Ripley (alchemist)|George Ripley]] made similar contributions. Their cryptic allusions and [[symbol]] led to wide variations in interpretation of the art.

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During the [[Renaissance]], Hermetic and Platonic foundations were restored to European alchemy. The dawn of medical, pharmaceutical, occult, and entrepreneurial branches of alchemy followed. In the late 15th century, [[Marsilo Ficino]] translated the [[Corpus Hermeticum]] and the works of Plato into Latin. These were previously unavailable to Europeans who for the first time had a full picture of the alchemical theory that Bacon had declared absent. [[Renaissance Humanism]] and [[Renaissance Neoplatonism]] guided alchemists away from [[physics]] to refocus on mankind as the alchemical vessel. Esoteric systems developed that blended alchemy into a broader occult Hermeticism, fusing it with magic, astrology, and Christian cabala. A key figure in this development was German [[Heinrich Cornelius Agrippa]] (1486–1535), who received his Hermetic education in Italy in the schools of the humanists. In his ''De Occulta Philosophia'', he attempted to merge [[Kabbalah]], Hermeticism, and alchemy. He was instrumental in spreading this new blend of Hermeticism outside the borders of Italy. Philippus Aureolus [[Paracelsus]], (Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, 1493–1541) cast alchemy into a new form, rejecting some of Agrippa's occultism and moving away from [[chrysopoeia]]. Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine and wrote, "Many have said of Alchemy, that it is for the making of gold and silver. For me such is not the aim, but to consider only what virtue and power may lie in medicines." His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man the microcosm and Nature the macrocosm. He took an approach different from those before him, using this analogy not in the manner of soul-purification but in the manner that humans must have certain balances of minerals in their bodies, and that certain illnesses of the body had chemical remedies that could cure them. Paracelsian practical alchemy, especially herbal medicine and plant remedies has since been named [[spagyric]] (a synonym for alchemy from the Greek words meaning ''to separate'' and ''to join together'', based on the Latin alchemic maxim: ''solve et coagula''). [[Iatrochemistry]] also refers to the pharmaceutical applications of alchemy championed by Paracelsus. [[John Dee]] (13 July 1527 – December, 1608) followed Agrippa's occult tradition. Although better known for angel summoning, divination, and his role as [[astrologer]], cryptographer, and consultant to [[Elizabeth I of England|Queen Elizabeth I]], Dee's alchemical ''Monas Hieroglyphica'', written in 1564 was his most popular and influential work. His writing portrayed alchemy as a sort of terrestrial astronomy in line with the Hermetic axiom ''As above so below''. During the 17th century, a short-lived "supernatural" interpretation of alchemy became popular, including support by fellows of the [[Royal Society]]: [[Robert Boyle]] and [[Elias Ashmole]]. Proponents of the supernatural interpretation of alchemy believed that the philosopher's stone might be used to summon and communicate with angels.

