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Accessibility options are built into Windows to help users who may have trouble using their computers normally get a little more functionality out of their favorite OS. Though Windows 10 does innovate on many features we’ve come to expect from older versions of the operating system, for the most part, Microsoft has opted to keep much of the core functionality of its accessibility features the same to make it easier both on users and developers to adapt without much trouble in between the old system and the new. Even so, here’s how to manage all the accessibility options available in the latest update of Windows 10. (How to geek, n.d.) Narrator For the blind or those with acute sight limitations, a Narrator is a vital tool that will read off the contents of any page, window, or application. Windows 10 has the capability to read the characters you type as you type them, playing audio cues when you click into new pages or applications, and reading off hints for controls and buttons which will assist sight challenged. At the bottom of the Narrator settings, users have the option to hear Microsoft David or Zira as the Narrator. (Howtogeek.com, n.d.) Magnifier Magnifier is another of the Windows Ease of Access features designed to assist anyone who either has trouble reading their screen. High Contrast Sticking with the concept of “making things easier”, Microsoft has opted to group all its visual accessibility features into the top three choices in the Ease of Access panel. High contrast will drastically alter the overall color scheme so that text, images, application windows, and icons become easier to read for anyone who might have colorblindness. Closed Captions The closed captions section can be used to customize how any closed captions in your local media players will appear during the playback of movies or TV shows. For those who have difficulties making out the white text against moving backgrounds, this allows you to choose between any color you’d like on the Windows color palette. You can opt to change the font, the color of the text, or both at the same time if you have specific needs depending on your own vision requirements. Keyboard The keyboard options in Ease of Access offers up a wide range of customization that will help anyone with disabilities or special needs have exactly the PC experience they want every time they boot up and log in. An On-Screen Keyboard is a great tool for anyone who’s using Windows 10 on a touch screen device or doesn’t want to use a keyboard. Sticky Keys will change your keyboard to treat any strikes of the ctrl, shift, or alt keys as a hold command, rather than a tap as it usually would. This is perfect for anyone who has issues maintaining finger dexterity for long periods of time (arthritis patients come to mind), or just users who are too lazy to manage to hold down more than a few keys at once. (Howtogeek.com, n.d.) Mouse You may increase and decrease the size of the mouse cursor to make it more helpful to see your cursor. 6.09: Notification Center As stated previously, Windows 10 has created a Notification Center to view and respond to alerts and notifications from your PC. Users may customize their notification center in the settings menu. Notification settings may be changed by opening Windows 10 settings, and navigating to the System area of settings, and then to “Notifications and Actions”. The options at the top of this screen allow you to change “Quick Actions”. Quick Actions are the first settings a user can view in the Notification Center. If you click the link “Select which icons appear on the taskbar” you’ll be able to decide how crowded or sparse the system tray is, or you can just turn them all “Off”. Scrolling down in this area, you may also change global settings for notifications that affect all of Windows 10 notifications- deciding whether to view tips about windows, application notifications, notifications on the lock screen, alarms, reminders and calls, and notifications during presentations. There are also options to turn off notifications from specific apps. So, if you don’t want to disable app notifications wholesale, but still don’t want to see them from certain ones, you can selectively disable them. 6.10: Checking for Understanding 1. Change the desktop background color. 2. Setup the desktop background to display a photo slideshow. 3. Change the Windows 10 theme. 4. Access the Windows 10 settings & control panel 5. Enable text to speech options and high contrast mode 6. Turn on and off notifications on an application basis.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/06%3A_Customizing_Windows_Appearance/6.08%3A_Accessibility_Settings.txt

Protecting your PC and your personal information while using your computer is very important. Every year, thousands of individuals have their personal and financial information compromised and suffer tragic consequences. Ensuring your computer is updated to the latest version and is protected is a vital part of using a computer. Three common attacks on computers include computer viruses, malware, and phishing. 07: Windows Security A computer virus, much like a flu virus, is designed to spread from host to host and can replicate itself. In more technical terms, a computer virus is a type of malicious code or program written to alter the way a computer operates and is designed to spread from one computer to another. A virus operates by inserting or attaching itself to a legitimate program or document that supports macros in order to execute its code. In the process, a virus has the potential to cause unexpected or damaging effects, such as harming the system software by corrupting or destroying data (Norton.com, n.d.). How does a computer virus attack? Once a virus has successfully attached to a program, file, or document, the virus will lie dormant until circumstances cause the computer or device to execute its code. For a virus to infect your computer, you must run the infected program, which in turn causes the virus code to be executed. This means that a virus can remain dormant on your computer, without showing major signs or symptoms. However, once the virus infects your computer, the virus can infect other computers on the same network. Stealing passwords or data, logging keystrokes, corrupting files, spamming your email contacts, and even taking over your machine are just some of the devastating and irritating things a virus can do. While some viruses can be playful in intent and effect, others can have profound and damaging effects. This includes erasing data or causing permanent damage to your hard disk. Worse yet, some viruses are designed with financial gains in mind. (Norton.com, n.d.) How do computer viruses spread? In a constantly connected world, you can contract a computer virus in many ways, some more obvious than others. Viruses can be spread through email and text message attachments, Internet file downloads, and social media scam links. Your mobile devices and smartphones can become infected with mobile viruses through shady App downloads. Viruses can hide disguised as attachments of socially shareable content such as funny images, greeting cards, or audio and video files. To avoid contact with a virus, it’s important to exercise caution when surfing the web, downloading files, and opening links or attachments. To help stay safe, never download text or email attachments that you’re not expecting, or files from websites you don’t trust. (Norton.com, n.d.) What are the signs of a computer virus? A computer virus attack can produce a variety of symptoms. Here are some of them: (Norton.com, n.d.) • Frequent pop-up windows. Pop-ups might encourage you to visit unusual sites. Or they might prod you to download antivirus or other software programs. • Changes to your homepage. Your usual homepage may change to another website, for instance. Plus, you may be unable to reset it. • Mass emails being sent from your email account. A criminal may take control of your account or send emails in your name from another infected computer. • Frequent crashes. A virus can inflict major damage on your hard drive. This may cause your device to freeze or crash. It may also prevent your device from coming back on. • Unusually slow computer performance. A sudden change in processing speed could signal that your computer has a virus. • Unknown programs that startup when you turn on your computer. You may become aware of the unfamiliar program when you start your computer. Or you might notice it by checking your computer’s list of active applications. • Unusual activities like password changes. This could prevent you from logging into your computer.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/07%3A_Windows_Security/7.01%3A_Computer_Viruses.txt

Malware is an abbreviated form of “malicious software.” This is software that is specifically designed to gain access to or damage a computer, usually without the knowledge of the owner. There are various types of malware, including spyware, ransomware, viruses, worms, Trojan horses, adware, or any type of malicious code that infiltrates a computer. Generally, the software is considered malware based on the intent of the creator rather than its actual features. Malware creation is on the rise due to money that can be made through organized Internet crime. Originally malware was created for experiments and pranks, but eventually, it was used for vandalism and destruction of targeted machines. Today, much of malware is created to make a profit from forced advertising (adware), stealing sensitive information (spyware), spreading email spam or child pornography (zombie computers), or extorting money (ransomware). Various factors can make computers more vulnerable to malware attacks, including defects in the operating system (OS) design, all the computers on a network running the same OS, giving users too many permissions, or just because a computer runs on a particular operating system, such as Windows, for example. The best protection from malware — whether ransomware, bots, browser hijackers, or other malicious software — continues to be the usual, preventive advice: be careful about what email attachments you open, be cautious when surfing by staying away from suspicious websites, and install and maintain an updated, quality antivirus program. (Norton.com, n.d.) 7.03: Phishing Phishing is a cyber-attack that uses disguised email as a weapon. The goal is to trick the email recipient into believing that the message is something they want or need — a request from their bank, for instance, or a note from someone in their company — and to click a link or download an attachment. What really distinguishes phishing is the form the message takes: the attackers masquerade as a trusted entity of some kind, often a real or plausibly real person, or a company the victim might do business with. It's one of the oldest types of cyberattacks, dating back to the 1990s, and it's still one of the most widespread and pernicious, with phishing messages and techniques becoming increasingly sophisticated. (Norton.com, n.d.) While there are several paid-for and free applications that protect against viruses and malware, Windows has built-in applications to monitor the health of your PC and protect it against hostile threats. 7.04: Windows Defender Security Center Windows 10 Defender Security Center is built into Windows 10. It combines the most common security features of Windows into an easy-to-use app allowing technical and non-technical users to view and protect their devices and data against many types of malware, including viruses and ransomware, hacker attacks, security threats, and more. Windows Defender Security Center is an application that provides a unified experience to view status and control security features, such as firewall, antivirus, performance monitor, and other products. Windows Defender Antivirus is the default anti-malware engine of Windows 10 that offers real-time protection against viruses and security threats. Installing a third-party antivirus will disable the Windows Defender Antivirus automatically, but it'll not affect the functionality of the Windows Defender Security Center. In the same way, disabling Windows Defender Antivirus or Windows Defender Firewall will not disable Security Center.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/07%3A_Windows_Security/7.02%3A_Computer_Malware.txt

To get started, you can launch the app from the Start menu, or you can double-click the shield icon from the notification area in the taskbar. Although "Home" doesn't include any setting that you can manage, it's a good place to get started, as it provides an overview of the protection of your device. On this page, you can view the status of all the security features and alerts of any action that needs to be taken to keep your computer secure. Also, at the top of the page, you'll be able to find antivirus information, such as when the last scan was performed and when the last definition was installed. The shield icon in the notification area is also capable of alerting you when an action needs to be taken. If there is more than one alert, only the most severe warning will be displayed (Windows Central, n.d.). Windows Defender Security Center includes five areas of protection that you can manage and monitor. • Virus & threat protection: includes the Windows Defender Antivirus settings, and it allows you to monitor the malware protection, scan your device for threats, and set up its advanced anti-ransomware feature. • Device performance & health: allows you to check the health and performance of your computer and provides a mechanism to clean up your device to fix errors and slowdown problems. • Firewall & network protection: lets you monitor the status of network connections, and you can configure various Windows Defender Firewall settings. • App and browser control: help you to protect your device and data from malicious code hidden on apps, files, and websites. • Family options: offers easy access to manage your devices and kids' online experience using a Microsoft account. 7.06: Using Windows Defender Scan To scan your PC for viruses and malware using Windows Defender Antivirus, complete either a quick scan or full scan. To perform a Quick Scan, complete the following: 1. Open Windows Defender Security Center. 2. Click on Virus & threat protection. 3. Click the Quick scan button. To perform a Full Scan or Custom Scan, complete the following. 1. Open Windows Defender Security Center. 2. Click on Virus & threat protection. 3. Click the link of the Advanced scan. 4. Select the Full Scan or Custom Scan option and select the appropriate folders to scan. Sometimes if you're dealing with a tough virus or another type of malware, the antivirus may not be able to remove it while Windows 10 is running. If this is the case, save your work, close any running application, and run an offline scan using the following steps: 1. Open Windows Defender Security Center. 2. Click on Virus & threat protection. 3. Click the link of the Advanced scan. 4. Select the Windows Defender Offline scan option. 5. Click the Scan now button. 6. Click the Scan button to continue. When you start an offline scan, your device will restart and boot using the Windows Defender Antivirus environment. The latest definition update will be installed (if an internet connection is available), a scan will be performed, and if malicious software is detected, it'll be removed or quarantined automatically.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/07%3A_Windows_Security/7.05%3A_Launching_Windows_Defender_Security_Center.txt

Windows Defender Security Center also includes an area that surfaces information about the health and performance of your computer. To view your PC health and performance report, do the following: 1. Open Windows Defender Security Center. 2. Click on Device performance & health. The report includes a status for Windows Update, storage, device driver, and battery. If action needs to be taken, you'll see an alert with a recommendation on how to remedy the issue (Windows Central, n.d.). 7.08: Fresh Start If your PC is having performance problems, such as issues with memory, shutting down, or everything is working very slow, you can click the Additional info link under "Fresh start" to re-install Windows 10 with the latest updates. To perform a Fresh Start, perform the following: 1. Click the Get started button 2. Click the Next button. 3. Review the apps that will be removed. 4. Click the Next button. 5. Click the Start button to begin the process. This process won't delete your files, it'll keep some Windows settings, but it'll remove everything else to help fix performance issues with your device (Windows Central, n.d.). 7.09: How to Manage Network Security with Windows Defender Firewall The experience also includes an area to monitor and manage Windows Defender Firewall settings, which you can access with the following steps: 1. Open Windows Defender Security Center. 2. Click on Firewall & network protection. 3. On the page, you can view at a glance in which network profile the firewall is currently enabled and protecting you from unauthorized access. The one marked as "active" is the network profile currently in use. You can also click any of the networks to disable the firewall and block all incoming network connections for a profile (Windows Central, n.d.). 7.10: How to Protect your PC against Malicious Code The "App & browser control" page is the place to configure the Windows Defender SmartScreen settings that can help you to protect your computer against sites, apps, and files that may contain malicious code. The default settings are the recommended configuration you should be using. Of course, that is unless you have a specific reason to change them. 1. To change the default SmartScreen settings, do the following: 1. Open Windows Defender Security Center. 2. Click on App & browser control. 3. Select the level of protection you want for apps and files, Microsoft Edge, and Microsoft Store apps. You'll also notice Exploit protection at the bottom of the page. This is an advanced feature that can help to mitigate malware and vulnerabilities without having to wait for a malware or system update. 7.11: User Account Control The Windows User Account Control is a tool that warns you when someone or something attempts to change your computer system settings. When this happens, the screen will alert you until an Administrator can confirm the change. This helps protect your computer against accidental changes or malicious software altering your settings. Initially, this User Account Control is set at a moderate to a high level, which means it will notify you only when an application tries to make changes to your computer. However, you can change this setting to your desired level by following these steps − (Tutorialspoint.com, n.d.) 1. Open the Control Panel by searching for it in the search bar. 2. After the Control Panel is open, choose User Accounts. 3. After choosing User Accounts, click on “Change User Account Control settings”. 4. In the User Account Control Settings, you can move the slider to the desired position. Windows 10 will give you a summary of how your system will behave under that level. 7.12: Automatic Updates By default, Windows 10 is set up to automatically download the latest updates for the Windows Operating system as soon as they are available. It is important to allow those updates, as often crucial errors or “bugs” that may make your computer susceptible to a computer virus or malware are fixed or “patched” by updates. When updates are installing, it is important to not turn off your computer until they are completed.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/07%3A_Windows_Security/7.07%3A_Viewing_the_Health__Performance_of_your_PC.txt

The following article was retrieved from usa.kapersky.com (Kapersky.com, n.d.) A 19-year-old running for public office in New Hampshire found out about the importance of following Internet safety rules the hard way. As Seacoast Online reports, his opponents found images in his social media posts that were sexually suggestive and referenced past drug use. Just like that, his political career crashed and burned upon takeoff. But, unfortunately, he isn't the only one, as careless Internet habits have left others exposed to scams, identity theft and physical harm at the hands of people they met online. With more users accessing the Internet through mobile devices, these risks are changing and growing quickly. Even though apps loom larger in most people's daily online interactions than traditional websites do, that does not mean that the basic Internet safety rules have changed. Hackers are still on the lookout for personal information they can use to access your credit card and bank information. Unsafe surfing can also lead to other threats—from embarrassing personal comments or images that, once online, are nearly impossible to erase, to getting mixed up with people you'd rather have had nothing to do with. Here are the Top 10 Internet safety rules to help you avoid getting into trouble online (and offline). 1. Keep Personal Information Professional and Limited: Potential employers or customers don't need to know your personal relationship status or your home address. They do need to know about your expertise and professional background, and how to get in touch with you. You wouldn't hand purely personal information out to strangers individually—don't hand it out to millions of people online. 2. Keep Your Privacy Settings On: Marketers love to know all about you, and so do hackers. Both can learn a lot from your browsing and social media usage. But you can take charge of your information. As noted by Lifehacker, both web browsers and mobile operating systems have settings available to protect your privacy online. Major websites like Facebook also have privacyenhancing settings available. These settings are sometimes (deliberately) hard to find because companies want your personal information for its marketing value. Make sure you have enabled these privacy safeguards and keep them enabled. 3. Practice Safe Browsing: You wouldn't choose to walk through a dangerous neighborhood—don't visit dangerous neighborhoods online. Cybercriminals use lurid content as bait. They know people are sometimes tempted by dubious content and may let their guard down when searching for it. The Internet's demimonde is filled with hard-to-see pitfalls, where one careless click could expose personal data or infect your device with malware. By resisting the urge, you don't even give the hackers a chance. 4. Make Sure Your Internet Connection is Secure. Make sure your device is secure, and when in doubt, wait for a better time (i.e., until you're able to connect to a secure Wi-Fi network) before providing information such as your bank account number. 5. Be Careful What You Download: A top goal of cybercriminals is to trick you into downloading malware—programs or apps that carry malware or try to steal information. This malware can be disguised as an app: anything from a popular game to something that checks traffic or the weather. Don’t download apps that look suspicious or come from a site you don't trust. 6. Choose Strong Passwords: Passwords are one of the biggest weak spots in the whole Internet security structure, but there's currently no way around them. And the problem with passwords is that people tend to choose easy ones to remember (such as "password" and "123456"), which are also easy for cyber thieves to guess. Select strong passwords that are harder for cybercriminals to demystify. Password manager software can help you to manage multiple passwords so that you don't forget them. A strong password is one that is unique and complex—at least 15 characters long, mixing letters, numbers and special characters. 7. Make Online Purchases from Secure Sites: Any time you make a purchase online, you need to provide credit card or bank account information—just what cybercriminals are most eager to get their hands on. Only supply this information to sites that provide secure, encrypted connections. As Boston University notes, you can identify secure sites by looking for an address that starts with https: (the S stands for secure) rather than simply Http: They may also be marked by a padlock icon next to the address bar. 8. Be Careful What You Post: The Internet does not have a delete key, as that young candidate in New Hampshire found out. Any comment or image you post online may stay online forever because removing the original (say, from Twitter) does not remove any copies that other people made. There is no way for you to "take back" a remark you wish you hadn't made or get rid of that embarrassing selfie you took at a party. Don't put anything online that you wouldn't want your mom or a prospective employer to see. 9. Be Careful Who You Meet Online: People you meet online are not always who they claim to be. Indeed, they may not even be real. Be as cautious and sensible in your online social life as you are in your in-person social life. 10. Keep Your Antivirus Program Up to Date: Internet security software cannot protect against every threat, but it will detect and remove most malware—though you should make sure it's to date. Be sure to stay current with your operating system's updates and updates to the applications you use. They provide a vital layer of security. Keep these 10 basic Internet safety rules in mind and you'll avoid many of the nasty surprises that lurk online for the careless 7.14: Checking for Understanding 1. Students will list 7 out of 10 internet safety rules. 2. Students will adjust Windows 10 User Account Control Settings 3. Students will perform a Windows Defender Security Scan 4. Students will find the location in Windows 10 settings to perform a Fresh Start

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/07%3A_Windows_Security/7.13%3A_Internet_and_Computer_Safety_Tips.txt

Windows 10 allows for thousands of applications that can be utilized by the user to create, edit, and share Media. Professionals invest hundreds of thousands of dollars on computer hardware and software to assist them in their jobs. From editing a document, preparing a presentation, or creating a video with sound, Windows 10 is used daily to make clear and stimulating media creations. 08: Media Creation in Windows To a certain extent, every type of file on your PC could be considered a media file. However, most users associate audio, picture, and video files as Media Files. Every media file has an extension, that the computer uses to associate with a program. Extensions are listed after the file name (for example this textbook has the file name “Computer Fundamentals for Technical Students Textbook” and the file extension is.” pdf” for portable document format. Depending on your Windows View settings, extensions may be hidden by default as changing a file extension could create errors in your computer. You can change viewing properties by launching a Windows Explorer Window, clicking on the “View” tab, and making sure “File Names and Extensions” is checked. In addition, users may also right-click on the file, then navigate to file properties, and view the type of file. Users may also change the program associated with that extension by clicking on the “Change” button next to the “Opens with” section of the screen. 8.02: Extensions for Picture Files • JPEG files (.jpg and .jpeg) • GIF files (.gif) • Bitmap files (.bmp) • PNG files (.png) • TIFF files (.tif and .tiff) • Extensions for Video Files • Audio Video Interleaved files (.avi) • Motion JPEG files (.avi and .mov) • Windows Media files (.wm, .wmv, and .asf) • Matroska multimedia files (.mkv) • Apple QuickTime files (.mov and. qt) • MPEG Movie files (.mp4, .mov, .m4v, .mpeg, .mpg, .mpe, .m1v, .mp2, .mpv2, .mod, .vob, and .m1v) 8.03: Extensions for Music Files • Windows audio files (.wav) • MP3 audio files (.mp3 and .m3u) • Windows Media Audio files (asx, .wm, .wma, and .wmx) • Free Lossless Audio Codec files (.flac) • AAC files (.aac) 8.04: Other types of Popular Files • Application files (.exe): Executable files that can run with a double-click • Text documents (.txt): Simple text documents without any kind of formatting • Compressed (.zip): Archives of other files and folders • Portable Document Format files (.pdf): A very popular type of file generally used for sharing non-editable documents that need to look the same on all devices, no matter what operating system you use • OpenOffice and LibreOffice documents (.odt, .ott, .oth, and .odm): Documents created using free open-source productivity applications, such as OpenOffice and LibreOffice • Microsoft Word (.doc and .docx) • Microsoft PowerPoint (.ppt and .pptx) • Microsoft Excel (.xls and .xlsx) • Microsoft Publisher (.pub and .pubx) • Microsoft OneNote (.one) 8.05: Using Windows Photos Starting up the Photos app is simple: for most new machines and fresh installations of Windows 10, it’s already in the Start menu as a big tile. Even if it’s not, just press “Start” and then begin typing “photos” to bring it up quickly via search. (Using Windows 10 Built in Photo Editor, n.d.)

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/08%3A_Media_Creation_in_Windows/8.01%3A_Types_of_Media_Files.txt

(Howtogeek.com, n.d.) The Photos app offers three different interfaces when looking for photos: Collection, Album, and Folders. You can choose any of the three at any time by clicking the relevant tab, above the main interface and below the “Photos” application label. Collections “Collections” is a view of your most recent photos and screenshots, displayed in reverse order by date. Within the main viewer of “Collection,” and in the nested album or photo viewers of the other tabs, a series of controls appear on the upper-right portion of the interface. These allow you to select multiple items for a specific action like copying, printing or adding to a specific album, or to start a slideshow, refresh the current file view, or import from a camera or mobile device. Contextual items in the Album view allow you to edit the name of the album or change the cover photo. To navigate backward through the Photos interface, click the left-pointing arrow in very top upper-left of the window, or press the Esc or Backspace keys at any time. (Using Windows 10 Built in Photo Editor, n.d.) Album “Albums” is a series of automatically-created photo albums, organized according to the Photo app’s internal logic, though you can add your own and remove or add photos to existing albums. “Folders” is merely a tab for all of the photos on your machine in specific folders—your OneDrive photo folder and your assigned “Pictures” folder in Windows, by default. To add folders to this view, click “Choose where to look” to go to the Photos Settings page, then click “Add a folder” to manually select one in Windows Explorer. (Using Windows 10 Built in Photo Editor, n.d.) Using the Photo Viewer Interface When you finally get down to an individual photo, the interface goes completely black and dedicates the maximum length or width of the window. If you’re using mouse navigation, scrolling up or down will advance or retreat in the current collection, album, or folder. Hold down the “Ctrl” button on your keyboard to turn the mouse wheel into zoom or retract controls. (How to Geek, n.d.) On the bottom of the interface, manual arrow controls to go forward or back in the album are on either side of an “add to album” button and a Delete button. You can use the keyboard for both actions: Ctrl+D to add it to a specific album via a pop-up menu, or simply press the Delete button. If you press “Delete” again, the image will be removed both from the album/collection/folder in the Photos app, and the file itself will be deleted in Windows Explorer and sent to the Recycling Bin. (Using Windows 10 Built in Photo Editor, n.d.) The top controls are labeled, and self-explanatory. The “Share” button will open Windows 10’s share menu, allowing the user to send the file via email, copy it via Windows’ standard copy and paste function, or open and share it directly in any compatible Windows Store app. Zoom opens a manual slider to zoom in and out—remember that you can do this much faster by holding the Ctrl button and using the mouse wheel. “Slideshow” will begin a full-screen slideshow of the current album, collection, or folder. Draw command (How to geek, n.d.)The “Draw” command allows you to write on the image, with a selection of pen and eraser tools that appear contextually. It’s mainly intended for pen-enabled devices like the Microsoft Surface. You can double-click on any of the tools in the upper bar to select color and width. Note that the drawings can be erased with the Eraser tool, but after you click “save” (the floppy disk icon) and see the “Letting your Ink Dry,” the original file for this photo is saved over. Don’t click “save” on a photo unless you have it backed up somewhere, or you’re willing to lose the original. Edit command “Edit” opens the photo editor, which we’ll cover in the next section. “Rotate” will rotate the image clockwise; if you hit it by accident, just click it again three more times to return the photo to its original orientation.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/08%3A_Media_Creation_in_Windows/8.06%3A_Browsing_Photos.txt

The editor in Photos isn’t exactly incredible, but it can handle some light cropping and adjusting if nothing else is available. On the main interface, using the + and – buttons will zoom in and out, which can also be done with the mouse wheel (no Ctrl button necessary). Click and drag any part of the image to move it around or click the “Actual size” button (the box with corners in the lower-right) to see the whole photo maximized horizontally or vertically. The Crop and Rotate Tool The “Crop and rotate” button is the most prominent tool, as it’s visible always. Click it to open a dedicated cropping UI. You can click and drag the circles on the corner to manually select a cropping box or click the “Aspect ratio” button to choose a standard size. This is quite useful if you want your image to be viewed on semi-standardized devices, like a smartphone or TV (16:9), iPad (4:3), or a corporate projector (usually 4:3 as well). The “Flip” button will flip the image horizontally, but not vertically, and the “Rotate” button will spin it clockwise by 90 degrees. To get a non-square rotation, click the circle beside the right-hand menu and slide it up or down. When you’re finished, click “Done” to return to the full Edit interface. (How to geek, n.d.) The Enhance Tab Right below the Crop button is two tabs, “Enhance” and “Adjust.” Let’s look at Enhance first. The “Enhance your photo” tool is an all-in-one slider: click and drag the slider from left to right to apply automatically-selected filters to “enhance” the image, according to the Photo app. You can stop it at any point along the axis. Generally, this tool brightens up an image, smooths out shadows and highlights, makes a more ideal contrast, and just generally makes things look clearer. The rest of the “filters” on the Enhance tab work the same way: click one of the filters, then click the slider beneath “Enhance your photo” to apply the effect, with a left-to-right strength of 0 to 100. You can apply multiple effects by clicking on a new one and then adjusting the slider—rinse and repeat. When you’re done, click the “Adjust” tab. (How to Geek, n.d.) The Adjust Tab The controls for this page are similar, but you can adjust multiple factors at once. The “Light” sliders adjust the contrast, exposure, highlights, and shadows of the image, with the master “Light” slider being a combination of all four. The “Color” slider handles saturation, with 0 reducing the image to greyscale and 100 making it overly vibrant. More fine controls can be applied with the Tint and Warmth sliders. The separate “Clarity” slider will outline specific edges with darkened shadows or blend them into the background, and the “Vignette” slider will add a white (left) or black (right) vignette effect to the photo. Finally, the Red Eye tool will let you click on a subject’s eyes to remove the red glare from a camera flash, and the “Spot Fix” tool will let you click and drag around a specific area to obscure fine details. It’s good removing acne and other blemishes. (How to geek, n.d.) Saving Your Edits When you’ve edited your image to your liking, you have two options: “Save” will overwrite the original image file (not recommended), or “Save a copy” will let you save the edited version to a folder in Windows Explorer. The second is obviously better unless you’re sure you don’t want the original. At any time during editing, you can click “Undo all” to return to the original image and start over. (How to geek, n.d.) Editing Video Files To edit a video file, open it in the Photos app. You can do this right from File Explorer by right-clicking the video file, and then selecting Open With > Photos. The video will open and play in the Photos app. To edit the video, click “Edit & Create” on the toolbar. You’ll see a variety of video editing tools you can use. Click a tool to use it. For example, to cut a section out of a video, click “Trim” in the menu. To use the Trim tool, simply drag the two handles on the playback bar to select the portion of the video you want to keep. You can drag the blue pin icon to view what appears at that section in the video or click the play button to playback the selected section of the video. When you’re done, click “Save a Copy” to save a copy of the trimmed section of the video. To stop editing without saving your changes, click “Cancel” instead. The Photos app places the edited video in the same folder as the original with a similar filename. For example, we edited a video named Wildlife.mp4 and received a video file named WildlifeTrim.mp4. (How to Geek, n.d.) Draw Tool The “Draw” tool provides tools for drawing on a video. You can use a ballpoint pen, pencil, calligraphy pen, and eraser tools, and pick your favorite colors. Anything you draw appears smoothly on the screen during the video—as if you were drawing it—and then fades out and vanishes after a few seconds. (How to Geek, n.d.) How to Combine Videos, Add Text, and Apply 3D Effects To start creating a video project, you can click the “Create a Video with Text” or “Add 3D Effects” tool. You can also click the “Add to a Creation” button at the top left corner with a video open, and then click “New Video with Music.” You can also get started with a custom video project by launching the Photos app from your Start menu, and then clicking Create > Custom Video with Music on the app’s home page. The “Automatic video with music” option also lets you select your own photos or videos. The Photos app automatically combines them into a custom video for you. You’ll be prompted to add at least one video or photo to create a custom video. You can add photos to get a slideshow or combine photos with a video if you like. However, you can also just add one video to edit it, or more than one video to combine them. Whichever way you create a custom video project, you’ll end up on a screen with a project library, video preview, and storyboard pane. To add one or more videos (or photos) to your project, drag them from the project library to the storyboard. Click the “Add photos and videos” option under the Project library to add more videos to the library. You can then drag them to the storyboard. (How to Geek, n.d.) StoryBoard Pane Add a video and you’ll see some editing tools in the Storyboard pane. In addition to the standard Trim tool, you can resize a video with Resize, add visual filters with Filters, insert text with Text, apply motion effects with Motion, and insert 3D effects with 3D Effects. Even if you just want to edit a single video, you can add just that video to your project, use the various editing tools, and then export the video to a new file. Or, if you want to combine videos, you can insert them into the storyboard and edit them together. (How to Geek, n.d.) Editing Tools The editing tools are self-explanatory. The Trim tool works similarly to the Trim tool you see when editing an individual video. The Resize tool can remove black bars from a video, which is important if you’re combining multiple videos with different aspect ratios into a single project. The Filters tool offers a variety of filters—everything from Sepia to Pixel. The Text tool provides different styles and layouts of animated text that you can place at different locations in the video. The Motion tool lets you choose different styles of camera motion for the video or photo. (How to Geek, n.d.) 3d Effects (How to Geek, n.d.)The 3D Effects tool provides a library of 3D effects you can apply to the video: everything from autumn leaves and winter snowflakes to explosions, fires, and lightning bolts. You can apply one or more 3D effects, and each one has different options you can use to customize it. Some 3D effects must be placed somewhere in the scene, while others apply to the entire scene. In the Storyboard pane, you can click the speaker icon to select a volume level for each individual video. This is useful if you’re combining multiple videos and one is louder than the others. Rather than customizing each individual option yourself, the “Themes” option on the top bar of the window lets you choose different themes. This will choose filters, music, and text styles that work together—complete with preview videos that show you how they will look. (How to Geek, n.d.) Applying Music To apply music to a video, click the “Music” button on the top bar. The Photos app includes a few music options you can choose from. You can also select “Your Music” to insert a custom music file. (How to Geek, n.d.) Aspect Ratio There’s also an “Aspect Ratio” button on the toolbar. You can use it to switch between different landscape and portrait orientations for your video. (How to Geek, n.d.) Exporting/Sharing Video Files When you’re done, click “Export or Share” to export your video project to a file. You can also click the “Add to Cloud” button if you want to upload your video project to Microsoft’s cloud. You can then resume editing it on the Photos app on another PC you’ve signed in to with the same Microsoft account. Your video projects will appear under “Video Projects” when you launch the Photos app. The Photos app exports the video and tells you where it’s saved on your PC. The Photos app placed the video in the Pictures\Exported Videos folder on our PC. While this isn’t the most powerful video editor you can get on Windows, it’s surprisingly capable, included on all Windows 10 PCs, and can do a lot of the basics with a simple interface. (How to Geek, n.d.) 8.08: Checking for Understanding 1. Describe four (4) different file extensions and their associated programs. 2. Launch Windows 10 Photos App to browse for pictures 3. Crop and enhance a photo downloaded from the website. 4. Used the Built-in Video Editor to create a slide show/Image of your ideal job.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/08%3A_Media_Creation_in_Windows/8.07%3A_Using_the_Built-In_Photo_Editor.txt

This Chapter provides an overview of the entire Office Suite of Products. Each product has a different purpose but shares many of the same navigation and organization. Once a user understands one Office Application, it is easier to transition to another Office Application because of the common structures associated with each application. 09: Office Overview and Office 365 Microsoft Office is a suite of desktop productivity applications that are designed specifically to be used for office or business use. It is a proprietary product of Microsoft Corporation and was first released in 1990. Office applications consist of Word, Excel, PowerPoint, Access, OneNote, Outlook and Publisher applications. Each office application has a specific purpose and integrates with the entire office suite. Applications are also built to work together and share features (such as a shared Office Clipboard for copy/paste features.) The general purpose of each Office Application is listed below. • Microsoft Word Helps users in creating text documents. • Microsoft Excel: Creates simple to complex data/numerical spreadsheets. • Microsoft PowerPoint: Stand-alone application for creating professional multimedia presentations. • Microsoft Access: Database management application. • Microsoft Publisher: Introductory application for creating and publishing marketing materials. • Microsoft OneNote: Alternate to a paper notebook, it enables a user to neatly organize their notes. Besides desktop applications, Microsoft Office is available to use on tablets and mobile devices and online. All Office documents integrate with cloud-based storage (One Drive) allowing users to store, edit, and share files in the Cloud and work collaboratively with other users. Microsoft Office Applications are sold in bundles. The most recent release is the Office 2019 suite. In addition, Microsoft Office Applications are sold as part of a subscription bundle, Office 365 which provides the user with updated applications, online file storage, and web-based email for a monthly subscription fee. 9.02: Starting an Office App Let's begin by starting an Office App: Microsoft Word. To Launch Word, click on the Start Button on the Windows taskbar and locate Microsoft Word. You can quickly navigate to the application by pressing the “W” button. on the keyboard. Microsoft Word will launch and display its first screen: backstage view. The backstage view presents the user with options to start a new document from a template or as a blank document. A blank document contains no pre-existing organization or formatting while a template provides the user with a document model that has already been formatted and organized for a specific purpose (such as a calendar.). For the purposes of this activity, click on the “Blank document”. 9.03: Common Office Interface Each Office document contains common interface elements to help the user navigate the Application. Quick Access Toolbar The Quick Access Tool Bar is in the upper left-hand corner of the screen. By default, save, undo, and redo are on the toolbar. More options can be obtained by selecting the downward arrow to access other commands. Office Ribbon Like the Windows 10 Ribbon, the Office Ribbon Contains controls and menus that allow the user to manipulate the document they are working with. Each Office Application contains the ribbon, but the specific features of the Ribbon vary by application. Each office app contains the Home tab. The Ribbon can be customized using the command, located in the top right corner of the window. Title Bar The Office Title Bar lists the name of the file and the Office Application that is being used. To establish a title for the file you are working on, save the file and create a specific name for the file. After saving, the file name will show on the Title Bar. Window Controls Like Windows 10, Office Window Controls allow the user to minimize, maximize, and close the specific program. Minimizing a window removes the window from view. It can be returned to its current view by selecting the running application in the taskbar. Maximizing a Window makes it Fullscreen. The resize feature returns it to an open running window. Closing a window removes the program from active memory. Vertical Scroll Bar Office documents can often be multiple pages or have information that cannot be displayed on one screen. The Vertical Scroll Bar allows the user to scroll-move up or move down throughout the document. Zoom Tools Zoom Tools are in the lower right-hand corner of the screen. They allow the user to zoom in or magnify or zoom out to see a bigger picture of their document. Document zooming can be completed by the slider, or via the “+” or “- “buttons on the document. The zoom percentage is also displayed. Document information Document information relevant to the Office Application is displayed in the lower-left and corner. In Microsoft Word, this information usually contains the number of changes and words. Excel displays mathematical results, and PowerPoint displays slide numbers. Rulers All office documents can display vertical and horizontal rulers. These rulers can be hidden if a view setting is enabled. Rulers allow the user to see with fine precision their actual location in the document. Cursor Like Windows, Office uses a cursor that looks like an arrow to select commands. Areas, where text can be entered, is shown with a straight cursor instead of an arrow. The straight line is known as the text insertion point. Work Area Finally, the most important part- in the center of each Office Application is the work area, where the actual work and input is completed. This work area varies in appearance depending on the Office Application. Creating & Saving File in Word In addition to common user interface elements, all Office Documents allow the user to open existing files, save files, and create new files in the File Tab. In addition to manual saves, Office has an autosave/recovery function that can automatically save your work in the event of a computer malfunction or “crash” To save a file in Microsoft Office, complete the following actions 1. Click the File tab on the Ribbon in the Upper left-hand corner. 2. A new screen (Backstage view) launches. On the left-hand side of the screen, choose “Save” or “Save As”. If the document has been previously saved, you won't have to select a save destination (e.g., desktop) or a file name--the existing file will simply be updated. Under "Save As", decide on your save location. Typical locations include "This PC" and OneDrive, but you can also click "Browse" to select a specific location. 3. Double-click your save location. This will take you to the file name screen. 4. In the file name screen, enter your desired file name. 5. Click “Save” to save your file. 6. Verify that your file was saved before closing the document. Office Applications will prompt you to save your file if it was not saved before closing as well. Viewing & Printing your work Microsoft Office Applications all present common user interfaces to change the view of an application and print an application. While each office application has specific views, there are three common views in each Microsoft Office Product. Read Mode Read mode is the default view when a document is set to read-only-this means that the viewer cannot edit the file. Read mode is also a helpful mode if the user wants to read the file in full screen without other interface elements of the office on screen. Print Layout Mode Print layout mode allows the user to view the document is it would be displayed printed out on an 8 1/2X11 standard printer paper. It allows the most realistic view of the document’s appearance if printed. Web Layout Mode Web Layout mode displays the document to read like it would read if it was on a website. This is helpful if the destination of the document is on the internet to be accessed with a web browser. If the document is being created to display online, the user will want to make sure the layout will be compatible with this format. 9.04: Getting Help All Microsoft Office Product has a robust help menu. Usually, its location is the furthest right ribbon tab. There are a lightbulb and textbox you can enter text that allows the user to type in what they want to do or know about. Using artificial intelligence, the Office can locate and often perform the command requested. When you do not know how to perform a command in Office, use the help box. In addition, by hovering your mouse cursor over different screen elements, such as the ribbon, a ScreenTip will often display; explaining the specific feature or purchase for the element. 9.05: Sharing Document sharing and collaboration is a central feature in the Office Suites. By clicking on the Share Command in the upper right-hand corner of the screen, you can share your document electronically with others. By sharing the document, you can choose whether to allow others to collaborate with you on the document-collaboration allows multiple users to work on the document simultaneously, increasing efficiency and creativity. A difference between sharing the document and sending the document in an email or via disk is that the most current version of the document is always accessible to the user. This means that if you shared the document with another colleague, and the next day discovered a typo that needed correction, you could simply correct the typo and that change would be reflected when your colleague viewed the document. In addition, sharing is more secure because you can always remove permissions to view the file whereas an emailed file can never be recovered. Sharing a document provides more control and security for the user.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/09%3A_Office_Overview_and_Office_365/9.01%3A_Understanding_the_Office_Suite.txt

An Office 365 subscription includes web-based versions of Outlook, Word, Excel, PowerPoint. In addition, online access to OneDrive provides online storage saves these files in the cloud so these files may be accessed anywhere. In addition, online outlook, word, excel, & PowerPoint by default only access files from the cloud unless a file is manually uploaded or attached to the web application. Getting Started To login to Office 365 web applications, visit www.office.com. Click the “Sign in” button. You will be sent to the Office Login Screen. Log in with your username and credentials or create an account. Enter your password. Keep in mind the Office 365 passwords are case sensitive. After successfully logging in, an Office start screen is displayed. This start screen provides shortcuts to all your Office applications that have web versions. In addition, files in One Drive which had been recently accessed are automatically displayed. This screen provides much functionality, so we will define all the screen elements below. Office 365 Application picker allows the user to specify which web application they would like to use. Search Bar: Allows the user to search for any file saved to OneDrive. Notification Center: Allows the user to view any notifications they may have received- for example, receiving a shared document, another colleague editing your document, etc. Settings Menu: Allows you to change the visual appearance of Office, customize your notifications and change your passwords. Help Menu: Search the Office 365 Knowledge Base for Help. Install Office button allows individuals with an Office 365 subscription may click on this icon to download a free Windows 10 Office Application. Start new allows the user to create a new Office Document on the web. Outlook Email, Calendar, and Contacts Application. More information will be provided about this web application in the next section. OneDrive in the cloud allows a user to view and share all their uploaded files. More information about one drive will be provided later in the text. Microsoft Word online is a word processing tool. More information will be provided about Microsoft Word in later chapters. Microsoft Excel online is a spreadsheet and calculation tool. More information will be provided about Microsoft Excel in later chapters. Microsoft PowerPoint online is a presentation tool. More information will be provided about Microsoft PowerPoint in later chapters. Microsoft OneNote is a notetaking and list building application. This text does not provide instruction for Microsoft OneNote, but it does have a similar interface to Microsoft Word but has limited functionality. Microsoft SharePoint online is used in the organization as a hub to share information and files. It allows departments to privately collaborate on documents and communicate with each other. This text does not provide instruction for Microsoft SharePoint. Class Notebook is a shared note-taking web application that is available to educational institutions and students using Office365. This textbook does not provide instruction for the Class Notebook. Microsoft Teams online is a collaborative application that allows groups of individuals working on a project to chat, schedule meetings, share and work collaboratively on documents, and communicate in private groups. This textbook does not provide instruction for Microsoft Teams. Microsoft Sway is a new application from Microsoft Office that makes it easy to create and share interactive reports, personal stories, presentations, and more. This textbook does not provide instruction for Microsoft Sway. Microsoft Forms allows users to create secure web forms that can be used inside or outside an organization to obtain information from others. This textbook does not provide instruction for Microsoft Forms. Click here to access all other less frequently used Microsoft Online Applications that are available as part of the Office 365 subscription. Microsoft Outlook Online The Outlook online application is divided into a three-column view. The column on the left consists of different mailbox folders. You can use mailbox folders to better sort your messages, so they are easy to find. You can create a new folder at any time by clicking on the “New Folder” link. Clicking on the icon hides the left column. Above the left column is the New message link which allows the user to create a new email message. The center column is where you organize your messages that you receive. There are three default views above your messages that allow you to sort your messages: “Focused” or “Other”. . The “checkbox” icon selects all your messages. The “Focused” icon only shows you messages that Outlook’s artificial intelligence filters as important to you. The “Other” icon usually displays items Outlook believes are junk mail or email that is not important. The “Filter” icon allows multiple ways to sort your messages as described in Figure 2. The right column displays the content of a selected email. To select the email, you may click on the message you wish to view. The message will display with the name of the person and picture of them (if this information is entered your contacts, and some message options: . Sends a response to the sender that you “liked” the message. Replies to the message. Replies to everyone who was sent the message if you were part of a group email. forward the message that was written to you to someone else. Contains less frequently used settings for the message like to mark it as unread, to delete it, to mark as junk, print, show message details, Flag, or block the sender. If you choose an action to reply or forward the message, you will enter the message authoring text box. The message authoring text box will appear in a separate box above the email you are referencing. In addition to being able to type your message, it has a few options to change the text size, font, formatting, and text effects of the email through a toolbar at the bottom of the screen. Students are encouraged to experiment with the text functions. These functions are also available in Microsoft Word which will be discussed in a later chapter. At the top of the textbook authoring window are options to send the completed message, discard or delete the message, attach a file to the message, insert an image or an emoji. When writing an email, please use professional language and write in alignment with proper web etiquette- this means no writing in caps or using slang or acronyms like “lol”. At the bottom left corner of the outlook window are additional features; The mailbox is the email application that was previously described. Clicking on the other icons will allow the user to view their calendar, contacts list, and tasks list. Outlook Calendar The Outlook Calendar retains the same three-column navigational design as the email application. The left column provides the user with multiple calendars of specific events and sub-calendars. The center column allows the user to select certain calendar views. The right column displays specific event details. Clicking on “New Event” Will allow you to create a new calendar event. When creating a new event, you are permitted to create a title for the event, invite other attendees (which will send a calendar invitation to their email address and display if they accept the invitation on their calendar), choose the time and date and location, as well as make it a one-time meeting or a repeating meeting, such as a weekly staff meeting. You can also view your calendar to find available times that do not conflict with other meetings, schedule a time to be reminded, and add a description of the meeting or attach documents, such as a meeting agenda to the appointment. Clicking on the menu at the top of the window allows other useful features: . “Save” allows for the invitation to be saved and sent to others if invited. “Discard deletes the calendar appointment. “Scheduling Assistant” allows you to search for an open day and time on every person whom you have invited if everyone is using Office 365 as their email client. Scheduling assistant will not show details of the other schedules but will show busy and free time. “Busy” settings allow you to customize the type of appointment, for example, you could create a calendar appointment to complete paperwork at the office desk at a certain time but still want to be open for meeting if needed, so you could create an appointment “Work at my desk” and mark it as “Free” instead of busy. “Categorize” allows you to classify meetings by color if you choose to do so. Finally, “Response options” allow you to specify what options recipients of a calendar invitation would have available to them. Contacts You may also want to review your contact list in Outlook as well. Contacts are useful to maintain for individuals whom you may need to work with have to be able to reach. You may maintain any contact information you find helpful in Outlook Contacts including your contact’s name, email, company, title, phone number, address, birthday, picture, etc. The Contacts Application continues the three-column view with the left view being a place to sort your contacts into groups, the middle list containing all your contacts in a group, and the right column providing the details of a selected contact on the right. At the top of both columns in your menu bar. . New Contact allows the data entry of a new contact. A variety of contact information is available. If you do not see the information you wish to enter click Add more at the bottom right of the screen. Add to favorites allows you to select a contact to favorites. You would perform this action is you wished to reference this contact information frequently. Edit allows you to edit a contact’s information. Delete allows you to delete a contact form your list. Add to list adds a selected contact to a specific folder of your choosing to better organize your contacts. Microsoft OneDrive Microsoft OneDrive contains all your applications stored in the OneDrive cloud. Files in OneDrive may be accessed anywhere you have an internet connection. The user interface of Microsoft OneDrive maintains a two-column setup. The left column is the navigation bar that helps the user navigate the directory of OneDrive to find the specific location of their files or folders. The Center column displays the actual files. Clicking on a file will display the file in the appropriate web application in a new browser window. Files can be uploaded to OneDrive by selecting Upload from the top menu and selecting the proper file. You may also create a new file to save to OneDrive by selecting New. The left navigation pane displays different file views in OneDrive. Files view allows the user to search the folder directory that they have established, like using Windows Explorer in Windows 10. Recents allows the user to view files they have more recently accessed or edited. Shared displays files that were shared by or shared with the account user. Discover allows the user to view files that were recently edited by others that may relate to the user. OneDrive uses artificial intelligence to determine which files to view. Finally, the Recycle bin provides the user with files that were most recently deleted. Files are purged from the Recycle bin after 90 days. The user may also manually delete these files permanently by clicking on the Empty recycle bin icon . The right navigation pane displays your files. Hovering the mouse cursor over a specific file will highlight specific commands to the user-Share and More Options. Share allows a user to share online access to the file to another user to view or edit. This is helpful when working collaboratively. As previously discussed, sharing is also more secure and convenient, because the recipient will always be able to view the most recent changes made to the document, and the person who shared the document always has control over who can and cannot always view or edit the document. More options bring up a menu to perform a variety of functions on the document. Summary Office 365 Web Applications provide the user with the most frequently used controls in a similar user interface to the Office 365 Windows 10 Applications. The convenience of working on the web allows for any computer anywhere with an internet connection to access the power of Microsoft Office. Now that you have a familiarity with Microsoft Office, it is time to explore the features of the Windows 10 applications, beginning with Microsoft Word. 9.07: Checking for Understanding 1. Students will describe the types of commonly used Office Applications and what they are used for. 2. Students will send an email with an attachment in Outlook web. 3. Students will create a calendar event and invite a classmate to the event in Outlook web. 4. The student will create a contact in Outlook web. 5. The student will upload a file to OneDrive and share it with another classmate.

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Microsoft Word provides users with a balanced approach to usability- the application is easy to use so the user can begin working on a document immediately, or sophisticated enough to write complex textbooks, professional business reports, and novels using its features. This chapter provides an overview of using the basic features of Microsoft Word to construct a document. 10: Introduction to Microsoft Word A word processing program is a software program that includes tools for entering, editing, and formatting text and graphics. The electronic files you create using Word are called documents. One of the benefits of using Word is that document files can be stored in a variety of places on your computer, or in the cloud using one drive, and easily shared with others via disks, emails, or online file storage. Microsoft Word allows users to accomplish the following tasks. • Type and edit text. • Copy and move text from one location to another in the document, or to other documents. • Format text and paragraphs with fonts, colors, pictures, tables, and many other tools. • Design pages for specific purposes- from personal letters to sophisticated memos and reports. • Enhance documents for readability with pictures, charts, graphics, etc. • Use mail merge features to quickly and easily send customized communications to customers. • Share documents securely to others. • Communicate clearly and professionally with others by using the built-in tools of Word. Now that you are aware of some of the uses for Microsoft Word, let's get started by creating a new document. Launch Microsoft Word and click on “Blank Document”. Take some time to explore the user interface. A few notable features of Word include: • Title bar: displays the name of the document and the name of the program. Until you give a new document a different name, its temporary name is Document 1. The left side of the title bar contains the Quick Access toolbar, which includes buttons for saving a document and undoing, redoing, and repeating a change. The right side of the title bar contains the Ribbon Display Options button, which you use to hide or show the Ribbon and tabs, the resizing buttons, and the program Close button. • The File Tab provides access to Backstage view where you manage files and the information about them. • The Ribbon contains the Word tabs. Each tab on the Ribbon includes buttons for commands related to editing and formatting documents. The commands are organized in groups. For example, the Home tab includes the Clipboard, Font, Paragraph, Styles, and Editing Groups. The Ribbon also contains the “Tell me what you want to do” box, which you can use to find a command or access help. The ribbon also contains the share command, which you can use to easily share documents. • The document window displays the current document. This is the space you are working inside. • The rulers only appear in the Print Layout view. The horizontal ruler displays left and right document margins as well as the tab settings and paragraph indents, if any, for the paragraph. The vertical ruler displays the top and bottom button margins. • The vertical and horizontal scroll bars are used to navigate inside your document. They contain arrows to help you navigate the document. • The status bar displays the page number of the current page and the total number of pages and words in the document. It also displays spelling and grammar checking. • The view buttons on the status bar allow you to adjust the view, toggling between print layout, read mode, or web layout view. The Zoom slider allows you to zoom in and out of the document. In the document window, you should see a blinking cursor. This is known as your “insertion point”. Your insertion point is where text or objects we are placed in the document. You can change the insertion point using your arrow keys or mouse. 10.02: Starting a Document Before beginning to use Microsoft Word, your first step should be to take some time to plan your document. Better document planning will save you time and ensure your document is written to the correct audience with the right message and visual appearance. Some aspects to consider before writing a document include: • Purpose of the message- why are you sending the message? • Who is your audience? What type of writing or visual style will appeal to them? • What type of communication will you send? Will it be a newsletter, professional letter? • Will you need outside information like graphics or charts? • Is there any research you need to conduct before beginning to write? Now that you have a plan, let's write a document. 10.03: Saving a Document Once you have successfully entered text into your document, you should get into the habit of saving work. Saving your work often is a good idea in the event of a computer error or power outage that could cause you to lose your progress. While Word does have an Autosave feature that can be helpful to recover most of your document, saving your work regularly is the sure-fire way to make sure your work is not lost. To save your work in word, you can do one of the following: • Keyboard Shortcut: “Control + “S” • Quick Access Toolbar: Use the Disk/icon in the upper left-hand corner of the screen. • Backstage View: Click on “File” in the Ribbon and navigate to “Save” on the left side of the backstage view. Difference between “Save” and “Save As” Microsoft Word has two different Save commands: “Save-As” allows you to name the file and save it in a location of your choosing. “Save” keeps the same file name and location. If you have never saved a file before, pressing “Save” will take the user to the “Save-As” menu of options. When completing the “Save As” command, Word will also allow you to save the document as another file type, like a portable document format (pdf) file, or other types. 10.04: Selecting Text Microsoft Word allows the user to manipulate text by “left-clicking” on the insertion point and continuing to hold the left click and moving the mouse around the document to the selected text. When text is highlighted, you can perform multiple actions with the selected text using the ribbon & minitoolbar by “right-clicking” on the selected text. When text is selected, a blue highlight will be displayed over the text.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/10%3A_Introduction_to_Microsoft_Word/10.01%3A_Introduction_to_Word_Processing_Software.txt

Selected text can be manipulated by using the mini-toolbar or ribbon. The mini-toolbar is displayed when you “right-click” on the selected text. “Right-clicking” in Microsoft Word provides the user with quick actions like “Copy”, “Cut”, “Paste”, Changing the Font, Paragraph Settings, Synonym Tools, and many other quick actions. The most common and powerful methods available to users is the Ribbon in Microsoft Word. The Ribbon in Microsoft Word provides the user with organizational groupings of many different commands and controls to change and manipulate text. The various groupings are below: Home Tab The Home Tab contains the most commonly used document controls; actions in the Home Tab can change the font and size of the text, paragraph, and line spacing, copy and paste, change the organizational structure of the document. Insert Tab The insert tab allows the user to insert any number of items that were not originally included in the Word document and that cannot be entered by keyboard entry. Examples include page breaks, pictures/shapes/icons, charts, links, bookmarks, comments, headers and footers, page numbers, Word Art, Drop Caps, Equations, Symbols, Signatures, Dates, and Other Objects (like other office documents). Design Tab The Design Tab has features that allow the user to change the overall appearance and structure of the document with Themes. Creating customized colors, fonts, and paragraph spacing is also on this tab. Finally, this tab allows the user to create Watermarks, adjust the Page Color and Page Borders. Layout Tab The Layout tab provides the user with edit controls to the physical characteristics of the document when it is printed. Examples of tools available on the Layout Tab include margin adjustment, orientation (Portrait or Landscape), changing the size of the page to accommodate other paper sizes, inserting columns or line numbers, changing indentation or position of text, and aligning text with other graphics/figures. Mailings Tab The mailings tab is used to make it easy for the user to send out customized documents to individuals via mail. The tab has a wealth of features for this activity, like a mail merge feature, custom text blocks that can be changed depending on the database they are pulled from. It is possible to use Word in conjunction with an address list in excel to create customized documents with individual characteristics (like the person’s name, title, address, etc.” that are printed. Review Tab The Review Tab provides essential features to use in Word after a first draft has been created. The Review Tab contains Spelling and Grammar Review, Thesaurus, Word Count, Text to Speech, accessibility checker, translation functions, document comment and review features, and comparing versions. Finally, the Review Tab may also be used to “Ink” the page by drawing on it and restricting editing to the document. View Tab The View Tab allows the user to change how they may view the document. In addition, they can choose what type of features are viewable in Microsoft Word. Users can change the view mode between reading Mode, Print Layout Mode, Web Layout, Draft and Outline views. In addition, they can choose whether to display one page or multiple pages at a time and adjust how large or small documents are. Finally, they can create Macros, which are user-programmed shortcuts that can be used in specific documents in the View Tab. Help Tab Couldn’t find what you were looking for? If nothing else works, clicking on the Help Tab will allow the user to show training and search for the related topics. 10.06: Using a Document Template While many users prefer to begin their work with a blank web page, word has many templates or preformatted documents that make it easy to create a Résumé or a Flyer. To create a template, click on the File tab of the Ribbon, and then “New”. Word will then showcase all the available templates. Users may also search online for templates in different styles or formats. There are so many templates available, the most important aspect for the user is to find one that meets their needs. 10.07: Checking for Understanding 1. Describe the main features and purposes of Microsoft Word 2. Create a New Blank Document, Format text in the document, and Save the document as a .pdf 3. Create a document from Template and Save the document as a new file. 4. Describe three (features) of each organizational tab in Microsoft Word.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/10%3A_Introduction_to_Microsoft_Word/10.05%3A_Formatting_Text_using_the_Mini-toolbar_and_Ribbon.txt

The Home Tab contains the most commonly used document controls; actions in the Home Tab can change the font and size of the text, paragraph, and line spacing, copy and paste, change the organizational structure of the document. The Home Tab is grouped into four distinct areas: Clipboard, Font, Paragraph, and Styles. 11: Exploring the Home and View Tab of Microsoft Word The main function of Clipboard is the Cut, Copy, and Paste feature. All Office Applications share a Universal Clipboard. This means that items that are copied in Windows 10 can be shared between Office Applications. You can view the Universal Clipboard by clicking on the clipboard box with an arrow facing down and to the right in Word. A new navigation pane will open on the left side of the screen. It will display all the items that you have cut or copied in Windows 10 recently. This allows you to work with multiple items you have pasted In addition to the Clipboard Navigation pane, users can also utilize Format Painter . Format Painter allows the user to copy the text size, fonts, and any other formatting, to another selected body of the text. To use the format painter functionality, users should select the text they would like to copy, and then click on “Format Painter”. Then select the text they wish to change. Users may also doubleclick on “Format Painter” and change as many text selections as they would like. When they have completed changing the text selections, they can click on “Format Painter” to stop. While Format Painter is a useful tool to change selected text, the Font groupings of the Home Tab have many more features. 11.02: Font Group The Font group provides unlimited customization of text. It allows users to change the font or style of the text, the size of the text, provide text emphasis, and even change the colors. Beginning in the upper left-hand corner, the Font Selection Box and Text Size boxes allow customizations of hundreds of font designs and text sizes. The capital “A” button on the right allows the user to gradually increase the text size with the smaller capital “A” button next to it on the right decreases the text size. The capital “Aa” button to the right changes the case of the text. Using this feature, selected text can be made into lower case, UPPER CASE, Capitalize Each Word, tOGGLE eACH cASE, and regular Sentence case. Finally, in the button to the right that appears to have an “A” with an eraser removes all the formatting’s from the Font menu. The lower row of the Font group contains Bold , Italics , and Underline (without underline options for line thickness). Next to these commonly used emphasis tools are strikethrough (which places a line in the text), subscript (which types small letters under the text), and superscript (which types small letters above the text).Next to subscript and superscript is an outlined letter “A” which allows the adjustments of text effects and typography to create shadows for other text effects. To the right is an icon with the letter’s “ab” with a pen . This is the highlighter option which allows the student to choose between multiple colors to highlight the selected text. Finally, to the right of the highlighter menu is an icon of the letter “A” with a line underneath . This control allows the user to change the color of any selected text with an almost infinite number of color options. By clicking on the arrow pointing down and to the right in the Font group, an expanded menu with even more options will launch, allowing the user with many more text customization options, as well as the option to set default text options and effects.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/11%3A_Exploring_the_Home_and_View_Tab_of_Microsoft_Word/11.01%3A_Clipboard.txt

The Paragraph Group focuses on arranging text in a paragraph. Users may create lists, adjust the indentation, sort items, show paragraph formatting, correctly, align text in a paragraph, adjust line spacing, add fill color in shapes, and create borders. Bullet Lists Starting in the upper left corner are bullet lists . Bullet lists should be used when creating a list of similar items that do not require any order. Clicking on the drop-down arrow allows for customization of the appearance of bullet lists. Pressing “Tab” on the keyboard will indent a list item and create a sub bulleted item. Numbered Lists To the right of Bullet, Lists are numbered lists . Numbered lists are like bullet lists, but they should be used when listing out a sequence of events that must be followed in order. Clicking on the drop-down arrow will allow for customization of the numbered list. Pressing “Tab” on the keyboard will indent a list item and create a sub numeral. Multi-Level Lists To the left of Numbered Lists are Multi-Level Lists . Multi-Level Lists provide more customization of lists and sub-lists to the user. Increase/Decrease Indent Next on the right, the increase/decrease indent icons allow the user to move the selected text to the right or left five spaces, or to the next tab setting. Increase/Decrease indent also changes the hierarchy of the list. Increasing an indent to the right will make an item a sub-bullet or sub-number of the item above it and decreasing indent to the left will do the opposite. Sort After an increase/decrease indent is the Sort icon allows the user to arrange a current selection of text in alphabetical or numerical order. It is usually used when working with tables in Microsoft Word. Show/Hide Paragraph Formatting Finally, in the top right corner of the paragraph group is the Show/Hide Paragraph Formatting icon allows the user to view all the hidden formatting options that are currently attributed to the document. This is useful if the formatting seems incorrect in a document and the user is trying to investigate it. Any formatting displayed is not printed. Paragraph Alignment The bottom row of the paragraph group begins with Paragraph Alignment settings . The settings align the selected text to the left side of the screen (which is standard formatting), centered (which is common for titles), right-aligned, and justified, which distributes text evenly between the margins. Most word documents are written with left alignment, so that is the default settings. Line & Paragraph Spacing To the right of the paragraph alignment icons is Line & Paragraph Spacing . These settings allow the user to choose how much space exists between lines and between paragraphs. This is helpful to enhance the readability of paragraphs by creating enough space between sentences and paragraphs. For more customization, users can click on “Line Spacing Options” in the drop-down menu for even greater controls. Shading The Shading function to the right of Line & Paragraph Spacing allows the user to change the color behind a paragraph, table, or selected text. It can be used in flyers and more creative word documents. Borders The Page Borders icon allows the user to create borders around selected text and/or paragraphs and define the type of borders from the drop-down menu. There is every type of border imaginable for the user. Borders are usually created to create distance or space between separate ideas or paragraphs. More settings Users who desire more control in paragraph formatting can click on the arrow icon facing down and to the right. . This will launch a more settings menu that will provide customization of the line & paragraph spacing and page breaks.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/11%3A_Exploring_the_Home_and_View_Tab_of_Microsoft_Word/11.03%3A_Paragraph_Group.txt

The Find/Replace/Selection Pane allows you to search for any text in Microsoft Word and replace the text with another text entry. Clicking on the “Find” menu will display a side navigation bar allowing the user to find any word or phrase in the document. Clicking on the Replace icon will launch a Find and Replace Dialogue box which will allow the user to replace specific text with different text. For example, I wrote a five-page paper on arc-welding, and discovered that arc-welding should be changed to the word “robotic arc welding”, I could use find and replace to automatically replace every phrase “arc welding” with “robotic arc welding”. Finally, the Select icon allows the user with more options in selecting text and or objects in the document. 11.05: View Tab Microsoft Word provides a variety of options to view their document for the user to customize their workspace. Read Mode allows the document to be viewed without any editing tools available in Fullscreen mode. Print Layout simulates what the document would look like if the document were printed. It is the default view mode in Microsoft Word. Web Layout simulates the view of the document if it were on a web. Outline mode is for a way to quickly insert ideas on the page, while Draft allows the user to just see the text in the document. Learning Tools allows the document viewer to customize the way the document is presented and read to them. It allows the user how text and pictures are displayed. Users can also determine whether to display the Ruler on the top and left sides of the workspace, gridlines on the document to make it appear like graph paper, and the navigation pane on the left-hand side of the document. The user can also Zoom in or out, and have the document automatically be adjusted to the display size of one page or multiple pages. Users can even open a new window of the document to work in two different places at the same time, or split the document at the insertion point to work in multiple sections at the same time in the document. Finally, Word users can click on the Switch Windows icon on the screen to switch between open word documents, and Record Macros, which allow the user to create their shortcuts by recording actions on the screen and creating a shortcut to perform everything they previously did. When they need to replicate that task, they can enter shortcut and the Macro would be initiated. Macros are for advanced users and not covered in detail in this text. 11.06: Checking for Understanding 1. Create a flyer that provides a visual example of every feature on the home tab. 2. Create an instruction manual to operate a large truck using four headings and two (2) bulleted lists. 3. Copy a news article from the New York Times. Paste it into word. Use Replace to change every word “The” to “Green” 4. Create a “For Sale” add selling equipment from your employer. Make sure to adjust paragraph spacing to two (2). Make sure to view Gridlines, the Ruler, and Navigation Pane in your document.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/11%3A_Exploring_the_Home_and_View_Tab_of_Microsoft_Word/11.04%3A_Styles_Group_and_editing_Tab..txt

The Insert Tab allows the user to insert a variety of items into their document. In contrast to the Home Tab which provides controls for the user to manipulate and adjust their entered text, the Insert tab allows the users to add items to the document such as new pages, tables, graphics, document items, Microsoft Word add-ins, video, comments, header/footer, text boxes, and Symbols. Just like the Home Tab, all functions of the Insert Tab are placed into groups that are described below. 12.02: Pages Group The Pages Group contains features to insert a Cover Page, Blank Page, or a Page Break to your document. Clicking on Cover Page will launch a drop-down menu allowing the user to choose from a variety of cover page templates to place as the first page or cover page of the text. After the templates are selected, the user must enter text into the appropriate fields. The Blank Page command inserts twopage breaks, one above and one below the cursor’s current position. The user selects to insert a Blank Page break when they want to ensure one entire page of space between paragraphs. Finally, the Page Break command inserts a Page Break just after the insertion point. A Keyboard shortcut for a Page Break is Ctrl + Enter. The Page Break command is used to ensure the next text after the insertion point is on a new page. 12.03: Tables Group The Tables Group has one icon with many features. Clicking on the Table icon will launch an additional commands dialog box below. Users will have the option to insert a table by selecting how many row and column cells the table contains as the first option. Cells are the individual “boxes” that make up a table. Rows are groupings of cells that move left to right. Columns are groupings of cells that move up to down. A table can allow information to be shared with the reader in an easy to understand way. As an example, see the table below for a detailed example of all the table command options available to the user. Table Command Function Insert Table Command The Insert Table Command will allow the user to customize the number of columns and rows and determine whether they would like to size the table themselves with a fixed column with or allow Word to autofit the table to the specific text or window area. Word users may always resize the table by moving their cursor between the table cells until their insertion point cursor changes to a cursor with arrows pointing left and right. Clicking on the mouse at this point will allow the user to adjust the size of tables columns and/or rows. Draw Table Selecting the Draw Table command will change the cursor’s image from the insertion point to a pen. When the user selects a location with the pen and clicks the mouse, they can insert a table cell. Convert Text to Table Users can apply this command after selecting words they wish to place into a table. With the command entered, Word will attempt to place the text into the cells which it thinks is correct. It may still require the user to manipulate the table. Excel Spreadsheet Selecting an Excel Spreadsheet will allow the user to place a mini excel worksheet in their document at the insertion point. The excel document not only can appear as a table but can also be used to perform several calculations. Quick Tables Selecting Quick Tables will launch a variety of table templates from Microsoft Word, allowing the user to select from already created tables that have been formatted and choose the best one for their project. After the Table has been created it is easy to add additional rows/columns, resize the table, or add additional features and formatting. By using the primary mouse button (usually left-clicking) inside the table will add two additional modules to the Word Ribbon: Design & Layout. . In addition, using the secondary mouse button (usually right-clicking) brings up other shortcuts for the table that are found in the Design and Layout Tab. Design Tab The Design Tab allows for manipulation of the appearance of the Table. In the Design, Tab is Table Style Options, Table Styles, and Borders Groups. Table Style Options Table Style Options allow the user to allow to Program Word to understand the type of table that was created. Selecting Header Row will change the formatting of the top row to differentiate the shading and the font of the header row. Total Row will change the formatting and shading of the bottom row. This is usually selected if the table is displaying a total (such as the total cost of supplies in a table about supply costs. Banded Rows are always selected by default. Banded Rows indicates that every that the shading in every row will be alternated to provide better visual clarity of the table. First Column indicates that the First Column on the left of being shaded differently to provide visual separation from the table information. This can also be selected for the last column. Finally, Banded Columns are the exact same as Banded Rows, except that they apply to columns. Depending on the table created and the information in the table, there are many options to make the information in the table stand out to the reader. Table Styles The Table Styles Group has two main options: to change the appearance and shading of the table and to manipulate the color options. Selecting the downward-facing arrow will launch a dialog box to provide the user with additional Table Styles with variations on color, spacing, and line thickness. Users can even create their own Table Style or edit a Table Style template. Finally, selecting the shading paint can button will allow the user to change the color of the cell. Table Borders Table Borders allows the user to adjust the line thickness, color, and pattern of the table borders. Clicking on the downward arrows will provide even more options about Border styles, font size (default is ½ pt.) and Pen color. In addition, users can add or remove cell lines by selecting the Borders icon Finally, the Border Painter icon will change the cursor to a paintbrush. Word users may add page borders by directing the cursor to the border of a table to add a line or increase the darkness of the line.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/12%3A_Using_the_Insert_Tab_in_Microsoft_Word/12.01%3A_Introduction_to_the_Insert_Tab.txt

In contrast to the design tab, the layout tab allows for manipulation of the table itself. The Layout Tab consists of the Table Group, the Draw Group, the Rows & Columns group, the Merge Group, Cell Size, Alignment, and Data Groups. Table Group The Select button relates to the specific location of the insertion point in a specific cell in a table. Clicking on the Select icon will display Select Cell, Select Row, Select Column, and Select Table. Select Cells will highlight the specific cell. Select Row will highlight the entire row with the insertion point contained in it. Select Column will select the entire column. Finally, a select table will highlight the entire table. View Gridlines shows are hiding the gridlines of a table. By default, the gridlines are displayed in a table. Sometimes, the user wishes to not display these lines for cosmetic reasons. Finally, Table Properties allow for the manipulation of table formatting, row and column information, and allows the user to enter Alt Text, which allows users with screen readers to view information about the content in the table. Users can also adjust borders and shading and text wrapping in the table, along with preferred width of cells. Draw Group The Draw Table group has two options, Draw Table and Eraser. Draw Table allows the user to use the mouse to draw custom table boundaries, including diagonal lines. The Eraser icon allows the user to remove table boundaries and lines to merge cells in order to customize a table. Rows & Columns Group The Rows & Columns Group allows the user to insert cell rows or columns above, below, left, or right of the insertion point. Often when designing a table, new information requires a new row or column. Users can also do this by right-clicking on the table, but this can be a solution with more options. Merge Group The merge group consists of Merge Cells, Split Cells, and Split Table. If a user highlights information in two adjacent cells, it will merge the information together in one cell that takes up the same area of space. Split Cells does the opposite, it separates one cell into multiple cells. Finally, Split Table allows a new table to be created beginning at the row that is currently the insertion point. Cell Size Cell Size determines the length and width of each cell in a table. The first option is the Autofit command. Autofit allows the user to resize the entire table. It provides three options, Autofit Content, Autofit Window, and Fixed Column Width. Autofit Content allows Microsoft Word to automatically size the table to take up as little space on the page as possible. Autofit Window resizes the table based upon the size of the window. Finally, Fixed Column Width allows the user to manually resize the table with the measurements to the right. Distribute Rows & Columns allow for an equal distribution of rows/columns in the table. Table Alignment Table Alignment allows the user to orientate the text within each table cell top left centered, centered, top right centered, middle left alignment, middle center, middle right alignment, lower left alignment, lower-middle centered, and lower middle right alignment. The text direction allows the user to change the direction text is displayed. Text can be displayed by default as left to right, but it can also be up to down, right to left, and up to down. Finally, Cell Margins allows the user to set up margins between cells, and left, right, upper, or lower indentation for text. Table Data Table Data allows the user to use some features of Excel in a Microsoft Word table. Information can be sorted. If a table occupies more than one page, selecting Repeat Header Row will display the table header on the next page so the viewer can see the headings. Convert to Text removes all table formatting and automatically places each table row into paragraphs. Users may need to additionally adjust the table to ensure the data displays the way they would like it to after selecting this command. Finally, the formula allows for some features of excel to be used in their table to perform calculations.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/12%3A_Using_the_Insert_Tab_in_Microsoft_Word/12.04%3A_Layout_Tab.txt

The Illustrations group allows the user to insert pictures or shapes within a document. Inserting Pictures The first options are for pictures. Users can insert Pictures that are saved on their computer (or an external drive), millions of online pictures on the internet using Bing Search. While it is possible for users to find a picture on the web, save it to their computer, and place it in the document, using the Insert Online Pictures option is the best method because Microsoft Word provides the citation of the picture, so the picture is properly sourced. Inserting Shapes, Icons, & 3d Models Clicking on the Shapes Icon will launch a drop-down menu of an assortment of shapes, lines, and symbols for the user. If the user needs a shape/symbol that is not available, there is even an option to design their own shape. The Icons Icon launches an online database of thousands of graphics and emojis to search from. The 3d Models Menu launches a drop-down box with similar search options for 3d Images compared with the Icons launcher. Users can search the web for a 3d image or upload their own. SmartArt The Smart Art Icon allows the user to insert SmartArt to visually communicate information with diagrams or flow charts. Upon clicking on the Smart Art icon, a multitude of SmartArt Graphical templates launch. Chart The Chart Icon will allow the user to create a chart using numbers in Microsoft Word. While more attention will be given to charts in the Excel Chapters, users are encouraged to practice the many different chart patterns on their own in Word. Upon clicking on the Chart icon, a new window will launch showcasing all the different chart creation templates available. When the chart loads on the Word Document, an Excel spreadsheet will also load embedded in Microsoft Word’s Chart. Changing the numbers will change the appearance of the chart or graph. The Excel Spreadsheet is not visible if printed. Screenshot The Screenshot icon is the last of the illustrations group. The command allows Microsoft Word to take a screenshot of other open/running programs or Windows Explorer windows to place directly inside the document. Unfortunately, the screenshot tool does not allow the screenshot to be taken inside Microsoft Word. Once the icon is selected, a drop-down box indicating other open arrows can be displayed as eligible to take a screenshot. The portion of the screen to be captured should be highlighted prior to taking the screenshot. Using a screenshot can be incredibly helpful when communicating with others if you are trying to ensure they understand what is occurring on your computer. 12.06: Document Item Group Image a scenario if you were creating a document that provided a quote for a job to a prospective employer and then soon after completing this quote, another prospective employer asked you for a similar quote. Instead of creating the second quote all over again, it might be nice to re-use some of the other quotes you completed to save you time. Document Item of the insert tab allows the user to do just that. Clicking on Document Item will launch a right navigation bar allowing the user to access parts of a document; text, pictures, charts, tables, etc. in other documents saved to their computer or in Microsoft One Drive or SharePoint. Other Office documents, such as Excel or PowerPoint may also be accessed.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/12%3A_Using_the_Insert_Tab_in_Microsoft_Word/12.05%3A_Illustrations_Group.txt

The Add-ins group in Microsoft Word is a place where various plugins or optional programs that run inside of Microsoft Word can be installed and run. Depending on your Office license, you may or may not be able to access Microsoft Add-ins. The default add-in installed is Wikipedia, which allows Wikipedia to be searched and text/photos/objects selected to be inserted into the Word Document. 12.08: Media Group The Media group contains one function: Online Video. Users can insert video into their documents that can be played by the user. In this way, Microsoft Word takes on characteristics of a webpage by allowing rich levels of interactive media to be displayed in a Word Document. When selected, two sources for videos are displayed. Option 1 is to search for and insert a video via Youtube. The second option is to insert a video from a website if you have the hyperlink. 12.09: Links Group Link allows the user to create a hyperlink to a website, email address, or a specific location (via a bookmark) in the document. It is expected that any website that is written in a document be hyperlinked. A document appears to be correctly hyperlinked if its color is blue and it is underlined. Users can also allow for bookmarks to be placed in the document. When a bookmark is created, another text must be hyperlinked and connected to the bookmark. When this occurs, a connection is established, and anytime that a user clicks on the hyperlinked item, they are transported in the document to that specific bookmark. To set up a bookmark, first, the user must highlight the text to be marked, and navigate on the Insert Tab to Bookmark. Next, to link to the bookmark from another place, the user must create a hyperlink. When an email address is hyperlinked, the email application of the computer will automatically be launched, and a compose email window will appear with the specified email address as the receiver. Finally, Cross Reference is like a bookmark, except that it displays the specific name of the text that is bookmarked in the word document. 12.10: Comments Group The comments group is useful when the user wants to place a note in the document for themselves or another user that they do not want to be printed. To enter a comment, click on the Comment button after highlighting the text that pertains to the comment. When the Comment button is selected, a new right-side panel of Microsoft Word screen will be created, and the name of the user will be displayed, allowing them to enter in as much text about that specific text. Users can reply to comments, delete comments, and create as many comments in the document as needed. 12.11: Header and Footer Group The header and footer group control the text that is displayed at the top and bottom of every page of a document. The top of every page is the Header Row. The bottom of the page is the Footer Row. Text that is inserted into the header row is displayed on every page of the specific section (most documents only have one section, but you can change the header by creating a section break). Often, the header contains the title of the document and the author, and the footer contains the date the document was created or page number. Clicking on the drop-down arrows for header and footer creates standardized options for a header and footer, but the user can customize the rows to their liking. The Page Number command provides options for how to insert page numbers throughout the document. The benefits of Microsoft Word inserting page numbers or doing it manually is that Microsoft Word automatically adds page numbers if pages are modified.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/12%3A_Using_the_Insert_Tab_in_Microsoft_Word/12.07%3A_Add-ins_Group.txt

The text group options allow for the insertion of a variety of text options. Text Box allows the user to insert a textbox in a specific space in Microsoft Word. Once inserted, Word treats the text box as a picture in that the text can be resized, moved around, and reshaped in relation to other text on the screen. There are several textbox options to use in word as templates. Quick parts allow the user to create shortcuts in Microsoft Word. For example, a user could create a Quick Part command so that every time they typed “CLC”, Word would convert those letters to “Central Lakes College”. Users often create Quick Type commands so that when they enter their initials, Microsoft Word automatically inserts their entire name. the Word Art command box allows the user to create colorful and artistic text/phrases in their document with a greater degree of flexibility than simply changing the font size. A drop cap creates a large first letter at the beginning of a sentence. Drop caps are often used in novels and creative writing. Clicking on the drop cap icon will allow several different options to display the drop cap. The Signature Line command creates a custom field in Microsoft Word where another user must sign. This command allows for e-Signature, or just a preformatted professional-looking field for the signee to return after the signature. Date & Time provides the user with multiple options to display the current date and time in a variety of languages. Users are encouraged to insert the date here rather than entering it on the keyboard because Microsoft Word will automatically update the date on the document unless the “update automatically” command box is left unchecked. Finally, Inserting an Object allows for other Microsoft Office files to be inserted inside of the document, along with options for specific functionality of that file’s application. Users may select this command if they wish to insert an excel document. 12.13: Symbols Group The final insert group, the Symbols group, allows the user to insert an equation or symbol. The Equation option will allow the user to insert a mathematical equation into the document, which is helpful when trying to display complex math problems inside Word. Using the Insert Symbol command allows for Word to provide options for thousands of symbols and characters to be added to the document or text group. 12.14: Checking for Understanding 1. Create a document titled “Monthly Sales” for items sold in your respective industry. Insert a Cover page to this document. 2. In this monthly sales document, create a table with 13 Rows, and 2 columns. The Header row should state “Month” and “Number of Sales” Enter the months of the year in the first column under “Month” 3. Using Microsoft Word, create a Totals field to total the number of sales for the year. 4. Insert a Chart to visualize this table and 2 online pictures. Add a comment, and create a header & footer with your name, the document name, and the page number. 5. Create a title with some word art and insert the date and time. 6. Write one paragraph explaining the charts and use a drop cap.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/12%3A_Using_the_Insert_Tab_in_Microsoft_Word/12.12%3A_Text_Group.txt

If the Home Tab allowed the user to manipulate the text in the document and the Insert Tab allowed the user to insert items into the document, the Design and Layout Tabs are more “big picture” tabs that allow various organizational structures to apply to a document section or the entire document. 13: Design Layout References Mailings and Review Tabs in Microsoft Word The Design tab allows the user to adjust the organization and visual structure, of the document. The first option to change in the upper left-hand corner of the tab is a Design Theme. Clicking on the Themes icon will launch a drop-down box with a large variety of templates for document themes. A document theme is a uniform set of organizational and stylistic structures that provide differentiation between headings and subheadings and provide easy navigation and comprehension for the reader. Just as you could imagine that PowerPoint has a variety of specific themes to choose from to display your slide show, so to can Microsoft Word provide themes. In addition to themes, Microsoft Word has many document style formats that ensure uniform line spacing and document & font organization to the entire document. The colors and fonts buttons/button allow you to apply different colors to the different document styles options, and the Fonts menu applies a unique font to the entire document. Paragraph Spacing, Effects, and Set as Default options allow the user to set the default Paragraph Spacing, and default text effects to apply to the entire document and to Microsoft Word when the document is launched. Finally, the Page Background Group Allow the user to create a document Watermark, which is a light color that covers the document (examples include the words Draft, Confidential, or Private. You can also use the drop-down menu that launches when the Watermark icon is selected to customize your Watermark. Page Color changes the background color of the document page (the default background color is white. Finally, Page Borders launches the Border menu for Borders and Shading and this menu has been described previously in detail. In summary, the Borders and shading group determine the shading effect for a page border and the thickness and style of the border. The border settings can apply to a paragraph or the entire document. 13.02: Layout Tab The Document Layout Tab allows the user to create some spacing and margin controls for specific objects, pictures, paragraphs, sections, or the entire document. Margins, allows the user to customize how much white space, or upper, lower, left, and right page boundaries. Page Margins are often utilized to ensure a document expands to become a full page or is condensed to be one page. Document. The orientation button allows the user to change the page layout from the default portrait landscape, where the page is taller than it is wider, to landscape, where the page is wider than taller. The Size button changes the size of the page Word is preparing to print. By default, most printer paper is 8.5X11 inches. However, there are other larger and smaller paper sizes. Changing the Size option will increase or decrease the amount of room each page. The Columns button allows the user to insert multiple columns on a word document. This is useful if the user is creating a flyer or newsletter. Columns are a lot like tables, however, they fill from left to right, and after one column is full, the text will move to the next column instead of being self-contained in a cell. The Breaks button allows the user to place in a variety of breaks, which are text stoppers which prevent text from being added below the break until the next page, column, section, etc. Clicking on columns will launch a drop-down menu allowing the user to set up page breaks or sections breaks. As specified earlier, section breaks allow for not only a break in the text but they also allow for different layout options and page orientation settings, whereas page breaks, being in the same section, keep all the same formatting. Line numbers are not activated by default but can be activated with this button selected. Line numbers number each line of a page, section, or entire document (depending on which is selected). They are also helpful in technical and reference documents when the user is would like to help another locate a specific sentence or word. For example, in a Vehicle Service manual, a technician could be told to go to line 4320, instead of “the third sentence in the sixth paragraph). Finally, the Hyphenation command changes whether Word will require a word to be on only one line or joined in two lines with a hyphen. For example, if the word “Mississippi” was being entered close to the right margin, the default setting would be to place the word in the next line below. This setting can be changed to have word hyphenate the word.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/13%3A__Design_Layout_References_Mailings_and_Review_Tabs_in_Microsoft_Word/13.01%3A_Design_Tab.txt

The References Tab is used to provide a hub to use citations, footnotes, endnotes, tables of contents. bibliographies, and any other type of references in a document. Often users will use the references tab when writing a research paper or a long document with many chapters. Table of Contents Group The Table of Contents Group requires the use of Headings, which were previously described. Using the headings, a Table of Contents is created and automatically connects the headings and subheadings with the appropriate page number. Every time the document is substantial, the user should click on the “Update Table” button, which will allow the user to choose between updating the entire table (to include new headings & subheadings), or simply to update the page number. When clicking on the Table of Contents icon, there are a variety of different styles to choose from. Footnotes Group Footnotes are additional information that the writer may place at the bottom of the specific page. Usually, footnotes are not required information for the reader to understand but allow for a “deeper dive” into the material if desired. Footnotes are numbered. The first footnote is given a 1 at after a specific word, the next footnote on the page is given a 2. Compared to a footnote, an endnote is placed at the end of a document section, or end of the document if the document has only one sentence. The Next Footnote command allows the user to quickly move around in their document between footnotes or endnotes. The Show Notes icon displays to the user where the Footnotes or endnotes are located. Finally, there is a more settings box Which allows for additional customization of footnotes and endnotes. When selected, a new window will launch allowing customization of where footnotes and endnotes appear, and the numbering and location of footnotes and endnotes on a page along with how they are displayed and referenced. Research Group The Research Group was added in 2016 to Microsoft Word. The Smart Lookup icon allows a word used in the document to be searched online for definitions, web-related information, and phonetical spelling. For example, highlighting the word “phonetical” and selecting Smart Lookup provides the user with this information: using the lookup feature. The Researcher icon allows the user to quickly search the web for accurate sources of information and insert them into the document and include them inside the bibliography. This is particularly helpful to a student writing a research paper as scholarly journals are made easily available for searching and citations can be quickly added to the document. Citations & Bibliography Group Citations tell the reader where a document was retrieved and how it was used. Selecting the Insert Citation field launches a drop-down dialogue box allowing the user to add a new source, add a new placeholder (if you want to insert the source later), and insert a citation you have already used. Manage Sources launches a new Source Manager window to allow the user to edit existing sources to make changes to the Citation or remove citations not needed in the document. Users can also change the citation style between APA (default) to other citation standards as required, and finally, inserting a bibliography with the theme of their choice. Usually, Bibliographies should be placed at the end of the document.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/13%3A__Design_Layout_References_Mailings_and_Review_Tabs_in_Microsoft_Word/13.03%3A_References_Tab.txt

Captions allow the user to mark text under a specific graphic to further explain the picture. Selecting the Insert Caption Icon, Users can customization their caption text, and its location in the document. Example of caption settings Inserting a Table of Figures is like a Table of Contents, except it is only for captions. Usually, a table of figures, if used, is placed at the end of the document. Finally, cross-references allow the user to quickly place links in a document to other information in the document. For example, if I wanted to remind the user what a Motherboard on a computer was, I could create a Cross-reference of the word “Motherboard:” and it would be hyperlinked to Chapter One, so when the user clicked on “Motherboard”, they were immediately sent to Chapter 1. The cross-reference feature of Microsoft Word requires the use of headings, or other citations to be able to navigate the document. Index Group Have you ever looked at the end of a book and found an enormous index that contained everything in the book and wondered how it was that this was created? Microsoft Word creates an easy way to create an index if needed. First, to place a word or phrase in the index, highlight the word(s) and select Mark Entry. Users can then specify how they want that phrase to appear in the index. The Insert Index creates an index at the insertion point from every item that was marked for entry into the index. Finally, the Update Index icon updates the index with any new entries entered after the initial index was created. Table of Authorities Group If a user wanted to write a legal brief that contained an index of cases, laws, court decisions, etc., they would use a Table of Authorities at the end of the document instead of a bibliography. Just like the Citations command, the Mark Citation in the Table of Authorities Group will create a citation in the proper format, and users can insert a Table Authorities at their desired insertion point and update the table as needed. 13.05: Mailings Tab Do you ever wonder how a business can send out thousands of letters with your first name in the letter and your address correctly printed on the envelope? It is likely they are performing a mail merge to quickly print customized documents with different information very quickly. Mail Merge features are found on the Mailings tab of Microsoft Word provides a variety of features to help the user quickly and with relative ease conduct a mail merge. Create The Create group allows the user to create customized envelopes or sheets of address & name labels with one address. The create group should be used for simple mail merges where only one address is needed. When the user selects Envelopes, an Envelopes and Labels dialog box will launch, and the user can insert the address for the specific envelope to be printed. When labels have selected the Envelopes and Labels dialog box will launch again and will allow the user to print out a single address in a specific label location on a page, or have the same address be added to every label. Start Mail Merge The Start Mail Merge Group icons are what allow the user to begin the mail merge process. The Start Mail Merge icon allows the user to select the type of document that is to be created with the mail merge process. Determine whether the mail merge is a letter, email message, envelopes, or labels. If Envelopes are selected, a new dialog box will launch allowing the user to customize the size of the envelopes being used. Finally, the user can launch the Step-by-Step Mail Merge wizard to help the user complete the mail merge. The Select Recipients icon allows the user to select a file that contains a list of recipients that was previously created in Microsoft Excel or Access (existing list). If the user selects to create a new list, they can begin to insert the list of addresses and names in customized fields using Microsoft Word and an embedded Access document. The user can also use their Outlook contacts to create a list. Finally, the Edit Recipient List icon allows the user to edit the list they had selected for a mail merge. Perhaps you had created a mail merge list to send out a newsletter to customers and just before printing, a new customer was added. You can add the customer using this command without changing the list in other locations. 13.06: Write and Insert Fields Group One of the best ways to create customer engagement is to treat each customer like they are a unique person. Using the Write & Insert Fields icons, you can do just that. You can create custom text fields in the document that receive mail merge information. You can do this with the Address Block, Greeting Line, and Insert Merge Field Command. The Address Block & Greeting Line allows the user to apply Word’s templates, where the Insert Merge Field icon allows the user to customize the fields that are inserted into Word. After inserting all the fields, the user can select Highlight Merge Fields to display all the mail merge fields in the documents. When conducting the mail merge, Word has many pre-populated field descriptions. The Match Fields command allows the user to match their own fields (in an excel document for example) to Word’s custom fields. Finally, the Rules icon allows the user to specify criteria for inserting special fields into a document, for example, they could create a message that says, “Happy Birthday!” if it was determined that the birthday of the recipient was the same date the letter was being printed. Finally, the Update Labels command will update the field information to all other merge fields in the document. Preview Results & Finish Once the Mail Merge has been created and customized fields have been created, the user can click on Preview Results which will cause Word to create customized letters determined by the number of fields in the excel document or database from which Word is using to create Mail merges. The mail merged letters will appear in alphabetical order, and the user can search by the recipient to find the individual they wish to find or navigate forward or backward their mail merge list. The user should also select Check for Errors to ensure there was no missing information in the mail merged fields. Finally, when everything appears correct, selecting Finish & Merge will create all the documents in this mail merge to be printed or emailed. The user can still edit the individual documents manually if needed.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/13%3A__Design_Layout_References_Mailings_and_Review_Tabs_in_Microsoft_Word/13.04%3A_Captions.txt

The purpose of the Review Tab is for proofing your document and providing possibilities for seeking feedback on your final edits. The Review Tab is separated into multiple groups: Proofing, Speech, Accessibility, Language, Comments, Tracking, Changes, Compare, Ink, & Resume. Proofing The Proofing Group allows the user to improve the words in their document. Users can click on Spelling & Grammar to launch Word’s built-in spelling and grammar checker to fix words and phrases that may be incorrect. When selected, the icon launches a navigation pane on the right side of the document, allowing the user to review spelling and grammar errors that the textbook does not find accurate, and make the changes, or ignore the recommendations. Speech & Accessibility Microsoft Office can read any text in the document by clicking on the Read Aloud icon in the Speech Group. Once the Read Aloud button is selected, Word will begin reading at the insertion point of the text. The Check Accessibility button launches the Accessibility Checker tool in Microsoft Word on a right-side panel of the page. The Accessibility Checker will review the entire document to find areas that would impair screen readers and other accessibility programs to aid those who have difficulty seeing or reading a document to still be able to understand the text in the document. Language The Language group allows the user to translate words in the document into a different language. Users will have the opportunity to translate a highlighted section or an entire document into another language. There are a variety of languages available for translation. In addition, the Language icon provides the user with the option to change which language Microsoft Word will use for use in the Spelling & Grammar checker. Comments Want to place a note in your document to review at a later time, or are you working collaboratively with someone else on the document? Using the Comments group is the easiest way to keep track of information about the document without changing characters in the actual document itself. Comments are automatically “turned off” by default. They can be enabled by selecting the Show Comments icon. To enter a comment, highlight the text you wish to comment about or place your insertion point where you want the comment to be placed. Then, select New Comment. A new section of the Word Document will launch on the right-hand side of the page. This will not be able to be printed but will display to the user with a line connecting the comment to the insertion point of the comment. Tracking & Changes When you are working with multiple individuals on a document it can become difficult to keep track of which changes each user has made. The Tracking & Changes group can help the user determine which text additions or deletions were entered and which user made the changes. Be default, the Track Changes icon is not enabled. To turn on tracking, click on the Track Changes icon. The user can also select the type of changes made in the document selecting Show Markup. A change in the document is entered in Red with an underline. Once a change has been entered, the author has the option to accept or reject the change in the Changes group. Users can navigate through the changes by clicking on Previous and Next. Once the user has accepted or rejected the change, the text will revert back to the standard text and fonts in the document. Users can also approve or deny all changes in the section or entire document. Remember, you can always stop tracking changes by clicking on the Track Changes icon. Compare, Protect, & Ink Groups Finally, users can place the finishing touches on the document by using Compare & Protect groups. Compare allows the user to compare their current version with previous versions of the document. Microsoft Word stores each version of the document when it is saved. The user can review each version of the document with the current version. This allows the user to revert the document back to a previous version if a catastrophic change is made to the document. The Protect group allows the author to stop certain authors from being able to edit or restrict others from making any changes to a document to make it read-only or restrict permission to change words in the document. 13.08: Checking for Understanding 1. You are tasked with writing a paragraph that will be placed in a newsletter that will be emailed to your community. The paragraph will share what you do on a day-to-day basis in your current position. Please use the Design Tab of Microsoft Word to change the document theme with relaxed paragraph spacing and place a Watermark of “Draft” on the paragraph. 2. Make the margins in your paragraph at .5” margins with a landscape orientation. 3. Add a picture with a caption to your paragraph that describes your vocation. 4. Launch Spelling & Grammar to ensure your document is written correctly and add a comment on your document.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/13%3A__Design_Layout_References_Mailings_and_Review_Tabs_in_Microsoft_Word/13.07%3A_Review_Tab.txt

Microsoft Excel is a spreadsheet program. Spreadsheets are used to create grids of texts, numbers, and formulas to complete calculations and display information in an organized manner. Microsoft Excel is frequently used for budgeting and accounting, as well as to create charts and visuals based upon numbers and other calculations. Excel is a powerful product that once the user can understand its navigation, can become incredibly useful and easy to use. 14: Getting Started with Excel The purpose of a spreadsheet is to organize and calculate information. Spreadsheets are utilized by many different businesses and organizations to perform a variety of tasks. The most commons tasks performed by spreadsheet software include functions, computations, statistical analysis, and formatting. This text will focus on excel when discussing spreadsheets. Functions: Excel is a spreadsheet consisting of unlimited numbers of cells. Cells are where information is stored. Spreadsheets feature columns and rows to keep information legible and simple to understand. You can use spreadsheets to enter data, calculate equations and create charts and graphs. What's more, you can build upon previous work by using formulas and functions so that if the information is changed, your calculations adjust to the changes. Computations: Excel is able to compute a variety of mathematical functions, from simple equations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division to more complex financial calculations like Mortgage Amortizations, and Net Present Value (NPV). It can also create “what-if” scenarios and can create relational functions such as greater than, equal than and less than. Statistical Analysis: Excel is also able to allow the user to conduct statistical analysis, calculating mean, median, mode, averages, and standard deviation. Excel can be used to calculate percentiles and rank categories and items. Formatting: Excel provides maximum flexibility to customize the worksheet (the workspace of excel) and organize data. Excel allows cells, rows, and columns to expand, merge, be inserted and deleted. You can even place inside cells pictures, tables, hyperlinks, and text from other word documents. Data can be sorted in alpha and numerical order. 14.02: Identifying Excel Windows Components Like all Microsoft Office Documents, Microsoft Excel has a common window organizational structure. Each excel document is called a “workbook”. Inside each workbook can be multiple “worksheets” that contain data. Each point of data has a cell address. Each cell address has a letter and a number associated with it. For example, the cell address in the first row and column (top left corner) is “A1”. The cell to the right of “A1” is “B1”. The cell below “A1” is “A2”. This naming scheme continues for the entire document. For a visual of Microsoft Excel, please launch the program in Microsoft Windows, and then launch a new worksheet by selecting the “File” Tab, then “New Worksheet”. The worksheet pictured below should be displayed on your computer. Key Excel Components Common Excel components are listed below. Name Box: The name box displays the active cell address that is selected. The selected cell in the Name box is called the “active cell”. In the picture provided, the Name Box is “A1”. Formula Bar: The Formula Bar is to the right of Name Box. It allows you to enter information into the worksheet or make edits to data in the worksheet. Worksheet Window: The Worksheet Window consists of all of the cells in the worksheet. Cells are classified by lettered columns, and numbered rows. Every cell in the worksheet has a unique address. Sheet Tabs & Sheet Tab Scrolling buttons: As written previously, each workbook is composed of worksheets. Most Excel users place different, but related information in multiple worksheets in the same workbook. For example, you may maintain an Excel workbook that contains your department budgets, and each worksheet represents a different year. You can browse between worksheets by using the Sheet Tab Scrolling buttons. The active sheet appears visually to be at different depths on the document as other sheets. Status Bar: The Status bar displays you various information about the cell or a calculation in place. It when selecting and highlighting multiple cells, it may provide information about the sum of the components, or an average, depending on the information inside the cells. Range: When selecting multiple cells with a mouse and dragging the cursor to another cell address, the selected cells are referred to a range. A range of cells is usually selected to perform a calculation.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/14%3A_Getting_Started_with_Excel/14.01%3A_Functions_of_a_Spreadsheet.txt

Imagine that you are a manager of a construction company. You must maintain your staff budget to make sure you can afford to pay your employees and make a profit every year. You plan to pay the following employees accordingly: Table \(1\): Salary Information Calculations Name Rate of Pay Hours per week Weekly Salary Annual Salary Michael Jordan \$ 16.75 40 \$ 670.00 \$ 34,840.00 Lindsey Vonn \$ 15.00 40 \$ 600.00 \$ 31,200.00 Kirby Pucket \$ 13.25 40 \$ 530.00 \$ 27,560.00 You use your calculator and finally finish adding up the total salary owed to each employee when your new state regulations require you to provide each employee a \$.04 per hour raise. You are frustrated because you must now take extra time to recalculate your spending plan all over again. However, you are using Excel, and you discover you don’t have to. This is because you used formulas connected to the cell reference content instead of a number. As a result, you can just insert the updated rate of pay, and Excel will automatically recalculate the weekly and annual salary. The formula entered in the Name box below is “B2*C2”. Which Excel uses to calculate the weekly salary in Column D. 14.04: Quick Analysis Toolbar Excel provides many tools to help the user complete their work quickly and efficiently. Another helpful tool is the Quick Analysis Toolbar. When highlighting multiple cells at once, depending on the type of information in the cell, a quick analysis toolbar may appear in the lower right-hand corner below the last cell highlighted. In addition, the status bar provides helpful calculations in reference to the information highlighted like Average, Count, and Sum. Selecting the Quick Analysis button allows for multiple options to format your information, or to create Charts of the data, calculate the data, create tables, or visual sparklines. More information about these items will be explored in future chapters. In addition, in the lower right-hand corner of the highlighted cell, there may be a “+” button. This is an autofill button that will be explained in further detail, but a quick summary of the autofill button is that it can allow the user to copy text from the above cell to other cells by clicking on the “+” sign, and dragging the mouse and highlight the other cells. The autofill button can also copy formulas and are other references. 14.05: Zoom View and Window Options Just like Microsoft Word, the bottom right-hand corner provides multiple views and zoom options. The three Zoom options from left to right are Normal, Page Layout, and Page Break Preview. . Normal is the standard view with just cell information in the worksheet available to the user. In this view, the user can focus on their work and is not able to determine how their sheet would appear if printed. Page Layout View provides a preview of what the document will look like when printed. Page Layout view is also the place where the user can add headers and footers to their worksheet. Finally, the page break view displays the normal view with dotted lines where the printer would print a new page. To the right of the various views is a zoom slider to allow the user to zoom in or out of their worksheet. Finally, just like Word, Microsoft Excel’s top of the document contains numerous window management and document management capabilities, including the Excel Ribbon. The Excel Ribbon consists of the File, Home, Insert, Page Layout, Formulas, Data, Review, View, and Help Tabs. The File Tab is responsible for saving your workbook, creating new workbooks, or opening other workbook files. It also has options for sharing the workbook and exporting it to other formats. Like Microsoft Word, it also contains options for other Excel Templates for a variety of functions. In addition to Open, Saving, and sharing options, Excel contains multiple print options, allowing the user to customize their workbook. As Word, Excel users can choose their printers, the orientation of the printing, as well as what is printed. By default, only the active sheet – the document the user is currently working in, will be printed. Worksheets can also be scaled to fit the entire worksheet on one page, or multiple pages, depending on the user settings. Finally, the user can specify the printing margins on the document in this window as well. The Home Tab allows various options to change the fonts, text size, cell properties, and insert, delete and modify cell contents and formulas. The Insert Tab allows for a variety of tables, charts, pictures, text and symbols to be used in Excel. The Page Layout Tab allows for customization of how the worksheet is oriented and appears during printing. The Formulas Tab allows for a vast amount of customization of Excel formulas and calculation options. The Data Tab allows the user to import and export data as well as manipulate data sets, to establish queries and connections and separate and sort data. The Review Tab allows for various worksheet protections and sharing settings along with help with spell and grammar check and accessibility checking. Similar to Microsoft Word, changes to the document can be recorded, and collaboration settings may be controlled. The View Tab allows for further worksheet customization to the user to display or hide document tools bars, freeze or expand cells, and Macro settings to complete multiple tasks at once. Finally, the Help Tab allows the user to receive help from frequently asked questions. Like Microsoft Word, users can enter their questions in plain text in the “Tell me what you want to do” field , and Excel will use artificial intelligence to retrieve a solution. 14.06: Check for Understanding 1. Enter the Excel Table information listed in this chapter to your own excel table. Practice creating simple formulas with Excel. Increase the wages by \$1.22 per hour each and determine the new monthly and yearly salary of the employees. 2. Describe the differences between a Cell, Row, Column, Worksheet, and Workbook. 3. Describe the purpose of the three different views in Excel – which one allows the user to adjust the header/footer? 4. To your document in #1, create a new worksheet titled “2030 salary projections” Copy your original worksheet to this worksheet and increase the wages by \$40.00 per each employee. What are the totals?

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/14%3A_Getting_Started_with_Excel/14.03%3A_Understanding_Formulas.txt

The Home Tab contains many common formatting and simple functions tools to properly utilize Excel. Like Microsoft Word, the Home Tab is divided into multiple groups, Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, Styles, Cells, and Editing. 15: Home Tab and Working with Formulas and Functions in Excel Clipboard Group The main function of Clipboard is the Cut, Copy, and Paste feature. All Office Applications share a Universal Clipboard. This means that items that are copied in Windows 10 can be shared between Office Applications. You can view the Universal Clipboard by clicking on the clipboard box with an arrow facing down and to the right in Excel. A new navigation pane will open on the left side of the screen. It will display all the items that you have cut or copied in Windows 10 recently. This allows you to work with multiple items you have pasted. In addition to the Clipboard Navigation pane, users can also utilize Format Painter . Format Painter allows the user to copy the text size, fonts, and any other formatting, to another selected body of the text. To use the format painter functionality, users should select the text they would like to copy, and then click on “Format Painter”. Then select the text they wish to change. Users may also doubleclick on “Format Painter” and change as many text selections as they would like. When they have completed changing the text selections, they can click on “Format Painter” to stop. While Format Painter is a useful tool to change selected text, the Font groupings of the Home Tab have many more features. 15.02: Font Group The Font group provides unlimited customization of text. It allows users to change the font or style of the text, the size of the text, provide text emphasis, and even change the colors. Beginning in the upper left-hand corner, the Font Selection Box and Text Size boxes allow customizations of hundreds of font designs and text sizes. The capital “A” button on the right allows the user to gradually increase the text size with the smaller capital “A” button next to it on the right decreases the text size. The lower row of the Font group contains Bold , Italics , and Underline (without underline options for line thickness). To the right of the Underline, the button is the border settings button . This button allows the user to control border lines around highlighted cells. Users can select top, left, right, bottom, or all borders to their selected cells. To the right of the border settings are the paint can icon . The painted icon allows the user to color a cell. Finally, to the right of the paint can menu is an icon of the letter “A” with a line underneath . This control allows the user to change the color of any selected text with an almost infinite number of color options. By clicking on the arrow pointing down and to the right in the Font group, an expanded menu with even more options will launch, allowing the user with many more text customization options, as well as the option to set default text options and effects.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/15%3A_Home_Tab_and_Working_with_Formulas_and_Functions_in_Excel/15.01%3A_Clipboard_Group.txt

The alignment group allows the user to control how text is displayed in cells. The first group in the upper left-hand corner that has horizontal lines/controls the vertical alignment of text or numbers in a cell. The first icon on the left is Top Alignment, which connects the text to the top of the cell. The next icon is Middle Alignment, which centers the text vertically between the top and bottom of the cell. The last vertical alignment is Bottom Alignment, which places the text near the bottom of the cell. The bottom Alignment is the default vertical alignment. The next alignment is Orientation which allows the user to rotate the text vertically or diagonally. There is a drop-down box with more options to allow even more customization of how text is oriented in the cell to angle the text counterclockwise, clockwise, vertical, rotate text up and rotate text down. In addition, there are more options by clicking “Format Cell Alignment in the drop-down box in excel. In terms of text orientation, the cell is very flexible. Next to Orientation on the right is Wrap Text . The Wrap Text feature allows Excel to automatically adjust the vertical height of the cell to include all of the text in the cell by allowing the text to be placed on multiple lines. The default line format of excel is to display text on one line in a cell. If the cell is not long enough to accommodate the text, the text will be contained in the cell, but appear to be added to the next cell on the right. While each cell height and width can be adjusted with the mouse, the Wrap Text command allows for long text fields to be better displayed in the document. The bottom row of the Alignment group begins with Horizontal Alignment settings . The settings align the selected text to the left side of the cell (which is standard formatting), centered (which is common for titles), and right-aligned of the cell. Next on the right, the increase/decrease indent icons allow the user to move the cell closer or further away from the cell border depending on the horizontal alignment of the cell. The last icon in the Alignment Group, Merge and Center allows the user to allow information that is in one cell, to span multiple highlighted columns or rows and be treated as one cell. When two cells are merged together, the usual column or cell divider is removed, and the contents are displayed in both cells. . There are several options available to merge or unmerge cells in the drop-down dialog box to the right of Merge & Center with a downward arrow. When selecting multiple cells. Merge & Center performs what was previously described: allowing highlighted cell information that spans more than the current cell length to occupy multiple columns as one cell and centers the information. Merge Across allows the user to take information that exists in multiple cells, and convert them into one cell that spans multiple columns. Merge Cell creates highlighted cells into one cell spanning multiple columns, and unmerge cells perform the opposite, it takes a merged cell that spans multiple columns and removes the cells that are merged into separate columns of cells. The information in the formerly merged cell is placed in the left cell. 15.04: Number Group In addition to determining the way that information is displayed in a cell, the user can also determine the format a number is displayed inside a cell. The default display is “General” but selecting the drop-down box allows for many more options for the user to select depending on the cell conditions. Cell Format Function General Any text or number will display in the cell as written. Number This allows the user to only display numbers in this field and specifies the number of decimal places. Currency Similar to Number format, this displays numbers in the cell and the number of decimal places and the chosen currency symbol (depending on the currency) for the user. Accounting Similar to Currency, Accounting lines up the decimal points in a column so the amounts are displayed with the same alignment. Short Date Displays a set of numbers as the date, beginning from the year 1900. For example, the number “1” is 1/1/1900 Long Date Displays a set of numbers as the date, beginning from the year 1900. For example, the number “1” is Sunday, January 1, 1900 Time Displays a set of numbers as the time, beginning from the year 1900. For example, the number “1.1” is 2:24:00 AM. Percentage Displays decimals as a percentage. For example, .2 = 20% Fraction Displays decimals as a fraction. For example, .2 = 1/5. Scientific Displays a number as a scientific calculation, for example, .2 = 2.00E^-1 Text Displays the cell information exactly as entered even if a number is displayed. In addition, students can select more formatting options by selecting the diagonal arrow for more customization. Below the formatting, the box is some quick shortcut icons that allow the user to quickly format a cell with the Accounting (\$), Percentage %, or to add a comma “,” to numbers that have the thousandths place. Finally, to the right of the shortcut icons are decrease indent and increase indent icons . These options allow the user to specify how much numerical detail to place in a cell. As an example, our cell currently contains the numbers 2.1345 as a repeating number which means the decimal will continue to infinity. The cell information goes to the fourth decimal because it was formatted this way by the user (the user can decide how many decimal places to display). By decreasing the indent to the left the number rounds the last decimal up or down depending, and only displays the next decimal place. In the case of this example, 3 decimal places. Therefore, the new number is 2.135 because excel rounded the fourth decimal up. By decreasing the indent to the right, more decimal places will be displayed, and the number becomes 2.13452.

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The Styles Group allows the user to use some predetermined styles consisting of fonts and colors to determine the appearance of the cell. Conditional Formatting allows the user to program Excel to change the color of selected cells based upon the conditions in a cell. Selecting Conditional Formatting will launch a drop-down menu allowing the user to customize the specific conditional formatting. Conditional Formatting When preparing a large financial report, and excel user may want to make specific cell ranges more recognizable to focus the attention of their audience; perhaps they would like to highlight specific areas indicating profits visually and also showcase areas of financial losses another. The user can use Conditional Formatting to have Excel automatically label or create graphics for cells based upon properties they specify. Selecting Highlight Cell Rules will apply the specific cell shading to selected cells with values either greater than, less than, between, equal to, the text contains, or a specific date, or duplicate values. Once the specific measure is selected, a new dialog box will launch allowing the user to input their specific value and the cell shading color that would be associated with it. Highlight Cell Rules: Typically, an Excel user would utilize Highlight Cell Rules to program Excel to display certain cells to stand out to the user. For example, a CFO may use conditional formatting to program cells with negative balances to be colored red to stand out to their boss. Top/Bottom Rules: These selection options allow the user to highlight the Top 10 items in a list, the Top 10%, Bottom 10 items, Bottom 10%, Above Average, and Below Average. In addition, any custom rules can be created as well. Data Bars: Once the user has set rules for Conditional Formatting, Excel allows for multiple ways to display the data. Using the Data Bars feature of Conditional Formatting, users can create a fill a cell with a chosen color that fills relative to the data in the cell. For example, for the purposes of simplicity, a user could have two data points in two different cells, 50 and 100. Using the Conditional Formatting with Data Bars, the user can create a visual that compares the two data points in the cells visually. The number “50” makes the cell appear half-filled, while “100” fills the entire cell. Colors can be changed. The user can always program the data bars to calculate differently by selecting the last option in the drop-down menu, More Rules. Color Scales: In addition to Data Bars, the user can determine multiple color gradients to appear in cells based upon the Conditional Formatting rules. The cell can be shaded completely, or outlined depending on the user’s preferences. Like Data Bars, the user can always provide more detail as to what data is displayed in the Color Scales by selecting “More Rules”. Below the gradient options. Icon Sets: In addition to colors, Excel users can display specific images or symbols in cells based upon their parameters and the data in the cell. There are a variety of arrows and shapes that can be associated with cells. Using the previous example of placing “50” in one cell and “100” in the one below it, using Icon Sets, the user can place pictures (such as arrows) in the cells to indicate their value with or without the shading properties from the data bars. In addition to the multiple graphic options, users can create custom rules by selecting the “More Rules” field in the Icon sets drop-down menus to determine how each cell appears. Depending on the rules established, the arrows, shapes, indicators or ratings will change. Format as Table While Excel is organized to present information in a grid-like table, the cells can be more precisely configured to be organized into a separate table format. To set up a table, select the cells that will compose the table and click the “Format as Table” icon in the styles group. A dropdown arrow will launch a variety of table shading styles to select in terms of color and gradient (Light, Medium, and Dark). Formatting the table will allow for each row to be shaded in alternating colors to best differentiate the rows, and a header row will be placed at the top of the table. The header row allows the user to label the data in each column and also perform a variety of data sorting activities. By clicking on the downward arrow on the right of the header row cell, a dropdown box will launch a variety of data manipulation options. Users can sort the data in that row from smallest to largest, largest to smallest, sort by color (if using conditional formatting), filter by color, and create filters for numbers in a cell. Filters only display text that the user specifies. For example, in a table with multiple numbers ranging from 1 to 10, filtering numbers “1” and “3” will only display those numbers in the table. The rest of the numbers will disappear until the user removes the filter, which is also located in the drop-down menu. In addition, the user can select the specific numbers to filter. Cell Styles The last option in the Styles Group is the Cell Styles icon. . Like Microsoft Word, Excel provides a number of preset styles with different colors and fonts. Instead of styles relating to paragraphs or sentences, they relate to individual cells instead. Selecting Cell Styles will load a dropdown menu that provides a variety of cell shading options, different font and heading styles, and style themes in addition to number formats. Using styles allows the user to create standard cell properties across their document by using the same cell styles.

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The Excel Cells Group allows the user to add, delete, or change specific cells. The Cells group does not format the information inside the cells, but rather the cells themselves. Selecting the Insert icon will launch a drop-down dialog box allowing the user to insert cells, rows, columns, or entire sheets into the workbook. The insert command is particularly helpful in Excel if the user wishes to enter new cell information between existing cells of data. When a new cell, column, or row is inserted, the default action is to move the other data down, or to the right of the insertion point depending on whether a row or column was inserted. Information that is moved is maintained in its form, and any formulas associated with it are moved to the new relative cell location so calculations are correct. The Delete function performs in the opposite way compared to the Insert Command. It allows the user to Delete selected cells, rows, columns, or entire sheets. Users chose to perform this function to quickly remove sets of data that are no longer needed. Finally, the Format icon of the Cells Group allows for multiple adjustments to be made to specific cell properties. Cells can be adjusted for Row Height and Column width manually, or via AutoFit, which automatically sizes the row or column to be just large enough to fit the selected cell height or width. Hide & Unhide settings allow the user to hide selected rows or columns so that they do not display to the user. The data in the cells are still there but must be unhidden using this icon to display the data again. The Hide command is often used when presenting a spreadsheet and the workbook creator does not want to show the viewer all of the Excel calculations in order to keep the spreadsheet simple. When rows or columns are hidden, there will be a break in the alphabetical or numerical order of the column or row to show that there is hidden information. The organize sheets command lets a user quickly rename, copy, move, or change the tab color of sheets in a workbook. Protect Sheet & Lock Cell Imagine that you are distributing a budget with detailed figures on employee salaries to your management team. You are concerned that someone may decide to change the information in the budget and send it out to others. To prevent this from happening, you may decide to select the Protect Sheet icon. Using the Protect Sheet command, workbook creators can create a password to protect the sheet against unauthorized changes and prevent the user from making any number of changes to specific contents of a worksheet. Because this command is restricted to specific sheets, the user can protect one sheet, and not others if they choose to. Once Protect Sheet is enabled with a password and specific actions are allowed or prevented, users can select the “Lock Cells” command beneath the “Protect Sheet” command to require a password before a user can make any changes to the cells that the user selected prior to clicking “Lock Cells”. If a user would like to unprotect the sheet and allow editing without a password, they can enter the password again in the “Protect Sheet” dialog box to unprotect the sheet.

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The Editing Group allows the user to manipulate data inside each cell using the AutoSum, Fill, and Clear Commands as will as sort & filter and Find & Select. We will first review AutoSum. Autosum Let's go back to an example in a previous chapter. You are the owner of a construction company hiring three individuals to perform work for you. You have already used excel to calculate their weekly salary, but now you need more information; you need to know the total salary you expect to spend, the average salary, and the maximum and minimum salaries. Now, using the AutoSum Icon and corresponding drop-down commands options, the user can allow excel to automatically calculate this information Sum calculates the total numbers added together in a specified range. Average calculates the value of the cells added together in a specified range divided by the number of cells in the range. Count Numbers provides the number of cells selected in a range. Maximum provides the highest number in a selected range, and Minimum provides the lowest number in a range. While these numbers automatically include the cells above them, the user can specify in the Excel Formula Bar the correct ranges if needed. Fill Command In addition to using AutoSum, the Fill Command allows the user to continue a pattern of cell number, or copy the contents of one cell to the next cell in any direction. This could help when the user is creating a numbered list or needs to enter the same data points in many cells. The Down, Right, Up, and Left Fill commands copy data from one cell to the next cell. Selecting the Series menu allows the user to select multiple methods for a cell to increase in value. Users can specify how much the cell increases and by what value, and whether the information increases in rows or columns. When the user is ready to fill cells, they should highlight the first cell (which has the starting number) and select the “Fill” icon on the menu, and select “Series”, and place the step value and the stop value (when the series should end) and click “Ok”. Their highlighted cells will then display the series in the cell. This feature is especially helpful when creating numbered lists. Clear Command The Clear Command removes formatting and cell contents from selected cells. Once the Clear command is selected, a drop-down menu of options emerges with Clear All, Clear Formats, Clear Contents, Clear Comments, Clear Hyperlinks, and Remove Hyperlinks (if Hyperlinks are present). The Clear All will remove all of the contents and formatting of the selected cells. This allows the user an easy way to delete information without accidentally moving other data into other columns or rows. Clear Formats removes any formatting (like Bold or Italics) applied to any of the select cells. Clear contents only clear the information inside the cell, not the formatting or cell settings. Clear Comments removes Comments from other users but not the Cell Contents, Clear Hyperlinks remove the hyperlinks from the Cell, but keeps the text, and Remove Hyperlinks removes all text and link from the applicable Cell. Sort & Filter One of the powerful features of Excel is to be able to analyze data. One way to analyze data is to sort it by specific fields. The Sort & Filter/feature in Excel allows the user to perform this action. To use the Sort & Filter process, select a cell, and then click on the Sort & Filter menu. A drop-down menu of options will emerge, allowing the user to Sort from Smallest to Largest, Largest to Smallest, Custom Sort, Filter, Clear a previous Sort & Filter, and Reapply a Cleared filter. Smallest to largest moves all other columns in Excel to be in order with the smallest number in the selected column to be displayed first. Sort Largest to Smallest is the opposite, Custom Sort allows the user to apply multiple sort levels to the document. Find & Select Finally, the Find & Select Menu of Excel allows the user to find or replace text, numbers, formulas, comments, or other data in any cell. Selecting the Find & Select Icon will launch a drop-down menu which allows the user to find items, or replace one word or number with another in the entire worksheet. In addition, special search parameters (formulas, comments, conditional formatting, constants, and data validation are also parameters that can be used. 15.08: Check for Understanding 1. You have been asked to track department spending for your unit for the month. Please create a budget with the following headings: Item Category Number Purchased Cost per item Total Cost Percent of Total spent Now, also calculate the totals, maximum and minimum spend amounts using the AutoSum feature. All amounts are only in dollars, not cents. 1. Once your budget has been created, use conditional formatting to highlight any number under \$500 in Red. 2. On your next sheet, please create a spending tracking report with the A column cells being numbers from 1-100 using autofill. In addition, change the name of Sheet2 to “Spending” and change the color of the tab to blue.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/15%3A_Home_Tab_and_Working_with_Formulas_and_Functions_in_Excel/15.07%3A_Editing_Group.txt

Similarly to Microsoft Word, the Insert Tab of Excel allows the user to place multiple objects and information into their worksheet. The Insert Tab Consists of grouped functions: Tables, Illustrations, Add-Ins, Charts, Tours, Sparklines, Filters, Links, Text, and Symbols. 16: Using Insert Tab Tables Group As previously described, Tables are used in excel to easily select and sort information. Excel allows the user to use tables (which allow for basic functions) and pivot tables, which are used to create the summary reports of large data sets with the built-in calculation, and we have the option to make our own calculation. Tables make it easy to sort, filter and format the data within a sheet. Excel even has a Recommended PivotTables option to automatically create Pivot Tables based upon the data provided in the highlighted cells. To create a Pivot Table, select a cell within the table of data you wish to use. Then select Pivot Table. You may also use Recommended Pivot Tables for some predetermined templates. Regardless of which option you choose, the Pivot Table Wizard will launch and automatically select the data associated with your table that will be available in the Pivot Table. In addition, the user can select to add the Pivot Table in their current worksheet or a new worksheet. Once you have selected specific properties associated with your Pivot Table or selected the default options, click “ok” to create the Pivot Table. By default, the PivotTable Fields will be displayed in the upper left-hand corner. The user can select the appropriate column and determine whether it should be listed in a column, row, or values view. This flexibility allows the user to explore interrelationships between multiple data sets. While performing complex PivotTable calculations is outside the scope of this course, it is important to understand the purpose of Pivot Tables. Illustrations Group We use this option to insert the Pictures, Online Pictures, Shapes, SmartArt and Screenshot. It means if we want to insert any image, we can use Illustration feature. Selecting the Pictures icon will allow the user to import their own picture file into Excel. Selecting Online Pictures will launch an Excel Online Bing Search tool to search for any picture using Bing that has a Creative Commons license that permits its free use in a document. Once a picture is inserted into excel, it will be displayed on top of the cell and cover any contents in a cell. The picture can be manipulated with the same Picture Format tools when selected as Microsoft Word. For more information on adjusting picture properties in Microsoft Office, please visit Inserting Pictures in Chapter 12. The picture size can also be adjusted by selecting the edges of the picture and dragging resizing them to the preferred size. Add-ins Like Microsoft Word, Excel provides the user the option to insert Add-In Applications that operate inside of Excel to expand the functionality to the user. The default options automatically added are Bing Maps and People Graph. Depending on your Office 365 subscription or Excel license, your use of Add-ins may be limited. Users can download more add-ins by selecting the Get Add-ins icon. Charts Charts are one of the key uses of excel when there is a need to display numerical information graphically. In Excel, users can insert a variety of charts: Column, Bar, Radar, Line, Area, Combo, Pie and Bubbles chart. If the user doesn’t know what kind of chart to use, the can select “Recommended Charts” and Excel will automatically insert a chart from the data selected. To create a chart, select the range of cells to be included in the chart. You may include the header columns and rows if desired. Once the data is selected, simply select the preferred chart type and Excel will automatically create a chart. Types of Charts Excel contains a variety of charts for users to utilize to display data visually to others. Each Chart has a specific utility depending on the types of data. All charts can be customized by selecting the chart and using the Design and Format tabs which will be described later. Pie Chart: A Pie Chart can only display one series of data. A data series is a row or column of numbers used for charting. Excel uses the series identifier (column or row heading) as the chart title and displays the values for that series as proportional slices of a pie. If we had selected multiple series of data, Excel would ignore all but the first series. There are sub-types of the Pie Chart available. The second chart below is the Pie Chart in 3-D and the third chart is an Exploded Pie Chart; an Exploded Pie in 3-D is also available. Column Chart: The Column & Bar Charts shows the comparison of one or more series of data points. But the Clustered Column Chart is especially useful in comparing multiple data series. In a Column Chart, the vertical axis (Y-axis) always displays numeric values, and the horizontal axis (X-axis) displays the time or another category. And by default, Excel will always plot the category (row or column heading) that contains the most entries on the horizontal axis (X-axis). One variation of this chart type is the Stacked Column Chart. In a Stacked Column Chart, the data points for each time period are "stacked" instead of "clustered." This chart type lets us see the percentage of the total for each data point in the series. Also available is the 100% Stacked Column Chart, where each value in a series is shown as a portion of 100%. An example of a 100% Stacked Chart is shown in the section on Bar Charts. All the Column Charts have a version in which the columns display in three-dimension - as illustrated by the 3-D Stacked Column Chart above. But one chart, the "3-D Column Chart," is special because the chart itself is three-dimensional - displaying multiple series on the X-axis, Y-axis, and Z-axis. The first chart below is a 3-D Column Chart of our data series. The Bar Chart: The Bar Chart is like a Column Chart lying on its side. The horizontal axis of a Bar Chart contains the numeric values. The first chart below is the Bar Chart for our single series, Flowers. When to use a Bar Chart versus a Column Chart depends on the type of data and user preference. Sometimes it is worth the time to create both charts and compare the results. However, Bar Charts do tend to display and compare a large number of series better than the other chart types. Line Chart & Area Charts: The Line Chart is especially effective in displaying trends. In a Line Chart, the vertical axis (Y-axis) always displays numeric values and the horizontal axis (X-axis) displays the time or another category. You may choose each Line Chart type with or without markers. Markers are circles, squares, triangles, or other shapes that mark the data points. Excel displays a unique marker - different shape and/or color - for each data series. Besides the Line Chart, we have the Stacked Line Chart and the 100% Stacked Line Chart - with or without markers. Area Chart: The Area Chart is very similar to a Line Chart with the addition that underneath the trend line is solid. Area Charts are used primarily to show trends over time. There are three charts available: the Area Chart, the Stacked Area Chart, and the 100% Stacked Area Chart. Each of these charts come in 2-D format and in true 3-D format with X, Y, and Z axes. The Scatter Chart: The purpose of a Scatter Chart is to observe how the values of two series compare overtime or another category. Scatterplots are similar to line graphs in that they use horizontal and vertical axes to plot data points. However, they have a very specific purpose. Scatter plots show how much one variable is affected by another. The relationship between two variables is called their correlation." The series pair has a Positive Correlation if they increase similarly, and a Negative Correlation if they both decrease in like manner. Otherwise, they have No Correlation. The Scatter Chart comes in several different formats: markers can indicate the data points, and the points can be unconnected or connected with smooth or straight lines. Finally, there are many other types of Charts Excel provides for the user that are not described in detail in this book. The user can click on the More options arrow in the Chart Group to view all of the Chart options available to the user. Chart Design Once you have inserted a Chart, there are many options available to customize it. Users can select Design Tab (it only appears when you have first selected a chart) and have the option to choose from a variety of Chart Styles, to adjust the data or change the chart type, or add many already created quick layout elements, such as field labels or specific text properties. Users can also change the colors of the chart, or move the chart location. The most comprehensive feature to chart design is the Add Chart Elements icon that launches a drop-down menu with common chart customization features depending on the chart selected. The Chart Data Group allows the user to toggle the row and column axis, and customize the data being reported by clicking on the Select Data icon. Once the Icon is clicked, a new dialog box will launch and allow the user to customize the data used. The Chart Data Range is the first customizable field. You can use it to select the data included in the chart. You can do so by manually typing in the data, or selecting the data by clicking on the specific range of cells to be included. The user can also edit the specific columns of data to be included (or not included) in the chart by selecting the Legend Entries (Series) on the left-hand side and also adjust the Horizontal Category Axis Levels on the right. Users can explore these customization options. If they ever think that they made a mistake, they can always select the Cancel button to not save the changes. Selecting OK saves the changes to the chart. Chart Format The Chart Formatting Tab also is available when you select a chat that you have created. The Format tab allows the user to insert shapes and lines in a chart, change the outline styles, and change the size of the Chart. The first grouping, Current Selection allows the user to adjust the Chart Border and fill settings. While the default settings to adjust is Chart Area, any number of aspects of the chart can be adjusted. Next to the Current Selection Group is the Insert Shapes group. A wide variety of shapes, lines, boxes, and emojis can be inserted into the chart. Clicking the downward arrow in the menu of options will provide the user with even more options. In addition to shapes, new text boxes can also be inserted. To the right of the Insert Shapes Group is the Shape Styles group. Shapes styles allow you to adjust any color or visual effect of the chart. You can choose presets for background fill of your chart, or choose your own color with the paint can icon. You can also adjust the border for the chart with the Shape Outline icon, and any transparency effects with the Shape Effects icon. The next group, Word Art Styles focuses on text effects. The user can choose from a variety of Word Art styles, or make their own with various Text Fill, Text Outline, and Text Effects. There is so much customization available to charts in Excel that it is possible that no two charts ever created are completely the same. Finally, the Arrange & Selection Groups allow the user to change the shape of the chart and select between multiple charts. If eligible, a chart can be rotated, and also aligned to other charts or data on the excel spreadsheet.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/16%3A_Using_Insert_Tab/16.01%3A_Insert_Tab.txt

Sparklines are very small graphs or charts that exist within a cell. They are usually entered as a quick visual reference or representation of numerical data. There are three types of Sparklines available: Line, Column/Loss. Line & Column Sparklines provide the same type of visual reference of information as charts. Win/Loss Sparklines show an upward-facing chart for positive values and a downward-facing chart for negative values. To add a sparkline to a cell, highlight the cells in which you want to use their data to create a sparkline. Then click on the icon corresponding to the type of Sparkline you would like to create. Once selecting the Sparkline, a Sparkline dialogue box will appear, allowing you to select or change the cells to be used to generate the Sparkline and a cell to select to insert the Sparkline. When all data is entered, click OK and the Sparkline will be inserted in the appropriate cell. Sparkline Design Tools After a Sparkline is created, the user can adjust some of the design elements of the Sparkline by selecting the cell and then navigating to the Design Tab in the Excel Ribbon. Using the Design tools, users may edit the Sparkline Data, change the type of Sparkline, and select whether to display different points/stages of data in the sparkline. Users may also adjust the Sparkline color. 16.03: Filters The filter group contains controls for Slicer and Timeline Filters. These are associated with Pivot Tables. Inserting a Timeline or Slicer allows the user to place visual controls to be associated with a Pivot Table to change the data being displayed. Since this book does not go into detail in Pivot Tables, this will be the extent of the information shared on this subject. 16.04: Links The link command allows the user to create a link in the document to another location, or another document, or a website to quickly access other content. Clicking on the Link icon will display a box to create a connection to another file or location. 16.05: Text The Text Group allows the user to insert a number of objects into an Excel document to make it more visually appealing and easier to understand. The Text Box command allows the user to insert a textbox anywhere on the document. The Header & Footer command allows for the user to place a document header (usually a title) on a worksheet and a footer (such as the date) on the bottom of the document. The Header and Footer views are visible on the Page Layout view. Selecting Header & Footer launches the Header & Footer Design view, which allows for many customizations to the document. In the Design Tab, both Header & Footer display a large number of drop-down menus to allow the user to choose a number of pre-populated fields pertaining to the document. In addition, users can insert page numbers, the number of pages, Current Date, Current Time, the File Path, File Name, Sheet Name, and Picture. In addition, users can specify what pages should relate to the Header & Footer and align the Header/Footer with the page that will be printed. 16.06: Symbols Group We use this option to insert the symbols and equations. The equation is used to insert the common mathematical equations to your document and also we can add equation by using the mathematical symbols. We use Symbols to insert the symbols which are not on the keyboard and, to create the equation, we use the symbols from here. Once an equation is inserted, by clicking on the Equation that was inserted, the Design Tab of the Ribbon will launch. The Design view for equations allows for much more customization of an Equation, as well as inking and mathematical calculations. 16.07: Checking for Understanding 1. You are tracking monthly sales for your parts and equipment company in 2019 and 2020. Your monthly sales are as follows with 2019 displayed first followed by 2020: 1. January: 2400, 2670 2. February 3300, 3100 3. March 2700, 1900 4. April 1900, 1920 5. May 2700, 2450 6. June 2650, 3200 7. July 3200,1700 8. August 1700, 1650 9. September 1560, 1649 10. October 1890, 1919 11. November 2100,2400 12. December 3400, 3600 Please create an excel document with the following Table Columns: Month 2019 Sales 2020 Sales Sparklines Format your information as a table, and insert a Bar Chart Displaying the monthly profits in dollars. In addition, create a totals row to add the total profits. 1. Create a Pie Chart to measure each month of sales in relation to the whole. Add an Image pertaining to Sales next to the chart. 2. Place a document header & footer on the worksheet. The Header should be “Monthly Parts Sales”. The Footer should be the Date.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/16%3A_Using_Insert_Tab/16.02%3A_Sparklines.txt

The Page Layout, View, & Review Tabs allow you to create views for your document to make your workbook easier to understand and navigate for the user. 17: Page Layout View and Review Tabs Page Layout Tab The Page Layout Tab allows the user to control the visual appearance of the worksheet when it is printed. The Page Layout Tab consists of five major groups: Themes, Page Setup, Scale to Fit, Sheet Options, and Arrange. Themes Group Microsoft Excel provides a variety of themes- fonts, colors, and backgrounds that go together to make Excel very customizable and visually appealing to the viewer. If none of the stock Excel themes interest the user, they can always make their own theme by customizing the Colors, Fonts, and Effect icons to the left of the Themes Icon . Page Setup Group Users can select the Margins icon if they wish to print their worksheets. Margins allow the user to specify how close to the top, bottom, left, and right of the printed page cell information is placed. Narrower margins allow more information to be placed on a printed page, wider margins will contain less information. The Orientation icon allows the user to determine whether the worksheet is created in a portrait or landscape view. Portrait orientations are best suited when a worksheet contains many rows of data, as the orientation provides more vertical room. Landscape orientation is best when a document has more column views. The Size icon allows the user to set up their worksheet page height and width relative to the paper size they wish to print in Excel. For example, if the user selects Tabloid, Excel will allow more room in a worksheet to match the print area of the larger document (11” X17”). If a user would like to create a custom area on their excel document that they would like to print, for example- they have created charts that correspond to a table, but they only want to print the charts from a worksheet, they can select the cells they would like to print and then select the Print Area icon. They can also remove the print area by selecting the same icon and then clicking on Clear Print Area. Excel Users may also create custom page breaks and separate sections of their worksheet by selecting the Breaks icon. After selecting the cell where they wish to be the top right corner of the second page, they should click on the Breaks icon If a user wishes to remove the Page Breaks, they can select the Breaks icon again and click on Remove Page Break. A user may also insert a background image into their worksheet by selecting the Background Icon . When selected, Excel will allow a user to find an image online using Bing Search, search their OneDrive Account for a picture, or find a picture on their computer. Once an image is inserted, the icon changes to Delete Background , allowing the user to delete the image from their worksheet. Finally, Print Tiles provides the user with many options to best display your worksheet on a printed page. When selected, Print Tiles will launch the Excel Page Setup menu, which allows the user to select the Print Area, Rows to repeat at the top of each page, columns to repeat on each page on the left, and whether to print Gridlines, Comments, Row and Column Headings, and the order or the worksheet will print. Using the Page Setup menu, users can also adjust the Header/Footer text, the Margins, and the Page Settings, which provide a number of formatting changes that have already been discussed. On the Page tab, a few help options for printing are the Fit to settings which allow the user to specify how many total pages should be printed for their worksheet. A commons choice is to fit 1 page. Scale to Fit Group The Scale to Fit group provides similar controls to the Page Setup menu. Users may determine the page width and height to specify how many pages in a worksheet to print, depending on the settings selected for Width and Height, the Scale percentage box will adjust. Selecting the more options arrow, will launch the Page Setup menu again. Sheet Options Group The Sheet Options group allows the user to control whether they can view gridlines and headings in their worksheet on their computer screen and/or on the printed page. The Arrange icon is used to manipulate images to allow them to be aligned with cells or appear on top of or behind other cell information. Objects can also be rotated and placed in groups.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/17%3A_Page_Layout_View_and_Review_Tabs/17.01%3A_Page_Layout_Tab.txt

The View Tab controls how information is displayed to the user. It allows the user to customize their workflow and make the document easy to understand to the user. It also allows for the creation of Macros, which are recorded combinations of commands that allow the user to create “buttons” to perform complex commands and functions at once. The View Tab is divided into five groups: Workbook Views, Show, Zoom, Window, and Macros. Workbook Views Group The Workbook Views Group allows the user to toggle between common spreadsheet views in Microsoft Excel. The Normal view is the default view and provides information just the cell views in a spreadsheet. The Page Break preview displays a visual of what the document looks like if printed. A visual of this view is provided below. You cannot edit your document in Page Break Preview. Page Layout View allows the user to determine what their document would look like if printed as well, but with the opportunity to edit your document and insert page breaks. Finally, Custom Views allows the user to create specific views and save them. Show Group The Show Group has just four setting toggles to control the visual appearance of the worksheet. The Ruler checkbox displays or hides the Ruler in the Page Layout View. A picture of the ruler is below. Gridlines are the boxes around each cell. Unchecking this box will remove all lines from cells. The cells will remain. The Formula Bar can be checked and displayed or hidden. Finally, unchecking the Headings box will remove the numbered rows and lettered columns from the sheet view. Zoom Group The Zoom Group allows the user to adjust how close each cell will appear in size on in the worksheet. The Zoom icon allows the user to customize the magnification of Zoom using presets or creating a custom preset. The Fit selection radio box allows to enlarge and center a selected range of cells. The 100% icon allows the Zoom to be returned to the default view while Zoom to selection allows for the user to magnify the selected cell or range of cells. Window Group The Window Group allows the user to customize their worksheet view to display the same worksheet in multiple ways to be as efficient as possible. The New Window icon allows the user to have multiple open windows for the same document so they can work in different areas of the Worksheet at the same time. For example, perhaps you want to work on a table of data at the top of the worksheet and charts based upon the data at the bottom of the worksheet. By creating a New Window, you can view multiple places in the same worksheet at the same time. By clicking on Arrange All, the user can display these worksheet views side by side and by selecting the icon Switch Windows, select between them. Freeze Panes can be a very helpful way to view data when working with a large dataset. As an example, imagine that you are working with a long list of sales data. When entering data in new rows, you are no longer able to see the top header rows. To ensure that you are able to view the top header rows, the Freeze Panes icon allows the user to Freeze either the Top Row, the First Column (for worksheets with many columns, or freeze a specific cell location so that all cells above it is does not move when scrolling. The Split Icon allows very similar functionality to the New Window command, except that the Split Command allows the user to specify the location for the split. Any row above the Split line will be displayed above, and any row below the split will be displayed in the same worksheet below. Each area receives its own scrollbar. Notice in the picture below how row 4 is displayed in both split views. The Hide command allows the user to hide their workbook to not display to the user, while unhide allows the worksheet to become visible again. To hide specific rows or columns, right-click on the row or column you wish to Hide and select the Hide command. You can determine which rows or columns are hidden because they are no longer presented in chronological order. . To unhide a column, click on both rows or columns and select Unhide. The last commands in the Windows Group View Side by Side, Synchronous Scrolling, and Reset Window Position are used when using the New Window command to display the same document in multiple views. These commands allow the document to be viewed next to each other, to sync the scrolling so each window moves at the same time, and bring the window position back to its default setting. Macros An Excel Macro is a piece of programming code that runs in an Excel environment and helps automate routine tasks. A macro is an excel task recording and playback tool. You simply record your Excel steps and the macro will play it back. Let's say you work as a cashier for a water utility company. Some of the customers pay through the bank and at the end of the day, you are required to download the data from the bank and format it in a format that meets your business requirements. You can import the data into Excel and format. The following day you will be required to perform the same ritual. It will soon become boring and tedious. Macros solve such problems by automating such routine tasks. Macros will be covered in a later chapter of this text for advanced users.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/17%3A_Page_Layout_View_and_Review_Tabs/17.02%3A_View_Tab.txt

The Review Tab allows your document to be inspected to make sure it is as professional and accessible as possible. In addition, it contains many collaboration features that allow users to work together. The Review tab contains the Proofing, Accessibility, Insights, Comments, Changes, and Ink Groups to make your document the best it can be. Proofing Group The Proofing Tab allows the user to check heir worksheet for spelling errors, and research synonyms available for selected words and launches a Thesaurus toolbar on the right of the screen. The Proofing Tab checks the current active worksheet for errors. Accessibility Group The Accessibility Tab holds one icon- Check Accessibility. Selecting this icon will cause Excel to review their active worksheet t determine if it is readable and accessible for individuals with sight impairment. It will also review any images inserted in the document to make sure that they contain AltText which screen readers use to describe the Image. The Accessibility Checker will launch a window on the right side of the screen to suggest strategies to make your document more accessible. Language Group Like the Accessibility Tab, the Language Tab contains one icon: Translate. Selecting this icon will launch the translator feature of Excel on the right side of the screen. Users can enter the text they wish to translate into another language. Comments Group The Comments group allows for opportunities to collaborate with other users on the same document. Users can add comments about the document that is unavailable to view with Excel and are usually not printed when the worksheet is completed. Users can also use the controls in this area to delete comments, hide comments, move to the next comment and previous comment. Changes Group The Changes group allows the user to determine who may or may not make changes to the document. By default, only the user with the file may edit the workbook. However, the workbook or worksheet can be protected even if the file is shared with the Protect Sheet or Protect Workbook function. If the user decides that their worksheet or workbook must be protected they will select the applicable command, and an additional options window will launch. Users can specify whether others may view or edit various aspects of their document and create a password to protect the sheet. Only by entering the password can the user receive full editing access to the document. In addition to protecting their work, users may elect to share their workbook with others who have a OneDrive account for realtime document collaboration- allowing multiple users to work on a document at the same time. The user can even decide which parts of the document they are able to edit by selecting the Allowing Users to Edit Ranges icon. Finally, users can Track the Changes made to the document and also review changes that have been made using the Track Changes icon, which will launch a dialog box with more options. Tracked Changes are helpful when working with others on a document and to be able to see the changes made (additions, deletions, formatting, etc) made by other users. Ink Group Finally, users can draw with their mouse onto their document with the Ink Group. Users can draw on charts and images, and Hide all of their inkings as well. Using Inking can be helpful when making a presentation. 17.04: Checking for Understanding 1. You are tracking monthly sales for your parts and equipment company in 2019 and 2020. Your monthly sales are as follows with 2019 displayed first followed by 2020: 1. January: 2400, 2670 2. February 3300, 3100 3. March 2700, 1900 4. April 1900, 1920 5. May 2700, 2450 6. June 2650, 3200 7. July 3200,1700 8. August 1700, 1650 9. September 1560, 1649 10. October 1890, 1919 11. November 2100,2400 12. December 3400, 3600 Please create an excel document with the following Table Columns: Month 2019 Sales 2020 Sales Total Sales 1. Using the data you entered, perform the following: 1. Add a Theme to the Chart 2. Change the Margins to .5 inches 3. Make the document Landscape 4. Add a Background Image of a Tool of your choice to the worksheet. 5. Make sure your document is printing gridlines 6. Freeze the Header Rows 7. Add a comment to your document 8. Run Accessibility Tracker 9. Protect your sheet with a password.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/17%3A_Page_Layout_View_and_Review_Tabs/17.03%3A_Review_Tab.txt

Formulas are the heart and soul of excel. Formulas used in Excel provide users to perform many complicated and complex calculations and tasks to manipulate data as needed. While this text will not provide an exhaustive list of how to use each formula, by providing an overview of each of the functions, the user can begin to learn on their own how to specialize in the hundreds of formulas that Excel provides, or make their own. The Formulas Tab is divided into five groups: Insert Function, Function Library, Defined Names, Formula Audint, and Calculation. 18: Formulas Tab Since Excel is an object-oriented program (meaning that calculations must be completed in a physical location, before inserting a function, the user must select the cell they would like to add a formula to. For the purposes of this illustration, I will select the cell “C2”. When I select the Insert Function icon, an equals sign “=” is displayed in cell C2, and an Insert Function control panel is displayed. Using the Insert Function control panel, I can either navigate to the type of function I would like to use, or I can search for a function. For the purposes of this example, I would like to add the numbers “2” and “3” which are located in cell “A2” and “B2”. I search “add” because I want to add the two numbers together. Excel provides the “SUM” function as the option I think it wants. It also displays the formula that would be used along with a description of what it does. I agree with Excel that this is what I want to do, and click “OK”. Now a Function Arguments dialog box launches so I can correctly place the cells I would like to use in the equation. Because I had the cell selected (C2) where I wanted the sum of A2 and B2 to be, Excel automatically placed the cell range to be added together in the Number1 area. It also shares with me the numbers in those two fields and what the answer would be. If I was adding multiple cells in different areas together, I could use the Number2 and Number3 fields as well. When I begin to enter a cell in Number3, another field will be created (Number4). When I think my calculation and formula are correct, I press “OK”. Notice that the number “5” is correctly added in C2, and in the cell, the formula is shown in the formula bar. If I know the formula, I can also enter it manually via the keyboard into the formula bar as well. Remember to place a “=” sign first, and then the formula command, followed by the cells selected in brackets (). While this is a simple example, regardless of the complexity, formulas work the same. 18.2: Why not just add the Numbers and not the Cell Locations To extend this example, I could place the same numbers in A3 and B3. This time, however, instead of using the cell references to add together, I could manually, just add the numbers together in C3 as displayed below. While this will get me the correct data, it is risky to do this, because if the data ever changes in any of the cells, the answer will no longer be correct. For example, let's pretend that the Number columns corresponded to cars sold in February at an automotive dealership. Recently, they discovered a recording error, they did not sell just 2 and 3 cars, they sold 20 and 30! Updating the calculation table leads to the following results. Row 2 has the correct sales numbers, but row 3 does not because the user used numbers instead of cell references. It is always wise in Excel to use cell locations instead of numbers, even if it means creating extra rows and columns. That way, if any of your data changes, Excel immediately can recalculate the information. This is also helpful for autofill. 18.3: Autofill using Formulas Another benefit of using formulas is the ability to use autofill. Autofill can use a formula previously used in one cell, and copy that formula for use in the cells relative to the new cell. To perform this action, select the specific reference cell you would like to use to copy the formula to the adjacent cells with Autofill. In the lower right-hand corner of the cell will appear as a “+” marker to use the fill handle. Click on the marker and drag cursor to select the adjacent cells you wish to copy the formula. When all of the cells are included, release the mouse button and all cells will be auto-filled with the same formula. 18.4: Relative vs Absolute Cell References There are two types of cell references: relative and absolute. Relative and absolute references behave differently when copied and filled to other cells. Relative references change when a formula is copied to another cell. Absolute references remain the same no matter where they are copied. By default, all cell references are relative references. When copied across multiple cells, they change based on the relative position of rows and columns. For example, if you copy the formula =A1+B1 from row 1 to row 2, the formula will become =A2+B2. Relative references are especially convenient whenever you need to repeat the same calculation across multiple rows or columns. However, there may be a time when you don't want a cell reference to change when copied to other cells. Unlike relative references, absolute references do not change when copied or filled. You can use an absolute reference to keep a row and/or column constant. An absolute reference is designated in a formula by the addition of a dollar sign (\$). It can precede the column reference, the row reference, or both. In addition, Excel allows you to refer to any cell on any worksheet, which can be especially helpful if you want to reference a specific value from one worksheet to another. To do this, you'll simply need to begin the cell reference with the worksheet name followed by an exclamation point (!). For example, if you wanted to reference cell A1 on Sheet1, its cell reference would be Sheet1!A1. If you rename your worksheet, Excel will automatically adjust the cell references to the new worksheet name.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/18%3A_Formulas_Tab/18.1%3A_Insert_Function_%28or_Introduction_to_Formulas_in_Excel%29.txt

The Function Library Group allows the user to utilize all of the formulas in Excel. The function is automatically inserted in the cell that is selected. Auto Sum The first icon on the left is AutoSum. Autosum adds multiple cells together. After selecting Autosum, Excel intelligently guesses the range for your calculation based upon the cells around the insertion point. The user can change the cell location in the address bar. If the user wants other frequently used commands for multiple cells, they can select the more options arrow next to Autosum. A list of options will generate. Average calculates the sum of all the selected cells divided by the number of cells selected to find the average. Count Numbers allows the user to quickly calculate the number of cells included. Max determines the largest number in the group, and Min calculates the smallest number. More Functions launches the Functions Arguments box to allow for more options to search for a function in all categories of Excel. Recently Used The recently used icon allows the user to select functions they have used most recently in Excel. This is especially helpful when performing similar calculations. Financial Financial functions are used to calculate business equations such as interest, depreciation, and valuation. Information about the following functions is provided via support.office.com (anonymous, 2020). Financial Function Description ACCRINT function Returns the accrued interest for a security that pays periodic interest ACCRINTM function Returns the accrued interest for a security that pays interest at maturity AMORDEGRC function Returns the depreciation for each accounting period by using a depreciation coefficient AMORLINC function Returns the depreciation for each accounting period COUPDAYBS function Returns the number of days from the beginning of the coupon period to the settlement date COUPDAYS function Returns the number of days in the coupon period that contains the settlement date COUPDAYSNC function Returns the number of days from the settlement date to the next coupon date COUPNCD function Returns the next coupon date after the settlement date COUPNUM function Returns the number of coupons payable between the settlement date and maturity date COUPPCD function Returns the previous coupon date before the settlement date CUMIPMT function Returns the cumulative interest paid between two periods CUMPRINC function Returns the cumulative principal paid on a loan between two periods DB function Returns the depreciation of an asset for a specified period by using the fixed-declining balance method DDB function Returns the depreciation of an asset for a specified period by using the double-declining balance method or some other method that you specify DISC function Returns the discount rate for a security DOLLARDE function Converts a dollar price, expressed as a fraction, into a dollar price, expressed as a decimal number DOLLARFR function Converts a dollar price, expressed as a decimal number, into a dollar price, expressed as a fraction DURATION function Returns the annual duration of a security with periodic interest payments EFFECT function Returns the effective annual interest rate FV function Returns the future value of an investment FVSCHEDULE function Returns the future value of an initial principal after applying a series of compound interest rates INTRATE function Returns the interest rate for a fully invested security IPMT function Returns the interest payment for an investment for a given period IRR function Returns the internal rate of return for a series of cash flows ISPMT function Calculates the interest paid during a specific period of an investment MDURATION function Returns the Macauley modified duration for a security with an assumed par value of \$100 MIRR function Returns the internal rate of return where positive and negative cash flows are financed at different rates NOMINAL function Returns the annual nominal interest rate NPER function Returns the number of periods for an investment NPV function Returns the net present value of an investment based on a series of periodic cash flows and a discount rate ODDFPRICE function Returns the price per \$100 face value of a security with an odd first period ODDFYIELD function Returns the yield of a security with an odd first period ODDLPRICE function Returns the price per \$100 face value of a security with an odd last period ODDLYIELD function Returns the yield of a security with an odd last period PDURATION function Returns the number of periods required by an investment to reach a specified value PMT function Returns the periodic payment for an annuity PPMT function Returns the payment on the principal for an investment for a given period PRICE function Returns the price per \$100 face value of a security that pays periodic interest PRICEDISC function Returns the price per \$100 face value of a discounted security PRICEMAT function Returns the price per \$100 face value of a security that pays interest at maturity PV function Returns the present value of an investment RATE function Returns the interest rate per period of an annuity RECEIVED function Returns the amount received at maturity for a fully invested security RRI function Returns an equivalent interest rate for the growth of an investment SLN function Returns the straight-line depreciation of an asset for one period SYD function Returns the sum-of-years' digits depreciation of an asset for a specified period TBILLEQ function Returns the bond-equivalent yield for a Treasury bill TBILLPRICE function Returns the price per \$100 face value for a Treasury bill TBILLYIELD function Returns the yield for a Treasury bill VDB function Returns the depreciation of an asset for a specified or partial period by using a declining balance method XIRR function Returns the internal rate of return for a schedule of cash flows that is not necessarily periodic XNPV function Returns the net present value for a schedule of cash flows that is not necessarily periodic YIELD function Returns the yield on a security that pays periodic interest YIELDDISC function Returns the annual yield for a discounted security; for example, a Treasury bill YIELDMAT function Returns the annual yield of a security that pays interest at maturity Logical Functions Logical functions are used to compared data in different cells. Depending on the logical functions used, excel populates the cell with the logical formula as TRUE or FALSE depending on the calculation of the formula. Information about the following functions is provided via support.office.com (anonymous, 2020). Logical Function Description AND function Returns TRUE if all of its arguments are TRUE FALSE function Returns the logical value FALSE IF function Specifies a logical test to perform IFERROR function Returns a value you specify if a formula evaluates to an error; otherwise, returns the result of the formula IFNA function Returns the value you specify if the expression resolves to #N/A, otherwise returns the result of the expression IFS function Checks whether one or more conditions are met and returns a value that corresponds to the first TRUE condition. NOT function Reverses the logic of its argument OR function Returns TRUE if any argument is TRUE SWITCH function Evaluates an expression against a list of values and returns the result corresponding to the first matching value. If there is no match, an optional default value may be returned. TRUE function Returns the logical value TRUE XOR function Returns a logical exclusive OR of all arguments Text Functions Text functions are powerful components of Excel that convert numbers into letters and can also remove or copy letters or numbers from other cells into the current cell. Information about the following functions is provided via support.office.com (anonymous, 2020). Text Function Description ASC function Changes full-width (double-byte) English letters or katakana within a character string to half-width (single-byte) characters BAHTTEXT function Converts a number to text, using the ß (baht) currency format CHAR function Returns the character specified by the code number CLEAN function Removes all nonprintable characters from text CODE function Returns a numeric code for the first character in a text string CONCAT function Combines the text from multiple ranges and/or strings, but it doesn't provide the delimiter or IgnoreEmpty arguments. CONCATENATE function Joins several text items into one text item DBCS function Changes half-width (single-byte) English letters or katakana within a character string to full-width (double-byte) characters DOLLAR function Converts a number to text, using the \$ (dollar) currency format EXACT function Checks to see if two text values are identical FIND, FINDB functions Finds one text value within another (case-sensitive) FIXED function Formats a number as text with a fixed number of decimals LEFT, LEFTB functions Returns the leftmost characters from a text value LEN, LENB functions Returns the number of characters in a text string LOWER function Converts text to lowercase MID, MIDB functions Returns a specific number of characters from a text string starting at the position you specify NUMBERVALUE function Converts text to number in a locale-independent manner PHONETIC function Extracts the phonetic (furigana) characters from a text string PROPER function Capitalizes the first letter in each word of a text value REPLACE, REPLACEB functions Replaces characters within text REPT function Repeats text a given number of times RIGHT, RIGHTB functions Returns the rightmost characters from a text value SEARCH, SEARCHB functions Finds one text value within another (not case-sensitive) SUBSTITUTE function Substitutes new text for old text in a text string T function Converts its arguments to text TEXT function Formats a number and converts it to text TEXTJOIN function Combines the text from multiple ranges and/or strings, and includes a delimiter you specify between each text value that will be combined. If the delimiter is an empty text string, this function will effectively concatenate the ranges TRIM function Removes spaces from text UNICHAR function Returns the Unicode character that is referenced by the given numeric value UNICODE function Returns the number (code point) that corresponds to the first character of the text Date & Time Function Date & Time functions calculate numbers into dates. There are many options available to return the date as desired from a variety of data sets. Information about the following functions is provided via support.office.com (anonymous, 2020). Date & Time Function Description DATE function Returns the serial number of a particular date DATEDIF function Calculates the number of days, months, or years between two dates. This function is useful in formulas where you need to calculate an age. DATEVALUE function Converts a date in the form of text to a serial number DAY function Converts a serial number to a day of the month DAYS function Returns the number of days between two dates DAYS360 function Calculates the number of days between two dates based on a 360-day year EDATE function Returns the serial number of the date that is the indicated number of months before or after the start date EOMONTH function Returns the serial number of the last day of the month before or after a specified number of months HOUR function Converts a serial number to an hour ISOWEEKNUM function Returns the number of the ISO week number of the year for a given date MINUTE function Converts a serial number to a minute MONTH function Converts a serial number to a month NETWORKDAYS function Returns the number of whole workdays between two dates NETWORKDAYS.INTL function Returns the number of whole workdays between two dates using parameters to indicate which and how many days are weekend days NOW function Returns the serial number of the current date and time SECOND function Converts a serial number to a second TIME function Returns the serial number of a particular time TIMEVALUE function Converts a time in the form of text to a serial number TODAY function Returns the serial number of today's date WEEKDAY function Converts a serial number to a day of the week WEEKNUM function Converts a serial number to a number representing where the week falls numerically with a year WORKDAY function Returns the serial number of the date before or after a specified number of workdays WORKDAY.INTL function Returns the serial number of the date before or after a specified number of workdays using parameters to indicate which and how many days are weekend days YEAR function Converts a serial number to a year YEARFRAC function Returns the year fraction representing the number of whole days between start_date and end_date Lookup & Reference Formulas Lookup and Reference formulas allow you to work with large sets of data, and especially useful when you need to reference between multiple data sets. They can provide information about a range of data, find the location of a given address or value, or look up certain values in a large set of data. Information about the following functions is provided via support.office.com (anonymous, 2020). Lookup & Reference Function Description ADDRESS function Returns a reference as text to a single cell in a worksheet AREAS function Returns the number of areas in a reference CHOOSE function Chooses a value from a list of values COLUMN function Returns the column number of a reference COLUMNS function Returns the number of columns in a reference FILTER function Filters a range of data based on criteria you define FORMULATEXT function Returns the formula at the given reference as text GETPIVOTDATA function Returns data stored in a PivotTable report HLOOKUP function Looks in the top row of an array and returns the value of the indicated cell HYPERLINK function Creates a shortcut or jump that opens a document stored on a network server, an intranet, or the Internet INDEX function Uses an index to choose a value from a reference or array INDIRECT function Returns a reference indicated by a text value LOOKUP function Looks up values in a vector or array MATCH function Looks up values in a reference or array OFFSET function Returns a reference offset from a given reference ROW function Returns the row number of a reference ROWS function Returns the number of rows in a reference RTD function Retrieves real-time data from a program that supports COM automation SORT function Sorts the contents of a range or array SORTBY function Sorts the contents of a range or array based on the values in a corresponding range or array TRANSPOSE function Returns the transpose of an array UNIQUE function Returns a list of unique values in a list or range VLOOKUP function Looks in the first column of an array and moves across the row to return the value of a cell XLOOKUP function Searches a range or an array, and returns an item corresponding to the first match it finds. If a match doesn't exist, then XLOOKUP can return the closest (approximate) match. XMATCH function Returns the relative position of an item in an array or range of cells. Math & Trig Function The Excel Math & Trig functions allow the user to perform mathematical equations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, as well as trigonometry. Information about the following functions is provided via support.office.com (anonymous, 2020). Math & Trig Function Description ABS function Returns the absolute value of a number ACOS function Returns the arccosine of a number ACOSH function Returns the inverse hyperbolic cosine of a number ACOT function Returns the arccotangent of a number ACOTH function Returns the hyperbolic arccotangent of a number AGGREGATE function Returns an aggregate in a list or database ARABIC function Converts a Roman number to Arabic, as a number ASIN function Returns the arcsine of a number ASINH function Returns the inverse hyperbolic sine of a number ATAN function Returns the arctangent of a number ATAN2 function Returns the arctangent from x- and y-coordinates ATANH function Returns the inverse hyperbolic tangent of a number BASE function Converts a number into a text representation with the given radix (base) CEILING function Rounds a number to the nearest integer or to the nearest multiple of significance CEILING.MATH function Rounds a number up, to the nearest integer or to the nearest multiple of significance CEILING.PRECISE function Rounds a number the nearest integer or to the nearest multiple of significance. Regardless of the sign of the number, the number is rounded up. COMBIN function Returns the number of combinations for a given number of objects COMBINA function Returns the number of combinations with repetitions for a given number of items COS function Returns the cosine of a number COSH function Returns the hyperbolic cosine of a number COT function Returns the cotangent of an angle COTH function Returns the hyperbolic cotangent of a number CSC function Returns the cosecant of an angle CSCH function Returns the hyperbolic cosecant of an angle DECIMAL function Converts a text representation of a number in a given base into a decimal number DEGREES function Converts radians to degrees EVEN function Rounds a number up to the nearest even integer EXP function Returns e raised to the power of a given number FACT function Returns the factorial of a number FACTDOUBLE function Returns the double factorial of a number FLOOR function Rounds a number down, toward zero FLOOR.MATH function Rounds a number down, to the nearest integer or to the nearest multiple of significance FLOOR.PRECISE function Rounds a number down to the nearest integer or to the nearest multiple of significance. Regardless of the sign of the number, the number is rounded down. GCD function Returns the greatest common divisor INT function Rounds a number down to the nearest integer ISO.CEILING function Returns a number that is rounded up to the nearest integer or to the nearest multiple of significance LCM function Returns the least common multiple LN function Returns the natural logarithm of a number LOG function Returns the logarithm of a number to a specified base LOG10 function Returns the base-10 logarithm of a number MDETERM function Returns the matrix determinant of an array MINVERSE function Returns the matrix inverse of an array MMULT function Returns the matrix product of two arrays MOD function Returns the remainder from division MROUND function Returns a number rounded to the desired multiple MULTINOMIAL function Returns the multinomial of a set of numbers MUNIT function Returns the unit matrix or the specified dimension ODD function Rounds a number up to the nearest odd integer PI function Returns the value of pi POWER function Returns the result of a number raised to a power PRODUCT function Multiplies its arguments QUOTIENT function Returns the integer portion of a division RADIANS function Converts degrees to radians RAND function Returns a random number between 0 and 1 RANDARRAY function Returns an array of random numbers between 0 and 1. However, you can specify the number of rows and columns to fill, minimum and maximum values, and whether to return whole numbers or decimal values. RANDBETWEEN function Returns a random number between the numbers you specify ROMAN function Converts an Arabic numeral to Roman, as text ROUND function Rounds a number to a specified number of digits ROUNDDOWN function Rounds a number down, toward zero ROUNDUP function Rounds a number up, away from zero SEC function Returns the secant of an angle SECH function Returns the hyperbolic secant of an angle SERIESSUM function Returns the sum of a power series based on the formula SEQUENCE function Generates a list of sequential numbers in an array, such as 1, 2, 3, 4 SIGN function Returns the sign of a number SIN function Returns the sine of the given angle SINH function Returns the hyperbolic sine of a number SQRT function Returns a positive square root SQRTPI function Returns the square root of (number * pi) SUBTOTAL function Returns a subtotal in a list or database SUM function Adds its arguments SUMIF function Adds the cells specified by a given criteria SUMIFS function Adds the cells in a range that meet multiple criteria SUMPRODUCT function Returns the sum of the products of corresponding array components SUMSQ function Returns the sum of the squares of the arguments SUMX2MY2 function Returns the sum of the difference of squares of corresponding values in two arrays SUMX2PY2 function Returns the sum of squares of corresponding values in two arrays SUMXMY2 function Returns the sum of squares of differences of corresponding values in two arrays TAN function Returns the tangent of a number TANH function Returns the hyperbolic tangent of a number TRUNC function Truncates a number to an integer Statistical Functions Statistical Functions are responsible for statistical analysis calculating items like mean, median, mode, etc. Information about the following functions is provided via support.office.com (anonymous, 2020). Statistical Function Description AVEDEV function Returns the average of the absolute deviations of data points from their mean AVERAGE function Returns the average of its arguments AVERAGEA function Returns the average of its arguments, including numbers, text, and logical values AVERAGEIF function Returns the average (arithmetic mean) of all the cells in a range that meet a given criteria AVERAGEIFS function Returns the average (arithmetic mean) of all cells that meet multiple criteria BETA.DIST function Returns the beta cumulative distribution function BETA.INV function Returns the inverse of the cumulative distribution function for a specified beta distribution BINOM.DIST function Returns the individual term binomial distribution probability BINOM.DIST.RANGE function Returns the probability of a trial result using a binomial distribution BINOM.INV function Returns the smallest value for which the cumulative binomial distribution is less than or equal to a criterion value CHISQ.DIST function Returns the cumulative beta probability density function CHISQ.DIST.RT function Returns the one-tailed probability of the chi-squared distribution CHISQ.INV function Returns the cumulative beta probability density function CHISQ.INV.RT function Returns the inverse of the one-tailed probability of the chi-squared distribution CHISQ.TEST function Returns the test for independence CONFIDENCE.NORM function Returns the confidence interval for a population mean CONFIDENCE.T function Returns the confidence interval for a population mean, using a Student's t distribution CORREL function Returns the correlation coefficient between two data sets COUNT function Counts how many numbers are in the list of arguments COUNTA function Counts how many values are in the list of arguments COUNTBLANK function Counts the number of blank cells within a range COUNTIF function Counts the number of cells within a range that meet the given criteria COUNTIFS function Counts the number of cells within a range that meet multiple criteria COVARIANCE.P function Returns covariance, the average of the products of paired deviations COVARIANCE.S function Returns the sample covariance, the average of the products deviations for each data point pair in two data sets DEVSQ function Returns the sum of squares of deviations EXPON.DIST function Returns the exponential distribution F.DIST function Returns the F probability distribution F.DIST.RT function Returns the F probability distribution F.INV function Returns the inverse of the F probability distribution F.INV.RT function Returns the inverse of the F probability distribution F.TEST function Returns the result of an F-test FISHER function Returns the Fisher transformation FISHERINV function Returns the inverse of the Fisher transformation FORECAST function Returns a value along with a linear trend Note: In Excel 2016, this function is replaced with FORECAST.LINEAR as part of the new Forecasting functions, but it's still available for compatibility with earlier versions. FORECAST.ETS function Returns a future value based on existing (historical) values by using the AAA version of the Exponential Smoothing (ETS) algorithm FORECAST.ETS.CONFINT function Returns a confidence interval for the forecast value at the specified target date FORECAST.ETS.SEASONALITY function Returns the length of the repetitive pattern Excel detects for the specified time series FORECAST.ETS.STAT function Returns a statistical value as a result of time series forecasting FORECAST.LINEAR function Returns a future value based on existing values FREQUENCY function Returns a frequency distribution as a vertical array GAMMA function Returns the Gamma function value GAMMA.DIST function Returns the gamma distribution GAMMA.INV function Returns the inverse of the gamma cumulative distribution GAMMALN function Returns the natural logarithm of the gamma function, Γ(x) GAMMALN.PRECISE function Returns the natural logarithm of the gamma function, Γ(x) GAUSS function Returns 0.5 less than the standard normal cumulative distribution GEOMEAN function Returns the geometric mean GROWTH function Returns values along an exponential trend HARMEAN function Returns the harmonic mean HYPGEOM.DIST function Returns the hypergeometric distribution INTERCEPT function Returns the intercept of the linear regression line KURT function Returns the kurtosis of a data set LARGE function Returns the k-th largest value in a data set LINEST function Returns the parameters of a linear trend LOGEST function Returns the parameters of an exponential trend LOGNORM.DIST function Returns the cumulative lognormal distribution LOGNORM.INV function Returns the inverse of the lognormal cumulative distribution MAX function Returns the maximum value in a list of arguments MAXA function Returns the maximum value in a list of arguments, including numbers, text, and logical values MAXIFS function Returns the maximum value among cells specified by a given set of conditions or criteria MEDIAN function Returns the median of the given numbers MIN function Returns the minimum value in a list of arguments MINA function Returns the smallest value in a list of arguments, including numbers, text, and logical values MINIFS function Returns the minimum value among cells specified by a given set of conditions or criteria. MODE.MULT function Returns a vertical array of the most frequently occurring, or repetitive values in an array or range of data MODE.SNGL function Returns the most common value in a data set NEGBINOM.DIST function Returns the negative binomial distribution NORM.DIST function Returns the normal cumulative distribution NORM.INV function Returns the inverse of the normal cumulative distribution NORM.S.DIST function Returns the standard normal cumulative distribution NORM.S.INV function Returns the inverse of the standard normal cumulative distribution PEARSON function Returns the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient PERCENTILE.EXC function Returns the k-th percentile of values in a range, where k is in the range 0..1, exclusive PERCENTILE.INC function Returns the k-th percentile of values in a range PERCENTRANK.EXC function Returns the rank of a value in a data set as a percentage (0..1, exclusive) of the data set PERCENTRANK.INC function Returns the percentage rank of a value in a data set PERMUT function Returns the number of permutations for a given number of objects PERMUTATIONA function Returns the number of permutations for a given number of objects (with repetitions) that can be selected from the total objects PHI function Returns the value of the density function for a standard normal distribution POISSON.DIST function Returns the Poisson distribution PROB function Returns the probability that values in a range are between two limits QUARTILE.EXC function Returns the quartile of the data set, based on percentile values from 0..1, exclusive QUARTILE.INC function Returns the quartile of a data set RANK.AVG function Returns the rank of a number in a list of numbers RANK.EQ function Returns the rank of a number in a list of numbers RSQ function Returns the square of the Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient SKEW function Returns the skewness of a distribution SKEW.P function Returns the skewness of a distribution based on a population: characterization of the degree of asymmetry of a distribution around its mean SLOPE function Returns the slope of the linear regression line SMALL function Returns the k-th smallest value in a data set STANDARDIZE function Returns a normalized value STDEV.P function Calculates standard deviation based on the entire population STDEV.S function Estimates standard deviation based on a sample STDEVA function Estimates standard deviation based on a sample, including numbers, text, and logical values STDEVPA function Calculates standard deviation based on the entire population, including numbers, text, and logical values STEYX function Returns the standard error of the predicted y-value for each x in the regression T.DIST function Returns the Percentage Points (probability) for the Student tdistribution T.DIST.2T function Returns the Percentage Points (probability) for the Student tdistribution T.DIST.RT function Returns the Student's t-distribution T.INV function Returns the t-value of the Student's t-distribution as a function of the probability and the degrees of freedom T.INV.2T function Returns the inverse of the Student's t-distribution T.TEST function Returns the probability associated with a Student's t-test TREND function Returns values along with a linear trend TRIMMEAN function Returns the mean of the interior of a data set VAR.P function Calculates variance based on the entire population VAR.S function Estimates variance based on a sample VARA function Estimates variance based on a sample, including numbers, text, and logical values VARPA function Calculates variance based on the entire population, including numbers, text, and logical values WEIBULL.DIST function Returns the Weibull distribution Z.TEST function Returns the one-tailed probability-value of a z-test Engineering Functions Engineering Functions are used to perform common engineering calculations. Information about the following functions is provided via support.office.com (anonymous, 2020). Function Description BESSELI function Returns the modified Bessel function In(x) BESSELJ function Returns the Bessel function Jn(x) BESSELK function Returns the modified Bessel function Kn(x) BESSELY function Returns the Bessel function Yn(x) BIN2DEC function Converts a binary number to decimal BIN2HEX function Converts a binary number to hexadecimal BIN2OCT function Converts a binary number to octal BITAND function Returns a 'Bitwise And' of two numbers BITLSHIFT function Returns a value number shifted left by shift_amount bits BITOR function Returns a bitwise OR of 2 numbers BITRSHIFT function Returns a value number shifted right by shift_amount bits BITXOR function Returns a bitwise 'Exclusive Or' of two numbers COMPLEX function Converts real and imaginary coefficients into a complex number CONVERT function Converts a number from one measurement system to another DEC2BIN function Converts a decimal number to binary DEC2HEX function Converts a decimal number to hexadecimal DEC2OCT function Converts a decimal number to octal DELTA function Tests whether two values are equal ERF function Returns the error function ERF.PRECISE function Returns the error function ERFC function Returns the complementary error function ERFC.PRECISE function Returns the complementary ERF function integrated between x and infinity GESTEP function Tests whether a number is greater than a threshold value HEX2BIN function Converts a hexadecimal number to binary HEX2DEC function Converts a hexadecimal number to decimal HEX2OCT function Converts a hexadecimal number to octal IMABS function Returns the absolute value (modulus) of a complex number IMAGINARY function Returns the imaginary coefficient of a complex number IMARGUMENT function Returns the argument theta, an angle expressed in radians IMCONJUGATE function Returns the complex conjugate of a complex number IMCOS function Returns the cosine of a complex number IMCOSH function Returns the hyperbolic cosine of a complex number IMCOT function Returns the cotangent of a complex number IMCSC function Returns the cosecant of a complex number IMCSCH function Returns the hyperbolic cosecant of a complex number IMDIV function Returns the quotient of two complex numbers IMEXP function Returns the exponential of a complex number IMLN function Returns the natural logarithm of a complex number IMLOG10 function Returns the base-10 logarithm of a complex number IMLOG2 function Returns the base-2 logarithm of a complex number IMPOWER function Returns a complex number raised to an integer power IMPRODUCT function Returns the product of from 2 to 255 complex numbers IMREAL function Returns the real coefficient of a complex number IMSEC function Returns the secant of a complex number IMSECH function Returns the hyperbolic secant of a complex number IMSIN function Returns the sine of a complex number IMSINH function Returns the hyperbolic sine of a complex number IMSQRT function Returns the square root of a complex number IMSUB function Returns the difference between two complex numbers IMSUM function Returns the sum of complex numbers IMTAN function Returns the tangent of a complex number OCT2BIN function Converts an octal number to binary OCT2DEC function Converts an octal number to decimal OCT2HEX function Converts an octal number to hexadecimal Other Functions Other functions groups, such as Cube, Information, Compatibility, & Web are also located at support.office.com (anonymous, 2020).

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/18%3A_Formulas_Tab/18.5%3A_Function_Library_Group.txt

Cells can be named in excel to simplify equations in Excel. For example, I may decide to enter the numbers 1-5 in cells A1-A5. By highlighting cells A1-A5 we can name these cells “numbers” in the upper left-hand corner name box by entering the text. Now, these group of cells will be referred to by the title “numbers” when using a formula or searching for specific cell locations and calculations. I can create a formula in cell A6 =sum(numbers) and Excel will understand that I want to add all of the data in Cells A1-A5 because I named those cells numbers. The formula bar displays the cell name. The Name Manager icon in the Defined Names group allows for easy management of cell names. Users can delete, edit, and create new names to use in cells and formulas. By selecting the Define Name/icon, users may utilize the New Name Dialog box to select name their cells and also provide a definition of what their name (or group) of cells is named for. This is another way to name a group of cells than was previously provided. The Use in Formula icon contains a drop-down that contains a list of all the named ranges in the workbook. The Paste Names command displays the "Paste Name" dialog box that can paste a name into the formula bar for use when creating a formula. Finally, the Create from Selection Displays the "Create Names from selection" dialog box. This enables you to name a selected range of cells using a row or column title previously entered. 18.7: Formula Auditing Group The Formula Auditing group helps the user understand which cells are being used by formulas and check for errors to make sure formulas are calculating accurately. The Trace Precedents icon Displays arrows that indicate what cells affect the value of the currently selected cell. Usually, these cells are included in a formula. As provided in the previous example, a Trace President shows that the Sum of cells A1-A5 is 15 and the cells included are outlined. The Trace Dependents icon Displays arrows that indicate what cells are affected by the value in the currently selected cell. Trace Dependents is the opposite of Trace Precedents. The Remove Arrows icon Button with Drop-Down. The button removes all the arrows drawn by the trace precedents and trace dependents. The drop-down contains the commands for more fine-tuning: Remove Arrows, Remove Precedent Arrows and Remove Dependent Arrows. The Show Formulas icon - (Ctrl + ') allows the user to toggle between showing formulas in the cells and the result of the formula in all cells in a worksheet. The Error Checking icon with more drop-down options displays the "Error Checking" dialog box. If you have created a formula that is not working correctly, the Error Checking dialog box can assist. As demonstrated below, the formula was changed to include the addition of cell B1, which contains no data. Error checking provides an analysis of the formula, and options to correct the error. The drop-down contains the commands: Error Checking, Trace Error, and Circular References. All commands will only activate if the worksheet contains an error. The Evaluate Formula icon displays the Evaluate Formula dialog box. In the previous example provided, the formula did not include a value in cell B1, so it was incorrect, the Evaluate formula dialog box provides information that the problem is cell B1 because it is empty. The buttons Step in and Step Out allow the user to review each aspect of the formula to determine where the error is (in this case it is in Cell B1 as described in the dialog box. Finally, the Watch Window icon - Displays the. Watch Window Allows you to view the contents of cells and their results as you make changes in other places in the document. Using the watch window, you can Add Watch by selecting a range of cells and click Add Watch. This will allow the user to continue to view the value of those cells as they work in other places in the workbook. This can be helpful if a user is working in a complicated formula that may change a value that is very important. 18.8: The Calculation Group By default, Excel automatically calculates every formula automatically. This means that when values in a cell change, the formula recalculates immediately to display the correct information. However, there may be occasions when you do not want this to happen. The Calculation group allows the user to have flexibility in terms of when values are calculated. In most cases, the user should not change the Calculation Options from automatic, but it is nice that Excel provides the user the flexibility. The first icon, Calculation Options contains a drop-down menu that allows the user to quickly change the calculation setting in the active workbook between Manual, Automatic and Automatic except for Data Tables. The Calculate Now icon (F9) allows the user to recalculate all formulas in a workbook if the calculation setting was set to manual. Likewise, the Calculate Sheet icon- (Shift + F9). Allows the user to update all of the calculations in a worksheet if calculation settings were sent to manual. 18.9: Checking for Understanding 1. Your supervisor has requested that you create a supplies budget request for your department for next year. Your supervisor would like you to create three budget request worksheets Elements of the Budget request should contain the following columns: 1. Budget Item 2. Quantity 3. Price per item 4. Subtotal Total cost 5. Tax on item (6.5%) 6. The grand total of item cost The Budget should contain a Grand Total of all Budget expenses. It is expected that you have at least ten (10) budgeted items. In addition, your supervisor has asked you to create three budget requests- one normal request, one for lean times (.95% of original budget request), and one for good times (107% of budget). Please create three budget requests on three worksheets using formulas.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/18%3A_Formulas_Tab/18.6%3A_Defined_Names_Group.txt

The Data Tab contains a variety of commands in Excel import, organize, and ensure data is accurate. The Data Tab consists of the following groups: Get & Transform Data, Queries & Connections, Sort & Filter, Data Tools, and Forecast. 19: Data Tab The Get & Transform Data group is responsible for importing data from a variety of sources. You can search for data sources, make connections, and then change data (for example remove a column, change a data type, or merge tables) in ways that meet your needs. Once you’ve shaped your data, you can share your findings or use your query to create reports. The following information was retrieved from www.support.office.com. You can begin a new query by selecting the Get Data icon. Select a data source. Users will have the option to select from obtaining data from a file on their PC, from an Access Database, from Microsoft Azure, from an Online Service, or other services. When you connect to a data source, Get & Transform displays a Navigator pane, which allows you to edit the data from its source. When you select Edit from the Navigator window, Get & Transform launches the Query Editor, which is a dedicated window that facilitates and displays your data connections and the transformations you apply. 19.2: Queries and Connections Group Once you have imported data, you can use the Queries & Connections Group to also adjust the data. Queries and Connections launches a Queries & Connections dialog box, and the Refresh all command retrieves the data again from its original source. 19.3: Sort and Filter Group The Sort & Filter group is responsible for assisting the user in organizing their data. Sort allows a table to be organized by one column. An example of the utility of the Sort commands is as follows- data is currently organized by State in the following table. In this example, let us imagine that the user would like to display the data below from largest to smallest. Using the Sort command , the Sort dialog box appears, and the user can choose to sort Column B Largest to Smallest. After selecting OK, the data is now displayed accordingly. Note that each State previously associated with each value continues to move with that value. It is important to ensure that all cells that should be associated with a sort are selected to ensure one group of data does not move without the other. Continuing with this data set, selecting the Filter icon will create a small box with an arrow pointing downward in the lower right-hand corner of the screen of the first row of the dataset. Selecting the arrow in the first column and row launches a filter options window. The Filter Options Window allows the user to sort the data in that column, and specify which information to include in the table. As an example, if only Minnesota was checked, only data with Minnesota in column one would be displayed. The user can visually see that other rows are being omitted because there is a gap in rows, and the filter icon (box with a downward arrow) now appears differently . The user can un-apply the filter, by selecting the filter icon again , or select the clear icon in the Sort & Filter group. Likewise, the filter can be Reapplied by selecting the Reapply icon to add the filter back. The Advanced icon launches the Advanced Filter window which allows more customization of the cells that should be filtered and where the information should be displayed.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/19%3A_Data_Tab/19.1%3A_Get_and_Transform_Data.txt

The Data Tools group provides some powerful commands that allow a user to manipulate their data. Imagine you have imported a set of data from a web-based program that contains customer addresses interested in a particular product. You would like to use the data to send out brochures with coupons to them about products they could buy. However, the data you received from your database contained all of the information in one cell per row. Your mail merge program cannot print address labels for data in this format, as you require separate information in particular cells for first & last name, address, city, state, and zip code. Using the data tools group, you can manipulate the data to get the data into the required format. Converting Text to Columns By selecting Text to Columns icon, a Convert Text to Columns Wizard launches, allowing the user to determine how to separate the text into multiple columns. The Delimited option allows the user to instruct Excel to separate text based upon a character in the text, while Fixed Width allows for the columns to be separated by their width. Usually, Delimited is the most useful option, but Fixed Width can be used if all of the data contain data sets that can be separated at the same measurements. For the purposes of this illustration, we will use Delimited. After selecting Delimited and clicking Next, Step 2 of the Wizard is available. Now, the user can decide the specific type of Delimiter Excel can use to move the text into the next column. I have chosen the Space Delimiter (though I could also create a custom delimiter). A preview of the data is provided below. Selecting Next, the wizard will launch the final step of the wizard by allowing the user to determine which columns are to be included in the Wizard and the type of data in the cells and the location where the cells should be entered. The default is to begin in the same column as the original. Finally, the user can select Finish to complete the Wizard. Now displayed is the information completely separated by spaces. While the Excel function has correctly completed the task, the fields still are not in the correct format, because certain fields are supposed to be together. As a reminder, cells should contain the first & last name, address, city, state, and zip code. Now, we must use formulas in Excel to merge the data as needed. We can use the Concatenate Formula in a newly created Column we will name Full Name to combine the First and Last Name Fields. We add the formula “=CONCATENATE(A2," ", B2)” into the Full Name cell with the “ “ added so Excel places a space between the first and last name. After executing the formula, the First and Last Names are merged. Now, we can add this formula to merge the other applicable cells, and hide the cells with information that is unnecessary. Now, we have the following table: We are almost completed, but we must first remove the comma “,” that is in the City field. To do so, we will use the Replace feature of Excel. We wish to find all commas and replace them with a space. Finally, now our data is accurate. Remove Duplicates The Remove Duplicates feature in the Data Tools group is also very helpful when working with a large set of data. To continue the example, let us imagine that we downloaded a large set of data that contained the names of every customer who had expressed interest in a product. So as not to waste resources or mail individuals twice, you decide you want to remove duplicates. Usually, the data set can be too large to accomplish this. However, using the Remove Duplicates feature, it is not. With a cell selected in your table, selecting the Remove Duplicates icon will launch the Remove Duplicates wizard. The wizard will ask the user to determine which columns should be evaluated for duplicates. I will select the full name column. After clicking OK, Excel removes the duplicate row information and informs the user that 1 duplicate values were found and removed. Data Validation Tool Excel’s Data Validation Tool allows the user to specify which kinds of information can be inserted into a cell. The user can require only specified text, or limit a text field to numbers only. Selecting the Data Validation icon will launch a Data Validation wizard Using the wizard, users can determine program excel to require a whole number, or decimal, or a list of options (that you provide from a range of cells in the workbook), date, time, a limit for text, and any other custom options. Users can also program the cells to display a message with instructions for the user. Consolidate, Relationships, and Manage Data Model & Forecast Group (Retrieved from Office.com Help). Users can select the Consolidate Icon to summarize and report results from separate worksheets, you can consolidate data from each sheet into a master worksheet. The sheets can be in the same workbook as the master worksheet, or in other workbooks. When you consolidate data, you assemble data so that you can more easily update and aggregate as necessary. For example, if you have an expense worksheet for each of your regional offices, you might use consolidation to roll these figures into a master corporate expense worksheet. This master worksheet might also contain sales totals and averages, current inventory levels, and the highest-selling products for the entire enterprise. The Relationships & Manage Data Model icons allow the user to create relationships between different tables and workbooks of data. This might allow data to be matched between tables, or to connect the tables for more batch processing. As this is not a Beginner to Intermediate class, Relationships and Manage Data Model will not be addressed in depth. The Forecast Group is made to make projections based upon different variables in formulas and create forecasts. This information is also saved for an advanced class. Outline Group Perhaps you are working with large sets of data that contain information that you want to keep together or organize. The Outline Group has a variety of tools that allow the user to group, ungroup, or subtotal sets of data together. Reviewing the data previously used an example, perhaps you would like to group this data because each of these customers requested information on the same day. To do so, highlight the cells to be included in a group, and select the Group icon in the ribbon. The user is provided with the choice to group either rows or columns (we select rows) and the cells are grouped. line to the left of the row headings is set to indicate the rows are together. The user can simply click the Ungroup icon to remove these from a group. The subtotal icon quickly and compute rows of numerical data to calculate a subtotal. The Show and Hide Detail icons collapse and hide the group. 19.5: Checking for Understanding 1. You have imported the following information into Excel from your customer relations management system (CRM) Jim Jones jjones@gmail.com 1123 East Street Reno, NV 55434 500 Catherine Ford cford@yahoo.com 3432 West Street Lansing, MI 233423 600 Jules Brown jbrown@msn.com 4322 North Lane Marietta, GA 53234 1200 1. Using the data function of excel, organize the data and add it to the following header groups. 1. First & Last Name 2. Email Address 3. Street 4. City 5. State 6. Zip 7. Quantity (last number) 2. Sort the data from the largest quantity to the smallest 3. Add a Data Validation column to the right of quantity with the heading “Shipped”? Make the options available only “Yes” “No” or “NA” 4. Format the data as a table. 20.1: References (n.d.). Retrieved from http://docplayer.net/47794861-Practical-notepad.html anonymous. (2020, 2 11). Office Financial Formulas. Retrieved from Office.com: support.office.com/en-us/art...81e-6035-4f24- 89c1-fbf124c2b1d8 How to geek. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.howtogeek.com/wpcontent/...7a4e3c27b4.jpg How to geek. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.howtogeek.com/wpcontent/...7a697a16ce.png How to geek. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.howtogeek.com/wpcontent/...js+rj+rp+rw+ri +cp+md.ic.bHMlo_NsIY.jpg How to Geek. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.howtogeek.com/wpcontent/...7a4e3c27b4.jpg How to Geek. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.howtogeek.com/wpcontent/...7a74f4fd72.png How to Geek. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.howtogeek.com/wpcontent/...js+rj+rp+rw+ri +cp+md.ic.f56WL7Kdtz.jpg How to Geek. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.howtogeek.com/wpcontent/...js+rj+rp+rw+ri +cp+md.ic.bWDRv6Q7Bt.png How to Geek. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.howtogeek.com/wpcontent/...js+rj+rp+rw+ri +cp+md.ic.vpXSdQ3Jth.png How to Geek. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.howtogeek.com/wpcontent/...s+rj+rp+rw+ri+ cp+md.ic.nV597_CBue.jpg How to Geek. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.howtogeek.com/wpcontent/...js+rj+rp+rw+ri +cp+md.ic.1T6OsiULPG.png How to Geek. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.howtogeek.com/wpcontent/...js+rj+rp+rw+ri +cp+md.ic.JtBZ-Uw5AO.jpg Howtogeek.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.howtogeek.com/wpcontent/...7a3cad0652.jpg Kapersky.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://usa.kaspersky.com/resource-c...t-to-do-online Learning, S. E. (n.d.). Windows 10 Tutorials Point. Retrieved from https://www.tutorialspoint.com/windo...0_tutorial.pdf Neowin.net. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.neowin.net Newell, P. (n.d.). Climate for Change: Non-State Actors and the Global Politics of the Greenhouse. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved 1 20, 2020, from https://books.google.com/books?id=ing21MGmh5UC Norton.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.norton.com Tutorialspoint.com. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.tutorialspoint.com/windo...10_taskbar.htm) Using Windows 10 Built in Photo Editor. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://way2trick.blogspot.com/2017/0...in-photos.html Windows Central. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.windowscentral.com/sites.../field/image/2 018/02/get-more-themes-store.jpg?itok=lOXq_tv6 Windows Central. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.windowscentral.com/sites.../field/image/2 018/02/get-more-themes-store.jpg?itok=lOXq_tv6 Windows Central. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.windowscentral.com/sites.../field/image/2 018/02/defender-app-home.jpg?itok=1rzolI0f Windows Central. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.windowscentral.com/sites.../field/image/2 018/02/defender-device-performance-health-.jpg?itok=rSDQAfu9 Windows Central. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.windowscentral.com/sites.../field/image/2 018/02/fresh-start-get-started.jpg?itok=1y70Wsqs Windows Central. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.windowscentral.com/sites.../field/image/2 018/02/firewall-network-protection-1.jpg?itok=o7iMvfSV Windows IT Central. (n.d.). Retrieved from www.windowscentral.com/how-c...eel-windows-10

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Computer_Fundamentals_for_Technical_Students_(Heisserer)/19%3A_Data_Tab/19.4%3A_Data_Tools_Group.txt