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Entrepreneurial opportunities were common for the alchemists of Renaissance Europe. Alchemists were contracted by the elite for practical purposes related to mining, medical services, and the production of chemicals, medicines, metals, and gemstones. [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor]], in the late 16th century, famously received and sponsored various alchemists at his court in Prague, including Dee and his associate [[Edward Kelley]]. [[James IV of Scotland|King James IV of Scotland]], [[Julius, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Henry V, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg]], [[Augustus, Elector of Saxony]], [[Julius Echter von Mespelbrunn]], and [[Maurice, Landgrave of Hesse-Kassel]] all contracted alchemists. John's son [[Arthur Dee]] worked as a court physician to [[Michael I of Russia]] and [[Charles I of England]] but also compiled the alchemical book ''[[Fasciculus Chemicus]]''. Although most of these appointments were legitimate, the trend of pseudo-alchemical fraud continued through the Renaissance. ''Betrüger'' would use sleight of hand, or claims of secret knowledge to make money or secure patronage. Legitimate mystical and medical alchemists such as [[Michael Maier]] and [[Heinrich Khunrath]] wrote about fraudulent transmutations, distinguishing themselves from the [[con artist]]. False alchemists were sometimes prosecuted for fraud. The terms "chemia" and "alchemia" were used as synonyms in the early modern period, and the differences between alchemy, chemistry and small-scale assaying and metallurgy were not as neat as in the present day. There were important overlaps between practitioners, and trying to classify them into alchemists, chemists and craftsmen is anachronistic. For example, [[Tycho Brahe]] (1546–1601), an alchemist better known for his [[astronomical]] and [[astrological]] investigations, had a laboratory built at his [[Uraniborg]] observatory/research institute. [[Michał Sędziwój|Michael Sendivogius]] (''Michał Sędziwój'', 1566–1636), a [[Poland|Polish]] alchemist, philosopher, medical doctor and pioneer of chemistry wrote mystical works but is also credited with distilling [[oxygen]] in a lab sometime around 1600. Sendivogious taught his technique to [[Cornelius Drebbel]] who, in 1621, applied this in a submarine. [[Isaac Newton]] devoted considerably more of his writing to the study of alchemy (see [[Isaac Newton's occult studies]]) than he did to either optics or physics. Other early modern alchemists who were eminent in their other studies include [[Robert Boyle]], and [[Jan Baptist van Helmont]]. Their Hermeticism complemented rather than precluded their practical achievements in medicine and science.

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The decline of European alchemy was brought about by the rise of modern science with its emphasis on rigorous quantitative experimentation and its disdain for "ancient wisdom". Although the seeds of these events were planted as early as the 17th century, alchemy still flourished for some two hundred years, and in fact may have reached its peak in the 18th century. As late as 1781 [[James Price (chemist)|James Price]] claimed to have produced a powder that could transmute mercury into silver or gold. Early modern European alchemy continued to exhibit a diversity of theories, practices, and purposes: "Scholastic and anti-Aristotelian, Paracelsian and anti-Paracelsian, Hermetic, Neoplatonic, mechanistic, vitalistic, and more—plus virtually every combination and compromise thereof." [[Robert Boyle]] (1627–1691) pioneered the scientific method in chemical investigations. He assumed nothing in his experiments and compiled every piece of relevant data. Boyle would note the place in which the experiment was carried out, the wind characteristics, the position of the Sun and Moon, and the barometer reading, all just in case they proved to be relevant. This approach eventually led to the founding of modern chemistry in the 18th and 19th centuries, based on revolutionary discoveries of [[Antoine Lavoisier|Lavoisier]] and [[John Dalton]]. Beginning around 1720, a rigid distinction began to be drawn for the first time between "alchemy" and "chemistry". By the 1740s, "alchemy" was now restricted to the realm of gold making, leading to the popular belief that alchemists were charlatans, and the tradition itself nothing more than a fraud. In order to protect the developing science of modern chemistry from the negative censure to which alchemy was being subjected, academic writers during the 18th-century scientific Enlightenment attempted, for the sake of survival, to divorce and separate the "new" chemistry from the "old" practices of alchemy. This move was mostly successful, and the consequences of this continued into the 19th, 20th and 21st centuries. During the occult revival of the early 19th century, alchemy received new attention as an occult science. The esoteric or occultist school, which arose during the 19th century, held (and continues to hold) the view that the substances and operations mentioned in alchemical literature are to be interpreted in a spiritual sense, and it downplays the role of the alchemy as a practical tradition or protoscience. This interpretation further forwarded the view that alchemy is an art primarily concerned with spiritual enlightenment or illumination, as opposed to the physical manipulation of apparatus and chemicals, and claims that the obscure language of the alchemical texts were an allegorical guise for spiritual, moral or mystical processes.