Welcome to ITE 115 – Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Computers are important tools in nearly every profession, so almost everyone can benefit by knowing how they work and how to use them. In this course, you will learn the basics of computer hardware, software, and networking. You will also develop basic skills in using Windows and Microsoft Office, and for creating your own web pages. Finally, you will learn how to use computers safely, and you will consider ethical issues related to computer usage. Course Requisite Technical Skills In order to succeed in this online course, you must be comfortable working with technology. At a minimum, you must possess the following technical skills: • Basic knowledge and moderate proficiency about the operation of a computer and software installation. • Ability to use File Manager/Windows Explorer. • Ability to use the Internet in an effective and efficient manner, including installation and management of browser plug-ins. • Proficient in searching the web for information • Ability to download and print information from websites and download, view, and/or print PDF files • Working knowledge of the Blackboard learning management system. Course Objectives • Identify and discuss the four main functions of computer hardware: input, processing, output, and storage. • Identify and describe major hardware components. • Identify, describe and use communications and networking terminology and technology to include Internet operations and its uses. • Describe the major operating system functions and demonstrate usage of operating system services to include: disk management, file management, and memory management. • Identify and discuss computer ethics and security issues. • Demonstrate searching, validation, and evaluation of information found online and in library databases. • Identify, discuss and use important categories of application software: word processing, spreadsheet, database management, and presentation graphics. • Identify and discuss software development processes and programming languages. • Create a Web site with xhtml tags and post to a Web server CC licensed content, Original • Welcome. Authored by: Jim Shannon. Provided by: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. License: CC BY: Attribution CC licensed content, Shared previously 1.02: Reference- Blackboard Tutorials Below is a list of tutorials for using some of the student tools and features in Blackboard Learn 9.1 SP 14. (Note all links open in new window.) Navigating a Blackboard Course Announcements Assignments Discussion Board Email Opening a File in Blackboard Taking Tests and Quizzes Working in Groups Blackboard Help Blackboard Collaborate 1.03: Overview of Assignments This course has fixed due dates that you have to meet. Research shows that students are most successful with distance education when they start their course work on time and make steady progress. Expect to work 6-9 hours per week on assignments for this course and submit one assignment at a time. To help you do this, please follow the time line posted as an Excel file at the top of the Assignments page. You can print it out for your own reference. You are encouraged to move forward but you should not miss the due date of each unit. I understand that sometimes things may happen and you can’t meet the deadlines. If it does happen, let me know in advance so I can consider granting an extension. Late assignments will not be accepted. NOTE: Testing centers are closed on Sundays. You have to submit all the assignments and complete all the exams by the course end date. Week Assignments Points 1 1.1 Distance Learning and Course Orientation N/A 1.2 Class Discussion – Introductions 5 1.3 Course Introduction and Overview Quiz 15 1.4 Course Project Introduction N/A 2 2.1 Read – Understand N/A 2.2 View – Listen N/A 2.3 Practice – Review N/A 2.4 Group Discussion – What’s in my computer? 25 3 3.1 Read – Understand N/A 3.2 View – listen N/A 3.3 Practice – Review N/A 3.4 Class Discussion – Test Drive 25 4 4.1 Training N/A 4.2 Assignment – Windows 15 5 5.1 Read – Understand N/A 5.2 View – Listen N/A 5.3 Practice – Review N/A 5.4 Information Literacy N/A 5.5 Class Discussion – Web Site Evaluation 25 6 6.1 Read – Understand N/A 6.2 View – Listen N/A 6.3 Practice – Review N/A 6.4 Class Discussion – Free Music and Videos? 30 7 7.1 Read – Understand N/A 7.2 View – Listen N/A 7.3 Practice – Review N/A 7.4 Group Discussion – A Home Network Plan 25 7.5 Antivirus Protection N/A 7.6 Exam 1 100 8 8.1 Training N/A 8.2 Course Project Task 1 (start) N/A 9 9.1 Training N/A 9.2 Assignment – CEO Recommendations Memo Document 50 9.3 Course Project – Task 1 60 10 10.1 Training N/A 10.2 Movies and Hobbies Web Site (Part 1) N/A 11 11.1 Training N/A 11.2 Assignment Movies and Hobbies Web site (Part 2) 50 11.3 Course Project – Task 2 (start) N/A 12 12.1 Training N/A 12.2 Practice Application N/A 12.3 Course Project – Task 2 50 13 13.1 Assignment – Budget Worksheet 50 13.2 Exam 2 150 13.3 Course Project – Task 3 30 14 14.1 Training N/A 14.2 Assignment – Inventory Database 50 15 15.1 Training N/A 15.2 Class Discussion – Database Issues 20 15.3 Course Project – Task 4 (start) N/A 16 16.1Training N/A 16.2 Assignment – Virus Prevention Presentation 30 16.3 Course Project – Task 4 45 16.4 Exam 3 150 CC licensed content, Original 1.04: Course Textbooks and Software Textbook The Computer Fundamentals Open Source textbook required for this course is: Discovering Information Systems, ISBN 0-620-24194-2 (for the printed edition only) and is distributed under the “Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 2.5 License. This edition is released for “open use” for non-commercial purposes only. It may be copied and printed freely for personal or educational use without requiring permission from the authors. It can be found at https://archive.org/details/ost-computer-science-discoveringinformationsystems. Note from your Instructor: This text book has a date of 2006, but provides straight forward information on Computer Fundamentals that is still valid. Websites Your assignments also require you to read reference material from various Wikipedia web pages, view designated YouTube videos, and perform various Practical Exercises. These materials expand on and add detail to the text book material. It is important that you read and view all of the assigned material for each assignment in order to get the full range of knowledge on the subject matter. Supplemental eBook Even though it is not assigned reading, the Microsoft Office text book, Office 2013 All-In-One For Dummies, ISBN 978-1-118-51636-2, authored by Peter Weverka and published by Wiley Publishing is provided for reference and can be downloaded for free at http://it-ebooks.info/book/2120/. It is your responsibility to comply with the copyright licensing. Regardless of the “For Dummies” in the title, the book is a comprehensive compendium of the Microsoft Office applications and will provide worthwhile learning on all of the Microsoft Office applications required in the course. Software Programs You will also need the following software to complete this course. • Windows 8 • Office 2013 Professional Edition. *Read the information below to get a free copy of full version of Office 2013. • If you already have Office 2013, make sure you have access to the professional version of Office 2013. The standard version does not include Access. *NOVA students can get a free copy of Access 2013 through the MSDNAA agreement that NOVA has with Microsoft. Send me an email if you need a copy but do so at least one month before the Access assignment is due. • Microsoft Office 365 is a subscription-based cloud service that is FREE to VCCS students. It is a full version of Office (Access is incuded for PC users). You can find the information on how to access it and technical support under the NOVA tab after you log into Blackboard. If you have questions or need assistance, contact your support desk. You may also learn more about Office 365 from the NOVA website, http://www.nvcc.edu/ithd/students/software.html • If you are using Office for the MAC, Word, Excel, and PowerPoint are compatible with Office 2013. You can also download Office 365 to your Mac. It includes Word, Excel, PowerPoint, and Outlook. Office for the MAC does not include Access. You will have to use a PC to complete the Access assignments or install Access in a virtual environment on your MAC. CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/01%3A_Introductions/1.01%3A_Welcome_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts.txt

Learning Objectives If you do well in this module, you should be able to: • Indicate the names and functions of hardware ports and the parts of the motherboard. • Identify the names and distinguishing features of different kinds of input and output devices. • Describe how the CPU processes data and instructions and controls the operation of all other devices. • Identify the names, distinguishing features, and units for measuring different kinds of memory and storage devices. • Search your personal computer for the various hardware components it contains. CC licensed content, Original 2.02: Reading- Hardware Introduction Hardware is the most visible part of any information system: the equipment such as computers, scanners and printers that is used to capture data, transform it and present it to the user as output. Although we will focus mainly on the personal computer (PC) and the peripheral devices that are commonly used with it, the same principles apply to the complete range of computers: • Supercomputers, a term used to denote the fastest computing engines available at any given time, which are used for running exceptionally demanding scientific applications. • Mainframe computers, which provide high-capacity processing and data storage facilities to hundreds or even thousands of users operating from (dumb) terminals. • Servers, which have large data storage capacities enabling users to share files and application software, although processing will typically occur on the user’s own machine. • Workstations, which provide high-level performance for individual users in computationally intensive fields such as engineering. • Personal computers (including laptop/notebook computers) have a connected monitor, keyboard and CPU, and have developed into a convenient and flexible business tool capable of operating independently or as part of an organizational network. • Mobile devices such as personal digital assistants or the latest generation of cellular telephones, offer maximum portability plus wireless connection to the internet, although they do not offer the full functionality of a PC. And we are already moving into the age of wearable computers for medical or security applications, embedded computers in appliances ranging from motor cars to washing machines, and the smart card which will provide identification, banking facilities, medical records and more! Input devices Data may enter an information system in a variety of different ways, and the input device that is most appropriate will usually depend on the type of data being entered into the system, how frequently this is done, and who is responsible for the activity. For example, it would be more efficient to scan a page of typed text into an information system rather than retyping it, but if this happens very seldom, and if typing staff are readily available, then the cost of the scanner might not be justified. However, all of the input devices described in this chapter have at least one thing in common: the ability to translate non-digital data types such as text, sound or graphics into digital (i.e. binary) format for processing by a computer. The keyboard A lot of input still happens by means of a keyboard. Usually, the information that is entered by means of a keyboard is displayed on the monitor. The layout of most keyboards is similar to that of the original typewriter on which it was modeled. Ironically, this “QWERTY” keyboard layout was originally designed to slow the operator down, so that the keys of the typewriter would not get stuck against each other. This layout now works counter-productively since a computer can process keyboard input many times faster than even the fastest typist can manage. A number of attempts have been made to design alternative layouts by rearranging the keys (the Dvorak keyboard) or by reducing the number of keys. None of these alternative designs has really caught on. Special keyboards have also been designed for countries that use a non-Roman alphabet, and also for disabled people. Pointing devices The now ubiquitous electronic mouse is an essential input device for use with any graphical user interface. It consists of a plastic moulded housing, designed to fit snugly in the palm of the hand, with a small ball at its bottom. Moving the mouse across a flat surface will translate the movements into a rolling action of the ball. This is translated into electronic signals that direct the corresponding movement of a cursor on the computer monitor. Buttons on the mouse can then be used to select icons or menu items, or the cursor can be used to trace drawings on the screen. The less popular trackball operates exactly like an “upside-down” mouse except that the ball is much larger and, instead of the mouse being moved over a surface, the user manipulates the ball directly. Since the trackball can be built into the side of the keyboard, it obviates the need for a free surface area and is therefore handy in situations where desktop surface area is at a premium or not available. Originally popular in educational laboratory settings and for laptop computers, trackballs are now mainly confined to exhibition displays and other public terminals. Touch-screens are computer monitors that incorporate sensors on the screen panel itself or its sides. The user can indicate or select an area or location on the screen by pressing a finger onto the monitor. Light and touch pens work on a similar principle, except that a stylus is used, allowing for much finer control. Touch pens are more commonly used with handheld computers such as personal organizers or digital assistants. They have a pen-based interface whereby a stylus (a pen without ink) is used on the small touch-sensitive screen of the handheld computer, mainly by means of ticking off pre-defined options, although the fancier models support data entry either by means of a stylized alphabet, which resembles a type of shorthand, or some other more sophisticated handwriting recognition interface. Digitizer tablets also use a pressure sensitive area with a stylus. This can be used to trace drawings. A similar conceptual approach is used for the touch pad that can be found on the majority of new notebook computers, replacing the more awkward joystick or trackball. The user controls the cursor by moving a finger across a fairly small rectangular touch-sensitive area below the keyboard, usually about 5 cm by 7 cm. A large number of game interfaces have been developed to provide a more realistic and natural interface in various gaming situations and simulations: the joy stick, steering wheel, foot pedal and other gaming devices. They all perform functions similar to the mouse in that they allow the user to control a cursor or simulate generally real-time motion control. Contact your nearest game arcade for details. Although the data glove also fits under the previous category, it is technically a lot more complex. It looks like a hand glove but contains a large number of sensors and has a data cable attached; though the latter is being replaced by means of infrared cordless data transmission. Not only does the data glove allow for full three-dimensional movement but it also senses the position of individual fingers, translating this into a grip. The glove is currently used in virtual reality simulators where the user moves around in an artificially rendered environment projected onto tiny LCD screens fitted into vision goggles. The computer generates various imaginary objects, which the user can “pick up” and manipulate by means of the glove. Advanced models even allow for tactile feedback by means of small pressure pockets built into the glove. Optical scanners and readers There are a number of different optical scanner technologies on the market. • Optical Scanners use light-emitting devices to illuminate the printing on paper. Depending on how much light is reflected, a light-sensor determines the position and darkness (or color) of the markings on the paper. Special-purpose optical scanners are in use by postal services to read and / interpret hand-written postal codes. General-purpose scanners are used with personal computers to scan in images or text. These vary from handheld devices (see picture) to flatbed scanners which feed input documents one sheet at a time. A common use of optical scanners is the scanning of black-and-white or color images and pictures. When scanning text, it is necessary to load additional optical character recognition (OCR) software that converts the scanned raster-image of the text into the equivalent character symbols, so that they can be edited using word processing software. • Barcode scanners detect sequences of vertical lines of different widths, the ubiquitous barcode as found also on the back of this book. These scanners have become very popular with retailers due to the fact that all pre-packaged products are now required to have a product bar code on their packaging, following the standard laid down by the South African Article Numbering Association (SAANA). Libraries and video shops now also commonly use bar code scanners. They are more generally used for tracking and routing large numbers of physical items such as for asset inventory purposes in many larger organizations, postal items by the postal services and courier services, or for luggage handling by airlines. • Optical mark readers are capable of reading dark marks on specially designed forms. The red multiple choice answer sheets in use at many educational and testing institutions are a good example. Other input devices A magnetic card reader reads the magnetized stripe on the back of plastic credit-card size cards. These cards need to be pre-recorded following certain standards. Although the cards can hold only a tiny amount of information, they are very popular for access (door) control and financial transactions (ATMs and point-of-sale terminals). Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR) uses a special ink (containing magnetizable elements) and a distinct font type. It is used mainly in the banking sector for the processing of cheques. Touch-tone devices can use a voice telephone to contact computer-based switchboards or enter information directly into remote computers. Many corporate telephone help-lines rely on the customer pressing the touch-tone telephone buttons to route his/her call to the correct operator by selecting through a menu of possible options. South African banks also enable their clients to perform a number of banking transactions via telephone. Digital cameras allow you to make pictures of physical objects directly in a digital, i.e. computer-readable, format. Relatively low-cost digital still picture cameras are now available that capture images directly on electronic disk or RAM media instead of the traditional film. Apart from being very compact, most of these digital cameras can also interface directly with personal computers and are thus becoming a popular tool to capture pictures for e-mailing or loading on the world-wide Web. Biometric devices are used to verify personal identity based on fingerprints, iris or retinal scanning, hand geometry, facial characteristics etc. A scanning device is used to capture key measurements and compare them against a database of previously stored information. This type of authentication is becoming increasingly important in the control of physical access. Finally, voice input devices are coming of age. Voice-recognition has recently made a strong entry into the market with the availability of low-cost systems that work surprisingly well with today’s personal computers. These systems allow for voice control of most standard applications (including the operating system). With voice control, the computer recognizes a very limited number (50 or less) of frequently used, programmable system commands (“save”, “exit”, “print”…) from a variety of users. In fact, these systems are not only used for the interface of computer programs; they are also slowly making an appearance in consumer appliances, novelty items and even motor cars! Much more difficult to achieve than voice control, is true voice dictation used to dictate e.g. a letter to your word processor. The difficulty is that the computer must not only distinguish between many tens of thousands of possible words, but it must also recognize the almost unnoticeable breaks in between words, different accents and intonations. Therefore, voice dictation typically requires a user to train the voice recognition software by reading standard texts aloud. Nevertheless, for personal purposes and slow typists, voice recognition is rapidly becoming a viable alternative to the keyboard. Central Processing Unit (CPU) Once data has been entered into a computer, it is acted on by the CPU, which is the real brain of the computer. The CPU takes specific program instructions (usually one at a time), applies them to the input data and transforms the input into output. Components of the CPU The CPU has two major components. • The Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) executes the actual instructions. It knows how to add or multiply numbers, compare data, or convert data into different internal formats. • The Control Unit does the “housekeeping” i.e. ensures that the instructions are processed on time, in the proper sequence, and operate on the correct data. Figure 1: Detailed view of a computer system Types of CPUs The CPU is an electronic device based on microchip technology, hence it is also often called the microprocessor. It is truly the showcase and culmination of the state-of-the-art in the electronics industry: a tiny silicon-based chip occupying less than 1 square cm contains several millions of transistor elements, measuring less than a thousandth of a millimeter across. They operate at speeds way beyond our comprehension: a typical CPU can multiply more 7-digit numbers in one second than a human could do in ten lifetimes, but uses less energy than a light bulb! Think of the motor car industry: there are different manufacturers or makes of cars (Volkswagen, Toyota, etc.), each with different models (Golf, Jetta, …), which come out in different versions (City Golf, Sports model, coupe, etc.). In addition, there exist custom-made special-purpose cars. It is the same in the computer chip business. There are many different types of CPUs on the market. The best-known manufacturer is Intel, which produces the microprocessors for the IBM-compatible personal computer (PC). Some of its competitors produce clones or imitations (e.g. AMD), others manufacturers produce different types of microprocessors or concentrate on small volumes of highly specialized or very fast microprocessors. Intel has produced a large number of CPU types: the earliest model used in the Personal Computer was the 8088, followed by the 8086, the 80286, the 386, 486 and the line of Pentium processors. Speed of processing How does one measure the speed of, say a Porsche 911? One could measure the time that it takes to drive a given distance e.g. the 900 km from Cape Town to Bloemfontein takes 4’/2 hours (ignoring speed limits and traffic jams). Alternatively, one can indicate how far it can be driven in one standard time unit e.g. the car moves at a cruising speed of 200 km/hour. In the same way, one can measure the speed of the CPU by checking the time it takes to process one single instruction. As indicated above, the typical CPU is very fast and an instruction can be done in about two billionths of a second. To deal with these small fractions of time, scientists have devised smaller units: a millisecond (a thousandth of a second), a microsecond (a millionth), a nanosecond (a billionth) and a picosecond (a trillionth). However, instead of indicating the time it takes to execute a single instruction, the processing speed is usually indicated by how many instructions (or computations) a CPU can execute in a second. This is exactly the inverse of the previous measure; e.g. if the average instruction takes two billionths of a second (2 nanoseconds) then the CPU can execute 500 million instructions per second (or one divided by 2 billionths). The CPU is then said to operate at 500 MIPS or 500 million of instructions per second. In the world of personal computers, one commonly refers to the rate at which the CPU can process the simplest instruction (i.e. the clock rate). The CPU is then rated at 500 MHz (megahertz) where mega indicates million and Hertz means “times or cycles per second”. For powerful computers, such as workstations, mainframes and supercomputers, a more complex instruction is used as the basis for speed measurements, namely the so-called floating-point operation. Their speed is therefore measured in megaflops (million of floating-point operations per second) or, in the case of very fast computers, teraflops (billions of flops). In practice, the speed of a processor is dictated by four different elements: the “clock speed”, which indicates how many simple instructions can be executed per second; the word length, which is the number of bits that can be processed by the CPU at any one time (64 for a Pentium IV chip); the bus width, which determines the number of bits that can be moved simultaneously in or out of the CPU; and then the physical design of the chip, in terms of the layout of its individual transistors. The latest Pentium processor has a clock speed of about 4 GHz and contains well over 100 million transistors. Compare this with the clock speed of 5 MHz achieved by the 8088 processor with 29 000 transistors! Moore’s Law (see Figure 2) states that processing power doubles for the same cost approximately every 18 months. Figure 2. Illustration of Moore’s Law Von Neumann versus Parallel CPU Architecture The traditional model of the computer has one single CPU to process all the data. This is called the Von Neumann architecture because he engineered this approach to computers in the days when computers were still a dream. Except for entry-level personal computers, most computers now have two, four, or up to sixteen CPUs sharing the main processing load, plus various support processors to handle maths processing, communications, disk I/O, graphics or signal processing. In fact many CPU chips now contain multiple “cores” each representing an individual CPU. Some super-computers that have been designed for massive parallel processing, have up to 64,000 CPUs. These computers are typically used only for specialized applications such as weather forecasting or fluid modeling. Today’s supercomputers are mostly clusters (tight networks) of many thousands of individual computers. Possible Future CPU Technologies Perhaps the major future competitor of the microchip-based microprocessor is optical computing. Although the technology for developing electronic microchips suggests that CPUs will continue to increase in power and speed for at least the next decade or so, the physical limits of the technology are already in sight. Switching from electronic to light pulses offers a number of potential advantages: light (which consists of photons) can travel faster, on narrower paths and does not disperse heat. In theory, one can even process different signals (each with a different light frequency) simultaneously using the same channel. Although the benefits of optical processing technology have already been proven in the areas of data storage (CD-Rom, CD-R) and communication (fibre optics), the more complex all-optical switches required for computing are still under development in the research laboratories. A very experimental alternative to optical and electronic technologies is the organic computer. Research indicates that, for certain applications, it is possible to let a complex organic molecule act as a primitive information processor. Since even a tiny container filled with the appropriate solutions contains many trillions of these molecules, one obtains in effect a hugely parallel computer. Although this type of computer can attack combinatorial problems way beyond the scope of traditional architectures, the main problem is that the programming of the bio-computer relies entirely on the bio-chemical properties of the molecules. Another exciting but currently still very theoretical development is the possible use of quantum properties as the basis for a new type of computer architecture. Since quantum states can exist in juxtaposition, a register of qubits (a bit value in quantum state) takes on all the possible values simultaneously until it is measured. This could be exploited to speed up extremely parallel algorithms and would affect such areas as encryption, searching and error-correction. To date, experimental computers with a few qubits have been built but the empirical validation of the actual usefulness of quantum computing still remains an open question. Main Memory The function of main memory (also referred to as primary memory, main storage or internal storage) is to provide temporary storage for instructions and data during the execution of a program. Main memory is usually known as RAM, which stands for Random Access Memory. Although microchip-based memory is virtually the only technology used by today’s computers, there exist many different types of memory chips. Random Access Memory (RAM) RAM consists of standard circuit-inscribed silicon microchips that contain many millions of tiny transistors. Very much like the CPU chips, their technology follows to the so-called law of Moore, which states that they double in capacity or power (for the same price) every 18 months. A RAM chip easily holds hundreds of Megabytes (million characters). They are frequently pre-soldered in sets on tiny memory circuit boards called SIMMS (Single In-line Memory Modules) or DIMMS (Dual …) which slot directly onto the motherboard: the main circuit board that holds the CPU and other essential electronic elements. The biggest disadvantage of RAM is that its contents are lost whenever the power is switched off. There are many special types of RAM and new acronyms such as EDO RAM, VRAM etc. are being created almost on a monthly basis. Two important types of RAM are: • Cache memory is ultra-fast memory that operates at the speed of the CPU. Access to normal RAM is usually slower than the actual operating speed of the CPU. To avoid slowing the CPU down, computers usually incorporate some more expensive, faster cache RAM that sits in between the CPU and RAM. This cache holds the data and programs that are needed immediately by the CPU. Although today’s CPUs already incorporate an amount of cache on the circuit itself, this on-chip cache is usually supplemented by an additional, larger, cache on the motherboard. • Flash RAM or flash memory consists of special RAM chips on a separate circuit board within a tiny casing. It fits into custom ports on many notebooks, hand-held computers and digital cameras. Unlike normal RAM, flash memory is non-volatile i.e. it holds it contents even without external power, so it is also useful as a secondary storage device. Read-Only Memory (ROM) A small but essential element of any computer, ROM also consists of electronic memory microchips but, unlike RAM, it does not lose its contents when the power is switched off. Its function is also very different from that of RAM. Since it is difficult or impossible to change the contents of ROM, it is typically used to hold program instructions that are unlikely to change during the lifetime of the computer. The main application of ROM is to store the so-called boot program: the instructions that the computer must follow just after it has been switched on to perform a self-diagnosis and then tell it how load the operating system from secondary storage. ROM chips are also found in many devices which contain programs that are unlikely to change over a significant period of time, such as telephone switch boards, video recorders or pocket calculators. Just like RAM, ROM comes in a number of different forms: • PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory) is initially empty and can be custom-programmed once only using special equipment. Loading or programming the contents of ROM is called burning the chip since it is the electronic equivalent of blowing tiny transistor fuses within the chip. Once programmed, ordinary PROMs cannot be modified afterwards. • EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) is like PROM but, by using special equipment such as an ultra-violet light gun, the memory contents can be erased so that the EPROM can be re-programmed. • EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory) is similar to EPROM but it can be re-programmed using special electronic pulses rather than ultraviolet light so no special equipment is required. Secondary Storage Devices Since the main memory of a computer has a limited capacity, it is necessary to retain data in secondary storage between different processing cycles. This is the medium used to store the program instructions as well as the data required for future processing. Most secondary storage devices in use today are based on magnetic or optical technologies. Disk drives The disk drive is the most popular secondary storage device, and is found in both mainframe and microcomputer environments. The central mechanism of the disk drive is a flat disk, coated with a magnetizable substance. As this disk rotates, information can be read from or written to it by means of a head. The head is fixed on an arm and can move across the radius of the disk. Each position of the arm corresponds to a “track” on the disk, which can be visualized as one concentric circle of magnetic data. The data on a track is read sequentially as the disk spins underneath the head. There are quite a few different types of disk drives. In Winchester hard drives, the disk, access arm and read/write heads are combined in one single sealed module. This unit is not normally removable, though there are some models available where the unit as a whole can be swapped in and out of a specially designed drive bay. Since the drives are not handled physically, they are less likely to be contaminated by dust and therefore much more reliable. Mass production and technology advances have brought dramatic improvements in the storage capacity with Terabyte hard drives being state of the art at the end of 2006. Current disk storage costs as little Rl per gigabyte. Large organizations such as banks, telcos and life insurance companies, require huge amounts of storage space, often in the order of many terabytes (one terabyte is one million megabytes or a trillion characters). This was typically provided by a roomful of large, high-capacity hard drive units. Currently, they are being replaced increasingly by redundant arrays of independent disks (RAIDs). A RAID consists of an independently powered cabinet that contains a number (10 to 100) of microcomputer Winchester-type drives but functions as one single secondary storage unit. The advantage of the RAID is its high-speed access and relatively low cost. In addition, a RAID provides extra data security by means of its fault-tolerant design whereby critical data is mirrored (stored twice on different drives) thus providing physical data redundancy. Should a mirrored drive fail, the other drive steps in automatically as a backup. A low-cost, low-capacity version of the hard disk was popularized by the microcomputer. The diskette consists of a flexible, magnetic ti^J surface coated mylar disk inside a thin, non-removable, plastic sleeve. The early versions of the diskette were fairly large (8″ or 5W) and had a flexible sleeve, hence the name floppy diskette. These have rapidly been replaced by a diskette version in a sturdier sleeve, the stiffy disk, that despite its smaller size (3 W’) can hold more data. Although the popular IBM format only holds 1,44 megabytes, a number of manufacturers have developed diskette drives that can store from 100 to 250 megabytes per stiffy. An alternative development is the removable disk cartridge, which is similar in structure to an internal hard drive but provides portability, making it useful for backup purposes. Magnetic tape While disk and optical storage have overtaken magnetic tape as the most popular method of storing data in a computer, tape is still used occasionally – in particular for keeping archive copies of important files. The main drawback of magnetic tape is that it is not very efficient for accessing data in any way other than strictly sequential order. As an illustration, compare a CD player (which can skip to any track almost instantly) with a music tape recorder (which has to wind the tape all the way through if one wants to listen to a song near the end). In computer terms, the ability to access any record, track, or even part within a song directly is called the direct access method. In the case of the tape recorder one may have to wind laboriously through the tape until one reaches the song required – this is referred to as the sequential access method. The high-density diskette and recordable optical disk have all but eroded the marginal cost advantage that tape storage enjoyed. This technology is therefore disappearing fast. Optical disk storage Optical disks, on the other hand, are rapidly becoming the storage medium of choice for the mass distribution of data/programs and the backup of data. Similar to disk storage, information is stored and read from a circular disk. However, instead of a magnetic read head, a tiny laser beam is used to detect microscopic pits burnt onto a plastic disk coated with reflective material. The pits determine whether most of the laser light is reflected back or scattered, thus making for a binary “on” or “off”. In contrast to hard disks, data is not stored in concentric cylinders but in one long continuous spiral track. Trivial fact: The spiral track used to store data on a CD is over six kilometers long. A popular optical disk format is the 12-cm CD-ROM. The widespread use of music compact discs has made the technology very pervasive and cheap. Production costs for a CD-ROM are less than Rl, even for relatively small production volumes. The drive reader units themselves have also dropped in price and are now hardly more than the cost of a diskette drive. A standard CD-ROM can store 650 megabytes of data and the data can be transferred at many megabytes per second, though accessing non-sequential data takes much longer. The CD-ROM is a read-only medium. Data cannot be recorded onto the disk. The low cost and relatively large capacity makes the CD-ROM ideally suited to the distribution of software. They are also ideal for the low-cost distribution of large quantities of information such as product catalogues, reference materials, conference proceedings, databases, etc. It is indispensable for the storage of multimedia where traditional textual information is supplemented with sound, music, voice, pictures, animation, and even video clips. The limitation of the read-only format lead to the development of low-cost recordable optical disks. The compact disk recordable (CD-R) is a write-once, read-many (WORM) technology. The CD-R drive unit takes a blank optical disk and burns data onto it using a higher-powered laser. This disk can then be read and distributed as an ordinary CD-ROM, with the advantage that the data is non-volatile i.e. permanent. The rapid drop in the cost of drive units and blank recording media (less than R2 per CD-R) is making this a very competitive technology for data backup and small-scale data distribution. Although the 650 megabytes initially seemed almost limitless, many multimedia and video applications now require more storage. A new format, the Digital Video Data (DVD) standard increased the capacity of the CD-ROM by providing high-density, double-sided and double-layered CDs. By combining the increased storage capacity with sophisticated data compression algorithms, a DVD disc can easily store 10 times as much as a CD, sufficient for a full-length high-quality digital motion picture with many simultaneous sound tracks. Even the DVD is not sufficient storage capacity and currently two optical technologies have been developed to increase storage capacity even further. The basic specification of both HD-DVD and Blu-Ray provide for more than 25 GB of storage on a disc although multi-layer Blu-Ray discs with capacities of more than 200 GB have already been developed. A promising research area involves the use of holographic disk storage whereby data is stored in a three-dimensional manner. Though in its infancy, early prototypes promise a many-fold increase in storage capacity and it could become the answer to the ever increase storage requirements of the next decade Figure 3: Comparison of secondary storage devices Device Access Speed Capacity Cost RAM < 2 nanosec  256 MB (chip)  <R1/MB Tape serial only  500 MB-4 GB  <10c/MB Diskette (3 1/2″) 300 ms  1,44 MB R1/MB PC hard disk 10 ms 40-750 GB  <2c/MB M/F hard disk 25 ms  100+ GB  R2/MB CD-ROM  <100 ms  660 MB  <0.1c/MB CD-R  <100 ms  660 MB  <0.2c/MB DVD  <100 ms  8 GB  <0.1c/MB HD-DVD  <100 ms  30 GB  ? Blu-Ray  <100 ms  25 GB-200GB  ? Output Devices The final stage of information processing involves the use of output devices to transform computer-readable data back into an information format that can be processed by humans. As with input devices, when deciding on an output device you need to consider what sort of information is to be displayed, and who is intended to receive it. One distinction that can be drawn between output devices is that of hardcopy versus softcopy devices. Hardcopy devices (printers) produce a tangible and permanent output whereas softcopy devices (display screens) present a temporary, fleeting image. Display screens The desk-based computer screen is the most popular output device. The standard monitor works on the same principle as the normal TV tube: a “ray” gun fires electrically charged particles onto a specially coated tube (hence the name Cathode-Ray Tube or CRT). Where the particles hit the coating, the “coating” is being “excited” and emits light. A strong magnetic field guides the particle stream to form the text or graphics on your familiar monitor. CRTs vary substantially in size and resolution. Screen size is usually measured in inches diagonally across from corner to corner and varies from as little as 12 or 14 inches for standard PCs, to as much as 40+ inches for large demonstration and video-conferencing screens. The screen resolution depends on a number of technical factors. A technology that has received much impetus from the fast-growing laptop and notebook market is the liquid crystal display (LCD). LCDs have matured quickly, increasing in resolution, contrast, and colour quality. Their main advantages are lower energy requirements and their thin, flat size. Although alternative technologies are already being explored in research laboratories, they currently dominate the “flat display” market. Organic light-emitting diodes (OLED) can generate brighter and faster images than LED technology, and require thinner screens, but they have less stable colour characteristics, making them more suitable for cellular telephone displays than for computers. Another screen-related technology is the video projection unit. Originally developed for the projection of video films, the current trend towards more portable LCD-based lightweight projectors is fuelled by the needs of computer-driven public presentations. Today’s units fit easily into a small suitcase and project a computer presentation in very much the same way a slide projector shows a slide presentation. They are rapidly replacing the flat transparent LCD panels that needed to be placed on top of an overhead projection unit. Though the LCD panels are more compact, weigh less and are much cheaper, their image is generally of much poorer quality and less bright. Printers and plotters Printers are the most popular output device for producing permanent, paper-based computer output. Although they are all hardcopy devices, a distinction can be made between impact and non-impact printers. With impact printers, a hammer or needle physically hits an inked ribbon to leave an ink impression of the desired shape on the paper. The advantage of the impact printer is that it can produce more than one simultaneous copy by using carbon or chemically-coated paper. Non-impact printers, on the other hand, have far fewer mechanically moving parts and are therefore much quieter and tend to be more reliable. The following are the main types of printers currently in use. • Dot-matrix printers used to be the familiar low-cost printers connected to many personal computers. The print head consists of a vertical row of needles each of which is individually controlled by a magnet. As the print head moves horizontally across the paper, the individual needles strike the paper (and ribbon in between) as directed by the control mechanism to produce text characters or graphics. A close inspection of a dot-matrix printout will reveal the constituent dots that make up the text. Although it is one of the cheapest printer options, its print quality is generally much lower that that of laser and ink-jet printers. However, today’s models are quick and give a much better quality by increasing the number of needles. • Laser printers are quickly growing in market share. They work on the same principle as the photocopier. A laser beam, toggled on and off very quickly, illuminates selected areas on a photo-sensitive drum, where the light is converted into electrical charge. As the drum rotates into a “bed” of carbon particles (“toner”) with the opposite charge, these particles will adhere to the drum. The blank paper is then pressed against the drum so that the particles “rub off onto the paper sheet. The sheet then passes through a high-temperature area so that the carbon particles are permanently fused onto the paper. Current high-end laser printers can cope with extremely large printing volumes, as is required e.g. by banks to print their millions of monthly account statements. The laser technology continues to develop in tandem with photocopier technology. Laser printers can now handle colour printing, double-sided printing or combine with mail equipment to perforate, fold, address and seal automatically into envelopes. At the lower end of the scale are the low-cost “personal” laser printers, which give a very good printing quality at a relatively modest cost. • Thermal printers use heat to print. The older thermal printers used heat-sensitive paper, similar to the special fax paper. A slight heat or pressure will leave a darker area. This produced very cheap but low-quality output. Currently, thermal-printing technology is used mainly for high-quality color printing. These new thermal printers use colored wax sticks and melt the wax onto the paper. Although they are slower than competing color laser and inkjet technologies, they give a much more vibrant, color-saturated image. • Inkjet printers are probably the most popular low-cost printing technology. Liquid ink is squirted onto the paper in the form of tiny droplets. These printers are about the same price as dot-matrix printers, albeit more expensive in terms of consumables. Their quality is close to that of the laser printers. Their great advantage is that the printers can easily be adapted to use coloured ink, thus making popular color printers. • Plotters are mainly used for engineering and architectural drawings. A plotter consists of one (or several – in the case of color plotters) pen(s) affixed to an arm. As the arm moves across the sheet of paper, the pen draws lines onto the paper. It is ideal for line drawings such as plans, especially in cases where the paper size exceeds that which can be accommodated by the other types of printers. • Chain and line printers are still popular in mainframe environments for the quick production of large volumes of internal printing. The line printer consists of a horizontal, rotating “drum” with 132 cylinders, each containing a full character set. As the 132-column wide paper moves up past the drum, a line at a time, each one of the 132 hammers on the other side of the paper strikes at the exact moment that the corresponding cylinder “shows” the correct character. The hammer hits the drum (and ink ribbon) and leaves an imprint of the character on the paper. The chain printer works on the same principle, but uses a horizontally rotating chain with engraved characters, instead of a drum. As anyone with some working experience in a large organization knows, the print quality of these “computer printouts” is not very high. Figure 4-4 compares the various output devices in terms of a number of characteristics. Figure 4: Comparison of output devices Device Technology Quality Speed Duplicates? Graphics? Fonts? Colour? CRT softcopy high very fast n/a yes yes yes LCD softcopy fair very fast n/a yes yes yes Plotter hardcopy fair slow no yes yes yes Chain/line printer hardcopy low very fast yes no no no Laser printer hardcopy high fast/fair no yes yes yes Dot-Matrix printer hardcopy fair fast/fair yes yes yes some Inkjet printer hardcopy good fair no yes yes yes Audio-output devices A type of output that is becoming increasingly popular different types of audio output. is audio output. There are many different types of audio output. • Sound output is required by most multimedia applications and sophisticated games. The sound card in many of today’s personal computers synthesizes sound by drawing from a library of stored sounds, essentially using the same process as found in music keyboards. More advanced multimedia workstations are equipped for full stereo multi-channel surround sound and easily surpass many a modern hi-fi system in cabling and speaker complexity. • MIDI in/output. Modern day music production would be impossible without a vast array of electronic instruments and keyboards. These are typically controlled by a personal computer by means of Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI), a common standard for linking, controlling and processing electronic music. • Speech synthesis is the production of speech-like output using an artificial voice. Although the lack of intonation still makes the voice sound artificial, the technology is reasonably mature and can be found anywhere from talking clocks and luxury cars to automated responses for telephonic directory enquiries. Other Output Devices Many other, extremely specialized input and output devices have been developed. Process control, for example, is a very specialized field but extremely important for automated factories (car manufacturing, canneries), continuous process environments (nuclear plants, refineries) or hazardous places (microbiological research laboratories, space exploration). For these applications, the computer relies on a multitude of sensors for its inputs: temperatures, speed, pressure, flow rates, weight, position, … These sensor inputs are then processed by the computers, which in turn control directly robot arms and other mechanical devices such as cutters, welding equipment, valves, switches, mixers etc. South African Perspective A number of car manufacturers have introduced new model vehicles that optionally includes a vehicle safety system that could reduce road deaths and injuries by foreseeing an unavoidable collision and activating passenger restraint and protection systems before it happens. “Pre-crash safety” has three elements: • A sensor uses millimeter-wave radar to detect vehicles and obstacles on the road ahead. • An electronic control unit (ECU) determines whether a collision is imminent based on the position, speed and course of the object. If it is… • The seat belts retract to pull the passengers back into their seats and emergency brake assistance pressure is built, ready for the driver to hit the pedal. Until now, vehicle safety devices have only been able to activate after a collision. The car’s radar, Toyota says, works even in rain and snow and is constantly scanning ahead. Newly developed computer software can quickly determine whether a collision is imminent based on the expected course of the host vehicle as well as the position, speed and expected course of preceding or oncoming vehicles. This could be the solution we need for South Africa’s unacceptably high road death rate – all we need is for every South African driver to be able to afford the new Toyota! Beyond the Basics Commercial development is set to begin on the next generation of memory: the samarium cube. This technology will allow the storage of up to one terabyte (1000 gigabytes) of data in a cubic centimeter of glass. When an extremely short pulse of laser light is applied to a piece of glass containing the rare earth element samarium, a dot around 400 nanometers in diameter becomes luminous, allowing the glass to be used as an optical memory. These luminous dots can be spaced 100 nanometers apart, and up to 2000 layers of dots can be stored and read within a cubic centimeter of glass, producing a three-dimensional storage medium. The pulse of light used to irradiate the cube lasts for only 1000-trillionth of a second (a femtosecond), because a longer pulse of light will create heat that can cause the glass to crack. Exercises PC specifications A friend of yours wants to buy a personal computer for her small, home-based service business. She wants to use industry-standard software to create brochures, do accounts and financial calculations and maintain a database of customers, suppliers, products and orders. She copied down the specifications for a computer that she saw advertised on TV at a competitive price, but she is not sure whether she would really need all the components, and she doesn’t understand all the technical “buzzwords”. As a knowledgeable friend, she has asked you • to explain in non-technical terms her questions about the various components; • to identify any obviously incorrect specifications that she might have copied down wrongly from the advertisement, and briefly explain why they are wrong. The following is her specifications sheet: Specification Question Correct? 1.7 GHz Pentium-IV What does “1.7 GHz” mean? 4 MB RAM What is RAM used for? 500 GB Hard Disk What sort of things would be stored on the hard disk? X50 CD-ROM Would I use this to make backups? If not, what would I use it for? 32 MB SVGA Graphics card What does this do? Stiffy drive Why do I need one if I have a CD-ROM? 102 keyboard Should I get any other input devices as well? 14” monitor Is this likely to be a modern flat screen like you get on laptops, or the old fashioned sort of monitor? Color inkjet printer Why not get a dot-matrix printer? Input/Output devices A standard Automatic Teller Machine (“ATM”) has a large number of input and output devices. List as many of its I/O devices as you can (you may include sensors as well). CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Additional description of the hardware components of computer hardware is available at Make Use Of. You can find many useful free ebooks on this website. The following is the book that you may want to refer to: CC licensed content, Original 2.04: Video- Basic PC Parts Watch this video to learn about the basic parts of a PC. An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=44 All rights reserved content 2.05: Video- Binary for Beginners Watch this video to learn how to convert traditional numbers and letters into binary code. An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=46 All rights reserved content • Converting Numbers into Binary for Beginners & Some fun with ASCII. Authored by: EFTanker. Located at: https://youtu.be/huI5N02AHKM. License: Other. License Terms: Standard YouTube License 2.06: Video- An Overview of Storage Devices Watch this video for an overview of the different types of computer storage devices. An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=48 All rights reserved content 2.07: Video- Computer Interfaces and Ports Watch this video to learn about common ports and connectors on a PC. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=50 All rights reserved content 2.08: Review- Hardware Jeopardy A Jeopardy game is attached to assist you in your review. You will need the PowerPoint application or a PowerPoint viewer to play the game. You can perform these exercises on your mobile devices with access to Office 365 Mobile or a separate App for your Apple or Android device. Jeopardy: Hardware Review NOTE: The Jeopardy Game should open in the Slide Show view and be immediately playable. If it opens in the regular PowerPoint presentation view, go to the SLIDE SHOW tab on the ribbon and start the show from THE BEGINNING (command on the far left). You can play the game as many times as you like and in any order you like. CC licensed content, Original 2.09: Assignment- Whats in My Computer Group Discussion Forum Part A Identify the hardware components in your own computer. If you don’t have a computer, use a friend’s, or one at work or in a computer lab. The following list shows the components you should identify and how to find the information on a Windows computer. If you have a Mac, your job is probably easier. Until recently, Macs were standard hardware models produced by Apple. You can look up the technical information for your model in your documentation, or on the Apple web site, or with the free downloadable Mactracker database. • Input devices (include internal and external devices) – they usually have a model name and number somewhere on the device. • Output devices (include internal and external devices) – they usually have a model name and number somewhere on the device. • Storage devices (include internal and external devices, and how much data each can hold) – Open Windows Explorer and right click on a drive name to open its properties. • Amount of RAM – Open System Properties in the Windows Control Panel. • Type and speed of CPU – Open System Properties in the Windows Control Panel. • Ports (number and type) – Look for jacks into which a connector can be plugged on the front, back and sides of the machine. Compare the jacks to pictures in your textbook. 1. Write a list of the parts in your computer system for each category specified above. 2. Go to the GROUP Forums and find your group. You only have access to your own group’s forum. If you don’t have access to any group forum, please contact me immediately. 3. Open the group discussion board and post your response in the “What’s in my Computer” forum. Part B 1. Read the other postings in your group’s forum. 2. Respond to at least two postings in your group other than your own. State whether you would make any recommendations, what you would recommend and why. 3. Read the responses to your own report. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Hardware Discussion Forum. Authored by: Jim Shannon. Provided by: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at: http://www.nvcc.edu/eli/index.html. License: CC BY: Attribution

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Learning Objectives If you do well in this unit, you should be able to: 1. Distinguish between Operating Systems software and Application Systems software. 2. Describe commonly used operating systems. 3. Identify the primary functions of an Operating System. 4. Describe the “boot” process. 5. Identify Desktop and Windows features. 6. Use Utility programs. 7. Discuss the pros and cons of the three major operating systems. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts System Software Objectives. Authored by: Jim Shannon. Provided by: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at: http://www.nvcc.edu/eli/index.html. License: CC BY: Attribution 3.02: Reading- Operating Systems Introduction The PC of a business end-user will quite commonly provide a number of different application programs, but no program development tools. It is also possible (although unlikely) that the PC of a programmer could provide development tools only, and no other commercial applications. But the one thing that all these machines would definitely have is an operating system (OS). The operating system is an essential piece of software that resides on virtually every computer. It allows the computer to run a number of different applications apparently simultaneously, and shares resources such as printers between a number of different users, while at the same time performing those functions that are critical to the correct operating of the computer system, regardless of which application is running. Different types of computers may require different operating systems. Most mainframe computers have a proprietary operating system, such as IBM’s MVS or Siemen’s BS2000. At the opposite end of the market, we find that the leading operating system for the IBM compatible Personal Computers is Microsoft Windows (having all but replaced its predecessor MS-DOS) although Mac-OS and Unix variants such as Linux also have strong followings. Figure 5-4: Some operating system components Today’s operating systems are true marvels of engineering and rate among the most complex artifacts designed by humans. Their complexity stems from the increasing number of functions that an operating system is required to handle. Multitasking Today’s computers handle many applications at the same time: you could be downloading a file from the Internet at the same time as you update a spreadsheet that is embedded within a word-processing document (while at the same time your virus scanner is running in the background). Each application needs to share the CPU, main memory and all peripheral devices. The OS sees to it that all conflicts are resolved and each application gets a fair share of the common resources, often in accordance with a certain priority schedule. An important task, therefore, is that of the proper scheduling of different tasks. The OS also ensures that illbehaving applications do not impact on the integrity of the other applications and their data. (By the way, when a single application program runs multiple tasks simultaneously, this is known as multithreading.) Multi-user management Barring the personal computer, computers have more than a single user at any one time – a typical mainframe may have to handle many thousands of simultaneous users. Each of the users may operate a different application (see multitasking) but will not be prepared to wait for other users to finish their tasks. So the OS sees to it that each user gets a fair share of the CPU of the mainframe, by slicing each second in tiny fractions and allocating them to the different users. In addition, each user may have a different profile in terms of access to certain peripheral devices and data. This requires sophisticated security and data management. Memory management Apart from the CPU, primary memory is often the most expensive and scarcest component of a computer system. Efficient memory management is a key component of any OS, especially in multitasking and multi-user environment. The likelihood that there is sufficient memory to load all the data and software for all users simultaneously is extremely small. In practice, a technique of virtual memory is used whereby the available amount of main memory is extended by using secondary storage devices, usually the hard disk. During a typical program execution, not all program instructions and data are required at once. The OS will swap out all unused software and data segments onto disk, until they are actually required. Secondary storage management All applications require disk storage – if only to store the application software itself. The OS provides the common access routines to the secondary disk storage devices. It will keep track of data and program file names, physical locations and perform common functions such as the copying, erasing or backing up of data. It also makes the differences in physical hardware as transparent as possible: a data file will appear the same to an application whether the data is being loaded from a diskette, a hard disk or an optical CD-ROM. Peripheral handler Apart from managing the memory and secondary storage devices, the OS is usually also responsible for the handling of other peripheral devices. Again, a major objective is to relieve the application from the responsibility of having to cater for a multitude of different possible input and output devices. Thanks to the OS, a program (developer) does not need to cater for the differences between a trackball, mouse or other pointing device. The OS will also ensure that your document will be printed correctly, regardless of whether you have a colour inkjet, a laser or lowly dot-matrix printer attached. Equally, individual programs no longer have to worry about the resolution or capability of your computer monitor. The critical element is again that the applications do not have to worry about the actual hardware connected to the computer system. This is usually achieved by means of device drivers, small software routines that become part of the operating system and help it to interface correctly with specific hardware devices. The device drivers for popular or standard devices are usually already included in the operating system. More esoteric or very new hardware devices will come with a separate disk containing the proper device drivers. These then have to be installed as part of the operating system at the same time as connecting the hardware. Communications Management Communications software allows a computer to recognise the presence of other machines on a network, and to grant or restrict access to local files. It also manages network traffic, by monitoring communications lines and diagnosing problems, as well as sending and receiving data to and from remote devices. While PC operating systems include some basic networking and communications facilities, network operating systems (NOS) such as Novell and Unix provide sophisticated management tools for large networks. User interface Until the late 1980s, operating systems focussed on the efficient management of resources, tasks and secondary storage. The popularity of personal computers meant that a whole class of less-technical end-users entered the world of computing. This pressured the IT industry into developing a user-friendlier graphical user-interface and the user interface is quickly becoming a significant part of microcomputer operating systems. Different types of user interface have already been discussed earlier in this chapter. System Utilities As a logical extension of the operating system, additional system utilities are often required to assist with the proper and optimal use of the computer. Some system utilities may be provided along with the operating system, while others are marketed by independent third-party vendors. A number of system utilities focuses on improving the functionality of the operating system (e.g. better hard disk management) while others provide additional functions (e.g. anti-virus or encryption software). More examples of system utilities are editors, additional security utilities, performance monitors, file viewers, data compression software etc. CC licensed content, Shared previously 3.03: Reading- System Software Introduction System software (systems software) is computer software designed to operate and control the computer hardware and to provide a platform for running application software. System software can be separated into two different categories, operating systems and utility software. • The operating system (prominent examples being z/OS, Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X and Linux), allows the parts of a computer to work together by performing tasks like transferring data between memory and disks or rendering output onto a display device. It also provides a platform to run high-level system software and application software. • A kernel is the core part of the operating system that defines an API for applications programs (including some system software) and an interface to device drivers. • Device drivers such as computer BIOS and device firmware provide basic functionality to operate and control the hardware connected to or built into the computer. • A user interface “allows users to interact with a computer.” Since the 1980s the graphical user interface (GUI) has been perhaps the most common user interface technology. The command-line interface is still a commonly used alternative. • Utility software helps to analyze, configure, optimize and maintain the computer, such as virus protection. In some publications, the term system software also includes software development tools (like a compiler, linker or debugger). In contrast to system software, software that allows users to do things like create text documents, play games, listen to music, or web browsers to surf the web are called application software. The line where the distinction should be drawn isn’t always clear. Most operating systems bundle such software. Such software is not considered system software when it can be uninstalled without affecting the functioning of other software. Exceptions could be e.g. web browsers such as Internet Explorer where Microsoft argued in court that it was system software that could not be uninstalled. Later examples are Chrome OS and Firefox OS where the browser functions as the only user interface and the only way to run programs (and other web browser can not be installed in their place), then they can well be argued to be (part of) the operating system and then system software. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction In computing, booting (or booting up) is the initialization of a computerized system. The system can be a computer or a computer appliance. The booting process can be “hard”, after electrical power to the CPU is switched from off to on (in order to diagnose particular hardware errors), or “soft”, when thosepower-on self-tests (POST) can be avoided. Soft booting can be initiated by hardware such as a button press, or by software command. Booting is complete when the normal, operative, runtime environment is attained. A boot loader is a computer program that loads an operating system or some other system software for the computer after completion of the power-on self-tests; it is the loader for the operating system itself, which has its own loader for loading ordinary user programs and libraries. Within the hard reboot process, it runs after completion of the self-tests, then loads and runs the software. A boot loader is loaded into main memory from persistent memory, such as a hard disk drive or, in some older computers, from a medium such as punched cards, punched tape, or magnetic tape. The boot loader then loads and executes the processes that finalize the boot. Like POST processes, the boot loader code comes from a “hard-wired” and persistent location; if that location is too limited for some reason, that primary boot loader calls a second-stage boot loader or a secondary program loader. On modern general purpose computers, the boot up process can take tens of seconds, and typically involves performing a power-on self-test, locating and initializing peripheral devices, and then finding, loading and starting an operating system. The process of hibernating or sleeping does not involve booting. Minimally, some embedded systems do not require a noticeable boot sequence to begin functioning and when turned on may simply run operational programs that are stored in ROM. All computing systems are state machines, and a reboot may be the only method to return to a designated zero-state from an unintended, locked state. Boot is short for bootstrap or bootstrap load and derives from the phrase to pull oneself up by one’s bootstraps. The usage calls attention to the requirement that, if most software is loaded onto a computer by other software already running on the computer, some mechanism must exist to load the initial software onto the computer. Early computers used a variety of ad-hoc methods to get a small program into memory to solve this problem. The invention ofread-only memory (ROM) of various types solved this paradox by allowing computers to be shipped with a start up program that could not be erased. Growth in the capacity of ROM has allowed ever more elaborate start up procedures to be implemented. History Switches and cables used to program ENIAC (1946) There are many different methods available to load a short initial program into a computer. These methods reach from simple, physical input to removable media that can hold more complex programs. Pre integrated-circuit-ROM examples Early computers Early computers in the 1940s and 1950s were one-of-a-kind engineering efforts that could take weeks to program and program loading was one of many problems that had to be solved. An early computer, ENIAC, had no “program” stored in memory, but was set up for each problem by a configuration of interconnecting cables. Bootstrapping did not apply to ENIAC, whose hardware configuration was ready for solving problems as soon as power was applied. In 1960, the Ballistic Missile Early Warning System Display Information Processor (DIP) in Colorado Springs—​before the NORAD facility was built in the underground Cheyenne Mountain Complex—​ran only one program, which carried its own startup code. The program was stored as a bit image on a continuously running magnetic drum, and loaded in a fraction of a second. Core memory was probably cleared manually via the maintenance console, and startup from when power was fully up was very fast, only a few seconds. In its general design, the DIP compared roughly with aDEC PDP-8. First commercial computers The first programmable computers for commercial sale, such as the UNIVAC I and the IBM 701 included features to make their operation simpler. They typically included instructions that performed a complete input or output operation. The same hardware logic could be used to load the contents of a punch card or other input media that contained a bootstrap program by pressing a single button. This booting concept was called a variety of names for IBMcomputers of the 1950s and early 1960s, but IBM used the term “Initial Program Load” with the IBM 7030 Stretch and later used it for their mainframe lines, starting with the System/360 in 1964. Initial program load punched card for the IBM 1130 (1965) The IBM 701 computer (1952–1956) had a “Load” button that initiated reading of the first 36-bit word into main memory from a punched card in a card reader, a magnetic tape in a tape drive, or a magnetic drum unit, depending on the position of the Load Selector switch. The left 18-bit half-word was then executed as an instruction, which usually read additional words into memory. The loaded boot program was then executed, which, in turn, loaded a larger program from that medium into memory without further help from the human operator. The term “boot” has been used in this sense since at least 1958. IBM System/3 console from the 1970s. Program load selector switch is lower left; Program load switch is lower right. Other IBM computers of that era had similar features. For example, the IBM 1401 system (c. 1958) used a card reader to load a program from a punched card. The 80 characters stored in the punched card were read into memory locations 001 to 080, then the computer would branch to memory location 001 to read its first stored instruction. This instruction was always the same: move the information in these first 80 memory locations to an assembly area where the information in punched cards 2, 3, 4, and so on, could be combined to form the stored program. Once this information was moved to the assembly area, the machine would branch to an instruction in location 080 (read a card) and the next card would be read and its information processed. Another example was the IBM 650 (1953), a decimal machine, which had a group of ten 10-position switches on its operator panel which were addressable as a memory word (address 8000) and could be executed as an instruction. Thus setting the switches to 7004000400 and pressing the appropriate button would read the first card in the card reader into memory (op code 70), starting at address 400 and then jump to 400 to begin executing the program on that card. IBM’s competitors also offered single button program load. • The CDC 6600 (c. 1964) had a dead start panel with 144 toggle switches; the dead start switch entered 12 words from the toggle switches to the memory of peripheral processor (PP) 0 and initiated the load sequence. PP 0 loaded the necessary code into its own memory and then initialized the other PPs. • The GE 645 (c. 1965) had a “SYSTEM BOOTLOAD” button that, when pressed, caused one of the I/O controllers to load a 64-word program into memory from a diode read-only memory and deliver an interrupt to cause that program to start running. • The first model of the PDP-10 had a “READ IN” button that, when pressed, reset the processor and started an I/O operation on a device specified by switches on the control panel, reading in a 36-bit word giving a target address and count for subsequent word reads; when the read completed, the processor started executing the code read in by jumping to the last word read in. A noteworthy variation of this is found on the Burroughs B1700 where there is neither a bootstrap ROM nor a hardwired IPL operation. Instead, after the system is reset it reads and executes opcodes sequentially from a tape drive mounted on the front panel; this sets up a boot loader in RAM which is then executed. However, since this makes few assumptions about the system it can equally well be used to load diagnostic (Maintenance Test Routine) tapes which display an intelligible code on the front panel even in cases of gross CPU failure. IBM System/360 and successors In the IBM System/360 and its successors, including the current z/Architecture machines, the boot process is known as Initial Program Load (IPL). IBM coined this term for the 7030 (Stretch), revived it for the design of the System/360, and continues to use it in those environments today. In the System/360 processors, an IPL is initiated by the computer operator by selecting the three hexadecimal digit device address (CUU; C=I/O Channel address, UU=Control unit and Device address) followed by pressing the LOAD button. On most System/370 and some later systems, the functions of the switches and the LOAD button are simulated using selectable areas on the screen of a graphics console, often an IBM 2250-like device or an IBM 3270-like device. For example, on the System/370 Model 158, the keyboard sequence 0-7-X (zero, seven and X, in that order) results in an IPL from the device address which was keyed into the input area. Amdahl 470V/6 and related CPUs supported four hexadecimal digits on those CPUs which had the optional second channel unit installed, for a total of 32 channels. Later, IBM would also support more than 16 channels. The IPL function in the System/360 and its successors, and its compatibles such as Amdahl’s, reads 24 bytes from an operator-specified device into main storage starting at real address zero. The second and third groups of eight bytes are treated as Channel Command Words (CCWs) to continue loading the startup program (the first CCW is always simulated by the CPU and consists of a Read IPL command, 02h, with command chaining and suppress incorrect length indication being enforced). When the I/O channel commands are complete, the first group of eight bytes is then loaded into the processor’s Program Status Word (PSW) and the startup program begins execution at the location designated by that PSW. The IPL device is usually a disk drive, hence the special significance of the 02h read-type command, but exactly the same procedure is also used to IPL from other input-type devices, such as tape drives, or even card readers, in a device-independent manner, allowing, for example, the installation of an operating system on a brand-new computer from an OS initial distribution magnetic tape. For disk controllers, the 02h command also causes the selected device to seek to cylinder 0000h, head 0000h, simulating a Seek cylinder and head command, 07h, and to search for record 01h, simulating a Search ID Equal command, 31h; seeks and searches are not simulated by tape and card controllers, as for these device classes an 02h command is simply a sequential read command, not a Read IPL command. The disk, tape or card deck must contain a special program to load the actual operating system into main storage, and for this specific purpose “IPL Text” is placed on the disk by the stand-alone DASDI (Direct Access Storage Device Initialization) program or an equivalent program running under an operating system, e.g., ICKDSF, but IPL-able tapes and card decks are usually distributed with this “IPL Text” already present. Minicomputers PDP-8/E front panel showing the switches used to load the bootstrap program. Minicomputers, starting with the Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) PDP-5 and PDP-8 (1965) simplified design by using the CPU to assist input and output operations. This saved cost but made booting more complicated than pressing a single button. Minicomputers typically had some way to toggle in short programs by manipulating an array of switches on the front panel. Since the early minicomputers used magnetic core memory, which did not lose its information when power was off, these bootstrap loaders would remain in place unless they were erased. Erasure sometimes happened accidentally when a program bug caused a loop that overwrote all of memory. Other minicomputers with such simple form of booting include Hewlett-Packard’s HP 2100 series (mid-1960s), the original Data General Nova (1969), and DEC’s PDP-11 (1970). DEC later added an optional diode matrix read-only memory for the PDP-11 that stored a bootstrap program of up to 32 words (64 bytes). It consisted of a printed circuit card, the M792, that plugged into the Unibus and held a 32 by 16 array of semiconductor diodes. With all 512 diodes in place, the memory contained all “one” bits; the card was programmed by cutting off each diode whose bit was to be “zero.” DEC also sold versions of the card, the BM792-Yx series, pre-programmed for many standard input devices by simply omitting the unneeded diodes. Following the older approach, the earlier PDP-1 has a hardware loader, such that an operator need only push the “load” switch to instruct the paper tapereader to load a program directly into core memory. The Data General Supernova used front panel switches to cause the computer to automatically load instructions into memory from a device specified by the front panel’s data switches, and then jump to loaded code; the Nova 800 and 1200 had a switch that loaded a program into main memory from a special read-only memory and jumped to it. Early minicomputer boot loader examples In a minicomputer with a paper tape reader, the first program to run in the boot process, the boot loader, would read into core memory either the second-stage boot loader (often called a Binary Loader) that could read paper tape with checksum or the operating system from an outside storage medium. Pseudocode for the boot loader might be as simple as the following eight instructions: 1. Set the P register to 9 2. Check paper tape reader ready 3. If not ready, jump to 2 4. Read a byte from paper tape reader to accumulator 5. Store accumulator to address in P register 6. If end of tape, jump to 9 7. Increment the P register 8. Jump to 2 A related example is based on a loader for a Nicolet Instrument Corporation minicomputer of the 1970s, using the paper tape reader-punch unit on a Teletype Model 33 ASR teleprinter. The bytes of its second-stage loader are read from paper tape in reverse order. 1. Set the P register to 106 2. Check paper tape reader ready 3. If not ready, jump to 2 4. Read a byte from paper tape reader to accumulator 5. Store accumulator to address in P register 6. Decrement the P register 7. Jump to 2 The length of the second stage loader is such that the final byte overwrites location 7. After the instruction in location 6 executes, location 7 starts the second stage loader executing. The second stage loader then waits for the much longer tape containing the operating system to be placed in the tape reader. The difference between the boot loader and second stage loader is the addition of checking code to trap paper tape read errors, a frequent occurrence with relatively low-cost, “part-time-duty” hardware, such as the Teletype Model 33 ASR. (Friden Flexowriters were far more reliable, but also comparatively costly.) Booting the first microcomputers The earliest microcomputers, such as the Altair 8800 and an even earlier, similar machine (based on the Intel 8008 CPU) had no bootstrapping hardware as such. When started, the CPU would see memory that would contain executable code containing only binary zeros—memory was cleared by resetting when powering up. The front panels of these machines carried toggle switches, one switch per bit of the computer memory word. Simple additions to the hardware permitted one memory location at a time to be loaded from those switches to store bootstrap code. Meanwhile, the CPU was kept from attempting to execute memory content. Once correctly loaded, the CPU was enabled to execute the bootstrapping code. This process was tedious and had to be error-free. Integrated circuit read-only memory era An Intel 2708 EPROM “chip” on a circuit board. The boot process was revolutionized by the introduction of integrated circuit read-only memory (ROM), with its many variants, including mask-programmed ROMs, programmable ROMs (PROM), erasable programmable ROMs(EPROM), and flash memory. These allowed firmware boot programs to be shipped installed on the computer. Typically, every microprocessor will, after a reset or power-on condition, perform a start-up process that usually takes the form of “begin execution of the code that is found starting at a specific address” or “look for a multibyte code at a specific address and jump to the indicated location to begin execution.” A system built using that microprocessor will have the permanent ROM occupying these special locations so that the system always begins operating without operator assistance. For example, Intel x86 processors always start by running the instructions beginning at FFFF:0000, while for the MOS 6502 processor, initialization begins by reading a two-byte vector address at \$FFFD (MS byte) and \$FFFC (LS byte) and jumping to that location to run the bootstrap code. Apple Inc.’s first computer, the Apple 1 introduced in 1976, featured PROM chips that eliminated the need for a front panel for the boot process. According to Apple’s ad announcing it “No More Switches, No More Lights … the firmware in PROMS enables you to enter, display and debug programs (all in hex) from the keyboard.” Due to the expense of read-only memory at the time, the Apple II series booted its disk operating systems using a series of very small incremental steps, each passing control onward to the next phase of the gradually more complex boot process. (See Apple DOS: Boot loader). Because so little of the disk operating system relied on ROM, the hardware was also extremely flexible and supported a wide range of customized disk copy protection mechanisms. (See Software Cracking: History.) Some operating systems, most notably pre-1995 Macintosh systems from Apple, are so closely interwoven with their hardware that it is impossible to natively boot an operating system other than the standard one. This is the opposite extreme of the scenario using switches mentioned above; it is highly inflexible but relatively error-proof and foolproof as long as all hardware is working normally. A common solution in such situations is to design a boot loader that works as a program belonging to the standard OS that hijacks the system and loads the alternative OS. This technique was used by Apple for its A/UX Unix implementation and copied by various freeware operating systems and BeOS Personal Edition 5. Some machines, like the Atari ST microcomputer, were “instant-on”, with the operating system executing from a ROM. Retrieval of the OS from secondary or tertiary store was thus eliminated as one of the characteristic operations for bootstrapping. To allow system customizations, accessories, and other support software to be loaded automatically, the Atari’s floppy drive was read for additional components during the boot process. There was a timeout delay that provided time to manually insert a floppy as the system searched for the extra components. This could be avoided by inserting a blank disk. The Atari ST hardware was also designed so the cartridge slot could provide native program execution for gaming purposes as a holdover from Atari’s legacy making electronic games; by inserting the Spectre GCR cartridge with the Macintosh system ROM in the game slot and turning the Atari on, it could “natively boot” the Macintosh operating system rather than Atari’s own TOS system. The IBM Personal Computer included ROM-based firmware called the BIOS; one of the functions of that firmware was to perform a power-on self test when the machine was powered up, and then to read software from a boot device and execute it. Firmware compatible with the BIOS on the IBM Personal Computer is used in IBM PC compatible computers. The Extensible Firmware Interface was developed by Intel, originally for Itanium-based machines, and later also used as an alternative to the BIOS in x86-based machines, including Apple Macs using Intel processors. Unix workstations originally had vendor-specific ROM-based firmware. Sun Microsystems later developed OpenBoot, later known as Open Firmware, which incorporated a Forth interpreter, with much of the firmware being written in Forth. It was standardized by the IEEE as IEEE standard 1275-1994; firmware that implements that standard was used in PowerPC-based Macs and some other PowerPC-based machines, as well as Sun’s own SPARC-based computers. The Advanced RISC Computing specification defined another firmware standard, which was implemented on some MIPS-based and Alpha-based machines and the SGI Visual Workstation x86-based workstations. Modern boot loaders When a computer is turned off, its software—​including operating systems, application code, and data—​remains stored on nonvolatile data storage devices such as hard disk drives, CDs, DVDs, flash memory cards (SD cards, for example), USB flash drives, and floppy disks. When the computer is powered on, it typically does not have an operating system or its loader in random access memory (RAM). The computer first executes a relatively small program stored inread-only memory (ROM) along with a small amount of needed data, to access the nonvolatile device or devices from which the operating system programs and data can be loaded into RAM. The small program that starts this sequence is known as a bootstrap loader, bootstrap or boot loader. This small program’s only job is to load other data and programs which are then executed from RAM. Often, multiple-stage boot loaders are used, during which several programs of increasing complexity load one after the other in a process of chain loading. Some computer systems, upon receiving a boot signal from a human operator or a peripheral device, may load a very small number of fixed instructions into memory at a specific location, initialize at least one CPU, and then point the CPU to the instructions and start their execution. These instructions typically start an input operation from some peripheral device (which may be switch-selectable by the operator). Other systems may send hardware commands directly to peripheral devices or I/O controllers that cause an extremely simple input operation (such as “read sector zero of the system device into memory starting at location 1000”) to be carried out, effectively loading a small number of boot loader instructions into memory; a completion signal from the I/O device may then be used to start execution of the instructions by the CPU. Smaller computers often use less flexible but more automatic boot loader mechanisms to ensure that the computer starts quickly and with a predetermined software configuration. In many desktop computers, for example, the bootstrapping process begins with the CPU executing software contained in ROM (for example, the BIOS of an IBM PC) at a predefined address (some CPUs, including the Intel x86 series are designed to execute this software after reset without outside help). This software contains rudimentary functionality to search for devices eligible to participate in booting, and load a small program from a special section (most commonly the boot sector) of the most promising device, typically starting at a fixed entry point such as the start of the sector. Boot loaders may face peculiar constraints, especially in size; for instance, on the IBM PC and compatibles, a boot sector should typically work in only 32 KB (later relaxed to 64 KB) of system memory and not use instructions not supported by the original 8088/8086 processors. The first stage of boot loaders located on fixed disks and removable drives must fit into the first 446 bytes of the Master Boot Record in order to leave room for the default 64-byte partition table with four partition entries and the two-byte boot signature, which the BIOS requires for a proper boot loader — or even less, when additional features like more than four partition entries (up to 16 with 16 bytes each), a disk signature (6 bytes), a disk timestamp (6 bytes), an Advanced Active Partition(18 bytes) or special multi-boot loaders have to be supported as well in some environments. In floppy and superfloppy Volume Boot Records, up to 59 bytes are occupied for the Extended BIOS Parameter Block on FAT12 and FAT16 volumes since DOS 4.0, whereas the FAT32 EBPB introduced with DOS 7.1 requires even 71 bytes, leaving only 441 bytes for the boot loader when assuming a sector size of 512 bytes. Microsoft boot sectors therefore traditionally imposed certain restrictions on the boot process, for example, the boot file had to be located at a fixed position in the root directory of the file system and stored as consecutive sectors, conditions taken care of by the `SYS` command and slightly relaxed in later versions of DOS. The boot loader was then able to load the first three sectors of the file into memory, which happened to contain another embedded boot loader able to load the remainder of the file into memory. When they added LBA and FAT32 support, they even switched to a two-sector boot loader using 386 instructions. At the same time other vendors managed to squeeze much more functionality into a single boot sector without relaxing the original constraints on the only minimal available memory and processor support. For example, DR-DOS boot sectors are able to locate the boot file in the FAT12, FAT16 and FAT32 file system, and load it into memory as a whole via CHS or LBA, even if the file is not stored in a fixed location and in consecutive sectors. Second-stage boot loader Second-stage boot loaders, such as GNU GRUB, BOOTMGR, Syslinux, NTLDR or BootX, are not themselves operating systems, but are able to load an operating system properly and transfer execution to it; the operating system subsequently initializes itself and may load extra device drivers. The second-stage boot loader does not need drivers for its own operation, but may instead use generic storage access methods provided by system firmware such as the BIOS or Open Firmware, though typically with restricted hardware functionality and lower performance. Many boot loaders (like GNU GRUB, Windows’s BOOTMGR, and Windows NT/2000/XP’s NTLDR) can be configured to give the user multiple booting choices. These choices can include different operating systems (for dual or multi-booting from different partitions or drives), different versions of the same operating system (in case a new version has unexpected problems), different operating system loading options (e.g., booting into a rescue or safe mode), and some standalone programs that can function without an operating system, such as memory testers (e.g., memtest86+) or even games (see List of PC Booter games). Some boot loaders can also load other boot loaders; for example, GRUB loads BOOTMGR instead of loading Windows directly. Usually a default choice is preselected with a time delay during which a user can press a key to change the choice; after this delay, the default choice is automatically run so normal booting can occur without interaction. The boot process can be considered complete when the computer is ready to interact with the user, or the operating system is capable of running system programs or application programs. Typical modern personal computers boot in about one minute, of which about 15 seconds are taken by a power-on self-test(POST) and a preliminary boot loader, and the rest by loading the operating system and other software. Time spent after the operating system loading can be considerably shortened to as little as 3 seconds[24] by bringing the system up with all cores at once, as with coreboot. Large servers may take several minutes to boot and start all their services. Many embedded systems must boot immediately. For example, waiting a minute for a digital television or a GPS navigation device to start is generally unacceptable. Therefore, such devices have software systems in ROM or flash memory so the device can begin functioning immediately; little or no loading is necessary, because the loading can be precomputed and stored on the ROM when the device is made. Large and complex systems may have boot procedures that proceed in multiple phases until finally the operating system and other programs are loaded and ready to execute. Because operating systems are designed as if they never start or stop, a boot loader might load the operating system, configure itself as a mere process within that system, and then irrevocably transfer control to the operating system. The boot loader then terminates normally as any other process would. Network booting Most computers are also capable of booting over a computer network. In this scenario, the operating system is stored on the disk of a server, and certain parts of it are transferred to the client using a simple protocol such as the Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP). After these parts have been transferred, the operating system takes over the control of the booting process. As with the second-stage boot loader, network booting begins by using generic network access methods provided by the network interface’s boot ROM, which typically contains a Preboot Execution Environment (PXE) image. No drivers are required, but the system functionality is limited until the operating system kernel and drivers are transferred and started. As a result, once the ROM-based booting has completed it is entirely possible to network boot into an operating system that itself does not have the ability to use the network interface. Personal computers (PC) Boot devices Windows To Go bootable flash drive, a Live USB example The boot device is the device from which the operating system is loaded. A modern PC BIOS supports booting from various devices, typically a local hard disk drive via the Master Boot Record (MBR) (and of several MS-DOS partitionson such a disk, or GPT through GRUB 2), an optical disc drive (using El Torito), a USB mass storage device (FTL-based flash drive, SD card, or multi-media card slot; hard disk drive, optical disc drive, etc.), or a network interface card (using PXE). Older, less common BIOS-bootable devices include floppy disk drives, SCSI devices, Zip drives, and LS-120 drives. Typically, the BIOS will allow the user to configure a boot order. If the boot order is set to “first, the DVD drive; second, the hard disk drive”, then the BIOS will try to boot from the DVD drive, and if this fails (e.g. because there is no DVD in the drive), it will try to boot from the local hard drive. For example, on a PC with Windows XP installed on the hard drive, the user could set the boot order to the one given above, and then insert a Linux Live CDin order to try out Linux without having to install an operating system onto the hard drive. This is an example of dual booting, in which the user chooses which operating system to start after the computer has performed its Power-on self-test (POST). In this example of dual booting, the user chooses by inserting or removing the CD from the computer, but it is more common to choose which operating system to boot by selecting from a BIOS or UEFI boot menu, by using the computer keyboard; the boot menu is typically entered by pressing Delete or F11 keys during the POST. Several devices are available that enable the user to quick-boot into what is usually a variant of Linux for various simple tasks such as Internet access; examples are Splashtop and Latitude ON. Boot sequence A hex dump of FreeBSD’s boot0 MBR Upon starting, an IBM-compatible personal computer’s x86 CPU executes, in real mode, the instruction located atreset vector (the physical memory address FFFF0h on 16-bit x86 processors and FFFFFFF0h on 32-bit and 64-bit x86 processors), usually pointing to the BIOS entry point inside the ROM. This memory location typically contains a jump instruction that transfers execution to the location of the BIOS start-up program. This program runs apower-on self-test (POST) to check and initialize required devices such as DRAM and the PCI bus (including running embedded ROMs). The most complicated step is setting up DRAM over SPI, made more difficult by the fact that at this point memory is very limited. After initializing required hardware, the BIOS goes through a pre-configured list of non-volatile storage devices (“boot device sequence”) until it finds one that is bootable. A bootable device is defined as one that can be read from, and where the last two bytes of the first sector contain the little-endian word AA55h, found as byte sequence 55h, AAh on disk (also known as the MBR boot signature), or where it is otherwise established that the code inside the sector is executable on x86 PCs. Coreboot splits the initialization and boot services into distinct parts, supporting “payloads” such as SeaBIOS,TianoCore, GRUB, and Linux directly (from flash). Once the BIOS has found a bootable device it loads the boot sector to linear address 7C00h (usually segment:offset0000h:7C00h, but some BIOSes erroneously use 07C0h:0000h) and transfers execution to the boot code. In the case of a hard disk, this is referred to as the Master Boot Record (MBR) and is by definition not operating-system specific. The conventional MBR code checks the MBR’s partition table for a partition set as bootable (the one with active flag set). If an active partition is found, the MBR code loads the boot sector code from that partition, known as Volume Boot Record (VBR), and executes it. The VBR is often operating-system specific; however, in most operating systems its main function is to load and execute the operating system kernel, which continues startup. If there is no active partition, or the active partition’s boot sector is invalid, the MBR may load a secondary boot loader which will select a partition (often via user input) and load its boot sector, which usually loads the corresponding operating system kernel. In some cases, the MBR may also attempt to load secondary boot loaders before trying to boot the active partition. If all else fails, it should issue an INT 18h BIOS interrupt call (followed by an INT 19h just in case INT 18h would return) in order to give back control to the BIOS, which would then attempt to boot off other devices, attempt a remote boot via network or invoke ROM BASIC. Some systems (particularly newer Macintoshes and new editions of Microsoft Windows) use Intel’s EFI. Also coreboot allows a computer to boot without having the firmware/BIOS constantly running in system management mode. 16-bit BIOS interfaces are required by certain x86 operating systems, such as DOS and Windows 3.1/95/98 (and all when not booted via UEFI). However, most boot loaders retain 16-bit BIOS call support. Other kinds of boot sequences An unlocked Android bootloader, showing additional available options Some modern CPUs and microcontrollers (for example, TI OMAP) or sometimes even DSPs may have boot ROM with boot code integrated directly into their silicon, so such a processor could perform quite a sophisticated boot sequence on its own and load boot programs from various sources like NAND flash, SD or MMC card and so on. It is hard to hardwire all the required logic for handling such devices, so an integrated boot ROM is used instead in such scenarios. Boot ROM usage enables more flexible boot sequences than hardwired logic could provide. For example, the boot ROM could try to perform boot from multiple boot sources. Also, a boot ROM is often able to load a boot loader or diagnostic program via serial interfaces like UART, SPI, USB and so on. This feature is often used for system recovery purposes when for some reasons usual boot software in non-volatile memory got erased, and it could also be used for initial non-volatile memory programming when there is clean non-volatile memory installed and hence no software available in the system yet. Some embedded system designs may also include an intermediary boot sequence step in form of additional code that gets loaded into system RAM by the integrated boot ROM. Additional code loaded that way usually serves as a way for overcoming platform limitations, such as small amounts of RAM, so a dedicated primary boot loader, such as Das U-Boot, can be loaded as the next step in system’s boot sequence. The additional code and boot sequence step are usually referred to as secondary program loader (SPL). It is also possible to take control of a system by using a hardware debug interface such as JTAG. Such an interface may be used to write the boot loader program into bootable non-volatile memory (e.g. flash) by instructing the processor core to perform the necessary actions to program non-volatile memory. Alternatively, the debug interface may be used to upload some diagnostic or boot code into RAM, and then to start the processor core and instruct it to execute the uploaded code. This allows, for example, the recovery of embedded systems where no software remains on any supported boot device, and where the processor does not have any integrated boot ROM. JTAG is a standard and popular interface; many CPUs, microcontrollers and other devices are manufactured with JTAG interfaces (as of 2009). Some microcontrollers provide special hardware interfaces which cannot be used to take arbitrary control of a system or directly run code, but instead they allow the insertion of boot code into bootable non-volatile memory (like flash memory) via simple protocols. Then at the manufacturing phase, such interfaces are used to inject boot code (and possibly other code) into non-volatile memory. After system reset, the microcontroller begins to execute code programmed into its non-volatile memory, just like usual processors are using ROMs for booting. Most notably this technique is used by Atmel AVR microcontrollers, and by others as well. In many cases such interfaces are implemented by hardwired logic. In other cases such interfaces could be created by software running in integrated on-chip boot ROM from GPIO pins. Most digital signal processors have a serial mode boot, and a parallel mode boot, such as the host port interface (HPI boot) In case of DSPs there is often a second microprocessor or microcontroller present in the system design, and this is responsible for overall system behavior, interrupt handling, dealing with external events, user interface, etc. while the DSP is dedicated to signal processing tasks only. In such systems the DSP could be booted by another processor which is sometimes referred as the host processor (giving name to a Host Port). Such a processor is also sometimes referred as the master, since it usually boots first from its own memories and then controls overall system behavior, including booting of the DSP, and then further controlling the DSP’s behavior. The DSP often lacks its own boot memories and relies on the host processor to supply the required code instead. The most notable systems with such a design are cell phones, modems, audio and video players and so on, where a DSP and a CPU/microcontroller are co-existing. Many FPGA chips load their configuration from an external serial EEPROM (“configuration ROM”) on power-up. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction An operating system (OS) is software that manages computer hardware and software resources and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system is an essential component of the system software in a computer system. Application programs usually require an operating system to function. Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources. For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary between programs and the computer hardware, although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and frequently makes system calls to an OS function or be interrupted by it. Operating systems are found on many devices that contain a computer—from cellular phones and video game consoles to web servers and supercomputers. Examples of popular modern operating systems include Android, BlackBerry, BSD, Chrome OS, iOS, Linux, OS X, QNX, Microsoft Windows, Windows Phone, and z/OS. The first eight of these examples share roots inUNIX. Popular hard real-time operating systems include FreeRTOS, Micrium and VxWorks. Types of operating systems Single- and multi-tasking A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time, while a multi-tasking operating system allows more than one program to be running in concurrency. This is achieved by time-sharing, dividing the available processor time between multiple processes which are each interrupted repeatedly in time-slices by a task scheduling subsystem of the operating system. Multi-tasking may be characterized in pre-emptive and co-operative types. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates a slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems, e.g., Solaris, Linux, as well as AmigaOS support pre-emptive multitasking. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to provide time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking. 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used pre-emptive multi-tasking. Single- and multi-user Single-user operating systems have no facilities to distinguish users, but may allow multiple programs to run in tandem. A multi-user operating system extends the basic concept of multi-tasking with facilities that identify processes and resources, such as disk space, belonging to multiple users, and the system permits multiple users to interact with the system at the same time. Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting software for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources to multiple users. Distributed A distributed operating system manages a group of distinct computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they form a distributed system. Templated In an OS, distributed and cloud computing context, templating refers to creating a single virtual machine image as a guest operating system, then saving it as a tool for multiple running virtual machines (Gagne, 2012, p. 716). The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is common in large server warehouses. Embedded Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems. Real-time A real-time operating system is an operating system that guaranties to process events or data within a certain short amount of time. A real-time operating system may be single- or multi-tasking, but when multitasking, it uses specialized scheduling algorithms so that a deterministic nature of behavior is achieved. An event-driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts. History Early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could automatically run different programs in succession to speed up processing. Operating systems did not exist in their modern and more complex forms until the early 1960s. Hardware features were added, that enabled use of runtime libraries, interrupts, and parallel processing. When personal computers became popular in the 1980s, operating systems were made for them similar in concept to those used on larger computers. In the 1940s, the earliest electronic digital systems had no operating systems. Electronic systems of this time were programmed on rows of mechanical switches or by jumper wires on plug boards. These were special-purpose systems that, for example, generated ballistics tables for the military or controlled the printing of payroll checks from data on punched paper cards. After programmable general purpose computers were invented, machine languages (consisting of strings of the binary digits 0 and 1 on punched paper tape) were introduced that sped up the programming process (Stern, 1981). OS/360 was used on most IBM mainframe computers beginning in 1966, including computers used by the Apollo program. In the early 1950s, a computer could execute only one program at a time. Each user had sole use of the computer for a limited period of time and would arrive at a scheduled time with program and data on punched paper cards and/or punched tape. The program would be loaded into the machine, and the machine would be set to work until the program completed or crashed. Programs could generally be debugged via a front panel using toggle switches and panel lights. It is said that Alan Turing was a master of this on the early Manchester Mark 1 machine, and he was already deriving the primitive conception of an operating system from the principles of the Universal Turing machine. Later machines came with libraries of programs, which would be linked to a user’s program to assist in operations such as input and output and generating computer code from human-readable symbolic code. This was the genesis of the modern-day operating system. However, machines still ran a single job at a time. At Cambridge University in England the job queue was at one time a washing line from which tapes were hung with different colored clothes-pegs to indicate job-priority. An improvement was the Atlas Supervisor introduced with the Manchester Atlas commissioned in 1962, ‘considered by many to be the first recognizable modern operating system’. Brinch Hansen described it as “the most significant breakthrough in the history of operating systems.” Mainframes Through the 1950s, many major features were pioneered in the field of operating systems, including batch processing, input/output interrupt, buffering,multitasking, spooling, runtime libraries, link-loading, and programs for sorting records in files. These features were included or not included in application software at the option of application programmers, rather than in a separate operating system used by all applications. In 1959, the SHARE Operating System was released as an integrated utility for the IBM 704, and later in the 709 and 7090 mainframes, although it was quickly supplanted by IBSYS/IBJOB on the 709, 7090 and 7094. During the 1960s, IBM’s OS/360 introduced the concept of a single OS spanning an entire product line, which was crucial for the success of the System/360 machines. IBM’s current mainframe operating systems are distant descendants of this original system and applications written for OS/360 can still be run on modern machines. OS/360 also pioneered the concept that the operating system keeps track of all of the system resources that are used, including program and data space allocation in main memory and file space in secondary storage, and file locking during update. When the process is terminated for any reason, all of these resources are re-claimed by the operating system. The alternative CP-67 system for the S/360-67 started a whole line of IBM operating systems focused on the concept of virtual machines. Other operating systems used on IBM S/360 series mainframes included systems developed by IBM: COS/360 (Compatibility Operating System), DOS/360 (Disk Operating System), TSS/360 (Time Sharing System), TOS/360 (Tape Operating System), BOS/360 (Basic Operating System), and ACP (Airline Control Program), as well as a few non-IBM systems: MTS (Michigan Terminal System), MUSIC (Multi-User System for Interactive Computing), and ORVYL (Stanford Timesharing System). Control Data Corporation developed the SCOPE operating system in the 1960s, for batch processing. In cooperation with the University of Minnesota, the Kronos and later the NOS operating systems were developed during the 1970s, which supported simultaneous batch and timesharing use. Like many commercial timesharing systems, its interface was an extension of the Dartmouth BASIC operating systems, one of the pioneering efforts in timesharing and programming languages. In the late 1970s, Control Data and the University of Illinois developed the PLATO operating system, which used plasma panel displays and long-distance time sharing networks. Plato was remarkably innovative for its time, featuring real-time chat, and multi-user graphical games. In 1961, Burroughs Corporation introduced the B5000 with the MCP, (Master Control Program) operating system. The B5000 was a stack machine designed to exclusively support high-level languages with no machine language or assembler, and indeed the MCP was the first OS to be written exclusively in a high-level language – ESPOL, a dialect of ALGOL. MCP also introduced many other ground-breaking innovations, such as being the first commercial implementation of virtual memory. During development of the AS400, IBM made an approach to Burroughs to license MCP to run on the AS400 hardware. This proposal was declined by Burroughs management to protect its existing hardware production. MCP is still in use today in the Unisys ClearPath/MCP line of computers. UNIVAC, the first commercial computer manufacturer, produced a series of EXEC operating systems. Like all early main-frame systems, this batch-oriented system managed magnetic drums, disks, card readers and line printers. In the 1970s, UNIVAC produced the Real-Time Basic (RTB) system to support large-scale time sharing, also patterned after the Dartmouth BC system. General Electric and MIT developed General Electric Comprehensive Operating Supervisor (GECOS), which introduced the concept of ringed security privilege levels. After acquisition by Honeywell it was renamed General Comprehensive Operating System (GCOS). Digital Equipment Corporation developed many operating systems for its various computer lines, including TOPS-10 and TOPS-20 time sharing systems for the 36-bit PDP-10 class systems. Before the widespread use of UNIX, TOPS-10 was a particularly popular system in universities, and in the early ARPANET community. From the late 1960s through the late 1970s, several hardware capabilities evolved that allowed similar or ported software to run on more than one system. Early systems had utilized microprogramming to implement features on their systems in order to permit different underlying computer architectures to appear to be the same as others in a series. In fact, most 360s after the 360/40 (except the 360/165 and 360/168) were microprogrammed implementations. The enormous investment in software for these systems made since the 1960s caused most of the original computer manufacturers to continue to develop compatible operating systems along with the hardware. Notable supported mainframe operating systems include: • Burroughs MCP – B5000, 1961 to Unisys Clearpath/MCP, present • IBM OS/360 – IBM System/360, 1966 to IBM z/OS, present • IBM CP-67 – IBM System/360, 1967 to IBM z/VM • UNIVAC EXEC 8 – UNIVAC 1108, 1967, to OS 2200 Unisys Clearpath Dorado, present Microcomputers PC DOS was an early personal computer OS that featured a command line interface. Mac OS by Apple Computer became the first widespread OS to feature a graphical user interface. Many of its features such as windows and icons would later become commonplace in GUIs. The first microcomputers did not have the capacity or need for the elaborate operating systems that had been developed for mainframes and minis; minimalistic operating systems were developed, often loaded from ROM and known as monitors. One notable early disk operating system was CP/M, which was supported on many early microcomputers and was closely imitated by Microsoft’s MS-DOS, which became widely popular as the operating system chosen for the IBM PC (IBM’s version of it was called IBM DOS or PC DOS). In the 1980s, Apple Computer Inc. (now Apple Inc.) abandoned its popular Apple II series of microcomputers to introduce theApple Macintosh computer with an innovative Graphical User Interface (GUI) to the Mac OS. The introduction of the Intel 80386 CPU chip with 32-bit architecture and paging capabilities, provided personal computers with the ability to run multitasking operating systems like those of earlier minicomputers and mainframes. Microsoft responded to this progress by hiring Dave Cutler, who had developed the VMS operating system for Digital Equipment Corporation. He would lead the development of the Windows NT operating system, which continues to serve as the basis for Microsoft’s operating systems line. Steve Jobs, a co-founder of Apple Inc., started NeXT Computer Inc., which developed the NEXTSTEP operating system. NEXTSTEP would later be acquired by Apple Inc. and used, along with code from FreeBSD as the core of Mac OS X. The GNU Project was started by activist and programmer Richard Stallman with the goal of creating a complete free software replacement to the proprietary UNIX operating system. While the project was highly successful in duplicating the functionality of various parts of UNIX, development of the GNU Hurd kernel proved to be unproductive. In 1991, Finnish computer science student Linus Torvalds, with cooperation from volunteers collaborating over the Internet, released the first version of the Linux kernel. It was soon merged with the GNU user space components and system software to form a complete operating system. Since then, the combination of the two major components has usually been referred to as simply “Linux” by the software industry, a naming convention that Stallman and the Free Software Foundation remain opposed to, preferring the name GNU/Linux. The Berkeley Software Distribution, known as BSD, is the UNIX derivative distributed by the University of California, Berkeley, starting in the 1970s. Freely distributed and ported to many minicomputers, it eventually also gained a following for use on PCs, mainly as FreeBSD, NetBSD and OpenBSD. Examples of operating systems Unix and Unix-like operating systems Evolution of Unix systems Unix was originally written in assembly language. Ken Thompson wrote B, mainly based on BCPL, based on his experience in the MULTICS project. B was replaced by C, and Unix, rewritten in C, developed into a large, complex family of inter-related operating systems which have been influential in every modern operating system (see History). The Unix-like family is a diverse group of operating systems, with several major sub-categories including System V, BSD, and Linux. The name “UNIX” is a trademark of The Open Group which licenses it for use with any operating system that has been shown to conform to their definitions. “UNIX-like” is commonly used to refer to the large set of operating systems which resemble the original UNIX. Unix-like systems run on a wide variety of computer architectures. They are used heavily for servers in business, as well as workstations in academic and engineering environments. Free UNIX variants, such as Linux and BSD, are popular in these areas. Four operating systems are certified by The Open Group (holder of the Unix trademark) as Unix. HP’s HP-UX and IBM’s AIX are both descendants of the original System V Unix and are designed to run only on their respective vendor’s hardware. In contrast, Sun Microsystems’s Solaris Operating System can run on multiple types of hardware, including x86 and Sparc servers, and PCs. Apple’s OS X, a replacement for Apple’s earlier (non-Unix) Mac OS, is a hybrid kernel-based BSD variant derived from NeXTSTEP, Mach, and FreeBSD. Unix interoperability was sought by establishing the POSIX standard. The POSIX standard can be applied to any operating system, although it was originally created for various Unix variants. BSD and its descendants The first server for the World Wide Webran on NeXTSTEP, based on BSD A subgroup of the Unix family is the Berkeley Software Distribution family, which includes FreeBSD, NetBSD, and OpenBSD. These operating systems are most commonly found on webservers, although they can also function as a personal computer OS. The Internet owes much of its existence to BSD, as many of the protocols now commonly used by computers to connect, send and receive data over a network were widely implemented and refined in BSD. The World Wide Web was also first demonstrated on a number of computers running an OS based on BSD called NextStep. BSD has its roots in Unix. In 1974, University of California, Berkeley installed its first Unix system. Over time, students and staff in the computer science department there began adding new programs to make things easier, such as text editors. When Berkeley received new VAX computers in 1978 with Unix installed, the school’s undergraduates modified Unix even more in order to take advantage of the computer’s hardware possibilities. The Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency of the US Department of Defense took interest, and decided to fund the project. Many schools, corporations, and government organizations took notice and started to use Berkeley’s version of Unix instead of the official one distributed by AT&T. Steve Jobs, upon leaving Apple Inc. in 1985, formed NeXT Inc., a company that manufactured high-end computers running on a variation of BSD calledNeXTSTEP. One of these computers was used by Tim Berners-Lee as the first webserver to create the World Wide Web. Developers like Keith Bostic encouraged the project to replace any non-free code that originated with Bell Labs. Once this was done, however, AT&T sued. Eventually, after two years of legal disputes, the BSD project came out ahead and spawned a number of free derivatives, such as FreeBSD and NetBSD. OS X The standard user interface of OS X OS X (formerly “Mac OS X”) is a line of open core graphical operating systems developed, marketed, and sold by Apple Inc., the latest of which is pre-loaded on all currently shipping Macintosh computers. OS X is the successor to the original Mac OS, which had been Apple’s primary operating system since 1984. Unlike its predecessor, OS X is a UNIX operating system built on technology that had been developed at NeXT through the second half of the 1980s and up until Apple purchased the company in early 1997. The operating system was first released in 1999 as Mac OS X Server 1.0, with a desktop-oriented version (Mac OS X v10.0 “Cheetah”) following in March 2001. Since then, six more distinct “client” and “server” editions of OS X have been released, until the two were merged in OS X 10.7 “Lion”. Releases of OS X v10.0 through v10.8 are named after big cats. Starting with v10.9, “Mavericks”, OS X versions are named after inspirational places inCalifornia. OS X 10.10 “Yosemite”, the most recent version, was announced and released on 2 June 2014 at the WWDC 2014. Prior to its merging with OS X, the server edition – OS X Server – was architecturally identical to its desktop counterpart and usually ran on Apple’s line of Macintosh server hardware. OS X Server included work group management and administration software tools that provide simplified access to key network services, including a mail transfer agent, a Samba server, an LDAP server, a domain name server, and others. With Mac OS X v10.7 Lion, all server aspects of Mac OS X Server have been integrated into the client version and the product re-branded as “OS X” (dropping “Mac” from the name). The server tools are now offered as an application. Linux Ubuntu, desktop Linux distribution Android, a popular mobile operating system using a modified version of the Linux kernel The Linux kernel originated in 1991 as a side project of Linus Torvalds, while a university student in Finland. He posted information about his project on a newsgroup for computer students and programmers, and received support and assistance from volunteers who succeeded in creating a complete and functional kernel. Linux is Unix-like, but was developed without any Unix code, unlike BSD and its variants. Because of its open license model, the Linux kernel code is available for study and modification, which resulted in its use on a wide range of computing machinery from supercomputers to smart-watches. Although estimates suggest that Linux is used on only 1.82% of all personal computers, it has been widely adopted for use in servers and embedded systems such as cell phones. Linux has superseded Unix on many platforms and is used on the ten most powerful supercomputers in the world. The Linux kernel is used in some popular distributions, such as Red Hat, Debian, Ubuntu, Linux Mint and Google’s Android. Google Chromium OS Chromium is an operating system based on the Linux kernel and designed by Google. Since Chromium OS targets computer users who spend most of their time on the Internet, it is mainly a web browser with limited ability to run local applications, though it has a built-in file manager and media player. Instead, it relies on Internet applications (or Web apps) used in the web browser to accomplish tasks such as word processing. Chromium OS differs from Chrome OS in that Chromium is open-source and used primarily by developers whereas Chrome OS is the operating system shipped out in Chromebooks. Microsoft Windows Microsoft Windows is a family of proprietary operating systems designed by Microsoft Corporation and primarily targeted to Intel architecture based computers, with an estimated 88.9 percent total usage share on Web connected computers. The newest version is Windows 8.1 for workstations andWindows Server 2012 R2 for servers. Windows 7 recently overtook Windows XP as most used OS. Microsoft Windows originated in 1985, as an operating environment running on top of MS-DOS, which was the standard operating system shipped on most Intel architecture personal computers at the time. In 1995, Windows 95 was released which only used MS-DOS as a bootstrap. For backwards compatibility, Win9x could run real-mode MS-DOS and 16 bits Windows 3.x drivers. Windows ME, released in 2000, was the last version in the Win9x family. Later versions have all been based on the Windows NT kernel. Current client versions of Windows run on IA-32, x86-64 and 32-bit ARM microprocessors. In addition Itanium is still supported in older server version Windows Server 2008 R2. In the past, Windows NT supported additional architectures. Server editions of Windows are widely used. In recent years, Microsoft has expended significant capital in an effort to promote the use of Windows as a server operating system. However, Windows’ usage on servers is not as widespread as on personal computers, as Windows competes against Linux and BSD for server market share. The first PC that used windows operating system was the IBM Personal System/2. Other There have been many operating systems that were significant in their day but are no longer so, such as AmigaOS; OS/2 from IBM and Microsoft; Mac OS, the non-Unix precursor to Apple’s Mac OS X; BeOS; XTS-300; RISC OS; MorphOS; Haiku; BareMetal and FreeMint. Some are still used in niche markets and continue to be developed as minority platforms for enthusiast communities and specialist applications. OpenVMS, formerly from DEC, is still under active development by Hewlett-Packard. Yet other operating systems are used almost exclusively in academia, for operating systems education or to do research on operating system concepts. A typical example of a system that fulfills both roles is MINIX, while for example Singularity is used purely for research. Other operating systems have failed to win significant market share, but have introduced innovations that have influenced mainstream operating systems, not least Bell Labs’ Plan 9. Components The components of an operating system all exist in order to make the different parts of a computer work together. All user software needs to go through the operating system in order to use any of the hardware, whether it be as simple as a mouse or keyboard or as complex as an Internet component. Kernel A kernel connects the application software to the hardware of a computer. With the aid of the firmware and device drivers, the kernel provides the most basic level of control over all of the computer’s hardware devices. It manages memory access for programs in the RAM, it determines which programs get access to which hardware resources, it sets up or resets the CPU’s operating states for optimal operation at all times, and it organizes the data for long-term non-volatile storage with file systems on such media as disks, tapes, flash memory, etc. Program execution The operating system provides an interface between an application program and the computer hardware, so that an application program can interact with the hardware only by obeying rules and procedures programmed into the operating system. The operating system is also a set of services which simplify development and execution of application programs. Executing an application program involves the creation of a process by the operating system kernel which assigns memory space and other resources, establishes a priority for the process in multi-tasking systems, loads program binary code into memory, and initiates execution of the application program which then interacts with the user and with hardware devices. Interrupts Interrupts are central to operating systems, as they provide an efficient way for the operating system to interact with and react to its environment. The alternative — having the operating system “watch” the various sources of input for events (polling) that require action — can be found in older systems with very small stacks (50 or 60 bytes) but is unusual in modern systems with large stacks. Interrupt-based programming is directly supported by most modern CPUs. Interrupts provide a computer with a way of automatically saving local register contexts, and running specific code in response to events. Even very basic computers support hardware interrupts, and allow the programmer to specify code which may be run when that event takes place. When an interrupt is received, the computer’s hardware automatically suspends whatever program is currently running, saves its status, and runs computer code previously associated with the interrupt; this is analogous to placing a bookmark in a book in response to a phone call. In modern operating systems, interrupts are handled by the operating system’s kernel. Interrupts may come from either the computer’s hardware or the running program. When a hardware device triggers an interrupt, the operating system’s kernel decides how to deal with this event, generally by running some processing code. The amount of code being run depends on the priority of the interrupt (for example: a person usually responds to a smoke detector alarm before answering the phone). The processing of hardware interrupts is a task that is usually delegated to software called a device driver, which may be part of the operating system’s kernel, part of another program, or both. Device drivers may then relay information to a running program by various means. A program may also trigger an interrupt to the operating system. If a program wishes to access hardware, for example, it may interrupt the operating system’s kernel, which causes control to be passed back to the kernel. The kernel then processes the request. If a program wishes additional resources (or wishes to shed resources) such as memory, it triggers an interrupt to get the kernel’s attention. Modes Privilege rings for the x86 available in protected mode. Operating systems determine which processes run in each mode. Modern CPUs support multiple modes of operation. CPUs with this capability use at least two modes:protected mode and supervisor mode. The supervisor mode is used by the operating system’s kernel for low level tasks that need unrestricted access to hardware, such as controlling how memory is written and erased, and communication with devices like graphics cards. Protected mode, in contrast, is used for almost everything else. Applications operate within protected mode, and can only use hardware by communicating with the kernel, which controls everything in supervisor mode. CPUs might have other modes similar to protected mode as well, such as the virtual modes in order to emulate older processor types, such as 16-bit processors on a 32-bit one, or 32-bit processors on a 64-bit one. When a computer first starts up, it is automatically running in supervisor mode. The first few programs to run on the computer, being the BIOS or EFI, bootloader, and the operating system have unlimited access to hardware – and this is required because, by definition, initializing a protected environment can only be done outside of one. However, when the operating system passes control to another program, it can place the CPU into protected mode. In protected mode, programs may have access to a more limited set of the CPU’s instructions. A user program may leave protected mode only by triggering an interrupt, causing control to be passed back to the kernel. In this way the operating system can maintain exclusive control over things like access to hardware and memory. The term “protected mode resource” generally refers to one or more CPU registers, which contain information that the running program isn’t allowed to alter. Attempts to alter these resources generally causes a switch to supervisor mode, where the operating system can deal with the illegal operation the program was attempting (for example, by killing the program). Memory management Among other things, a multiprogramming operating system kernel must be responsible for managing all system memory which is currently in use by programs. This ensures that a program does not interfere with memory already in use by another program. Since programs time share, each program must have independent access to memory. Cooperative memory management, used by many early operating systems, assumes that all programs make voluntary use of the kernel’s memory manager, and do not exceed their allocated memory. This system of memory management is almost never seen any more, since programs often contain bugs which can cause them to exceed their allocated memory. If a program fails, it may cause memory used by one or more other programs to be affected or overwritten. Malicious programs or viruses may purposefully alter another program’s memory, or may affect the operation of the operating system itself. With cooperative memory management, it takes only one misbehaved program to crash the system. Memory protection enables the kernel to limit a process’ access to the computer’s memory. Various methods of memory protection exist, including memory segmentation and paging. All methods require some level of hardware support (such as the 80286 MMU), which doesn’t exist in all computers. In both segmentation and paging, certain protected mode registers specify to the CPU what memory address it should allow a running program to access. Attempts to access other addresses trigger an interrupt which cause the CPU to re-enter supervisor mode, placing the kernel in charge. This is called asegmentation violation or Seg-V for short, and since it is both difficult to assign a meaningful result to such an operation, and because it is usually a sign of a misbehaving program, the kernel generally resorts to terminating the offending program, and reports the error. Windows versions 3.1 through ME had some level of memory protection, but programs could easily circumvent the need to use it. A general protection fault would be produced, indicating a segmentation violation had occurred; however, the system would often crash anyway. Virtual memory Many operating systems can “trick” programs into using memory scattered around the hard disk and RAM as if it is one continuous chunk of memory, called virtual memory. The use of virtual memory addressing (such as paging or segmentation) means that the kernel can choose what memory each program may use at any given time, allowing the operating system to use the same memory locations for multiple tasks. If a program tries to access memory that isn’t in its current range of accessible memory, but nonetheless has been allocated to it, the kernel is interrupted in the same way as it would if the program were to exceed its allocated memory. (See section on memory management.) Under UNIX this kind of interrupt is referred to as a page fault. When the kernel detects a page fault it generally adjusts the virtual memory range of the program which triggered it, granting it access to the memory requested. This gives the kernel discretionary power over where a particular application’s memory is stored, or even whether or not it has actually been allocated yet. In modern operating systems, memory which is accessed less frequently can be temporarily stored on disk or other media to make that space available for use by other programs. This is called swapping, as an area of memory can be used by multiple programs, and what that memory area contains can be swapped or exchanged on demand. “Virtual memory” provides the programmer or the user with the perception that there is a much larger amount of RAM in the computer than is really there. Multitasking Multitasking refers to the running of multiple independent computer programs on the same computer; giving the appearance that it is performing the tasks at the same time. Since most computers can do at most one or two things at one time, this is generally done via time-sharing, which means that each program uses a share of the computer’s time to execute. An operating system kernel contains a scheduling program which determines how much time each process spends executing, and in which order execution control should be passed to programs. Control is passed to a process by the kernel, which allows the program access to the CPU and memory. Later, control is returned to the kernel through some mechanism, so that another program may be allowed to use the CPU. This so-called passing of control between the kernel and applications is called a context switch. An early model which governed the allocation of time to programs was called cooperative multitasking. In this model, when control is passed to a program by the kernel, it may execute for as long as it wants before explicitly returning control to the kernel. This means that a malicious or malfunctioning program may not only prevent any other programs from using the CPU, but it can hang the entire system if it enters an infinite loop. Modern operating systems extend the concepts of application preemption to device drivers and kernel code, so that the operating system has preemptive control over internal run-times as well. The philosophy governing preemptive multitasking is that of ensuring that all programs are given regular time on the CPU. This implies that all programs must be limited in how much time they are allowed to spend on the CPU without being interrupted. To accomplish this, modern operating system kernels make use of a timed interrupt. A protected mode timer is set by the kernel which triggers a return to supervisor mode after the specified time has elapsed. (See above sections on Interrupts and Dual Mode Operation.) On many single user operating systems cooperative multitasking is perfectly adequate, as home computers generally run a small number of well tested programs. The AmigaOS is an exception, having pre-emptive multitasking from its very first version. Windows NT was the first version of Microsoft Windows which enforced preemptive multitasking, but it didn’t reach the home user market until Windows XP (since Windows NT was targeted at professionals). Disk access and file systems Filesystems allow users and programs to organize and sort files on a computer, often through the use of directories (or “folders”) Access to data stored on disks is a central feature of all operating systems. Computers store data on disks using files, which are structured in specific ways in order to allow for faster access, higher reliability, and to make better use out of the drive’s available space. The specific way in which files are stored on a disk is called a file system, and enables files to have names and attributes. It also allows them to be stored in a hierarchy of directories or folders arranged in a directory tree. Early operating systems generally supported a single type of disk drive and only one kind of file system. Early file systems were limited in their capacity, speed, and in the kinds of file names and directory structures they could use. These limitations often reflected limitations in the operating systems they were designed for, making it very difficult for an operating system to support more than one file system. While many simpler operating systems support a limited range of options for accessing storage systems, operating systems like UNIX and Linux support a technology known as a virtual file system or VFS. An operating system such as UNIX supports a wide array of storage devices, regardless of their design or file systems, allowing them to be accessed through a common application programming interface (API). This makes it unnecessary for programs to have any knowledge about the device they are accessing. A VFS allows the operating system to provide programs with access to an unlimited number of devices with an infinite variety of file systems installed on them, through the use of specific device drivers and file system drivers. A connected storage device, such as a hard drive, is accessed through a device driver. The device driver understands the specific language of the drive and is able to translate that language into a standard language used by the operating system to access all disk drives. On UNIX, this is the language of block devices. When the kernel has an appropriate device driver in place, it can then access the contents of the disk drive in raw format, which may contain one or more file systems. A file system driver is used to translate the commands used to access each specific file system into a standard set of commands that the operating system can use to talk to all file systems. Programs can then deal with these file systems on the basis of filenames, and directories/folders, contained within a hierarchical structure. They can create, delete, open, and close files, as well as gather various information about them, including access permissions, size, free space, and creation and modification dates. Various differences between file systems make supporting all file systems difficult. Allowed characters in file names, case sensitivity, and the presence of various kinds of file attributes makes the implementation of a single interface for every file system a daunting task. Operating systems tend to recommend using (and so support natively) file systems specifically designed for them; for example, NTFS in Windows and ext3 and ReiserFS in Linux. However, in practice, third party drives are usually available to give support for the most widely used file systems in most general-purpose operating systems (for example, NTFS is available in Linux through NTFS-3g, and ext2/3 and ReiserFS are available in Windows through third-party software). Support for file systems is highly varied among modern operating systems, although there are several common file systems which almost all operating systems include support and drivers for. Operating systems vary on file system support and on the disk formats they may be installed on. Under Windows, each file system is usually limited in application to certain media; for example, CDs must use ISO 9660 or UDF, and as of Windows Vista, NTFS is the only file system which the operating system can be installed on. It is possible to install Linux onto many types of file systems. Unlike other operating systems, Linux and UNIX allow any file system to be used regardless of the media it is stored in, whether it is a hard drive, a disc (CD, DVD…), a USB flash drive, or even contained within a file located on another file system. Device drivers A device driver is a specific type of computer software developed to allow interaction with hardware devices. Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating with the device, through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the hardware is connected to, providing commands to and/or receiving data from the device, and on the other end, the requisite interfaces to the operating system and software applications. It is a specialized hardware-dependent computer program which is also operating system specific that enables another program, typically an operating system or applications software package or computer program running under the operating system kernel, to interact transparently with a hardware device, and usually provides the requisite interrupt handling necessary for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interfacing needs. The key design goal of device drivers is abstraction. Every model of hardware (even within the same class of device) is different. Newer models also are released by manufacturers that provide more reliable or better performance and these newer models are often controlled differently. Computers and their operating systems cannot be expected to know how to control every device, both now and in the future. To solve this problem, operating systems essentially dictate how every type of device should be controlled. The function of the device driver is then to translate these operating system mandated function calls into device specific calls. In theory a new device, which is controlled in a new manner, should function correctly if a suitable driver is available. This new driver ensures that the device appears to operate as usual from the operating system’s point of view. Under versions of Windows before Vista and versions of Linux before 2.6, all driver execution was co-operative, meaning that if a driver entered an infinite loop it would freeze the system. More recent revisions of these operating systems incorporate kernel preemption, where the kernel interrupts the driver to give it tasks, and then separates itself from the process until it receives a response from the device driver, or gives it more tasks to do. Networking Currently most operating systems support a variety of networking protocols, hardware, and applications for using them. This means that computers running dissimilar operating systems can participate in a common network for sharing resources such as computing, files, printers, and scanners using either wired or wireless connections. Networks can essentially allow a computer’s operating system to access the resources of a remote computer to support the same functions as it could if those resources were connected directly to the local computer. This includes everything from simple communication, to using networked file systems or even sharing another computer’s graphics or sound hardware. Some network services allow the resources of a computer to be accessed transparently, such as SSH which allows networked users direct access to a computer’s command line interface. Client/server networking allows a program on a computer, called a client, to connect via a network to another computer, called a server. Servers offer (or host) various services to other network computers and users. These services are usually provided through ports or numbered access points beyond the server’s network address. Each port number is usually associated with a maximum of one running program, which is responsible for handling requests to that port. A daemon, being a user program, can in turn access the local hardware resources of that computer by passing requests to the operating system kernel. Many operating systems support one or more vendor-specific or open networking protocols as well, for example, SNA on IBM systems, DECnet on systems from Digital Equipment Corporation, and Microsoft-specific protocols (SMB) on Windows. Specific protocols for specific tasks may also be supported such asNFS for file access. Protocols like ESound, or esd can be easily extended over the network to provide sound from local applications, on a remote system’s sound hardware. Security A computer being secure depends on a number of technologies working properly. A modern operating system provides access to a number of resources, which are available to software running on the system, and to external devices like networks via the kernel. The operating system must be capable of distinguishing between requests which should be allowed to be processed, and others which should not be processed. While some systems may simply distinguish between “privileged” and “non-privileged”, systems commonly have a form of requester identity, such as a user name. To establish identity there may be a process of authentication. Often a username must be quoted, and each username may have a password. Other methods of authentication, such as magnetic cards or biometric data, might be used instead. In some cases, especially connections from the network, resources may be accessed with no authentication at all (such as reading files over a network share). Also covered by the concept of requester identity is authorization; the particular services and resources accessible by the requester once logged into a system are tied to either the requester’s user account or to the variously configured groups of users to which the requester belongs. In addition to the allow or disallow model of security, a system with a high level of security also offers auditing options. These would allow tracking of requests for access to resources (such as, “who has been reading this file?”). Internal security, or security from an already running program is only possible if all possibly harmful requests must be carried out through interrupts to the operating system kernel. If programs can directly access hardware and resources, they cannot be secured. External security involves a request from outside the computer, such as a login at a connected console or some kind of network connection. External requests are often passed through device drivers to the operating system’s kernel, where they can be passed onto applications, or carried out directly. Security of operating systems has long been a concern because of highly sensitive data held on computers, both of a commercial and military nature. The United StatesGovernment Department of Defense (DoD) created the Trusted Computer System Evaluation Criteria (TCSEC) which is a standard that sets basic requirements for assessing the effectiveness of security. This became of vital importance to operating system makers, because the TCSEC was used to evaluate, classify and select trusted operating systems being considered for the processing, storage and retrieval of sensitive or classified information. Network services include offerings such as file sharing, print services, email, web sites, and file transfer protocols (FTP), most of which can have compromised security. At the front line of security are hardware devices known as firewalls or intrusion detection/prevention systems. At the operating system level, there are a number of software firewalls available, as well as intrusion detection/prevention systems. Most modern operating systems include a software firewall, which is enabled by default. A software firewall can be configured to allow or deny network traffic to or from a service or application running on the operating system. Therefore, one can install and be running an insecure service, such as Telnet or FTP, and not have to be threatened by a security breach because the firewall would deny all traffic trying to connect to the service on that port. An alternative strategy, and the only sandbox strategy available in systems that do not meet the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements, is where the operating system is not running user programs as native code, but instead either emulates a processor or provides a host for a p-code based system such as Java. Internal security is especially relevant for multi-user systems; it allows each user of the system to have private files that the other users cannot tamper with or read. Internal security is also vital if auditing is to be of any use, since a program can potentially bypass the operating system, inclusive of bypassing auditing. User interface A screenshot of the Bourne Again Shell command line. Each command is typed out after the ‘prompt’, and then its output appears below, working its way down the screen. The current command prompt is at the bottom. Every computer that is to be operated by an individual requires a user interface. The user interface is usually referred to as a shell and is essential if human interaction is to be supported. The user interface views the directory structure and requests services from the operating system that will acquire data from input hardware devices, such as a keyboard, mouse or credit card reader, and requests operating system services to display prompts, status messages and such on output hardware devices, such as a video monitor or printer. The two most common forms of a user interface have historically been the command-line interface, where computer commands are typed out line-by-line, and the graphical user interface, where a visual environment (most commonly a WIMP) is present. Graphical user interfaces A screenshot of the KDE Plasma Desktop graphical user interface. Programs take the form of images on the screen, and the files, folders (directories), and applications take the form of icons and symbols. A mouse is used to navigate the computer. Most of the modern computer systems support graphical user interfaces (GUI), and often include them. In some computer systems, such as the original implementation of Mac OS, the GUI is integrated into the kernel. While technically a graphical user interface is not an operating system service, incorporating support for one into the operating system kernel can allow the GUI to be more responsive by reducing the number of context switches required for the GUI to perform its output functions. Other operating systems are modular, separating the graphics subsystem from the kernel and the Operating System. In the 1980s UNIX, VMS and many others had operating systems that were built this way. Linux and Mac OS X are also built this way. Modern releases of Microsoft Windows such as Windows Vista implement a graphics subsystem that is mostly in user-space; however the graphics drawing routines of versions betweenWindows NT 4.0 and Windows Server 2003 exist mostly in kernel space. Windows 9x had very little distinction between the interface and the kernel. Many computer operating systems allow the user to install or create any user interface they desire. The X Window System in conjunction with GNOME or KDE Plasma Desktop is a commonly found setup on most Unix and Unix-like (BSD, Linux, Solaris) systems. A number of Windows shell replacements have been released for Microsoft Windows, which offer alternatives to the included Windows shell, but the shell itself cannot be separated from Windows. Numerous Unix-based GUIs have existed over time, most derived from X11. Competition among the various vendors of Unix (HP, IBM, Sun) led to much fragmentation, though an effort to standardize in the 1990s to COSE and CDE failed for various reasons, and were eventually eclipsed by the widespread adoption of GNOME and K Desktop Environment. Prior to free software-based toolkits and desktop environments, Motif was the prevalent toolkit/desktop combination (and was the basis upon which CDE was developed). Graphical user interfaces evolve over time. For example, Windows has modified its user interface almost every time a new major version of Windows is released, and the Mac OS GUI changed dramatically with the introduction of Mac OS X in 1999. Real-time operating systems A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system intended for applications with fixed deadlines (real-time computing). Such applications include some small embedded systems, automobile engine controllers, industrial robots, spacecraft, industrial control, and some large-scale computing systems. An early example of a large-scale real-time operating system was Transaction Processing Facility developed by American Airlines and IBM for the Sabre Airline Reservations System. Embedded systems that have fixed deadlines use a real-time operating system such as VxWorks, PikeOS, eCos, QNX, MontaVista Linux and RTLinux.Windows CE is a real-time operating system that shares similar APIs to desktop Windows but shares none of desktop Windows’ codebase. Symbian OS also has an RTOS kernel (EKA2) starting with version 8.0b. Some embedded systems use operating systems such as Palm OS, BSD, and Linux, although such operating systems do not support real-time computing. Operating system development as a hobby Operating system development is one of the most complicated activities in which a computing hobbyist may engage. A hobby operating system may be classified as one whose code has not been directly derived from an existing operating system, and has few users and active developers. In some cases, hobby development is in support of a “home brew” computing device, for example, a simple single-board computer powered by a 6502 microprocessor. Or, development may be for an architecture already in widespread use. Operating system development may come from entirely new concepts, or may commence by modeling an existing operating system. In either case, the hobbyist is his/her own developer, or may interact with a small and sometimes unstructured group of individuals who have like interests. Examples of a hobby operating system include ReactOS and Syllable. Diversity of operating systems and portability Application software is generally written for use on a specific operating system, and sometimes even for specific hardware. When porting the application to run on another OS, the functionality required by that application may be implemented differently by that OS (the names of functions, meaning of arguments, etc.) requiring the application to be adapted, changed, or otherwise maintained. Unix was the first operating system not written in assembly language, making it very portable to systems different from its native PDP-11. This cost in supporting operating systems diversity can be avoided by instead writing applications against software platforms like Java or Qt. These abstractions have already borne the cost of adaptation to specific operating systems and their system libraries. Another approach is for operating system vendors to adopt standards. For example, POSIX and OS abstraction layers provide commonalities that reduce porting costs. Market share 2013 Worldwide Device Shipments by Operating System Operating System 2012 (Million of Units) 2013 (Million of Units) Android 504 878 Windows 346 328 iOS/Mac OS 214 267 BlackBerry 35 24 Others 1,117 803 Total 2,216 2,300 CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction Utility software is system software designed to help analyze, configure, optimize or maintain a computer. Utility software usually focuses on how the computer infrastructure (including the computer hardware, operating system, software and data storage) operates. Utility software, along with operating system software, is a type of system software, distinguishing it from application software. Utility software • Anti-virus utilities scan for computer viruses. • Archivers output a stream or a single file when provided with a directory or a set of files. Archive utilities, unlike archive suites, usually do not include compression or encryption capabilities. Some archive utilities may even have a separate un-archive utility for the reverse operation. • Backup software can make copies of all information stored on a disk and restore either the entire disk (e.g. in an event of disk failure) or selected files (e.g. in an event of accidental deletion). • Clipboard managers expand the clipboard functionality of an operating system . • Cryptographic utilities encrypt and decrypt streams and files. • Data compression utilities output a shorter stream or a smaller file when provided with a stream or file. • Data synchronization utilities establish consistency among data from a source to a target data storage and vice versa. There are several branches of this type of utility: • File synchronization utilities maintain consistency between two sources. They may be used to create redundancy or backup copies but are also used to help users carry their digital music, photos and video in their mobile devices. • Revision control utilities are intended to deal with situations where more than one user attempts to simultaneously modify the same file. • Debuggers are used to test and “debug” other programs, mainly to solve programming errors. Also utilized for reverse engineering of software or systems. • Disk checkers can scan operating hard drive. • Disk cleaners can find files that are unnecessary to computer operation, or take up considerable amounts of space. Disk cleaner helps the user to decide what to delete when their hard disk is full. • Disk compression utilities can transparently compress/uncompress the contents of a disk, increasing the capacity of the disk. • Disk defragmenters can detect computer files whose contents are scattered across several locations on the hard disk, and move the fragments to one location to increase efficiency. • Disk partitions can divide an individual drive into multiple logical drives, each with its own file system which can be mounted by the operating system and treated as an individual drive. • Disk space analyzers for the visualization of disk space usage by getting the size for each folder (including sub folders) & files in folder or drive. showing the distribution of the used space. • Disk storage utilities • File managers provide a convenient method of performing routine data management tasks, such as deleting, renaming, cataloging, uncataloging, moving, copying, merging, generating and modifying data sets. • Hex editors directly modify the text or data of a file. These files could be data or an actual program. • Memory testers check for memory failures. • Network utilities analyze the computer’s network connectivity, configure network settings, check data transfer or log events. • Package managers are used to configure, install or keep up to date other software on a computer. • Registry cleaners clean and optimize the Windows Registry by removing old registry keys that are no longer in use. • Screensavers were desired to prevent phosphor burn-in on CRT and plasma computer monitors by blanking the screen or filling it with moving images or patterns when the computer is not in use. Contemporary screensavers are used primarily for entertainment or security. • System monitors for monitoring resources and performance in a computer system. • System profilers provide detailed information about the software installed and hardware attached to the computer. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction In computing, a device driver (commonly referred to as a driver) is a computer program that operates or controls a particular type of device that is attached to a computer. A driver provides a software interface to hardware devices, enabling operating systems and other computer programs to access hardware functions without needing to know precise details of the hardware being used. A driver typically communicates with the device through the computer bus or communications subsystem to which the hardware connects. When a calling program invokes a routine in the driver, the driver issues commands to the device. Once the device sends data back to the driver, the driver may invoke routines in the original calling program. Drivers are hardware-dependent and operating-system-specific. They usually provide the interrupt handling required for any necessary asynchronous time-dependent hardware interface. Purpose Device drivers simplify programming by acting as translator between a hardware device and the applications or operating systems that use it. Programmers can write the higher-level application code independently of whatever specific hardware the end-user is using. For example, a high-level application for interacting with a serial port may simply have two functions for “send data” and “receive data”. At a lower level, a device driver implementing these functions would communicate to the particular serial port controller installed on a user’s computer. The commands needed to control a 16550 UART are much different from the commands needed to control an FTDI serial port converter, but each hardware-specific device driver abstracts these details into the same (or similar) software interface. Development Writing a device driver requires an in-depth understanding of how the hardware and the software works for a given platform function. Because drivers require low-level access to hardware functions in order to operate, drivers typically operate in a highly privileged environment and can cause system operational issues if something goes wrong. In contrast, most user-level software on modern operating systems can be stopped without greatly affecting the rest of the system. Even drivers executing in user mode can crash a system if the device is erroneously programmed. These factors make it more difficult and dangerous to diagnose problems. The task of writing drivers thus usually falls to software engineers or computer engineers who work for hardware-development companies. This is because they have better information than most outsiders about the design of their hardware. Moreover, it was traditionally considered in the hardware manufacturer’s interest to guarantee that their clients can use their hardware in an optimum way. Typically, the logical device driver (LDD) is written by the operating system vendor, while the physical device driver (PDD) is implemented by the device vendor. But in recent years non-vendors have written numerous device drivers, mainly for use with free and open source operating systems. In such cases, it is important that the hardware manufacturer provides information on how the device communicates. Although this information can instead be learned by reverse engineering, this is much more difficult with hardware than it is with software. Microsoft has attempted to reduce system instability due to poorly written device drivers by creating a new framework for driver development, called Windows Driver Foundation (WDF). This includes User-Mode Driver Framework (UMDF) that encourages development of certain types of drivers—primarily those that implement a message-based protocol for communicating with their devices—as user-mode drivers. If such drivers malfunction, they do not cause system instability. The Kernel-Mode Driver Framework (KMDF) model continues to allow development of kernel-mode device drivers, but attempts to provide standard implementations of functions that are known to cause problems, including cancellation of I/O operations, power management, and plug and play device support. Apple has an open-source framework for developing drivers on Mac OS X called the I/O Kit. In Linux environments, programmers can build device drivers as parts of the kernel, separately as loadable modules, or as user-mode drivers (for certain types of devices where kernel interfaces exist, such as for USB devices). Makedev includes a list of the devices in Linux: ttyS (terminal), lp (parallel port), hd (disk), loop, sound (these include mixer, sequencer, dsp, and audio)… The Microsoft Windows .sys files and Linux .ko modules contain loadable device drivers. The advantage of loadable device drivers is that they can be loaded only when necessary and then unloaded, thus saving kernel memory. Kernel mode vs. user mode Device drivers, particularly on modern Microsoft Windows platforms, can run in kernel-mode (Ring 0 on x86 CPUs) or in user-mode (Ring 3 on x86 CPUs). The primary benefit of running a driver in user mode is improved stability, since a poorly written user mode device driver cannot crash the system by overwriting kernel memory. On the other hand, user/kernel-mode transitions usually impose a considerable performance overhead, thereby prohibiting user-mode drivers for low latency and high throughput requirements. Kernel space can be accessed by user module only through the use of system calls. End user programs like the UNIX shell or other GUI-based applications are part of the user space. These applications interact with hardware through kernel supported functions. Applications Because of the diversity of modern hardware and operating systems, drivers operate in many different environments. Drivers may interface with: • printers • video adapters • Network cards • Sound cards • Local buses of various sorts—in particular, for bus mastering on modern systems • Low-bandwidth I/O buses of various sorts (for pointing devices such as mice, keyboards, USB, etc.) • Computer storage devices such as hard disk, CD-ROM, and floppy disk buses (ATA, SATA, SCSI) • Implementing support for different file systems • Image scanners • Digital cameras Common levels of abstraction for device drivers include: • For hardware: • Interfacing directly • Writing to or reading from a device control register • Using some higher-level interface (e.g. Video BIOS) • Using another lower-level device driver (e.g. file system drivers using disk drivers) • Simulating work with hardware, while doing something entirely different[citation needed] • For software: • Allowing the operating system direct access to hardware resources • Implementing only primitives • Implementing an interface for non-driver software (e.g., TWAIN) • Implementing a language, sometimes quite high-level (e.g., PostScript) So choosing and installing the correct device drivers for given hardware is often a key component of computer system configuration. Virtual device drivers Virtual device drivers represent a particular variant of device drivers. They are used to emulate a hardware device, particularly in virtualization environments, for example when a DOS program is run on a Microsoft Windows computer or when a guest operating system is run on, for example, a Xen host. Instead of enabling the guest operating system to dialog with hardware, virtual device drivers take the opposite role and emulate a piece of hardware, so that the guest operating system and its drivers running inside a virtual machine can have the illusion of accessing real hardware. Attempts by the guest operating system to access the hardware are routed to the virtual device driver in the host operating system as e.g., function calls. The virtual device driver can also send simulated processor-level events like interrupts into the virtual machine. Virtual devices may also operate in a non-virtualized environment. For example a virtual network adapter is used with a virtual private network, while a virtualdisk device is used with iSCSI. A good example for virtual device drivers can be Daemon Tools. There are several variants of virtual device drivers, such as VxDs, VLMs, VDDs. Open drivers • Printers: CUPS • RAIDs: CCISS (Compaq Command Interface for SCSI-3 Support) • Scanners: SANE • Video: Vidix, Direct Rendering Infrastructure Solaris descriptions of commonly used device drivers • fas: Fast/wide SCSI controller • hme: Fast (10/100 Mbit/s) Ethernet • isp: Differential SCSI controllers and the SunSwift card • glm: (Gigabaud Link Module) UltraSCSI controllers • scsi: Small Computer Serial Interface (SCSI) devices • sf: soc+ or social Fiber Channel Arbitrated Loop (FCAL) • soc: SPARC Storage Array (SSA) controllers and the control device • social: Serial optical controllers for FCAL (soc+) APIs • Windows Display Driver Model (WDDM) – the graphic display driver architecture for Windows Vista, Windows 7 and Windows 8. • Windows Driver Foundation (WDF) • Windows Driver Model (WDM) • Network Driver Interface Specification (NDIS) – a standard network card driver API • Advanced Linux Sound Architecture (ALSA) – as of 2009 the standard Linux sound-driver interface • Scanner Access Now Easy (SANE) – a public-domain interface to raster-image scanner-hardware • I/O Kit – an open-source framework from Apple for developing Mac OS X device drivers • Installable File System (IFS) – a filesystem API for IBM OS/2 and Microsoft Windows NT • Open Data-Link Interface (ODI) – a network card API similar to NDIS • Uniform Driver Interface (UDI) – a cross-platform driver interface project • Dynax Driver Framework (dxd) – C++ open source cross-platform driver framework for KMDF and IOKit Identifiers A device on the PCI bus or USB is identified by two IDs which consist of 4 hexadecimal numbers each. The vendor ID identifies the vendor of the device. The device ID identifies a specific device from that manufacturer/vendor. A PCI device has often an ID pair for the main chip of the device, and also a subsystem ID pair which identifies the vendor, which may be different from the chip manufacturer. CC licensed content, Shared previously Public domain content

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Introduction In electronic systems and computing, firmware is a tangible electronic component with embedded software instructions, such as a BIOS. Typically, those software instructions are used to tell an electronic device how to operate. As of 2013, most firmware can be updated. Typical examples of devices containing firmware are embedded systems (such as traffic lights, consumer appliances, and digital watches), computers, computer peripherals, mobile phones, and digital cameras. The firmware contained in these devices provides the control program for the device. Firmware is held in non-volatile memory devices such as ROM, EPROM, or flash memory. Changing the firmware of a device may rarely or never be done during its economic lifetime; some firmware memory devices are permanently installed and cannot be changed after manufacture. Common reasons for updating firmware include fixing bugs or adding features to the device. This may require ROM integrated circuits to be physically replaced, or flash memory to be reprogrammed through a special procedure. Firmware such as the ROM BIOS of a personal computer may contain only elementary basic functions of a device and may only provide services to higher-level software. Firmware such as the program of an embedded system may be the only program that will run on the system and provide all of its functions. Before integrated circuits, other firmware devices included a discrete semiconductor diode matrix. The Apollo guidance computer had firmware consisting of a specially manufactured core memory plane, called “core rope memory,” where data were stored by physically threading wires through (1) or around (0) the core storing each data bit. Origin of the term Ascher Opler coined the term “firmware” in a 1967 Datamation article. Originally, it meant the contents of a writable control store (a small specialized high speed memory), containing microcode that defined and implemented the computer’s instruction set, and that could be reloaded to specialize or modify the instructions that the central processing unit (CPU) could execute. As originally used, firmware contrasted with hardware (the CPU itself) and software (normal instructions executing on a CPU). It was not composed of CPU machine instructions, but of lower-level microcode involved in the implementation of machine instructions. It existed on the boundary between hardware and software; thus the name “firmware”. Still later, popular usage extended the word “firmware” to denote anything ROM-resident, including processor machine-instructions for BIOS, bootstrap loaders, or specialized applications. Until the mid-1990s, updating firmware typically involved replacing a storage medium containing firmware, usually a socketed ROM integrated circuit. Flash memory allows firmware to be updated without physically removing an integrated circuit from the system. An error during the update process may make the device non-functional, or “bricked”. Personal computers ROM BIOS firmware on a Baby AT motherboard In some respects, the various firmware components are as important as the operating system in a working computer. However, unlike most modern operating systems, firmware rarely has a well-evolved automatic mechanism of updating itself to fix any functionality issues detected after shipping the unit. The BIOS may be “manually” updated by a user, using a small utility program. In contrast, firmware in storage devices (hard disks, DVD drives, flash storage) rarely gets updated, even when flash (rather than ROM) storage is used for the firmware; there are no standardized mechanisms for detecting or updating firmware versions. Most computer peripherals are themselves special-purpose computers. Devices such as printers, scanners, cameras and USB flash drives have internally stored firmware; some devices may also permit field upgrading of their firmware. Some low-cost peripherals no longer contain non-volatile memory for firmware, and instead rely on the host system to transfer the device control program from a disk file or CD. Consumer products As of 2010 most portable music players support firmware upgrades. Some companies use firmware updates to add new playable file formats (codecs); iriver added Vorbis playback support this way, for instance. Other features that may change with firmware updates include the GUI or even the battery life. Most mobile phones have a Firmware Over The Air firmware upgrade capability for much the same reasons; some may even be upgraded to enhance reception or sound quality, illustrating the fact that firmware is used at more than one level in complex products (in a CPU-like microcontroller versus in a digital signal processor, in this particular case). Automobiles Since 1996 most automobiles have employed an on-board computer and various sensors to detect mechanical problems. As of 2010 modern vehicles also employ computer-controlled ABS systems and computer-operated Transmission Control Units (TCU). The driver can also get in-dash information while driving in this manner, such as real-time fuel-economy and tire-pressure readings. Local dealers can update most vehicle firmware. Examples Examples of firmware include: Flashing Flashing involves the overwriting of existing firmware or data on EEPROM modules present in an electronic device with new data. This can be done to upgrade a device or to change the provider of a service associated with the function of the device, such as changing from one mobile phone service provider to another or installing a new operating system. If firmware is upgradable, it is often done via a program from the provider, and will often allow the old firmware to be saved before upgrading so it can be reverted to if the process fails, or if the newer version performs worse. Firmware hacking Sometimes, third parties create an unofficial new or modified (“aftermarket”) version of firmware to provide new features or to unlock hidden functionality; this is referred to as custom firmware (also “Custom Firmware” in the video game console community). An example is Rockbox as a firmware replacement forportable media players. There are many homebrew projects for video game consoles, which often unlock general-purpose computing functionality in previously limited devices (e.g., running Doom on iPods). Firmware hacks usually take advantage of the firmware update facility on many devices to install or run themselves. Some, however, must resort to exploits in order to run, because the manufacturer has attempted to lock the hardware to stop it from running unlicensed code. Most firmware hacks are free software. HDD firmware hacks The Moscow-based Kaspersky Lab discovered that a group of developers it refers to as the “Equation Group” has developed hard disk drive firmware modifications for various drive models, containing a trojan horse that allows data to be stored on the drive in locations that will not be erased even if the drive is formatted or wiped. Although the Kaspersky Lab report did not explicitly claim that this group is part of the United States National Security Agency (NSA), evidence obtained from the code of various Equation Group software suggests that they are part of the NSA. Researchers from the Kaspersky Lab categorized the undertakings by Equation Group as the most advanced hacking operation ever uncovered, also documenting around 500 infections caused by the Equation Group in at least 42 countries. Security risks Mark Shuttleworth, founder of the Ubuntu Linux distribution, has described proprietary firmware as a security risk, saying that “firmware on your device is theNSA’s best friend” and calling firmware “a trojan horse of monumental proportions”. He has pointed out that low-quality, nonfree firmware is a major threat to system security: “Your biggest mistake is to assume that the NSA is the only institution abusing this position of trust – in fact, it’s reasonable to assume that all firmware is a cesspool of insecurity, courtesy of incompetence of the highest degree from manufacturers, and competence of the highest degree from a very wide range of such agencies”. As a solution to this problem, he has called for declarative firmware, which would describe “hardware linkage and dependencies” and “should not include executable code”. Custom firmware hacks have also focused on injecting malware into devices such as smartphones or USB devices. One such smartphone injection was demonstrated on the Symbian OS at MalCon, a hacker convention. A USB device firmware hack called BadUSB was presented at Black Hat USA 2014conference, demonstrating how a USB flash drive microcontroller can be reprogrammed to spoof various other device types in order to take control of a computer, exfiltrate data, or spy on the user. Other security researchers have worked further on how to exploit the principles behind BadUSB, releasing at the same time the source code of hacking tools that can be used to modify the behavior of different USB devices. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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View this diagram depicting the relationship of SYSTEM SOFTWARE to APPLICATION SOFTWARE to COMPUTER HARDWARE. CC licensed content, Original 3.10: Video- Utility Software Watch this videto to learn about what open source utility software is available to improve the performance of your computer. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=76 All rights reserved content • Open Source Utility Software. Authored by: Nixie Pixel. Located at: https://youtu.be/pmqxAxSiaqI. License: Other. License Terms: Standard YouTube License 3.11: Video- Utility Software Watch this video to learn about utility software. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=78 All rights reserved content 3.12: Video- Understanding Operating Systems An operating system is the most important software that runs on a computer. It manages the computer’s memory, processes, and all of its software and hardware. It also allows you to communicate with the computer without knowing how to speak the computer’s “language.” Without an operating system, a computer is useless. Watch the video to learn about operating systems. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pTdS...ature=youtu.be All rights reserved content 3.13: Review- Software Jeopardy You will need the PowerPoint application or a PowerPoint viewer to play the game. You can perform these exercises on your mobile devices with access to Office 365 Mobile or a seperate App for your Apple or Android device. Jeopardy-Software Review The Jeopardy Game should open in the Slide Show view and be immediatly playable. If it opens in the regular PowerPoint presentation view, go to the SLIDE SHOW tab on the ribbon and start the show from THE BEGINNING (command on the far left). You can play the game as many times as you like and in any order you like. CC licensed content, Original 3.14: Assignment- Test Drive Discussion Forum Assignment Objective This assignment will provide information that may be useful in choosing an operating system for your next computer. Directions Part A Although 90% of all desktop computers use Windows as their operating system, there are two popular alternatives – Apple’s Mac OS and the Linux open-source operating system. In this assignment, you will investigate an operating system other than the one you usually use to see how it handles common operating system functions. 1. Find a friend, relative, or co-worker with a computer that uses an operating system that you don’t usually use (Windows, Mac OS, or Linux). Try out the operating system, and observe how it works compared with the operating system that you normally use. Pick the 4 or 5 things you do the most and use those in your comparison. Some examples might be organizing files, creating documents, accessing the Internet, using e-mail, uninstalling software, etc. Do not compare two different Windows systems (for example, Windows 7 and Windows 8). 2. An alternative to using someone else’s computer is to create a “live CD” that lets you run Linux from a CD without installing it on your hard drive. To do this, you need a recordable CD drive and CD burning software like Roxio. Refer to the directions for Creating and Using a Live Linux CD. 3. Post a report of your experience to the Test Drive class (not group) forum. Include the following in your report: • The name and version of the operating system you tested, and the name and version of the operating system you normally use. • Your list of the 4 or 5 things that you tested. • A description of how you tested each process, what you observed, and how it differed from what you normally experience Part B Read the reports posted by others in the class and respond to any that you wish. Responses to other students in this assignment are optional. CC licensed content, Original

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Learning Objectives If you do well in this unit, you should be able to: • Identify the Windows screen elements and parts of a window. • Resize, Move, and Scroll windows. • Maximize, Restore, Minimize, and Close windows. • Create, Copy, Move, Rename, and Delete files. • Find files and folders. • Compress files. • Use the Help system. • Use the Windows operating system to practice performing common tasks. CC licensed content, Original 04: Windows Required Trainings Read, view, and complete the following tutorials at GCF LearnFree.org. All about Windows 8 #2 – WINDOWS 8.1 FEATURES #3 – UPGRADING TO WINDOWS 8.1 Using Windows 8 #4 – GETTING STARTED WITH WINDOWS 8 #5 – USING ONEDRIVE WITH WINDOWS 8 #6 – USING THE SEARCH FEATURE #7 – PERSONALIZING YOUR START SCREEN Working with the Desktop #8 – GETTING STARTED WITH THE DESKTOP #9 – MANAGING YOUR FILES AND FOLDERS #10- PERSONALIZING YOUR DESKTOP Windows 8 Apps #11- USING THE PEOPLE APP #12- USING THE MAIL APP #13- INTERNET EXPLORER #14- THE MUSIC AND VIDEO APP #15- DOWNLOADING APPS FROM THE WINDOWS STORE Changing your Computer’s Settings #16- MANAGING USER ACCOUNTS AND PARENTAL CONTROLS #17- OPENING YOUR FILES WITH DIFFERENT APPS #18 – SECURITY AND MAINTENANCE Supplemental Trainings You can find the following supplemental trainings by clicking the MS Office Tutorials link in the course menu. • Atomic Learning – Use these videos to supplement your GCF Learn Free Tutorials as necessary. • Windows Help Menu – Additional learning materials are also available from the Windows HELP menu. Click on the BLUE QUESTION MARK in the upper right hand corner of your desktop page. This will take you to the Windows Help page where you will find tutorials and a searchable index of topics. CC licensed content, Shared previously 4.02: Windows Practical Exercise Desktop 1. Open your computer and turn on the power. 2. After the computer completes the BOOT UP process, and your START SCREEN is full of the Windows 8 TILES, bring up your desktop using the desktop tile and/or the keyboard windows button. Folders & Files 1. On the DESKTOP, right click and create a NEW FOLDER. Name the folder “ITE 115 E11N” (or your course number). 2. Open the new folder and create two NEW FOLDERS inside the ITE 115 E11N folder. Name each folder as follows: ASSIGNMENTS & DUE DATES — COURSE PROJECT. 3. Download and save in the ASSIGNMENTS & DUE DATES folder, the assignment due dates FILE from the assignments menu in Blackboard. 4. Download and save in the COURSE PROJECT folder, the course project FILE from the assignments section in Blackboard. Navigation 1. Return to the START SCREEN by clicking on your user name in the upper right corner, select the LOCK choice to go to the LOCK SCREEN. Click or press on the screen to go to the SIGN IN SCREEN, enter your sign on password, and to the START SCREEN 2. ZOOM in and out using the keyboard and mouse. 3. Navigate your returning to the desktop using HOT CORNERS, SCROLLING MOUSE, SCROLL BARS, and BUMPING SIDES. 4. Sign out of the Windows 8 environment using the CHARMS BAR, and CONTROL – ALT – DELETE keys on the keyboard. Customization 1. Personalize the start screen using the charms bar and Change PC Settings. 2. Customize the tiles on the start screen using the mouse with press & drag. 3. Customize the Desktop with right click on an open area of the screen using the Touch and Hold method. CC licensed content, Original 4.03: Assignment- Using Windows Assignment Objective This assignment gives you practice using what you have learned about your operating system. Directions 1. Download the assignment instructions Windows Assignment using Windows 8 (.doc) OR MAC OS Assignment (.docx) as well as the file you will use in the assignment – Daily Reminders.docx, and use Windows 8 or your MAC operating system to create the folders and files that meet the criteria listed. 2. Submit the completed assignment using the link above and indicate in the comments section which operating system you used to complete the assignment. You will need to upload the following file as an attachment by clicking the submission link above: CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/04%3A_Windows/4.01%3A_Reading-_Windows_Training.txt

Learning Objectives If you do well in this unit, you should be able to: • Use various ways of communicating via the Internet. • Identify the components of the Internet including browsers, URLs, domain names, hyperlinks, bookmarks, and common Internet protocols. • Manage online annoyances like spam, cookies, adware, spyware, malware, phishing,and Internet hoaxes. • Search, validate, and evaluate information found online and in library databases. CC licensed content, Original 05: Communications and Information Literacy Introduction The Internet is probably the most exciting, the most popular, most visible and definitely the “coolest” information systems development of the decade. What is the Internet? The origins of the Internet can be found in the early sixties, when the U.S. Department of Defense sponsored a project to develop a telecommunications network that would survive a nuclear attack. It had to link together a diverse set of computers and work in a decentralized manner so that, if any part of the network were not functioning, network traffic would automatically be re-routed via other network nodes. This project quickly grew into a popular academic network linking virtually all major research institutions and U.S. universities. Soon other countries jumped onto the bandwagon, thus linking academics and researchers across the globe. True to the academic ethos, it quickly became a means for global information sharing. By now, businesses also got a piece of the action. This was spurred on by the trend to network the personal computers in home and business environments and the development of more user-friendly, graphical interfaces: the web-browser and the Windows operating system. The Internet (or, more colloquially, the Net) consists of a huge and fast-growing number (hundreds of thousands) of interconnected networks linked together. Currently more than 100 million users are connected to the Internet. The popularity of the Internet can be explained by the amount of information it makes available: the equivalent of many libraries of information is stored on millions of computers (Internet hosts), much of it free of charge to all Internet users. This information is provided by educational institutions, governmental agencies and organizations, individuals, and increasingly by businesses. Hence, the Internet is frequently referred to as the Information Highway or the Infobahn. But the Internet is more than just a huge information resource. Its initial purpose was to act as a communications network and it fulfills that role well. It is the transport mechanism for electronic mail, the transfer of computer files, remote computer access and even allows for voice calls. Businesses quickly realized the potential of the multimedia-enabled Internet for marketing purposes. Of late, more and more business transactions are being conducted via the Internet: electronic commerce (e-commerce) is the latest revolution to be embraced by the Internet community. Electronic mail Probably the most popular Internet service is electronic mail, more commonly known as email. This consists of the sending of messages composed on the computer, via a network, directly to the computer of the recipient who reads the message on his/her computer. Knowledge workers with access to e-mail write five to ten times as many e-mail messages as hand-written notes. The following are just some of the advantages of e-mail. · • Reliability: although there is no guarantee, you will normally receive quick feedback if the address does not exist or there is a similar delivery problem. · • Efficiency: many short-cut tools exist to increase your efficiency when composing messages. You can use your computer’s cut-and-paste function, you can have managed address books and lists, when replying to another message you can automatically incorporate any part of the message to which you are, etc. And it is just as easy to send a message to one as to a whole list of addressees. (Admittedly, this results in a lot of abuse and information overload on the recipient’s side.) • Digital: e-mail is composed on a computer and remains in computer-readable format all the way to its destination. Thus one can also easily incorporate other computer data such as graphics or document files. • Cheap: because the capacity of the Internet and disk storage is increasing all the time, the cost of a sending and storing a one-page e-mail message is negligible. • Speed: messages are generally delivered across the world in a matter of seconds. The e-mail address Just like with ordinary postal mail (now usually referred to as snail-mail), you need to know the recipient’s address before you can send your message. Internet e-mail addresses have a standard format: username@domain. The username is often the name that your addressee uses to connect to the network, e.g. “jvanbelle” or sometimes a long number. This username is allocated by the LAN administrator. The domain identifies the file server, which acts as the local post office for your recipient’s e-mail. The domain consists of several parts, separated by full stops or dots. The international standard for domain identification is …. • The country code is the international two-letter code for the country (e.g., au for Australia, za for South Africa, sa for Saudi-Arabia, uk for Great Britain, etc). • The two most common types of organizations are co for a commercial organization and ac for an academic institution . Less frequent are org for (not-for-profit) organizations, mil for military, net for networks and gov for government agencies. • Each country has a national Internet naming body that allows its organizations to chose their own name, as long as no one has claimed the same name before. Examples of South African domain names are anc.org.za, uct.ac.za, fnb.co.za. • Large organizations often refine the domain further by adding the name of their LAN servers, e.g mail.uct.ac.za. Examples of possible e-mail addresses are: JaneDoe@stats.uct.ac.za (Jane working in the statistics department at the University of Cape Town in South Africa); info@anc.org.za (information department at the ANC, a political party) or SoapJoe@marketing.bt.co.uk (Joe Soap in the marketing department of British Telekom in the U.K.). The US Americans, having “invented” the Internet, use a slightly different way for their addresses. They leave off their country code (us) and use com for commercial organization or edu for educational institution. Since the majority of Internet users hail from the US, you will encounter many addresses such as JWood@mit.edu or Bill@microsoft.com. Netiquette Just as in any other social interaction environment, there are some rules and guidelines for appropriate social behavior on the Net: Netiquette (etiquette on the Internet). The following are some illustrative examples pertaining primarily to e-mail. • Shouting, THE PRACTICE OF TYPING ENTIRE SENTENCES IN UPPER CASE, is generally seen as novice (newbie) behavior and frowned upon. Perhaps it stems from the disgust with old teletypes and mainframe terminals that did not have lower-case characters. • The use of emoticons to indicate the emotive content of a sentence is highly recommended. Typed text does not reveal any body language and a joking remark can easily be interpreted the wrong way. Whenever one writes something in jest or with humorous intent, it is advisable to add an emoticon. An emoticon (an icon indicating emotional content) consists of a series of text characters which are meant to be rotated a quarter turn and represent a laughing 🙂 (i.e. equivalent to J or the smiley) winking 😉 or sad face 🙁 • Flaming is the carrying on of a heated personal emotional debate between two or more individuals on a public Internet forum. A flame war is generally a sign of immature behavior by individuals who cannot take perspective and should really take the discussion off-line. • Netizens (inhabitants of the Internet i.e. frequent net surfers) often use standard but, to the non-initiated, cryptic abbreviations. Examples are: BTW = by the way ; ROFL = rolling on the floor with laughter ; TPTB = the powers that be; BRB = Be Right Back. This vocabulary has been adopted and expanded with the growth of Short Message Service (SMS) use on cellular phones. The Web The Internet service that has received the most attention from the public media is the WorldWide Web or the Web for short (sometimes also called WWW or W3). The Web is a vast collection of multimedia information located on Web servers attached to the Internet. Its popularity is due to a number of reasons. • Information links are transparent. Links to any other piece of information located anywhere on the Internet can be inserted in a web document. A simple click of the mouse takes the reader completely automatically from one Web server to another, quite possibly in another country. • Information can be presented in a hypertext link format whereby one can jump immediately from one concept to a related concept or explanation. No need to read text in the traditional top-to-bottom sequential way. • It allows for multimedia information. A Web document can incorporate rich and colourful graphics, animation, video clips, sound etc. Just think of the marketing opportunities! • The Web supports interactive applications. Web applications can request information from visiting users and documents can include programming instructions. Users can even download small programs (often written in Java) that could perform some processing on the user’s computer or display special visual effects. Reading or accessing information on the Web is called surfing the Net because one jumps from one hypertext link to another following whatever takes your fancy. In order to surf the Net you need some special browser program that understands the Web protocols and formats and presents the information to suit your computer monitor. You also need an access point or connection to the Internet. Your Internet connection may be automatic if your computer is connected to a (corporate) LAN that connects directly to the Internet, or it may be by means of a special subscription to a business that specializes in providing Internet access for others: the Internet Service Provider (ISP). Access to the ISP for individual users is usually via a dial-up connection i.e. using a modem and telephone. Once a newbie (new user) is connected to the Internet (online), she faces the daunting task of finding her way amongst the huge variety of information offered. The easiest way in is usually by means of a search engine: a Web site that tries to catalogue the information available on the Internet. By entering one or more search words, the engine will provide you with a couple of adverts and a list of documents that contain the word(s) for which you are looking. All information on the Web is uniquely identified by the URL (Uniform Resource Location), which is really the full Internet address of a Web document. The URL consists again of the Web server’s domain address, followed by the access path and file name on the server. Examples of URLs are www.hotbot.com/sports/main.html (the main page on the sports section of the HotBot search engine) or http://www.commerce.uct.ac.za/informationsystems/ (containing details about UCT’s department of information systems). Note the similarities and differences between an URL and an e-mail address. Other Internet services A number of other services are available on the Internet. The Usenet consists of ongoing discussion fora (or newsgroups) on an extremely wide variety of topics, from forensic psychology to Douglas Adams, from Star Trek to cryptography. The discussion happens entirely by means of e-mail and, when you subscribe to a given newsgroup, you can browse through the contributions of the last few days and reply with your own contribution. More specialized services exist, such as ftp (file transfer protocol) for the transfer of large computer files, and telnet, the remote access of computers elsewhere, but they are used less frequently. In any way, these services are now being performed transparently by most Web browsers. Similarly, older services such as Gopher and Veronica have really been replaced almost entirely by the Web. Internet protocols and standards Different computers and networks can communicate via the Internet because a number of basic Internet communication standards have been defined. Any network connected to the Internet will translate its own standards and protocols into those used on the Internet by means of a bridge. The most fundamental and “lowest level” protocol is the TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol). This protocol is also the native protocol of computers using the Unix operating system, which explains why Unix computers are so popular as Internet servers. On top of TCP/IP are the “mid-level” protocols defined for the various Internet services. Perhaps the best known of these is http (Hypertext Transmission Protocol), which specifies how the Web information is made available and transmitted across the Internet. Other protocols and standards are STMP and MIME (for e-mail) or ftp. HTML Information made available via the Web is usually formatted using a special standard: the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML), which actually consists of plain text files with visual formatting commands inserted between the text. Most desktop productivity software allows you to save your document directly in the HTML format. Special HTML editors allow much finer control over the final layout of your Web document. A later development is Extensible Markup Language (XML), which increases the flexibility of web documents by allowing them to be viewed not only using a web browser, but also on different platforms such as a PDA or cellular telephone. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction Business was quick to grasp the marketing and business potential offered by the Internet. Initially, businesses used the Internet to facilitate communication by means of e-mail. This was quickly followed by tapping the web’s potential for the dissemination of product and other marketing information. The provision of advertising space {banners) on frequently visited web sites is the main source of income for search engines (sites allowing you to search the Internet for information) and web portals (web sites that provide additional value-added personal services such as news, financial information, weather forecasts, items of interest etc.) A number of specialized companies have realized that the Internet can be a direct and extremely cost-effective channel of distribution. Some companies already have a physical infrastructure and use the web to enhance their distribution channel e.g. you can now order your pizza, bank statements or movie tickets via the web. Other, virtual companies have almost no physical infrastructure and are mere “conductors” for the flow of products of services. Important categories of e-commerce include: • Business-to-consumer (B2C) in which organizations provide information online to customers, who can in turn place orders and make payments via the internet • Business-to-business (B2B) in which business partners collaborate electronically • Consumer-to-consumer (C2C) in which individuals sell products or services directly to other individuals. The technologies that are needed to support electronic commerce include the network infrastructure (Internet, intranets, extranets), software tools for web site development and maintenance, secure ordering and payment methods, and resources for information sharing, communication and collaboration. When e-commerce is done in a wireless environment, such as through the use of cellphones, this is referred to as mobile commerce (m-commerce). B2C e-Commerce Electronic retailing is similar in principle to home shopping from catalogues, but offers a wider variety of products and services, often at lower prices. Search engines make it easy to locate and compare competitor’s products from one convenient location and without being restricted to usual shopping hours. Electronic malls provide access to a number of individual shops from one website. On-line auctions have also proved a popular way of disposing of items that need a quick sale. Business-to-consumer commerce allows customers to make enquiries about products, place orders, pay accounts, and obtain service support via the Internet. Since customers can enter transactions at any time of the day or night, and from any geographical location, this can be a powerful tool for expanding the customer base of a business. However, the existence of a website does not guarantee that customers will use it, or that they will return to it after a first visit. Firms investing in electronic commerce need to consider a number of factors in developing and maintaining their e-commerce sites. A successful web site should be attractive to look at and easy to use. In addition, it should offer its customers good performance, efficient service, personalization, incentives to purchase and security. Inadequate server power and communications capacity may cause customers to become frustrated when browsing or selecting products. Many sites record details of their customers’ interests, so that they can be guided to the appropriate parts of the site. Customer loyalty can also be developed by offering discussion forums and links to related sites, and by providing incentives such as discounts and special offers for regular customers. And if you expect customers to purchase goods, and not just browse, then it is vital that customers should have complete confidence in the security of their personal information, and in the ability of the web store to deliver the goods as requested. Much of the business value of the Internet lies in the ability to provide increased value to customers, with the focus on quality of service rather than simply price. By opening additional channels of communication between the business and its customers, businesses can find out the preferences of their customers, and tailor products to their needs. Customers can use the Internet to ask questions, air complaints, or request product support, which increase customer involvement in business functions such as product development and service. However, although businesses may increase their markets while gaining from reduced advertising and administration costs, problems that have emerged include alienation of regular distributors, difficulty in shipping small orders over large distances, fierce competition and inadequate profit margins. Because of the delivery problem for physical products, many successful e-commerce firms have focused on the delivery of services, such as banking, securities trading, employment agencies and travel bureaus. Of course, every problem can be regarded as an opportunity – a local software developer has created and marketed a route scheduling application which provides optimized route sheets, with maps for individual routes and step-by-step driving instructions for effective and timeous order management, based on powerful geographical information systems to provide a user-friendly interface. B2C e-commerce has also made it easier for firms to conduct market research, not only by collecting shopping statistics, but also by using questionnaires to find out what specific groups of customers want. This in turn has enabled the personalization of products to meet customer preferences. B2B e-Commerce Business-to-business e-commerce comprises the majority of electronic transactions, involving the supply chain between organizations and their distributors, resellers, suppliers and other partners. Efficient management of the supply chain can cut costs, increase profits, improve relationships with customers and suppliers, and gain competitive advantage. To achieve this, firms need to • Get the right product to the right place at the least cost; • Keep inventory as low as possible while meeting customer requirements; • Reduce cycle times by speeding up the acquisition and processing of raw materials. Information technologies used to support business-to-business e-commerce include email, EDI and EFT, product catalogues, and order processing systems. These functions may be linked to traditional accounting and business information systems, to ensure that inventory and other databases are automatically updated via web transactions. Intranets provide a facility for members of an organization to chat, hold meetings and exchange information, while at the same time sensitive information is protected from unauthorized access by means of a firewall. An extranet provides a means of access to the intranet for authorized users such as business consultants. Electronic data interchange (EDI) involves the electronic exchange of business transaction documents over computer networks, between organizations and their customers or suppliers. Value-added networks provided by third parties are frequently used for this purpose. Documents such as purchase orders, invoices and requests for quotations are electronically interchanged using standard message formats, which are specified by international protocols. EDI eliminates printing, postage and manual handling of documents, reducing time delays and errors, and thus increasing productivity. It also provides support for implementing a Justin-Time approach, which reduces lead time, lowers inventory levels, and frees capital for the business. Marketing to other businesses is done by means of electronic catalogues and auction sites, which can increase sales while reducing advertising and administrative costs. From the buyer’s perspective, reverse auctions can be used to advertise requests for quotation in a bidding marketplace in order to attract potential suppliers. Third party vendors can make use of group purchasing to aggregate a number of separate small orders in order to increase negotiating power. Collaborative commerce involves long-term relationships between organizations in areas such as demand forecasting, inventory management, and product design and manufacture. However, this presents a number of business challenges such as software integration, compatibility of technologies, and building of trust between firms. C2C e-Commerce Auctions are the most popular method of conducting business between individuals over the Internet. (Unfortunately, auction fraud was also the most common type of crime reported to the Internet Fraud Complaint Centre in 2002.) Other C2C activities include classified advertising, selling of personal services such as astrology and medical advice, and the exchange of files especially music and computer games. Electronic funds transfer Electronic payment systems can be used to transfer funds between the bank accounts of a business and its suppliers, or from a customer to the business. In retail stores, wide area networks may connect POS terminals in retail stores to bank EFT systems. In most cases, an intermediary organization acts as an automated clearinghouse, which debits and credits the relevant accounts. The most popular payment method used by individual consumers is the credit card, which requires the merchant to pay a commission to the bank on each transaction. For transactions involving small amounts that do not justify the payment of commission, merchants may accept electronic money in the form of digital cash In this case, the customer “buys” money from the bank in the form of a unique cash number, which is transmitted to the merchant at the time of purchase and “deposited” in an account at a participating bank. In South Africa several banks have developed their own forms of digital cash, such as e-bucks from First National Bank. An important issue in electronic commerce is the security of Internet transactions. Data is commonly encrypted to reduce the vulnerability of credit card transactions. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Secure Electronics Transaction (SET) are two of the standards used to secure electronic payments on the Internet. Secure sites usually have URLs that begin with https instead of the usual http. Current Issues in e-Commerce For e-commerce to succeed, companies need to make large investments in hardware and telecommunications infrastructures that will be up and running 100% of the time, and software that is easy to use and reliable. A number of early participants in the e-commerce market suffered financial losses because their technology was not able to handle the huge numbers of transactions to be processed. Internet customers are often impatient, and will move to a competing site if the response is too slow. Gaining the trust of customers can be difficult—the seller is often reluctant to despatch goods before payment, and the buyer may be reluctant to pay before receiving the goods. In South Africa, the speed of electronic ordering is often negated by delays in physical delivery. Societal problems have also emerged, with children, gamblers and shopping addicts enjoying unrestricted access to electronic commerce sites. A German cannibal posted a web advertisement seeking a victim who was willing to be killed, sliced and eaten – and apparently found one! (reported in www.iol.co.za , 18 December 2002). The laws governing electronic commerce are still in their infancy, and international standards need to be developed in areas such as information privacy and taxation. Since e-commerce supports global business transactions, it presents the challenge of customizing web sites to appeal to people of different nationalities and cultures (and even different languages). South Africa’s leading role in e-commerce in Africa can probably be attributed to the fact that it has a relatively advanced telecommunication infrastructure and a large number of English-speaking users. South African Perspective Because a website can easily be developed as a front for a fraudulent company, businesses need a way to guarantee their authenticity to potential customers. Thawte Consulting, the company established by Mark Shuttleworth after graduating from UCT and later sold to market leader Verisign, provided (among other products) digital certificates which serve two purposes: to ensure that no sensitive information can be viewed by unauthorized users, and to provide users with assurance regarding the ownership of the site. By providing certificates at a lower cost than its competitors, but with similar technological and security standards, Thawte rapidly established itself as the second largest provider of digital certificates. These non-forgeable Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) certificates are issued and digitally signed by a company such as Thawte, which has verified that the website really is owned by the organization requesting the certificate. Once the digital certificate has been installed on the site, the SSL uses complex encryption techniques to scramble confidential information. Beyond the Basics Encryption is the process of converting readable data into unreadable characters to prevent unauthorised access. Encrypted data can be safely transmitted or stored, but must be decrypted before it can be read, by using an encryption key, which is sometimes the same formula that was used to scramble it in the first place. Simple encryption methods include: • Transposition: in which the order of characters is switched, for example each pair of adjacent characters is swapped. • Substitution: in which each character is replaced by some other predetermined character. • Expansion: additional letters are inserted after each of the characters in the original text. • Compaction: characters are removed from specific positions and then stored or transmitted separately. Most encryption programs use a combination of all four methods. Private key encryption relies on both sender and recipient having access to the same encryption key. Public key encryption makes use of two keys: a message encrypted with your public key can only be decrypted using your private key. This means that you can safely communicate your public key to business contacts, who are then able to send you confidential data that can only be read using your private key. Security agencies in the United States have lobbied for some time for private keys to be independently stored, so that encrypted communications could be monitored when national security is considered to be at risk. Exercises B2C e-commerce What advantages does the customer stand to gain from B2C e-commerce, compared with traditional business models? Can you think of any potential disadvantages? C2C e-commerce Give reasons why internet auctions are a common source of fraud, and suggest control structures that could be put in place to reduce this problem. B2B e-commerce Explain how B2B e-commerce could contribute to each of the alternative strategies for competitive advantage (low-cost, differentiation, niche marketing) that were described in the previous chapter. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP) to link several billion devices worldwide. It is a network of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks of local to global scope, linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet Messenger by Buky Schwartz in Holon. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext documents and applications of the World Wide Web (WWW), the infrastructure to support email, and peer-to-peer networks for file sharing and telephony. The origins of the Internet date back to research commissioned by the United States government in the 1960s to build robust, fault-tolerant communication via computer networks. This work, combined with efforts in the United Kingdom and France, led to the primary precursor network, the ARPANET, in the United States. The interconnection of regional academic networks in the 1980s marks the beginning of the transition to the modern Internet. From the early 1990s, the network experienced sustained exponential growth as generations of institutional, personal, and mobile computers were connected to it. The funding of a new U.S. backbone by the National Science Foundation in the 1980s, as well as private funding for other commercial backbones, led to worldwide participation in the development of new networking technologies, and the merger of many networks. Though the Internet has been widely used by academia since the 1980s, the commercialization of what was by the 1990s an international network resulted in its popularization and incorporation into virtually every aspect of modern human life. As of 2014, 38 percent of the world’s human population has used the services of the Internet within the past year–over 100 times more people than were using it in 1995. Internet use grew rapidly in the West from the mid-1990s to early 2000s and from the late 1990s to present in the developing world. Contents Most traditional communications media, including telephony and television, are being reshaped or redefined by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and Internet Protocol television (IPTV). Newspaper, book, and other print publishing are adapting to website technology, or are reshaped into blogging and web feeds. The entertainment industry, including music, film, and gaming, was initially the fastest growing online segment. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of human interactions through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has grown exponentially both for major retailers and small artisans and traders. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect supply chains across entire industries. The Internet has no centralized governance in either technological implementation or policies for access and usage; each constituent network sets its own policies. Only the overreaching definitions of the two principal name spaces in the Internet, the Internet Protocol address space and the Domain Name System (DNS), are directed by a maintainer organization, the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise. Terminology The Internet, referring to the specific global system of interconnected IP networks, is a proper noun and may be written with an initial capital letter. In the media and common use it is often not capitalized, viz. the internet. Some guides specify that the word should be capitalized when used as a noun, but not capitalized when used as an adjective. The Internet is also often referred to as the Net. Historically the word internetted was used, uncapitalized, as early as 1849 as an adjective meaning “Interconnected; interwoven”. The designers of early computer networks used internet both as a noun and as a verb in shorthand form of internetwork or internetworking, meaning interconnecting computer networks. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used interchangeably in everyday speech; it is common to speak of “going on the Internet” when invoking a web browser to view web pages. However, the World Wide Webor the Web is only one of a large number of Internet services. The Web is a collection of interconnected documents (web pages) and other web resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs. As another point of comparison, Hypertext Transfer Protocol, or HTTP, is the language used on the Web for information transfer, yet it is just one of many languages or protocols that can be used for communication on the Internet. The term Interweb is a portmanteau of Internet and World Wide Web typically used sarcastically to parody a technically unsavvy user. History Text from the very first message ever sent via the ARPANET. Research into packet switching started in the early 1960s and packet switched networks such as Mark I at NPL in the UK, ARPANET, CYCLADES, Merit Network, Tymnet, and Telenet, were developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s using a variety of protocols. The ARPANET in particular led to the development of protocols for internet working, where multiple separate networks could be joined together into a network of networks. The first two nodes of what would become the ARPANET were interconnected between Leonard Kleinrock’s Network Measurement Center at the UCLA’s School of Engineering and Applied Science and Douglas Engelbart’s NLS system at SRI International (SRI) in Menlo Park, California, on 29 October 1969. The third site on the ARPANET was the Culler-Fried Interactive Mathematics center at the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the fourth was the University of UtahGraphics Department. In an early sign of future growth, there were already fifteen sites connected to the young ARPANET by the end of 1971. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing. Early international collaborations on the ARPANET were rare. European developers were concerned with developing the X.25networks. Notable exceptions were the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR) in June 1973, followed in 1973 by Sweden with satellite links to the Tanum Earth Station and Peter T. Kirstein’s research group in the UK, initially at the Institute of Computer Science, University of London and later at University College London. In December 1974, RFC 675 – Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal, and Carl Sunshine, used the term internet as a shorthand for internet working and later RFCs repeat this use. Access to the ARPANET was expanded in 1981 when the National Science Foundation (NSF) developed the Computer Science Network (CSNET). In 1982, the Internet Protocol Suite (TCP/IP) was standardized and the concept of a world-wide network of fully interconnected TCP/IP networks called the Internet was introduced. T3 NSFNET Backbone, c. 1992. TCP/IP network access expanded again in 1986 when the National Science Foundation Network (NSFNET) provided access to supercomputer sites in the United States from research and education organizations, first at 56 kbit/s and later at 1.5 Mbit/s and 45 Mbit/s. Commercial Internet service providers (ISPs) began to emerge in the late 1980s and early 1990s. The ARPANET was decommissioned in 1990. The Internet was fully commercialized in the U.S. by 1995 when NSFNET was decommissioned, removing the last restrictions on the use of the Internet to carry commercial traffic. The Internet started a rapid expansion to Europe and Australia in the mid to late 1980s and to Asia in the late 1980s and early 1990s. Since the mid-1990s the Internet has had a tremendous impact on culture and commerce, including the rise of near instant communication by email, instant messaging, Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) “phone calls”, two-way interactive video calls, and the World Wide Web with its discussion forums, blogs, social networking, and online shopping sites. Increasing amounts of data are transmitted at higher and higher speeds over fiber optic networks operating at 1-Gbit/s, 10-Gbit/s, or more. Worldwide Internet users 2005 2010 2014a World population 6.5 billion 6.9 billion 7.2 billion Not using the Internet 84% 70% 60% Using the Internet 16% 30% 40% Users in the developing world 8% 21% 32% Users in the developed world 51% 67% 78% aEstimate. Source: International Telecommunications Union. The Internet continues to grow, driven by ever greater amounts of online information and knowledge, commerce, entertainment and social networking. During the late 1990s, it was estimated that traffic on the public Internet grew by 100 percent per year, while the mean annual growth in the number of Internet users was thought to be between 20% and 50%. This growth is often attributed to the lack of central administration, which allows organic growth of the network, as well as the non-proprietary open nature of the Internet protocols, which encourages vendor interoperability and prevents any one company from exerting too much control over the network. As of 31 March 2011, the estimated total number of Internet users was 2.095 billion (30.2% of world population). It is estimated that in 1993 the Internet carried only 1% of the information flowing through two-way telecommunication, by 2000 this figure had grown to 51%, and by 2007 more than 97% of all telecommunicated information was carried over the Internet. Governance ICANN headquarters in the Playa Vista neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, United States. The Internet is a globally distributed network comprising many voluntarily interconnected autonomous networks. It operates without a central governing body. The technical underpinning and standardization of the core protocols (IPv4 and IPv6) is an activity of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), a non-profit organization of loosely affiliated international participants that anyone may associate with by contributing technical expertise. To maintain interoperability, the principal name spaces of the Internet are administered by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN), headquartered in the neighborhood of Playa Vista in the city of Los Angeles, California. ICANN is the authority that coordinates the assignment of unique identifiers for use on the Internet, including domain names, Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, application port numbers in the transport protocols, and many other parameters. Globally unified name spaces, in which names and numbers are uniquely assigned, are essential for maintaining the global reach of the Internet. ICANN is governed by an international board of directors drawn from across the Internet technical, business, academic, and other non-commercial communities. ICANN’s role in coordinating the assignment of unique identifiers distinguishes it as perhaps the only central coordinating body for the global Internet. Regional Internet Registries (RIRs) allocate IP addresses: • African Network Information Center (AfriNIC) for Africa • American Registry for Internet Numbers (ARIN) for North America • Asia-Pacific Network Information Centre (APNIC) for Asia and the Pacific region • Latin American and Caribbean Internet Addresses Registry (LACNIC) for Latin America and the Caribbean region • Réseaux IP Européens – Network Coordination Centre (RIPE NCC) for Europe, the Middle East, and Central Asia The National Telecommunications and Information Administration, an agency of the United States Department of Commerce, continues to have final approval over changes to the DNS root zone. The Internet Society (ISOC) was founded in 1992 with a mission to “assure the open development, evolution and use of the Internet for the benefit of all people throughout the world”. Its members include individuals (anyone may join) as well as corporations, organizations, governments, and universities. Among other activities ISOC provides an administrative home for a number of less formally organized groups that are involved in developing and managing the Internet, including: the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), Internet Architecture Board (IAB), Internet Engineering Steering Group (IESG), Internet Research Task Force (IRTF), and Internet Research Steering Group (IRSG). On 16 November 2005, the United Nations-sponsored World Summit on the Information Society, held in Tunis, established the Internet Governance Forum(IGF) to discuss Internet-related issues. Infrastructure The communications infrastructure of the Internet consists of its hardware components and a system of software layers that control various aspects of the architecture. Routing and service tiers Packet routing across the Internet involves several tiers of Internet service providers. Internet service providers establish the world-wide connectivity between individual networks at various levels of scope. End-users who only access the Internet when needed to perform a function or obtain information, represent the bottom of the routing hierarchy. At the top of the routing hierarchy are the tier 1 networks, large telecommunication companies that exchange traffic directly with each other via peering agreements. Tier 2 and lower level networks buyInternet transit from other providers to reach at least some parties on the global Internet, though they may also engage in peering. An ISP may use a single upstream provider for connectivity, or implement multihoming to achieve redundancy and load balancing. Internet exchange points are major traffic exchanges with physical connections to multiple ISPs. Large organizations, such as academic institutions, large enterprises, and governments, may perform the same function as ISPs, engaging in peering and purchasing transit on behalf of their internal networks. Research networks tend to interconnect with large subnetworks such as GEANT, GLORIAD, Internet2, and the UK’s national research and education network, JANET. It has been determined that both the Internet IP routing structure and hypertext links of the World Wide Web are examples of scale-free networks. Computers and routers use routing tables in their operating system to direct IP packets to the next-hop router or destination. Routing tables are maintained by manual configuration or automatically by routing protocols. End-nodes typically use a default route that points toward an ISP providing transit, while ISP routers use the Border Gateway Protocol to establish the most efficient routing across the complex connections of the global Internet. Access Common methods of Internet access by users include dial-up with a computer modem via telephone circuits, broadband over coaxial cable, fiber optic or copper wires, Wi-Fi, satellite and cellular telephone technology (3G, 4G). The Internet may often be accessed from computers in libraries and Internet cafes.Internet access points exist in many public places such as airport halls and coffee shops. Various terms are used, such as public Internet kiosk, public access terminal, and Web payphone. Many hotels also have public terminals, though these are usually fee-based. These terminals are widely accessed for various usage, such as ticket booking, bank deposit, or online payment. Wi-Fi provides wireless access to the Internet via local computer networks. Hotspots providing such access include Wi-Fi cafes, where users need to bring their own wireless-enabled devices such as a laptop or PDA. These services may be free to all, free to customers only, or fee-based. Grassroots efforts have led to wireless community networks. Commercial Wi-Fi services covering large city areas are in place in London, Vienna, Toronto, San Francisco, Philadelphia, Chicago and Pittsburgh. The Internet can then be accessed from such places as a park bench. Apart from Wi-Fi, there have been experiments with proprietary mobile wireless networks like Ricochet, various high-speed data services over cellular phone networks, and fixed wireless services. High-end mobile phones such as smartphones in general come with Internet access through the phone network. Web browsers such as Opera are available on these advanced handsets, which can also run a wide variety of other Internet software. More mobile phones have Internet access than PCs, though this is not as widely used. An Internet access provider and protocol matrix differentiates the methods used to get online. Protocols While the hardware components in the Internet infrastructure can often be used to support other software systems, it is the design and the standardization process of the software that characterizes the Internet and provides the foundation for its scalability and success. The responsibility for the architectural design of the Internet software systems has been assumed by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). The IETF conducts standard-setting work groups, open to any individual, about the various aspects of Internet architecture. Resulting contributions and standards are published as Request for Comments (RFC) documents on the IETF web site. The principal methods of networking that enable the Internet are contained in specially designated RFCs that constitute the Internet Standards. Other less rigorous documents are simply informative, experimental, or historical, or document the best current practices (BCP) when implementing Internet technologies. The Internet standards describe a framework known as the Internet protocol suite. This is a model architecture that divides methods into a layered system of protocols, originally documented in RFC 1122 and RFC 1123. The layers correspond to the environment or scope in which their services operate. At the top is the application layer, the space for the application-specific networking methods used in software applications. For example, a web browser program uses the client-server application model and a specific protocol of interaction between servers and clients, while many file-sharing systems use a peer-to-peer paradigm. Below this top layer, the transport layer connects applications on different hosts with a logical channel through the network with appropriate data exchange methods. Underlying these layers are the networking technologies that interconnect networks at their borders and hosts via the physical connections. The internet layeren ables computers to identify and locate each other via Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, and routes their traffic via intermediate (transit) networks. Last, at the bottom of the architecture is the link layer, which provides connectivity between hosts on the same network link, such as a physical connection in form of a local area network (LAN) or a dial-up connection. The model, also known as TCP/IP, is designed to be independent of the underlying hardware, which the model therefore does not concern itself with in any detail. Other models have been developed, such as the OSI model, that attempt to be comprehensive in every aspect of communications. While many similarities exist between the models, they are not compatible in the details of description or implementation; indeed, TCP/IP protocols are usually included in the discussion of OSI networking. As user data is processed through the protocol stack, each abstraction layer adds encapsulation information at the sending host. Data is transmitted over the wire at the link level between hosts and routers. Encapsulation is removed by the receiving host. Intermediate relays update link encapsulation at each hop, and inspect the IP layer for routing purposes. The most prominent component of the Internet model is the Internet Protocol (IP), which provides addressing systems (IP addresses) for computers on the Internet. IP enables internet working and in essence establishes the Internet itself. Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) is the initial version used on the first generation of the Internet and is still in dominant use. It was designed to address up to ~4.3 billion (109) Internet hosts. However, the explosive growth of the Internet has led to IPv4 address exhaustion, which entered its final stage in 2011, when the global address allocation pool was exhausted. A new protocol version, IPv6, was developed in the mid-1990s, which provides vastly larger addressing capabilities and more efficient routing of Internet traffic. IPv6 is currently in growing deployment around the world, since Internet address registries (RIRs) began to urge all resource managers to plan rapid adoption and conversion. IPv6 is not directly interoperable by design with IPv4. In essence, it establishes a parallel version of the Internet not directly accessible with IPv4 software. This means software upgrades or translator facilities are necessary for networking devices that need to communicate on both networks. Essentially all modern computer operating systems support both versions of the Internet Protocol. Network infrastructure, however, is still lagging in this development. Aside from the complex array of physical connections that make up its infrastructure, the Internet is facilitated by bi- or multi-lateral commercial contracts, e.g., peering agreements, and by technical specifications or protocols that describe how to exchange data over the network. Indeed, the Internet is defined by its interconnections and routing policies. Services The Internet carries many network services, most prominently the World Wide Web, electronic mail, Internet telephony, and File sharing services. World Wide Web This NeXT Computer was used by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN and became the world’s first Web server. Many people use the terms Internet and World Wide Web, or just the Web, interchangeably, but the two terms are not synonymous. The World Wide Web is only one of hundreds of services used on the Internet. The Web is a global set of documents, images and other resources, logically interrelated by hyperlinks and referenced with Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs). URIs symbolically identify services, servers, and other databases, and the documents and resources that they can provide. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is the main access protocol of the World Wide Web. Web services also use HTTP to allow software systems to communicate in order to share and exchange business logic and data. World Wide Web browser software, such as Microsoft’s Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Opera, Apple’s Safari, and Google Chrome, lets users navigate from one web page to another via hyperlinks embedded in the documents. These documents may also contain any combination of computer data, including graphics, sounds, text, video, multimedia and interactive content that runs while the user is interacting with the page. Client-side software can include animations, games, office applications and scientific demonstrations. Through keyword-driven Internet research using search engines like Yahoo! and Google, users worldwide have easy, instant access to a vast and diverse amount of online information. Compared to printed media, books, encyclopedias and traditional libraries, the World Wide Web has enabled the decentralization of information on a large scale. The Web has also enabled individuals and organizations to publish ideas and information to a potentially large audience online at greatly reduced expense and time delay. Publishing a web page, a blog, or building a website involves little initial cost and many cost-free services are available. However, publishing and maintaining large, professional web sites with attractive, diverse and up-to-date information is still a difficult and expensive proposition. Many individuals and some companies and groups use web logs or blogs, which are largely used as easily updatable online diaries. Some commercial organizations encouragestaff to communicate advice in their areas of specialization in the hope that visitors will be impressed by the expert knowledge and free information, and be attracted to the corporation as a result. One example of this practice is Microsoft, whose product developers publish their personal blogs in order to pique the public’s interest in their work. Collections of personal web pages published by large service providers remain popular, and have become increasingly sophisticated. Whereas operations such as Angelfire and GeoCities have existed since the early days of the Web, newer offerings from, for example, Facebook and Twitter currently have large followings. These operations often brand themselves as social network services rather than simply as web page hosts. Advertising on popular web pages can be lucrative, and e-commerce or the sale of products and services directly via the Web continues to grow. When the Web developed in the 1990s, a typical web page was stored in completed form on a web server, formatted in HTML, complete for transmission to a web browser in response to a request. Over time, the process of creating and serving web pages has become dynamic, creating flexible design, layout, and content. Websites are often created using content management software with, initially, very little content. Contributors to these systems, who may be paid staff, members of an organization or the public, fill underlying databases with content using editing pages designed for that purpose, while casual visitors view and read this content in HTML form. There may or may not be editorial, approval and security systems built into the process of taking newly entered content and making it available to the target visitors. Communication Email is an important communications service available on the Internet. The concept of sending electronic text messages between parties in a way analogous to mailing letters or memos predates the creation of the Internet. Pictures, documents and other files are sent as email attachments. Emails can be cc-ed to multiple email addresses. Internet telephony is another common communications service made possible by the creation of the Internet. VoIP stands for Voice-over-Internet Protocol, referring to the protocol that underlies all Internet communication. The idea began in the early 1990s with walkie-talkie-like voice applications for personal computers. In recent years many VoIP systems have become as easy to use and as convenient as a normal telephone. The benefit is that, as the Internet carries the voice traffic, VoIP can be free or cost much less than a traditional telephone call, especially over long distances and especially for those with always-on Internet connections such as cable or ADSL. VoIP is maturing into a competitive alternative to traditional telephone service. Interoperability between different providers has improved and the ability to call or receive a call from a traditional telephone is available. Simple, inexpensive VoIP network adapters are available that eliminate the need for a personal computer. Voice quality can still vary from call to call, but is often equal to and can even exceed that of traditional calls. Remaining problems for VoIP include emergency telephone number dialing and reliability. Currently, a few VoIP providers provide an emergency service, but it is not universally available. Older traditional phones with no “extra features” may be line-powered only and operate during a power failure; VoIP can never do so without a backup power source for the phone equipment and the Internet access devices. VoIP has also become increasingly popular for gaming applications, as a form of communication between players. Popular VoIP clients for gaming include Ventrilo and Teamspeak. Modern video game consoles also offer VoIP chat features. Data transfer File sharing is an example of transferring large amounts of data across the Internet. A computer file can be emailed to customers, colleagues and friends as an attachment. It can be uploaded to a website or FTP server for easy download by others. It can be put into a “shared location” or onto a file server for instant use by colleagues. The load of bulk downloads to many users can be eased by the use of “mirror” servers or peer-to-peer networks. In any of these cases, access to the file may be controlled by user authentication, the transit of the file over the Internet may be obscured by encryption, and money may change hands for access to the file. The price can be paid by the remote charging of funds from, for example, a credit card whose details are also passed – usually fully encrypted – across the Internet. The origin and authenticity of the file received may be checked by digital signatures or by MD5 or other message digests. These simple features of the Internet, over a worldwide basis, are changing the production, sale, and distribution of anything that can be reduced to a computer file for transmission. This includes all manner of print publications, software products, news, music, film, video, photography, graphics and the other arts. This in turn has caused seismic shifts in each of the existing industries that previously controlled the production and distribution of these products. Streaming media is the real-time delivery of digital media for the immediate consumption or enjoyment by end users. Many radio and television broadcasters provide Internet feeds of their live audio and video productions. They may also allow time-shift viewing or listening such as Preview, Classic Clips and Listen Again features. These providers have been joined by a range of pure Internet “broadcasters” who never had on-air licenses. This means that an Internet-connected device, such as a computer or something more specific, can be used to access on-line media in much the same way as was previously possible only with a television or radio receiver. The range of available types of content is much wider, from specialized technical webcasts to on-demand popular multimedia services. Podcasting is a variation on this theme, where – usually audio – material is downloaded and played back on a computer or shifted to a portable media player to be listened to on the move. These techniques using simple equipment allow anybody, with little censorship or licensing control, to broadcast audio-visual material worldwide. Digital media streaming increases the demand for network bandwidth. For example, standard image quality needs 1 Mbit/s link speed for SD 480p, HD 720p quality requires 2.5 Mbit/s, and the top-of-the-line HDX quality needs 4.5 Mbit/s for 1080p. Webcams are a low-cost extension of this phenomenon. While some webcams can give full-frame-rate video, the picture either is usually small or updates slowly. Internet users can watch animals around an African waterhole, ships in the Panama Canal, traffic at a local roundabout or monitor their own premises, live and in real time. Video chat rooms and video conferencing are also popular with many uses being found for personal webcams, with and without two-way sound. YouTube was founded on 15 February 2005 and is now the leading website for free streaming video with a vast number of users. It uses a flash-based web player to stream and show video files. Registered users may upload an unlimited amount of video and build their own personal profile. YouTube claims that its users watch hundreds of millions, and upload hundreds of thousands of videos daily. Currently, YouTube also uses an HTML5 player. Social impact The Internet has enabled new forms of social interaction, activities, and social associations. Users Internet users per 100 inhabitants Internet users by language. Website content languages. Overall Internet usage has seen tremendous growth. From 2000 to 2009, the number of Internet users globally rose from 394 million to 1.858 billion. By 2010, 22 percent of the world’s population had access to computers with 1 billion Google searches every day, 300 million Internet users reading blogs, and 2 billion videos viewed daily on YouTube. In 2014 the world’s Internet users surpassed 3 billion or 43.6 percent of world population, but two-thirds of the users came from richest countries, with 78.0 percent of Europe countries population using the Internet, followed by 57.4 percent of the Americas. The prevalent language for communication on the Internet has been English. This may be a result of the origin of the Internet, as well as the language’s role as a lingua franca. Early computer systems were limited to the characters in the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII), a subset of the Latin alphabet. After English (27%), the most requested languages on the World Wide Web are Chinese (25%), Spanish (8%), Japanese (5%), Portuguese and German (4% each), Arabic, French and Russian (3% each), and Korean (2%). By region, 42% of the world’s Internet users are based in Asia, 24% in Europe, 14% in North America, 10% in Latin America and the Caribbean taken together, 6% in Africa, 3% in the Middle East and 1% in Australia/Oceania. The Internet’s technologies have developed enough in recent years, especially in the use of Unicode, that good facilities are available for development and communication in the world’s widely used languages. However, some glitches such as mojibake (incorrect display of some languages’ characters) still remain. In an American study in 2005, the percentage of men using the Internet was very slightly ahead of the percentage of women, although this difference reversed in those under 30. Men logged on more often, spent more time online, and were more likely to be broadband users, whereas women tended to make more use of opportunities to communicate (such as email). Men were more likely to use the Internet to pay bills, participate in auctions, and for recreation such as downloading music and videos. Men and women were equally likely to use the Internet for shopping and banking. More recent studies indicate that in 2008, women significantly outnumbered men on most social networking sites, such as Facebook and Myspace, although the ratios varied with age. In addition, women watched more streaming content, whereas men downloaded more. In terms of blogs, men were more likely to blog in the first place; among those who blog, men were more likely to have a professional blog, whereas women were more likely to have a personal blog. According to forecasts by Euromonitor International, 44% of the world’s population will be users of the Internet by 2020. Splitting by country, in 2012 Iceland, Norway, Sweden, the Netherlands, and Denmark had the highest Internet penetration by the number of users, with 93% or more of the population with access. Several neologisms exist that refer to Internet users: Netizen (as in as in “citizen of the net”) refers to those actively involved in improving online communities, the Internet in general or surrounding political affairs and rights such as free speech, Internaut refers to operators or technically highly capable users of the Internet, digital citizen refers to a person using the Internet in order to engage in society, politics, and government participation. Usage The Internet allows greater flexibility in working hours and location, especially with the spread of unmetered high-speed connections. The Internet can be accessed almost anywhere by numerous means, including through mobile Internet devices. Mobile phones, data cards, handheld game consoles and cellular routers allow users to connect to the Internet wirelessly. Within the limitations imposed by small screens and other limited facilities of such pocket-sized devices, the services of the Internet, including email and the web, may be available. Service providers may restrict the services offered and mobile data charges may be significantly higher than other access methods. Educational material at all levels from pre-school to post-doctoral is available from websites. Examples range from CBeebies, through school and high-school revision guides and virtual universities, to access to top-end scholarly literature through the likes of Google Scholar. For distance education, help with homework and other assignments, self-guided learning, whiling away spare time, or just looking up more detail on an interesting fact, it has never been easier for people to access educational information at any level from anywhere. The Internet in general and the World Wide Web in particular are important enablers of both formal and informal education. Further, the Internet allows universities, in particular researchers from the social and behavioral sciences, to conduct research remotely via virtual laboratories, with profound changes in reach and generalizability of findings as well as in communication between scientists and in the publication of results. The low cost and nearly instantaneous sharing of ideas, knowledge, and skills has made collaborative work dramatically easier, with the help of collaborative software. Not only can a group cheaply communicate and share ideas but the wide reach of the Internet allows such groups more easily to form. An example of this is the free software movement, which has produced, among other things, Linux, Mozilla Firefox, and OpenOffice.org. Internet chat, whether using an IRC chat room, an instant messaging system, or a social networking website, allows colleagues to stay in touch in a very convenient way while working at their computers during the day. Messages can be exchanged even more quickly and conveniently than via email. These systems may allow files to be exchanged, drawings and images to be shared, or voice and video contact between team members. Content management systems allow collaborating teams to work on shared sets of documents simultaneously without accidentally destroying each other’s work. Business and project teams can share calendars as well as documents and other information. Such collaboration occurs in a wide variety of areas including scientific research, software development, conference planning, political activism and creative writing. Social and political collaboration is also becoming more widespread as both Internet access and computer literacy spread. The Internet allows computer users to remotely access other computers and information stores easily, wherever they may be. They may do this with or without computer security, i.e. authentication and encryption technologies, depending on the requirements. This is encouraging new ways of working from home, collaboration and information sharing in many industries. An accountant sitting at home can audit the books of a company based in another country, on a server situated in a third country that is remotely maintained by IT specialists in a fourth. These accounts could have been created by home-working bookkeepers, in other remote locations, based on information emailed to them from offices all over the world. Some of these things were possible before the widespread use of the Internet, but the cost of private leased lines would have made many of them infeasible in practice. An office worker away from their desk, perhaps on the other side of the world on a business trip or a holiday, can access their emails, access their data using cloud computing, or open a remote desktop session into their office PC using a secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) connection on the Internet. This can give the worker complete access to all of their normal files and data, including email and other applications, while away from the office. It has been referred to among system administrators as the Virtual Private Nightmare, because it extends the secure perimeter of a corporate network into remote locations and its employees’ homes. Social networking and entertainment Many people use the World Wide Web to access news, weather and sports reports, to plan and book vacations and to pursue their personal interests. People use chat, messaging and email to make and stay in touch with friends worldwide, sometimes in the same way as some previously had pen pals. Social networking websites such as Facebook, Twitter, and Myspace have created new ways to socialize and interact. Users of these sites are able to add a wide variety of information to pages, to pursue common interests, and to connect with others. It is also possible to find existing acquaintances, to allow communication among existing groups of people. Sites like LinkedIn foster commercial and business connections. YouTube and Flickr specialize in users’ videos and photographs. While social networking sites were initially for individuals only, today they are widely used by businesses and other organizations to promote their brands, to market to their customers and to encourage posts to “go viral”. “Black hat” social media techniques are also employed by some organizations, such as spam accounts and astroturfing. A risk for both individuals and organizations writing posts (especially public posts) on social networking websites, is that especially foolish or controversial posts occasionally lead to an unexpected and possibly large-scale backlash on social media from other internet users. This is also a risk in relation to controversial offline behavior, if it is widely made known. The nature of this backlash can range widely from counter-arguments and public mockery, through insults and hate speech, to, in extreme cases, rape and death threats. The online disinhibition effect describes the tendency of many individuals to behave more stridently or offensively online than they would in person. A significant number of feminist women have been the target of various forms of harassment in response to posts they have made on social media, and Twitter in particular has been criticised in the past for not doing enough to aid victims of online abuse. For organizations, such a backlash can cause overall brand damage, especially if reported by the media. However, this is not always the case, as any brand damage in the eyes of people with an opposing opinion to that presented by the organization could sometimes be outweighed by strengthening the brand in the eyes of others. Furthermore, if an organization or individual gives in to demands that others perceive as wrong-headed, that can then provoke a counter-backlash. Some websites, such as Reddit, have rules forbidding the posting of personal information of individuals (also known as doxxing), due to concerns about such postings leading to mobs of large numbers of Internet users directing harassment at the specific individuals thereby identified. In particular, the Reddit rule forbidding the posting of personal information is widely understood to imply that all identifying photos and names must be censored in Facebook screenshots posted to Reddit. However, the interpretation of this rule in relation to public Twitter posts is less clear, and in any case like-minded people online have many other ways they can use to direct each other’s attention to public social media posts they disagree with. Children also face dangers online such as cyberbullying and approaches by sexual predators, who sometimes pose as children themselves. Children may also encounter material which they may find upsetting, or material which their parents consider to be not age-appropriate. Due to naivety, they may also post personal information about themselves online, which could put them or their families at risk, unless warned not to do so. Many parents choose to enable internet filtering, and/or supervise their children’s online activities, in an attempt to protect their children from inappropriate material on the internet. The most popular social networking websites, such as Facebook and Twitter, commonly forbid users under the age of 13. However, these policies are typically trivial to circumvent by registering an account with a false birth date, and a significant number of children aged under 13 join such sites anyway. Social networking sites for younger children, which claim to provide better levels of protection for children, also exist. The Internet has been a major outlet for leisure activity since its inception, with entertaining social experiments such as MUDs and MOOs being conducted on university servers, and humor-related Usenet groups receiving much traffic. Today, many Internet forums have sections devoted to games and funny videos. Over 6 million people use blogs or message boards as a means of communication and for the sharing of ideas. The Internet pornography and online gambling industries have taken advantage of the World Wide Web, and often provide a significant source of advertising revenue for other websites. Although many governments have attempted to restrict both industries’ use of the Internet, in general this has failed to stop their widespread popularity. Image created for a GameSpy contest. Another area of leisure activity on the Internet is multiplayer gaming. This form of recreation creates communities, where people of all ages and origins enjoy the fast-paced world of multiplayer games. These range from MMORPG to first-person shooters, from role-playing video games to online gambling. While online gaming has been around since the 1970s, modern modes of online gaming began with subscription services such as GameSpy and MPlayer. Non-subscribers were limited to certain types of game play or certain games. Many people use the Internet to access and download music, movies and other works for their enjoyment and relaxation. Free and fee-based services exist for all of these activities, using centralized servers and distributed peer-to-peer technologies. Some of these sources exercise more care with respect to the original artists’ copyrights than others. Internet usage has been correlated to users’ loneliness. Lonely people tend to use the Internet as an outlet for their feelings and to share their stories with others, such as in the “I am lonely will anyone speak to me” thread. Cybersectarianism is a new organizational form which involves: “highly dispersed small groups of practitioners that may remain largely anonymous within the larger social context and operate in relative secrecy, while still linked remotely to a larger network of believers who share a set of practices and texts, and often a common devotion to a particular leader. Overseas supporters provide funding and support; domestic practitioners distribute tracts, participate in acts of resistance, and share information on the internal situation with outsiders. Collectively, members and practitioners of such sects construct viable virtual communities of faith, exchanging personal testimonies and engaging in collective study via email, on-line chat rooms and web-based message boards.” In particular, the British government has raised concerns about the prospect of young British Muslims being indoctrinated into Islamic extremism by material on the Internet, being persuaded to join terrorist groups such as the so-called “Islamic State”, and then potentially committing acts of terrorism on returning to Britain after fighting in Syria or Iraq. Cyberslacking can become a drain on corporate resources; the average UK employee spent 57 minutes a day surfing the Web while at work, according to a 2003 study by Peninsula Business Services. Internet addiction disorder is excessive computer use that interferes with daily life. Psychologist Nicolas Carr believe that Internet use has other effects on individuals, for instance improving skills of scan-reading and interfering with the deep thinking that leads to true creativity. Electronic business Electronic business (e-business) encompasses business processes spanning the entire value chain: purchasing, supply chain management, marketing, sales, customer service, and business relationship. E-commerce seeks to add revenue streams using the Internet to build and enhance relationships with clients and partners. According to International Data Corporation, the size of worldwide e-commerce, when global business-to-business and -consumer transactions are combined, equate to \$16 trillion for 2013. A report by Oxford Economics adds those two together to estimate the total size of the digital economy at \$20.4 trillion, equivalent to roughly 13.8% of global sales. Drawbacks While much has been written of the economic advantages of Internet-enabled commerce, there is also evidence that some aspects of the Internet such as maps and location-aware services may serve to reinforce economic inequality and the digital divide. Electronic commerce may be responsible for consolidation and the decline of mom-and-pop, brick and mortar businesses resulting in increases in income inequality. Author Andrew Keen, a long-time critic of the social transformations caused by the Internet, has recently focused on the economic effects of consolidation from Internet businesses. Keen cites a 2013 Institute for Local Self-Reliance report saying brick-and-mortar retailers employ 47 people for every \$10 million in sales, while Amazon employs only 14. Similarly, the 700-employee room rental start-up Airbnb was valued at \$10 billion in 2014, about half as much as Hilton Hotels, which employs 152,000 people. And car-sharing Internet startup Uber employs 1,000 full-time employees and is valued at \$18.2 billion, about the same valuation as Avis and Hertz combined, which together employ almost 60,000 people. Telecommuting Remote work is facilitated by tools such as groupware, virtual private networks, conference calling, videoconferencing, and Voice over IP (VOIP). It can be efficient and useful for companies as it allows workers to communicate over long distances, saving significant amounts of travel time and cost. As broadbandInternet connections become more commonplace, more and more workers have adequate bandwidth at home to use these tools to link their home to their corporate intranet and internal phone networks. Crowdsourcing Internet provides a particularly good venue for crowdsourcing (outsourcing tasks to a distributed group of people) since individuals tend to be more open in web-based projects where they are not being physically judged or scrutinized and thus can feel more comfortable sharing. Crowdsourcing systems are used to accomplish a variety of tasks. For example, the crowd may be invited to develop a new technology, carry out a design task, refine or carry out the steps of an algorithm (see human-based computation), or help capture, systematize, or analyze large amounts of data (see also citizen science). Wikis have also been used in the academic community for sharing and dissemination of information across institutional and international boundaries. In those settings, they have been found useful for collaboration on grant writing, strategic planning, departmental documentation, and committee work. The United States Patent and Trademark Office uses a wiki to allow the public to collaborate on finding prior art relevant to examination of pending patent applications. Queens, New York has used a wiki to allow citizens to collaborate on the design and planning of a local park. The English Wikipedia has the largest user base among wikis on the World Wide Web and ranks in the top 10 among all Web sites in terms of traffic. Politics and political revolutions Banner in Bangkok during the 2014 Thai coup d’état, informing the Thai public that ‘like’ or ‘share’ activities on social media could result in imprisonment (observed June 30, 2014). The Internet has achieved new relevance as a political tool. The presidential campaign of Howard Dean in 2004 in the United States was notable for its success in soliciting donation via the Internet. Many political groups use the Internet to achieve a new method of organizing for carrying out their mission, having given rise to Internet activism, most notably practiced by rebels in the Arab Spring. The New York Times suggested that social media websites, such as Facebook and Twitter, helped people organize the political revolutions in Egypt, by helping activists organize protests, communicate grievances, and disseminate information. The potential of the Internet as a civic tool of communicative power was explored by Simon R. B. Berdal in his 2004 thesis: As the globally evolving Internet provides ever new access points to virtual discourse forums, it also promotes new civic relations and associations within which communicative power may flow and accumulate. Thus, traditionally … national-embedded peripheries get entangled into greater, international peripheries, with stronger combined powers… The Internet, as a consequence, changes the topology of the “centre-periphery” model, by stimulating conventional peripheries to interlink into “super-periphery” structures, which enclose and “besiege” several centers at once. Berdal, therefore, extends the Habermasian notion of the Public sphere to the Internet, and underlines the inherent global and civic nature that interwoven Internet technologies provide. To limit the growing civic potential of the Internet, Berdal also notes how “self-protective measures” are put in place by those threatened by it: If we consider China’s attempts to filter “unsuitable material” from the Internet, most of us would agree that this resembles a self-protective measure by the system against the growing civic potentials of the Internet. Nevertheless, both types represent limitations to “peripheral capacities”. Thus, the Chinese government tries to prevent communicative power to build up and unleash (as the 1989 Tiananmen Square uprising suggests, the government may find it wise to install “upstream measures”). Even though limited, the Internet is proving to be an empowering tool also to the Chinese periphery: Analysts believe that Internet petitions have influenced policy implementation in favor of the public’s online-articulated will … Incidents of politically motivated Internet censorship have now been recorded in many countries, including western democracies. Philanthropy The spread of low-cost Internet access in developing countries has opened up new possibilities for peer-to-peer charities, which allow individuals to contribute small amounts to charitable projects for other individuals. Websites, such as DonorsChoose and GlobalGiving, allow small-scale donors to direct funds to individual projects of their choice. A popular twist on Internet-based philanthropy is the use of peer-to-peer lending for charitable purposes. Kiva pioneered this concept in 2005, offering the first web-based service to publish individual loan profiles for funding. Kiva raises funds for local intermediary microfinance organizations which post stories and updates on behalf of the borrowers. Lenders can contribute as little as \$25 to loans of their choice, and receive their money back as borrowers repay. Kiva falls short of being a pure peer-to-peer charity, in that loans are disbursed before being funded by lenders and borrowers do not communicate with lenders themselves. However, the recent spread of low cost Internet access in developing countries has made genuine international person-to-person philanthropy increasingly feasible. In 2009 the US-based nonprofit Zidisha tapped into this trend to offer the first person-to-person microfinance platform to link lenders and borrowers across international borders without intermediaries. Members can fund loans for as little as a dollar, which the borrowers then use to develop business activities that improve their families’ incomes while repaying loans to the members with interest. Borrowers access the Internet via public cybercafes, donated laptops in village schools, and even smart phones, then create their own profile pages through which they share photos and information about themselves and their businesses. As they repay their loans, borrowers continue to share updates and dialogue with lenders via their profile pages. This direct web-based connection allows members themselves to take on many of the communication and recording tasks traditionally performed by local organizations, bypassing geographic barriers and dramatically reducing the cost of microfinance services to the entrepreneurs. Security Many computer scientists describe the Internet as a “prime example of a large-scale, highly engineered, yet highly complex system”. The structure was found to be highly robust to random failures, yet, very vulnerable to intentional attacks. The Internet structure and its usage characteristics have been studied extensively and the possibility of developing alternative structures has been investigated. Internet resources, hardware and software components, are the target of malicious attempts to gain unauthorized control to cause interruptions, or access private information. Such attempts include computer viruses which copy with the help of humans, computer worms which copy themselves automatically, denial of service attacks, ransomware, botnets, and spyware that reports on the activity and typing of users. Usually these activities constitute cybercrime. Defense theorists have also speculated about the possibilities of cyber warfare using similar methods on a large scale. Surveillance The vast majority of computer surveillance involves the monitoring of data and traffic on the Internet. In the United States for example, under the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, all phone calls and broadband Internet traffic (emails, web traffic, instant messaging, etc.) are required to be available for unimpeded real-time monitoring by Federal law enforcement agencies. Packet capture (also sometimes referred to as “packet sniffing”) is the monitoring of data traffic on a computer network. Computers communicate over the Internet by breaking up messages (emails, images, videos, web pages, files, etc.) into small chunks called “packets”, which are routed through a network of computers, until they reach their destination, where they are assembled back into a complete “message” again. Packet Capture Appliance intercepts these packets as they are traveling through the network, in order to examine their contents using other programs. A packet capture is an information gathering tool, but not an analysis tool. That is it gathers “messages” but it does not analyze them and figure out what they mean. Other programs are needed to perform traffic analysis and sift through intercepted data looking for important/useful information. Under the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act all U.S. telecommunications providers are required to install packet sniffing technology to allow Federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies to intercept all of their customers’ broadband Internet and voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) traffic. There is far too much data gathered by these packet sniffers for human investigators to manually search through all of it. So automated Internet surveillance computers sift through the vast amount of intercepted Internet traffic, and filter out and report to human investigators those bits of information which are “interesting”—such as the use of certain words or phrases, visiting certain types of web sites, or communicating via email or chat with a certain individual or group. Billions of dollars per year are spent, by agencies such as the Information Awareness Office, NSA, GCHQ and the FBI, to develop, purchase, implement, and operate systems which intercept and analyze all of this data, and extract only the information which is useful to law enforcement and intelligence agencies. Similar systems are now operated by Iranian secret police to identify and suppress dissidents. All required hardware and software has been allegedly installed by German Siemens AG and Finnish Nokia. Censorship Internet censorship and surveillance by country Some governments, such as those of Burma, Iran, North Korea, the Mainland China,Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates restrict access to content on the Internet within their territories, especially to political and religious content, with domain name and keyword filters. In Norway, Denmark, Finland, and Sweden, major Internet service providers have voluntarily agreed to restrict access to sites listed by authorities. While this list of forbidden resources is supposed to contain only known child pornography sites, the content of the list is secret. Many countries, including the United States, have enacted laws against the possession or distribution of certain material, such as child pornography, via the Internet, but do not mandate filter software. Many free or commercially available software programs, called content-control software are available to users to block offensive websites on individual computers or networks, in order to limit access by children to pornographic material or depiction of violence. Performance As the Internet is a heterogeneous network, the physical characteristics, including for example the data transfer rates of connections, vary widely. It exhibits emergent phenomena that depend on its large-scale organization. Outages An Internet blackout or outage can be caused by local signaling interruptions. Disruptions of submarine communications cables may cause blackouts or slowdowns to large areas, such as in the 2008 submarine cable disruption. Less-developed countries are more vulnerable due to a small number of high-capacity links. Land cables are also vulnerable, as in 2011 when a woman digging for scrap metal severed most connectivity for the nation of Armenia. Internet blackouts affecting almost entire countries can be achieved by governments as a form of Internet censorship, as in the blockage of the Internet in Egypt, whereby approximately 93% of networks were without access in 2011 in an attempt to stop mobilization for anti-government protests. Energy use In 2011 researchers estimated the energy used by the Internet to be between 170 and 307 GW, less than two percent of the energy used by humanity. This estimate included the energy needed to build, operate, and periodically replace the estimated 750 million laptops, a billion smart phones and 100 million servers worldwide as well as the energy that routers, cell towers, optical switches, Wi-Fi transmitters and cloud storage devices use when transmitting Internet traffic. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction The World Wide Web (www, W3) is an information space where documents and other web resources are identified by URIs, interlinked by hypertext links, and can be accessed via the Internet. It has become known simply as the Web. Hypertext documents are commonly called web pages, which are primarily text documents formatted and annotated with the Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). Webpages may contain links to images, video, and software components that are rendered to users of a web browser application, running on the user’s computer, as coherent pages of multimedia content. Embedded hyperlinks permit users to navigate between web pages. When multiple web pages are published with a common theme or within a common domain name, the collection is usually called a web site. British computer scientist Tim Berners-Lee is the inventor of the Web. As a CERN employee, Berners-Lee distributed a proposal on 12 March 1989 for what would eventually become the World Wide Web. The initial proposal intended a more effective CERN communication system, but Berners-Lee also realized the concept could be implemented throughout the world. Berners-Lee and Belgian computer scientist Robert Cailliau proposed in 1990 to use hypertext “to link and access information of various kinds as a web of nodes in which the user can browse at will”, and Berners-Lee finished the first website in December of that year. The first test was completed around 20 December 1990 and Berners-Lee reported about the project on the newsgroup alt.hypertext on 7 August 1991. History The NeXT Computer used by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN. On March 12, 1989, Tim Berners-Lee issued a proposal to the management at CERN that referenced ENQUIRE, a database and software project he had built in 1980, and described a more elaborate information management system based on links embedded in readable text: “Imagine, then, the references in this document all being associated with the network address of the thing to which they referred, so that while reading this document you could skip to them with a click of the mouse.” Such a system, he explained, could be referred to using one of the existing meanings of the word hypertext, a term that he says was coined in the 1950s. There is no reason, the proposal continues, why such hypertext links could not encompass multimedia documents including graphics, speech and video, so that Berners-Lee goes on to propose the term hypermedia. With help from Robert Cailliau, he published a more formal proposal (on 12 November 1990) to build a “Hypertext project” called “WorldWideWeb” (one word, also “W3”) as a “web” of “hypertext documents” to be viewed by “browsers” using a client–server architecture. This proposal estimated that a read-only web would be developed within three months and that it would take six months to achieve “the creation of new links and new material by readers, [so that] authorship becomes universal” as well as “the automatic notification of a reader when new material of interest to him/her has become available.” While the read-only goal was met, accessible authorship of web content took longer to mature, with the wiki concept, WebDAV, blogs, Web 2.0 and RSS/Atom. The proposal was modeled after the SGML reader Dynatext by Electronic Book Technology, a spin-off from the Institute for Research in Information and Scholarship at Brown University. The Dynatext system, licensed by CERN, was a key player in the extension of SGML ISO 8879:1986 to Hypermedia within HyTime, but it was considered too expensive and had an inappropriate licensing policy for use in the general high energy physics community, namely a fee for each document and each document alteration. The CERN data center in 2010 housing some WWW servers A NeXT Computer was used by Berners-Lee as the world’s first web server and also to write the first web browser,WorldWideWeb, in 1990. By Christmas 1990, Berners-Lee had built all the tools necessary for a working Web: the first web browser (which was a web editor as well); the first web server; and the first web pages, which described the project itself. The first web page may be lost, but Paul Jones of UNC-Chapel Hill in North Carolina announced in May 2013 that Berners-Lee gave him what he says is the oldest known web page during a 1991 visit to UNC. Jones stored it on amagneto-optical drive and on his NeXT computer. On 6 August 1991, Berners-Lee published a short summary of the World Wide Web project on the newsgroup alt.hypertext. This date also marked the debut of the Web as a publicly available service on the Internet, although new users only accessed it after 23 August. For this reason this is considered the internaut’s day. Several news media have reported that the first photo on the Web was published by Berners-Lee in 1992, an image of the CERN house band Les Horribles Cernettes taken by Silvano de Gennaro; Gennaro has disclaimed this story, writing that media were “totally distorting our words for the sake of cheap sensationalism.” The first server outside Europe was installed at the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center (SLAC) in Palo Alto, California, to host the SPIRES-HEP database. Accounts differ substantially as to the date of this event. The World Wide Web Consortium says December 1992, whereas SLAC itself claims 1991. This is supported by a W3C document titled A Little History of the World Wide Web. The underlying concept of hypertext originated in previous projects from the 1960s, such as the Hypertext Editing System (HES) at Brown University, Ted Nelson’s Project Xanadu, and Douglas Engelbart’s oN-Line System (NLS). Both Nelson and Engelbart were in turn inspired by Vannevar Bush’s microfilm-based memex, which was described in the 1945 essay “As We May Think”. Berners-Lee’s breakthrough was to marry hypertext to the Internet. In his book Weaving The Web, he explains that he had repeatedly suggested that a marriage between the two technologies was possible to members of both technical communities, but when no one took up his invitation, he finally assumed the project himself. In the process, he developed three essential technologies: • a system of globally unique identifiers for resources on the Web and elsewhere, the universal document identifier (UDI), later known as uniform resource locator (URL) and uniform resource identifier (URI); • the publishing language HyperText Markup Language (HTML); • the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). The World Wide Web had a number of differences from other hypertext systems available at the time. The Web required only unidirectional links rather than bidirectional ones, making it possible for someone to link to another resource without action by the owner of that resource. It also significantly reduced the difficulty of implementing web servers and browsers (in comparison to earlier systems), but in turn presented the chronic problem of link rot. Unlike predecessors such as HyperCard, the World Wide Web was non-proprietary, making it possible to develop servers and clients independently and to add extensions without licensing restrictions. On 30 April 1993, CERN announced that the World Wide Web would be free to anyone, with no fees due. Coming two months after the announcement that the server implementation of the Gopher protocol was no longer free to use, this produced a rapid shift away from Gopher and towards the Web. An early popular web browser was ViolaWWW for Unix and the X Windowing System. Robert Cailliau, Jean-François Abramatic of IBM, and Tim Berners-Lee at the 10th anniversary of the World Wide Web Consortium. Scholars generally agree that a turning point for the World Wide Web began with the introduction of the Mosaic web browser in 1993, a graphical browser developed by a team at the National Center for Supercomputing Applications at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (NCSA-UIUC), led by Marc Andreessen. Funding for Mosaic came from the U.S. High-Performance Computing and Communications Initiative and the High Performance Computing and Communication Act of 1991, one of several computing developments initiated by U.S. Senator Al Gore. Prior to the release of Mosaic, graphics were not commonly mixed with text in web pages and the web’s popularity was less than older protocols in use over the Internet, such as Gopher and Wide Area Information Servers (WAIS). Mosaic’s graphical user interface allowed the Web to become, by far, the most popular Internet protocol. The World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) was founded by Tim Berners-Lee after he left the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) in October 1994. It was founded at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Laboratory for Computer Science (MIT/LCS) with support from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), which had pioneered the Internet; a year later, a second site was founded at INRIA (a French national computer research lab) with support from the European Commission DG InfSo; and in 1996, a third continental site was created in Japan at Keio University. By the end of 1994, the total number of websites was still relatively small, but many notable websites were already active that foreshadowed or inspired today’s most popular services. Connected by the existing Internet, other websites were created around the world, adding international standards for domain names and HTML. Since then, Berners-Lee has played an active role in guiding the development of web standards (such as the markup languages to compose web pages in), and has advocated his vision of a Semantic Web. The World Wide Web enabled the spread of information over the Internet through an easy-to-use and flexible format. It thus played an important role in popularizing use of the Internet. Although the two terms are sometimes conflated in popular use, World Wide Web is not synonymous with Internet. The Web is an information space containing hyperlinked documents and other resources, identified by their URIs. It is implemented as both client and server software using Internet protocols such as TCP/IP and HTTP. Tim Berners-Lee was knighted in 2004 by Queen Elizabeth II for “services to the global development of the Internet”. Function The World Wide Web functions as a layer on top of the Internet, helping to make it more functional. The advent of the Mosaic web browser helped to make the web much more usable. The terms Internet and World Wide Web are often used without much distinction. However, the two things are not the same. The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks. In contrast, the World Wide Web is one of the services transferred over these networks. It is a collection of text documents and other resources, linked by hyperlinks and URLs, usually accessed by web browsers, from web servers. Viewing a web page on the World Wide Web normally begins either by typing the URL of the page into a web browser, or by following a hyperlink to that page or resource. The web browser then initiates a series of background communication messages to fetch and display the requested page. In the 1990s, using a browser to view web pages—and to move from one web page to another through hyperlinks—came to be known as ‘browsing,’ ‘web surfing,’ (after channel surfing), or ‘navigating the Web’. Early studies of this new behavior investigated user patterns in using web browsers. One study, for example, found five user patterns: exploratory surfing, window surfing, evolved surfing, bounded navigation and targeted navigation. The following example demonstrates the functioning of a web browser when accessing a page at the URL http://example.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web. The browser resolves the server name of the URL (example.org) into an Internet Protocol address using the globally distributed Domain Name System (DNS). This lookup returns an IP address such as 203.0.113.4. The browser then requests the resource by sending an HTTP request across the Internet to the computer at that address. It requests service from a specific TCP port number that is well known for the HTTP service, so that the receiving host can distinguish an HTTP request from other network protocols it may be servicing. The HTTP protocol normally uses port number 80. The content of the HTTP request can be as simple as two lines of text: ```GET /wiki/World_Wide_Web HTTP/1.1 Host: example.org ``` The computer receiving the HTTP request delivers it to web server software listening for requests on port 80. If the web server can fulfill the request it sends an HTTP response back to the browser indicating success: ```HTTP/1.0 200 OK Content-Type: text/html; charset=UTF-8 ``` followed by the content of the requested page. The Hypertext Markup Language for a basic web page looks like <html> <head> <title>Example.org – The World Wide Web</title> </head> <body> <p>The World Wide Web, abbreviated as WWW and commonly known …</p> </body> </html> The web browser parses the HTML and interprets the markup (<title>, <p> for paragraph, and such) that surrounds the words to format the text on the screen. Many web pages use HTML to reference the URLs of other resources such as images, other embedded media, scripts that affect page behavior, and Cascading Style Sheets that affect page layout. The browser makes additional HTTP requests to the web server for these other Internet media types. As it receives their content from the web server, the browser progressively renders the page onto the screen as specified by its HTML and these additional resources. Linking Most web pages contain hyperlinks to other related pages and perhaps to downloadable files, source documents, definitions and other web resources. In the underlying HTML, a hyperlink looks like <a href=”http://example.org/wiki/Main_Page“>Example.org, a free encyclopedia</a> Graphic representation of a minute fraction of the WWW, demonstrating hyperlinks. Such a collection of useful, related resources, interconnected via hypertext links is dubbed a web of information. Publication on the Internet created what Tim Berners-Lee first called the WorldWideWeb (in its original CamelCase, which was subsequently discarded) in November 1990. The hyperlink structure of the WWW is described by the webgraph: the nodes of the webgraph correspond to the web pages (or URLs) the directed edges between them to the hyperlinks. Over time, many web resources pointed to by hyperlinks disappear, relocate, or are replaced with different content. This makes hyperlinks obsolete, a phenomenon referred to in some circles as link rot, and the hyperlinks affected by it are often called dead links. The ephemeral nature of the Web has prompted many efforts to archive web sites. The Internet Archive, active since 1996, is the best known of such efforts. Dynamic updates of web pages JavaScript is a scripting language that was initially developed in 1995 by Brendan Eich, then of Netscape, for use within web pages. The standardised version is ECMAScript. To make web pages more interactive, some web applications also use JavaScript techniques such as Ajax (asynchronous JavaScript and XML). Client-side script is delivered with the page that can make additional HTTP requests to the server, either in response to user actions such as mouse movements or clicks, or based on elapsed time. The server’s responses are used to modify the current page rather than creating a new page with each response, so the server needs only to provide limited, incremental information. Multiple Ajax requests can be handled at the same time, and users can interact with the page while data is retrieved. Web pages may also regularly poll the server to check whether new information is available. WWW prefix Many hostnames used for the World Wide Web begin with www because of the long-standing practice of naming Internet hosts according to the services they provide. The hostname of a web server is often www, in the same way that it may be ftp for an FTP server, and news or nntp for a USENET news server. These host names appear as Domain Name System (DNS) or subdomain names, as in www.example.com. The use of www is not required by any technical or policy standard and many web sites do not use it; indeed, the first ever web server was called nxoc01.cern.ch. According to Paolo Palazzi, who worked at CERN along with Tim Berners-Lee, the popular use of www as subdomain was accidental; the World Wide Web project page was intended to be published at www.cern.ch while info.cern.ch was intended to be the CERN home page, however the DNS records were never switched, and the practice of prepending www to an institution’s website domain name was subsequently copied. Many established websites still use the prefix, or they employ other subdomain names such as www2, secure or en for special purposes. Many such web servers are set up so that both the main domain name (e.g., example.com) and the www subdomain (e.g., www.example.com) refer to the same site; others require one form or the other, or they may map to different web sites. The use of a subdomain name is useful for load balancing incoming web traffic by creating a CNAME record that points to a cluster of web servers. Since, currently, only a subdomain can be used in a CNAME, the same result cannot be achieved by using the bare domain root. When a user submits an incomplete domain name to a web browser in its address bar input field, some web browsers automatically try adding the prefix “www” to the beginning of it and possibly “.com”, “.org” and “.net” at the end, depending on what might be missing. For example, entering ‘microsoft’ may be transformed to http://www.microsoft.com/ and ‘openoffice’ to http://www.openoffice.org. This feature started appearing in early versions of Mozilla Firefox, when it still had the working title ‘Firebird’ in early 2003, from an earlier practice in browsers such as Lynx. It is reported that Microsoft was granted a US patent for the same idea in 2008, but only for mobile devices. In English, www is usually read as double-u double-u double-u. Some users pronounce it dub-dub-dub, particularly in New Zealand. Stephen Fry, in his “Podgrammes” series of podcasts, pronounces it wuh wuh wuh. The English writer Douglas Adams once quipped in The Independent on Sunday(1999): “The World Wide Web is the only thing I know of whose shortened form takes three times longer to say than what it’s short for”. In Mandarin Chinese, World Wide Web is commonly translated via a phono-semantic matching to wàn wéi wǎng (万维网), which satisfies www and literally means “myriad dimensional net”, a translation that reflects the design concept and proliferation of the World Wide Web. Tim Berners-Lee’s web-space states that World Wide Web is officially spelled as three separate words, each capitalised, with no intervening hyphens. Use of the www prefix is declining as Web 2.0 web applications seek to brand their domain names and make them easily pronounceable. As the mobile web grows in popularity, services like Gmail.com, MySpace.com, Facebook.com and Twitter.com are most often mentioned without adding “www.” (or, indeed, “.com”) to the domain. Scheme specifiers The scheme specifiers http:// and https:// at the start of a web URI refer to Hypertext Transfer Protocol or HTTP Secure, respectively. They specify the communication protocol to use for the request and response. The HTTP protocol is fundamental to the operation of the World Wide Web, and the added encryption layer in HTTPS is essential when browsers send or retrieve confidential data, such as passwords or banking information. Web browsers usually automatically prepend http:// to user-entered URIs, if omitted. Web security For criminals, the web has become the preferred way to spread malware. Cybercrime on the web can include identity theft, fraud, espionage and intelligence gathering. Web-based vulnerabilities now outnumber traditional computer security concerns, and as measured by Google, about one in ten web pages may contain malicious code. Most web-based attacks take place on legitimate websites, and most, as measured by Sophos, are hosted in the United States, China and Russia. The most common of all malware threats is SQL injection attacks against websites. Through HTML and URIs, the Web was vulnerable to attacks like cross-site scripting (XSS) that came with the introduction of JavaScript and were exacerbated to some degree by Web 2.0 and Ajax web design that favors the use of scripts.Today by one estimate, 70% of all websites are open to XSS attacks on their users. Phishing is another common threat to the Web. “SA, the Security Division of EMC, today announced the findings of its January 2013 Fraud Report, estimating the global losses from phishing at \$1.5 Billion in 2012.” Two of the well-known phishing methods are Covert Redirect and Open Redirect. Proposed solutions vary to extremes. Large security vendors like McAfee already design governance and compliance suites to meet post-9/11 regulations, and some, like Finjan have recommended active real-time inspection of code and all content regardless of its source. Some have argued that for enterprise to see security as a business opportunity rather than a cost center, “ubiquitous, always-on digital rights management” enforced in the infrastructure by a handful of organizations must replace the hundreds of companies that today secure data and networks. Jonathan Zittrain has said users sharing responsibility for computing safety is far preferable to locking down the Internet. Privacy Every time a client requests a web page, the server can identify the request’s IP address and usually logs it. Also, unless set not to do so, most web browsers record requested web pages in a viewable history feature, and usually cache much of the content locally. Unless the server-browser communication uses HTTPS encryption, web requests and responses travel in plain text across the internet and can be viewed, recorded, and cached by intermediate systems. When a web page asks for, and the user supplies, personally identifiable information—such as their real name, address, e-mail address, etc.—web-based entities can associate current web traffic with that individual. If the website uses HTTP cookies, username and password authentication, or other tracking techniques, it can relate other web visits, before and after, to the identifiable information provided. In this way it is possible for a web-based organisation to develop and build a profile of the individual people who use its site or sites. It may be able to build a record for an individual that includes information about their leisure activities, their shopping interests, their profession, and other aspects of their demographic profile. These profiles are obviously of potential interest to marketeers, advertisers and others. Depending on the website’s terms and conditions and the local laws that apply information from these profiles may be sold, shared, or passed to other organisations without the user being informed. For many ordinary people, this means little more than some unexpected e-mails in their in-box, or some uncannily relevant advertising on a future web page. For others, it can mean that time spent indulging an unusual interest can result in a deluge of further targeted marketing that may be unwelcome. Law enforcement, counter terrorism and espionage agencies can also identify, target and track individuals based on their interests or proclivities on the Web. Social networking sites try to get users to use their real names, interests, and locations. They believe this makes the social networking experience more realistic, and therefore more engaging for all their users. On the other hand, uploaded photographs or unguarded statements can be identified to an individual, who may regret this exposure. Employers, schools, parents, and other relatives may be influenced by aspects of social networking profiles that the posting individual did not intend for these audiences. On-line bullies may make use of personal information to harass or stalk users. Modern social networking websites allow fine grained control of the privacy settings for each individual posting, but these can be complex and not easy to find or use, especially for beginners. Photographs and videos posted onto websites have caused particular problems, as they can add a person’s face to an on-line profile. With modern and potential facial recognition technology, it may then be possible to relate that face with other, previously anonymous, images, events and scenarios that have been imaged elsewhere. Because of image caching, mirroring and copying, it is difficult to remove an image from the World Wide Web. Standards Many formal standards and other technical specifications and software define the operation of different aspects of the World Wide Web, the Internet, and computer information exchange. Many of the documents are the work of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), headed by Berners-Lee, but some are produced by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) and other organizations. Usually, when web standards are discussed, the following publications are seen as foundational: • Recommendations for markup languages, especially HTML and XHTML, from the W3C. These define the structure and interpretation of hypertext documents. • Recommendations for stylesheets, especially CSS, from the W3C. • Standards for ECMAScript (usually in the form of JavaScript), from Ecma International. • Recommendations for the Document Object Model, from W3C. Additional publications provide definitions of other essential technologies for the World Wide Web, including, but not limited to, the following: • Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), which is a universal system for referencing resources on the Internet, such as hypertext documents and images. URIs, often called URLs, are defined by the IETF’s RFC 3986 / STD 66: Uniform Resource Identifier (URI): Generic Syntax, as well as its predecessors and numerous URI scheme-defining RFCs; • HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), especially as defined by RFC 2616: HTTP/1.1 and RFC 2617: HTTP Authentication, which specify how the browser and server authenticate each other. Accessibility There are methods for accessing the Web in alternative mediums and formats to facilitate use by individuals with disabilities. These disabilities may be visual, auditory, physical, speech related, cognitive, neurological, or some combination. Accessibility features also help people with temporary disabilities, like a broken arm, or aging users as their abilities change. The Web receives information as well as providing information and interacting with society. The World Wide Web Consortium claims it essential that the Web be accessible, so it can provide equal access and equal opportunity to people with disabilities. Tim Berners-Lee once noted, “The power of the Web is in its universality. Access by everyone regardless of disability is an essential aspect.” Many countries regulate web accessibility as a requirement for websites. International cooperation in the W3C Web Accessibility Initiative led to simple guidelines that web content authors as well as software developers can use to make the Web accessible to persons who may or may not be using assistive technology. Internationalization The W3C Internationalization Activity assures that web technology works in all languages, scripts, and cultures. Beginning in 2004 or 2005, Unicode gained ground and eventually in December 2007 surpassed both ASCII and Western European as the Web’s most frequently used character encoding. OriginallyRFC 3986 allowed resources to be identified by URI in a subset of US-ASCII. RFC 3987 allows more characters—any character in the Universal Character Set—and now a resource can be identified by IRI in any language. Statistics Between 2005 and 2010, the number of web users doubled, and was expected to surpass two billion in 2010. Early studies in 1998 and 1999 estimating the size of the Web using capture/recapture methods showed that much of the web was not indexed by search engines and the Web was much larger than expected. According to a 2001 study, there was a massive number, over 550 billion, of documents on the Web, mostly in the invisible Web, or Deep Web. A 2002 survey of 2,024 million web pages determined that by far the most web content was in the English language: 56.4%; next were pages in German (7.7%), French (5.6%), and Japanese (4.9%). A more recent study, which used web searches in 75 different languages to sample the Web, determined that there were over 11.5 billion web pages in the publicly indexable web as of the end of January 2005. As of March 2009, the indexable web contains at least 25.21 billion pages. On 25 July 2008, Google software engineers Jesse Alpert and Nissan Hajaj announced that Google Search had discovered one trillion unique URLs. As of May 2009, over 109.5 million domains operated. Of these, 74% were commercial or other domains operating in the generic top-level domain com. Statistics measuring a website’s popularity are usually based either on the number of page views or on associated server ‘hits’ (file requests) that it receives. Speed issues Frustration over congestion issues in the Internet infrastructure and the high latency that results in slow browsing has led to a pejorative name for the World Wide Web: the World Wide Wait. Speeding up the Internet is an ongoing discussion over the use of peering and QoS technologies. Other solutions to reduce the congestion can be found at W3C. Guidelines for web response times are: • 0.1 second (one tenth of a second). Ideal response time. The user does not sense any interruption. • 1 second. Highest acceptable response time. Download times above 1 second interrupt the user experience. • 10 seconds. Unacceptable response time. The user experience is interrupted and the user is likely to leave the site or system. Web caching A web cache is a server computer located either on the public Internet, or within an enterprise that stores recently accessed web pages to improve response time for users when the same content is requested within a certain time after the original request. Most web browsers also implement a browser cache for recently obtained data, usually on the local disk drive. HTTP requests by a browser may ask only for data that has changed since the last access. Web pages and resources may contain expiration information to control caching to secure sensitive data, such as in online banking, or to facilitate frequently updated sites, such as news media. Even sites with highly dynamic content may permit basic resources to be refreshed only occasionally. Web site designers find it worthwhile to collate resources such as CSS data and JavaScript into a few site-wide files so that they can be cached efficiently. Enterprise firewalls often cache Web resources requested by one user for the benefit of many. Some search engines store cached content of frequently accessed websites. CC licensed content, Shared previously