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In the 19th-century revival of alchemy, the two most seminal figures were [[Mary Anne Atwood]] and [[Ethan A. Hitchcock (general)|Ethan Allen Hitchcock]], who independently published similar works regarding spiritual alchemy. Both forwarded a completely esoteric view of alchemy, as Atwood claimed: "No modern art or chemistry, notwithstanding all its surreptitious claims, has any thing in common with Alchemy." Atwood's work influenced subsequent authors of the occult revival including [[Eliphas Levi]], [[Arthur Edward Waite]], and [[Rudolf Steiner]]. Hitchcock, in his ''Remarks Upon Alchymists'' (1855) attempted to make a case for his spiritual interpretation with his claim that the alchemists wrote about a spiritual discipline under a materialistic guise in order to avoid accusations of blasphemy from the church and state. In 1845, Baron [[Carl Reichenbach]], published his studies on [[Odic force]], a concept with some similarities to alchemy, but his research did not enter the mainstream of scientific discussion. In 1946, [[Louis Cattiaux]] published the Message Retrouvé, a work that was at once philosophical, mystical and highly influenced by alchemy. In his lineage, many researchers, including Emmanuel and Charles d'Hooghvorst, are updating alchemical studies in France and Belgium.

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Several women appear in the earliest history of alchemy. [[Michael Maier]] names [[Mary the Jewess]], [[Cleopatra the Alchemist]], [[Medera]], and [[Paphnutia the Virgin|Taphnutia]] as the four women who knew how to make the philosopher's stone. Zosimos' sister Theosebia (later known as Euthica the Arab) and [[Isis the Prophetess]] also played a role in early alchemical texts. The first alchemist whose name we know is said to have been Mary the Jewess (c. 200 A.D.). Early sources claim that Mary (or Maria) devised a number of improvements to alchemical equipment and tools as well as novel techniques in chemistry. Her best known advances were in heating and distillation processes. The laboratory water-bath, known eponymously (especially in France) as the [[bain-marie]], is said to have been invented or at least improved by her. Essentially a double-boiler, it was (and is) used in chemistry for processes that require gentle heating. The tribikos (a modified distillation apparatus) and the kerotakis (a more intricate apparatus used especially for sublimations) are two other advancements in the process of distillation that are credited to her. Although we have no writing from Mary herself, she is known from the early-fourth-century writings of [[Zosimos of Panopolis]]. Due to the proliferation of [[pseudepigrapha]] and anonymous works, it is difficult to know which of the alchemists were actually women. After the Greco-Roman period, women's names appear less frequently in the alchemical literature. Women vacate the history of alchemy during the medieval and renaissance periods, aside from the fictitious account of [[Perenelle Flamel]]. [[Mary Anne Atwood]]'s ''A Suggestive Inquiry into the Hermetic Mystery'' (1850) marks their return during the nineteenth-century occult revival.

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The history of alchemy has become a significant and recognized subject of academic study. As the language of the alchemists is analyzed, historians are becoming more aware of the intellectual connections between that discipline and other facets of Western cultural history, such as the evolution of science and [[philosophy]], the sociology and psychology of the intellectual communities, [[Kabbalah|kabbalism]], [[spiritualism]], [[Rosicrucianism]], and other mystic movements. Institutions involved in this research include The Chymistry of Isaac Newton project at [[Indiana University]], the [[University of Exeter]] Centre for the Study of Esotericism (EXESESO), the [[European Society for the Study of Western Esotericism]] (ESSWE), and the [[University of Amsterdam]]'s Sub-department for the History of Hermetic Philosophy and Related Currents. A large collection of books on alchemy is kept in the [[Bibliotheca Philosophica Hermetica]] in Amsterdam. A recipe found in a mid-19th-century kabbalah based book features step by step instructions on turning copper into gold. The author attributed this recipe to an ancient manuscript he located. Journals which publish regularly on the topic of Alchemy include '[[Ambix]]', published by the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, and '[[Isis (journal)|Isis]]', published by The History of Science Society.

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Western alchemical theory corresponds to the worldview of late antiquity in which it was born. Concepts were imported from [[Neoplatonism]] and earlier Greek [[cosmology]]. As such, the [[Classical elements]] appear in alchemical writings, as do the seven [[Classical planets]] and the corresponding seven [[metals of antiquity]]. Similarly, the gods of the Roman pantheon who are associated with these luminaries are discussed in alchemical literature. The concepts of [[prima materia]] and [[anima mundi]] are central to the theory of the [[philosopher's stone]].