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/05%3A_Communications_and_Information_Literacy/5.04%3A_Reading-_The_World_Wide_Web.txt

Introduction A uniform resource locator(URL) is a reference to a resource that specifies the location of the resource on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a specific type of uniform resource identifier (URI), although many people use the two terms interchangeably. A URL implies the means to access an indicated resource, which is not true of every URI. URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages (http), but are also used for file transfer (ftp), email (mailto), database access (JDBC), and many other applications. Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar. A typical URL has the form http://www.example.com/index.html, which indicates the protocol type (http), the domain name, (www.example.com), and the specific web page (index.html). History The Uniform Resource Locator was standardized in 1994 by Tim Berners-Lee and the URI working group of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) as an outcome of collaboration started at the IETF Living Documents “Birds of a Feather” session in 1992. The format combines the pre-existing system of domain names (created in 1985) with file path syntax, where slashes are used to separate directory and file names. Conventions already existed where server names could be prepended to complete file paths, preceded by a double-slash (//). Berners-Lee later regretted the use of dots to separate the parts of the domain name within URIs, wishing he had used slashes throughout. For example,http://www.example.com/path/to/name would have been written http:com/example/www/path/to/name. Berners-Lee has also said that, given the colon following the URI scheme, the two slashes before the domain name were also unnecessary. Syntax Every HTTP URL consists of the following, in the given order. Several schemes other than HTTP also share this general format, with some variation. • the scheme name (commonly called protocol, although not every URL scheme is a protocol, e.g. mailto is not a protocol) • a colon, two slashes, • a host, normally given as a domain name For example, http://www.example.com/path/to/name would have been written http:com/example/www/path/to/name but sometimes as a literal IP address • optionally a colon followed by a port number • the full path of the resource The scheme says how to connect, the host specifies where to connect, and the remainder specifies what to ask for. For programs such as Common Gateway Interface (CGI) scripts, this is followed by a query string, and an optional fragment identifier. The syntax is: scheme://[user:password@]domain:port/path?query_string#fragment_id Component details: • The scheme, which in many cases is the name of a protocol (but not always), defines how the resource will be obtained. Examples include http, https, ftp, file and many others. Although schemes are case-insensitive, the canonical form is lowercase. • The domain name or literal numeric IP address gives the destination location for the URL. A literal numeric IPv6 address may be given, but must be enclosed in [ ] e.g.[db8:0cec::99:123a]. The domain google.com, or its numeric IP address 173.194.34.5, is the address of Google’s website. • The domain name portion of a URL is not case sensitive since DNS ignores case: http://en.example.org/ and HTTP://EN.EXAMPLE.ORG/ both open the same page. • The port number, given in decimal, is optional; if omitted, the default for the scheme is used. For example, http://vnc.example.com:5800 connects to port 5800 of vnc.example.com, which may be appropriate for a VNC remote control session. If the port number is omitted for an http: URL, the browser will connect on port 80, the default HTTP port. The default port for an https: request is 443. • The path is used to specify and perhaps find the resource requested. This path may or may not describe folders on the file system in the web server. It may be very different from the arrangement of folders on the web server. It is case-sensitive, though it may be treated as case-insensitive by some servers, especially those based on Microsoft Windows. If the server is case sensitive and http://en.example.org/wiki/URL is correct, then http://en.example.org/WIKI/URL or http://en.example.org/wiki/url will display an HTTP 404 error page, unless these URLs point to valid resources themselves. • The query string contains data to be passed to software running on the server. It may contain name/value pairs separated by ampersands, for example ?first_name=John&last_name=Doe. • The fragment identifier, if present, specifies a part or a position within the overall resource or document. When used with HTML, it usually specifies a section or location within the page, and used in combination with Anchor elements or the “id” attribute of an element, the browser is scrolled to display that part of the page. The scheme name defines the namespace, purpose, and the syntax of the remaining part of the URL. Software will try to process a URL according to its scheme and context. For example, a web browser will usually dereference the URL http://example.org:80 by performing an HTTP request to the host at example.org, using port number 80. Other examples of scheme names include https, gopher, wais, ftp. URLs with https as a scheme (such as https://example.com/) require that requests and responses will be made over a secure connection to the website. Some schemes that require authentication allow a username, and perhaps a password too, to be embedded in the URL, for exampleftp://asmith@ftp.example.org. Passwords embedded in this way are not conducive to security, but the full possible syntax is scheme://username:password@domain:port/path?query_string#fragment_id Other schemes do not follow the HTTP pattern. For example, the mailto scheme only uses valid email addresses. When clicked on in an application, the URL mailto:bob@example.commay start an e-mail composer with the address bob@example.com in the To field. The tel scheme is even more different; it uses the public switched telephone network for addressing, instead of domain names representing Internet hosts. List of allowed URL characters Unreserved The alphanumerical upper and lower case character may optionally be encoded: A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 – _ . ~ Reserved Special symbols must sometimes be percent-encoded: ! * ‘ ( ) ; : @ & = + \$ , / ? % # [ ] Further details can for example be found in RFC 3986 and http://www.w3.org/Addressing/URL/uri-spec.html. Relationship to URI See also: URIs, Relationship to URL and URN A URL is a URI that, in addition to identifying a web resource, provides a means of locating the resource by describing its “primary access mechanism (e.g., its network location)”. Internet hostnames A hostname is a domain name assigned to a host computer. This is usually a combination of the host’s local name with its parent domain’s name. For example, en.example.org consists of a local hostname (en) and the domain name example.org. The hostname is translated into an IP address via the local hosts file, or the domain name system (DNS) resolver. It is possible for a single host computer to have several hostnames; but generally the operating system of the host prefers to have one hostname that the host uses for itself. Any domain name can also be a hostname, as long as the restrictions mentioned below are followed. For example, both “en.example.org” and “example.org” can be hostnames if they both have IP addresses assigned to them. The domain name “xyz.example.org” may not be a hostname if it does not have an IP address, but “aa.xyz.example.org” may still be a hostname. All hostnames are domain names, but not all domain names are hostnames. URL protocols The protocol, or scheme, of a URL defines how the resource will be obtained. Two common protocols on the web are HTTP and HTTPS. For various reasons, many sites have been switching to permitting access through both the HTTP and HTTPS protocols. Each protocol has advantages and disadvantages, including for some of the users that one or the other protocol either does not function, or is very undesirable. When a link contains a protocol specifier it results in the browser following the link using the specified protocol regardless of the potential desires of the user. Protocol-relative URLs It is possible to construct valid URLs without specifying a protocol which are called protocol-relative links (PRL) or protocol-relative URLs. Using PRLs on a page permits the viewer of the page to visit new pages using whichever protocol was used to obtain the page containing the link. This supports continuing to use whichever protocol the viewer has chosen to use for obtaining the current page when accessing new pages. An example of a PRL is //en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Page which is created by removing the protocol prefix. Internationalized URL Internet users are distributed throughout the world using a wide variety of languages and alphabets. Users expect to be able to create URLs in their own local alphabets. An internationalized resource identifier (IRI) is a form of URL that includes Unicode characters. All modern browsers support IRIs. The parts of the URL requiring special treatment for different alphabets are the domain name and path. The domain name in the IRI is known as an internationalized domain name (IDN). Web and Internet software automatically convert the domain name into punycode usable by the Domain Name System. For example, the Chinese web site http://見.香港 becomes the following for DNS lookup. xn-- indicates the character was not originally ASCII. http://xn--nw2a.xn--j6w193g/ The URL path name can also be specified by the user in the local alphabet. If not already encoded, it is converted to Unicode, and any characters not part of the basic URL character set are converted to English letters using percent-encoding. For example, the following Japanese Web page http://domainname/引き割り.html becomes http://domainname/%E5%BC%95%E3%81%8D...%E3%82%8A.html. The target computer decodes the address and displays the page. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction A web browser (commonly referred to as a browser) is a software application for retrieving, presenting and traversing information resources on the World Wide Web. An information resource is identified by a Uniform Resource Identifier (URI/URL) and may be a web page, image, video or other piece of content. Hyperlinks present in resources enable users easily to navigate their browsers to related resources. Although browsers are primarily intended to use the World Wide Web, they can also be used to access information provided by web servers in private networks or files in file systems. The major web browsers are Firefox, Internet Explorer, Google Chrome, Opera, and Safari. History The first web browser was invented in 1990 by Sir Tim Berners-Lee. Berners-Lee is the director of the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C), which oversees the Web’s continued development, and is also the founder of the World Wide Web Foundation. His browser was called WorldWideWeb and later renamed Nexus. Marc Andreessen, inventor of Netscape The first commonly available web browser with a graphical user interface was Erwise. The development of Erwise was initiated by Robert Cailliau. In 1993, browser software was further innovated by Marc Andreessen with the release of Mosaic, “the world’s first popular browser”, which made the World Wide Web system easy to use and more accessible to the average person. Andreesen’s browser sparked the internet boom of the 1990s. The introduction of Mosaic in 1993 – one of the first graphical web browsers – led to an explosion in web use. Andreessen, the leader of the Mosaic team at National Center for Supercomputing Applications (NCSA), soon started his own company, named Netscape, and released the Mosaic-influenced Netscape Navigator in 1994, which quickly became the world’s most popular browser, accounting for 90% of all web use at its peak (see usage share of web browsers). Microsoft responded with its Internet Explorer in 1995, also heavily influenced by Mosaic, initiating the industry’s first browser war. Bundled with Windows, Internet Explorer gained dominance in the web browser market; Internet Explorer usage share peaked at over 95% by 2002. Opera debuted in 1996; it has never achieved widespread use, having less than 2% browser usage share as of February 2012 according to Net Applications. Its Opera-mini version has an additive share, in April 2011 amounting to 1.1% of overall browser use, but focused on the fast-growing mobile phone web browser market, being preinstalled on over 40 million phones. It is also available on several other embedded systems, including Nintendo’s Wii video game console. In 1998, Netscape launched what was to become the Mozilla Foundation in an attempt to produce a competitive browser using the open source software model. That browser would eventually evolve into Firefox, which developed a respectable following while still in the beta stage of development; shortly after the release of Firefox 1.0 in late 2004, Firefox (all versions) accounted for 7% of browser use. As of August 2011, Firefox has a 28% usage share. Apple’s Safari had its first beta release in January 2003; as of April 2011, it had a dominant share of Apple-based web browsing, accounting for just over 7% of the entire browser market. The most recent major entrant to the browser market is Chrome, first released in September 2008. Chrome’s take-up has increased significantly year by year, by doubling its usage share from 8% to 16% by August 2011. This increase seems largely to be at the expense of Internet Explorer, whose share has tended to decrease from month to month. In December 2011, Chrome overtook Internet Explorer 8 as the most widely used web browser but still had lower usage than all versions of Internet Explorer combined. Chrome’s user-base continued to grow and in May 2012, Chrome’s usage passed the usage of all versions of Internet Explorer combined. By April 2014, Chrome’s usage had hit 45%. Internet Explorer will be deprecated in Windows 10, with Microsoft Edge replacing it as the default web browser. Business models The ways that web browser makers fund their development costs has changed over time. The first web browser, WorldWideWeb, was a research project. Netscape Navigator was sold commercially, as was Opera. Internet Explorer, on the other hand, was bundled free with the Windows operating system (and was also downloadable free), and therefore it was funded partly by the sales of Windows to computer manufacturers and direct to users. Internet Explorer also used to be available for the Mac. It is likely that releasing IE for the Mac was part of Microsoft’s overall strategy to fight threats to its quasi-monopoly platform dominance – threats such as web standards and Java – by making some web developers, or at least their managers, assume that there was “no need” to develop for anything other than Internet Explorer. In this respect, IE may have contributed to Windows and Microsoft applications sales in another way, through “lock-in” to Microsoft’s browser. In January 2009, the European Commission announced it would investigate the bundling of Internet Explorer with Windows operating systems from Microsoft, saying “Microsoft’s tying of Internet Explorer to the Windows operating system harms competition between web browsers, undermines product innovation and ultimately reduces consumer choice.” Safari and Mobile Safari were likewise always included with OS X and iOS respectively, so, similarly, they were originally funded by sales of Apple computers and mobile devices, and formed part of the overall Apple experience to customers. Today, most commercial web browsers are paid by search engine companies to make their engine default, or to include them as another option. For example, Google pays Mozilla, the maker of Firefox, to make Google Search the default search engine in Firefox. Mozilla makes enough money from this deal that it does not need to charge users for Firefox. In addition, Google Search is also (as one would expect) the default search engine in Google Chrome. Users searching for websites or items on the Internet would be led to Google’s search results page, increasing ad revenue and which funds development at Google and of Google Chrome. Many less-well-known free software browsers, such as Konqueror, were hardly funded at all and were developed mostly by volunteers free of charge. Function The primary purpose of a web browser is to bring information resources to the user (“retrieval” or “fetching”), allowing them to view the information (“display”, “rendering”), and then access other information (“navigation”, “following links”). This process begins when the user inputs a Uniform Resource Locator (URL), for example http://en.wikipedia.org/, into the browser. The prefix of the URL, the Uniform Resource Identifier or URI, determines how the URL will be interpreted. The most commonly used kind of URI starts with http: and identifies a resource to be retrieved over the Hypertext Transfer Protocol(HTTP).  Many browsers also support a variety of other prefixes, such as https: for HTTPS, ftp: for the File Transfer Protocol, and file: for local files. Prefixes that the web browser cannot directly handle are often handed off to another application entirely. For example, mailto: URIs are usually passed to the user’s default e-mail application, and news: URIs are passed to the user’s default newsgroup reader. In the case of http, https, file, and others, once the resource has been retrieved the web browser will display it. HTML and associated content (image files, formatting information such as CSS, etc.) is passed to the browser’s layout engine to be transformed from markup to an interactive document, a process known as “rendering”. Aside from HTML, web browsers can generally display any kind of content that can be part of a web page. Most browsers can display images, audio, video, and XML files, and often have plug-ins to support Flash applications and Java applets. Upon encountering a file of an unsupported type or a file that is set up to be downloaded rather than displayed, the browser prompts the user to save the file to disk. Information resources may contain hyperlinks to other information resources. Each link contains the URI of a resource to go to. When a link is clicked, the browser navigates to the resource indicated by the link’s target URI, and the process of bringing content to the user begins again. Features Available web browsers range in features from minimal, text-based user interfaces with bare-bones support for HTML to rich user interfaces supporting a wide variety of file formats and protocols. Browsers which include additional components to support e-mail, Usenet news, and Internet Relay Chat (IRC), are sometimes referred to as “Internet suites” rather than merely “web browsers”. All major web browsers allow the user to open multiple information resources at the same time, either in different browser windows or in different tabs of the same window. Major browsers also include pop-up blockers to prevent unwanted windows from “popping up” without the user’s consent. Browser bookmarks Most web browsers can display a list of web pages that the user has bookmarked so that the user can quickly return to them. Bookmarks are also called “Favorites” in Internet Explorer. In addition, all major web browsers have some form of built-in web feed aggregator. In Firefox, web feeds are formatted as “live bookmarks” and behave like a folder of bookmarks corresponding to recent entries in the feed. In Opera, a more traditional feed reader is included which stores and displays the contents of the feed. Furthermore, most browsers can be extended via plug-ins, downloadable components that provide additional features. User interface Some home media devices now include web browsers, like this LG Smart TV. The browser is controlled using an on-screen keyboard and LG’s “Magic Motion” remote. Most major web browsers have these user interface elements in common: • Back and forward buttons to go back to the previous resource and forward respectively. • A refresh or reload button to reload the current resource. • A stop button to cancel loading the resource. In some browsers, the stop button is merged with the reload button. • A home button to return to the user’s home page. • An address bar to input the Uniform Resource Identifier (URI) of the desired resource and display it. • A search bar to input terms into a search engine. In some browsers, the search bar is merged with the address bar. • A status bar to display progress in loading the resource and also the URI of links when the cursor hovers over them, and page zooming capability. • The viewport, the visible area of the webpage within the browser window. • The ability to view the HTML source for a page. Major browsers also possess incremental find features to search within a web page. Privacy and security Most browsers support HTTP Secure and offer quick and easy ways to delete the web cache, cookies, and browsing history. For a comparison of the current security vulnerabilities of browsers, see comparison of web browsers. Standards support Early web browsers supported only a very simple version of HTML. The rapid development of proprietary web browsers led to the development of non-standard dialects of HTML, leading to problems with interoperability. Modern web browsers support a combination of standards-based and de facto HTML and XHTML, which should be rendered in the same way by all browsers. Extensibility A browser extension is a computer program that extends the functionality of a web browser. Every major web browser supports the development of browser extensions. Components Web browsers consist of a user interface, layout engine, rendering engine, JavaScript interpreter, UI backend, networking component and data persistence component. These components achieve different functionalities of a web browser and together provide all capabilities of a web browser. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction A name server is a computer hardware or software server that implements a network service for providing responses to queries against a directory service. It translates an often humanly meaningful, text-based identifier to a system-internal, often numeric identification or addressing component. This service is performed by the server in response to a service protocol request. An example of a name server is the server component of the Domain Name System (DNS), one of the two principal name spaces of the Internet. The most important function of DNS servers is the translation (resolution) of human-memorable domain names and hostnames into the corresponding numeric Internet Protocol (IP) addresses, the second principal name space of the Internet which is used to identify and locate computer systems and resources on the Internet. Domain Name System The Internet maintains two principal namespaces: the domain name hierarchy and the IP address system. The Domain Name System maintains the domain namespace and provides translation services between these two namespaces. Internet name servers implement the Domain Name System. The top hierarchy of the Domain Name System is served by the root name servers maintained by delegation by the Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN). Below the root, Internet resources are organized into a hierarchy of domains, administered by the respective registrars and domain name holders. A DNS name server is a server that stores the DNS records, such as address (A, AAAA) records, name server (NS) records, and mail exchanger (MX) records for a domain name (see also List of DNS record types) and responds with answers to queries against its database. Authoritative name server Authoritative name server is a name server that gives answers in response to questions asked about names in a zone. An authoritative-only name server returns answers only to queries about domain names that have been specifically configured by the administrator. Name servers can also be configured to give authoritative answers to queries in some zones, while acting as a caching name server for all other zones. An authoritative name server can either be a primary server (master) or a secondary server (slave). A primary server for a zone is the server that stores the definitive versions of all records in that zone. A secondary server for a zone uses an automatic updating mechanism to maintain an identical copy of the primary server’s database for a zone. Examples of such mechanisms include DNS zone transfers and file transfer protocols. DNS provides a mechanism whereby the primary for a zone can notify all the known secondaries for that zone when the contents of the zone have changed. The contents of a zone are either manually configured by an administrator, or managed using Dynamic DNS. Every domain name appears in a zone served by one or more authoritative name servers. The fully qualified domain names of the authoritative name servers of a zone are listed in the NS records of that zone. If the server for a zone is not also authoritative for its parent zone, the server for the parent zone must be configured with a delegation for the zone. When a domain is registered with a domain name registrar, the zone administrator provides the list of name servers (typically at least two, for redundancy) that are authoritative for the zone that contains the domain. The registrar provides the names of these servers to the domain registry for the top level domain containing the zone. The domain registry in turn configures the authoritative name servers for that top level domain with delegations for each server for the zone. If the fully qualified domain name of any name server for a zone appears within that zone, the zone administrator provides IP addresses for that name server, which are installed in the parent zone as glue records; otherwise, the delegation consists of the list of NS records for that zone. Authoritative answer A name server indicates that its response is authoritative by setting the Authoritative Answer (AA) bit in the response to a query on a name for which it is authoritative. Name servers providing answers for which they are not authoritative (for example, name servers for parent zones), do not set the AA bit. Recursive query If a name server cannot answer a query because it does not contain an entry for the host in its database, it may recursively query name servers higher up in the hierarchy. This is known as a recursive query or recursive lookup. In principle, authoritative name servers suffice for the operation of the Internet. However, with only authoritative name-servers operating, every DNS query must start with recursive queries at the root zone of the Domain Name System and each user system must implement resolver software capable of recursive operation. Caching name server Caching name servers (DNS caches) store DNS query results for a period of time determined in the configuration (time-to-live) of each domain-name record. DNS caches improve the efficiency of the DNS by reducing DNS traffic across the Internet, and by reducing load on authoritative name-servers, particularly root name-servers. Because they can answer questions more quickly, they also increase the performance of end-user applications that use the DNS. Recursive name servers resolve any query they receive, even if they are not authoritative for the question being asked, by consulting the server or servers that are authoritative for the question. Caching name servers are often also recursive name servers—they perform every step necessary to answer any DNS query they receive. To do this the name server queries each authoritative name-server in turn, starting from the DNS root zone. It continues until it reaches the authoritative server for the zone that contains the queried domain name. That server provides the answer to the question, or definitively says it can’t be answered, and the caching resolver then returns this response to the client that asked the question. The authority, resolving and caching functions can all be present in a DNS server implementation, but this is not required: a DNS server can implement any one of these functions alone, without implementing the others. Internet service providers typically provide caching resolvers for their customers. In addition, many home-networking routers implement caching resolvers to improve efficiency in the local network. Some systems utilize `nscd—`the name service caching daemon. Microsoft networking Name servers also exist on some Microsoft Windows networks where one host assumes the role of NetBIOS browse master and performs as a NBNS server. Small local area networks of Windows systems require no central name server, and generally perform name-resolution using a broadcast algorithm. The Windows Internet Name Service (WINS) is a name service that translates NetBIOS names to numerical addresses. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction An Internet Protocol address (IP address) is a numerical label assigned to each device (e.g., computer, printer) participating in a computer network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. An IP address serves two principal functions: host or network interface identification and location addressing. Its role has been characterized as follows: “A name indicates what we seek. An address indicates where it is. A route indicates how to get there.” The designers of the Internet Protocol defined an IP address as a 32-bit number and this system, known as Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), is still in use today. However, because of the growth of the Internet and the predicted depletion of available addresses, a new version of IP (IPv6), using 128 bits for the address, was developed in 1995. IPv6 was standardized as RFC 2460 in 1998, and its deployment has been ongoing since the mid-2000s. IP addresses are usually written and displayed in human-readable notations, such as 172.16.254.1 (IPv4), and 2001:db8:0:1234:0:567:8:1 (IPv6). The Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) manages the IP address space allocations globally and delegates five regional Internet registries (RIRs) to allocate IP address blocks to local Internet registries (Internet service providers) and other entities. IP versions Two versions of the Internet Protocol (IP) are in use: IP Version 4 and IP Version 6. Each version defines an IP address differently. Because of its prevalence, the generic term IP address typically still refers to the addresses defined by IPv4. The gap in version sequence between IPv4 and IPv6 resulted from the assignment of number 5 to the experimental Internet Stream Protocol in 1979, which however was never referred to as IPv5. IPv4 addresses Decomposition of an IPv4 address from dot-decimal notation to its binary value. In IPv4 an address consists of 32 bits which limits the address space to 4294967296 (232) possible unique addresses. IPv4 reserves some addresses for special purposes such as private networks (~18 million addresses) or multicast addresses (~270 million addresses). IPv4 addresses are canonically represented in dot-decimal notation, which consists of four decimal numbers, each ranging from 0 to 255, separated by dots, e.g., 172.16.254.1. Each part represents a group of 8 bits (octet) of the address. In some cases of technical writing, IPv4 addresses may be presented in various hexadecimal, octal, or binary representations. Subnetting In the early stages of development of the Internet Protocol, network administrators interpreted an IP address in two parts: network number portion and host number portion. The highest order octet (most significant eight bits) in an address was designated as the network number and the remaining bits were called the rest field or host identifier and were used for host numbering within a network. This early method soon proved inadequate as additional networks developed that were independent of the existing networks already designated by a network number. In 1981, the Internet addressing specification was revised with the introduction of classful network architecture. Classful network design allowed for a larger number of individual network assignments and fine-grained subnetwork design. The first three bits of the most significant octet of an IP address were defined as the class of the address. Three classes (A, B, and C) were defined for universal unicast addressing. Depending on the class derived, the network identification was based on octet boundary segments of the entire address. Each class used successively additional octets in the network identifier, thus reducing the possible number of hosts in the higher order classes (B and C). The following table gives an overview of this now obsolete system. Historical classful network architecture Class Leading bits Size of network number bit field Size of rest bit field Number of networks Addresses per network Start address End address A 0 8 24 128 (27) 16,777,216 (224) 0.0.0.0 127.255.255.255 B 10 16 16 16,384 (214) 65,536 (216) 128.0.0.0 191.255.255.255 C 110 24 8 2,097,152 (221) 256 (28) 192.0.0.0 223.255.255.255 Classful network design served its purpose in the startup stage of the Internet, but it lacked scalability in the face of the rapid expansion of the network in the 1990s. The class system of the address space was replaced with Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993. CIDR is based on variable-length subnet masking (VLSM) to allow allocation and routing based on arbitrary-length prefixes. Today, remnants of classful network concepts function only in a limited scope as the default configuration parameters of some network software and hardware components (e.g. netmask), and in the technical jargon used in network administrators’ discussions. Private addresses Early network design, when global end-to-end connectivity was envisioned for communications with all Internet hosts, intended that IP addresses be uniquely assigned to a particular computer or device. However, it was found that this was not always necessary as private networks developed and public address space needed to be conserved. Computers not connected to the Internet, such as factory machines that communicate only with each other via TCP/IP, need not have globally unique IP addresses. Three ranges of IPv4 addresses for private networks were reserved in RFC 1918. These addresses are not routed on the Internet and thus their use need not be coordinated with an IP address registry. Today, when needed, such private networks typically connect to the Internet through network address translation (NAT). IANA-reserved private IPv4 network ranges Start End No. of addresses 24-bit block (/8 prefix, 1 × A) 10.0.0.0 10.255.255.255 16777216 20-bit block (/12 prefix, 16 × B) 172.16.0.0 172.31.255.255 1048576 16-bit block (/16 prefix, 256 × C) 192.168.0.0 192.168.255.255 65536 Any user may use any of the reserved blocks. Typically, a network administrator will divide a block into subnets; for example, many home routers automatically use a default address range of 192.168.0.0 through 192.168.0.255 (192.168.0.0/24). IPv4 address exhaustion High levels of demand have decreased the supply of unallocated Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) addresses available for assignment to Internet service providers and end user organizations since the 1980s. This development is referred to as IPv4 address exhaustion. IANA’s primary address pool was exhausted on 3 February 2011, when the last five blocks were allocated to the five RIRs.[5][6] APNIC was the first RIR to exhaust its regional pool on 15 April 2011, except for a small amount of address space reserved for the transition to IPv6, intended to be allocated in a restricted process.[7] IPv6 addresses Decomposition of an IPv6 address from hexadecimal representation to its binary value. The rapid exhaustion of IPv4 address space prompted the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) to explore new technologies to expand the addressing capability in the Internet. The permanent solution was deemed to be a redesign of the Internet Protocol itself. This new generation of the Internet Protocol was eventually named Internet Protocol Version 6 (IPv6) in 1995. The address size was increased from 32 to 128 bits (16 octets), thus providing up to 2128 (approximately 3.403×1038) addresses. This is deemed sufficient for the foreseeable future. The intent of the new design was not to provide just a sufficient quantity of addresses, but also redesign routing in the Internet by more efficient aggregation of subnetwork routing prefixes. The resulted in slower growth of routing tables in routers. The smallest possible individual allocation is a subnet for 264 hosts, which is the square of the size of the entire IPv4 Internet. At these levels, actual address utilization rates will be small on any IPv6 network segment. The new design also provides the opportunity to separate the addressing infrastructure of a network segment, i.e. the local administration of the segment’s available space, from the addressing prefix used to route traffic to and from external networks. IPv6 has facilities that automatically change the routing prefix of entire networks, should the global connectivity or the routing policy change, without requiring internal redesign or manual renumbering. The large number of IPv6 addresses allows large blocks to be assigned for specific purposes and, where appropriate, to be aggregated for efficient routing. With a large address space, there is no need to have complex address conservation methods as used in CIDR. All modern desktop and enterprise server operating systems include native support for the IPv6 protocol, but it is not yet widely deployed in other devices, such as residential networking routers, voice over IP (VoIP) and multimedia equipment, and network peripherals. Private addresses Just as IPv4 reserves addresses for private networks, blocks of addresses are set aside in IPv6. In IPv6, these are referred to as unique local addresses (ULA). RFC 4193 reserves the routing prefix fc00::/7 for this block which is divided into two /8 blocks with different implied policies. The addresses include a 40-bit pseudorandom number that minimizes the risk of address collisions if sites merge or packets are misrouted.[8] Early practices used a different block for this purpose (fec0::), dubbed site-local addresses. However, the definition of what constituted sites remained unclear and the poorly defined addressing policy created ambiguities for routing. This address type was abandoned and must not be used in new systems. Addresses starting with fe80:, called link-local addresses, are assigned to interfaces for communication on the attached link. The addresses are automatically generated by the operating system for each network interface. This provides instant and automatic communication between all IPv6 host on a link. This feature is required in the lower layers of IPv6 network administration, such as for the Neighbor Discovery Protocol. Private address prefixes may not be routed on the public Internet. IP subnetworks IP networks may be divided into subnetworks in both IPv4 and IPv6. For this purpose, an IP address is logically recognized as consisting of two parts: the network prefix and the host identifier, or interface identifier (IPv6). The subnet mask or the CIDR prefix determines how the IP address is divided into network and host parts. The term subnet mask is only used within IPv4. Both IP versions however use the CIDR concept and notation. In this, the IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example, an IPv4 address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively. The CIDR notation for the same IP address and subnet is 192.0.2.1/24, because the first 24 bits of the IP address indicate the network and subnet. IP address assignment Internet Protocol addresses are assigned to a host either anew at the time of booting, or permanently by fixed configuration of its hardware or software. Persistent configuration is also known as using a static IP address. In contrast, in situations when the computer’s IP address is assigned newly each time, this is known as using a dynamic IP address. Methods Static IP addresses are manually assigned to a computer by an administrator. The exact procedure varies according to platform. This contrasts with dynamic IP addresses, which are assigned either by the computer interface or host software itself, as in Zeroconf, or assigned by a server using Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). Even though IP addresses assigned using DHCP may stay the same for long periods of time, they can generally change. In some cases, a network administrator may implement dynamically assigned static IP addresses. In this case, a DHCP server is used, but it is specifically configured to always assign the same IP address to a particular computer. This allows static IP addresses to be configured centrally, without having to specifically configure each computer on the network in a manual procedure. In the absence or failure of static or stateful (DHCP) address configurations, an operating system may assign an IP address to a network interface using state-less auto-configuration methods, such as Zeroconf. Uses of dynamic address assignment IP addresses are most frequently assigned dynamically on LANs and broadband networks by the Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP). They are used because it avoids the administrative burden of assigning specific static addresses to each device on a network. It also allows many devices to share limited address space on a network if only some of them will be online at a particular time. In most current desktop operating systems, dynamic IP configuration is enabled by default so that a user does not need to manually enter any settings to connect to a network with a DHCP server. DHCP is not the only technology used to assign IP addresses dynamically. Dialup and some broadband networks use dynamic address features of the Point-to-Point Protocol. Sticky dynamic IP address A sticky dynamic IP address is an informal term used by cable and DSL Internet access subscribers to describe a dynamically assigned IP address which seldom changes. The addresses are usually assigned with DHCP. Since the modems are usually powered on for extended periods of time, the address leases are usually set to long periods and simply renewed. If a modem is turned off and powered up again before the next expiration of the address lease, it will most likely receive the same IP address. Address autoconfiguration RFC 3330 defines an address block, 169.254.0.0/16, for the special use in link-local addressing for IPv4 networks. In IPv6, every interface, whether using static or dynamic address assignments, also receives a local-link address automatically in the block fe80::/10. These addresses are only valid on the link, such as a local network segment or point-to-point connection, that a host is connected to. These addresses are not routable and like private addresses cannot be the source or destination of packets traversing the Internet. When the link-local IPv4 address block was reserved, no standards existed for mechanisms of address autoconfiguration. Filling the void, Microsoft created an implementation that is called Automatic Private IP Addressing (APIPA). APIPA has been deployed on millions of machines and has, thus, become a de facto standard in the industry. In RFC 3927, the IETF defined a formal standard for this functionality, entitled Dynamic Configuration of IPv4 Link-Local Addresses. Uses of static addressing Some infrastructure situations have to use static addressing, such as when finding the Domain Name System (DNS) host that will translate domain names to IP addresses. Static addresses are also convenient, but not absolutely necessary, to locate servers inside an enterprise. An address obtained from a DNS server comes with a time to live, or caching time, after which it should be looked up to confirm that it has not changed. Even static IP addresses do change as a result of network administration (RFC 2072). Routing IP addresses are classified into several classes of operational characteristics: unicast, multicast, anycast and broadcast addressing. Unicast addressing The most common concept of an IP address is in unicast addressing, available in both IPv4 and IPv6. It normally refers to a single sender or a single receiver, and can be used for both sending and receiving. Usually, a unicast address is associated with a single device or host, but a device or host may have more than one unicast address. Some individual PCs have several distinct unicast addresses, each for its own distinct purpose. Sending the same data to multiple unicast addresses requires the sender to send all the data many times over, once for each recipient. Broadcast addressing In IPv4 it is possible to send data to all possible destinations (“all-hosts broadcast”), which permits the sender to send the data only once, and all receivers receive a copy of it. In the IPv4 protocol, the address 255.255.255.255 is used for local broadcast. In addition, a directed (limited) broadcast can be made by combining the network prefix with a host suffix composed entirely of binary 1s. For example, the destination address used for a directed broadcast to devices on the 192.0.2.0/24 network is 192.0.2.255. IPv6 does not implement broadcast addressing and replaces it with multicast to the specially-defined all-nodes multicast address. Multicast addressing A multicast address is associated with a group of interested receivers. In IPv4, addresses 224.0.0.0 through 239.255.255.255 (the former Class D addresses) are designated as multicast addresses. IPv6 uses the address block with the prefix ff00::/8 for multicast applications. In either case, the sender sends a single datagram from its unicast address to the multicast group address and the intermediary routers take care of making copies and sending them to all receivers that have joined the corresponding multicast group. Anycast addressing Like broadcast and multicast, anycast is a one-to-many routing topology. However, the data stream is not transmitted to all receivers, just the one which the router decides is logically closest in the network. Anycast address is an inherent feature of only IPv6. In IPv4, anycast addressing implementations typically operate using the shortest-path metric of BGP routingand do not take into account congestion or other attributes of the path. Anycast methods are useful for global load balancing and are commonly used in distributed DNS systems. Public addresses A public IP address, in common parlance, is synonymous with a globally routable unicast IP address. Both IPv4 and IPv6 define address ranges that are reserved for private networks and link-local addressing. The term public IP address often used excludes these types of addresses. Modifications to IP addressing IP blocking and firewalls Firewalls perform Internet Protocol blocking to protect networks from unauthorized access. They are common on today’s Internet. They control access to networks based on the IP address of a client computer. Whether using a blacklist or a whitelist, the IP address that is blocked is the perceived IP address of the client, meaning that if the client is using a proxy server or network address translation, blocking one IP address may block many individual computers. IP address translation Multiple client devices can appear to share IP addresses: either because they are part of a shared hosting web server environment or because an IPv4 network address translator (NAT) or proxy server acts as an intermediary agent on behalf of its customers, in which case the real originating IP addresses might be hidden from the server receiving a request. A common practice is to have a NAT hide a large number of IP addresses in a private network. Only the “outside” interface(s) of the NAT need to have Internet-routable addresses. Most commonly, the NAT device maps TCP or UDP port numbers on the side of the larger, public network to individual private addresses on the masqueraded network. In small home networks, NAT functions are usually implemented in a residential gateway device, typically one marketed as a “router”. In this scenario, the computers connected to the router would have private IP addresses and the router would have a public address to communicate on the Internet. This type of router allows several computers to share one public IP address. Diagnostic tools Computer operating systems provide various diagnostic tools to examine their network interface and address configuration. Windows provides the command-line interface tools ipconfig and netsh and users of Unix-like systems can use ifconfig, netstat, route, lanstat, fstat, or iproute2 utilities to accomplish the task. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction Internet security is a tree branch of computer security specifically related to the Internet, often involving browser security but also network security on a more general level as it applies to other applications or operating systems on a whole. Its objective is to establish rules and measures to use against attacks over the Internet. The Internet represents an insecure channel for exchanging information leading to a high risk of intrusion or fraud, such as phishing. Different methods have been used to protect the transfer of data, including encryption. Types of security Network layer security TCP/IP which stands for Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) aka Internet protocol suite can be made secure with the help of cryptographic methods and protocols. These protocols include Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), succeeded by Transport Layer Security (TLS) for web traffic, Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) for email, and IPsec for the network layer security. Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) This protocol is designed to protect communication in a secure manner using TCP/IP aka Internet protocol suite. It is a set of security extensions developed by the Internet Task force IETF, and it provides security and authentication at the IP layer by transforming data using encryption. Two main types of transformation that form the basis of IPsec: the Authentication Header (AH) and ESP. These two protocols provide data integrity, data origin authentication, and anti-replay service. These protocols can be used alone or in combination to provide the desired set of security services for the Internet Protocol (IP) layer. The basic components of the IPsec security architecture are described in terms of the following functionalities: • Security protocols for AH and ESP • Security association for policy management and traffic processing • Manual and automatic key management for the Internet key exchange (IKE) • Algorithms for authentication and encryption The set of security services provided at the IP layer includes access control, data origin integrity, protection against replays, and confidentiality. The algorithm allows these sets to work independently without affecting other parts of the implementation. The IPsec implementation is operated in a host or security gateway environment giving protection to IP traffic. Security token Some online sites offer customers the ability to use a six-digit code which randomly changes every 30–60 seconds on a security token. The keys on the security token have built in mathematical computations and manipulate numbers based on the current time built into the device. This means that every thirty seconds there is only a certain array of numbers possible which would be correct to validate access to the online account. The website that the user is logging into would be made aware of that devices’ serial number and would know the computation and correct time built into the device to verify that the number given is indeed one of the handful of six-digit numbers that works in that given 30-60 second cycle. After 30–60 seconds the device will present a new random six-digit number which can log into the website. Electronic mail security (E-mail) Background Email messages are composed, delivered, and stored in a multiple step process, which starts with the message’s composition. When the user finishes composing the message and sends it, the message is transformed into a standard format: an RFC 2822 formatted message. Afterwards, the message can be transmitted. Using a network connection, the mail client, referred to as a mail user agent (MUA), connects to a mail transfer agent (MTA) operating on the mail server. The mail client then provides the sender’s identity to the server. Next, using the mail server commands, the client sends the recipient list to the mail server. The client then supplies the message. Once the mail server receives and processes the message, several events occur: recipient server identification, connection establishment, and message transmission. Using Domain Name System (DNS) services, the sender’s mail server determines the mail server(s) for the recipient(s). Then, the server opens up a connection(s) to the recipient mail server(s) and sends the message employing a process similar to that used by the originating client, delivering the message to the recipient(s). Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) Pretty Good Privacy provides confidentiality by encrypting messages to be transmitted or data files to be stored using an encryption algorithm such Triple DES or CAST-128. Email messages can be protected by using cryptography in various ways, such as the following: • Signing an email message to ensure its integrity and confirm the identity of its sender. • Encrypting the body of an email message to ensure its confidentiality. • Encrypting the communications between mail servers to protect the confidentiality of both message body and message header. The first two methods, message signing and message body encryption, are often used together; however, encrypting the transmissions between mail servers is typically used only when two organizations want to protect emails regularly sent between each other. For example, the organizations could establish a virtual private network (VPN) to encrypt the communications between their mail servers over the Internet. Unlike methods that can only encrypt a message body, a VPN can encrypt entire messages, including email header information such as senders, recipients, and subjects. In some cases, organizations may need to protect header information. However, a VPN solution alone cannot provide a message signing mechanism, nor can it provide protection for email messages along the entire route from sender to recipient. Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) MIME transforms non-ASCII data at the sender’s site to Network Virtual Terminal (NVT) ASCII data and delivers it to client’s Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) to be sent through the Internet. The server SMTP at the receiver’s side receives the NVT ASCII data and delivers it to MIME to be transformed back to the original non-ASCII data. Message Authentication Code A Message authentication code (MAC) is a cryptography method that uses a secret key to encrypt a message. This method outputs a MAC value that can be decrypted by the receiver, using the same secret key used by the sender. The Message Authentication Code protects both a message’s data integrity as well as its authenticity. Firewalls A computer firewall controls access between networks. It generally consists of gateways and filters which vary from one firewall to another. Firewalls also screen network traffic and are able to block traffic that is dangerous. Firewalls act as the intermediate server between SMTP and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) connections. Role of firewalls in web security Firewalls impose restrictions on incoming and outgoing Network packets to and from private networks. Incoming or outgoing traffic must pass through the firewall; only authorized traffic is allowed to pass through it. Firewalls create checkpoints between an internal private network and the public Internet, also known as choke points(borrowed from the identical military term of a combat limiting geographical feature). Firewalls can create choke points based on IP source and TCP port number. They can also serve as the platform for IPsec. Using tunnel mode capability, firewall can be used to implement VPNs. Firewalls can also limit network exposure by hiding the internal network system and information from the public Internet. Types of firewall Packet filter A packet filter is a first generation firewall that processes network traffic on a packet-by-packet basis. Its main job is to filter traffic from a remote IP host, so a router is needed to connect the internal network to the Internet. The router is known as a screening router, which screens packets leaving and entering the network. Stateful packet inspection In a stateful firewall the circuit-level gateway is a proxy server that operates at the network level of an Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model and statically defines what traffic will be allowed. Circuit proxies will forward Network packets (formatted unit of data ) containing a given port number, if the port is permitted by the algorithm. The main advantage of a proxy server is its ability to provide Network Address Translation (NAT), which can hide the user’s IP address from the Internet, effectively protecting all internal information from the Internet. Application-level gateway An application-level firewall is a third generation firewall where a proxy server operates at the very top of the OSI model, the IP suite application level. A network packet is forwarded only if a connection is established using a known protocol. Application-level gateways are notable for analyzing entire messages rather than individual packets of data when the data are being sent or received. Malicious software A computer user can be tricked or forced into downloading software onto a computer that is of malicious intent. Such software comes in many forms, such as viruses, Trojan horses, spyware, and worms. • Malware, short for malicious software, is any software used to disrupt computer operation, gather sensitive information, or gain access to private computer systems. Malware is defined by its malicious intent, acting against the requirements of the computer user, and does not include software that causes unintentional harm due to some deficiency. The term badware is sometimes used, and applied to both true (malicious) malware and unintentionally harmful software. • A botnet is a network of zombie computers that have been taken over by a robot or bot that performs large-scale malicious acts for the creator of the botnet. • Computer Viruses are programs that can replicate their structures or effects by infecting other files or structures on a computer. The common use of a virus is to take over a computer to steal data. • Computer worms are programs that can replicate themselves throughout a computer network, performing malicious tasks throughout. • Ransomware is a type of malware which restricts access to the computer system that it infects, and demands a ransom paid to the creator(s) of the malware in order for the restriction to be removed. • Scareware is scam software with malicious payloads, usually of limited or no benefit, that are sold to consumers via certain unethical marketing practices. The selling approach uses social engineering to cause shock, anxiety, or the perception of a threat, generally directed at an unsuspecting user. • Spyware refers to programs that surreptitiously monitor activity on a computer system and report that information to others without the user’s consent. • A Trojan horse, commonly known as a Trojan, is a general term for malicious software that pretends to be harmless, so that a user willingly allows it to be downloaded onto the computer. Denial-of-service attack A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a computer resource unavailable to its intended users. Although the means to carry out, motives for, and targets of a DoS attack may vary, it generally consists of the concerted efforts to prevent an Internet site or service from functioning efficiently or at all, temporarily or indefinitely. According to businesses who participated in an international business security survey, 25% of respondents experienced a DoS attack in 2007 and 16.8% experienced one in 2010. Phishing Phishing is another common threat to the Internet. “SA, the Security Division of EMC, today announced the findings of its January 2013 Fraud Report, estimating the global losses from Phishing at \$1.5 Billion in 2012.”. Filter evasion, website forgery, phone phishing, Covert Redirect are some well known phishing techniques. Hackers use a variety of tools to conduct phishing attacks. They create forged websites that pretend to be other websites in order for users to leave their personal information. These hackers usually host these sites on legitimate hosting services using stolen credit cards while the last trend is to use a mailing system and finding a mailing list of people which they can try and fraud. Browser choice Web browser statistics tend to affect the amount a Web browser is exploited. For example, Internet Explorer 6, which used to own a majority of the Web browser market share, is considered extremely insecure because vulnerabilities were exploited due to its former popularity. Since browser choice is more evenly distributed (Internet Explorer at 28.5%, Firefox at 18.4%, Google Chrome at 40.8%, and so on) and vulnerabilities are exploited in many different browsers. Application vulnerabilities Applications used to access Internet resources may contain security vulnerabilities such as memory safety bugs or flawed authentication checks. The most severe of these bugs can give network attackers full control over the computer. Most security applications and suites are incapable of adequate defense against these kinds of attacks. Internet security products Antivirus Antivirus and Internet security programs can protect a programmable device from malware by detecting and eliminating viruses; Antivirus software was mainly shareware in the early years of the Internet, but there are now several free security applications on the Internet to choose from for all platforms. Security suites So called “security suites” were first offered for sale in 2003 (McAfee) and contain a suite of firewalls, anti-virus, anti-spyware and more.[15] They may now offer theft protection, portable storage device safety check, private Internet browsing, cloud anti-spam, a file shredder or make security-related decisions (answering popup windows) and several were free of charge as of at least 2012. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Watch this video to get an overview of the evolution of the technologies that led to our modern internet. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=118 All rights reserved content 5.11: Video- How the Internet Works The internet is not a fuzzy cloud. The internet is a wire, actually buried in the ground. Computers connected directly to the internet are called “Servers,” while the computers you and I use are “clients,” because they are not connected directly to the internet, but through an Internet Service Provider. Routers shuttle packets of information across the internet, and transmit e-mail, pictures, and web pages. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=120 All rights reserved content 5.12: Video- DNS Explained Learn the ins and outs of how the Domain Name System (DNS) works and how it takes a name like dnsmadeeasy.com and translates it into an IP address to find content on the web. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=122 All rights reserved content 5.13: Video- The Future Internet With over a billion users, today’s Internet is arguably the most successful human artifact ever created. The Future Internet, an initiative driven by the European Union, has become a prime research focus of STI International and the Service Web 3.0 project. In order to explain, promote, and attract new contributors, we created a video to be viewed by stakeholders, who may be non-experts, in a new generation Internet. The video outlines the basic themes of the European Union’s Future Internet initiative. These include: an Internet of Services, where services are ubiquitous; an Internet of Things where in principle every physical object becomes an online addressable resource; a Mobile Internet where 24/7 seamless connectivity over multiple devices is the norm; and the need for semantics in order to meet the challenges presented by the dramatic increase in the scale of content and users. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=124 All rights reserved content 5.14: Video- Web 3.0 The Internet of Things Watch this video to better understand the future of the Internet and how the Internet of Things connects objects to the web. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=126 All rights reserved content 5.15: Practice- Internet 101 The following Practical Exercises will help set your learning. They are available HERE (http://www.gcflearnfree.org/internet101). Exercises: • What is the Internet • How is the Internet Used • Connecting to the Internet • Browser Basics • Search Engines and Strategies. • Also include the Quiz and Internet Safety as review, as well as any of the other exercises in the list. I recommend that you open each exercise in a new tab on your browser. That will make it easier to return to the home page of the web site. You can perform these exercises on your mobile devices. CC licensed content, Original 5.16: Review- Communications and Information Literacy Jeopardy A Jeopardy game is attached to assist you in your review. You will need the PowerPoint application or a PowerPoint viewer to play the game. You can perform these exercises on your mobile devices with access to Office 365 Mobile or a separate App for your Apple or Android device. Jeopardy: Communications and Information Literacy NOTE: The Jeopardy Game should open in the Slide Show view and be immediately playable. If it opens in the regular PowerPoint presentation view, go to the SLIDE SHOW tab on the ribbon and start the show from THE BEGINNING (command on the far left). You can play the game as many times as you like and in any order you like. CC licensed content, Original

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1. Become familiar with the NOVA Library resources. Begin by navigating to the Library Home Page [link to http://www.nvcc.edu/library]. You will find a wealth of information here. Take a look at the library resource tabs – Books & More, Articles & More, Streaming & eMedia, & Research Guides. 1. Books & More provides a box to search the library catalog for books, eBooks, DVDs and streaming videos in all NOVA Libraries. 2. Articles & More has links to the many databases available to help you find articles from journals, magazines and newspapers. You will be using the databases found under the ‘Recommended Databases for Most Topics’ link for this course. When accessing these databases off-campus you will need to log in using your Blackboard username and password. 3. Streaming & eMedia has links to all of our audiobook, eBook, and music databases. Interested in exploring technology further? Check out the link to the SafariTech eBook collection. You will also need to log in to these databases off-campus. 4. Research Guides pull together all types of resources on a subject. These resources may include eBooks, recommended databases, encyclopedias, videos, career information, websites and more. Click on the ‘Research Guides’ tab, and the ‘By Subject’ link. Click on the ‘Information Technology’ link to see the Research Guide for this course. 2. College-level research generally requires referencing scholarly sources as opposed to popular sources. The following resources will help you to evaluate sources and determine which are appropriate to use. 1. Video: YouTube created by Lynn University [Duration 4:44] (link to http://youtu.be/urCFhPJRhbI) 2. Document: Characteristics of Magazines, Trade Publications & Scholarly Journals – How can you tell the difference between magazines and scholarly journals?(http://nova.libguides.com/content.ph...95&sid=3523205) 3. What about Wikipedia? There are appropriate uses of Wikipedia, but in general it should not be cited as a direct source in your research. For more information see the following link –http://www.nvcc.edu/depts/library_projects/Blackboard/wikipedia_demo.htm. Note that this video has no sound. 3. Once you have a topic, you will start your research. Searching library resources is different than searching Google. Rather than searching for a sentence or question, you will want to identify keywords. What is a keyword? A keyword is the main idea(s) of your topic. If you want to conduct research on whether cloud computing is a secure method of storing files, your keywords might be: “cloud computing”, files, storage, and security. 4. After identifying your keywords, you will need to construct a search strategy using appropriate commands. Searches can be done using various techniques, such as searching for a particular phrase, using Boolean operators, and applying truncation. The following resources will demonstrate these different search techniques: 1. Video: Search Strategies in a Database [Duration 6:58] (link to http://youtu.be/RF5mTw5Pujk) 2. Video: Boolean Operators [Duration 3:02] (link to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xsSZps3NH-M). 3. Video: Truncation [Duration 1:23] (link to http://youtu.be/KbS9QGHcM0c). 5. This assignment is not graded. However you will be using these research tools in several assignments in this course. CC licensed content, Shared previously • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts, Information Literacy Assignment. Authored by: Jim Shannon. Provided by: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at: http://www.nvcc.edu/eli/index.html. License: CC BY: Attribution 5.18: Assignment- Web Site Evaluation Discussion Forum 1. If you have not already done so, read HOW TO EVALUATE WEB RESOURCES on the NOVA library web site. 2. Choose a web site related to your field of study. For example, if you are a Psychology major, you might choose something like the American Psychological Association. If you are an Accounting major, you might choose something like The American Institute of CPAs. 3. Post your responses to the following questions in the class discussion board: 1. What is the URL of the web site you choose to evaluate? 2. Why did you choose this web site? 3. What is the purpose of the web site? 4. What type of domain does it come from? (educational, nonprofit, commercial, government, etc.) 5. Who published and/or wrote the pages on the web site? 6. Are biases clearly stated and are affiliations clear? How do you know? 7. Is the site current enough? How do you know? 8. What are the author’s credentials on this subject? 9. Are sources documented with footnotes or links and are there links to other resources on the topic? 10. Would you recommend this web site to others? Why or why not? If you recommend it, how can others use the web site for the purpose you identified? CC licensed content, Original