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The Great Work of Alchemy is often described as a series of four stages represented by colors. (-) ''[[nigredo]]'', a blackening or melanosis (-) ''[[Albedo (alchemy)|albedo]]'', a whitening or leucosis (-) ''[[citrinitas]]'', a yellowing or xanthosis (-) ''[[rubedo]]'', a reddening, purpling, or iosis

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Due to the complexity and obscurity of alchemical literature, and the 18th-century disappearance of remaining alchemical practitioners into the area of chemistry; the general understanding of alchemy has been strongly influenced by several distinct and radically different interpretations. Those focusing on the exoteric, such as historians of science [[Lawrence M. Principe]] and [[William R. Newman]], have interpreted the 'decknamen' (or code words) of alchemy as physical substances. These scholars have reconstructed physicochemical experiments that they say are described in medieval and early modern texts. At the opposite end of the spectrum, focusing on the esoteric, scholars, such as George Calian and [[Anna Marie Roos]], who question the reading of Principe and Newman, interpret these same decknamen as spiritual, religious, or psychological concepts. Today new interpretations of alchemy are still perpetuated, sometimes merging in concepts from [[New Age]] or radical environmentalism movements. Groups like the [[Rosicrucianism|Rosicrucians]] and [[Freemasonry|Freemasons]] have a continued interest in alchemy and its symbolism. Since the Victorian revival of alchemy, "occultists reinterpreted alchemy as a spiritual practice, involving the self-transformation of the practitioner and only incidentally or not at all the transformation of laboratory substances", which has contributed to a merger of [[magic (paranormal)|magic]] and alchemy in popular thought.

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In the eyes of a variety of modern [[Esotericism|esoteric]] and [[Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn|Neo-Hermeticist]] practitioners, alchemy is fundamentally spiritual. In this interpretation, transmutation of lead into gold is presented as an analogy for personal transmutation, purification, and perfection. According to this view, early alchemists such as [[Zosimos of Panopolis]] (c. AD 300) highlighted the spiritual nature of the alchemical quest, symbolic of a religious regeneration of the human soul. This approach is held to have continued in the Middle Ages, as metaphysical aspects, substances, physical states, and material processes are supposed to have been used as metaphors for spiritual entities, spiritual states, and, ultimately, transformation. In this sense, the literal meanings of 'Alchemical Formulas' were like a veil, hiding their true [[spiritual philosophy]]. In the Neo-Hermeticist interpretation, both the transmutation of common metals into gold and the universal panacea are held to symbolize evolution from an imperfect, diseased, corruptible, and ephemeral state toward a perfect, healthy, incorruptible, and everlasting state, so the philosopher's stone then represented a mystic key that would make this evolution possible. Applied to the alchemist himself, the twin goal symbolized his evolution from ignorance to enlightenment, and the stone represented a hidden spiritual truth or power that would lead to that goal. In texts that are held to have been written according to this view, the cryptic [[alchemical symbol]], diagrams, and textual imagery of late alchemical works are supposed to contain multiple layers of meanings, allegories, and references to other equally cryptic works; which must be laboriously decoded to discover their true meaning. In his 1766 ''Alchemical Catechism'', Théodore Henri de Tschudi denotes that the usage of the metals was merely symbolic:

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Traditional medicine can use the concept of the transmutation of natural substances, using pharmacological or a combination of pharmacological and spiritual techniques. In [[Ayurveda]], the [[Samskara (Ayurvedic)|samskaras]] are claimed to transform [[heavy metals]] and toxic herbs in a way that removes their toxicity. These processes are actively used to the present day. Spagyrists of the 20th century, [[Frater Albertus|Albert Richard Riedel]] and Jean Dubuis, merged Paracelsian alchemy with occultism, teaching laboratory pharmaceutical methods. The schools they founded, ''Les Philosophes de la Nature'' and ''The Paracelsus Research Society'', popularized modern spagyrics including the manufacture of herbal tinctures and products. The courses, books, organizations, and conferences generated by their students continue to influence popular applications of alchemy as a New Age medicinal practice.

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