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Learning Objectives If you do well in this unit, you should be able to: • Explain intellectual property rights, piracy, and information theft. • Explain plagiarism and issues associated with using the Web for research. • Explain codes of conduct and privacy issues associated with computing. • Identify the name and the purpose of each step in the program development cycle. • Identify the names of the three basic control structures and describe how each control structure works. • Identify the distinguishing features of structured programming and object-oriented programming. CC licensed content, Original 6.02: Reading- System Development Introduction This chapter will provide you with an overview of the systems development process. First we describe in detail the traditional Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC), encompassing the stages through which each system should pass, from the initial survey to hand-over of the completed system. Pressure for rapid development and future maintainability of systems has resulted in a number of alternative approaches to systems development, ranging from development by end-users, to the incorporation of formal methods to improve the quality and efficiency of the development process. Systems Development Life Cycle (SDLC) Systems development could be seen as the simple process of writing programs to solve the needs of the user. Unfortunately the user knows what he wants but has no technical expertise while the programmer understands the computer but not the user environment. This communication gap between the customer and the service provider must be handled by an intermediary, the systems analyst. Broadly speaking therefore the systems analyst translates user’s needs into detailed specifications for implementation by the programmer. Over the years the software manufacturing process has become more formalized: The basic idea of the systems development life cycle is that there is a well defined process by which an application is conceived, developed and implemented. The life cycle gives structure to a creative process. In order to manage and control the development effort, it is necessary to know what should have been done, what has been done, and what has yet to be accomplished. The phases in the systems development life cycle provide a basis for management and control because they define segments of the workflow which can be identified for managerial purposes and specify the documents or other deliverables to be produced in each phase.—Davis and Olson, 1985. The number of stages and names to describe those stages differ slightly between organizations; but the SDLC normally covers the activities shown in figure 1, each with a primary purpose. Preliminary Investigation The preliminary investigation is carried out to determine the scope and objectives of the new system and to investigate whether there is a feasible solution. New applications normally originate from end-user requests and are weighed against the other requests for IS resources before approval to develop the system is granted. At this stage an analyst or small project team is authorized to investigate the real potential of the new application. During this brief study the analyst must investigate the problem and the existing system sufficiently to be able to identify the true extent and purpose of the new application. In order to ensure that the new system would be of greater benefit to the organization than other competing requests for proposals, a feasibility study must be performed covering the following three major areas: • Economic feasibility to measure the costs and benefits of the new system. • Technical feasibility to ensure that the organization has sufficient hardware, software and personnel resources to develop and support the proposed system. • Operational feasibility, the willingness and ability of management, users and Information Systems staff in the organization to build and use the proposed system Figure 1: Systems Development Process Issues such as the size and complexity of the new system and the skills and availability of user and IS staff, will determine the level of potential risk to the organization in developing the system. The output from this preliminary investigation is a statement of scope and objectives (often termed the project charter) together with a feasibility report. This document is submitted to management where a decision is made as to whether or not the development project should continue. Systems Analysis In this stage the analyst investigates the needs of the user and develops a conceptual solution to the problem. One human failing we all tend to exhibit is to rush into proposing solutions before we fully understand the problem we are trying to solve. It is therefore important for the analyst to develop a broad, conceptual solution to the problem (what needs to be done) prior to launching into the detailed physical design where we specify how the system will work. In the past analysis tended to be very much a pragmatic affair with success more dependent on the experience and capabilities of the analyst than on any formalized approach. The analysis phase should include the following discrete steps: • Understand how the existing system operates. This information can be obtained by observing people at work, interviewing users, and studying procedure manuals and other supporting documentation, questionnaires and visits to other organizations. • Document the current physical system. A major problem in the past was how to record all the detail about the system. Most of it could be found only in the analyst’s head or draft notes. Here the basic tools of structured systems analysis such as the data flow diagram (DFD), the entity relationship diagram (ERD) and data dictionary (DD) can be used to represent graphically and record the data and procedures. We will discuss these later in the chapter. • Define the problem areas. These may include such issues as poor response times in the existing system, poor presentation of current information, high costs or weak controls in the current system, waste and sometimes duplication. • Identify new requirements. The analyst must attempt to identify new user requirements and look for new and improved procedures that can be incorporated into the system. • Identify possible solutions. Having derived objectives for the new system from the previous stage, the analyst now develops a conceptual model of the new system in conjunction with the user. This may involve the investigation of alternative physical designs, such as whether to remain with the existing manual system, or to choose a centralized or decentralized approach to the application. • The culmination of the analysis stage is the preparation of the formal user requirement specification (URS) that incorporates a logical model of a system that will meet the user’s requirements. A large proportion of the functional description and data specifications is best communicated from the analysis stage to the design stage through the graphic and electronic output from the structured tools used in the analysis process (data flow diagrams, entity relationship models, decision trees and the data dictionary). • Again management is required to review the status of the project and to make its go/no-go decision. Systems Design The analysis stage of the SDLC has clearly identified what must be done in order to meet the user’s requirements. One important decision that must be taken at this point is whether to “make or buy” the new software application. In the past, most large organizations developed their own applications as no two organizations were exactly alike, and they could afford the investment in systems developed around their user’s needs. Today the picture is changing as custom-built software is becoming very expensive to develop and even more so to maintain. Computer applications are large, complex and integrated and many businesses have become non-competitive because of their inability to develop systems that adequately support their business activities. On the reverse side, packages (pre-written software applications) are becoming more common and can be customized to meet the needs of each organization. With major benefits in terms of speed of installation, cost, low maintenance and low risk, more and more companies are switching to packaged applications software. It is at this stage in the SDLC that the “make or buy” decision must be taken. We have analyzed our user’s requirements and can use these as selection criteria in searching for an appropriate package to purchase and install. Where there is no suitable package available we can still look to other innovative ways of obtaining the software, such as hiring contract staff or appointing a software house to build the system for us. Purchasing pre-written software will obviously mean the detailed systems design, coding and testing phases of the project are bypassed, depending on the need for customization of the final system. In later courses we will look at the package selection process in more detail. The objective of the design stage is to determine exactly how the new system will work, and to communicate this information in a document referred to as the detailed systems specification. If we take the analogy of an architect building a house, in the analysis stage he has determined the feasibility of the project and identified the owner’s requirements in terms of the positioning of the house on the plot, size and architectural style, number of rooms and so on. The architect may even have built a small model to demonstrate the look and feel of the new dwelling. Once the owner is happy that the proposed house meets his requirements, the architect must communicate the detailed design to the builders. This would entail the drawing of a detailed plan of the house, specifying exactly how every part of the building is constructed and defining dimensions, materials, construction techniques etc. We need to go through the same process when designing computer systems. This includes the design of: • the technical platform on which the software will run. The new application may need new hardware, operating systems software and network connections • output reports and enquiry screens • input forms and data capture procedures • physical file and database layouts • description of the workings of each program module • new clerical processes and procedures that will be required to interface with the new system. Whereas in the analysis stage the emphasis was on identifying the user’s needs with little concern for the way the computer would be used, the design stage also requires user involvement for the approval of detailed design, but the physical constraints imposed by the computer are also of major importance. Gane and Sarson [1979] define the objectives of structured design as follows: The most important objective of design, of course, is to deliver the functions required by the user. If the logical model calls for the production of pay cheques and the design does not produce pay cheques, or does not produce them correctly, then the design is a failure. But given that many correct designs are possible, there are three main objectives which the designer has to bear in mind while evolving and evaluating a design: • Performance. How fast the design will be able to do the user’s work given a particular hardware resource. • Control. The extent to which the design is secure against human errors, machine malfunction, or deliberate mischief. • Changeability. The ease with which the design allows the system to be changed to, for example, meet the user’s needs to have different transaction types processed. The output from systems design is a detailed design specification incorporating technical, input, output, data and process specifications. In the past, much of the information was communicated in written form which was difficult to understand and often ambiguous. Imagine the builder having to construct a house from a written description. Like the output from analysis we have a number of innovative tools to help users and developers understand and communicate the workings of the system. These include data models and data dictionaries, screen and report layouts, structure charts and pseudo-code. We will look at most of these later in this chapter. Systems Build In this stage we program the new system. If the system has been purchased “off-the shelf, this phase would consist of the customization of the system. The success of the implementation stage is heavily reliant on the previous stages. If the analysis stage was poorly enacted, the system may not be what the user requires. Poor design will make it difficult for the programmer to construct the system, and it may be inefficient and difficult to maintain. However, if the required effort and expertise is invested in analysis and design, there will be a precise specification of what to build available to the IS programmers and technical staff. Unlike the previous stages, the programming stage can be undertaken as a number of separate tasks, performed in parallel. Programmers can code, data base administrators set up the database, hardware suppliers install and test networks and equipment, and we can begin to train the end-users to prepare them for the implementation phase. With so much happening, and with the need for some tasks to be completed before others begin, the analyst must develop a detailed project implementation plan to ensure tasks are scheduled and delays are quickly identified and addressed. Programming includes the following steps: • database construction • program coding and testing • systems testing to check the system can handle expected loads and meets physical performance criteria • finalise manual procedures Systems Implementation This entails the transition of the completed system into the operational environment, and includes the following tasks (some of which will already have been started in earlier phases): • installation and testing of any new hardware, systems software and network infrastructure • train users and operations staff • transfer data (data conversion)from the manual or old system to the new database where necessary • perform acceptance testing. This requires careful planning to ensure all data flows, error procedures, interfaces, controls and manual procedures are tested • complete project documentation The change over carries some risk, as failure of the new system may result in the organization being unable to do business, There are a number of approaches to converting from the old system to the new. The least risky is to run the new system in parallel with the old until the new system is stable. There is obviously a cost to running both systems. Another approach is to convert one part of the organization at a time (for example one branch office at a time). This method (known as the pilot method) reduces risk and allows the development team to focus on one area. This approach can cause some integration problems as part of the organization is running on the old system and part on the new. A similar approach is the phased implementation method where organizations convert to a large system one step at a time. For example they may start with the stock system, then implement debtors and finally the order entry system. Some organizations use the big bang approach and just switch over from the old to the new system. This option is obviously high risk as there is no system to fall back on in an emergency. When the new system has been in operation for a few months, a post-implementation audit should be carried out. This audit must ascertain whether the project has achieved the initial objectives specified in terms of: • meeting initial scope and objectives • anticipated costs and benefits to the organization • user satisfaction with the new system • performance (response/turnaround time, reliability) • adherence to standards • quality of final product • project performance in terms of cost and time. This exercise will help to highlight problems that require maintenance of the new system and provide valuable feedback to IS management and project teams to assist in future development exercises. Maintenance Finally resources will be required to maintain and enhance the system over its operational life which can vary between 4 and 10 years. There is normally a formal hand-over of the system from the project team to the maintenance team. This will ensure that there is a defined time when the project is completed and that all the required documentation is produced. There are many systems in existence that are still supported by the original developer; and all knowledge of the system exists only in that individual’s head. The problem is that when this person leaves (or worse gets run over by a bus), there is no one with any knowledge of the system and the organization is at risk. Research has shown that this is the most expensive stage of the life cycle as program bugs (as a result of poor design or bad coding and testing) or enhancements (poor analysis of user’s requirements or changes to the business) require continual analysis and programming effort. The following table summarizes the important tasks in the six stages of the SDLC and highlights the main deliverables from each task. Figure 2: SDLC Tasks Stage Tasks Deliverables Preliminary Investigation Problem Definition Scope and Objectives Data Gathering Risk Assessment Feasibility Analysis Project Charter Feasibility Study Systems Analysis Data Gathering Systems Modeling User Requirements Definition User Requirements Specification Systems Design Make or Buy Decision Physical Systems Design Technical Design Detailed Systems Specification Systems Build Programming and testing Platform Implementation Production System Systems Implementation User Training Data Conversion Systems Conversion Post-Implementation Review Live System Systems Maintenance Fix system “bugs” System enhancement Working System Development of Structured Methodologies New and innovative systems development techniques are frequently proposed by researchers and practitioners and, over time, these formal methods have replaced the traditional pragmatic approach to developing computer systems. Structured Programming In the 1960’s, the major concern in IS development environments was the efficient utilization of expensive computer hardware. Programs were written in low level languages with little or no support documentation and, over time, the code became almost impossible for maintenance programmers to understand and fix. So arose the need to introduce a set of standard rules and procedures for writing programs, often referred to as structured programming. Some of the key techniques in the structured programming approach include: • a limited set of simple control structures (to control branching and looping) • standard naming conventions for data and procedures • self documenting programs. Structured programming techniques ensured that programs were easier to write and test and much easier to maintain. Structured Design In the mid 1970s the focus in systems development moved from program coding to systems design. Computer applications were becoming more complex with the introduction of large on-line, integrated systems. IS researchers, and in particular Larry Constantine, studied the problems of program size and complexity, and determined that, as a problem grew in size, so there was a more than proportional growth in the complexity of the problem and therefore in programming time. He advocated that all systems should be made up of small modules each no longer than fifty lines of program code. Fragmenting a problem into a number of modules can be done in many ways; and he urged that the best technique would be to segment the program by function (task) with each module being as functionally independent of other modules as possible. This would ensure that changes to one program module were unlikely to affect other modules. This technique was known as structured design; and a graphical representation of the modules and their relationships known as a structure chart, was developed to assist in the process. Structured Analysis In the late 1970s the focus in systems development moved again, this time to the analysis stage. IS professionals had formalized the design and coding of computer software but had neglected the most important development issue – what are the user’s real requirements. Written specifications were the main source of communication throughout the project. In the same way that architects would never attempt to describe a building in a letter, so analysts needed tools and techniques which could be used to define and communicate the user’s requirements to the systems design stage. These structured tools and techniques included: • Data Flow Diagrams (DFD). These diagrams are used to show how data flows between the various processes in the system. DFD’s are an excellent communication tool as they are simple enough for users to understand and yet detailed enough to form the basis for the systems design process. A number of DFD techniques has been developed since the original work was published by Tom De Marco in 1978. However, they all basically perform the same task. Data flow diagrams are one of the most used and popular IS charting techniques. • Entity Relationship Diagrams (ERD). Entity relationship diagrams identify the major objects about which data is stored and chart their interrelationship. Like most formal techniques, its major value is that it forces the analyst into a structured and detailed investigation of all the data used in the system. • Decision Trees and Pseudo-code. These tools enable the analyst to express process logic clearly and unambiguously. In the detailed analysis of an information system, the analyst often has to describe a logical process that the future system will have to perform. Examples of these could be the way that a personnel system calculates pension benefits for employees or a sales system calculates sales commissions. Decision trees are diagrammatic representations of the process logic, showing the conditions that need to be tested and the resulting activities in a simple tree-like structure. Pseudo-code can be described as “structured English”. It permits the analyst to define process logic using English language couched in the logical structures inherent in program code. In reality it eliminates the verbosity and ambiguity from the English narrative. • Project Dictionary. This tool enables the analyst to capture and catalogue the entire system specification on computer with the obvious advantages in reporting, cross-referencing and updating. In a database environment, data is no longer the property of each individual application but managed centrally as a corporate resource. Vast amounts of information about this data needs to be maintained, for example field names, types and lengths, validation rules, data structures and relationships. As systems move from the development to production environment, this data about data is transferred from the project dictionary into a production data dictionary to enable the database administrator (DBA) to build and maintain the corporate database. As we will discuss later, most of the new computer assisted software engineering (CASE) tools are now built up round a project dictionary. Alternative approaches to developing systems Over the past 40 years, efforts have been made to improve the quality of new systems and to reduce the time and effort expended in their development. The following section provides an overview of some of the significant tools and techniques developed for this purpose. Prototyping One technique that has been incorporated successfully into the SDLC is prototyping. As the name suggests a prototype is a mock-up or model of a system for review purposes. Looking at the traditional SDLC, one of the major problems is that the user is asked to provide detailed requirements prior to the system being built. Once a system is implemented he may find flaws in his original requirements or may see the possibilities of a new and improved approach. For applications such as general ledger and payroll, the requirements are normally well understood (and usually standardized enough to suggest the use of packages) but many other areas such as personnel are unstructured and would benefit from the prototyping stage. The two main approaches to the use of prototypes in the SDLC are: • discovery prototyping where the analyst builds a skeleton of the final product in the analysis stage of the project in order that the user may better understand the workings of the final system. This prototype is normally built with a fourth generation language and while it is likely to include mock-ups of screens and reports, it is seldom a fully working model. The building and refining of the prototype is an iterative process between analyst and user and stimulates discussion on the functionality of the final product. Once the analyst and user are happy that the system’s requirements have been identified, detailed requirement specifications are developed and the prototype is no longer required. In some instances the prototype may serve as the specification. • evolutionary prototyping where a working model is built with the intention of later refining it into the operational system. While this technique would appear to have great advantages in terms of productivity, the original prototype is often thrown together and not properly designed. Prototyping can offer IS developers many advantages in that it assists in clarifying user’s requirements, improves user communication and commitment, should improve the functionality and quality of the user interface and will assist in identifying problems earlier in the development life cycle. Where prototyping can be problematic is that it raises the user’s expectations that systems are quick to build and changes are easy. In addition there is a lack of experienced prototypers and quality prototyping tools. Joint Application Development (JAD) One major problem in systems development projects is the lack of real communication, understanding and consensus between users, management and the development team. Instead of the traditional one on one interviews spread over weeks and often months, the JAD approach involves a series of highly structured workshops where stakeholders focus on any one of the planning, analysis, design and implementation stages of the life cycle. One obvious advantage of this approach is a reduction in the time it takes to develop systems. However the real benefits of JAD come from better user requirements through improved communication and conflict resolution. Successful JAD sessions often depend on the competence of the session leader (termed the facilitator), the scribe (who is responsible for documenting the output from the sessions), strong top management support and a mix of participants with expertise and responsibility for the area under discussion. Computer Assisted Software Engineering (CASE) There is a famous saying, “The cobblers children have no shoes.” and this is very relevant to IS. Here we have a classic example of a group of IS professionals, dedicated to computerizing the organization in which they work, while developing these computer systems via manual means. CASE environments attempt to address this problem by offering a set of integrated electronic tools for use in the SDLC. During the first phase of system development, CASE products provide the analyst with computerized tools to complete and document the analysis and detailed design stages of the development project by graphically modeling the data requirements and the business process flows that the intended application has to address. These models attempt to give a visual representation of a part of the business operations, following one of many modeling standards. The resultant application model is then used as a blueprint for the actual implementation in computer code. The tools that are geared specifically for this modeling phase are referred to as upper-CASE or JJ-CASE tools. Lower-CASE tools specialize in the second phase of system development: the actual generation of executable applications or advanced prototypes. This is typically achieved through the use of a generic application generator, although CASE tools tend to be independent of any specific database management system. Integrated or I-CASE aims to automate both phases i.e. a combination of upper and lower-CASE tools in one single package. Most CASE environments use an electronic project dictionary as a repository and can include: • graphic tools for charting diagrams such as DFD’s, ERD’s and Structure charts • 4th generation languages or application generators to assist with prototyping • data dictionary facilities to record and maintain data about data, processes and other system details • quality control facilities to check specifications and code for correctness • code generators to reduce programming effort • spreadsheet models to assist with cost/benefit analysis • project management tools to plan, monitor and control the development cycle. • When CASE environments were originally developed in the mid 1980s, IS managers viewed them as a possible “silver bullet” to resolve the growing demand for computer systems. The promise of CASE was better quality systems, reduced development time, enforced standards and improved documentation. As yet CASE tools have failed to make a major impact. CASE environments are complex, the cost of implementing CASE is high (both in terms of the CASE software and analyst training) and many organizations are looking to other solutions (packages and object orientation) to resolve their applications backlog. Object Oriented Development (OOD) Using the traditional development approach where the analyst designs procedures focused on the user’s requirements can result in systems that are costly to develop and inflexible in nature. The object oriented approach attempts to build components (objects) that model the behavior of persons, places, things or concepts that exist in the real world and then to build systems from these components. We do not design and build unique systems for motor cars or televisions; they are mostly built up from a set of common, interchangeable components. Even when components are unique they are very similar to other components. In the same way we can construct computer systems from building blocks reusing objects from other systems, making modifications to similar objects or obtaining objects from commercial component libraries. The OOD paradigm is only now gaining momentum in the market place and most programming languages and methodologies do not support 00 development. One exception is Small Talk, the language credited with pioneering the OOP (object oriented programming) concept. Today many of the popular programming languages are appearing with 00 versions (for example Pascal, C++, Visual Basic and even COBOL). Other development tools The above-mentioned new programming approaches were not the only attempts to improve developer productivity. The following presents some other development tools and approaches. Note that, since distinctions between the categories cannot always be perfect, some tools could be classified in more than one category. • Visual programming tools. The power of graphical user interfaces and object-orientation has spawned a number of high-level front-ends or shells to enable non-programmers to generate their own straightforward applications. These visual programming tools allow for the construction of applications by selecting, connecting, copying and arranging programming objects. For simple applications, there is no need for any code to be written at all since all required objects can be copied from a large library with all commonly used, pre-configured objects and their associated standard methods. • Report generators are generally associated with database management systems and allow users to create ad-hoc, customized reports using the data in the database by specifying the various selection criteria and the desired report layout. • Application generators consist of standard building blocks that can be combined or customized to create the required systems. The user specifies the inputs, the output requirements and the various data validations and transformations. Screen and report painters allow on-line, visual layout of input and output modules. Generally, these generators are supported by a comprehensive database management system that integrates the data dictionary, graphics and reporting modules as well as other utilities such as data and process modeling, security facilities, decision support modules and query-by-example (QBE) languages. • Logic programming for knowledge based systems. Programmers quickly discovered that conventional programming languages were inadequate to develop advanced knowledge-based applications, such as expert systems and other artificial intelligence systems. These systems require reasoning capabilities and have knowledge representation requirements that are difficult to implement using procedural languages. This led to the development of logic programming languages such as LISP and Prolog. The use of these languages is generally confined to researchers and scientists. Today, a number of shells has been developed that allow the automatic generation of straight-forward knowledge-based systems. • End-user applications. Today’s end-user productivity applications have extensive programming capabilities and allow for customization by means of macros (pre-recorded sequences of commands, keystrokes) and formulae. A spreadsheet is essentially a model developed by an end-user whereby the equations (or data transformations) have been programmed by means of formulae. Many of these formulae look similar to the statements in programming languages. The following statement would calculate someone’s weekly wages taking into account an overtime rate of 50%, using Microsoft Excel or Access. – IF ( hours > 42 , hours * wage , 42 * wage + ( 1.5 * wage ) * ( hours – 42 )) Critical success factors Regardless of the development approach that may be used, a number of factors have been identified that are critical to ensuring the success of a systems development project: • well-defined system objectives • careful test of feasibility • top management support • user involvement to ensure strong commitment • rigorous analysis to ensure detailed, unambiguous user requirements • sound detailed design to ensure an efficient, quality, maintainable system • project management to ensure the development team is managed and controlled. South African Perspective Research by a group of Scandinavian computer scientists has suggested that prototyping is better suited than the traditional SDLC to systems development projects undertaken in developing countries. Although the SDLC provides a rigorous development methodology intended to generate clearly defined system requirements, it does not take into account problems resulting from social and cultural factors. These include the uncertain availability of technical skills, user anxiety about technology, and the need for adaptability of the final product to differing local conditions. A further dimension to this approach is the need to train users in basic computer literacy skills and to inform them about the business role of IS before any attempt is made to elicit system requirements. Once workers have been empowered in this way, they are able to provide more valuable participation in the development of a system. Developers must also see the project as a mutual learning experience, since they need to understand how future changes in the business environment may affect system requirements. Beyond the Basics Web pages can contain multimedia effects and interactive capabilities, and the development of web pages involves using a variety of special components. Among the jargon and acronyms that you may encounter are the following: • Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) is not actually a programming language, but has specific rules for defining the formatting of text, graphics, video and audio on a web page. Tags are used to indicate how a page should be displayed on your screen, and the details underlying links to other web pages. • Interactive elements such as scrolling messages, pop-up windows and animated graphics are controlled by small programs, generally scripts, applets or ActiveX controls. Basically, a script is an interpreted program that runs on the client computer, as opposed to an applet, which is a compiled program running on the client computer. ActiveX controls are object-oriented technologies that allow components on a network to communicate with one another. • Information is sent and received between your computer and a web server via the common gateway interface (CGI), which is the communications standard that defines how a web server communicates with outside sources such as a database. CGI programs are frequently written using scripting languages such as JavaScript, which is simpler to use than the full Java language. • Web pages created using dynamic HTML can automatically update their content on the client’s machine, without having to access the web server, making them more responsive to user interaction. Extensible HTML (XHTML) uses XML technology to display web pages on different types of display devices, while wireless markup language (WML) supports browsing on PDAs and cellular telephones. Finally wireless application protocol (WAP) specifies how wireless devices such as cellular telephones communicate with the Web. Exercises Stages of the SDLC Read the following article, and then briefly explain, for each stage of the SDLC, which of the standard activities appear to have been omitted or not completed when developing the system, and what effect this had on the quality of the final product. From: Machlis, S. “U.S. Agency Puts \$71m System on Ice”, Computerworld, 12 May 1997. The U.S Agency for International Development (AID) last week confirmed that it suspended overseas use of a new computer system plagued by integration snafus, data transmission bottlenecks, and response times so slow that employee efficiency suffered. For now, 39 field sites will go back to using the agency’s old system for core accounting services and procurement contracts while problems with the Washington-based computers are ironed out. “We need to get the core functionality established”, said Richard McCall, AID’s chief of staff. The New Management System (NMS), budgeted at \$71 million, has been under fire since it was deployed in October of 1997. The AID inspector general’s office criticized NMS for data errors and slow performance. In some cases, users had to spend days trying to process a single transaction. The new system can’t handle the large amount of data that passes among AID offices, McCall said. The agency must decide whether to boost expensive satellite network bandwidth to handle real time transactions or move to some batch processing. “I don’t think people understood the amount of data that would be transmitted over the system”, he said. Designers also initially failed to gasp the difficulty of integrating legacy accounting systems. “We thought we had three primary accounting systems,” McCall said. But numerous infield alterations to basic systems over the years meant the agency had closer to 80 different accounting systems. Some of the resulting data didn’t import correctly into the new system. In addition, McCall said, system designers should have stayed focused on core requirements instead of trying to immediately add features that users requested after early tests. For example, some overseas employees wanted to be able to call up data from any foreign site. Although that is an attractive feature, he said, “that taxes the system. You don’t really need that now.” Systems conversion Four different methods have been described for the conversion to a new system: the parallel, pilot, phased or “big bang” approach. Compare these four alternatives in terms of the likely time frame involved, level of risk incurred, and user “buy-in” to the new system. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) in Geneva, Switzerland. Intellectual property (IP) is a term referring to creations of the intellect for which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law. Some common types of intellectual property rights (IPR) are copyright, patents, and industrial design rights; and the rights that protect trademarks, trade dress, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets: all these cover music, literature, and other artistic works; discoveries and inventions; and words, phrases, symbols, and designs. Intellectual property rights are themselves a form of property, called intangible property. Although many of the legal principles governing IP and IPR have evolved over centuries, it was not until the 19th century that the term intellectual property began to be used, and not until the late 20th century that it became commonplace in the majority of the world. The Statute of Monopolies (1624) and the British Statute of Anne (1710) are now seen as the origins of patent law and copyright respectively, firmly establishing the concept of intellectual property. History The Statute of Anne came into force in 1710 The first known use of the term intellectual property dates to 1769, when a piece published in the Monthly Review used the phrase. The first clear example of modern usage goes back as early as 1808, when it was used as a heading title in a collection of essays. The German equivalent was used with the founding of the North German Confederation whose constitution granted legislative power over the protection of intellectual property (Schutz des geistigen Eigentums) to the confederation. When the administrative secretariats established by the Paris Convention (1883) and the Berne Convention (1886) merged in 1893, they located in Berne, and also adopted the term intellectual property in their new combined title, the United International Bureaux for the Protection of Intellectual Property. The organization subsequently relocated to Geneva in 1960, and was succeeded in 1967 with the establishment of the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) by treaty as an agency of theUnited Nations. According to Lemley, it was only at this point that the term really began to be used in the United States (which had not been a party to the Berne Convention), and it did not enter popular usage until passage of the Bayh-Dole Act in 1980. The history of patents does not begin with inventions, but rather with royal grants by Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603) for monopoly privileges… Approximately 200 years after the end of Elizabeth’s reign, however, a patent represents a legal right obtained by an inventor providing for exclusive control over the production and sale of his mechanical or scientific invention… [demonstrating] the evolution of patents from royal prerogative to common-law doctrine. The term can be found used in an October 1845 Massachusetts Circuit Court ruling in the patent case Davoll et al. v. Brown., in which Justice Charles L. Woodbury wrote that “only in this way can we protect intellectual property, the labors of the mind, productions and interests are as much a man’s own…as the wheat he cultivates, or the flocks he rears.” The statement that “discoveries are…property” goes back earlier. Section 1 of the French law of 1791 stated, “All new discoveries are the property of the author; to assure the inventor the property and temporary enjoyment of his discovery, there shall be delivered to him a patent for five, ten or fifteen years.” In Europe, French author A. Nion mentioned propriété intellectuelle in his Droits civils des auteurs, artistes et inventeurs, published in 1846. Until recently, the purpose of intellectual property law was to give as little protection possible in order to encourage innovation. Historically, therefore, they were granted only when they were necessary to encourage invention, limited in time and scope. The concept’s origins can potentially be traced back further. Jewish law includes several considerations whose effects are similar to those of modern intellectual property laws, though the notion of intellectual creations as property does not seem to exist – notably the principle of Hasagat Ge’vul (unfair encroachment) was used to justify limited-term publisher (but not author) copyright in the 16th century. In 500 BCE, the government of the Greek state of Sybaris offered one year’s patent “to all who should discover any new refinement in luxury.” Intellectual property rights Intellectual property rights include patents, copyright, industrial design rights, trademarks, plant variety rights, trade dress, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets. There are also more specialized or derived varieties of sui generis exclusive rights, such as circuit design rights (called mask work rights in the US) and supplementary protection certificates for pharmaceutical products (after expiry of a patent protecting them) and database rights (in European law). Patents A patent is a form of right granted by the government to an inventor, giving the owner the right to exclude others from making, using, selling, offering to sell, and importing an invention for a limited period of time, in exchange for the public disclosure of the invention. An invention is a solution to a specific technological problem, which may be a product or a process and generally has to fulfill three main requirements: it has to be new, not obvious and there needs to be an industrial applicability. Copyright A copyright gives the creator of an original work exclusive rights to it, usually for a limited time. Copyright may apply to a wide range of creative, intellectual, or artistic forms, or “works.” Copyright does not cover ideas and information themselves, only the form or manner in which they are expressed. Industrial design rights An industrial design right (sometimes called “design right”) protects the visual design of objects that are not purely utilitarian. An industrial design consists of the creation of a shape, configuration or composition of pattern or color, or combination of pattern and color in three-dimensional form containing aesthetic value. An industrial design can be a two- or three-dimensional pattern used to produce a product, industrial commodity or handicraft. Plant varieties Plant breeders’ rights or plant variety rights are the rights to commercially use a new variety of a plant. The variety must amongst others be novel and distinct and for registration the evaluation of propagating material of the variety is examined. Trademarks A trademark is a recognizable sign, design or expression which distinguishes products or services of a particular trader from the similar products or services of other traders. Trade dress Trade dress is a legal term of art that generally refers to characteristics of the visual appearance of a product or its packaging (or even the design of a building) that signify the source of the product to consumers. Trade secrets A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or compilation of information which is not generally known or reasonably ascertainable, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors or customers. Objectives of intellectual property law The stated objective of most intellectual property law (with the exception of trademarks) is to “Promote progress.” By exchanging limited exclusive rights for disclosure of inventions and creative works, society and the patentee/copyright owner mutually benefit, and an incentive is created for inventors and authors to create and disclose their work. Some commentators have noted that the objective of intellectual property legislators and those who support its implementation appears to be “absolute protection”. “If some intellectual property is desirable because it encourages innovation, they reason, more is better. The thinking is that creators will not have sufficient incentive to invent unless they are legally entitled to capture the full social value of their inventions.” This absolute protection or full value view treats intellectual property as another type of “real” property, typically adopting its law and rhetoric. Other recent developments in intellectual property law, such as the America Invents Act, stress international harmonization. Financial incentive These exclusive rights allow owners of intellectual property to benefit from the property they have created, providing a financial incentive for the creation of an investment in intellectual property, and, in case of patents, pay associated research and development costs. Some commentators, such as David Levine and Michele Boldrin, dispute this justification. In 2013 the United States Patent & Trademark Office approximated that the worth of intellectual property to the U.S. economy is more than US\$5 trillion and creates employment for an estimated 18 million American people. The value of intellectual property is considered similarly high in other developed nations, such as those in the European Union. In the UK, IP has become a recognized asset class for use in pension-led funding and other types of business finance. However, in 2013, the UK Intellectual Property Office stated: “There are millions of intangible business assets whose value is either not being leveraged at all, or only being leveraged inadvertently”. Economic growth The WIPO treaty and several related international agreements underline that the protection of intellectual property rights is essential to maintaining economic growth. The WIPO Intellectual Property Handbook gives two reasons for intellectual property laws: One is to give statutory expression to the moral and economic rights of creators in their creations and the rights of the public in access to those creations. The second is to promote, as a deliberate act of Government policy, creativity and the dissemination and application of its results and to encourage fair trading which would contribute to economic and social development. The Anti-Counterfeiting Trade Agreement (ACTA) states that “effective enforcement of intellectual property rights is critical to sustaining economic growth across all industries and globally”. Economists estimate that two-thirds of the value of large businesses in the United States can be traced to intangible assets. “IP-intensive industries” are estimated to generate 72 percent more value added (price minus material cost) per employee than “non-IP-intensive industries.” A joint research project of the WIPO and the United Nations University measuring the impact of IP systems on six Asian countries found “a positive correlation between the strengthening of the IP system and subsequent economic growth.” Economists have also shown that IP can be a disincentive to innovation when that innovation is drastic. IP makes excludable non-rival intellectual products that were previously non-excludable. This creates economic inefficiency as long as the monopoly is held. A disincentive to direct resources toward innovation can occur when monopoly profits are less than the overall welfare improvement to society. This situation can be seen as a market failure, and an issue of appropriability. Morality According to Article 27 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, “everyone has the right to the protection of the moral and material interests resulting from any scientific, literary or artistic production of which he is the author.” Although the relationship between intellectual property and human rights is a complex one, there are moral arguments for intellectual property. The arguments that justify intellectual property fall into three major categories. Personality theorists believe intellectual property is an extension of an individual. Utilitarians believe that intellectual property stimulates social progress and pushes people to further innovation. Lockeans argue that intellectual property is justified based on deservedness and hard work. Various moral justifications for private property can be used to argue in favor of the morality of intellectual property, such as: 1. Natural Rights/Justice Argument: this argument is based on Locke’s idea that a person has a natural right over the labour and/or products which is produced by his/her body. Appropriating these products is viewed as unjust. Although Locke had never explicitly stated that natural right applied to products of the mind, it is possible to apply his argument to intellectual property rights, in which it would be unjust for people to misuse another’s ideas. Locke’s argument for intellectual property is based upon the idea that laborers have the right to control that which they create. They argue that we own our bodies which are the laborers, this right of ownership extends to what we create. Thus, intellectual property ensures this right when it comes to production. 2. Utilitarian-Pragmatic Argument: according to this rationale, a society that protects private property is more effective and prosperous than societies that do not. Innovation and invention in 19th century America has been attributed to the development of the patent system. By providing innovators with “durable and tangible return on their investment of time, labor, and other resources”, intellectual property rights seek to maximize social utility. The presumption is that they promote public welfare by encouraging the “creation, production, and distribution of intellectual works”. Utilitarians argue that without intellectual property there would be a lack of incentive to produce new ideas. Systems of protection such as Intellectual property optimize social utility. 3. “Personality” Argument: this argument is based on a quote from Hegel: “Every man has the right to turn his will upon a thing or make the thing an object of his will, that is to say, to set aside the mere thing and recreate it as his own”. European intellectual property law is shaped by this notion that ideas are an “extension of oneself and of one’s personality.” Personality theorists argue that by being a creator of something one is inherently at risk and vulnerable for having their ideas and designs stolen and/or altered. Intellectual property protects these moral claims that have to do with personality. Lysander Spooner (1855) argues “that a man has a natural and absolute right—and if a natural and absolute, then necessarily a perpetual, right—of property, in the ideas, of which he is the discoverer or creator; that his right of property, in ideas, is intrinsically the same as, and stands on identically the same grounds with, his right of property in material things; that no distinction, of principle, exists between the two cases”. Writer Ayn Rand argued in her book Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal that the protection of intellectual property is essentially a moral issue. The belief is that the human mind itself is the source of wealth and survival and that all property at its base is intellectual property. To violate intellectual property is therefore no different morally than violating other property rights which compromises the very processes of survival and therefore constitutes an immoral act. Infringement, misappropriation, and enforcement Violation of intellectual property rights, called “infringement” with respect to patents, copyright, and trademarks, and “misappropriation” with respect to trade secrets, may be a breach of civil law or criminal law, depending on the type of intellectual property involved, jurisdiction, and the nature of the action. As of 2011 trade in counterfeit copyrighted and trademarked works was a \$600 billion industry worldwide and accounted for 5–7% of global trade. Patent infringement Patent infringement typically is caused by using or selling a patented invention without permission from the patent holder. The scope of the patented invention or the extent of protection is defined in the claims of the granted patent. There is safe harbor in many jurisdictions to use a patented invention for research. This safe harbor does not exist in the US unless the research is done for purely philosophical purposes, or in order to gather data in order to prepare an application for regulatory approval of a drug. In general, patent infringement cases are handled under civil law (e.g., in the United States) but several jurisdictions incorporate infringement in criminal law also (for example, Argentina, China, France, Japan, Russia, South Korea). Copyright infringement Copyright infringement is reproducing, distributing, displaying or performing a work, or to make derivative works, without permission from the copyright holder, which is typically a publisher or other business representing or assigned by the work’s creator. It is often called “piracy.”While copyright is created the instance a work is fixed, generally the copyright holder can only get money damages if the owner registers the copyright. Enforcement of copyright is generally the responsibility of the copyright holder. The ACTA trade agreement, signed in May 2011 by the United States, Japan, Switzerland, and the EU, and which has not entered into force, requires that its parties add criminal penalties, including incarceration and fines, for copyright and trademark infringement, and obligated the parties to active police for infringement. There are limitations and exceptions to copyright, allowing limited use of copyrighted works, which does not constitute infringement. Examples of such doctrines are the fair use and fair dealing doctrine. Trademark infringement Trademark infringement occurs when one party uses a trademark that is identical or confusingly similar to a trademark owned by another party, in relation to products or services which are identical or similar to the products or services of the other party. In many countries, a trademark receives protection without registration, but registering a trademark provides legal advantages for enforcement. Infringement can be addressed by civil litigation and, in several jurisdictions, under criminal law. Trade secret misappropriation Trade secret misappropriation is different from violations of other intellectual property laws, since by definition trade secrets are secret, while patents and registered copyrights and trademarks are publicly available. In the United States, trade secrets are protected under state law, and states have nearly universally adopted the Uniform Trade Secrets Act. The United States also has federal law in the form of theEconomic Espionage Act of 1996 (18 U.S.C. §§ 1831–1839), which makes the theft or misappropriation of a trade secret a federal crime. This law contains two provisions criminalizing two sorts of activity. The first, 18 U.S.C. § 1831(a), criminalizes the theft of trade secrets to benefit foreign powers. The second, 18 U.S.C. § 1832, criminalizes their theft for commercial or economic purposes. (The statutory penalties are different for the two offenses.) In Commonwealth common law jurisdictions, confidentiality and trade secrets are regarded as an equitable right rather than a property right but penalties for theft are roughly the same as the United States. Criticisms Demonstration in Sweden in support of file sharing, 2006. The term “intellectual property” Criticism of the term intellectual property ranges from discussing its vagueness and abstract overreach to direct contention to the semantic validity of using words like property in fashions that contradict practice and law. Many detractors think this term specially serves the doctrinal agenda of parties opposing reform or otherwise abusing related legislations; for instance, by associating one view with certain attitude, or disallowing intelligent discussion about specific and often unrelated aspects of copyright, patents, trademarks, etc. Free Software Foundation founder Richard Stallman argues that, although the term intellectual property is in wide use, it should be rejected altogether, because it “systematically distorts and confuses these issues, and its use was and is promoted by those who gain from this confusion”. He claims that the term “operates as a catch-all to lump together disparate laws [which] originated separately, evolved differently, cover different activities, have different rules, and raise different public policy issues” and that it creates a “bias” by confusing these monopolies with ownership of limited physical things, likening them to “property rights.” Stallman advocates referring to copyrights, patents and trademarks in the singular and warns against abstracting disparate laws into a collective term. “Copying is not theft!” badge with a character resembling Mickey Mouse in reference to the in popular culture rationale behind the Sonny Bono Copyright Term Extension Act of 1998 Similarly, economists Boldrin and Levine prefer to use the term “intellectual monopoly” as a more appropriate and clear definition of the concept, which they argue, is very dissimilar from property rights. Law professor, writer and political activist Lawrence Lessig, along with many other copyleft and free software activists, has criticized the implied analogy with physical property (like land or an automobile). They argue such an analogy fails because physical property is generally rivalrous while intellectual works are non-rivalrous (that is, if one makes a copy of a work, the enjoyment of the copy does not prevent enjoyment of the original). Other arguments along these lines claim that unlike the situation with tangible property, there is no natural scarcity of a particular idea or information: once it exists at all, it can be re-used and duplicated indefinitely without such re-use diminishing the original. Stephan Kinsella has objected to intellectual property on the grounds that the word “property” implies scarcity, which may not be applicable to ideas. Entrepreneur and politician Rickard Falkvinge and hacker Alexandre Oliva have independently compared George Orwell’s fictional dialect Newspeak to the terminology used by intellectual property supporters as a linguistic weapon to shape public opinion regarding copyright debate and DRM. Alternative terms In civil law jurisdictions, intellectual property has often been referred to as intellectual rights, traditionally a somewhat broader concept that has included moral rights and other personal protections that cannot be bought or sold. Use of the term intellectual rights has declined since the early 1980s, as use of the term intellectual property has increased. Alternative terms monopolies on information and intellectual monopoly have emerged among those who argue against the “property” or “intellect” or “rights” assumptions, notably Richard Stallman. The backronyms intellectual protectionism and intellectual poverty, whose initials are also IP, have found supporters as well, especially among those who have used the backronym digital restrictions management. The argument that an intellectual property right should (in the interests of better balancing of relevant private and public interests) be termed an intellectual monopoly privilege (IMP) has been advanced by several academics including Birgitte Andersen and Thomas Alured Faunce. Objections to overboard intellectual property laws The free culture movement champions the production of content that bears little or no restrictions, like Wikipedia itself. Some critics of intellectual property, such as those in the free culture movement, point at intellectual monopolies as harming health (in the case of pharmaceutical patents), preventing progress, and benefiting concentrated interests to the detriment of the masses, and argue that the public interest is harmed by ever-expansive monopolies in the form of copyright extensions,software patents, and business method patents. More recently scientists and engineers are expressing concern that patent thickets are undermining technological development even in high-tech fields like nanotechnology. Petra Moser has asserted that historical analysis suggests that intellectual property laws may harm innovation: Overall, the weight of the existing historical evidence suggests that patent policies, which grant strong intellectual property rights to early generations of inventors, may discourage innovation. On the contrary, policies that encourage the diffusion of ideas and modify patent laws to facilitate entry and encourage competition may be an effective mechanism to encourage innovation. Peter Drahos notes, “Property rights confer authority over resources. When authority is granted to the few over resources on which many depend, the few gain power over the goals of the many. This has consequences for both political and economic freedoms with in a society.” The World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) recognizes that conflicts may exist between the respect for and implementation of current intellectual property systems and other human rights. In 2001 the UN Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights issued a document called “Human rights and intellectual property” that argued that intellectual property tends to be governed by economic goals when it should be viewed primarily as a social product; in order to serve human well-being, intellectual property systems must respect and conform to human rights laws. According to the Committee, when systems fail to do so they risk infringing upon the human right to food and health, and to cultural participation and scientific benefits. In 2004 the General Assembly of WIPO adopted The Geneva Declaration on the Future of the World Intellectual Property Organization which argues that WIPO should “focus more on the needs of developing countries, and to view IP as one of many tools for development—not as an end in itself.” Further along these lines, The ethical problems brought up by IP rights are most pertinent when it is socially valuable goods like life-saving medicines are given IP protection. While the application of IP rights can allow companies to charge higher than the marginal cost of production in order to recoup the costs of research and development, the price may exclude from the market anyone who cannot afford the cost of the product, in this case a life-saving drug.”An IPR driven regime is therefore not a regime that is conductive to the investment of R&D of products that are socially valuable to predominately poor populations.” Some libertarian critics of intellectual property have argued that allowing property rights in ideas and information creates artificial scarcity and infringes on the right to own tangible property. Stephan Kinsella uses the following scenario to argue this point: [I]magine the time when men lived in caves. One bright guy—let’s call him Galt-Magnon—decides to build a log cabin on an open field, near his crops. To be sure, this is a good idea, and others notice it. They naturally imitate Galt-Magnon, and they start building their own cabins. But the first man to invent a house, according to IP advocates, would have a right to prevent others from building houses on their own land, with their own logs, or to charge them a fee if they do build houses. It is plain that the innovator in these examples becomes a partial owner of the tangible property (e.g., land and logs) of others, due not to first occupation and use of that property (for it is already owned), but due to his coming up with an idea. Clearly, this rule flies in the face of the first-user homesteading rule, arbitrarily and groundlessly overriding the very homesteading rule that is at the foundation of all property rights. Thomas Jefferson once said in a letter to Isaac McPherson on August 13, 1813: If nature has made any one thing less susceptible than all others of exclusive property, it is the action of the thinking power called an idea, which an individual may exclusively possess as long as he keeps it to himself; but the moment it is divulged, it forces itself into the possession of every one, and the receiver cannot dispossess himself of it. Its peculiar character, too, is that no one possesses the less, because every other possesses the whole of it. He who receives an idea from me, receives instruction himself without lessening mine; as he who lights his taper at mine, receives light without darkening me. In 2005 the RSA launched the Adelphi Charter, aimed at creating an international policy statement to frame how governments should make balanced intellectual property law. Another limitation of current U.S. Intellectual Property legislation is its focus on individual and joint works; thus, copyright protection can only be obtained in ‘original’ works of authorship. This definition excludes any works that are the result of community creativity, for example Native American songs and stories; current legislation does not recognize the uniqueness of indigenous cultural “property” and its ever-changing nature. Simply asking native cultures to ‘write down’ their cultural artifacts on tangible mediums ignores their necessary orality and enforces a Western bias of the written form as more authoritative. Expansion in nature and scope of intellectual property laws Expansion of U.S. copyright law (Assuming authors create their works by age 35 and live for seventy years) Other criticism of intellectual property law concerns the expansion of intellectual property, both in duration and in scope. In addition, as scientific knowledge has expanded and allowed new industries to arise in fields such as biotechnology and nanotechnology, originators of technology have sought IP protection for the new technologies. Patents have been granted for living organisms, (and in the United States, certain living organisms have been patentable for over a century). The increase in terms of protection is particularly seen in relation to copyright, which has recently been the subject of serial extensions in the United States and in Europe. With no need for registration or copyright notices, this is thought to have led to an increase in orphan works(copyrighted works for which the copyright owner cannot be contacted), a problem that has been noticed and addressed by governmental bodies around the world. Also with respect to copyright, the American film industry helped to change the social construct of intellectual property via its trade organization, the Motion Picture Association of America. In amicus briefs in important cases, in lobbying before Congress, and in its statements to the public, the MPAA has advocated strong protection of intellectual-property rights. In framing its presentations, the association has claimed that people are entitled to the property that is produced by their labor. Additionally Congress’s awareness of the position of the United States as the world’s largest producer of films has made it convenient to expand the conception of intellectual property. These doctrinal reforms have further strengthened the industry, lending the MPAA even more power and authority. RIAA representative Hilary Rosen testifies before the Senate Judiciary Committee on the future of digital music (July 11, 2000) The growth of the Internet, and particularly distributed search engines like Kazaa and Gnutella, have represented a challenge for copyright policy. The Recording Industry Association of America, in particular, has been on the front lines of the fight against copyright infringement, which the industry calls “piracy”. The industry has had victories against some services, including a highly publicized case against the file-sharing company Napster, and some people have been prosecuted for sharing files in violation of copyright. The electronic age has seen an increase in the attempt to use software-based digital rights management tools to restrict the copying and use of digitally based works. Laws such as the Digital Millennium Copyright Act have been enacted, that use criminal law to prevent any circumvention of software used to enforce digital rights management systems. Equivalent provisions, to prevent circumvention of copyright protection have existed in EU for some time, and are being expanded in, for example, Article 6 and 7 the Copyright Directive. Other examples are Article 7 of the Software Directive of 1991 (91/250/EEC), and the Conditional Access Directive of 1998 (98/84/EEC). This can hinder legal uses, affecting public domain works, limitations and exceptions to copyright, or uses allowed by the copyright holder. Some copyleft licenses, like GNU GPL 3, are designed to counter that. Laws may permit circumvention under specific conditions like when it is necessary to achieve interoperability with the circumventor’s program, or for accessibility reasons; however, distribution of circumvention tools or instructions may be illegal. In the context of trademarks, this expansion has been driven by international efforts to harmonize the definition of “trademark”, as exemplified by the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights ratified in 1994, which formalized regulations for IP rights that had been handled by common law, or not at all, in member states. Pursuant to TRIPs, any sign which is “capable of distinguishing” the products or services of one business from the products or services of another business is capable of constituting a trademark. CC licensed content, Shared previously

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/06%3A_Ethics_and_Software_Development/6.03%3A_Reading-_Intellectual_Property.txt

An interesting case of early plagiarism: two decorative elements that come from two entirely different books. The one at the bottom was printed twenty years after the one on top. Introduction Plagiarism is the “wrongful appropriation” and “stealing and publication” of another author’s “language, thoughts, ideas, or expressions” and the representation of them as one’s own original work. The idea remains problematic with unclear definitions and unclear rules. The modern concept of plagiarism as immoral and originality as an ideal emerged in Europe only in the 18th century, particularly with the Romantic movement. Plagiarism is considered academic dishonesty and a breach of journalistic ethics. It is subject to sanctions like penalties, suspension, and even expulsion. Recently, cases of ‘extreme plagiarism’ have been identified in academia. Plagiarism is not a crime per se but in academia and industry, it is a serious ethical offense, and cases of plagiarism can constitute copyright infringement. Etymology In the 1st century, the use of the Latin word plagiarius (literally kidnapper) to denote stealing someone else’s work was pioneered by Roman poet Martial, who complained that another poet had “kidnapped his verses.” “Plagiary”, a derivative of “plagiarus” was introduced into English in 1601 by dramatist Ben Jonson to describe someone guilty of literary theft. The derived form plagiarism was introduced into English around 1620. The Latin plagiārius, “kidnapper”, and plagium, “kidnapping”, has the root plaga (“snare”, “net”), based on the Indo-European root *-plak, “to weave” (seen for instance in Greek plekein, Bulgarian “плета”pleta, Latin plectere, all meaning “to weave”). Legal aspects Although plagiarism in some contexts is considered theft or stealing, the concept does not exist in a legal sense. “Plagiarism” is not mentioned in any current statute, either criminal or civil.  Some cases may be treated as unfair competition or a violation of the doctrine of moral rights. The increased availability of intellectual property due to a rise in technology has furthered the debate as to whether copyright offenses are criminal. In short, people are asked to use the guideline, “…if you did not write it yourself, you must give credit.” Plagiarism is not the same as copyright infringement. While both terms may apply to a particular act, they are different concepts, and false claims of authorship may constitute plagiarism regardless of whether the material is protected by copyright. Copyright infringement is a violation of the rights of a copyright holder, when material whose use is restricted by copyright is used without consent. Plagiarism, in contrast, is concerned with the unearned increment to the plagiarizing author’s reputation that is achieved through false claims of authorship. Thus, plagiarism is considered a moral offense against the plagiarist’s audience (for example, a reader, listener, or teacher). Plagiarism is also considered a moral offense against anyone who has provided the plagiarist with a benefit in exchange for what is specifically supposed to be original content (for example, the plagiarist’s publisher, employer, or teacher). In such cases, acts of plagiarism may sometimes also form part of a claim for breach of the plagiarist’s contract, or, if done knowingly, for a civil wrong. In academia and journalism Within academia, plagiarism by students, professors, or researchers is considered academic dishonesty or academic fraud, and offenders are subject to academic censure, up to and including expulsion. Many institutions use plagiarism detection software to uncover potential plagiarism and to deter students from plagiarizing. However, the practice of plagiarizing by use of sufficient word substitutions to elude detention software, known as rogeting, has rapidly evolved as students and unethical academics seek to stay ahead of detection software. In journalism, plagiarism is considered a breach of journalistic ethics, and reporters caught plagiarizing typically face disciplinary measures ranging from suspension to termination of employment. Some individuals caught plagiarizing in academic or journalistic contexts claim that they plagiarized unintentionally, by failing to include quotations or give the appropriate citation. While plagiarism in scholarship and journalism has a centuries-old history, the development of the Internet, where articles appear as electronic text, has made the physical act of copying the work of others much easier. Predicated upon an expected level of learning/comprehension having been achieved, all associated academic accreditation becomes seriously undermined if plagiarism is allowed to become the norm within academic submissions. For professors and researchers, plagiarism is punished by sanctions ranging from suspension to termination, along with the loss of credibility and perceived integrity. Charges of plagiarism against students and professors are typically heard by internal disciplinary committees, by which students and professors have agreed to be bound. Academia One form of academic plagiarism involves appropriating a published article and modifying it slightly to avoid suspicion. No universally adopted definition of academic plagiarism exists; however, this section provides several definitions to exemplify the most common characteristics of academic plagiarism. According to Bela Gipp academic plagiarism encompasses: “The use of ideas, concepts, words, or structures without appropriately acknowledging the source to benefit in a setting where originality is expected.” The definition by B. Gipp is an abridged version of Teddi Fishman’s definition of plagiarism, which proposed five elements characteristic of plagiarism. According to T. Fishman, plagiarism occurs when someone: 1. Uses words, ideas, or work products 2. Attributable to another identifiable person or source 3. Without attributing the work to the source from which it was obtained 4. In a situation in which there is a legitimate expectation of original authorship 5. In order to obtain some benefit, credit, or gain which need not be monetary Furthermore, plagiarism is defined differently among institutions of higher learning and universities: • Stanford sees plagiarism as the “use, without giving reasonable and appropriate credit to or acknowledging the author or source, of another person’s original work, whether such work is made up of code, formulas, ideas, language, research, strategies, writing or other form.” • Yale views plagiarism as the “… use of another’s work, words, or ideas without attribution,” which includes “… using a source’s language without quoting, using information from a source without attribution, and paraphrasing a source in a form that stays too close to the original.” • Princeton perceives plagiarism as the “deliberate” use of “someone else’s language, ideas, or other original (not common-knowledge) material without acknowledging its source.” • Oxford College of Emory University characterizes plagiarism as the use of “a writer’s ideas or phraseology without giving due credit.” • Brown defines plagiarism as “… appropriating another person’s ideas or words (spoken or written) without attributing those word or ideas to their true source.” Common forms of student plagiarism According to “The Reality and Solution of College Plagiarism” created by the Health Informatics department of the University of Illinois at Chicago there are 10 main forms of plagiarism that students commit: 1. Submitting someone’s work as their own. 2. Taking passages from their own previous work without adding citations. 3. Re-writing someone’s work without properly citing sources. 4. Using quotations, but not citing the source. 5. Interweaving various sources together in the work without citing. 6. Citing some, but not all passages that should be cited. 7. Melding together cited and uncited sections of the piece. 8. Providing proper citations, but fails to change the structure and wording of the borrowed ideas enough. 9. Inaccurately citing the source. 10. Relying too heavily on other people’s work. Fails to bring original thought into the text. Sanctions for student plagiarism In the academic world, plagiarism by students is usually considered a very serious offense that can result in punishments such as a failing grade on the particular assignment, the entire course, or even being expelled from the institution. Generally, the punishment increases as a person enters higher institutions of learning. For cases of repeated plagiarism, or for cases in which a student commits severe plagiarism (e.g., submitting a copied piece of writing as original work), suspension or expulsion is likely. A plagiarism tariff has been devised for UK higher education institutions in an attempt to encourage some standardization of this academic problem. Plagiarism education Given the serious consequences that plagiarism has for students there has been a call for a greater emphasis on learning in order to help students avoid committing plagiarism. This is especially important when students move to a new institution that may have a different view of the concept when compared the with view previously developed by the student. Indeed, given the seriousness of plagiarism accusations for a student’s future, the pedagogy of plagiarism education may need to be considered ahead of the pedagogy of the discipline being studied. Journalism Since journalism relies on the public trust, a reporter’s failure to honestly acknowledge their sources undercuts a newspaper or television news show’s integrity and undermines its credibility. Journalists accused of plagiarism are often suspended from their reporting tasks while the charges are being investigated by the news organization. The ease with which electronic text can be reproduced from online sources has lured a number of reporters into acts of plagiarism. Journalists have been caught “copying and pasting” articles and text from a number of websites. Self-plagiarism Self-plagiarism (also known as “recycling fraud”) is the reuse of significant, identical, or nearly identical portions of one’s own work without acknowledging that one is doing so or without citing the original work. Articles of this nature are often referred to as duplicate or multiple publication. In addition there can be a copyright issue if copyright of the prior work has been transferred to another entity. Typically, self-plagiarism is only considered a serious ethical issue in settings where someone asserts that a publication consists of new material, such as in publishing or factual documentation. It does not apply to public-interest texts, such as social, professional, and cultural opinions usually published in newspapers and magazines. In academic fields, self-plagiarism occurs when an author reuses portions of his own published and copyrighted work in subsequent publications, but without attributing the previous publication. Identifying self-plagiarism is often difficult because limited reuse of material is accepted both legally (as fair use) and ethically. It is common for university researchers to rephrase and republish their own work, tailoring it for different academic journals and newspaper articles, to disseminate their work to the widest possible interested public. However, these researchers also obey limits: If half an article is the same as a previous one, it is usually rejected. One of the functions of the process of peer review in academic writing is to prevent this type of “recycling.” The concept of self-plagiarism The concept of “self-plagiarism” has been challenged as being self-contradictory, an oxymoron, and on other grounds. For example, Stephanie J. Bird argues that self-plagiarism is a misnomer, since by definition plagiarism concerns the use of others’ material. However, the phrase is used to refer to specific forms of unethical publication. Bird identifies the ethical issues of “self-plagiarism” as those of “dual or redundant publication.” She also notes that in an educational context, “self-plagiarism” refers to the case of a student who resubmits “the same essay for credit in two different courses.” As David B. Resnik clarifies, “Self-plagiarism involves dishonesty but not intellectual theft.” According to Patrick M. Scanlon: “Self-plagiarism” is a term with some specialized currency. Most prominently, it is used in discussions of research and publishing integrity in biomedicine, where heavy publish-or-perish demands have led to a rash of duplicate and “salami-slicing” publication, the reporting of a single study’s results in “least publishable units” within multiple articles (Blancett, Flanagin, & Young, 1995; Jefferson, 1998; Kassirer & Angell, 1995; Lowe, 2003; McCarthy, 1993; Schein & Paladugu, 2001; Wheeler, 1989). Roig (2002) offers a useful classification system including four types of self-plagiarism: duplicate publication of an article in more than one journal; partitioning of one study into multiple publications, often called salami-slicing; text recycling; and copyright infringement. Self-plagiarism and codes of ethics Some academic journals have codes of ethics that specifically refer to self-plagiarism. For example, the Journal of International Business Studies. Some professional organizations like the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) have created policies that deal specifically with self-plagiarism. Other organizations do not make specific reference to self-plagiarism: The American Political Science Association (APSA) published a code of ethics that describes plagiarism as “…deliberate appropriation of the works of others represented as one’s own.” It does not make any reference to self-plagiarism. It does say that when a thesis or dissertation is published “in whole or in part”, the author is “not ordinarily under an ethical obligation to acknowledge its origins.” The American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) published a code of ethics that says its members are committed to: “Ensure that others receive credit for their work and contributions,” but it makes no reference to self-plagiarism. Factors that justify reuse Pamela Samuelson, in 1994, identified several factors she says excuse reuse of one’s previously published work, that make it not self-plagiarism. She relates each of these factors specifically to the ethical issue of self-plagiarism, as distinct from the legal issue of fair use of copyright, which she deals with separately. Among other factors that may excuse reuse of previously published material Samuelson lists the following: 1. The previous work must be restated to lay the groundwork for a new contribution in the second work. 2. Portions of the previous work must be repeated to deal with new evidence or arguments. 3. The audience for each work is so different that publishing the same work in different places is necessary to get the message out. 4. The author thinks they said it so well the first time that it makes no sense to say it differently a second time. Samuelson states she has relied on the “different audience” rationale when attempting to bridge interdisciplinary communities. She refers to writing for different legal and technical communities, saying: “there are often paragraphs or sequences of paragraphs that can be bodily lifted from one article to the other. And, in truth, I lift them.” She refers to her own practice of converting “a technical article into a law review article with relatively few changes—adding footnotes and one substantive section” for a different audience. Samuelson describes misrepresentation as the basis of self-plagiarism. She also states “Although it seems not to have been raised in any of the self-plagiarism cases, copyrights law’s fair use defense would likely provide a shield against many potential publisher claims of copyright infringement against authors who reused portions of their previous works.” Organizational publications Plagiarism is presumably not an issue when organizations issue collective unsigned works since they do not assign credit for originality to particular people. For example, the American Historical Association’s “Statement on Standards of Professional Conduct” (2005) regarding textbooks and reference books states that, since textbooks and encyclopedias are summaries of other scholars’ work, they are not bound by the same exacting standards of attribution as original research and may be allowed a greater “extent of dependence” on other works. However, even such a book does not make use of words, phrases, or paragraphs from another text or follow too closely the other text’s arrangement and organization, and the authors of such texts are also expected to “acknowledge the sources of recent or distinctive findings and interpretations, those not yet a part of the common understanding of the profession.” In the arts L.H.O.O.Q. (1919), one of Marcel Duchamp’s readymades. Plagiarism and the history of art Through all of the history of literature and of the arts in general, works of art are for a large part repetitions of the tradition; to the entire history of artistic creativity belong plagiarism, literary theft,appropriation, incorporation, retelling, rewriting, recapitulation, revision, reprise, thematic variation, ironic retake, parody, imitation, stylistic theft, pastiches, collages, and deliberate assemblages.  There is no rigorous and precise distinction between practices like imitation, stylistic plagiarism, copy, replica and forgery. These appropriation procedures are the main axis of a literate culture, in which the tradition of the canonic past is being constantly rewritten. Ruth Graham quotes T.S. Eliot—”Immature poets imitate; mature poets steal. Bad poets deface what they take.”—she notes that despite the “taboo” of plagiarism, the ill-will and embarrassment it causes in the modern context, readers seem to often forgive the past excesses of historic literary offenders. Praisings of artistic plagiarism A passage of Laurence Sterne’s 1767 Tristram Shandy, condemns plagiarism by resorting to plagiarism. Oliver Goldsmith commented: Sterne’s Writings, in which it is clearly shewn, that he, whose manner and style were so long thought original, was, in fact, the most unhesitating plagiarist who ever cribbed from his predecessors in order to garnish his own pages. It must be owned, at the same time, that Sterne selects the materials of his mosaic work with so much art, places them so well, and polishes them so highly, that in most cases we are disposed to pardon the want of originality, in consideration of the exquisite talent with which the borrowed materials are wrought up into the new form. In other contexts Plagiarism on the Internet Content scraping is copying and pasting from websites and blogs. Free online tools are becoming available to help identify plagiarism, and there are a range of approaches that attempt to limit online copying, such as disabling right clicking and placing warning banners regarding copyrights on web pages. Instances of plagiarism that involve copyright violation may be addressed by the rightful content owners sending a DMCA removal notice to the offending site-owner, or to the ISP that is hosting the offending site. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction Information privacy, or data privacy (or data protection), is the relationship between collection and dissemination of data, technology, the public expectation of privacy, and the legal and political issues surrounding them. Privacy concerns exist wherever personally identifiable information or other sensitive information is collected and stored – in digital form or otherwise. Improper or non-existent disclosure control can be the root cause for privacy issues. Data privacy issues can arise in response to information from a wide range of sources, such as: • Healthcare records • Criminal justice investigations and proceedings • Financial institutions and transactions • Biological traits, such as genetic material • Residence and geographic records • Ethnicity • Privacy breach • Location-based service and geolocation The challenge in data privacy is to share data while protecting personally identifiable information. The fields of data security and information security design and utilize software, hardware and human resources to address this issue. As the laws and regulations related to Data Protection are constantly changing, it is important to keep abreast of any changes in the law and continually reassess your compliance with data privacy and security regulations. Information types Various types of personal information often come under privacy concerns. Internet The ability to control the information one reveals about oneself over the Internet, and who can access that information, has become a growing concern. These concerns include whether email can be stored or read by third parties without consent, or whether third parties can continue to track the web sites someone has visited. Another concern is web sites which are visited collect, store, and possibly share personally identifiable information about users. The advent of various search engines and the use of data mining created a capability for data about individuals to be collected and combined from a wide variety of sources very easily. The FTC has provided a set of guidelines that represent widely accepted concepts concerning fair information practices in an electronic marketplace called the Fair Information Practice Principles. In order not to give away too much personal information, e-mails should be encrypted and browsing of webpages as well as other online activities should be done trace-less via anonymizers, or, in cases those are not trusted, by open source distributed anonymizers, so-called mix nets, such as I2P – The Onion Router or Tor. Email isn’t the only Internet use with concern of privacy. Everything is accessible over the Internet nowadays. However a major issue with privacy relates back to social networking. For example, there are millions of users on Facebook, and regulations have changed. People may be tagged in photos or have valuable information exposed about themselves either by choice or most of the time unexpectedly by others. It is important to be cautious of what is being said over the Internet and what information is being displayed as well as photos because this all can searched across the web and used to access private databases making it easy for anyone to quickly go online and profile a person. Cable television The ability to control what information one reveals about oneself over cable television, and who can access that information. For example, third parties can track IP TV programs someone has watched at any given time. The addition of any information in a broadcasting stream is not required for an audience rating survey, additional devices are not requested to be installed in the houses of viewers or listeners, and without the necessity of their cooperation, audience ratings can be automatically performed in real-time. Medical A person may not wish for their medical records to be revealed to others. This may be because they have concern that it might affect their insurance coverages or employment. Or it may be because they would not wish for others to know about medical or psychological conditions or treatments which would be embarrassing. Revealing medical data could also reveal other details about one’s personal life. Privacy Breach There are three major categories of medical privacy: informational (the degree of control over personal information), physical (the degree of physical inaccessibility to others), and psychological (the extent to which the doctor respects patients’ cultural beliefs, inner thoughts, values, feelings, and religious practices and allows them to make personal decisions). Physicians and psychiatrists in many cultures and countries have standards for doctor-patient relationships which include maintaining confidentiality. In some cases, the physician-patient privilege is legally protected. These practices are in place to protect the dignity of patients, and to ensure that patients will feel free to reveal complete and accurate information required for them to receive the correct treatment. The United States has laws governing privacy of private health information, see HIPAA and the HITECH Act. Financial Information about a person’s financial transactions, including the amount of assets, positions held in stocks or funds, outstanding debts, and purchases can be sensitive. If criminals gain access to information such as a person’s accounts or credit card numbers, that person could become the victim of fraud or identity theft. Information about a person’s purchases can reveal a great deal about that person’s history, such as places he/she has visited, whom he/she has contacted with, products he/she has used, his/her activities and habits, or medications he/she has used. In some cases corporations might wish to use this information to target individuals with marketing customized towards those individual’s personal preferences, something which that person may or may not approve. Locational The dots show all the locations logged by an iPhone without the user’s knowledge. As location tracking capabilities of mobile devices are increasing (Location-based service), problems related to user privacy arise. Location data is indeed among the most sensitive data currently being collected. A list of potentially sensitive professional and personal information that could be inferred about an individual knowing only his mobility trace was published recently by the Electronic Frontier Foundation. These include the movements of a competitor sales force, attendance of a particular church or an individual’s presence in a motel or at an abortion clinic. A recent MIT study by de Montjoye et al. showed that 4 spatio-temporal points, approximate places and times, are enough to uniquely identify 95% of 1.5M people in a mobility database. The study further shows that these constraints hold even when the resolution of the dataset is low. Therefore, even coarse or blurred datasets provide little anonymity. Political Political privacy has been a concern since voting systems emerged in ancient times. The secret ballot is the simplest and most widespread measure to ensure that political views are not known to anyone other than the voter him/herself—it is nearly universal in modern democracy, and considered to be a basic right of citizenship. In fact even where other rights of privacy do not exist, this type of privacy very often does. Educational In the United Kingdom, in 2012 the Education Secretary Michael Gove described the National Pupil Database as a “rich dataset” whose value could be “maximized” by making it more openly accessible, including to private companies. Kelly Fiveash of The Register said that this could mean “a child’s school life including exam results, attendance, teacher assessments and even characteristics” could be available, with third-party organizations being responsible for anonymizing any publications themselves, rather than the data being anonymized by the government before being handed over. An example of a data request that Gove indicated had been rejected in the past, but might be possible under an improved version of privacy regulations, was for “analysis on sexual exploitation.” Legality The legal protection of the right to privacy in general – and of data privacy in particular – varies greatly around the world. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the protection of the law against such interference or attacks.—Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 12 There is a significant challenge for organizations that hold sensitive data to achieve and maintain compliance with so many regulations that have relevance to information privacy. Safe Harbor Program and Passenger Name Record issues Commandant of the Coast Guard Adm. Thad W. Allen, right, delivers remarks as Chief of Naval Operations Adm. Gary Roughead looks on after the signing of the memorandum of agreement for the Safe Harbor program during a signing ceremony at the Pentagon. The United States Department of Commerce created the International Safe Harbor Privacy Principles certification program in response to the1995 Directive on Data Protection (Directive 95/46/EC) of the European Commission. Directive 95/46/EC declares in Chapter IV Article 25 that personal data may only be transferred from the countries in the European Economic Area to countries which provide adequate privacy protection. Historically, establishing adequacy required the creation of national laws broadly equivalent to those implemented by Directive 95/46/EU. Although there are exceptions to this blanket prohibition – for example where the disclosure to a country outside the EEA is made with the consent of the relevant individual (Article 26(1)(a)) – they are limited in practical scope. As a result, Article 25 created a legal risk to organizations which transfer personal data from Europe to the United States. The program has an important issue on the exchange of Passenger Name Record information between the EU and the US. According to the EU directive, personal data may only be transferred to third countries if that country provides an adequate level of protection. Some exceptions to this rule are provided, for instance when the controller himself can guarantee that the recipient will comply with the data protection rules. The European Commission has set up the “Working party on the Protection of Individuals with regard to the Processing of Personal Data,” commonly known as the “Article 29 Working Party”. The Working Party gives advice about the level of protection in the European Union and third countries. The Working Party negotiated with U.S. representatives about the protection of personal data, the Safe Harbor Principles were the result. Notwithstanding that approval, the self-assessment approach of the Safe Harbor remains controversial with a number of European privacy regulators and commentators. The Safe Harbor program addresses this issue in a unique way: rather than a blanket law imposed on all organizations in the United States, a voluntary program is enforced by the FTC. U.S. organizations which register with this program, having self-assessed their compliance with a number of standards, are “deemed adequate” for the purposes of Article 25. Personal information can be sent to such organizations from the EEA without the sender being in breach of Article 25 or its EU national equivalents. The Safe Harbor was approved as providing adequate protection for personal data, for the purposes of Article 25(6), by the European Commission on 26 July 2000. The Safe Harbor is not a perfect solution to the challenges posed by Article 25. In particular, adoptee organisations need to carefully consider their compliance with the onward transfer obligations, where personal data originating in the EU is transferred to the US Safe Harbor, and then onward to a third country. The alternative compliance approach of “binding corporate rules”, recommended by many EU privacy regulators, resolves this issue. In addition, any dispute arising in relation to the transfer of HR data to the US Safe Harbor must be heard by a panel of EU privacy regulators. In July 2007, a new, controversial, Passenger Name Record agreement between the US and the EU was undersigned. A short time afterwards, the Bush administration gave exemption for the Department of Homeland Security, for the Arrival and Departure Information System (ADIS) and for the Automated Target System from the 1974 Privacy Act. In February 2008, Jonathan Faull, the head of the EU’s Commission of Home Affairs, complained about the US bilateral policy concerning PNR. The US had signed in February 2008 a memorandum of understanding (MOU) with the Czech Republic in exchange of a VISA waiver scheme, without concerting before with Brussels. The tensions between Washington and Brussels are mainly caused by a lesser level of data protection in the US, especially since foreigners do not benefit from the US Privacy Act of 1974. Other countries approached for bilateral MOU included the United Kingdom, Estonia, Germany and Greece. Protecting privacy in information systems As heterogeneous information systems with differing privacy rules are interconnected and information is shared, policy appliances will be required to reconcile, enforce and monitor an increasing amount of privacy policy rules (and laws). There are two categories of technology to address privacy protection in commercial IT systems: communication and enforcement. Policy Communication • P3P – The Platform for Privacy Preferences. P3P is a standard for communicating privacy practices and comparing them to the preferences of individuals. Policy Enforcement • XACML – The Extensible Access Control Markup Language together with its Privacy Profile is a standard for expressing privacy policies in a machine-readable language which a software system can use to enforce the policy in enterprise IT systems. • EPAL – The Enterprise Privacy Authorization Language is very similar to XACML, but is not yet a standard. • WS-Privacy – “Web Service Privacy” will be a specification for communicating privacy policy in web services. For example, it may specify how privacy policy information can be embedded in the SOAP envelope of a web service message. Protecting Privacy on the Internet On the Internet you almost always give away a lot of information about yourself: Unencrypted e-mails can be read by the administrators of the e-mail server, if the connection is not encrypted (no https), and also the Internet service provider and other parties sniffing the traffic of that connection are able to know the contents. Furthermore, the same applies to any kind of traffic generated on the Internet (web-browsing,instant messaging, among others) In order not to give away too much personal information, e-mails can be encrypted and browsing of webpages as well as other online activities can be done traceless via anonymizers, or, in cases those are not trusted, by open source distributed anonymizers, so called mix nets. Renowned open-source mix nets are I2P – The Anonymous Network or tor. CC licensed content, Shared previously Public domain content

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Introduction Software development is the computer programming, documenting, testing, and bug fixing involved in creating and maintaining applications and frameworks involved in a software release life cycle and resulting in a software product. The term refers to a process of writing and maintaining the source code, but in a broader sense of the term it includes all that is involved between the conception of the desired software through to the final manifestation of the software, ideally in a planned and structured process. Therefore, software development may include research, new development, prototyping, modification, reuse, re-engineering, maintenance, or any other activities that result in software products. Software can be developed for a variety of purposes, the three most common being to meet specific needs of a specific client/business (the case with custom software), to meet a perceived need of some set of potential users (the case with commercial and open source software), or for personal use (e.g. a scientist may write software to automate a mundane task). Embedded software development, that is, the development of embedded software such as used for controlling consumer products, requires the development process to be integrated with the development of the controlled physical product. System software underlies applications and the programming process itself, and is often developed separately. The need for better quality control of the software development process has given rise to the discipline of software engineering, which aims to apply the systematic approach exemplified in the engineering paradigm to the process of software development. There are many approaches to software project management, known as software development life cycle models, methodologies, processes, or models. The waterfall model is a traditional version, contrasted with the more recent innovation of agile software development. Methodologies A software development methodology (also known as a software development process, model, or life cycle) is a framework that is used to structure, plan, and control the process of developing information systems. A wide variety of such frameworks have evolved over the years, each with its own recognized strengths and weaknesses. There are several different approaches to software development: some take a more structured, engineering-based approach to developing business solutions, whereas others may take a more incremental approach, where software evolves as it is developed piece-by-piece. One system development methodology is not necessarily suitable for use by all projects. Each of the available methodologies is best suited to specific kinds of projects, based on various technical, organizational, project and team considerations. Most methodologies share some combination of the following stages of software development: • Analyzing the problem • Market research • Gathering requirements for the proposed business solution • Devising a plan or design for the software-based solution • Implementation (coding) of the software • Testing the software • Deployment • Maintenance and bug fixing These stages are often referred to collectively as the software development lifecycle, or SDLC. Different approaches to software development may carry out these stages in different orders, or devote more or less time to different stages. The level of detail of the documentation produced at each stage of software development may also vary. These stages may also be carried out in turn (a “waterfall” based approach), or they may be repeated over various cycles or iterations (a more “extreme” approach). The more extreme approach usually involves less time spent on planning and documentation, and more time spent on coding and development of automated tests. More “extreme” approaches also promote continuous testing throughout the development lifecycle, as well as having a working (or bug-free) product at all times. More structured or “waterfall” based approaches attempt to assess the majority of risks and develop a detailed plan for the software before implementation (coding) begins, and avoid significant design changes and re-coding in later stages of the software development life cycle planning. There are significant advantages and disadvantages to the various methodologies, and the best approach to solving a problem using software will often depend on the type of problem. If the problem is well understood and a solution can be effectively planned out ahead of time, the more “waterfall” based approach may work the best. If, on the other hand, the problem is unique (at least to the development team) and the structure of the software solution cannot be easily envisioned, then a more “extreme” incremental approach may work best. Software development activities Identification of need The sources of ideas for software products are legion. These ideas can come from market research including the demographics of potential new customers, existing customers, sales prospects who rejected the product, other internal software development staff, or a creative third party. Ideas for software products are usually first evaluated by marketing personnel for economic feasibility, for fit with existing channels distribution, for possible effects on existing product lines, required features, and for fit with the company’s marketing objectives. In a marketing evaluation phase, the cost and time assumptions become evaluated. A decision is reached early in the first phase as to whether, based on the more detailed information generated by the marketing and development staff, the project should be pursued further. In the book “Great Software Debates”, Alan M. Davis states in the chapter “Requirements,” subchapter “The Missing Piece of Software Development” Students of engineering learn engineering and are rarely exposed to finance or marketing. Students of marketing learn marketing and are rarely exposed to finance or engineering. Most of us become specialists in just one area. To complicate matters, few of us meet interdisciplinary people in the workforce, so there are few roles to mimic. Yet, software product planning is critical to the development success and absolutely requires knowledge of multiple disciplines. Because software development may involve compromising or going beyond what is required by the client, a software development project may stray into less technical concerns such as human resources, risk management, intellectual property, budgeting, crisis management, etc. These processes may also cause the role of business development to overlap with software development. Planning Planning is an objective of each and every activity, where we want to discover things that belong to the project. An important task in creating a software program is extracting the requirements or requirements analysis. Customers typically have an abstract idea of what they want as an end result, but do not know what software should do. Skilled and experienced software engineers recognize incomplete, ambiguous, or even contradictory requirements at this point. Frequently demonstrating live code may help reduce the risk that the requirements are incorrect. Once the general requirements are gathered from the client, an analysis of the scope of the development should be determined and clearly stated. This is often called a scope document. Certain functionality may be out of scope of the project as a function of cost or as a result of unclear requirements at the start of development. If the development is done externally, this document can be considered a legal document so that if there are ever disputes, any ambiguity of what was promised to the client can be clarified. Designing Once the requirements are established, the design of the software can be established in a software design document. This involves a preliminary, or high-level design of the main modules with an overall picture (such as a block diagram) of how the parts fit together. The language, operating system, and hardware components should all be known at this time. Then a detailed or low-level design is created, perhaps with prototyping as proof-of-concept or to firm up requirements. Implementation, testing and documenting Implementation is the part of the process where software engineers actually program the code for the project. Software testing is an integral and important phase of the software development process. This part of the process ensures that defects are recognized as soon as possible. In some processes, generally known as test-driven development, tests may be developed just before implementation and serve as a guide for the implementation’s correctness. Documenting the internal design of software for the purpose of future maintenance and enhancement is done throughout development. This may also include the writing of an API, be it external or internal. The software engineering process chosen by the developing team will determine how much internal documentation (if any) is necessary. Plan-driven models (e.g., Waterfall) generally produce more documentation than Agile models. Deployment and maintenance Deployment starts directly after the code is appropriately tested, approved for release, and sold or otherwise distributed into a production environment. This may involve installation, customization (such as by setting parameters to the customer’s values), testing, and possibly an extended period of evaluation. Software training and support is important, as software is only effective if it is used correctly. Maintaining and enhancing software to cope with newly discovered faults or requirements can take substantial time and effort, as missed requirements may force redesign of the software. Subtopics View model The TEAF Matrix of Views and Perspectives. A view model is a framework that provides the viewpoints on the system and its environment, to be used in the software development process. It is a graphical representation of the underlying semantics of a view. The purpose of viewpoints and views is to enable human engineers to comprehend very complex systems, and to organize the elements of the problem and the solution around domains of expertise. In the engineering of physically intensive systems, viewpoints often correspond to capabilities and responsibilities within the engineering organization. Most complex system specifications are so extensive that no one individual can fully comprehend all aspects of the specifications. Furthermore, we all have different interests in a given system and different reasons for examining the system’s specifications. A business executive will ask different questions of a system make-up than would a system implementer. The concept of viewpoints framework, therefore, is to provide separate viewpoints into the specification of a given complex system. These viewpoints each satisfy an audience with interest in some set of aspects of the system. Associated with each viewpoint is a viewpoint language that optimizes the vocabulary and presentation for the audience of that viewpoint. Business process and data modeling Graphical representation of the current state of information provides a very effective means for presenting information to both users and system developers. Example of the interaction between business process and data models. • A business model illustrates the functions associated with the business process being modeled and the organizations that perform these functions. By depicting activities and information flows, a foundation is created to visualize, define, understand, and validate the nature of a process. • A data model provides the details of information to be stored, and is of primary use when the final product is the generation of computer software code for an application or the preparation of a functional specification to aid a computer software make-or-buy decision. See the figure on the right for an example of the interaction between business process and data models. Usually, a model is created after conducting an interview, referred to asbusiness analysis. The interview consists of a facilitator asking a series of questions designed to extract required information that describes a process. The interviewer is called a facilitator to emphasize that it is the participants who provide the information. The facilitator should have some knowledge of the process of interest, but this is not as important as having a structured methodology by which the questions are asked of the process expert. The methodology is important because usually a team of facilitators is collecting information across the facility and the results of the information from all the interviewers must fit together once completed. The models are developed as defining either the current state of the process, in which case the final product is called the “as-is” snapshot model, or a collection of ideas of what the process should contain, resulting in a “what-can-be” model. Generation of process and data models can be used to determine if the existing processes and information systems are sound and only need minor modifications or enhancements, or if re-engineering is required as a corrective action. The creation of business models is more than a way to view or automate your information process. Analysis can be used to fundamentally reshape the way your business or organization conducts its operations. Computer-aided software engineering Computer-aided software engineering (CASE), in the field software engineering is the scientific application of a set of tools and methods to a software which results in high-quality, defect-free, and maintainable software products. It also refers to methods for the development of information systems together with automated tools that can be used in the software development process. The term “computer-aided software engineering” (CASE) can refer to the software used for the automated development of systems software, i.e., computer code. The CASE functions include analysis, design, and programming. CASE tools automate methods for designing, documenting, and producing structured computer code in the desired programming language. Two key ideas of Computer-aided Software System Engineering (CASE) are: • Foster computer assistance in software development and or software maintenance processes, and • An engineering approach to software development and or maintenance. Typical CASE tools exist for configuration management, data modeling, model transformation, refactoring, source code generation. Integrated development environment Anjuta, a C and C++ IDE for the GNOME environment An integrated development environment (IDE) also known as integrated design environment or integrated debugging environment is a software application that provides comprehensive facilities to computer programmers for software development. An IDE normally consists of a: • source code editor, • compiler and/or interpreter, • build automation tools, and • debugger (usually). IDEs are designed to maximize programmer productivity by providing tight-knit components with similar user interfaces. Typically an IDE is dedicated to a specific programming language, so as to provide a feature set which most closely matches the programming paradigms of the language. Modeling language A modeling language is any artificial language that can be used to express information or knowledge or systems in a structure that is defined by a consistent set of rules. The rules are used for interpretation of the meaning of components in the structure. A modeling language can be graphical or textual. Graphical modeling languages use a diagram techniques with named symbols that represent concepts and lines that connect the symbols and that represent relationships and various other graphical annotation to represent constraints. Textual modeling languages typically use standardized keywords accompanied by parameters to make computer-interpretable expressions. Example of graphical modeling languages in the field of software engineering are: • Business Process Modeling Notation (BPMN, and the XML form BPML) is an example of a process modeling language. • EXPRESS and EXPRESS-G (ISO 10303-11) is an international standard general-purpose data modeling language. • Extended Enterprise Modeling Language (EEML) is commonly used for business process modeling across layers. • Flowchart is a schematic representation of an algorithm or a stepwise process, • Fundamental Modeling Concepts (FMC) modeling language for software-intensive systems. • IDEF is a family of modeling languages, the most notable of which include IDEF0 for functional modeling, IDEF1X for information modeling, and IDEF5 for modeling ontologies. • LePUS3 is an object-oriented visual Design Description Language and a formal specification language that is suitable primarily for modelling large object-oriented (Java, C++, C#) programs and design patterns. • Specification and Description Language(SDL) is a specification language targeted at the unambiguous specification and description of the behaviour of reactive and distributed systems. • Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a general-purpose modeling language that is an industry standard for specifying software-intensive systems. UML 2.0, the current version, supports thirteen different diagram techniques, and has widespread tool support. Not all modeling languages are executable, and for those that are, using them doesn’t necessarily mean that programmers are no longer needed. On the contrary, executable modeling languages are intended to amplify the productivity of skilled programmers, so that they can address more difficult problems, such as parallel computing and distributed systems. Programming paradigm A programming paradigm is a fundamental style of computer programming, which is not generally dictated by the project management methodology (such as waterfall or agile). Paradigms differ in the concepts and abstractions used to represent the elements of a program (such as objects, functions, variables, constraints) and the steps that comprise a computation (such as assignations, evaluation, continuations, data flows). Sometimes the concepts asserted by the paradigm are utilized cooperatively in high-level system architecture design; in other cases, the programming paradigm’s scope is limited to the internal structure of a particular program or module. A programming language can support multiple paradigms. For example programs written in C++ or Object Pascal can be purely procedural, or purely object-oriented, or contain elements of both paradigms. Software designers and programmers decide how to use those paradigm elements. In object-oriented programming, programmers can think of a program as a collection of interacting objects, while in functional programming a program can be thought of as a sequence of stateless function evaluations. When programming computers or systems with many processors, process-oriented programming allows programmers to think about applications as sets of concurrent processes acting upon logically shared data structures. Just as different groups in software engineering advocate different methodologies, different programming languages advocate differentprogramming paradigms. Some languages are designed to support one paradigm (Smalltalk supports object-oriented programming, Haskellsupports functional programming), while other programming languages support multiple paradigms (such as Object Pascal, C++, C#, Visual Basic, Common Lisp, Scheme, Python, Ruby, and Oz). Many programming paradigms are as well known for what methods they forbid as for what they enable. For instance, pure functional programming forbids using side-effects; structured programming forbids using goto statements. Partly for this reason, new paradigms are often regarded as doctrinaire or overly rigid by those accustomed to earlier styles. Avoiding certain methods can make it easier to prove theorems about a program’s correctness, or simply to understand its behavior. Examples of high-level paradigms include: • Aspect-oriented software development • Domain-specific modeling • Model-driven engineering • Object-oriented programming methodologies • Grady Booch’s object-oriented design (OOD), also known as object-oriented analysis and design (OOAD). The Booch model includes six diagrams: class, object, state transition, interaction, module, and process. • Search-based software engineering • Service-oriented modeling • Structured programming • Top-down and bottom-up design • Top-down programming: evolved in the 1970s by IBM researcher Harlan Mills (and Niklaus Wirth) in developed structured programming. Software framework A software framework is a re-usable design for a software system or subsystem. A software framework may include support programs, code libraries, a scripting language, or other software to help develop and glue together the different components of a software project. Various parts of the framework may be exposed via an API. 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Introduction Structured programming is a programming paradigm aimed at improving the clarity, quality, and development time of a computer program by making extensive use of subroutines, block structures and for and while loops—in contrast to using simple tests and jumps such as the goto statement which could lead to “spaghetti code” which is difficult both to follow and to maintain. It emerged in the 1960s—particularly from a famous letter, Go To Statement Considered Harmful.— and was bolstered theoretically by the structured program theorem, and practically by the emergence of languages such as ALGOL with suitably rich control structures. Elements Control structures Following the structured program theorem, all programs are seen as composed of three control structures: • “Sequence”; ordered statements or subroutines executed in sequence. • “Selection”; one or a number of statements is executed depending on the state of the program. This is usually expressed with keywords such as `if..then..else..endif`. • “Iteration”; a statement or block is executed until the program reaches a certain state, or operations have been applied to every element of a collection. This is usually expressed with keywords such as `while`, `repeat`, `for` or `do..until`. Often it is recommended that each loop should only have one entry point (and in the original structural programming, also only one exit point, and a few languages enforce this). Graphical representations of the three basic patterns using NS diagrams (blue) and flow charts (green). Subroutines Subroutines; callable units such as procedures, functions, methods, or subprograms are used to allow a sequence to be referred to by a single statement. Blocks Blocks are used to enable groups of statements to be treated as if they were one statement. Block-structured languages have a syntax for enclosing structures in some formal way, such as an if-statement bracketed by `if..fi` as in ALGOL 68, or a code section bracketed by`BEGIN..END`, as in PL/I, whitespace indentation as in Python – or the curly braces `{...}` of C and many later languages. Structured programming languages It is possible to do structured programming in any programming language, though it is preferable to use something like a procedural programming language. Some of the languages initially used for structured programming include: ALGOL, Pascal, PL/I and Ada – but most new procedural programming languages since that time have included features to encourage structured programming, and sometimes deliberately left out features – notably GOTO – in an effort to make unstructured programming more difficult. Structured programming (sometimes known as modular programming) is a subset of procedural programming that enforces a logical structure on the program being written to make it more efficient and easier to understand and modify. History Theoretical foundation The structured program theorem provides the theoretical basis of structured programming. It states that three ways of combining programs—sequencing, selection, and iteration—are sufficient to express any computable function. This observation did not originate with the structured programming movement; these structures are sufficient to describe the instruction cycle of a central processing unit, as well as the operation of a Turing machine. Therefore a processor is always executing a “structured program” in this sense, even if the instructions it reads from memory are not part of a structured program. However, authors usually credit the result to a 1966 paper by Böhm and Jacopini, possibly because Dijkstra cited this paper himself. The structured program theorem does not address how to write and analyze a usefully structured program. These issues were addressed during the late 1960s and early 1970s, with major contributions by Dijkstra, Robert W. Floyd, Tony Hoare, Ole-Johan Dahl, and David Gries. Debate P. J. Plauger, an early adopter of structured programming, described his reaction to the structured program theorem: Us converts waved this interesting bit of news under the noses of the unreconstructed assembly-language programmers who kept trotting forth twisty bits of logic and saying, ‘I betcha can’t structure this.’ Neither the proof by Böhm and Jacopini nor our repeated successes at writing structured code brought them around one day sooner than they were ready to convince themselves. Donald Knuth accepted the principle that programs must be written with provability in mind, but he disagreed (and still disagrees) with abolishing the GOTO statement. In his 1974 paper, “Structured Programming with Goto Statements”, he gave examples where he believed that a direct jump leads to clearer and more efficient code without sacrificing provability. Knuth proposed a looser structural constraint: It should be possible to draw a program’s flow chart with all forward branches on the left, all backward branches on the right, and no branches crossing each other. Many of those knowledgeable in compilers and graph theory have advocated allowing only reducible flow graphs. Structured programming theorists gained a major ally in the 1970s after IBM researcher Harlan Mills applied his interpretation of structured programming theory to the development of an indexing system for the New York Times research file. The project was a great engineering success, and managers at other companies cited it in support of adopting structured programming, although Dijkstra criticized the ways that Mills’s interpretation differed from the published work. As late as 1987 it was still possible to raise the question of structured programming in a computer science journal. Dijkstra did so in that year with a letter, “GOTO considered harmful.” Numerous objections followed, including a response from Frank Rubin that sharply criticized both Dijkstra and the concessions other writers made when responding to him. Outcome By the end of the 20th century nearly all computer scientists were convinced that it is useful to learn and apply the concepts of structured programming. High-level programming languages that originally lacked programming structures, such as FORTRAN, COBOL, and BASIC, now have them. Common deviations While goto has now largely been replaced by the structured constructs of selection (if/then/else) and repetition (while and for), few languages are purely structured. The most common deviation, found in many languages, is the use of a return statement for early exit from a subroutine. This results in multiple exit points, instead of the single exit point required by structured programming. There are other constructions to handle cases that are awkward in purely structured programming. Early exit The most common deviation from structured programming is early exit from a function or loop. At the level of functions, this is a `return `statement. At the level of loops, this is a `break` statement (terminate the loop) or `continue` statement (terminate the current iteration, proceed with next iteration). In structured programming, these can be replicated by adding additional branches or test, but for returns from nested code this can add significant complexity. C is an early and prominent example of these constructs. Some newer languages also have “labeled breaks”, which allow breaking out of more than just the innermost loop. Exceptions also allow early exit, but have further consequences, and thus are treated below. Multiple exits can arise for a variety of reasons, most often either that the subroutine has no more work to do (if returning a value, it has completed the calculation), or has encountered “exceptional” circumstances that prevent it from continuing, hence needing exception handling. The most common problem in early exit is that cleanup or final statements are not executed – for example, allocated memory is not unallocated, or open files are not closed, causing memory leaks or resource leaks. These must be done at each return site, which is brittle and can easily result in bugs. For instance, in later development, a return statement could be overlooked by a developer, and an action which should be performed at the end of a subroutine (e.g., a trace statement) might not be performed in all cases. Languages without a return statement, such as standard Pascal don’t have this problem. Most modern languages provide language-level support to prevent such leaks; see detailed discussion at resource management. Most commonly this is done via unwind protection, which ensures that certain code is guaranteed to be run when execution exits a block; this is a structured alternative to having a cleanup block and a `goto`. This is most often known as `try...finally,` and considered a part of exception handling. Various techniques exist to encapsulate resource management. An alternative approach, found primarily in C++, isResource Acquisition Is Initialization, which uses normal stack unwinding (variable deallocation) at function exit to call destructors on local variables to deallocate resources. Kent Beck, Martin Fowler and co-authors have argued in their refactoring books that nested conditionals may be harder to understand than a certain type of flatter structure using multiple exits predicated by guard clauses. Their 2009 book flatly states that “one exit point is really not a useful rule. Clarity is the key principle: If the method is clearer with one exit point, use one exit point; otherwise don’t”. They offer a cookbook solution for transforming a function consisting only of nested conditionals into a sequence of guarded return (or throw) statements, followed by a single unguarded block, which is intended to contain the code for the common case, while the guarded statements are supposed to deal with the less common ones (or with errors). Herb Sutter and Andrei Alexandrescu also argue in their 2004 C++ tips book that the single-exit point is an obsolete requirement. In his 2004 textbook, David Watt writes that “single-entry multi-exit control flows are often desirable”. Using Tennent’s framework notion of sequencer, Watt uniformly describes the control flow constructs found in contemporary programming languages and attempts to explain why certain types of sequencers are preferable to others in the context of multi-exit control flows. Watt writes that unrestricted gotos (jump sequencers) are a bad because the destination of the jump is not self-explanatory to the reader of a program until the reader finds and examines the actual label or address that is the target of the jump. In contrast, Watt argues that the conceptual intent of a return sequencer is clear from its own context, without having to examine its destination. Watt writes that a class of sequencers known as escape sequencers, defined as “sequencer that terminates execution of a textually enclosing command or procedure”, encompasses both breaks from loops (including multi-level breaks) and return statements. Watt also notes that while jump sequencers (gotos) have been somewhat restricted in languages like C, where the target must be an inside the local block or an encompassing outer block, that restriction alone is not sufficient to make the intent of gotos in C self-describing and so they can still produce “spaghetti code”. Watt also examines how exception sequencers differ from escape and jump sequencers; this is explained in the next section of this article. In contrast to the above, Bertrand Meyer wrote in his 2009 textbook that instructions like `break` and `continue` “are just the old `goto` in sheep’s clothing” and strongly advised against their use. Exception handling Based on the coding error from the Ariane 501 disaster, software developer Jim Bonang argues that any exceptions thrown from a function violate the single-exit paradigm, and propose that all inter-procedural exceptions should be forbidden. In C++ syntax, this is done by declaring all function signatures as `throw()` Bonang proposes that all single-exit conforming C++ should be written along the lines of: ```bool myCheck1() throw() { bool success = false; try { // do something that may throw exceptions if(myCheck2() == false) { throw SomeInternalException(); } // other code similar to the above success = true; } catch(...) { // all exceptions caught and logged } return success; } ``` Peter Ritchie also notes that, in principle, even a single `throw` right before the `return` in a function constitutes a violation of the single-exit principle, but argues that Dijkstra’s rules were written in a time before exception handling became a paradigm in programming languages, so he proposes to allow any number of throw points in addition to a single return point. He notes that solutions which wrap exceptions for the sake of creating a single-exit have higher nesting depth and thus are more difficult to comprehend, and even accuses those who propose to apply such solutions to programming languages which support exceptions of engaging in cargo cult thinking. David Watt also analyzes exception handling in the framework of sequencers (introduced in this article in the previous section on early exits.) Watt notes that an abnormal situation (generally exemplified with arithmetic overflows or input/output failures like file not found) is a kind of error that “is detected in some low-level program unit, but [for which] a handler is more naturally located in a high-level program unit”. For example, a program might contain several calls to read files, but the action to perform when a file is not found depends on the meaning (purpose) of the file in question to the program and thus a handling routine for this abnormal situation cannot be located in low-level system code. Watts further notes that introducing status flags testing in the caller, as single-exit structured programming or even (multi-exit) return sequencers would entail, results in a situation where “the application code tends to get cluttered by tests of status flags” and that “the programmer might forgetfully or lazily omit to test a status flag. In fact, abnormal situations represented by status flags are by default ignored!” He notes that in contrast to status flags testing, exceptions have the opposite default behavior, causing the program to terminate unless the programmer explicitly deals with the exception in some way, possibly by adding code to willfully ignore it. Based on these arguments, Watt concludes that jump sequencers or escape sequencers (discussed in the previous section) aren’t as suitable as a dedicated exception sequencer with the semantics discussed above. The textbook by Louden and Lambert emphasizes that exception handling differs from structured programming constructs like `while` loops because the transfer of control “is set up at a different point in the program than that where the actual transfer takes place. At the point where the transfer actually occurs, there may be no syntactic indication that control will in fact be transferred.” Computer science professor Arvind Kumar Bansal also notes that in languages which implement exception handling, even control structures like `for`, which have the single-exit property in absence of exceptions, no longer have it in presence of exceptions, because an exception can prematurely cause an early exit in any part of the control structure; for instance if `init()` throws an exception in `for (init(); check(); increm())`, then the usual exit point after check() is not reached. Citing multiple prior studies by others (1999-2004) and their own results, Westley Weimer and George Necula wrote that a significant problem with exceptions is that they “create hidden control-flow paths that are difficult for programmers to reason about.” The necessity to limit code to single-exit points appears in some contemporary programming environments focused on parallel computing, such as OpenMP. The various parallel constructs from OpenMP, like `parallel do`, do not allow early exits from inside to the outside of the parallel construct; this restriction includes all manner of exits, from `break` to C++ exceptions, but all of these are permitted inside the parallel construct if the jump target is also inside it. Multiple entry More rarely, subprograms allow multiple entry. This is most commonly only re-entry into a coroutine (or generator/semicoroutine), where a subprogram yields control (and possibly a value), but can then be resumed where it left off. There are a number of common uses of such programming, notably for streams (particularly input/output), state machines, and concurrency. From a code execution point of view, yielding from a coroutine is closer to structured programming than returning from a subroutine, as the subprogram has not actually terminated, and will continue when called again – it is not an early exit. However, coroutines mean that multiple subprograms have execution state – rather than a single call stack of subroutines – and thus introduce a different form of complexity. It is very rare for subprograms to allow entry to an arbitrary position in the subprogram, as in this case the program state (such as variable values) is uninitialized or ambiguous, and this is very similar to a goto. State machines Some programs, particularly parsers and communications protocols, have a number of states that follow each other in a way that is not easily reduced to the basic structures, and some programmers (including Knuth) implement the state-changes with a jump to the new state. This type of state-switching is often used in the Linux kernel. However, it is possible to structure these systems by making each state-change a separate subprogram and using a variable to indicate the active state (see trampoline). 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Introduction In software engineering, a software development methodology (also known as a system development methodology, software development life cycle, software development process, software process) is a division of software development work into distinct phases (or stages) containing activities with the intent of better planning and management. It is often considered a subset of the systems development life cycle. The methodology may include the pre-definition of specific deliverables and artifacts that are created and completed by a project team to develop or maintain an application. Common methodologies include waterfall, prototyping, iterative and incremental development, spiral development, rapid application development, extreme programming and various types of agile methodology. Some people consider a life-cycle “model” a more general term for a category of methodologies and a software development “process” a more specific term to refer to a specific process chosen by a specific organization. For example, there are many specific software development processes that fit the spiral life-cycle model. In practice The three basic approaches applied to software development methodology frameworks. A variety of such frameworks have evolved over the years, each with its own recognized strengths and weaknesses. One software development methodology framework is not necessarily suitable for use by all projects. Each of the available methodology frameworks are best suited to specific kinds of projects, based on various technical, organizational, project and team considerations. Software development organizations implement process methodologies to ease the process of development. Sometimes, contractors may require methodologies employed, an example is the U.S. defense industry, which requires a rating based on process models to obtain contracts. The international standard for describing the method of selecting, implementing and monitoring the life cycle for software is ISO/IEC 12207. A decades-long goal has been to find repeatable, predictable processes that improve productivity and quality. Some try to systematize or formalize the seemingly unruly task of designing software. Others apply project management techniques to designing software. Without effective project management, software projects can easily be delivered late or over budget. With large numbers of software projects not meeting their expectations in terms of functionality, cost, or delivery schedule, it is effective project management that appears to be lacking. Organizations may create a Software Engineering Process Group (SEPG), which is the focal point for process improvement. Composed of line practitioners who have varied skills, the group is at the center of the collaborative effort of everyone in the organization who is involved with software engineering process improvement. A particular development team may also agree to programming environment details, such as which integrated development environment is used, and one or more dominant programming paradigms, programming style rules, or choice of specific software libraries or software frameworks. These details are generally not dictated by the choice of model or general methodology. History The software development methodology (also known as SDM) framework didn’t emerge until the 1960s. According to Elliott (2004) the systems development life cycle (SDLC) can be considered to be the oldest formalized methodology framework for building information systems. The main idea of the SDLC has been “to pursue the development of information systems in a very deliberate, structured and methodical way, requiring each stage of the life cycle from inception of the idea to delivery of the final system, to be carried out rigidly and sequentially” within the context of the framework being applied. The main target of this methodology framework in the 1960s was “to develop large scale functional business systems in an age of large scale business conglomerates. Information systems activities revolved around heavy data processing and number crunching routines.” Methodologies, processes, and frameworks range from specific proscriptive steps that can be used directly by an organization in day-to-day work, to flexible frameworks that an organization uses to generate a custom set of steps tailored to the needs of a specific project or group. In some cases a “sponsor” or “maintenance” organization distributes an official set of documents that describe the process. Specific examples include: 1970s • Structured programming since 1969 • Cap Gemini SDM, originally from PANDATA, the first English translation was published in 1974. SDM stands for System Development Methodology 1980s • Structured systems analysis and design method (SSADM) from 1980 onwards • Information Requirement Analysis/Soft systems methodology 1990s • Object-oriented programming (OOP) developed in the early 1960s, and became a dominant programming approach during the mid-1990s • Rapid application development (RAD), since 1991 • Dynamic systems development method (DSDM), since 1994 • Scrum, since 1995 • Team software process, since 1998 • Rational Unified Process (RUP), maintained by IBM since 1998 • Extreme programming, since 1999 2000s • Agile Unified Process (AUP) maintained since 2005 by Scott Ambler Approaches Several software development approaches have been used since the origin of information technology, in two main categories. Typically an approach or a combination of approaches is chosen by management or a development team. “Traditional” methodologies such as waterfall that have distinct phases are sometimes known as software development life cycle (SDLC) methodologies, though this term could also be used more generally to refer to any methodology. A “life cycle” approach with distinct phases is in contrast to Agile approaches which define a process of iteration, but where design, construction, and deployment of different pieces can occur simultaneously. Waterfall development The activities of the software development process represented in the waterfall model. There are several other models to represent this process. The waterfall model is a sequential development approach, in which development is seen as flowing steadily downwards (like a waterfall) through several phases, typically: • Requirements analysis resulting in a software requirements specification • Software design • Implementation • Testing • Integration, if there are multiple subsystems • Deployment (or Installation) • Maintenance The first formal description of the method is often cited as an article published by Winston W. Royce in 1970 although Royce did not use the term “waterfall” in this article. The basic principles are: • Project is divided into sequential phases, with some overlap and splashback acceptable between phases. • Emphasis is on planning, time schedules, target dates, budgets and implementation of an entire system at one time. • Tight control is maintained over the life of the project via extensive written documentation, formal reviews, and approval/signoff by the user and information technology management occurring at the end of most phases before beginning the next phase. The waterfall model is a traditional engineering approach applied to software engineering. A strict waterfall approach discourages revisiting and revising any prior phase once it is complete. This “inflexibility” in a pure waterfall model has been a source of criticism by supporters of other more “flexible” models. It has been widely blamed for several large-scale government projects running over budget, over time and sometimes failing to deliver on requirements due to the Big Design Up Front approach. Except when contractually required, the waterfall model has been largely superseded by more flexible and versatile methodologies developed specifically for software development. See Criticism of Waterfall model. The waterfall model is also commonly taught with the mnemonic A Dance in the Dark Every Monday, representing Analysis, Design, Implementation, Testing, Documentation and Execution, and Maintenance. Prototyping Software prototyping, is the development approach of activities during software development, the creation of prototypes, i.e., incomplete versions of the software program being developed. The basic principles are: • Not a standalone, complete development methodology, but rather an approach to handle selected parts of a larger, more traditional development methodology (i.e. incremental, spiral, or rapid application development (RAD)). • Attempts to reduce inherent project risk by breaking a project into smaller segments and providing more ease-of-change during the development process. • User is involved throughout the development process, which increases the likelihood of user acceptance of the final implementation. • Small-scale mock-ups of the system are developed following an iterative modification process until the prototype evolves to meet the users’ requirements. • While most prototypes are developed with the expectation that they will be discarded, it is possible in some cases to evolve from prototype to working system. • A basic understanding of the fundamental business problem is necessary to avoid solving the wrong problems. Incremental development Various methods are acceptable for combining linear and iterative systems development methodologies, with the primary objective of each being to reduce inherent project risk by breaking a project into smaller segments and providing more ease-of-change during the development process. The basic principles are: • A series of mini-Waterfalls are performed, where all phases of the Waterfall are completed for a small part of a system, before proceeding to the next increment, or • Overall requirements are defined before proceeding to evolutionary, mini-Waterfall development of individual increments of a system, or • The initial software concept, requirements analysis, and design of architecture and system core are defined via Waterfall, followed by iterative Prototyping, which culminates in installing the final prototype, a working system. Iterative and incremental development Iterative development prescribes the construction of initially small but ever-larger portions of a software project to help all those involved to uncover important issues early before problems or faulty assumptions can lead to disaster. Spiral development Spiral model (Boehm, 1988) In 1988, Barry Boehm published a formal software system development “spiral model,” which combines some key aspect of the waterfall model and rapid prototyping methodologies, in an effort to combine advantages of top-down and bottom-up concepts. It provided emphasis in a key area many felt had been neglected by other methodologies: deliberate iterative risk analysis, particularly suited to large-scale complex systems. The basic principles are: • Focus is on risk assessment and on minimizing project risk by breaking a project into smaller segments and providing more ease-of-change during the development process, as well as providing the opportunity to evaluate risks and weigh consideration of project continuation throughout the life cycle. • “Each cycle involves a progression through the same sequence of steps, for each part of the product and for each of its levels of elaboration, from an overall concept-of-operation document down to the coding of each individual program.” • Each trip around the spiral traverses four basic quadrants: (1) determine objectives, alternatives, and constraints of the iteration; (2) evaluate alternatives; Identify and resolve risks; (3) develop and verify deliverables from the iteration; and (4) plan the next iteration. • Begin each cycle with an identification of stakeholders and their “win conditions”, and end each cycle with review and commitment. Rapid application development Rapid Application Development (RAD) Model Rapid application development (RAD) is a software development methodology, which favors iterative development and the rapid construction of prototypes instead of large amounts of up-front planning. The “planning” of software developed using RAD is interleaved with writing the software itself. The lack of extensive pre-planning generally allows software to be written much faster, and makes it easier to change requirements. The rapid development process starts with the development of preliminary data models and business process models using structured techniques. In the next stage, requirements are verified using prototyping, eventually to refine the data and process models. These stages are repeated iteratively; further development results in “a combined business requirements and technical design statement to be used for constructing new systems”. The term was first used to describe a software development process introduced by James Martin in 1991. According to Whitten (2003), it is a merger of various structured techniques, especially data-driven Information Engineering, with prototyping techniques to accelerate software systems development. The basic principles of rapid application development are: • Key objective is for fast development and delivery of a high quality system at a relatively low investment cost. • Attempts to reduce inherent project risk by breaking a project into smaller segments and providing more ease-of-change during the development process. • Aims to produce high quality systems quickly, primarily via iterative Prototyping (at any stage of development), active user involvement, and computerized development tools. These tools may include Graphical User Interface (GUI) builders, Computer Aided Software Engineering (CASE) tools, Database Management Systems (DBMS), fourth-generation programming languages, code generators, and object-oriented techniques. • Key emphasis is on fulfilling the business need, while technological or engineering excellence is of lesser importance. • Project control involves prioritizing development and defining delivery deadlines or “timeboxes.” If the project starts to slip, emphasis is on reducing requirements to fit the timebox, not in increasing the deadline. • Generally includes joint application design (JAD), where users are intensely involved in system design, via consensus building in either structured workshops, or electronically facilitated interaction. • Active user involvement is imperative. • Iteratively produces production software, as opposed to a throwaway prototype. • Produces documentation necessary to facilitate future development and maintenance. • Standard systems analysis and design methods can be fitted into this framework. Agile development “Agile software development” refers to a group of software development methodologies based on iterative development, where requirements and solutions evolve via collaboration between self-organizing cross-functional teams. The term was coined in the year 2001 when the Agile Manifesto was formulated. Agile software development uses iterative development as a basis but advocates a lighter and more people-centric viewpoint than traditional approaches. Agile processes fundamentally incorporate iteration and the continuous feedback that it provides to successively refine and deliver a software system. There are many agile methodologies, including: • Dynamic systems development method (DSDM) • Kanban • Scrum Code and fix “Code and fix” development is not so much a deliberate strategy as a result of schedule pressure on software developers. Without much of a design in the way, programmers immediately begin producing code. At some point, testing begins (often late in the development cycle), and the unavoidable bugsmust then be fixed before the product can be shipped. Programming without a planned-out design is also known as cowboy coding. Lightweight methodologies A lightweight methodology has a small number of rules. Some of these methodologies are also considered “agile”. • Adaptive Software Development by Jim Highsmith, described in his 1999 book Adaptive Software Development • Crystal Clear family of methodologies with Alistair Cockburn, • Extreme Programming (XP), promoted by people such as Kent Beck and Martin Fowler. In extreme programming, the phases are carried out in extremely small (or “continuous”) steps compared to the older, “batch” processes. The (intentionally incomplete) first pass through the steps might take a day or a week, rather than the months or years of each complete step in the Waterfall model. First, one writes automated tests, to provide concrete goals for development. Next is coding (by programmers working in pairs, a technique known as “pair programming”), which is complete when all the tests pass, and the programmers can’t think of any more tests that are needed. Design and architecture emerge from refactoring, and come after coding. The same people who do the coding do design. (Only the last feature — merging design and code — is common to all the other agile processes.) The incomplete but functional system is deployed or demonstrated for (some subset of) the users (at least one of which is on the development team). At this point, the practitioners start again on writing tests for the next most important part of the system.[10] • Feature Driven Development (FDD) developed (1999) by Jeff De Luca and Peter Coad • ICONIX – UML-based object modeling with use cases, a lightweight precursor to the Rational Unified Process Other Other high-level software project methodologies include: • Chaos model – The main rule is always resolve the most important issue first. • Incremental funding methodology – an iterative approach • Structured systems analysis and design method – a specific version of waterfall • Slow programming, as part of the larger Slow Movement, emphasizes careful and gradual work without (or minimal) time pressures. Slow programming aims to avoid bugs and overly quick release schedules. • V-Model (software development) – an extension of the waterfall model • Unified Process (UP) is an iterative software development methodology framework, based on Unified Modeling Language (UML). UP organizes the development of software into four phases, each consisting of one or more executable iterations of the software at that stage of development: inception, elaboration, construction, and guidelines. Many tools and products exist to facilitate UP implementation. One of the more popular versions of UP is theRational Unified Process (RUP). Process meta-models Some “process models” are abstract descriptions for evaluating, comparing, and improving the specific process adopted by an organization. • ISO/IEC 12207 is the international standard describing the method to select, implement, and monitor the life cycle for software. • The Capability Maturity Model Integration (CMMI) is one of the leading models and based on best practice. Independent assessments grade organizations on how well they follow their defined processes, not on the quality of those processes or the software produced. CMMI has replaced CMM. • ISO 9000 describes standards for a formally organized process to manufacture a product and the methods of managing and monitoring progress. Although the standard was originally created for the manufacturing sector, ISO 9000 standards have been applied to software development as well. Like CMMI, certification with ISO 9000 does not guarantee the quality of the end result, only that formalized business processes have been followed. • ISO/IEC 15504 Information technology — Process assessment also known as Software Process Improvement Capability Determination (SPICE), is a “framework for the assessment of software processes”. This standard is aimed at setting out a clear model for process comparison. SPICE is used much like CMMI. It models processes to manage, control, guide and monitor software development. This model is then used to measure what a development organization or project team actually does during software development. This information is analyzed to identify weaknesses and drive improvement. It also identifies strengths that can be continued or integrated into common practice for that organization or team. • Soft systems methodology – a general method for improving management processes • Method engineering – a general method for improving information system processes Formal methods Formal methods are mathematical approaches to solving software (and hardware) problems at the requirements, specification, and design levels. Formal methods are most likely to be applied to safety-critical or security-critical software and systems, such as avionics software. Software safety assurance standards, such as DO-178B, DO-178C, and Common Criteria demand formal methods at the highest levels of categorization. For sequential software, examples of formal methods include the B-Method, the specification languages used in automated theorem proving, RAISE, and the Z notation. Formalization of software development is creeping in, in other places, with the application of Object Constraint Language (and specializations such as Java Modeling Language) and especially with model-driven architecture allowing execution of designs, if not specifications. For concurrent software and systems, Petri nets, process algebra, and finite state machines (which are based on automata theory – see also virtual finite state machine or event driven finite state machine) allow executable software specification and can be used to build up and validate application behavior. Another emerging trend in software development is to write a specification in some form of logic—usually a variation of first-order logic (FOL)—and then to directly execute the logic as though it were a program. The OWL language, based on Description Logic (DL), is an example. There is also work on mapping some version of English (or another natural language) automatically to and from logic, and executing the logic directly. Examples are Attempto Controlled English, and Internet Business Logic, which do not seek to control the vocabulary or syntax. A feature of systems that support bidirectional English-logic mapping and direct execution of the logic is that they can be made to explain their results, in English, at the business or scientific level. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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This video tutorial provides guidance on how to use and evaluate websites for your research. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vd9n...ature=youtu.be All rights reserved content 6.10: Video- Basic Principles of Computer Security Watch this video to learn about the basic principles of computer security: 1. Protect against non-desired changes 2. Assure privacy 3. Guarantee access to resources 4. Know who and what happened in a transaction An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=156 All rights reserved content 6.11: Review- Using Information Correctly The following Practical Exercises will help set your learning. They are available HERE (http://www.gcflearnfree.org/useinformationcorrectly). Complete the following exercises: • Avoiding Plagiarism • Copyright and Fair Use • Also include the Quiz as a part of the review CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Using Information Correctly Review. Authored by: Jim Shannon. Provided by: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at: http://www.nvcc.edu/eli/index.html. License: CC BY: Attribution 6.12: Review- Ethics and Software Development Jeopardy You will need the PowerPoint application or a PowerPoint viewer to play the game. You can perform these exercises on your mobile devices with access to Office 365 Mobile or a seperate App for your Apple or Android device. JEOPARDY-Ethics and Software Development REVIEW The Jeopardy Game should open in the Slide Show view and be immediatly playable. If it opens in the regular PowerPoint presentation view, go to the SLIDE SHOW tab on the ribbon and start the show from THE BEGINNING (command on the far left). You can play the game as many times as you like and in any order you like. CC licensed content, Original 6.13: Assignment- Free Music and Videos Discussion Forum Assignment Objective This assignment helps you learn to think critically about real ethical issues and difficult problems that may not have good solutions, or that may have more than one good solution. Writing for others in a discussion forum helps you think about your answers more carefully. Seeing the opinions of others helps you reflect on and evaluate your own. Directions Part A 1. Hundreds of millions of songs and videos are illegally downloaded every month and about one-quarter of all Internet users have downloaded a movie from the Internet. 2. Research this topic and post your answers to the following questions in the Free Music and Videos? class (not group) forum: 1. What do you think might happen if this situation doesn’t change? 2. Is downloading music or videos without paying any different ethically than shoplifting CDs or DVDs from a store? Why or why not? 3. Is there a solution to this problem that could make everyone happy? 3. Include in your post at least two references (books, magazines, scholarly journals, newspapers, web sites) and clearly relate your sources to your essay. Include a citation in parenthesis with the author’s last name after the sentence or paragraph where you referred to the source. This should be done for each source. Wikipedia cannot be used as a direct source. See http://www.nvcc.edu/depts/library_projects/Blackboard/wikipedia_demo.htm. Cite your sources at the end of your essay using either APA (http://nova.libguides.com/APACitationStyle) or MLA (http://nova.libguides.com/MLACitationStyle) format. Part B: Discussion 1. Read the statements by others in the class. 2. Respond to at least two by asking a question. (Choose classmates that have not already been asked questions by someone else, if any.) Your questions should be one of these three types: 1. Clarification question – This kind of question helps the writer by asking him to clarify points that you think could be more fully explained. An example of clarification questions is, “You said in your posting that all music is inherently free when it is played into the open air. I don’t understand whether you mean physically free, or legally free. Can you explain what you mean in another way?” 2. Hypothetical question – This kind of question helps the writer by asking her to test her argument by applying it to a situation that you specify. An example of a hypothetical question is, “You proposed that music files be encoded in a non-copyable format. What would happen if somebody bought a new computer and wanted to copy the songs that they bought legally from their old computer?” 3. Evidence question – When a writer states something as fact rather than personal opinion, his argument is stronger if he cites evidence that the fact is true. Facts can be evidenced, in approximate order of strongest evidence to weakest, (1) by citing trustworthy data, (2) by citing the opinions of experts, (3) by citing repeatable personal experience, or (4) by citing common opinion. This kind of question helps the writer by asking for evidence if he states something as fact but doesn’t cite evidence. An example of an evidence question is, “You stated that copying a DVD that you legally own is illegal. Can you tell me why you think that?” 3. Discussion is an exchange, not a lecture. Don’t post your comments and then disappear. Participate regularly and solicit feedback from your peers. CC licensed content, Original

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Learning Objectives If you do well in this unit, you should be able to: • Describe various communications networks and their main components. • Identify the advantages and disadvantages of a network. • Define the terminology associated with computer networks. • Identify the components associated with computer networks. • Develop a networking plan for yourself or a client. • Distinguish and explain the concepts of: hacking and cracking; authorization, and attacks. • Identify the function of a firewall, and how it keeps a computer secure and safe from viruses. • Prepare a plan for anti-virus protection. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Networks and Security Objectives. Authored by: Jim Shannon. Provided by: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at: http://www.nvcc.edu/eli/index.html. License: CC BY: Attribution 7.02: Reading- Networks and Telecommunications Introduction One of the fastest growing technology areas is that of telecommunications (often referred to as telecoms). Organizations have realized that stand-alone computers present many problems: fragmentation of data, lack of control, insufficient integration and limited opportunity for teamwork. One of the major trends over the last decade has been the move not only to have a personal computer on the desk of virtually every knowledge worker, but to have that computer linked to the other computers in the organization. This chapter deals with the basic telecommunication devices, the types of computer networks and the telecommunications services available in South Africa. We conclude with a discussion of arguably the most interesting development in information systems of the last decade: the Internet. Computer Networks When a numbers of computers are connected together, they form a computer network. There are many ways of classifying computer networks. Networks according to size Networks sizes can range from tiny to very large. • Personal Area Network (PAN): consists of two to five computing devices. This not very common term would apply to the network typically found in the home, and may be based on wireless technology e.g. Bluetooth. • Local Area Network (LAN): the most common type of network. It consists of from about four up to as many as a couple of hundred of computers linked together with one set of cables, usually within the same building. Most LANs are controlled by a central file server that takes care of network communications, security control and the storage of data files. A student computer laboratory typically constitutes one LAN. • Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): a network infrastructure linking various local businesses within a large city area. This is now almost completely superseded by the Internet. • Wide Area Network (WAN): the opposite of the LAN. It links computers over large geographical areas. This network usually makes use of the public telecommunications network. The widely dispersed Automatic Teller Machine (ATM) network of a commercial bank is typically part of the bank’s WAN. • Value-Added Network (VAN): although not relating to size (but it rhymes with the others!), it refers to the provision of a network infrastructure service to other businesses. The service goes beyond the physical cabling and includes “value-added services” such as limited data and transaction processing or message routing. An example for the banking industry is the provision of an inter-bank Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT) and clearing service, linking the computers of different commercial banks (and, possibly, retailers) together. Network Topologies The network topology refers to the physical and logical way in which the computers in a network are connected together. Although there are a number of proprietary ways, the following three are the main topologies in common use (refer to Figure 1). Note that these topologies usually refer to a LAN configuration. • The star network is driven by one central computer to and through which all other computers communicate. Although this allows for central co-ordination and control, it requires a very reliable central computer and lots of cables. • The ring network consists of a continuous loop connecting all computers. Signals travel in a given direction and all computers have equal access to the data. A special version of the ring network is the token ring whereby a special code, the token, is passed around the ring. This token serves as the data holder and computers can send information only after grabbing an available i.e. empty token, adding their data and passing the token back onto the network. • The bus network is currently the most popular configuration. A central data cable is used, to which each computer (and other devices such as printers and routers) can be attached. Although bottlenecks can occur, its popularity stems from its inherent robustness: devices can be added or removed without affecting the rest of the network. Data clashes (two computers attempting to send information simultaneously) can prevented by a variety of means. Figure 1: Network topologies Telecommunication Devices Regardless of the network topology that has been implemented, the same basic equipment is used to connect the different computers and to ensure error-free data transmission between them. • Network cables are the physical wires by which computers are linked together. The most common types are: • Twisted pair: thin insulated copper wires, combined in one single cable. This is similar to the wire used for voice telephone connections. • Coaxial cable: (or coax) a thin copper wire inside a tube of insulation material, surrounded by a sheath or mesh of conducting wire, again insulated on the outside. This is similar to the wire used to connect antennas to video or TV equipment. Because there is less possibility of interference, it allows greater volumes of data to be transmitted in a given time – the amount or volume of data that can be transmitted over a network connection is referred to as bandwidth. • Optical fibre or fibre-optic: a translucent and flexible material through which laser light can travel over long distances. This fibre is much more difficult to work: it requires special connectors as well as lasers and sensors (with electronics-to-light converters) at each terminal. Although this technology is more expensive, laser light can be switched on and off a lot faster than electricity (and it travels ten times faster), resulting again in a much greater bandwidth. • Wireless: not all computer devices need a physical cable connection. Because of the cabling costs and hassles, engineers have explored many methods of transmitting data without the use of wires. For short distances, infra-red signals work well albeit slowly – the same technology as your VCR remote control. For longer distances and higher bandwidths, radio frequencies or other parts of the electro-magnetic spectrum are used. Satellite technology is increasingly being used for digital data transmissions, especially in conjunction with Global Positioning Systems (GPS). • Network interface cards (NICs) are necessary when computers are connected directly to other computers by means of digital network cables (as opposed to the situation when two computers are connected to each other via a telephone link). Their primary function is to make sure that there are no transmission conflicts with the other computers linked to the network, since data may be simultaneously sent and received by many different computers all linked to the same network. In addition, the network card usually fulfills an error-checking function, to ensure that uncorrupted data is received at its destination. • Multiplexers allow a single channel to carry data transmissions simultaneously from many sources, by merging them at one end of the channel and then separating the individual transmissions at the receiving end of the channel. • Front-end processors (FEP) are used in bigger networks that are centrally controlled by large computers – often mainframes. In order to give the expensive mainframe more “time” to concentrate on application processing, it needs to be relieved from the rather mundane task of network control. FEPs handle all or most communication processing such as error-checking, data conversion, packaging and transmission control. • Routers and bridges are computers dedicated to the translation of network protocols and standards between different networks. They are becoming important as more and more organizations are linking their own networks to those of other organizations. They may be using • different operating systems (Novell, Unix or Windows NT), • other technologies (coax or fibre-optic), • or different protocols (proprietary or public standards set for computer communications). • Finally, the modem allows a computer to communicate with another computer by means of the public voice telephone network, rather than by using digital cabling. The original model 300-baud Smartmodem This requires the conversion of digital computer signals (used inside the computer) into analogue sound signals (that can travel over the voice telephone lines) – this process is called modulation. At the other end of the line, these sound signals are converted back into digital signals – or demodulated. The word modem refers to this modulation/demodulation process. You may have heard this “modulated signal” when listening to a fax machine, which is really a scanner/printer/modem in one. Since the modem replaces the network card, it usually carries out similar error-checking functions to ensure the correct transmission of data. Trivial fact: More than 5000 satellites are orbiting the earth and most of them are involved in telecommunications. SA Public Telecommunications Services Because telecommunication services are a critical part of any country’s infrastructure, most governments have been very protective towards their telecoms. Paradoxically, this protectionism often resulted in high tariffs (monopolies!), thus reducing the overall competitiveness of local businesses. Recently more and more countries have started to privatize these services and allowed competition to drive prices down. The South African public telecommunication services are controlled by Telkom, although its legal monopoly is being phased out. The following are the main data network services provided by Telkom Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) Services The oldest data service provided by Telkom is the Datel service, which provides a connection between computers by means of the standard Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)—i.e., the same as the normal voice telephone traffic. This requires the use of built-in or external modem equipment that modulates the digital signal into an analogue audio signal (and demodulates it back at the receiving end). This service is quick and easy to set up since it is available anywhere where there is an ordinary voice telephone point. The main drawbacks are the limited transmission speed, high error rate and the lack of security. Customers may choose between a dial-up or leased line connection. Diginet Diginet is a dedicated digital data service from Telkom that provides reliable and efficient point-to-point (i.e. not switched) data connections. It differs from the Datel network in that the transmission path is entirely digital: a combination of fibre-optic, microwave and coaxial cable. Because the signal does not have to be translated into analogue form, no modem is required, resulting in a cost saving. However, its main advantages are the higher transmission rates and a substantial reduction in transmission errors. The standard Diginet service allows for 64 kpbs (kilobits per second) though an enhanced service called Diginet-Plus has been designed to transfer up to 1920 kpbs, which allows slow-scan TV and video conferencing signals to be transmitted in real-time. Public Switched Data Network (PSDN) Services Saponet is Telkom’s Public Switched Data Network (PSDN). The Saponet-P service relies on a packet-switching mechanism whereby all data transmissions are broken up into smaller, standard-size units or data packets. Each of these packets is then routed independently to their destination. The path traveled by the packet depends on the available capacity and bottlenecks. At the destination, the original transmission is reassembled out of the constituent packets. A Packet Assembler & Disassembler (PAD) is responsible for the breaking up of a message into packets and the opposite process of reassembling packets into a message at the destination. This PAD can be a separate hardware device or a software program. X.400 and Telkom400 Telkom400 is a VAN on top of the X.400 infrastructure. It supports electronic message handling and electronic data interchange (EDI). EDI is the automated computer to computer application exchange of structured business data between different organizations. An international standard defines common business documents such as order forms, invoices or electronic funds transfer documents that are exchanged directly between the computers of the respective business partners. ISDN and ADSL Now that most of Telkom’s telephone exchanges have become digital, Telkom is able to provide new functions and services. One all-digital connection that has sufficient capacity (bandwidth) to support speech, video conferencing, facsimile, data and image transfer. This connection is called an ISDN line (Integrated Services Digital Network) and is currently available in selected metropolitan areas. Much more popular is the newer Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ADSL) which allows a broadband connection (at least several hundred kilobits/second) over your standard telephone line while keeping the line available for voice telephone calls. It is called “asymmetrical” because the standard allows for much greater “download” than “upload” speeds; this reflects the typical home user pattern. Higher volumes and transmission speeds of up to 150 mbs – typically needed by mid-size and larger businesses – are available through Telkom’s ATM Express service. 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Security Within the Organization Security risks within an organization include the processing of fraudulent transactions, unauthorized access to data and program files, and the physical theft or damage of equipment. Fraud Computer fraud is increasing at an alarming rate. Fraud can be defined as the manipulation of the records of an organization to conceal an illegal act (normally the theft of funds or other assets). Computers can make it easy for employees in particular to defraud the organization, in particular when the level of security and internal control is lax. In manual systems, a common control to limit fraud is to involve two or more people in a process, each one effectively controlling the activities of the others. We call this control process separation of duties. For example in a payroll system one might give an individual the authority to approve increases, another the task of updating the computer and the third the responsibility to distribute funds to employees. Without collusion between them, it would be difficult for any one of these individuals to steal funds from the payroll system and hide his tracks. Unfortunately, in many computer systems, too many separate functions have been computerized and often there is a single clerk responsible for running the entire payroll process. In these situations, anyone who has access to the application can take the opportunity to commit fraud. The most common fraud tactics are: • Entering fictitious transactions. Most frauds are committed by employees using the system in the normal way to enter fictitious transactions. No special technical knowledge is required and the employee relies on the fact that management supervision of the process in weak. • Modification of computer files. Normally requires a little more technical expertise as this would involve, for example, the increase or reduction of amounts held on the master file, which cannot be changed within the application without an appropriate transaction (such as a payment). • Unauthorized changes to programs. This type of fraud is usually limited to staff with programming expertise. A common example is the skimming or salami technique. In a payroll system this would entail deducting a small amount from each individual salary cheque and adding the total to a select individual’s payment. The secret behind this technique is that employees are unlikely to notice a change in their salary (PAYE and other deductions often cause regular variation in the total) and the total payroll will balance (the total amount being paid is the same.) How does an organization limit fraud? Experts suggest a three-pronged attack. Firstly the organization must stress the need for honesty and ethical behavior in all business activities. Managers must lead by example, new employees must be screened and staff training must support this theme. The second concern is the level of opportunity in the organization to commit fraud. There must be strong internal controls, separation of duties, restricted access to sensitive applications and constant management supervision. Audit trails are used to record the origin of every transaction, and sequential numbering ensures that records cannot be deleted or reports destroyed. Finally, where a case of fraud is discovered, action must be taken against the offender. Many organizations prefer not to prosecute employees suspected of fraudulent behavior because of the negative publicity they will receive in the press. This in itself encourages criminals to repeat the activity in their new working environment knowing the likelihood of punishment is remote. Unauthorized Data Access Password protection is the most common method of protecting corporate data. Nevertheless, fraudulent transactions are often carried out by unauthorized users who manage to gain access to the corporate network by using the login details of another user. One way of achieving this is through a terminal spoof – a simple yet effective approach to finding other user’s passwords. A terminal spoof is a program that runs on a machine and looks like the normal login screen. Once a user has given his or her user-id and password, the terminal spoof will record both on the local disk or server, give what looks like an authentic error message (such as invalid password – please re-enter) and then passes control to the real login program. The criminal will pick up the passwords later to gain access to the system masquerading as the unfortunate victim. Other criminals simply make use of an unattended computer that has been left on by a user who has logged in to the network and then left the office. Time-out or screen-saver programs with password protection provide a simple barrier to this approach In addition, locked doors are a traditional means of excluding undesirable visitors. Other dangers of which managers should be aware include the Trojan horse, in which code is added to a program, which will activate under certain conditions. For example, a computer consultant in Johannesburg had a client in Durban. He placed a Trojan horse in the payroll program so that it would malfunction while processing the June payroll. They would fly him down, all expenses paid, to fix the problem and stay for the Durban July horse race. Once this had happened for the third time, another consultant was used who uncovered the offending code. Another risk is the Back-door technique. When programmers are building systems, they may try to bypass all the access security procedures to speed up the development time. In some cases, these “back doors” have not been removed and the programmer can gain illegal entry into the production system. Sabotage and Theft When computers were the size of small houses and hidden in secure computer installations, then theft of computer hardware was rare. Today, PCs are on most desks and in many cases they have to be physically bolted to the table to prevent their disappearance. One famous case of theft involved a laptop computer stolen from the back seat of a car in the USA in early 1991. On the hard disk was the master plan for Desert Storm, the details of how the United States and her allies would attack Iraq. Mobile computing devices are especially vulnerable to theft, and limiting of physical access to equipment is the most effective first line of defense. Restrictions to entry can be based on electronic locks, activated by means of magnetic disks or swipe cards, or on advanced biometric devices that identify the individual based on characteristics such as fingerprints or the pattern of the retina. (In each case, the security mechanism would obviously be linked to a database containing details of authorized users.) Another form of theft relates to the copying of programs and data resources in an organization. Obtaining customer lists together with the details of the amount and type of business can obviously assist companies to encourage customers away from their competition. Theft of software is a major problem in the PC world where users often make illegal copies of the programs rather than purchase the package themselves – this practice is known as software piracy. This type of theft is more difficult to identify, since the original product has not physically disappeared as with the theft of computer hardware. Where software piracy is discovered, the owner of the computer on which the software resides (often the employer) is held to be legally responsible for the presence of pirated software. The last category of computer theft covers the illegal use of computer time. In the past computer operators were often caught processing work for third parties or users were doing their own work at the office. Computer hackers spend their time searching for networks to which they can gain access. Having breached the security controls, they often browse around the databases in the installation but may not do any damage. In these instances, the only crime they can be charged with is the theft of computer time. Security Beyond the Organization Hackers and Firewalls Hackers are users from outside the organization, who penetrate a computer system usually through its communication lines. Although some hackers are content merely to demonstrate that they have bypassed network security, there is a high risk of malicious damage to data, stealing of sensitive information (such as customers’ credit card numbers) or entry of fraudulent transactions by the hacker. Hackers may also instigate a denial-of-service attack, in which a targeted web site is inundated with requests for information initiated by the hacker, rendering it inaccessible for genuine business customers. A firewall is an additional system that enforces access control policy between two networks, especially between a corporate network and the Internet. The firewall monitors all external communications, checks user authorization and maintains a log of all attempts to access the network. They can also be used to check for the presence of viruses, for the downloading of unauthorized software, and to guard against denial-of-service attacks. Data which is in the process of being communicated is also vulnerable to eavesdropping. Encryption, which scrambles data into an unreadable form, can be used to improve data privacy and prevent any unauthorized changes to the message, as well as protecting the confidentiality of data within the organization. Viruses A computer virus is a program that invades a computer system, normally by residing in corrupt files. The virus has the ability to replicate itself and so spread to other files and computer systems. Some viruses are benign and merely advertise their presence, but others corrupt the files they infect and even destroy entire databases. There are three main types of viruses. The original viruses were mainly systems viruses. They resided in the boot sector of a disk (the first place the computer looks when loading the operating system) or in the operating system utilities. These viruses were usually easy to find and clean. One problem was that they loaded into memory as soon as an infected machine was switched on and could often hide themselves from the anti-viral software. The next generation of viruses attached themselves to executable files. When an infected program is run, the virus resides in memory and infects all new programs run until the system is switched off. These viruses are difficult to counter, especially on a network as common files are often infected. Even when the file server is cleared of infected programs, users have copies on their personal hard drives, or a infected copy of the program in memory when the virus check is performed on the server. One area most users with which felt safe was the accessing of non-executable files such as word processing documents. Unfortunately there are now a number of macro viruses that can attach themselves to documents and spreadsheets. Even receiving a simple letter as an e-mail attachment can infect your machine. Some of the more well known viruses include: • Michelangelo. This virus infected many machines in the early months of 1992. The virus was primed to activate on Michelango’s birthday (6th March) and had the capability of destroying all files on the hard disk of infected PC’s. News of the virus made headlines and many businessmen and home users rushed out to purchase programs to check and clean viruses from their installations. On the day, some infections did occur but the main winners were the vendors of virus detection software. • Stoned. A very common virus in the late 1980s it came in many forms, some harmless while others corrupted files by attacking the directories and allocation tables. The main theme of the virus was to legalize the smoking of cannabis and normally the message “Your PC is now Stoned” would appear on the screen. • Jerusalem. Deletes all programs that are run on Friday 13th. • Concept. A macro virus, attached to word processing documents. • EXEBUG. A nasty little bug that may corrupt your hard drive. This is a systems virus and can infect the CMOS of your PC. Very difficult to find and eradicate as it uses “stealth” technology to hide from virus checkers. With increasing globalization and interorganizational communications, viruses are able to spread faster and further than ever before. Recent examples include Melissa, ILoveYou, and the Nimda virus, which make use of multiple methods of transmission. The real mystery about viruses is why they exist at all. Some experts suggest that computer hackers are motivated by the challenge of “beating the system” by writing programs that can bypass virus protection systems and take control of each individual machine. A more likely motive is to induce computer users to purchase legal copies of software. The only real winners in the new world of computer viruses are the companies selling computer software. In the early 1980’s the illegal copying of PC software, or software piracy was rife as there was no real business advantage to purchasing the software (except a copy of the official reference manual). Today it is estimated that about 50% of the PC software used in the USA has been illegally copied and the situation in South Africa is likely to be worse. One of the major motivations for buying software rather than copying from a friend is that the shrink-wrapped product is guaranteed to be virus free. The best line of defense against viruses is the regular use of up-to-date anti-virus software, which will scan files for viruses and remove them if found. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction Example of how nodes may be interconnected with links to form a telecommunications network. This example is tree-like but many networks have loops. A telecommunications network is a collection of terminal nodes, links and any intermediate nodes which are connected so as to enable telecommunication between the terminals. The transmission links connect the nodes together. The nodes use circuit switching, message switching or packet switching to pass the signal through the correct links and nodes to reach the correct destination terminal. Each terminal in the network usually has a unique address so messages or connections can be routed to the correct recipients. The collection of addresses in the network is called the address space. Examples of telecommunications networks are: • computer networks • the Internet • the telephone network • the global Telex network • the aeronautical ACARS network Benefits of Telecommunications and Networking Telecommunications can greatly increase and expand resources to all types of people. For example, businesses need a greater telecommunications network if they plan to expand their company. With Internet, computer, and telephone networks, businesses can allocate their resources efficiently. These core types of networks will be discussed below: Computer Network: A computer network consists of computers and devices connected to one another. Information can be transferred from one device to the next. For example, an office filled with computers can share files together on each separate device. Computer networks can range from a local network area to a wide area network. The difference between the types of networks is the size. These types of computer networks work at certain speeds, also known as broadband. The Internet network can connect computer worldwide. Internet Network: Access to the network allows users to use many resources. Over time the Internet network will replace books. This will enable users to discover information almost instantly and apply concepts to different situations. The Internet can be used for recreational, governmental, educational, and other purposes. Businesses in particular use the Internet network for research or to service customers and clients. Telephone Network: The telephone network connects people to one another. This network can be used in a variety of ways. Many businesses use the telephone network to route calls and/or service their customers. Some businesses use a telephone network on a greater scale through a private branch exchange. It is a system where a specific business focuses on routing and servicing calls for another business. Majority of the time, the telephone network is used around the world for recreational purposes. Network structure In general, every telecommunications network conceptually consists of three parts, or planes (so called because they can be thought of as being, and often are, separate overlay networks): • The control plane carries control information (also known as signalling). • The data plane or user plane or bearer plane carries the network’s users traffic. • The management plane carries the operations and administration traffic required for network management. Example: the TCP/IP data network The data network is used extensively throughout the world to connect individuals and organizations. Data networks can be connected to allow users seamless access to resources that are hosted outside of the particular provider they are connected to. The Internet is the best example of many data networks from different organizations all operating under a single address space. Terminals attached to TCP/IP networks are addressed using IP addresses. There are different types of IP address, but the most common is IP Version 4. Each unique address consists of 4 integers between 0 and 255, usually separated by dots when written down, e.g. 82.131.34.56. TCP/IP are the fundamental protocols that provide the control and routing of messages across the data network. There are many different network structures that TCP/IP can be used across to efficiently route messages, for example: • wide area networks (WAN) • metropolitan area networks (MAN) • local area networks (LAN) • Internet area networks (IAN) • campus area networks (CAN) • virtual private networks (VPN) There are three features that differentiate MANs from LANs or WANs: 1. The area of the network size is between LANs and WANs. The MAN will have a physical area between 5 and 50 km in diameter. 2. MANs do not generally belong to a single organization. The equipment that interconnects the network, the links, and the MAN itself are often owned by an association or a network provider that provides or leases the service to others. 3. A MAN is a means for sharing resources at high speeds within the network. It often provide connections to WAN networks for access to resources outside the scope of the MAN. Optical Transport Network (OTN) Optical Transport Network (OTN) Specs Optical Transport Network (OTN) is a large complex network of server hubs at different locations on ground, connected by Optical fiber cable or optical network carrier, to transport data across different nodes. The server hubs are also known as head-ends, nodes or simply, sites. OTNs are the backbone of Internet Service Providers and are often daisy chained and cross connected to provide network redundancy. Such a setup facilitates uninterrupted services and fail-over capabilities during maintenance windows, equipment failure or in case of accidents. The devices used to transport data are known as network transport equipment. Some of the widely used equipment are manufactured by • Alcatel Lucent – AL7510, AL7750 • Nortel Networks Corp. (acquired by Ciena Corp.) – Optera Metro series – OM4500, OM6500 • Fujitsu Ltd. – FlashWave series FW4500, FW7500, FW9500 The capacity of a network is mainly dependent on the type of signaling scheme employed on transmitting and receiving end. In the earlier days, a single wavelength light beam was used to transmit data, which limited the bandwidth to the maximum operating frequency of the transmitting and receiving end equipment. With the application of wavelength division multiplexing (WDM), the bandwidth of OTN has risen up to 100Gbit/s (OTU4 Signal), by emitting light beams of different wavelengths. Lately, AT&T, Verizon, and Rogers Communication have been able to employ these 100G “pipes” in their metro network. Large field areas are mostly serviced by 40G pipes (OC192/STM-64). A 40G pipe can carry 40 different channels as a result of Dense Wave Division Multiplexing (DWDM) transmission. Each node in the network is able to access different channels, but is mostly tuned to a few channels. The data from a channel can be dropped to the node or new data can be added to the node using Re-configurable Optic Add Drop Mux (ROADM) that uses Wavelength Selective Switching (WSS) to extract and infuse a configured frequency. This eliminates the need to convert all the channels to electric signals, extract the required channels, and convert the rest back to optical into the OTN. Thus ROADM systems are fast, less expensive and can be configured to access any channel in the OTN pipe. The extracted channels at a site are connected to local devices through muxponder or tranponder cards that can split or combine 40G channels to 4x 10G channels or 8x 2.5G channels. Re-configurable Optical Add Drop Multiplexer (ROADM) CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Introduction A computer network or data network is a telecommunications network which allows computers to exchange data. In computer networks, networked computing devices pass data to each other along network links (data connections). The connections between nodes are established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer network is the Internet. Network computer devices that originate, route and terminate the data are called network nodes. Nodes can include hosts such as personal computers, phones, servers as well as networking hardware. Two such devices can be said to be networked together when one device is able to exchange information with the other device, whether or not they have a direct connection to each other. Computer networks differ in the transmission media used to carry their signals, the communications protocols to organize network traffic, the network’s size, topology and organizational intent. In most cases, communications protocols are layered on (i.e. work using) other more specific or more general communications protocols, except for the physical layer that directly deals with the transmission media. Computer networks support applications such as access to the World Wide Web, shared use of application and storage servers, printers, and fax machines, and use of email and instant messaging applications. History The chronology of significant computer-network developments includes: • In the late 1950s early networks of communicating computers included the military radar system Semi-Automatic Ground Environment (SAGE). • In 1959 Anatolii Ivanovich Kitov proposed to the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union a detailed plan for the re-organisation of the control of the Soviet armed forces and of the Soviet economy on the basis of a network of computing centres. • In 1960 the commercial airline reservation system semi-automatic business research environment (SABRE) went online with two connected mainframes. • In 1962 J.C.R. Licklider developed a working group he called the “Intergalactic Computer Network”, a precursor to the ARPANET, at the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA). • In 1964 researchers at Dartmouth College developed the Dartmouth Time Sharing System for distributed users of large computer systems. The same year, at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, a research group supported by General Electric and Bell Labs used a computer to route and manage telephone connections. • Throughout the 1960s, Leonard Kleinrock, Paul Baran, and Donald Davies independently developed network systems that used packets to transfer information between computers over a network. • In 1965, Thomas Marill and Lawrence G. Roberts created the first wide area network (WAN). This was an immediate precursor to the ARPANET, of which Roberts became program manager. • Also in 1965, Western Electric introduced the first widely used telephone switch that implemented true computer control. • In 1969 the University of California at Los Angeles, the Stanford Research Institute, the University of California at Santa Barbara, and the University of Utah became connected as the beginning of the ARPANET network using 50 kbit/s circuits. • In 1972 commercial services using X.25 were deployed, and later used as an underlying infrastructure for expanding TCP/IP networks. • In 1973, Robert Metcalfe wrote a formal memo at Xerox PARC describing Ethernet, a networking system that was based on the Aloha network, developed in the 1960s by Norman Abramson and colleagues at the University of Hawaii. In July 1976, Robert Metcalfe and David Boggs published their paper “Ethernet: Distributed Packet Switching for Local Computer Networks” and collaborated on several patents received in 1977 and 1978. In 1979 Robert Metcalfe pursued making Ethernet an open standard. • In 1976 John Murphy of Datapoint Corporation created ARCNET, a token-passing network first used to share storage devices. • In 1995 the transmission speed capacity for Ethernet increased from 10 Mbit/s to 100 Mbit/s. By 1998, Ethernet supported transmission speeds of a Gigabit. The ability of Ethernet to scale easily (such as quickly adapting to support new fiber optic cable speeds) is a contributing factor to its continued use as of 2015. Properties Computer networking may be considered a branch of electrical engineering, telecommunications, computer science, information technology or computer engineering, since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of the related disciplines. A computer network facilitates interpersonal communications allowing people to communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing. Providing access to information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks. A network allows sharing of files, data, and other types of information giving authorized users the ability to access information stored on other computers on the network. A network allows sharing of network and computing resources. Users may access and use resources provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a shared network printer. Distributed computing uses computing resources across a network to accomplish tasks. A computer network may be used by computer crackers to deploy computer viruses or computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices from accessing the network via a denial of service attack. Network packet Computer communication links that do not support packets, such as traditional point-to-point telecommunication links, simply transmit data as a bit stream. However, most information in computer networks is carried in packets. A network packet is a formatted unit of data (a list of bits or bytes, usually a few tens of bytes to a few kilobytes long) carried by a packet-switched network. In packet networks, the data is formatted into packets that are sent through the network to their destination. Once the packets arrive they are reassembled into their original message. With packets, the bandwidth of the transmission medium can be better shared among users than if the network were circuit switched. When one user is not sending packets, the link can be filled with packets from others users, and so the cost can be shared, with relatively little interference, provided the link isn’t overused. Packets consist of two kinds of data: control information and user data (also known as payload). The control information provides data the network needs to deliver the user data, for example: source and destination network addresses, error detection codes, and sequencing information. Typically, control information is found in packet headers and trailers, with payload data in between. Often the route a packet needs to take through a network is not immediately available. In that case the packet is queued and waits until a link is free. Network topology The physical layout of a network is usually less important than the topology that connects network nodes. Most diagrams that describe a physical network are therefore topological, rather than geographic. The symbols on these diagrams usually denote network links and network nodes. Network links The transmission media (often referred to in the literature as the physical media) used to link devices to form a computer network include electrical cable(Ethernet, HomePNA, power line communication, G.hn), optical fiber (fiber-optic communication), and radio waves (wireless networking). In the OSI model, these are defined at layers 1 and 2 — the physical layer and the data link layer. A widely adopted family of transmission media used in local area network (LAN) technology is collectively known as Ethernet. The media and protocol standards that enable communication between networked devices over Ethernet are defined by IEEE 802.3. Ethernet transmits data over both copper and fiber cables. Wireless LAN standards (e.g. those defined by IEEE 802.11) use radio waves, or others use infrared signals as a transmission medium.Power line communication uses a building’s power cabling to transmit data. Wired technologies Fiber optic cables are used to transmit light from one computer/network node to another. The orders of the following wired technologies are, roughly, from slowest to fastest transmission speed. • Coaxial cable is widely used for cable television systems, office buildings, and other work-sites for local area networks. The cables consist of copper or aluminum wire surrounded by an insulating layer (typically a flexible material with a high dielectric constant), which itself is surrounded by a conductive layer. The insulation helps minimize interference and distortion. Transmission speed ranges from 200 million bits per second to more than 500 million bits per second. • ITU-T G.hn technology uses existing home wiring (coaxial cable, phone lines and power lines) to create a high-speed (up to 1 Gigabit/s) local area network • Twisted pair wire is the most widely used medium for all telecommunication. Twisted-pair cabling consist of copper wires that are twisted into pairs. Ordinary telephone wires consist of two insulated copper wires twisted into pairs. Computer network cabling (wired Ethernet as defined by IEEE 802.3) consists of 4 pairs of copper cabling that can be utilized for both voice and data transmission. The use of two wires twisted together helps to reduce crosstalk and electromagnetic induction. The transmission speed ranges from 2 million bits per second to 10 billion bits per second. Twisted pair cabling comes in two forms: unshielded twisted pair (UTP) and shielded twisted-pair (STP). Each form comes in several category ratings, designed for use in various scenarios. • An optical fiber is a glass fiber. It carries pulses of light that represent data. Some advantages of optical fibers over metal wires are very low transmission loss and immunity from electrical interference. Optical fibers can simultaneously carry multiple wavelengths of light, which greatly increases the rate that data can be sent, and helps enable data rates of up to trillions of bits per second. Optic fibers can be used for long runs of cable carrying very high data rates, and are used for undersea cables to interconnect continents. Price is a main factor distinguishing wired- and wireless-technology options in a business. Wireless options command a price premium that can make purchasing wired computers, printers and other devices a financial benefit. Before making the decision to purchase hard-wired technology products, a review of the restrictions and limitations of the selections is necessary. Business and employee needs may override any cost considerations. Wireless technologies Computers are very often connected to networks using wireless links. • Terrestrial microwave – Terrestrial microwave communication uses Earth-based transmitters and receivers resembling satellite dishes. Terrestrial microwaves are in the low-gigahertz range, which limits all communications to line-of-sight. Relay stations are spaced approximately 48 km (30 mi) apart. • Communications satellites – Satellites communicate via microwave radio waves, which are not deflected by the Earth’s atmosphere. The satellites are stationed in space, typically in geosynchronous orbit 35,400 km (22,000 mi) above the equator. These Earth-orbiting systems are capable of receiving and relaying voice, data, and TV signals. • Cellular and PCS systems use several radio communications technologies. The systems divide the region covered into multiple geographic areas. Each area has a low-power transmitter or radio relay antenna device to relay calls from one area to the next area. • Radio and spread spectrum technologies – Wireless local area networks use a high-frequency radio technology similar to digital cellular and a low-frequency radio technology. Wireless LANs use spread spectrum technology to enable communication between multiple devices in a limited area. IEEE 802.11 defines a common flavor of open-standards wireless radio-wave technology known as Wifi. • Free-space optical communication uses visible or invisible light for communications. In most cases, line-of-sight propagation is used, which limits the physical positioning of communicating devices. Exotic technologies There have been various attempts at transporting data over exotic media: • IP over Avian Carriers was a humorous April fool’s Request for Comments, issued as RFC 1149. It was implemented in real life in 2001. • Extending the Internet to interplanetary dimensions via radio waves. Both cases have a large round-trip delay time, which gives slow two-way communication, but doesn’t prevent sending large amounts of information. Network nodes Apart from any physical transmission medium there may be, networks comprise additional basic system building blocks, such as network interface controller (NICs), repeaters, hubs, bridges, switches, routers, modems, and firewalls. Network interfaces An ATM network interface in the form of an accessory card. A lot of network interfaces are built-in. A network interface controller (NIC) is computer hardware that provides a computer with the ability to access the transmission media, and has the ability to process low-level network information. For example the NIC may have a connector for accepting a cable, or an aerial for wireless transmission and reception, and the associated circuitry. The NIC responds to traffic addressed to a network address for either the NIC or the computer as a whole. In Ethernet networks, each network interface controller has a unique Media Access Control (MAC) address—usually stored in the controller’s permanent memory. To avoid address conflicts between network devices, theInstitute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) maintains and administers MAC address uniqueness. The size of an Ethernet MAC address is six octets. The three most significant octets are reserved to identify NIC manufacturers. These manufacturers, using only their assigned prefixes, uniquely assign the three least-significant octets of every Ethernet interface they produce. Repeaters and hubs A repeater is an electronic device that receives a network signal, cleans it of unnecessary noise, and regenerates it. The signal is retransmitted at a higher power level, or to the other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances without degradation. In most twisted pair Ethernet configurations, repeaters are required for cable that runs longer than 100 meters. With fiber optics, repeaters can be tens or even hundreds of kilometers apart. A repeater with multiple ports is known as a hub. Repeaters work on the physical layer of the OSI model. Repeaters require a small amount of time to regenerate the signal. This can cause a propagation delay that affects network performance. As a result, many network architectures limit the number of repeaters that can be used in a row, e.g., the Ethernet 5-4-3 rule. Hubs have been mostly obsoleted by modern switches; but repeaters are used for long distance links, notably undersea cabling. Bridges A network bridge connects and filters traffic between two network segments at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model to form a single network. This breaks the network’s collision domain but maintains a unified broadcast domain. Network segmentation breaks down a large, congested network into an aggregation of smaller, more efficient networks. Bridges come in three basic types: • Local bridges: Directly connect LANs • Remote bridges: Can be used to create a wide area network (WAN) link between LANs. Remote bridges, where the connecting link is slower than the end networks, largely have been replaced with routers. • Wireless bridges: Can be used to join LANs or connect remote devices to LANs. Switches A network switch is a device that forwards and filters OSI layer 2 datagrams between ports based on the MAC addresses in the packets. A switch is distinct from a hub in that it only forwards the frames to the physical ports involved in the communication rather than all ports connected. It can be thought of as a multi-port bridge. It learns to associate physical ports to MAC addresses by examining the source addresses of received frames. If an unknown destination is targeted, the switch broadcasts to all ports but the source. Switches normally have numerous ports, facilitating a star topology for devices, and cascading additional switches. Multi-layer switches are capable of routing based on layer 3 addressing or additional logical levels. The term switch is often used loosely to include devices such as routers and bridges, as well as devices that may distribute traffic based on load or based on application content (e.g., a Web URL identifier). Routers A typical home or small office router showing the ADSL telephone line and Ethernet network cable connections A router is an internetworking device that forwards packets between networks by processing the routing information included in the packet or datagram (Internet protocol information from layer 3). The routing information is often processed in conjunction with the routing table (or forwarding table). A router uses its routing table to determine where to forward packets. (A destination in a routing table can include a “null” interface, also known as the “black hole” interface because data can go into it, however, no further processing is done for said data.) Modems Modems (MOdulator-DEModulator) are used to connect network nodes via wire not originally designed for digital network traffic, or for wireless. To do this one or more carrier signals are modulated by the digital signal to produce an analog signal that can be tailored to give the required properties for transmission. Modems are commonly used for telephone lines, using a Digital Subscriber Line technology. Firewalls A firewall is a network device for controlling network security and access rules. Firewalls are typically configured to reject access requests from unrecognized sources while allowing actions from recognized ones. The vital role firewalls play in network security grows in parallel with the constant increase in cyber attacks. Network structure Network topology is the layout or organizational hierarchy of interconnected nodes of a computer network. Different network topologies can affect throughput, but reliability is often more critical. With many technologies, such as bus networks, a single failure can cause the network to fail entirely. In general the more interconnections there are, the more robust the network is; but the more expensive it is to install. Common layouts Common layouts are: Common network topologies • A bus network: all nodes are connected to a common medium along this medium. This was the layout used in the original Ethernet, called 10BASE5 and 10BASE2. • A star network: all nodes are connected to a special central node. This is the typical layout found in a Wireless LAN, where each wireless client connects to the central Wireless access point. • A ring network: each node is connected to its left and right neighbor node, such that all nodes are connected and that each node can reach each other node by traversing nodes left- or rightwards. The Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) made use of such a topology. • A mesh network: each node is connected to an arbitrary number of neighbours in such a way that there is at least one traversal from any node to any other. • A fully connected network: each node is connected to every other node in the network. • A tree network: nodes are arranged hierarchically. Note that the physical layout of the nodes in a network may not necessarily reflect the network topology. As an example, with FDDI, the network topology is a ring (actually two counter-rotating rings), but the physical topology is often a star, because all neighboring connections can be routed via a central physical location. Overlay network A sample overlay network. An overlay network is a virtual computer network that is built on top of another network. Nodes in the overlay network are connected by virtual or logical links. Each link corresponds to a path, perhaps through many physical links, in the underlying network. The topology of the overlay network may (and often does) differ from that of the underlying one. For example, many peer-to-peer networks are overlay networks. They are organized as nodes of a virtual system of links that run on top of the Internet. Overlay networks have been around since the invention of networking when computer systems were connected over telephone lines using modems, before any data network existed. The most striking example of an overlay network is the Internet itself. The Internet itself was initially built as an overlay on the telephone network. Even today, at the network layer, each node can reach any other by a direct connection to the desired IP address, thereby creating a fully connected network. The underlying network, however, is composed of a mesh-like interconnect of sub-networks of varying topologies (and technologies). Address resolution and routing are the means that allow mapping of a fully connected IP overlay network to its underlying network. Another example of an overlay network is a distributed hash table, which maps keys to nodes in the network. In this case, the underlying network is an IP network, and the overlay network is a table (actually a map) indexed by keys. Overlay networks have also been proposed as a way to improve Internet routing, such as through quality of service guarantees to achieve higher-quality streaming media. Previous proposals such as IntServ, DiffServ, and IP Multicast have not seen wide acceptance largely because they require modification of all routers in the network. On the other hand, an overlay network can be incrementally deployed on end-hosts running the overlay protocol software, without cooperation from Internet service providers. The overlay network has no control over how packets are routed in the underlying network between two overlay nodes, but it can control, for example, the sequence of overlay nodes that a message traverses before it reaches its destination. For example, Akamai Technologies manages an overlay network that provides reliable, efficient content delivery (a kind of multicast). Academic research includes end system multicast, resilient routing and quality of service studies, among others. Communications protocols The TCP/IP model or Internet layering scheme and its relation to common protocols often layered on top of it. Figure 4. Message flows (A-B) in the presence of a router (R), red flows are effective communication paths, black paths are the actual paths. A communications protocol is a set of rules for exchanging information over network links. In a protocol stack(also see the OSI model), each protocol leverages the services of the protocol below it. An important example of a protocol stack is HTTP (the World Wide Web protocol) running over TCP over IP (the Internet protocols) over IEEE 802.11 (the Wi-Fi protocol). This stack is used between the wireless router and the home user’s personal computer when the user is surfing the web. Whilst the use of protocol layering is today ubiquitous across the field of computer networking, it has been historically criticized by many researchers for two principal reasons. Firstly, abstracting the protocol stack in this way may cause a higher layer to duplicate functionality of a lower layer, a prime example being error recovery on both a per-link basis and an end-to-end basis. Secondly, it is common that a protocol implementation at one layer may require data, state or addressing information that is only present at another layer, thus defeating the point of separating the layers in the first place. For example, TCP uses the ECN field in the IPv4 header as an indication of congestion; IP is a network layer protocol whereas TCP is a transport layer protocol. Communication protocols have various characteristics. They may be connection-oriented or connectionless, they may use circuit mode or packet switching, and they may use hierarchical addressing or flat addressing. There are many communication protocols, a few of which are described below. IEEE 802 The complete IEEE 802 protocol suite provides a diverse set of networking capabilities. The protocols have a flat addressing scheme. They operate mostly at levels 1 and 2 of the OSI model. For example, MAC bridging (IEEE 802.1D) deals with the routing of Ethernet packets using a Spanning Tree Protocol. IEEE 802.1Q describes VLANs, and IEEE 802.1X defines a port-based Network Access Controlprotocol, which forms the basis for the authentication mechanisms used in VLANs (but it is also found in WLANs) – it is what the home user sees when the user has to enter a “wireless access key”. Ethernet Ethernet, sometimes simply called LAN, is a family of protocols used in wired LANs, described by a set of standards together called IEEE 802.3 published by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Wireless LAN Wireless LAN, also widely known as WLAN or WiFi, is probably the most well-known member of the IEEE 802 protocol family for home users today. It is standarized by IEEE 802.11 and shares many properties with wired Ethernet. Internet Protocol Suite The Internet Protocol Suite, also called TCP/IP, is the foundation of all modern networking. It offers connection-less as well as connection-oriented services over an inherently unreliable network traversed by data-gram transmission at the Internet protocol (IP) level. At its core, the protocol suite defines the addressing, identification, and routing specifications for Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) and for IPv6, the next generation of the protocol with a much enlarged addressing capability. SONET/SDH Synchronous optical networking (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) are standardized multiplexing protocols that transfer multiple digital bit streams over optical fiber using lasers. They were originally designed to transport circuit mode communications from a variety of different sources, primarily to support real-time, uncompressed, circuit-switched voice encoded in PCM (Pulse-Code Modulation) format. However, due to its protocol neutrality and transport-oriented features, SONET/SDH also was the obvious choice for transporting Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) frames. Asynchronous Transfer Mode Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a switching technique for telecommunication networks. It uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing and encodes data into small, fixed-sized cells. This differs from other protocols such as the Internet Protocol Suite or Ethernet that use variable sized packets or frames. ATM has similarity with both circuit and packet switched networking. This makes it a good choice for a network that must handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic, and real-time, low-latency content such as voice and video. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a virtual circuitmust be established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins. While the role of ATM is diminishing in favor of next-generation networks, it still plays a role in the last mile, which is the connection between an Internet service provider and the home user. Geographic scale A network can be characterized by its physical capacity or its organizational purpose. Use of the network, including user authorization and access rights, differ accordingly. A nanoscale communication network has key components implemented at the nanoscale including message carriers and leverages physical principles that differ from macroscale communication mechanisms. Nanoscale communication extends communication to very small sensors and actuators such as those found in biological systems and also tends to operate in environments that would be too harsh for classical communication. A personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computer and different information technological devices close to one person. Some examples of devices that are used in a PAN are personal computers, printers, fax machines, telephones, PDAs, scanners, and even video game consoles. A PAN may include wired and wireless devices. The reach of a PAN typically extends to 10 meters. A wired PAN is usually constructed with USB and FireWire connections while technologies such as Bluetooth and infrared communication typically form a wireless PAN. A local area network (LAN) is a network that connects computers and devices in a limited geographical area such as a home, school, office building, or closely positioned group of buildings. Each computer or device on the network is a node. Wired LANs are most likely based on Ethernet technology. Newer standards such as ITU-T G.hn also provide a way to create a wired LAN using existing wiring, such as coaxial cables, telephone lines, and power lines. All interconnected devices use the network layer (layer 3) to handle multiple subnets (represented by different colors). Those inside the library have 10/100 Mbit/s Ethernet connections to the user device and a Gigabit Ethernet connection to the central router. They could be called Layer 3 switches, because they only have Ethernet interfaces and support the Internet Protocol. It might be more correct to call them access routers, where the router at the top is a distribution router that connects to the Internet and to the academic networks’ customer access routers. The defining characteristics of a LAN, in contrast to a wide area network (WAN), include higher data transfer rates, limited geographic range, and lack of reliance on leased lines to provide connectivity. Current Ethernet or other IEEE 802.3 LAN technologies operate at data transfer rates up to 10 Gbit/s. The IEEE investigates the standardization of 40 and 100 Gbit/s rates. A LAN can be connected to a WAN using a router. A home area network (HAN) is a residential LAN used for communication between digital devices typically deployed in the home, usually a small number of personal computers and accessories, such as printers and mobile computing devices. An important function is the sharing of Internet access, often a broadband service through a cable TV or digital subscriber line (DSL) provider. A storage area network (SAN) is a dedicated network that provides access to consolidated, block level data storage. SANs are primarily used to make storage devices, such as disk arrays, tape libraries, and optical jukeboxes, accessible to servers so that the devices appear like locally attached devices to the operating system. A SAN typically has its own network of storage devices that are generally not accessible through the local area network by other devices. The cost and complexity of SANs dropped in the early 2000s to levels allowing wider adoption across both enterprise and small to medium-sized business environments. A campus area network (CAN) is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a limited geographical area. The networking equipment (switches, routers) and transmission media (optical fiber, copper plant, Cat5 cabling, etc.) are almost entirely owned by the campus tenant/owner (an enterprise, university, government, etc.). For example, a university campus network is likely to link a variety of campus buildings to connect academic colleges or departments, the library, and student residence halls. A backbone network is part of a computer network infrastructure that provides a path for the exchange of information between different LANs or sub-networks. A backbone can tie together diverse networks within the same building, across different buildings, or over a wide area. For example, a large company might implement a backbone network to connect departments that are located around the world. The equipment that ties together the departmental networks constitutes the network backbone. When designing a network backbone, network performance and network congestionare critical factors to take into account. Normally, the backbone network’s capacity is greater than that of the individual networks connected to it. Another example of a backbone network is the Internet backbone, which is the set of wide area networks (WANs) and core routers that tie together all networks connected to the Internet. A Metropolitan area network (MAN) is a large computer network that usually spans a city or a large campus. A wide area network (WAN) is a computer network that covers a large geographic area such as a city, country, or spans even intercontinental distances. A WAN uses a communications channel that combines many types of media such as telephone lines, cables, and air waves. A WAN often makes use of transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies generally function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer. An enterprise private network is a network that a single organization builds to interconnect its office locations (e.g., production sites, head offices, remote offices, shops) so they can share computer resources. A virtual private network (VPN) is an overlay network in which some of the links between nodes are carried by open connections or virtual circuits in some larger network (e.g., the Internet) instead of by physical wires. The data link layer protocols of the virtual network are said to be tunneled through the larger network when this is the case. One common application is secure communications through the public Internet, but a VPN need not have explicit security features, such as authentication or content encryption. VPNs, for example, can be used to separate the traffic of different user communities over an underlying network with strong security features. VPN may have best-effort performance, or may have a defined service level agreement (SLA) between the VPN customer and the VPN service provider. Generally, a VPN has a topology more complex than point-to-point. A global area network (GAN) is a network used for supporting mobile across an arbitrary number of wireless LANs, satellite coverage areas, etc. The key challenge in mobile communications is handing off user communications from one local coverage area to the next. In IEEE Project 802, this involves a succession of terrestrial wireless LANs. Organizational scope Networks are typically managed by the organizations that own them. Private enterprise networks may use a combination of intranets and extranets. They may also provide network access to the Internet, which has no single owner and permits virtually unlimited global connectivity. Intranets An intranet is a set of networks that are under the control of a single administrative entity. The intranet uses the IP protocol and IP-based tools such as web browsers and file transfer applications. The administrative entity limits use of the intranet to its authorized users. Most commonly, an intranet is the internal LAN of an organization. A large intranet typically has at least one web server to provide users with organizational information. An intranet is also anything behind the router on a local area network. Extranet An extranet is a network that is also under the administrative control of a single organization, but supports a limited connection to a specific external network. For example, an organization may provide access to some aspects of its intranet to share data with its business partners or customers. These other entities are not necessarily trusted from a security standpoint. Network connection to an extranet is often, but not always, implemented via WAN technology. Internetwork An internetwork is the connection of multiple computer networks via a common routing technology using routers. Internet Partial map of the Internet based on the January 15, 2005 data found on opte.org. Each line is drawn between two nodes, representing two IP addresses. The length of the lines are indicative of the delay between those two nodes. This graph represents less than 30% of the Class C networks reachable. The Internet is the largest example of an internetwork. It is a global system of interconnected governmental, academic, corporate, public, and private computer networks. It is based on the networking technologies of theInternet Protocol Suite. It is the successor of the Advanced Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) developed by DARPA of the United States Department of Defense. The Internet is also the communications backbone underlying the World Wide Web (WWW). Participants in the Internet use a diverse array of methods of several hundred documented, and often standardized, protocols compatible with the Internet Protocol Suite and an addressing system (IP addresses) administered by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority and address registries. Service providers and large enterprises exchange information about the reachability of their address spaces through the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), forming a redundant worldwide mesh of transmission paths. Darknet A Darknet is an overlay network, typically running on the internet, that is only accessible through specialized software. A darknet is an anonymizing network where connections are made only between trusted peers — sometimes called “friends” (F2F) — using non-standard protocols and ports. Darknets are distinct from other distributed peer-to-peer networks as sharing is anonymous (that is, IP addresses are not publicly shared), and therefore users can communicate with little fear of governmental or corporate interference. Routing Routing calculates good paths through a network for information to take. For example from node 1 to node 6 the best routes are likely to be 1-8-7-6 or 1-8-10-6, as this has the thickest routes. Routing is the process of selecting network paths to carry network traffic. Routing is performed for many kinds of networks, including circuit switching networks and packet switched networks. In packet switched networks, routing directs packet forwarding (the transit of logically addressed network packets from their source toward their ultimate destination) through intermediate nodes. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches. General-purpose computers can also forward packets and perform routing, though they are not specialized hardware and may suffer from limited performance. The routing process usually directs forwarding on the basis of routing tables, which maintain a record of the routes to various network destinations. Thus, constructing routing tables, which are held in the router’s memory, is very important for efficient routing. Most routing algorithms use only one network path at a time. Multipath routing techniques enable the use of multiple alternative paths. There are usually multiple routes that can be taken, and to choose between them, different elements can be considered to decide which routes get installed into the routing table, such as (sorted by priority): 1. Prefix-Length: where longer subnet masks are preferred (independent if it is within a routing protocol or over different routing protocol) 2. Metric: where a lower metric/cost is preferred (only valid within one and the same routing protocol) 3. Administrative distance: where a lower distance is preferred (only valid between different routing protocols) Routing, in a more narrow sense of the term, is often contrasted with bridging in its assumption that network addresses are structured and that similar addresses imply proximity within the network. Structured addresses allow a single routing table entry to represent the route to a group of devices. In large networks, structured addressing (routing, in the narrow sense) outperforms unstructured addressing (bridging). Routing has become the dominant form of addressing on the Internet. Bridging is still widely used within localized environments. Network service Network services are applications hosted by servers on a computer network, to provide some functionality for members or users of the network, or to help the network itself to operate. The World Wide Web, E-mail, printing and network file sharing are examples of well-known network services. Network services such as DNS (Domain Name System) give names for IP and MAC addresses (people remember names like “nm.lan” better than numbers like “210.121.67.18”), and DHCP to ensure that the equipment on the network has a valid IP address. Services are usually based on a service protocol that defines the format and sequencing of messages between clients and servers of that network service. Network performance Quality of service Depending on the installation requirements, network performance is usually measured by the quality of service of a telecommunications product. The parameters that affect this typically can include throughput, jitter, bit error rate and latency. The following list gives examples of network performance measures for a circuit-switched network and one type of packet-switched network, viz. ATM: • Circuit-switched networks: In circuit switched networks, network performance is synonymous with the grade of service. The number of rejected calls is a measure of how well the network is performing under heavy traffic loads. Other types of performance measures can include the level of noise and echo. • ATM: In an Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) network, performance can be measured by line rate, quality of service (QoS), data throughput, connect time, stability, technology, modulation technique and modem enhancements. There are many ways to measure the performance of a network, as each network is different in nature and design. Performance can also be modeled instead of measured. For example, state transition diagrams are often used to model queuing performance in a circuit-switched network. The network planner uses these diagrams to analyze how the network performs in each state, ensuring that the network is optimally designed. Network congestion Network congestion occurs when a link or node is carrying so much data that its quality of service deteriorates. Typical effects include queueing delay, packet loss or the blocking of new connections. A consequence of these latter two is that incremental increases in offered load lead either only to small increase in network throughput, or to an actual reduction in network throughput. Network protocols that use aggressive retransmissions to compensate for packet loss tend to keep systems in a state of network congestion—even after the initial load is reduced to a level that would not normally induce network congestion. Thus, networks using these protocols can exhibit two stable states under the same level of load. The stable state with low throughput is known as congestive collapse. Modern networks use congestion control and congestion avoidance techniques to try to avoid congestion collapse. These include: exponential backoff in protocols such as 802.11’s CSMA/CA and the original Ethernet, window reduction in TCP, and fair queueing in devices such as routers. Another method to avoid the negative effects of network congestion is implementing priority schemes, so that some packets are transmitted with higher priority than others. Priority schemes do not solve network congestion by themselves, but they help to alleviate the effects of congestion for some services. An example of this is 802.1p. A third method to avoid network congestion is the explicit allocation of network resources to specific flows. One example of this is the use of Contention-Free Transmission Opportunities (CFTXOPs) in the ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed (up to 1 Gbit/s) Local area networking over existing home wires (power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables). For the Internet RFC 2914 addresses the subject of congestion control in detail. Network resilience Network resilience is “the ability to provide and maintain an acceptable level of service in the face of faults and challenges to normal operation.” Security Network security Network security consists of provisions and policies adopted by the network administrator to prevent and monitor unauthorized access, misuse, modification, or denial of the computer network and its network-accessible resources. Network security is the authorization of access to data in a network, which is controlled by the network administrator. Users are assigned an ID and password that allows them access to information and programs within their authority. Network security is used on a variety of computer networks, both public and private, to secure daily transactions and communications among businesses, government agencies and individuals. Network surveillance Network surveillance is the monitoring of data being transferred over computer networks such as the Internet. The monitoring is often done surreptitiously and may be done by or at the behest of governments, by corporations, criminal organizations, or individuals. It may or may not be legal and may or may not require authorization from a court or other independent agency. Computer and network surveillance programs are widespread today, and almost all Internet traffic is or could potentially be monitored for clues to illegal activity. Surveillance is very useful to governments and law enforcement to maintain social control, recognize and monitor threats, and prevent/investigate criminal activity. With the advent of programs such as the Total Information Awareness program, technologies such as high speed surveillance computers and biometrics software, and laws such as the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, governments now possess an unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of citizens. However, many civil rights and privacy groups—such as Reporters Without Borders, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and the American Civil Liberties Union—have expressed concern that increasing surveillance of citizens may lead to a mass surveillance society, with limited political and personal freedoms. Fears such as this have led to numerous lawsuits such as Hepting v. AT&T. The hacktivist group Anonymous has hacked into government websites in protest of what it considers “draconian surveillance.” End to end encryption End-to-end encryption (E2EE) is a digital communications paradigm of uninterrupted protection of data traveling between two communicating parties. It involves the originating party encrypting data so only the intended recipient can decrypt it, with no dependency on third parties. End-to-end encryption prevents intermediaries, such as Internet providers or application service providers, from discovering or tampering with communications. End-to-end encryption generally protects both confidentiality and integrity. Examples of end-to-end encryption include PGP for email, OTR for instant messaging, ZRTP for telephony, and TETRA for radio. Typical server-based communications systems do not include end-to-end encryption. These systems can only guarantee protection of communications between clients and servers, not between the communicating parties themselves. Examples of non-E2EE systems are Google Talk, Yahoo Messenger,Facebook, and Dropbox. Some such systems, for example LavaBit and SecretInk, have even described themselves as offering “end-to-end” encryption when they do not. Some systems that normally offer end-to-end encryption have turned out to contain a back door that subverts negotiation of theencryption key between the communicating parties, for example Skype. The end-to-end encryption paradigm does not directly address risks at the communications endpoints themselves, such as the technical exploitation of clients, poor quality random number generators, or key escrow. E2EE also does not address traffic analysis, which relates to things such as the identities of the end points and the times and quantities of messages that are sent. Views of networks Users and network administrators typically have different views of their networks. Users can share printers and some servers from a workgroup, which usually means they are in the same geographic location and are on the same LAN, whereas a Network Administrator is responsible to keep that network up and running. A community of interest has less of a connection of being in a local area, and should be thought of as a set of arbitrarily located users who share a set of servers, and possibly also communicate via peer-to-peer technologies. Network administrators can see networks from both physical and logical perspectives. The physical perspective involves geographic locations, physical cabling, and the network elements (e.g., routers, bridges and application layer gateways) that interconnect via the transmission media. Logical networks, called, in the TCP/IP architecture, subnets, map onto one or more transmission media. For example, a common practice in a campus of buildings is to make a set of LAN cables in each building appear to be a common subnet, using virtual LAN (VLAN) technology. Both users and administrators are aware, to varying extents, of the trust and scope characteristics of a network. Again using TCP/IP architectural terminology, an intranet is a community of interest under private administration usually by an enterprise, and is only accessible by authorized users (e.g. employees). Intranets do not have to be connected to the Internet, but generally have a limited connection. An extranet is an extension of an intranet that allows secure communications to users outside of the intranet (e.g. business partners, customers). Unofficially, the Internet is the set of users, enterprises, and content providers that are interconnected by Internet Service Providers (ISP). From an engineering viewpoint, the Internet is the set of subnets, and aggregates of subnets, which share the registered IP address space and exchange information about the reachability of those IP addresses using the Border Gateway Protocol. Typically, the human-readable names of servers are translated to IP addresses, transparently to users, via the directory function of the Domain Name System (DNS). Over the Internet, there can be business-to-business (B2B), business-to-consumer (B2C) and consumer-to-consumer (C2C) communications. When money or sensitive information is exchanged, the communications are apt to be protected by some form of communications security mechanism. Intranets and extranets can be securely superimposed onto the Internet, without any access by general Internet users and administrators, using secure Virtual Private Network (VPN) technology. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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*This reading was included previously in the course but is repeated here as a refresher, as the content is relevant to our discussion of networks and security. Internet security is a tree branch of computer security specifically related to the Internet, often involving browser security but also network security on a more general level as it applies to other applications or operating systems on a whole. Its objective is to establish rules and measures to use against attacks over the Internet. The Internet represents an insecure channel for exchanging information leading to a high risk of intrusion or fraud, such as phishing. Different methods have been used to protect the transfer of data, including encryption. Types of security Network layer security TCP/IP which stands for Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP) aka Internet protocol suite can be made secure with the help of cryptographic methods and protocols. These protocols include Secure Sockets Layer (SSL), succeeded by Transport Layer Security (TLS) for web traffic, Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) for email, and IPsec for the network layer security. Internet Protocol Security (IPsec) This protocol is designed to protect communication in a secure manner using TCP/IP aka Internet protocol suite. It is a set of security extensions developed by the Internet Task force IETF, and it provides security and authentication at the IP layer by transforming data using encryption. Two main types of transformation that form the basis of IPsec: the Authentication Header (AH) and ESP. These two protocols provide data integrity, data origin authentication, and anti-replay service. These protocols can be used alone or in combination to provide the desired set of security services for the Internet Protocol (IP) layer. The basic components of the IPsec security architecture are described in terms of the following functionalities: • Security protocols for AH and ESP • Security association for policy management and traffic processing • Manual and automatic key management for the Internet key exchange (IKE) • Algorithms for authentication and encryption The set of security services provided at the IP layer includes access control, data origin integrity, protection against replays, and confidentiality. The algorithm allows these sets to work independently without affecting other parts of the implementation. The IPsec implementation is operated in a host or security gateway environment giving protection to IP traffic. Security token Some online sites offer customers the ability to use a six-digit code which randomly changes every 30–60 seconds on a security token. The keys on the security token have built in mathematical computations and manipulate numbers based on the current time built into the device. This means that every thirty seconds there is only a certain array of numbers possible which would be correct to validate access to the online account. The website that the user is logging into would be made aware of that devices’ serial number and would know the computation and correct time built into the device to verify that the number given is indeed one of the handful of six-digit numbers that works in that given 30-60 second cycle. After 30–60 seconds the device will present a new random six-digit number which can log into the website. Electronic mail security (E-mail) Background Email messages are composed, delivered, and stored in a multiple step process, which starts with the message’s composition. When the user finishes composing the message and sends it, the message is transformed into a standard format: an RFC 2822 formatted message. Afterwards, the message can be transmitted. Using a network connection, the mail client, referred to as a mail user agent (MUA), connects to a mail transfer agent (MTA) operating on the mail server. The mail client then provides the sender’s identity to the server. Next, using the mail server commands, the client sends the recipient list to the mail server. The client then supplies the message. Once the mail server receives and processes the message, several events occur: recipient server identification, connection establishment, and message transmission. Using Domain Name System (DNS) services, the sender’s mail server determines the mail server(s) for the recipient(s). Then, the server opens up a connection(s) to the recipient mail server(s) and sends the message employing a process similar to that used by the originating client, delivering the message to the recipient(s). Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) Pretty Good Privacy provides confidentiality by encrypting messages to be transmitted or data files to be stored using an encryption algorithm such Triple DES or CAST-128. Email messages can be protected by using cryptography in various ways, such as the following: • Signing an email message to ensure its integrity and confirm the identity of its sender. • Encrypting the body of an email message to ensure its confidentiality. • Encrypting the communications between mail servers to protect the confidentiality of both message body and message header. The first two methods, message signing and message body encryption, are often used together; however, encrypting the transmissions between mail servers is typically used only when two organizations want to protect emails regularly sent between each other. For example, the organizations could establish a virtual private network (VPN) to encrypt the communications between their mail servers over the Internet. Unlike methods that can only encrypt a message body, a VPN can encrypt entire messages, including email header information such as senders, recipients, and subjects. In some cases, organizations may need to protect header information. However, a VPN solution alone cannot provide a message signing mechanism, nor can it provide protection for email messages along the entire route from sender to recipient. Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) MIME transforms non-ASCII data at the sender’s site to Network Virtual Terminal (NVT) ASCII data and delivers it to client’s Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) to be sent through the Internet. The server SMTP at the receiver’s side receives the NVT ASCII data and delivers it to MIME to be transformed back to the original non-ASCII data. Message Authentication Code A Message authentication code (MAC) is a cryptography method that uses a secret key to encrypt a message. This method outputs a MAC value that can be decrypted by the receiver, using the same secret key used by the sender. The Message Authentication Code protects both a message’s data integrity as well as its authenticity. Firewalls A computer firewall controls access between networks. It generally consists of gateways and filters which vary from one firewall to another. Firewalls also screen network traffic and are able to block traffic that is dangerous. Firewalls act as the intermediate server between SMTP and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) connections. Role of firewalls in web security Firewalls impose restrictions on incoming and outgoing Network packets to and from private networks. Incoming or outgoing traffic must pass through the firewall; only authorized traffic is allowed to pass through it. Firewalls create checkpoints between an internal private network and the public Internet, also known as choke points(borrowed from the identical military term of a combat limiting geographical feature). Firewalls can create choke points based on IP source and TCP port number. They can also serve as the platform for IPsec. Using tunnel mode capability, firewall can be used to implement VPNs. Firewalls can also limit network exposure by hiding the internal network system and information from the public Internet. Types of firewall Packet filter A packet filter is a first generation firewall that processes network traffic on a packet-by-packet basis. Its main job is to filter traffic from a remote IP host, so a router is needed to connect the internal network to the Internet. The router is known as a screening router, which screens packets leaving and entering the network. Stateful packet inspection In a stateful firewall the circuit-level gateway is a proxy server that operates at the network level of an Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model and statically defines what traffic will be allowed. Circuit proxies will forward Network packets (formatted unit of data ) containing a given port number, if the port is permitted by the algorithm. The main advantage of a proxy server is its ability to provide Network Address Translation (NAT), which can hide the user’s IP address from the Internet, effectively protecting all internal information from the Internet. Application-level gateway An application-level firewall is a third generation firewall where a proxy server operates at the very top of the OSI model, the IP suite application level. A network packet is forwarded only if a connection is established using a known protocol. Application-level gateways are notable for analyzing entire messages rather than individual packets of data when the data are being sent or received. Malicious software A computer user can be tricked or forced into downloading software onto a computer that is of malicious intent. Such software comes in many forms, such as viruses, Trojan horses, spyware, and worms. • Malware, short for malicious software, is any software used to disrupt computer operation, gather sensitive information, or gain access to private computer systems. Malware is defined by its malicious intent, acting against the requirements of the computer user, and does not include software that causes unintentional harm due to some deficiency. The term badware is sometimes used, and applied to both true (malicious) malware and unintentionally harmful software. • A botnet is a network of zombie computers that have been taken over by a robot or bot that performs large-scale malicious acts for the creator of the botnet. • Computer Viruses are programs that can replicate their structures or effects by infecting other files or structures on a computer. The common use of a virus is to take over a computer to steal data. • Computer worms are programs that can replicate themselves throughout a computer network, performing malicious tasks throughout. • Ransomware is a type of malware which restricts access to the computer system that it infects, and demands a ransom paid to the creator(s) of the malware in order for the restriction to be removed. • Scareware is scam software with malicious payloads, usually of limited or no benefit, that are sold to consumers via certain unethical marketing practices. The selling approach uses social engineering to cause shock, anxiety, or the perception of a threat, generally directed at an unsuspecting user. • Spyware refers to programs that surreptitiously monitor activity on a computer system and report that information to others without the user’s consent. • A Trojan horse, commonly known as a Trojan, is a general term for malicious software that pretends to be harmless, so that a user willingly allows it to be downloaded onto the computer. Denial-of-service attack A denial-of-service attack (DoS attack) or distributed denial-of-service attack (DDoS attack) is an attempt to make a computer resource unavailable to its intended users. Although the means to carry out, motives for, and targets of a DoS attack may vary, it generally consists of the concerted efforts to prevent an Internet site or service from functioning efficiently or at all, temporarily or indefinitely. According to businesses who participated in an international business security survey, 25% of respondents experienced a DoS attack in 2007 and 16.8% experienced one in 2010. Phishing Phishing is another common threat to the Internet. “SA, the Security Division of EMC, today announced the findings of its January 2013 Fraud Report, estimating the global losses from Phishing at \$1.5 Billion in 2012.”. Filter evasion, website forgery, phone phishing, Covert Redirect are some well known phishing techniques. Hackers use a variety of tools to conduct phishing attacks. They create forged websites that pretend to be other websites in order for users to leave their personal information. These hackers usually host these sites on legitimate hosting services using stolen credit cards while the last trend is to use a mailing system and finding a mailing list of people which they can try and fraud. Browser choice Web browser statistics tend to affect the amount a Web browser is exploited. For example, Internet Explorer 6, which used to own a majority of the Web browser market share, is considered extremely insecure because vulnerabilities were exploited due to its former popularity. Since browser choice is more evenly distributed (Internet Explorer at 28.5%, Firefox at 18.4%, Google Chrome at 40.8%, and so on) and vulnerabilities are exploited in many different browsers. Application vulnerabilities Applications used to access Internet resources may contain security vulnerabilities such as memory safety bugs or flawed authentication checks. The most severe of these bugs can give network attackers full control over the computer. Most security applications and suites are incapable of adequate defense against these kinds of attacks. Internet security products Antivirus Antivirus and Internet security programs can protect a programmable device from malware by detecting and eliminating viruses; Antivirus software was mainly shareware in the early years of the Internet, but there are now several free security applications on the Internet to choose from for all platforms. Security suites So called “security suites” were first offered for sale in 2003 (McAfee) and contain a suite of firewalls, anti-virus, anti-spyware and more.[15] They may now offer theft protection, portable storage device safety check, private Internet browsing, cloud anti-spam, a file shredder or make security-related decisions (answering popup windows) and several were free of charge as of at least 2012. CC licensed content, Shared previously

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Watch this simple demonstration of how switches work to connect computers and devices. An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=178 All rights reserved content 7.08: Video- What is a Computer Network Watch this video to understand the basics of computer networking. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=180 All rights reserved content 7.09: Video- Types of Networks Watch this video to learn about types of networks and how to differentiate between LAN, MAN, and WAN. An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=182 Learn more specifically about MAN in this video: An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=182 Learn more about WAN in this video: An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=182 This last video explains the parts of a network: An interactive or media element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=182 All rights reserved content • Computer Networking Tutorial - 2-5 Types of Networks, WAN, LAN, and Parts of a Network. Provided by: thenewboston. Located at: https://youtu.be/EcbyD_YycPA. License: Other. License Terms: Standard YouTube License 7.10: Tutorials- Computer Security View the following Atomic Learning Tutorials at Atomic Learning (TOOLS menu –ATOMIC LEARNING – search on COMPUTER SECURITY – select PC Security & Maintenance ) B. MALWARE and OTHER THREATS • Defining Malware • Preventing Malware C. PC PROTECTION • Protecting your Windows 7 PC with Microsoft PC Security Essentials • Protecting your Windows 8 System D. Firewalls – ALL G. Home Network Security – ALL CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Computer Security Tutorials. Authored by: Jim Shannon. Provided by: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at: http://www.nvcc.edu/eli/index.html. License: CC BY: Attribution 7.11: Review- Internet Safety Complete Exercises 1-9 at the website found HERE (http://www.gcflearnfree.org/internetsafety). CC licensed content, Original 7.12: Review- Networks and Security Jeopardy A Jeopardy game is attached to assist you in your review. You will need the PowerPoint application or a PowerPoint viewer to play the game. You can perform these exercises on your mobile devices with access to Office 365 Mobile or a separate App for your Apple or Android device. Jeopardy: Networks and Security Review NOTE: The Jeopardy Game should open in the Slide Show view and be immediately playable. If it opens in the regular PowerPoint presentation view, go to the SLIDE SHOW tab on the ribbon and start the show from THE BEGINNING (command on the far left). You can play the game as many times as you like and in any order you like. CC licensed content, Original 7.13: Assignment- A Home Network Plan Discussion Forum Assignment Objective This assignment challenges you to practice thinking independently as you apply what you have learned to a typical real problem that does not have just one right answer. Directions For this assignment, you will plan how you would network two or more computers in your home. If you already have a home network, you may either describe your existing network, or plan one for someone else. Part A 1. Describe the type and locations of the computers you plan to network. 2. Using what you have read and viewed as resources, list the hardware and software that you will need. 3. List the steps you would follow to implement the network. 4. Organize this information into a brief report. 5. Post your response in the discussion forum. Part B 1. Read the other reports in your group’s forum. 2. Respond to at least two reports in your group other than your own. One of the comments needs to be either a suggestion, or a comment on a technical aspect of your classmates plan. 3. Read the responses to your own report. CC licensed content, Original 7.14: Assignment- Antivirus Protection Assignment Objective This assignment gives you practice applying what you have learned to solve a typical computer security problem. Directions Imagine the following scenario at a company where you are the computer specialist: Your company recently installed high-speed Internet access at the office where you work. There are 50 workstations connected to the network and the Internet. Within a week, half the computers in the office were down because of a virus that was contracted by a screen saver. In addition, network personnel from a university in England contacted the company, claiming that your computer systems were being used as a part of a DDoS attack on their Web site. By the time the damage was repaired, your company had lost about 500 work hours when employees could not use their computers. The company also lost approximately \$10,000 in potential revenue by not being able to respond to purchase requests, and narrowly averted a lawsuit from the university. Take steps to prevent this from happening again: • Research the price of at least three antivirus and firewall packages on the Internet and determine the most cost-effective package for the company to implement on 50 workstations. • Draft a memo to the CEO with your recommendations. Include the following in your memo: • A list of the antivirus and firewall packages you researched. You should research and list at least three different antivirus and firewall packages. • The antivirus and firewall package you recommend and your reasons for recommending it over the other two packages. • An explanation of how the antivirus and firewall products that you recommend would prevent future problems with viruses and with DDoS attacks from your computers on web sites belonging to other organizations. • If you need help with creating a memo, please click How to Create a Memo to download the instructions. • Compile a list strategies for avoiding virus infections and incorporate this list into a document to be sent to all employees. CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/07%3A_Networks_and_Security/7.07%3A_Video-_How_Computer_Networks_Connect.txt

Learning Objectives If you do well in this unit, you should be able to: • Indicate the names and functions of the Word interface components. • Create, edit, save, and print documents to include documents with lists and tables. • Format text and to use styles. • Add a header and footer to a document. • Add a footnote to a document. • Add a graphic to a document. • Use the Spelling and Grammar Checker as well as Microsoft Help. • Manipulate documents using functions such as find and replace; cut, copy, replace. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Word Learning Objectives. Authored by: Jim Shannon. Provided by: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at: http://www.nvcc.edu/eli/index.html. License: CC BY: Attribution 08: Microsoft Word Read, view, and complete the following tutorials at GCFLearnFree.org (http://www.gcflearnfree.org/word2013). Word Basics 1. #4 – GETTING TO KNOW WORD 2. #5 – CREATING AND OPENING DOCUMENTS 3. #6 – SAVING AND SHARING DOCUMENTS 4. #7 – TEXT BASICS 5. #8 – FORMATTING TEXT 6. #9 – PAGE LAYOUT 7. #10- PRINTING DOCUMENTS Working with Text 1. #11- Indents and tabs 2. #12- Line and paragraph spacing 3. #13- Lists 4. #14- Hyperlinks 5. #15- breaks 6. #16- Columns 7. #17- Headers, footers, and page numbers Optional Additional Tutorials are available from GCF Learnfree.org. You can find them by scrolling down to the bottom of the page and looking under Doing More with Word and Extras. CC licensed content, Original 8.02: Assignment- Small Business Project Project Objective The purpose of this project is to provide you with opportunities to implement skills learned in the course. Additionally, you will be provided several opportunities for innovative and critical thinking as you perform assignments involving: • Small Business Computer based Information Systems Requirements Analysis • Project Planning & Cost Estimating • Small Business Computer based Information Systems Design and Development You will also learn additional skills in the area of Information Systems Design/Development and Hardware/Software selection. Assignment This project will require some critical thinking on your part. You have to put yourself in the shoes of a small business owner running a small eating establishment (pizza place or deli), and think about: 1. What is the business you have selected? 2. What products and services does your business offer? 3. What do you need in the way of a computer based information system to properly support the marketing and selling of those products and services? By the end of this project, you will have prepared and delivered: • An Excel spreadsheet of hardware and software necessary for the small business information system you propose. • A Systems Architecture, using Microsoft Word with shapes and Smart Art. • An Excel spreadsheet showing all the cost of purchasing and installing the hardware and software necessary for the small business information system you propose. • A PowerPoint presentation of your system with animation and audio. Please read the detailed directions in the Small Business Project Workbook. The project is broken up into four tasks. CC licensed content, Original 8.03: Assignment- CEO Recommendations Assignment Objective This assignment requires you to apply what you have learned about Word to a typical office document. CEO Recommendations Memo Assignment Using Word, format the CEO Recommendations Memo that you created for the previous assignment as follows: • Use proper “memo” formatting. If you need help with creating a memo, refer to the “How to Create a Memo” document in Week 4. Do not use one of the predefined memo templates in Word. • Align the text following To:, From:, Date:, and Subject: using tabs. • Spell and grammar check the document. • Set the left and right margins to 1.25 inches and the top and bottom margins to 1 inch. • Bold, italicize and/or underline at least one word in the document. • Include a bulleted list and/or a numbered list. • Include a header that contains the page number (centered), and your last name (right-aligned). All information should be entered on one line. • Include at least one footnote. • Left align and first-line indent (not tab) each paragraph as well as the footnote(s). • Format the entire document including the header and footnote(s) using Times New Roman font and size 12. • Single space the entire document and separate each paragraph with a blank line. • Do not include any spacing before and/or after paragraphs. (Set the “Before” and “After” paragraph spacing to 0.) • Use a table to compare and contrast the products you have researched. • Include at least one clip art image in the document. CC licensed content, Original 9.01: Supplemental Trainings- Microsoft Office For additional MS Office Tutorials, click on the links below: CC licensed content, Original 9.02: Tutorials- Formatting and Reviewing in Word Required Trainings Read, view, and complete the following tutorials at GCFLearnFree.org (http://www.gcflearnfree.org/word2013). Working with Objects 1. #18- Pictures and text wrapping 2. #19- formatting pictures 3. #20- Shapes 4. #21- Text boxes and word art 5. #22- Arranging objects 6. #23- Tables 7. #24- Charts Reviewing Documents and collaboration 1. #25- checking spelling and grammar 2. #26- track changes and comments 3. #27- finalizing and protecting documents Optional Additional Tutorials are available from GCF Learnfree.org. You can find them by scrolling down to the bottom of the page and they are under Doing More with Word and Extras. CC licensed content, Original 9.03: Course Project- Small Business Assignment Task 1 Please make sure to follow the detailed directions in the Small Business Project Workbook to complete Task 1. CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/08%3A_Microsoft_Word/8.01%3A_Tutorials-_Using_Word.txt

Learning Objectives If you do well in this unit, you should be able to: • Insert a graphic within a web page. • Create a link within a web page. • Create a table within a web page. • Insert heading levels within a web page. • Insert ordered and unordered lists within a web page. • Use cascading style sheets. • Create a web page. • Validate a web page. • Publish a web page. CC licensed content, Original 10.02: Reading- HTML Training Read the following sections in the HTML Tutorial. • Starting • Creating • Naming • Viewing • Revising • Validation • FTP • Linking • Images • Lists CC licensed content, Original 10.03: Assignment- Movies and Hobbies Assignment Objective The purpose of this assignment is to create, upload, and validate a basic Web page. Movies and Hobbies Assignment NOTE: The following Web page should be created using Notepad. MAC users use TextEdit but set preferences as follows: • Open TextEdit. • Choose Preferences from the TextEdit application menu. • Click the Plain Text radio button for New Document Format. • Under Saving, click the checkbox to turn off “Append ‘.txt’ extension to plain text files.” • Under Rich text processing, click the checkbox to turn on “Ignore rich text commands in HTML files.” • Be sure the checkbox for “Wrap to Page” is deselected. DO NOT use Word or any other Web authoring tool to complete this assignment. When you edit your file in Notepad or TextEdit, open a new instance of Notepad or TextEdit to do so. Do not make the changes from the View/Source window in your browser. That does not work. 1. Create a Web page that makes a list of your favorite movies and a list of your favorite actors. Make one list ordered and one list unordered. Title your Web page – John Doe’s Movies Page but use your own name (this information goes in the title tag). Also include a paragraph describing one of your favorite movies and another paragraph describing one of your favorite actors. Begin each paragraph and list with a heading. Use at least two different heading levels (h1-h6). 2. Validate your Web page using the World Wide Web Consortium validation site. Apply HTML5 validation. 3. Save your Web page as movies.html and then FTP your Web page to the NVCC student server. If you have trouble connecting to the server, call (not email) the IT Help Desk at 703 426-4141 and they will reset your password. • MAC users – Core FTP Lite only works with Windows. You can download a free FTP program called CyberDuck. If you google Cyberduck any number of sites come up with a free download. I have used: http://cyberduck.en.softonic.com/mac. • SSDL Students – Follow the directions on the IT Help Desk site but instead of using a NOVA LAN account, use your  Blackboard account with DIRECTORY\ in front of your username. If you still can’t access the server, contact ELI IT Support (eliitsupport@nvcc.edu). Find the URL to your Web page below in #4. DO NOT include DIRECTORY in the URL. 4. Using your browser, navigate to your Web page – http://www.student.nvcc.edu/home/You...ID/movies.html and make sure the page displays as intended. CC licensed content, Original 10.04: Assignment- Movies and Hobbies Webpage (Generic-not NOVA specific) Assignment Objective The purpose of this assignment is to create, upload, and validate a basic Web page. Movies and Hobbies Assignment NOTE: The following Web page should be created using Notepad. MAC users use TextEdit but set preferences as follows: • Open TextEdit. • Choose Preferences from the TextEdit application menu. • Click the Plain Text radio button for New Document Format. • Under Saving, click the checkbox to turn off “Append ‘.txt’ extension to plain text files.” • Under Rich text processing, click the checkbox to turn on “Ignore rich text commands in HTML files.” • Be sure the checkbox for “Wrap to Page” is deselected. DO NOT use Word or any other Web authoring tool to complete this assignment. When you edit your file in Notepad or TextEdit, open a new instance of Notepad or TextEdit to do so. Do not make the changes from the View/Source window in your browser. That does not work. 1. Create a Web page that makes a list of your favorite movies and a list of your favorite actors. Make one list ordered and one list unordered. Title your Web page – John Doe’s Movies Page but use your own name (this information goes in the title tag). Also include a paragraph describing one of your favorite movies and another paragraph describing one of your favorite actors. Begin each paragraph and list with a heading. Use at least two different heading levels (h1-h6). 2. Validate your Web page using the World Wide Web Consortium validation site. Apply HTML5 validation. CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/10%3A_HTML/10.01%3A_HTML_Learning_Objectives.txt

Read the following sections in the HTML Tutorial. • Styling • Tables • Summary CC licensed content, Shared previously 11.02: Assignment- Movies and Hobbies Webpage (Continued) Assignment Objective The purpose of this assignment is to create, upload, and validate a Web site containing two pages to include a table, links, images, and styles. Movies and Hobbies Webpage Assignment Directions NOTE: The following Web page should be created using Notepad. MAC users use TextEdit but set preferences as follows: • Open TextEdit. • Choose Preferences from the TextEdit application menu. • Click the Plain Text radio button for New Document Format. • Under Saving, click the checkbox to turn off “Append ‘.txt’ extension to plain text files.” • Under Rich text processing, click the checkbox to turn on “Ignore rich text commands in HTML files.” • Be sure the checkbox for “Wrap to Page” is deselected. DO NOT use Word or any other Web authoring tool to complete this assignment. When you edit your file in Notepad or TextEdit, open a new instance of Notepad or TextEdit to do so. Do not make the changes from the View/Source window in your browser. That does not work. 1. Create a Web page (separate from the one created in Part 1) that includes a table with at least two rows and two columns. Title your Web page – John Doe’s Hobbies Page but use your own name (this information goes in the title tag). Each cell in the table should contain one of your hobbies. Save your Web page as hobbies.html. Link your movies page to your hobbies page. Then link your hobbies page to your movies page. Add an image to your movies page and a different image to your hobbies page. Make sure to include the alt tag for each image. Also, include at least one external link on at least one of the two pages. Organize the content on each page in a way that is easy to read. 2. Use an INLINE style to change the appearance as follows: • background-color of one of the cells in the table • color of one of the items in the bulleted list • font-family of one of the items in the numbered list 3. Use an EMBEDDED style to change the appearance as follows: • font size of all the items in the bulleted list • solid border around each cell in the table 4. Save both Web pages (movies.html and hobbies.html) again. 5. Validate both Web pages (movies.html and hobbies.html) using the World Wide Web Consortium validation site. Apply HTML5 validation. 6. FTP your two Web pages as well as the two graphics to the NVCC student server. 7. Using your browser, navigate to your Web page – http://www.student.nvcc.edu/home/You...ID/movies.html and make sure all the links work and that each page displays as intended. 8. Submit the URL (http://www.student.nvcc.edu/home/You...ID/movies.html) using the link at the end of this unit. Note – you should not attach any files to Blackboard for this assignment. 9. I will only accept the assignment if it is uploaded to the NVCC student server. CC licensed content, Original 11.03: Assignment- Movies and Hobbies Webpage (Continued) (Generic-not NOVA specif Assignment Objective The purpose of this assignment is to create, upload, and validate a Web site containing two pages to include a table, links, images, and styles. Movies and Hobbies Webpage Assignment Directions NOTE: The following Web page should be created using Notepad. MAC users use TextEdit but set preferences as follows: • Open TextEdit. • Choose Preferences from the TextEdit application menu. • Click the Plain Text radio button for New Document Format. • Under Saving, click the checkbox to turn off “Append ‘.txt’ extension to plain text files.” • Under Rich text processing, click the checkbox to turn on “Ignore rich text commands in HTML files.” • Be sure the checkbox for “Wrap to Page” is deselected. DO NOT use Word or any other Web authoring tool to complete this assignment. When you edit your file in Notepad or TextEdit, open a new instance of Notepad or TextEdit to do so. Do not make the changes from the View/Source window in your browser. That does not work. 1. Create a Web page (separate from the one created in Part 1) that includes a table with at least two rows and two columns. Title your Web page – John Doe’s Hobbies Page but use your own name (this information goes in the title tag). Each cell in the table should contain one of your hobbies. Save your Web page as hobbies.html. Link your movies page to your hobbies page. Then link your hobbies page to your movies page. Add an image to your movies page and a different image to your hobbies page. Make sure to include the alt tag for each image. Also, include at least one external link on at least one of the two pages. Organize the content on each page in a way that is easy to read. 2. Use an INLINE style to change the appearance as follows: • background-color of one of the cells in the table • color of one of the items in the bulleted list • font-family of one of the items in the numbered list 3. Use an EMBEDDED style to change the appearance as follows: • font size of all the items in the bulleted list • solid border around each cell in the table 4. Save both Web pages (movies.html and hobbies.html) again. 5. Validate both Web pages (movies.html and hobbies.html) using the World Wide Web Consortium validation site. Apply HTML5 validation. CC licensed content, Original 11.04: Assignment- Small Business Project Task 2 Please make sure to follow the detailed directions in the Small Business Project Workbook to complete Task 2. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Small Business Assignment. Authored by: Jim Shannon. Provided by: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at: http://www.nvcc.edu/eli/index.html. License: CC BY: Attribution

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/11%3A_HTML_(Continued)/11.01%3A_Reading-_HTML_Training.txt

Learning Objectives If you do well in this unit, you should be able to: • Indicate the names and functions of the Excel interface components. • Enter and edit data. • Format data and cells. • Construct formulas, including the use of built-in functions, and relative and absolute references. • Create and modify charts. • Preview and print worksheets. • Use the Excel online Help feature. CC licensed content, Original 12: Microsoft Excel Directions Required Trainings Read, view, and complete the following tutorials at GCF LearnFree.org,(http://www.gcflearnfree.org/excel2013). Excel Basics 1. #4 – GETTING TO KNOW excel 2. #5 – CREATING AND OPENING workbooks 3. #6 – SAVING AND SHARING workbooks 4. #7 – cell basics 5. #8 – modifying columns, rows, and cells 6. #9 – formatting cells 7. #10- worksheet basics 8. #11- page layout 9. #12- printing workbooks Formulas and Functions 1. #13- single formulas 2. #14- complex formulas 3. #15- relative and absolute references 4. #16- functions 5. Working with Data 6. #17- freezing panes and views options 7. #18 – sorting data 8. #19 – filtering data 9. #20 – groups and subtotals 10. #21 – tables 11. #22 – charts 12. #23 – sparklines Optional Additional Tutorials are available from GCF Learnfree.org under DOING MORE WITH WORD and EXTRAS. CC licensed content, Original 12.02: Assignment- Practice with Excel Assignment Objective This assignment gives you practice using what you have learned about Excel without step-by-step directions. Directions Open the Excel Practice Application (.doc) document and use Excel to create a worksheet that meets the criteria listed. Try to complete the spreadsheet using what you remember. If you cannot remember a procedure, refer to the trainings provided previously. CC licensed content, Original 12.03: Course Project- Small Business Assignment Task 3 Please make sure to follow the detailed directions in the Small Business Project Workbook to complete Task 3. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Small Business Assignment. Authored by: Jim Shannon. Provided by: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at: http://www.nvcc.edu/eli/index.html. License: CC BY: Attribution 13.01: Reading- Access Training Learning Objectives If you do well in this unit, you should be able to: • Identify the terminology and functions common to most database management systems. • Identify the qualities of valuable information. • Identify the elements of good database design. • Create and use tables. • Create and use queries. • Create simple reports and forms. • Use the Access online Help feature. • Discuss ethical issues connected to the use of databases. CC licensed content, Original 13: Microsoft Access Required Trainings Read, view, and complete the following tutorials at GCF LearnFree.org, (http://www.gcflearnfree.org/access2013). Access Basics 1. #3 – INTRODUCTION TO DATABASES 2. #4 – INTRODUCTION TO OBJECTS 3. #5 – GETTING STARTED WITH ACCESS 4. #6 – MANAGING DATABASES AND OBJECTS Working with Data 1. #7 – WORKING WITH TABLES 2. #8 – WORKING WITH FORMS 3. #9 – SORTING AND FILTERING RECORDS Running Queries and reports 1. #10- DESIGNING A SIMPLE QUERY 2. #11- DESIGNING A MULTI-TABLE QUERY 3. #12- MORE QUERY DESIGN OPTIONS 4. #13- CREATING REPORTS 5. #14- ADVANCED REPORT OPTIONS Database Design Tips 1. #15- MODIFYING TABLES 2. #16- CREATING FORMS 3. #17- FORMATTING FORMS 4. #18 – DESIGNING YOUR OWN DATABASE More Access Tasks 1. #19 – CREATING CALCULATED FIELDS AND TOTALS ROWS 2. #20 – CREATING A PARAMETER QUERY 3. #21 – CREATING A FIND DUPLICATES QUERY Optional Additional Tutorials are available from GCF Learnfree.org under EXTRAS. Supplemental Trainings You can find the following supplemental training by clicking the MS Office Tutorials link in the course menu. • Atomic Learning – Use these videos to supplement your GCF Learn Free Tutorials as necessary. • MS Office Tutorials – Watch the Access tutorials in MS Office 2013 Video Tutorials link or the MS Office 2010 Tutorials link. • Access Help Menu – Additional learning materials are also available from the Access HELP menu. Click on the BLUE QUESTION MARK in the upper right hand corner of your application HOME page. This will take you to the Access Help page where you will find tutorials and a searchable index of topics. CC licensed content, Original 13.02: Assignment- Inventory Database Assignment Objective This assignment gives you practice using what you have learned about Access without step-by-step directions. Directions 1. Open the Access Assignment [.doc] document and use Access to create a database that meets the criteria listed. 2. Try to complete the assignment using what you remember. If you can’t remember a procedure, refer to the trainings provided in the course material. CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/12%3A_Microsoft_Excel/12.01%3A_Reading-_Excel_Trainings.txt

Assignment Objective This assignment challenges you to think about questions related to current issues having no clear right or wrong answer. It also gives you practice understanding and clarifying arguments. Directions This assignment consists of a discussion regarding collecting information about people in medical databases. Part A 1. Visit the web site of an online medical database, for example Web MD. There are many others. 2. Navigate through the different areas of the web site and locate and read the site’s privacy policy. 3. Write an essay answering the following question: “What are the advantages and disadvantages of increased access to medical records?” Base your essay on what you learned from the web site, what you learned about databases in this course, and your own personal experience. 4. Post the url you visited and your essay to the Database Issues class forum. Part B 1. Read the essays posted by others and respond to at least two by asking a question. (Choose classmates that have not already been asked questions by someone else, if any.) Your questions should be one of these three types: • Clarification question – This kind of question helps the writer by asking him to clarify points that you think could be more fully explained. An example of clarification questions is, “You stated that personal information belongs to the individual. Can you explain what kinds of information you consider personal?” • Hypothetical question – This kind of question helps the writer by asking her to test her argument by applying it to a situation that you specify. An example of a hypothetical question is, “Suppose somebody becomes gravely ill while traveling in a foreign country, and the doctors need immediate access to his medical history to save him. Would your proposal for information security allow the doctors to access his records?” • Evidence question – When a writer states something as fact rather than personal opinion, his argument is stronger if he cites evidence that the fact is true. Facts can be evidenced, in approximate order of strongest evidence to weakest, (1) by citing trustworthy data, (2) by citing the opinions of experts, (3) by citing repeatable personal experience, or (4) by citing common opinion. This kind of question helps the writer by asking for evidence if he states something as fact but doesn’t cite evidence. An example of an evidence question is, “Can you cite evidence that the security breaches at hospitals led to thousands of cases of insurance fraud in the past two years?” 2. Discussion is an exchange, not a lecture. Do not post your comments and then disappear. Participate regularly and solicit feedback from your peers. CC licensed content, Original 14.02: Course Project- Small Business Assignment Task 4 Please make sure to follow the detailed directions in the Small Business Project Workbook to complete Task 4. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Small Business Assignment. Authored by: Jim Shannon. Provided by: Extended Learning Institute of Northern Virginia Community College. Located at: http://www.nvcc.edu/eli/index.html. License: CC BY: Attribution 15.01: Powerpoint Learning Objectives Learning Objectives If you do well in this unit, you should be able to: • Identify the names and functions of the PowerPoint interface. • Create, edit, save, and print presentations. • Format presentations. • Add a graphic to a presentation. • Create and manipulate simple slide shows with outlines and notes. • Create slide presentations that include text, graphics, animation, and transitions. • Use design layouts and templates for presentations. • Create a PowerPoint presentation. CC licensed content, Original 15.02: Reading- PowerPoint Training Required Trainings Read, view, and complete the following tutorials at GCF LearnFree.org (http://www.gcflearnfree.org/powerpoint2013). PowerPoint Basics 1. #4 – GETTING TO KNOW POWERPOINT 2. #5 – CREATING AND OPENING PRESENTATIONS 3. #6 – SAVING AND SHARING 4. #7 – SLIDE BASICS 5. #8 – TEXT BASICS 6. #9 – APPLYING THEMES 7. #10- APPLYING TRANSITIONS 8. #11- MANAGING SLIDES 9. #12- PRINTING 10. #13- presenting your slide show Text and Objects 1. #14- lists 2. #15- Indents and line spacing 3. #16- inserting pictures 4. #17- FORMATTING pictures 5. #18 – shapes and word art 6. #19 – arranging objects 7. #20 – animating text and objects More objects 1. #21 – inserting videos 2. #22 – inserting audio 3. #23 – tables 4. #24 – charts 5. #25 – smart art graphics Reviewing presentations and collaboration 1. #26 – CHECKING SPELLING AND GRAMMAR 2. #27 – REVIEWING PRESENTATIONS 3. #28 – FINALIZING AND PROTECTING PRESENTATIONS Customizing Your Presentation 1. #29 – MODIFYING THEMES 2. #30 – SLIDE MASTER VIEW 3. #31 – HYPERLINKS AND ACTION BUTTONS 4. #32 – ADVANCED PRESENTATION OPTIONS Optional Additional Tutorials are available from GCF Learnfree.org under EXTRAS. Supplemental Trainings You can find the following supplemental training by clicking the MS Office Tutorials link in the course menu. • Atomic Learning – Use these videos to supplement your GCF Learn Free Tutorials as necessary. • MS Office Tutorials – Watch the Access tutorials in MS Office 2013 Video Tutorials link or the MS Office 2010 Tutorials link. • PowerPoint Help Menu – Additional learning materials are also available from the PowerPoint HELP menu. Click on the BLUE QUESTION MARK in the upper right hand corner of your application HOME page. This will take you to the PowerPoint Help page where you will find tutorials and a searchable index of topics. CC licensed content, Original 15.03: Assignment- Virus Prevention Presentation Assignment Objective This assignment gives you practice using what you have learned about PowerPoint without step-by-step directions. Directions Create a PowerPoint presentation based on the the Virus Prevention document you created in the module on “Networks and Security.” (You’ll recall the assignment said to “compile a list of strategies for avoiding virus infections and incorporate this list into a document to be sent to all employees”). The strategies should include things that employees can (and should) do to avoid viruses. For example, use caution when opening email attachments, awareness of phishing attempts, etc. Do not include the comparison of antivirus and firewall programs that you created for the Virus Prevention Assignment in the “Networks and Security” module. For this assignment, you will create a PowerPoint that meets the following criteria: • Include at least 6 slides. • Insert your name as a footer on each slide. • Use the “Facet” theme for all slides. • Make sure that at least one of the slides includes at least two list levels. • Include a speaker note on at least one slide. • Apply the “Checkerboard” transition “From Top” with a duration of 5 seconds and advance the slides on a mouse click only. Apply these transition effects to all slides. • For the last slide include a title (apply the “Bounce” animation to the title) and a clip art image (apply the Swivel” animation to the clip art). Do not apply any animation effects to the other slides in the presentation. • Spell and grammar check the presentation. • Make sure the slides have a consistent look and feel. Follow the suggestions in the PACED document you read in the PowerPoint Trainings. Try to complete the presentation using what you remember. If you can’t remember a procedure, refer to the trainings provided previously. CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/14%3A_Microsoft_Access_(Continued)/14.01%3A_Assignment-_Database_Issues_Discussion_Forum.txt

Tutorial is provided by Goodwill Community Foundations tutorials HERE. & covers the following topics. 1: Getting to Know Computers 2: Understanding Operating Systems 3: Understanding Applications 4: Web Apps and the Cloud 5: Basic Parts of a Desktop Computer 6: Buttons, Sockets and Slots on a Desktop Computer 7: Inside a Desktop Computer 8: Laptop Computers and Netbooks 9: Getting to Know Mobile Devices 10: Setting Up a Computer 11: Beginning to Use Your Computer 12: Getting to Know the OS 13: Connecting to the Internet 14: Computer Safety and Maintenance 15: Basic Troubleshooting Techniques Work through the Computer Basic Lessons,  Interactives, and take the quiz under Extras. The quiz is not graded, but will provide you a good feedback on your understanding of the content. 16.02: Videos- How My Computer Works My Computer Works videos found here: https://www.youtube.com/user/MyCompWorks/videos. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=268 16.03: Assignment- Defining the Computer Discussion Assignment Instructions 1. Respond to the following in a discussion post of at least 200 words. • Using the Internet, research a video that satisfactorily explains what a computer is and its components. • Copy and paste the URL of the video in the discussion post. • Summarize the video’s definition of computer and its components. • Suggest how the video might be improved based on the knowledge you gained in this module. 2. Review your classmates’ discussion posts. 3. Thoughtfully respond to a minimum of two classmates with 100 word secondary posts each. 4. Be sure to cite all sources. CC licensed content, Original • Authored by: Veronica McEachin, Marsha Powell, and Susan Fuschetto. Provided by: Wiley College, Tompkins Cortland Community College, and Cerritos College, respectively. Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License: CC BY: Attribution 16.04: Assignment- File Management You will be completing an assignment that was created by a Seattle Central community college faculty member. You will find the assignment instructions by clicking here. Should you have any problems with the link provided, you can copy & paste the URL (http://seattlecentral.edu/~ymoh/file_management/FileManagementAssignmentAndHowToZip.htm) directly into the address bar of your browser. Read the instructions carefully! There is a “practice area” and an “assignment area”. The Practice is optional and not submitted, but will help novice users understand the assignment. The Assignment area is required and you will submit your file compressed (.zip) file for grading.  If you need help with compressed files scroll down below the “assignment” area and find help on compressed files. Tips: Green & Blue items are folders & subfolders. The other items are files within the folders. The items are within the downloaded compressed file. You will need to “extract” or decompress the downloaded file before doing the assignment. CC licensed content, Original 16.05: Lecture- Computer Security Access lectures from the “Understanding Computers and the Internet: Computer Science E-1” course offered through the Harvard Extension School. • In the right-column of the screen, click on the lecture you would like to watch, then click “Video” and select “MP4” or “download.” For this assignment, please watch the following lectures: • Lecture 6: Security • Lecture 7: Security, Continued CC licensed content, Shared previously 16.06: Special Topics- Data Security and Privacy- Legal Policy and Enterprise Issues Click HERE to access the University of Michigan’s course on Data Security and Privacy by Don Blumenthal.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/16%3A_Additional_Resources/16.01%3A_Reading-_Computer_Basics_Tutorial.txt

Assignment Introduction You will learn the following: 1. What a Code of Ethics is 2. Giving Credit where Credit is Due 3. Privacy on the Internet 4. E-mail Uses and Abuses 5. The School Acceptable Use Policy as compared with other AUPs 6. What is Copyright and how does it effect the use of • Written work on the Internet • Computer Software • Pictures on the Internet • Music on the Internet • Movies on the Internet Assignment Directions After going through the information in tasks (1-6) each student will: • Create a page on the Ethics Blog • They will choose a good title for their page • Summarize what they learned from steps 1-6. The summary should clearly identify each of the six main areas (Ethics, Copyright, Plagerism, Privacy, Email, & Acceptable Use) After completing the blog entry, each student will comment (provide feedback) to at least two (2) other students. All comments are to be at least two complete sentences. Task 1: Ethics You will need a notebook to take notes in. Now you will visit at least three of the following sites about ethics and make notes on what a Code of Ethics is and how it affects your use of computers at school and how it affect your computer use at your place of employment.  In your notes, make sure you document which site you got the information. Use the grading rubric to guide your note taking. Task 2: Copyright Visit at least three of the following sites about copyright and continue to take notes on what Copyright is and how it effects what you can and cannot copy and use from the Internet.  In your notes make sure you document where you got the information. Task 3: Plagiarism Continue taking notes as you visit at least three of the following sites on What is Plagiarism and How to Cite Resources or Give Credit Where Credit is Due.  In your notes make sure you document where you got the information. Task 4: Privacy Fourth visit at least three of the following sites and add to the previous notes information about Privacy (what belongs to me and my rights; cookies) on the Internet. Task 5: Email and Abuses Now visit at least three of the following sites and continue taking notes on E-mail uses and abuses and proper usage, viruses etc. Task 6: Acceptable Use Policies Visit at least three of these sites and finish taking notes on Acceptable Use Policies (AUPs) what our school policy is and how it compares to other policies. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Ethics and Security Assignment. Authored by: Melissa Stange. Provided by: Lord Fairfax Community College. Located at: http://www.lfcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution 16.08: Assignment- Microsoft Word Microsoft Word Assignments Follow the instructions on the accompanying links to complete the assignments: CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Microsoft Word Week 1 Assignments. Authored by: Melissa Stange. Provided by: Lord Fairfax Community College. Located at: http://www.lfcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution 16.09: Assignment- Microsoft Word Part II Open or Print the Instructions and the accompanying Word Document to complete this assignment about correctly formatting the special features of a research paper. CC licensed content, Original 16.10: Assignment- Electronic Waste Research Paper Follow the directions below to write a paper about the environmental impact of e-Waste. The paper should be correctly formatted and written in proper grammar. It should be a minimum of 1 page (single spaced), with 1 additional works cited page for a total of two (2) pages. Assignment Directions 1) Do a Web search with your favorite search engine (ie: Google) to find Web pages to get an in-depth overview of the environmental impact & issues relating to the use & disposal of electronic devices. 2) Determine the specific aspect of the issues found in task #1 that you want to discuss in  your paper. You might, for example, decide to focus on the toxic materials contained in computers that end up in our landfills & water supply. You might investigate labor laws that protect those who dismantle computers for scrap, or discuss the current laws for shipping electronic devices to developing nations for disposal or recycling. The possibilities are limited only by the Web research. 3) Now that you have done the research (#1) and selected a topic to focus on (#2), make sure you can back up your discussion of facts & references to authoritative articles and Web Pages. Wikipedia is not an acceptable resource in this class. You will need to cite sources where appropriate within your paper and at the end on a Works Citied page. Make sure your works cited page is in APA format (see IT Library Help tab for APA help or use Words APA citation tool) and should include author(s) name, article title, date of publication, URL, etc.. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Hardware Module Assignment. Authored by: Melissa Stange. Provided by: Lord Fairfax Community College. Located at: http://www.lfcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution 16.11: Tutorials- Windows Movie Maker Windows Essentials: This link will take you to an online site to help you use Movie Maker in Windows 7. Windows Live Movie Maker Training: Or search for another version of the Windows Movie Maker Tutorials  by using the “Applications” drop-down box HERE. Download Windows Live Movie Maker HERE Watch the Movie Maker Live Tutorial Here: A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=286 CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts . Authored by: Melissa Stange. Provided by: Lord Fairfax Community College. Located at: http://www.lfcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution All rights reserved content 16.12: Digital Media Assignment Click on the assignment HERE and follow the instructions to create a YouTube Photo Slideshow. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts YouTube Slideshow Assignment. Authored by: Melissa Stange. Provided by: Lord Fairfax Community College. Located at: http://www.lfcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/16%3A_Additional_Resources/16.07%3A_Assignment-_Computer_Ethics.txt

Test your knowledge of Protocols and Computer Networks by playing the review game found HERE. CC licensed content, Original 16.14: Video- Life After Death By Powerpoint Watch this popular YouTube video to show you some things you should NOT do when using PowerPoint. While the version is out of date because New Times Roman is not the default font any more, the concepts ring true even today. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=292 All rights reserved content 16.15: Assignment- PowerPoint Analysis Discussion Assignment Instructions 1. Respond to the following in a Primary Post of at least 200 words. • Review the following video by Don McMillan. • Visit SlideShare and choose two (2) presentations to evaluate for effectiveness based on the most common PowerPoint mistakes highlighted in McMillian’s video: • Too much text • Not running spell check • Excessive bullet points • Bad color schemes • Too many slides in presentation • Data slides are difficult to read • Too much animation • Review your classmates’ Primary Posts. 3. Thoughtfully respond to a minimum of two classmates with 100 word Secondary Posts each. 4. Be sure to cite all sources. Lumen Learning authored content 16.16: Assignment- PowerPoint Click on the links and follow the instructions provided to complete the PowerPoint assignments. Part A CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts PowerPoint Assignments. Authored by: Melissa Stange. Provided by: Lord Fairfax Community College. Located at: http://www.lfcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution 16.17: Assignment- How to Succeed Online PowerPoint Assignment Instructions 1. Review the module content related to Microsoft PowerPoint 2010. 2. Create a presentation that informs an audience of students new to online learning with the theme “How to succeed as an online student.” 3. Demonstrate your ability to do the following: • Insert Slides • Add Text • Applying a Theme • Inserting Images • Applying Transitions • Checking Spelling • Modifying Lists • Indents and Line Shapes • Modifying Themes • Formatting Pictures • Arranging Objects • Animating Text and Objects • Inserting Videos and Audio • Work SmartArt Illustrations • Work with Hyperlinks and Action Buttons • Work with Tables and Charts 4. Save your presentation. 5. Upload your presentation to the submission. CC licensed content, Original • Authored by: Veronica McEachin . Provided by: Wiley College. Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License: CC BY: Attribution 16.18: Assignment- PowerPoint Aquarium Lab For this assignment, you will follow the instructions to create an animated, Jaws-themed, PowerPoint. 1. Instructions 2. Jaws Music • DO NOT open the JAWS file, save it to your desktop CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts PowerPoint Aquarium Assignment. Authored by: Melissa Stange. Provided by: Lord Fairfax Community College. Located at: http://www.lfcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution 16.19: Assignment- Surf the Web Click on the link to access the Surf the Web Assignment. CC licensed content, Original 16.20: Reading- Social Media Click on the links to read and learn about various types of social media. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Social Media links. Authored by: Melissa Stange. Provided by: Lord Fairfax Community College. Located at: http://www.lfcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/16%3A_Additional_Resources/16.13%3A_Interactive-_Who_Wants_to_be_a_Protocolinaire.txt

PART 1 Find three examples of a lawyer or law firm using social media effectively – that is – it provides a service or information that could lead to someone seeking out this lawyer or their firm as a client. These could be blog posts, twitter tweets, podcasts, Facebook pages, etc.  Put the link(s) into the Social Media & Lawyering homework wiki with a short explanation of why you think they are effective use of social media. PART 2 Find three examples of a lawyer or law firm’s poor use of social media. Put the links into the Social Media & Lawyering  homework wiki with a short explanation of why you think they are effective use of social media or why you think it is a poor use of social media. PART 3 Find three examples of business or personal use of social media that supports your personal feelings about soical media. Please make sure to link to these examples and explain how they support your opinion. Make sure to state your opinion of social media in society today. PART 4 Read at least two other classmates wiki entries and add additional links to support their post. You are not changing their post opinion but adding to the supporting resources. Make sure to note what you added and why. This means you have a total of 5 wiki entries to make for full credit. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Social Media Assignment. Authored by: Melissa Strange. Provided by: Lord Fairfax Community College. Located at: http://www.lfcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution 16.22: Assignment- Creative Uses of Excel Discussion Assignment Instructions 1. Respond to the following in a Primary Post of at least 200 words. 2. Review your classmates’ Primary Posts. 3. Thoughtfully respond to a minimum of two classmates with 100 word Secondary Posts each. 4. Be sure to cite all sources. Lumen Learning authored content 16.23: Assignment- Excel MandM Assignment Follow the instructions to complete the M&M Excel Assignment. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts. Authored by: Melissa Strange. Provided by: Lord Fairfax Community College. Located at: http://www.lfcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution 16.24: Assignment- Budgeting with Excel Click on the links to complete the Budgeting Assignment. You’ll find the link to the Digital Auto Calculator HERE. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Budgeting Assignment. Authored by: Melissa Strange. Provided by: Lord Fairfax Community College. Located at: http://www.lfcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution 16.25: Assignment- Four Personal Budgets in Excel For this activity, you will complete four budgets – one Business budget, one Forecasts (projects) budget, one Home Budget, and one Customized Personal Budget. Directions: 1. Review the module content related to Microsoft Excel 2010. 2. In Microsoft Excel, click on File, New, and Budgets. 3. Select one template out of each of the following categories: • 1 template from Business Budgets • 1 template from Forecasts (projects) • 1 template from Home Budgets 4. Plan a budget from each of the categories for: • your future business using the Business Budget template • your future project(s) using the Forecasts template • your future home expenses using the Home Budget template 5. Next, complete a customized personal budget based on your future income. • To assist you with this, visit http://www.salary.com (Links to an external site.) and research your future salary based on your major and the area that you are planning to live in. • Research the area where you would like to live after graduating from Wiley College. • Be sure to consider the cost of housing, food, etc. in the area using, for example, a Google search related to the budget item and the area. 6.  Save all four budgets: • Business Budget using Excel Templates • Forecasts (projects) Budget using Excel Templates • Home Budget using Excel Templates • Customized Personal Budget 7. Upload your budgets to the submission. CC licensed content, Shared previously • Budget Assignment. Authored by: Veronica McEachin. Provided by: Wiley College . Project: Kaleidoscope Open Course Initiative. License: CC BY: Attribution 16.26: Video- What is a Database Watch this video as an introduction to simple databases. A YouTube element has been excluded from this version of the text. You can view it online here: https://pb.libretexts.org/lumencomp/?p=316 CC licensed content, Shared previously 16.27: Assignment- Creating an Access Database Click on the link and follow the instructions to create a database using Microsoft Access. CC licensed content, Original • Introduction to Computer Applications and Concepts Access Assignment. Authored by: Melissa Strange. Provided by: Lord Fairfax Community College. Located at: http://www.lfcc.edu/. License: CC BY: Attribution 16.28: Assignment- Planning for a Database Assignment Instructions 1. Review the module content related to Microsoft Excel 2010. 2. Visit the Microsoft Office Access “Start with a Plan” (Links to an external site.) webpage. 3. Use the left-side navigation buttons on the webpage and review each of the following pages: • Start with a plan • Decide on a purpose • List the data you want to store • Group your data by subject • From groups, fields • Plan data types • Plan your primary keys • Plan you foreign keys 4. Create a 500 word essay response about the aforementioned steps and their importance to planning for a new database. 5. Be sure to cite all sources used in your paper. 6. Upload your paper to the submission. Lumen Learning authored content

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Computer_Applications_and_Concepts_(Lumen)/16%3A_Additional_Resources/16.21%3A_Assignment-_Social_Media_and_Lawyering.txt

As a new employee, you have been asked to learn about spreadsheets. The first task is to learn the vocabulary and how the information displays on a spreadsheet. Next you will practice building a practice worksheet from a blank form followed by using a spreadsheet to create your personal budget. Learning Outcomes: The student will: • Understand spreadsheet vocabulary • Be able to label elements of a simple spreadsheet • Be able to create a spreadsheet from a blank form by • Enter and edit data in columns and rows • Understand how to use the AutoSum key, as well as a simple formula Tasks: 1. Spreadsheet Components – review the terms used for spreadsheets 2. Concepts Quiz. Using the Spreadsheet Components, take the concepts review quiz. (12 points) 3. Building a Spreadsheet – Information on how to create a spreadsheet. 4. Test Scores Assignment. Create your first spreadsheet (5 points) 5. Personal Budget Assignment. Create a Personal Budget based on what you have learned. (10 points.) Submitting your work: 1. When completing each task, make sure to save your document to the desktop or your personal storage unit (memory stick, jump drive, etc.) 2. Click on the underlined word(s) at the top of each assignment. An “emaillike” format appears with the number of points possible in the upper left corner. 3. Find the box “Browse My Computer.” Click on that and search for your saved document. 4. Click Submit. 5. For additional help, please see the EXTRA HELP folder in the CONTENT area called “How to Submit Your Work.” CC licensed content, Original 1.02: Vocabulary and Screen Components Student Learning Outcome:  The student will understand the components of a spreadsheet.  (Students:  You may want to print this page for reference.  This information is also in the EXTRA HELP folder with the same name. • Document window   This feature takes up most of screen.  It displays the title bar, the document commands and tabs as well as sets of columns and rows with gridlines. (These additional features are described below.) • Title Bar Located at the very top of the window, this feature shows the name of the document  and type.  When you save a document, the name of that document will display in this area. • Quick Access Toolbar : Puts commonly used commands such as Save, Undo on a permanently visible tollbar.  It is located in the top left corner of the window. • Ribbon.  This is the area below the Title Bar and the Quick Access Toolbar that contains tabs, groups and some galleries. • Tabs .  Tab names appear above the top of the Ribbon.  Each tab name introduces a new Ribbon. The tabs are single words that are all uppercase.  When the tab is active, a thin line appears on the top and down both sides of the tab name. • Groups . As each tab is selected, related commands appear in the ribbon and are arranged in groups.  Each group has a name which is show within the vertical line marks.  For example. If you press the HOME TAB, the ribbon displays the following groups:  Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, Styles, Cells and Editing.  Each of these groups are broken down into elements that are related to those titles.  For example, in the Clipboard group are icons with names such as paste, cut, copy, and format painter.  The groups and icons will be explain when your lessons begin. • Dialog Box Launcher.  Located in each group, to the left of the name of the group is a tiny square box with an arrow head pointing to the right corner of that tiny square.  This is the dialog box launcher.  When you click on that square, a pull down menu appears.  This menu is ALL the possible commands for this group.  The most frequent used commands are on the ribbon itself; however, when you use the dialog box launcher you will see additional related commands. Quick Access Toolbar:  Contains icons for Save (CTRL+S); Undo (CTRL +Z); Redo (CTRL+Y); Customize Quick Access (to add more commands). Quick Access Toolbar:  Contains icons for Save (CTRL+S); Undo (CTRL +Z); Redo (CTRL+Y); Customize Quick Access (to add more commands). Tabs:  Home, Insert, Page Layout, Formulas, Data,, View, Review and Format. The HOME tab is selected. Tabs:  Home, Insert, Page Layout, Formulas, Data,, View, Review and Format. The HOME tab is selected. Title Bar: Shows name of document and type. Title Bar: Shows name of document and type. Dialog Box Launcher:  Tiny square box with an arrow head point to bottom right corner. Dialog Box Launcher:  Tiny square box with an arrow head point to bottom right corner. Groups:  (With HOME tab selected):  Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, [Styles, Cells & Editing Groups  (not shown in this diagram) Groups:  (With HOME tab selected):  Clipboard, Font, Alignment, Number, [Styles, Cells & Editing Groups  (not shown in this diagram) Ribbon:  Located below Title Bar Ribbon:  Located below Title Bar Groups:  Related commands for each tab contained between vertical lines.  Show are HOME tab groups called Clipboard, Font, Alignment, and Number groups. Groups:  Related commands for each tab contained between vertical lines.  Show are HOME tab groups called Clipboard, Font, Alignment, and Number groups. Dialog Box Launchers:  Tiny square box with an arrow head point to bottom right corner.  (Shown for Font, Alignment and Number groups. Dialog Box Launchers:  Tiny square box with an arrow head point to bottom right corner.  (Shown for Font, Alignment and Number groups. • Mouse Pointer  As the mouse is moved around the Spreadsheet Window, the mouse takes on different pointer shapes and directions. • Zoom Slider  In the lower right hand corner on the blue bar, there is a horizontal line with a minus on the left side and a plus on the right side.  To the right of this horizontal line is a percentage notation.  In the center of the horizontal line is a small rectangular box.  When you put your mouse pointer on this rectangular box and move it to the right, the print on your screen enlarges (and the percentage will increase).  Moving the rectangular box to the left, reduces the size of the screen (and the percentage will lower).  This operation is called ZoomingIn or ZoomingOut.   This feature allows you to better view a portion of your worksheet making the font easier to see without changing the actual font size (Zooming Out).  Additionally, to see the entire screen if the more columns have information in them than what appears in the given window, you can reduce the size of the screen (Zooming In). • Worksheet Window.  This contains a grid of columns and rows.  The worksheet window of a spreadsheet can contain a total of 1,049,576 rows and 16,348 rows (See information about columns and rows below). • Columns.  Below the ribbon are columns which are labeled A, B, C, etc. and then start again with AA, BB, CC, etc. and continue on.  A column letter is one indicator where you are on the spreadsheet. • Rows.  Along the left side each row is labeled with a number.  This number is the second indicator of where you are on the spread sheet. . • Cell This is the intersection of a row and column.  For example A1 would be the intersection of column A and row 1.  Cells can contain text, numbers, formulas, or a combination of all three. • Cell Pointer  .  A dark rectangle that outlines the cell you are working in.  Also called the Active Cell. • Cell address .  The location of the intersecting rows and columns. • Name Box .  This feature is located under the ribbon on the far left side of the screen and above the column label indicates the position of the mouse pointer.  It will record the cell address in this box. • Formula Bar .  Moving to the right of the Name Box, there is a bar with an “X:, a checkmark, and the letters “fx”  (more on this bar later.  However, the next clear bar is called the formula bar.  Formulas put into the work sheet will appear here if the cell that contains the formula is active. • Sheet tabs .  These are found at the bottom of the worksheet grid. (It is a tab that says “Sheet 1.”)  More sheets can be added as needed.  You can switch from one sheet to another in a workbook.  By default, a workbook file contains one worksheet, but you can have as many as 255 sheets in a workbook. • Scroll Bars .  These allow you to move around in a worksheet that is too large to fit on the screen.    The horizontal scroll bar is located above the zoom slider.  The vertical scroll bar is to the extreme right of the worksheet grid. • Status Bar .  This bar is located to the right and on the same bar as the zoom slider. • Mode Indicator .  This feature is located in the lower-left corner of the status bar and provides additional information about certain tasks.  When a worksheet is first opened, the mode indicator indicates “READY.” • Range .  If you click and hold the mouse button and drag it down, then release the mouse button, you have selected a range.  For example, if you click in cell B1 and continue to hold down the mouse button to B14, you have selected a range.  When a range is selected, the status bar displays “average”, “count” (or number of items selected), and” sum” of the selected cells as a quick reference. (If there are no values in the cells, “average”, “count”, and “sum” do not appear?) • Backstage view .  By clicking the FILE tab, you will open a page that displays the Backstage view.  The Backstage view offers many commonly performed tasks such as opening and saving a file, printing and previewing a document, defining document properties, sharing information, and exiting a program.  You can return to your active document by pressing the Back Arrow button. INDEX of Window Components (Listed by Page number first, followed by item number) Backstage View, 3-23 Cell, 2-13 Cell Address, 2-15 Cell Pointer, 2-14 Columns, 2-11 Dialog Box Launcher, 1-7 Document Window, 1-1 Formula Bar, 2-17 Groups, 1-6 Mode Indicator, 2-21 Mouse Pointer, 2-8 Name Box, 2-16 Quick Access Toolbar, 1-3 Range, 2-22 Ribbon, 1-4 Rows, 2-12 Scroll Bars, 2-19 Sheet Tabs, 2-18 Status Bar, 2-20 Tabs, 1-5 Title Bar, 1-2 Worksheet Window, 2-10 Zoom Slider, 2-9 CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/01%3A_Week_1/1.01%3A_Week_1_Overview.txt

In a Word document, number your paper 1 – 12 for the terms. Opposite each number, match the statement that best describes the term. Place your name at the bottom of the page following the number 12. (THIS ASSIGNMENT IS WORTH 12 POINTS) Terms: 1. Backstage view 2. Columns 3. Workbook 4. Groups 5. Dialog Box Launcher 6. Quick Access Toolbar 7. Document Window 8. Formula Bar 9. Worksheet window 10. Range 11. Rows 12. Zoom slider Statement: a. Selected data. For example, selecting B1 to G8 b. When clicking this feature a pull down menu appears c. To better view a portion of your worksheet, this increases the font size without actually changing the font. d. This object can contain up to 255 worksheets. e. This contains a grid of a possible 1,049,576 rows. f. These are vertical parts of a spreadsheet g. Always the number in the cell reference. h. When a specific tab key is chosen, the resulting ribbon is divided into what? i. The intersection of a row and a column is called this. j. When formulas are inserted, they display in the cell and also in what other place? k. The result of pressing the file key and seeing a display of tasks such as Open, Save, Print l. This item is located in the upper right corner of the screen CC licensed content, Original 1.04: Building a Spreadsheet Student outcomes: Students will be able to create spreadsheets, enter data in rows and columns, copy and move data in rows and columns, use the AutoSum Key and apply a simple formula using cell referencing. Steps referenced in this assignment: • Opening a new blank document (“How to Open,” #1) (Page 1) • Saving a document (procedures and file names (“How to Open,” #2) (Page 1) • Definition of a Label and attributes, fonts and alignment (“Label,” #2,) (Page 1) • How to widen a column (“Labels,” #3) (Page 2) Moving from cell to cell (“Labels,” #4) (Page 2) • Definition of a value (“Values,”) (Page 2) • Definition and instructions for the AutoSum key (“Cell Referencing,”) (Page2) • Definition of cell referencing (“Cell Referencing”) (Page 2) • Common Mouse pointers (“Table: Common Mouse Pointers”) (Page 2) How to open and save a blank spreadsheet 1. Opening a new blank document: When an assignments requires a blank spreadsheet, click on FILE tab then click NEW in the navigation panel on the left. Click on the spreadsheet icon in your spreadsheet software. 2. Saving a document (procedures and file names): • Once the blank spreadsheet displays on the screen, save the document with the title that will be provided to you by going to Step 3. • Students should have some knowledge as to how to SAVE a document.)To Save a file, click on FILE tab (at the top of the screen) and from the Backstage navigation bar along the left side, click SAVE AS. The spreadsheet can be saved to the DESKTOP or to a STORAGE DEVICE. • If a file name is not given to you, save the file with any name you wish as long as you name it in such a way for easy retrieval. A file name can be in capital or lower case letters and can include spaces as well as periods. • There are only a select few symbols that can be used in a filename. Some symbols to avoid are diagonals, parentheses, commas. If you try to save a file with an unacceptable symbol, a dialog box will display indicating the file cannot be saved with that name. Simple delete the symbol from the file name. • The file extension for spreadsheets (the information after the period) is usually.xlsx. The extension automatically attaches. You do not need to type it. Basic Definition: Labels 1. Labels are entries that contain text and numerical information not used in calculations. They help to make the worksheet easier to read. 2. Labels can be typed in any cell. 3. Basic attributes (bold, underline, or italicize) as well as font type and size can be applied to any label. Labels can be aligned by using the same alignment keys used for word processing (left, center and right alignments). These formatting choices are found on the HOME TAB in the Font Group. 4. To widen a column: If the label is too big for the cell size the column needs to be widened. To do this either double click in the cell that needs more room. The cell will automatically widen. This is called adjusting columns. 5. To move from one cell to the next, you can • Click in the cell you want, or • Use the TAB key on the keyboard to move into the next adjacent cell, or • Use the arrow keys on the keyboard to move to various positions. Basic Definition: Values Values are numbers, formulas, and functions that can be used in calculations Basic Definition: AutoSum Button 1. The AutoSum button is found on the HOME TAB in the Editing Group which is the last group to the right on this ribbon. The symbol before it looks a version of the capital letter “E”. 2.  AutoSum is used to quickly add columns or rows of data. Basic Definition: Cell Referencing Cell Referencing is identifying values by first identifying the column the value is in and then identifying the coordinating row Columns are vertical and use letters (in the example, letters in red). Column references are given first. Rows are horizontal and use numbers (in the example, numbers in blue) Row references are indicated after the column reference. (Example B1). In the example below the Cell Reference would be B2, not 1000. Actual values are hardly ever used. Common Mouse Pointers for Spreadsheets CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/01%3A_Week_1/1.03%3A_Concepts_Quiz.txt

The purpose of this assignment: 1. Enter and change labels 2. Enter and change values 3. Use the AutoSum Key Preparation: (Review these terms and readings) • Read Building a Spreadsheet, pages 1 and 2 • Understand terms label, value, Cell Referencing New terms: (Terms are bolded in the steps) • AutoSum Key (#6 & 7) • Shortcut to AutoFill (#8) Narrative: This first assignment will help you understand how to set up a typical spreadsheet. Following each assignment is a rubric explaining the points values for components of the assignment. (THIS ASSIGNMENT IS WORTH 5 POINTS. THE RUBRIC IS ON PAGE 3.) Test Score Assignment 1. Open a blank worksheet and SAVE it with the name: Test Scores 2. Below is a diagram of a table. The words “column” and “row” are diagramed here for clarification only. On your spreadsheet, you will find only letters and numbers. Remember columns are horizontal and rows are vertical in a spreadsheet. Column letters are referenced before Row numbers. Go to step 3. 3. Insert Labels in the Test Scores spreadsheet cells as indicated. • Type Name in cell A4 (Column A, Row 4) • Type Test 1 in cell B4 (Column B, Row 4) • Type Test 2 in cell C4 (Column C, Row 4) •  Type Test 3 in cell D4 (Column D, Row 4) • Type Total Points in cell E4 (Column E, Row 4) 4. Insert the names and test scores data in each of the cells as indicated. Do not put any information in the “Total Points” column at this time. Remember if all the information typed in a cell, widen the cell. ([HINT: SEE BASIC DEFINITIONS: LABELS #3. ON THE “BUILDING A SPREADSHEET” INFORMATION SHEET] 5. Click your mouse pointer in cell E5. This makes the cell “active.” You should be under “Total Points” for Susi Q. 6. Click on the AutoSum key. [HINT: SEE BASIC DEFINITION: AUTOSUM #1] 7. Press the AutoSum key found by clicking HOME tab, finding Editing Group, and clicking on AutoSum icon. The spreadsheet programs knows that from this position, values will be added horizontally. The AutoSum key placed a dotted line around the entire row. The formula in cell E5 that displays is also mirrored in the formula bar (fx) just under the ribbon. The formula that automatically shows up is =SUM(A5:D5). Press ENTER. A total appears of 235. 8. Once the formula has been placed in E5, we could use the AutoSum key again for the next row. = However, an excellent shortcut is called Auto Fill. [Directions: CLICK IN E5 WHERE THE ORIGINAL FORMULA IS. IN THE LOWER RIGHT CORNER OF CELL E5 THERE IS A TINY SQUARE. PLACE YOUR MOUSE CURSOR ON THAT TINY SQUARE. IT SHOULD TURN INTO A BLACK PLUS SIGN. WHEN IT DOES, HOLD DOWN YOUR LEFT MOUSE BUTTON AND DRAG THE FORMULA DOWN TO E7. RELEASE THE MOUSE. THE FORMULA HAS BEEN INSERTED INTO EACH OF THE OTHER CELLS.] 9. You will note that on each row, the Row Number changed automatically. For example: Celia’s sum is =SUM(A6:D6); Jumping Bean is =SUM(A7:D7). 10. Put your name in cell A1 and save this table to your storage device once again as Test Scores. 11. If you are submitting your work through Blackboard, follow the instructions given to you for this assignment on the Blackboard screen. 12. If you are in a classroom, print this assignment out for your instructor. Check the rubric below to be sure you have completed all the tasks. CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/01%3A_Week_1/1.05%3A_Test_Scores_Assignment.txt

The purpose of this assignment: 1. Create a spreadsheet 2. Add, delete cell content 3. Copy, move cell content 4. Insert, delete cells, columns, rows 5. Create simple formulas 6. Format cell content • AutoSum • Auto Fill New terms: (Terms are bolded in the steps) • Merge and Center a Title (#3) • Center Column headings (#6) • Widen column (#8) • Insert New Row (#15) • Insert Currency Symbols (#19) • Create simple formula without using AutoSum (#24) • Seeing a string of ####### signs in a column after a formula applied • Wrap Text (#26) Narrative: A budget is a plan for your money. Sometimes, as individuals, sometimes we make purchases without remembering other obligations we already had. It is good to have a budget and to work within that budget. This exercise will give you the basics to set up your own budget. (THIS ASSIGNMENT IS WORTH 5 POINTS. THE RUBRIC OF THIS ASSIGNMENT IS ON PAGE 4.) Personal Budget Assignment: Create a worksheet for your personal budget following the instructions given below the illustration. After completing Steps 1 –11, your worksheet will look similar to the example shown below. Additional steps will add to this example. 1. Starting with a blank spreadsheet (see Review of Spreadsheet Features in this assignment), start in cell A1 type the words” Personal Budget” in ALL CAPS. 2. Select PERSONAL BUDGET and change the font to Arial Black 14 pt 3. Merge and Center a Title. Select cells A1 to G1. From the HOME tab, find the Alignment Group. Click on Merge &Center. The title, “Personal Budget”, is now centered on the table. 4. In cell C3 type the abbreviation of January (Jan) 5. In cell D3 type Feb; in cell E3 type Mar; in cell F3 Apr; and in cell G3 type May. 6. Center Column Headings. Select C3 to G3. From the HOME tab, Paragraph group, click on the center alignment choice. 7. In cell A4 type the word EXPENSES in all capital letters. Select EXPENSES. Bold, underline and change the font to Calibri, 14 pt. 8. Widen column. Place your cursor between the letters A and B indicating the columns just below the ribbon. Double click your mouse. This will widen the column to accommodate the information in that cell. 9. In B5, listing five expenses you might have. Place each expense on a separate row. Expense examples might be rent, car insurance, phone, date night, gas, bus ticket, food, credit card, loan repayment, etc. Once all your expenses are listed, widen the column between B and C to accommodate the length of the words used for expenses. 10. After your last expense, skip a row and in cell A11 type the word INCOME in all capital letters. Bold, underline and change the font to Calibri, 14 pt. 11. Starting in column B12, list three income sources. For example, job, scholarship, parents, tips, loan, etc. 12. Next return to Cell C5 and start enter expense amounts for each month. Try not to use the same amount for each month. Be creative (it doesn’t have to be accurate.) 13. Continue to enter different amounts for the other four expenses across the five months without duplicating numbers if you can. 14. Next move to the INCOME section. Enter some amount for each income source across the five months. Try to make your amounts for the income section a bit higher than your expense amounts. 15. Insert a new row. Select the word “INCOME. Right-click the mouse and choose INSERT from the shortcut menu. This will insert one blank line above the word INCOME. INCOME should now be in cell A12. 16. In Cell A11, type the words Total Expenses capitalizing the first letter of each word. Bold these words. 17. AutoSum key. Click in Cell C11, add up the totals for January using the AutoSum key. Press the ENTER key or click the checkmark on the formula bar to display the Total Expenses for Jan. 18. Using AutoFill. Use the AutoFill square in the cell to drag the formula in Column C to columns D-G. If done properly, D11 formula should be =SUM(D5:D9) 19.  Inserting currency symbols. You will be adding dollar signs and decimals points to C11 to G11 only. Select C11-G11. Click on the HOME tab and find the group labeled NUMBER.(the square with an arrow to the right of the word NUMBER). Look at the list of choices in the drop down dialog box and choose currency with 2 decimals.] 20. In Cell A16, type the words Total Income capitalizing the first letter of each word. Bold these words. 21. Using the same procedure used to AutoSum the total expenses for each month, total your income for the month. (See Step 17-18 for additional help.) 22. Select C18 to G18 and change the amounts to currency. (See Step 19). 23. Click in Cell A18 and type in the word BALANCE in all capital letters. Bold it and change the font to 14 pt. 24. Create simple formula without using AutoSum: • In cell C21 Start with an equals sign (=) followed by the word SUM all in capital letters • Without spacing, after the word SUM, place a forward parenthesis; example (. • We want to subtract the Total Income in January with the Total Expenses in January. NEVER USE FIGURES. ONLY USE CELL REFERENCES. • Following the forward parenthesis after the word SUM, click in the cell that contains the Total Income for January. The cell reference C18 should appear in the formula. • Next input a minus sign (-) without spacing. Click in the cell for the Total Expenses for January. The cell reference C10 should appear. • Insert a closed parenthesis. You should see the entire formula in the formula bar as well as in cell C21. (Note: If the resulting amount is in red or has a minus sign in front of it, it just means that your expenses are larger than your income. If this was really your personal budget, you would have to figure out how to make that a positive number. You might have to reduce your expenses or find other income sources.) • ENTER. An amount should appear that is the difference between your income and your expenses. 25. 25. Using the AutoFill (see step 18), drag the formula from January to the other four months. 26. Note: Seeing a string of ####### signs in a column after a formula applied. This is the result of a number being larger than the space permitted in the column. Double click between the two columns to widen the space and the amount should appear 27. Select the BALANCE row and apply dollar signs and decimals to the figures. 28. Wrap Text. Type your name in cell A21. Use Wrap Text to keep your name in the cell without having to widen the column. The Wrap Text button is found on the HOME tab, Paragraph group. 29. Save your work and submit it through Blackboard where indicated. 30. If you are not using Blackboard, print your personal budget. Your instructor may want to see the formulas you used. If that is the case, your instructor will tell you how to print the formulas used. Check the rubric below to be sure you have completed all the tasks CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/01%3A_Week_1/1.06%3A_Personal_Budget.txt

Now that you have had experience building a spreadsheet, the next steps are to incorporate formulas that will quickly return the information you request. In the Public Expenses by Quarter, you will learn to average string of numbers quickly. From a group of numbers, you will be able to find the largest and smallest number in just a few stokes as well as the ability to count how many numbers are in a column. In the Sales Calculation, you will learn about Relative Referencing and Absolute Referencing. Learning Outcomes: The student will: • Apply AVE, MAX, MIN, Count features • Understand the difference between relative and absolute referencing • Apply the absolute referencing to find “What If?” • Understand the Order of Precedence when it comes to creating complex formulas Tasks and Assignments: 1. Public Expenses by Quarter. Student is introduced to new formulas, (AVE, MAX, MIN, COUNT) and these apply these formulas. (20 points) 2. Relative Referencing and Absolute Referencing: Read this informational 3. Sales Calculation. Developed a formula to answer the question “What If?” What if analysis is a decision-making tool in which data is changed and formulas ae recalculated, in order to predict various possible outcomes. (20 points) Submitting your work: 1. When completing each task, make sure to save your document to the desktop or your personal storage unit (memory stick, jump drive, etc.) 2. Click on the underlined word(s) at the top of each assignment. An “emaillike” format appears with the number of points possible in the upper left corner. 3. Find a box “Browse My Computer.” Click on that and find your saved document. 4. Click Submit. 5. For additional help, please see the EXTRA HELP folder in the CONTENT area called “How to Submit Your Work. CC licensed content, Original 2.02: Public Expenses by Quarter Assignment The purpose of this assignment is to: 1. Format Cell Content 2. Use formulas for Min, Max, Ave, Count Items to Review from previous lessons • AutoSum Key • Auto Fill key • Currency and Decimal Points New Terms: • AVE – Average a row or column of numbers (Step , a-g) (Pages 1-2) • MAX – Maximum – the largest number in a row or column (Step 5, a-e) (Page 2) • MIN – Minimum – the smallest number in a row or column (Step 6a) (Page 2) • Count – Count the number of entries in a row or column (Step 7) (Pages 2-3) Narrative: Understanding how simple formulas work is a building step in working with spreadsheets. These four formulas (Ave, Max, Min, Count) can quickly calculate information. (THIS ASSIGNMENT IS WORTH 20 POINTS. THE RUBRIC IS ON PAGE 3) Assignment: 1. Download the file Public Expenses by Quarter and save it to your storage device 2. Put your name in cell A24 3. Using the AutoSum Key, determine the totals for each Quarter. 4. AVE. What is the Average (AVE) quarterly expense? Follow steps a-d below. • Click in cell B12 • Click on FORMULA tab, the click More Functions in the Function Library Group and click on Statistical. Find AVERAGE. • An argument box appears as pictured below. • In the space called Number 1, the computer is looking for what you want averaged. • Select in your worksheet B4:B9. This selection will show after Number 1. • Enter and the total should be: 4547.22833. • Currency and Decimals. Select the answer. Change it to two decimal places by clicking on the HOME tab, click on the number launcher button in the number group. Then click on the selection Number that follows the word GENERAL. Change to 2 decimal places. Your answer should now be 4547.23. 5. MAX. What is the Maximum (the largest) amount in a list of numbers? • Click in Cell B13 • Click on FORMULA tab. Click More Functions in the Function Library Group and click on Statistical. Find MAX for maximum. (They functions are all in alphabetic order so scroll down until you find it.) • An argument box appears as pictured below, and looks similar to the one for Average. • Select cells B4:B9. ENTER. (Do not put any information in “Number 2” box.) e. The answer should be 7195.06. 6. MIN. What is the Minimum (lowest amount) in the list of numbers? • Click on FORMULA tab. Click More Functions in the Function Library Group and click on Statistical. Find MAX for maximum. (They functions are all in alphabetic order so scroll down until you find it.) • An argument box appears as pictured above in 3d but the Function Arguments are for MIN, and looks similar to the one for Average. • Select cells B4:B9. ENTER. (Do not put any information in “Number 2” box.) • The answer should be 1486.25. 7. Count. How can I Count the number of items in a list? • Click on FORMULA tab and look to the left for another AutoSum Key. This is the same function, just in a different space. • Click on the arrow beside the AutoSum Key to see some options. One of those options is Count. • When you click on Count, you do not get the argument box as you have with the other functions. However, the formula is similar to MAX and MIN. • Instead of using the Argument Box, type an equal sign followed by the word COUNT (in all caps) followed by an open parenthesis • Select cells B4:B9 with your mouse so that these cell references become part of the formula. (Notice the formula in the formula box. • Close the parenthesis and press the Enter key. • Your answer should be 6. 8. Save the work you have completed to your storage device using the name Public Expenses by Quarter. 9. Submit it through Blackboard following the instructions. 10. If you are in a regular classroom, printing this document by following directions from your instructor. Check the Rubric below to be sure you have completed all tasks. CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/02%3A_Week_2/2.01%3A_Week_2_Overview.txt

The purpose of his assignment is to: Apply Absolute Referencing in a spreadsheet problem Preparation: (Items to review from previous lessons) • Entering data in cells • Applying attributes (bold, underline) • AutoSum New Terms: • Absolute Referencing Narrative: Understanding how to calculate using absolute referencing saves a great deal of time in inserting formulas. (THIS ASSIGNMENT IS WORTH 20 POINTS. THE RUBRIC IS ON PAGE 2) 1. Start a new spreadsheet 2. Put your name in cell A1 3. In cell A2, put the title: Accrue Sales Tax, and center it over the table. 4. In cell G1 put the words Tax Rate 5. In cell H1 put in 0.8612 6. In cell B4 put in the heading Sales, and bold it. 7. In cell C4 put the heading Sales Tax, and bold it 8. In cell A5:A10 put in the words STORE 1 to STORE 6 9. In cell A11 put in the word Total and bold it. 10. In cells B5:B10 put in some sales amounts that are over between 40,000 to 100,000. Put different totals after each store. 11. Absolute Referencing. (Be sure to have read Relative Referencing vs. Absolute Referencing) Starting in C5 insert a formula that uses the absolute reference of H1 and multiplies that to the total sales figure. 12. In cell B11, sum column B. and sum Column C. 13. Save the document as Sales Calculation 14. Submit your document through Blackboard print at your instructor’s suggestion. Check the Rubric below to be sure you have completed all tasks. CC licensed content, Original 2.04: Relative and Absolute Referencing Student Learning Outcome: The student will understand the difference between Relative and Absolute Referencing and apply this information in an assignment. Relative Referencing is what you normally do in a spreadsheet. If you add a column of numbers, (for example), and then pull the formula to the right, you are using a relative reference. See illustration below: By using A1:A4, the formula adds column A: (A1+A2+A3+A4). Pulling the formula to the right into column B automatically changes the column reference letters to “B” without you having to do anything. To “pull” a formula, or move it into the next cell, move your insertion point (the arrow) – to the bottom right corner of the cell with the formula. There should be a small square box in that corner. (Notice where the arrow is pointing the illustration.) When the arrow turns into a black plus sign, left click and hold down the left mouse. Then drag that box to the right. When you release the mouse, the formula has been placed in the next column and has automatically changed the letters. Relative Reference means that the cells are relative – have a relationship with other cells. The spreadsheet program has created this relationship. Absolute Referencing interrupts the relative referencing so that only chosen cell references can be used. Using the dollar sign (\$) makes a reference absolute. Examples of absolute references. 1.)=A1 = relative reference 2.)=\$A1 = Column is absolute, row is relative 3.)=A\$1 = Row is absolute, column is relative 4.)=\$A\$1 = Everything is absolute TRY THIS to understand how it works: 1. Open a blank spreadsheet and type in the annual Fees as noted in cells A4, A5, and A6. 2. In cell B4 type the formula as you see it here. (Note: the dollar signs – which make this reference absolute – are created by first clicking on cell D2 then pressing the F4 key which is located at the very, very top of the keyboard. There are other keys in this row such as F1 – which is the help key -, F2, F3, F5, etc. When F4 is pressed, dollar signs should appear before the column reference and before the row reference – in this case \$D\$2. (If the F4 key doesn’t appear to work, make sure that the referenced cell (D2) is highlighted. Or you can type the dollar signs by hand.) 3. Press enter. The amount of 128.125 appears. 4. Additional Note: Why put in the cell reference C4 two times? This is because you are taking the A4 reference and multiplying it by 25%. Then you adding the original amount back in to get the whole increase amount. You are basically taking 1.25% of the Annual fee amount. (The math is like this: (A4) \$102.50* (\$D\$2).25% (.25) = 25.625. This is the amount of the increase. Then you are adding back in the number you started with – the original annual fee of 102.50 to determine the total amount of the increase (25.625+102.50 = 128.125. 5. Pull the formula in B4 down to include B6. Look at the formula carefully. Notice that the Annual fee reference changed because it is relative (or references the next cell). However, the absolute reference (D2) did not change. If the dollar signs were removed, the formula in B5 would be =B5*D3+B5 because it would be relative, meaning it would go to the next cell (D3). The answer would not contain any increase because D3 cell reference is blank. Correct spreadsheet. These are the same spreadsheet with absolute referencing: Incorrect spreadsheet: These are the same spreadsheets without absolute referencing. Compare the formulas. 6. In the same worksheet you ae using, change the Increase amount in cell D2 to .35 (35%) Watch the amounts change automatically without pulling down the formula or putting in a different formula. 7. If the amount .25 (25%) was used as a number instead of a cell reference, the formula would have to be changed to include the .35 (35%) to include the .35 (35%) in each cell that contained a total using this percent because it could not be done automatically. CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/02%3A_Week_2/2.03%3A_Sales_Tax_Calculation_Assignment.txt

This week you have three assignments. The first is divided into two parts called Payroll Report. In the first part of this assignment you will be computing Regular Wages, Overtime Wages, and Gross Pay. After totals are completed, you will move to the second portion. In this section you will be using your knowledge of Absolute Referencing learned the previous week to determine a “What If” situation regarding a pay raise. The second and third assignments introduce you to the PMT function that is useful when determine how much interest you will pay on a loan. It is a useful function if you need a student loan, purchase a new car or plan to buy a house. The second assignment called Advantage Loan is presented in a step by step instructions with full explanations. The third assignment called Graphic Loans assumes you understand how to calculate Monthly payments, Total Payments and Total Interested introduced in the Advantage Loan assignment. No new concepts are given in this assignment. Learning Outcomes: The student will: • Calculate the overtime pay rate • Calculate wages for regular and overtime pay • Understand how to use conditional formatting to enhance the readability of the spreadsheet • Understand the arithmetic functions and the Order of Precedence. Tasks: 1. Payroll Assignment. Using calculations to determine wages, you will also be starting a new sheet, labeling it and use the Absolute Referencing to complete a What If? Scenario. There are two sections to this assignment. (25 points) 2. Advantage Loan Assignment. This assignment introduces the PMT function which can be used on any loan. (15 points) 3. Graphic Loan Assignment. This assignment reinforces what you learned in the Advantage Loans assignment. ( 15 points) Submitting your Work: 1. When completing each task, make sure to save your document to the desktop or your personal storage unit (memory stick, jump drive, etc.) 2. Click on the underlined word(s) at the top of each assignment. An “email-like” format appears with the number of points possible in the upper left corner. 3. Find a box “Browse My Computer.” Click on that and find your saved document. 4. Click Submit. 5. For additional help, please see the EXTRA HELP folder in the CONTENT area called “How to Submit Your Work. CC licensed content, Original 3.02: Payroll Assignment The purpose of this assignment is to: 1. Reinforce previous learning 2. Calculate regular wages, overtime wages and gross earnings 3. Introduce conditional formatting 4. Change page orientation 5. Create a new sheet 6. Add a header to the workbook Preparation: (Review these terms) • Formatting cell content • Adjusting column width • Creating simple formulas • Centering column labels • Using Auto Fill to drag formulas • Using currency feature to add dollar signs and decimals • Wrap Text • Merge and Center • Using the launcher button • Use absolute cell references New Terms: (Terms are bolded in the steps below.) (THIS ASSIGNMENT IS DIVIDED INTO TWO PARTS; THE DOTTED LINE BELOW DIVIDES THE TWO SECTIONS.) • Inserting blank column (Step #3, pages 1-2) • Calculate Regular Pay (Step #5, page 2) • Arithmetic Operators (Table mentioned In Step #5. Can be found on page 4) • Calculate OT rate and OT pay. (Step #6, page 2) • Calculating Gross Pay (Step #18, page 3) —————————————————————- • Creating a new sheet (Steps #20, page 3) • Inserting a header (Step #28, page 4)) Narrative: Spreadsheets are often used to determine the company payroll. This assignment breaks down regular pay, overtime pay and gross earnings. Additionally, conditional formatting is introduced to enhance the years of service for each employee by using color. (THIS ASSIGNMENT IS WORTH 25 POINTS. THE RUBRIC IS ON PAGE 5.) Payroll Assignment 1. Download and open the Payroll Form and save it to your storage device as Payroll. ‘ 2. Adjust the columns if necessary to see all the data. (NOTE for clarification: in cell C4 the term Reg. means Regular; in cell D4, OT means Overtime.) 3. Insert new columns. Move your mouse cursor above the Years of Service to the letter “E” which signifies what column you are in. As you move your mouse upwards to that letter “E” it becomes a black downward facing arrow. Once you see the black arrow, right click your mouse to get the short cut menu. From the menu, choose INSERT. A new column appears. Staying in that same position, INSERT to add more columns for a total of three new columns between OT Hours and Yrs of Service. 4. Type the following: Reg. Pay in Cell E4; OT Pay in F4 and Gross Pay in G4. 5. Calculating Regular (Reg) Pay. Create a formula to multiply Reg (Regular) pay times the number of hours that person worked. (Arithmetic operators such as the multiply symbol can be found at the end of this assignment and in the Extra Help Content folder called TABLES.) Formulas always start with the equal sign, use the cell reference such as B5 times C5. Make sure you start your formula where you want the answer to be. In this case start your formula in E5. (Hint: John Adams’ result will be 420.) 6. Calculate Overtime (OT) pay. Create a formula to calculate overtime pay and have the result show in cell F5. To determine the overtime rate, multiply the regular rate times 1.5 (means overtime pay is 1 ½ times the regular rate.) To calculate the overtime pay, multiply the rate times the overtime hours. Two multiplication operators can be in the same formula. It is similar to using a calculator, but amounts are cell references. (Hint: John Adams’ Overtime pay should be 78.75.) 7. Calculate Gross Pay. Gross pay is found by adding the regular pay plus the overtime pay. Start the formula in the gross pay column G5 of the first employee. 8. Drag the formulas in E5, F5 and G5 down each column for each employee. 9. In Cell A16 type the word TOTAL in all capital letter. 10. Using the AutoSum key, calculate the totals of Reg. Pay (E16), OT Pay (F16) and Gross Pay (G16). 11. Format these total as currency with two decimal places. 12. Apply Conditional Formatting. Conditioning formatting is used to highlight information by using color combinations. • Select cells H5-H14. • From HOME tab, find the Styles group. On the left side of that group, find Conditional Formatting. • Click on the Color Scales Option and then click on “More Rules”. • In the lower box labeled “Edit Rule Description Box,” select Format Style and change to the 3- color option. Choose red for the lowest, yellow for the mid color, and green for the highest. Then click okay. ] 13. Adjust all columns to make sure all the headings and entries are displayed. 14. Center all entries and labels in columns B through H. 15. Type your name in cell A18. Use Text Wrap to keep it all in one cell. 16. Select the title “Payroll Report.” Change the font to AHARONI, 14 pt. 17. Merge and Center the title between columns A-H. 18. Change Orientation. Pages can be viewed with the long side on the left (Portrait) or the long side can be across the top (Landscape). From the HOME tab, From the PAGE LAYOUT tab, find the group called Page Layout. In that group find Orientation. For this assignment, change the orientation of the worksheet to LANDSCAPE. 19. Save this worksheet as Payroll Report. Continue on to the second part of this assignment in the next steps.      ———————————————————————————————– 20. Creating a new Sheet. At the bottom of the worksheet you have been working on, click the plus sign next to Sheet named Payroll. A blank sheet appears • Double-click on the new “Sheet 2.” Type What If. • Select Columns A1 to H18. From the HOME tab, Clipboard group, click COPY icon. You should see a dotted line around the section you selected. • Place your cursor in cell A1 and press PASTE. The previous columns A1 to H18 appear on the What If sheet. • Adjust any columns so that they are wide enough for all columns. 21. On the “What if” worksheet, type the words “What if” in cell I4. Widen the column if necessary 22. Type 0.05 in cell J3 23. In cell I5, use a formula that includes dollar signs in the formula (Absolute Referencing) to calculate the 5% pay raise in J3 times the Pay Rate in B5. YOU MUST USE ABSOLUTE CELL REFERENCING. [Hint: Use the decimal given Step-p 22]. Do you remember the formula used in Assign 3, Public Expenses by the Quarter Instructions to increase another value? IIf not, see Extra Help folder 24. Your correct answer should be 53 cents more than the regular pay rate. 25. Once you have the correct formula, use the short-cut menu to pull this formula down column from I5 to I14. 26. In Cell K4 type the label: Difference. 27. Insert a formula in K5 to determine the difference between the original Pay Rate and the “What If” increased pay rate. Once the formula is correct, drag the formula down K5 to K14. Make all amounts only two decimal places. 28. Insert a Header. • A Header will appear at the top of every page, if there were more than one page in the worksheet. • A Header only appears in the Print Out or in Print Preview. Otherwise, you won’t see it. • Click the PAGE LAYOUT tab and find Page Setup Group. • Click the launcher for Page Setup. • Find the tab called Header/Footer and click on it. • In the new dialog box that appears, click on Custom Header.) 29. In the Center section of the Header , type XYZ Corporation and then click OK. 30. Save this worksheet as Payroll and submit it through Blackboard. When you save this workbook, both the Payroll and the What If sheets will save together. 31. If you are not taking this class on line, ask the instructor for information on how to print both the Payroll and the What If sheets that display the formulas. TABLE: Arithmetic Operators used in Spreadsheets TABLE: Order of Precedence in formulas THE ORDER OF PRECEDENCE IS VERY IMPORTANT WHEN YOU WORK WITH FORMULAS THAT CONTAIN MORE THAN ONE OPERATOR. THIS IS BECAUSE IT AFFECTS THE FINAL VALUE (THE FINAL ANSWER). Check the Rubric below to be sure you have completed all the tasks CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/03%3A_Week_3/3.01%3A_Week_3_Overview.txt

The purpose of this assignment is to: 1. Introduce the PMT function 2. Determine monthly payments 3. Determine total cost of a loan 4. Determine total interest to be paid Preparation: (Review these terms) • Arithmetic operators • Wrap Text • Setting up simple formulas New Terms (Terms are bolded in the steps below) • PMT Function (Step 10, page 2) • How interest rates are presented (Step 10b, page 2) • Insert a border around a table. (Step 14, Page 3) Narrative: Having access to more money than you have in your pocket seems like a great deal. However, because it is someone else’s money they you are using, they charge you a fee – interest – to use it. When you see interest rates of 1.2% or 3.5% what does that actually mean in dollar and cents? Also the length of time you decide to pay back the loaned money affects the amount of dollars that you are paying back. This assignment will help you set up three different loans. After applying the PMT function and using some simple formulas, you will determine how much your loan is actually costing you. (THE ASSIGNMENT IS WORTH 15 POINTS. THE RUBRIC IS ON PAGE 4) Advantage Loan Assignment 1. Open a blank spreadsheet 2. In A1 type Advantage Loans and Center it over the table. Make the font 14 pt. 3. Starting in A4, type in the labels (column headings) below in the appropriate cells: 4. Select B4 to H4 and click on Wrap Text in the HOME tab, Alignment Group. This will allow two rows in one cell in the header so the columns can stay narrow. 5. Starting in A5, type in these Lenders: Commercial Bank (A5), Credit Union (A6), Venture Capitalist (A7) 6. In B5-B7 type \$153,000 for each Loan Amount. 7. Complete the worksheet as follows: 8. Note: when putting in the Interest Rates, use the percent sign or put the percentage into decimal form. If this isn’t done, the answers will be incorrect. 9. Use a formula to compute the Term Months (the number of months for each of the 3 lenders). In our example, the first bank – commercial bank- will loan the money for five years. How many months in a year? Create a formula in E5 which will compute the number of months for the loan. When this is completed, go to the next step. 10. Using PMT function. Click in cell F5. Next click on the FORMULA tab. From the Function Library find the category “Financial”. Scroll down the alphabetized list to find PMT. Below is the argument box that appears. • Breakdown of the Arguments listed above. RATE: Interest Rate Per Month. Be aware interest rates are given by the year! NPER: Number of monthly payments PV: Present Value FV: Future Value and TYPE are not used for this formula. • How interest rates are presented. Click in the box labeled Rate. Because interest rates are given for 12 months (one year), and because you are trying get a monthly rate, you need to divide the Interest Rate by 12 months. In the Argument box for rate, click on D5 (cell reference) for first interest rate and divide it by 12 (months in a year). The formula in the argument box should be D5/12. (You do not need to first use the equal sign because this is an argument box, not a cell that you are inputting a formula.) • Next click in the box labeled NPER. This is asking for the number of monthly payments. You have already calculated that in Step 9 and the answer is in E5. So click on E5 for the NPER box. • The PV or present value, is the amount of the loan. This is found in column A, the amount of the loan that you want. Click on B5. • Click OK at the bottom of the argument box. • Your answer will appear in F5. The answer will be in red. This represents the negative cash flow the loan represents to the borrower. To show the monthly payment as a positive number, place a minus sign in front of the PV cell reference or B5. The formula will look like this:=PMT(D5/12,E5,-B5). The commas represent the three separate boxes that you typed in cell references in the argument box. 11. Click in cell G5 for Monthly payment. The monthly payment will be the number of months (E5) times the monthly payment (F5). Type your formula in G5. 12. To determine the total interest, this would be the difference between the total payments and the actual amount of the loan being taken. Type your formula in H5. 13. Select the entire table from A1 to H7. 14. Insert a Border around a table. • Click on HOME tab • Look to the right for the Cells group. Click on Format. • At the bottom of the pull down list, find the words ”Format Cells”. Click on it. • This takes you to a dialog box. Click on the tab for Borders. Put a border around the outside of the table only – no inside lines. 15. Put your name two rows below the bottom of the table. 16. Re-Save his worksheet Advantage Loans. Submit the assignment through Blackboard. 17. If you are not in Blackboard, ask your teacher how to submit this assignment so that the formulas display. Check the Rubric below to be sure you have completed all the tasks. CC licensed content, Shared previously 3.04: Graphic Loan Assignment The purpose of this assignment is to: Demonstrate your understanding of the use of the PMT function. Preparation: (Review these terms) Review the steps in the assignment called “Advantage Loan” New Terms (Terms are bolded in the steps below) No new terms for this assignment Narrative: From the previous assignment, Advantage Loan, you learned how the PMT function calculates the periodic payment amount for money borrowed. If you want to borrow money to buy a car, a house or a college education, you need to know the Basics: The principle amount, the interest rate and the number of months you wish to borrow. All of this can be put into a formula to quickly determine what your payments will be. Graphic Loan Assignment 1. Open Graphic Loan Spreadsheet and save it to your storage device by giving it the name Graphic Loan. 2. Complete the worksheet as follows: • Over the table width, center Graphic Solutions and center the sub-title. • Adjust the column widths so all information is visible • Bold all the column headings • Insert formula for Monthly Payment • Insert formula for Total Payments • Insert formula for Total Interest columns • Box the table • Put your name two rows below the bottom of the table. 3. Save this worksheet as Graphic Loan 4. Check the rubric below to get your maximum points. 5. Submit your completed Graphic Loan Solution to Blackboard. 6. If you are not taking this course through Blackboard, check with your instructor Rubric for Graphic Loan Summary CC licensed content, Shared previously

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/03%3A_Week_3/3.03%3A_Advantage_Loans_Assignment.txt

Week 4 introduces Charts and the IF AND functions. There are three assignments and three reading assignments. Starting with Charts, you will be introduced to all the different possible charts and elements of these charts. Charts are very useful to express important aspects of a table. After you understand the purposes of charts there will be two assignments that apply the techniques of developing charts. The second part of this week’s work is to understand two new functions. One is called the IF function (If one of two statements is correct, a positive response will be given.). The other is called AND function (given two logical questions, both must be true to return a positive response.) The assignment applies both functions in the same problem. Learning Outcomes: The student will: • Understand what data to select when creating a chart. • Create bar, column and pie charts • Understand the vocabulary of charts. • Understand the difference between IF and AND functions • Understand the use of argument boxes. Tasks: 1. Information for Spreadsheet Charts. The different charts are described as well as some of the new vocabulary used in creating charts. 2. Software Usage Assignment. This assignment has you putting three different charts on one page. (20 points) 3. Ford Sales Assignment. This assignment reinforces using charts and emphases Pie Charts. (20 points) 4. And function for Spreadsheet Information. This information explains the use of the AND function and provides an illustration that allows you to practice the concept. 5. IF function for Spreadsheet Information. This information explains the use of the IF function and provides and illustration that allows you to practice the concept. 6. East End Building Materials Assignment. This assignment helps you apply the IF and AND function to an actual situation. (20 points) Submitting your Work: 1. When completing each task, make sure to save your document to the desktop or your personal storage unit (memory stick, jump drive, etc.) 2. Click on the underlined word(s) at the top of each assignment. An “email-like” format appears with the number of points possible in the upper left corner. 3. Find a box “Browse My Computer.” Click on that and find your saved document. 4. Click Submit. 5. For additional help, please see the EXTRA HELP folder in the CONTENT area called “How to Submit Your Work. CC licensed content, Shared previously 4.02: Information for Spreadsheet Charts Information for Spreadsheet Charts Charts help express data in a table. Before creating a chart, consider the following: 1. Purpose of the chart – what information do you want to emphasize. 2. Results to display – which chart is appropriate. 3. Determine what data to illustrate in the chart – sometimes there is a need to select great quantity of data and other times just a small amount. Different chart types display in distinctive ways. 4. Understand of elements of a chart – (See 3-D cluster chart elements on page 2 for an explanation of terms for axis, legend, data labels, etc..) Adjustable Chart Elements (Found by clicking on Chart Tools, Design, Chart Layout Group) CC licensed content, Original • Information For Spreadsheet Charts. Authored by: Fran Wells. License: CC BY: Attribution

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/04%3A_Week_4/4.01%3A_Overview_Week_4.txt

The purpose of this assignment is to: 1. Create column, pie, and bar charts 2. Determine what data to select for which charts 3. Move and Resize Charts 4. Place multiple charts on one page Preparation: (Review these terms) • Launcher Button • Insert a Header New Terms: (Terms are bolded in the steps in the Assignment below) • Select data for a column chart. (Step #2, Page 1) • Create a Cluster Column chart. (Step #3, Pages 1-2) • Using a new toolbar called Chart Tools. (Step #4, Page 2) • From Design tools – Add chart elements: Legend. (Step #6, Page 3) • Change Chart Title to a new title. (Step #7, Page 3) • Move a chart. (Step # 9, Page 3) • Selecting the correct data for a Pie Chart. (Step #10, Page 3) • Create a 3-D Pie Chart. (Step #11, Page 3) • Exploding a pie slice. (Step #14, Page 4) • Copy a chart. (Step #16, Page 4) • Change an existing chart to a different type of chart. (Step #17, Page 4) • Change the color of the bars of a chart. (Step #18, Page 4) • Check the Page Orientation. (Step #21, Page 4) • Adjusting the size of charts. (Step #22, Page 4) Narrative: Charts help explain data to those who are not familiar with reading spreadsheets. It is fun and easy to create charts. Using different techniques, charts can have different colors, styles, and layout. (THIS ASSIGNMENT IS WORTH 20 POINTS. THE RUBRIC IS ON PAGE 6) Software Usage Assignment 1. Open the spreadsheet called SOFTWARE USAGE and save it by the same name. 2. Select data for a column chart. Select range A3 to F7. (Be sure NOT to include row 8) 3. Create a Cluster Column Chart. • Click on the INSERT tab and find the Charts group. • Click on the Charts launcher button. • Click on ALL CHARTS. • Click on Cluster Column • Click on the fourth example called 3D Cluster • Click OK 4. Chart Tools Toolbar. After selecting a chart, a new toolbar appears at the top of the screen called Chart Tools with the options of On the Design portion of the Charts Tools Toolbar, the five groups are: • Chart Layout • Chart Styles • Data • Type • Location On the Format portion of the Charts Tools Toolbar, the five groups are • Current Selection • Insert Shapes • Shape Styles • WordArt Styles • Arrange Size 5. Click on the Design tab and look to the left for the Chart Layouts group. Choose Add Chart Elements icon. The list includes: Axis, Axis Titles, Chart Titles Data Labels, Gridlines and Legends. 6. Add chart elements: Legend. With the Add Chart Element displaying, click on Legend from the drop down menu. From the choices in the drop down menu. choose RIGHT to place the legend on the right side of the chart. 7. Change Chart Title to a new title. Click the “Chart Title” at the top of the graphic chart. A box appears around the “Chart Title” 8. Click in that box and change the title to “Software Usage.” 9. Move a chart. Click on the chart. • Four white circle should be seen in each of the four corners. • Place your cursor in the upper left corner of the chart until the mouse becomes a four-headed arrow. • Click and hold the left mouse and drag the chart so that the top left corner of the chart is in cell A10 and the bottom left corner is in about cell A24. (WARNING: If the chart is pulled too close to the left edge of A10, a red circle displays which will not allow the chart to be placed there. Instead move the chart a bit to the right of cell A10. • The chart should only be slightly narrower than the data table we started with Chart 2: Create a Pie Chart 10. Select specific data for Pie Chart. Pie Chart is used to emphasize one data point instead of an entire table. Select A3 to F4 11. Create a Pie Chart. Follow the Steps 3 a-c to INSERT and select ALL CHARTS. Then click Pie Chart. Click on the second example called 3D Pie Chart. Then click OK. 12. The Pie Chart appears and the title of the chart is Middle School (which the name in cell A3) 13. Move the chart to a clear space by clicking on the chart, holding down the left mouse button and dragging it a bit to the right so it is in its own space. 14. Exploding the Pie Slice. • Click twice on the wedge labeled Foreign Language (it is a gold color). By clicking twice you should see three round white circles on just that slice – on the tip and one on either side of the wedge. • Holding down the left mouse button, click and drag that wedge toward to the bottom left corner of the chart just a short distance so that it separates itself from the main pie. This is called Exploding the Pie Slice. 15. Move this chart under the column chart. Place the top left edge of the pie chart inside cell A26 and the bottom left on A49. Chart 3: Create a Bar Chart and Change Colors 16. Copy a Chart. Click on the 3D Cluster Column chart so that the four corners have a white circle on each corner. • Place the cursor in the upper left corner of the chart, opposite the title, and RIGHT click. • A short cut menu appears. Choose COPY. • Move the mouse to the clear area to the right of the other charts. RIGHT click again and this time choose PASTE. • Remove the Shadow effects by clicking on each of the columns that have the shadow, then from the INSERT tab, Shape Styles Group, click Shape Effects. • Choose Shadow and then the first choice No Shadow. 17. Change an existing chart to a different type of chart. • Click in the graph part of the Cluster Column Chart in a white area so that the columns themselves are selected with only the four white circles in each corner. • Click on INSERT tab, then in the Charts group, click the charts launcher button. • Click on the tab ALL CHARTS (if it isn’t already selected) and choose Bar Chart. • Choose the second icon from the Bar Chart called Stacked Bar. The Column Cluster chart changes to the Stacked Bar chart. 18. Change the colors of the chart. • Click on the white area of the bars of the chart so only four white circles are at each of the corners. (Don’t select just one particular bar.) • Click on the Design Tab of the Chart Tools and find “Change Colors” in the Color Styles group. (It is to the left in that group) • Change to Monochromatic Blue (your choice of which blue). 19. Move the legend to the top right. 20. Move this chart so the top corner is in H1 and the bottom in H13. 21. Checking the page orientation. From the PAGE LAYOUT tab, find the Orientation icon in the Page Set up Group. Make sure the spreadsheet is in Portrait view. 22. Adjusting the size of charts. • Click on the Software cluster column chart. White circles should appear in each of the corners. • Click on the bottom right corner (the white dot) and make the chart smaller. It should fit with the top in A10 and the bottom in A19. 23. Move the Pie Chart so that the top left corner is in cell A21. Click on the white circle of this chart at the bottom right corner and pull it up to about A31. 24. Move the Bar chart that is in H1 – H13 so it fits under the Pie Chart in about A31-A43. The chart may have to be adjusted. Do this from the bottom right corner. 25. Preview your spreadsheet by clicking on Print. You should see all three charts displaying in the Backstage View. (If you don’t see all three charts, check and make sure not any one chart is selected (with the four white circles in the corners.) 26. Insert your name in a center Header. 27. Submit your charts in Blackboard if taking this course on-line. 28. Otherwise, follow your instructor’s directions to print.

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/04%3A_Week_4/4.03%3A_Software_Usage_Assignment.txt

The purpose of this assignment is to: 1. Finish compiling a report 2. Apply centering title 3. Create two simple column charts 4. Make changes to those charts 5. Apply Currency to specific rows Preparation: (Review of Terms) • SUM and AVE function • Merge and Center titles • Apply Currency to specific rows • Adjust column width • Change a legend • Create a Pie Chart • Create a 3D Cluster Column Chart New Terms: (Terms bolded in the steps) • Chart Elements: Horizontal Axis Title (Step #13, Page 2 ) • Select two columns that are not adjacent to each other. (Step #15, Page 2) • Changing Chart Style (Step #16, Page 2) Narrative: This assignment is much shorter Working with a Pie Chart, other attributes are introduced to show the versatility of charts. (THIS ASSIGNMENT IS WORTH 20 POINTS. THE RUBRIC IS ON PAGE 3.) Assignment: 1. Open Ford Motor Company spreadsheet and save it as Ford Sales. 2. Center the title, bold it and increase the size to 18 pt. 3. Center the subtitle, bold it and increase the size to 14 pt. 4. Bold all the Quarter headers and the makes of each Ford car. 5. Adjust the columns to see all the information. 6. Bold the word TOTAL in column A. 7. Complete the worksheet using formulas for the totals and average. 8. Insert dollar signs with two decimal places on all totals and averages, but not on the individual quarter sales. 9. Enter your name in cell A25. 10. Create a 3-D Clustered Column chart showing the quarterly sales for each car by selecting cells A3 – E7 to include the car names and the quarter headings.[Hint- Insert tab, Charts group, Column drop-down list, 3-D Clustered Column] 11. Move and size the chart to display in cells A10 – A23 12. Change the position of the Legend to the top. [Hint, Chart Tools, Design, Add Chart Elements, Legend] 13. Add Chart Elements: Horizontal Axis Title to state Sales By Ford. 14. Add a Title: Ford Motor Company. 15. Select two columns that are not adjacent to each other • Select A4 to A7. Hold down the CTRL key and select G4-G7. Two separate columns are selected. • Select 3-D Pie. 16. Changing a chart style. From the Chart Tools, Select Design and view the Chart Styles. Choose the third option that will have percentages on the wedges. (See example below) 17. Move this chart to about F10- F23. 18. Change orientation to Landscape. 19. Again save your work as Ford Sales. 20. Submit through Blackboard. 21. If not on Blackboard, follow instructor’s submitting directions. Check the rubric below to be sure you have completed all the tasks. CC licensed content, Original 4.05: AND function for Spreadsheets- Information OVERVIEW : Where to find AND function:  FORMULA tab, Logical in the Function group, then find AND in the pull down menu. Purpose of AND function:  To evaluate all of its arguments.  It returns, or displays  True for every logical test in the formula.. Return Value – the result of the evaluation is TRUE or FALSE Syntax:  =AND (logical test, [value all values TRUE],[if one or more value is not true FALSE) Arguments: Logical test:  A value or logical expression that can be evaluated as TRUE or FALSE Value if true:  [optional]  The value to return when logical test evaluates all to TRUE. Value if false: [optional]  The value to return when logical test evaluates one or more is FALSE EXERCISE (This isn’t graded, but you might find it useful before completing your assignment.) If evaluating a student based on lab scores and test scores, this function will automatically assign a True or False to that student.  You would be testing the scores themselves for each student and then returning either “True” or “False” AND Function Test Name Lab Score Test Score Result Anderson 92 60 FALSE Bell 85 79 TRUE Cartridge 65 92 Delaney 79 61 Finberg 99 89 • Create a little spreadsheet like the one above with the headings Name, Scores and Results.  Type in five or six students and give them scores – you don’t have to use the same ones as I did.  Also you will not have any “Results” until you put the formula in. • Click in cell D4 (in this example) to insert the formula result.  Click on the FORMULA TAB, then click the Logical icon from the Function Library Group.  Once you click on the Logical icon a menu appears with various Logical functions. Choose AND.  The result is an argument box as seen below.  Argument boxes are easier to work with because they show you where to put the information needed to complete the test. • We need to complete two logical tests.  The first box (Logical Test) is asking for information for the lab scores.  We want to set parameters on what is a passing grade.  In that logical box, click cellB5 on the spreadsheet you created (first score of the people you entered.).  Next put in the symbols (in the same box) that mean greater than and equal to (>=).  This is followed by a grade of 70.  (See other Logical Operators at the bottom of this page.) • In the second box (Logical Test) click cellC3 on the spreadsheet you created.  Next put in the symbol (in the same box) that means greater than or equal to (>=), follow by the grade 70.  Then click ENTER.  If both instances are true (both the lab score and test score are greater than or equal than 70), the result will be TRUE.  If one or both are not greater than 70, the result will be FALSE. • Another logical test box may open, but you need only complete two of them. • If one of the two scores is not greater than or equal to 70, the result will be FALSE. • The formula in the formal function bar will be =AND(B3>=70,C3>+70) Only complete the first two logical tests for this example; although you can use several when using the AND function. Only complete the first two logical tests for this example; although you can use several when using the AND function. • Click OK.  The formula now appears in cell D4 and on the formula bar. • Pull the formula down for the other students and watch as either “TRUE” or “FALSE” appears for each student. Notes:  More Logical Operators Comparison Operator Meaning Example = Equal to A1=D1 > Greater than A1>D1 >= Greater than or equal to A1>=D1 < Less than A1<D1 <= Less than or equal to A1<=D1 <> Not equal to A1<>D1 CC licensed content, Shared previously

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/04%3A_Week_4/4.04%3A_Ford_Sales_Assignment.txt

OVERVIEW: Where to find IF function: FORMULA tab, Logical in the Function group, then find IF in the pull down menu. Purpose of IF function: To test for or evaluate specific conditions and then react differently depending on whether the test was TRUE or FALSE. Return Value – the values you supply for TRUE or FALSE Syntax: =IF(logical test, [value if true], [value if false]) Arguments: • Logical test: A value or logical expression that can be evaluated as TRUE or FALSE • Value if true: [optional] The value to return when logical test evaluates to TRUE. • Value if false: [optional] The value to return when logical test evaluated to FALSE EXERCISE (This isn’t graded, but you might find it useful before completing your assignment.) If evaluating a student based on test scores, you want to assign either “Pass” or “Fail” to that student. You would be testing the score itself for each student and then returning either “Pass” or ”Fail”. 1. Create a little spreadsheet like the one above with the headings Name, Score and Result. Type in five or six students and give them scores. 2. Click in cell C4 (in this example) to insert the formula result. Click on the FORMULA TAB, then click the Logical icon from the Function Library Group. Once you click on the Logical icon a menu appears with various Logical functions. Choose IF. The result is an argument box as seen below. Argument boxes are easier to work with because they show you where to put the information needed to complete the test. 3. The first box (Logical Test) is asking for information for the test you want to perform. In this case, we want to set parameters on what is a passing grade. In that logical box, click cell B5 on the spreadsheet you created. Next put in the symbols (in the same box) that mean greater than an equal to (>=). This is followed by a grade of 70. (See other Logical Operators at the bottom of this page.) 4. In the next box (Value if true) type the word PASS without any quotation marks. The quotation marks will automatically be assigned to that text string when you click in the next box. 5. In the last box (Value if False), type the word FAIL without any quotation marks. The quotation marks will automatically be assigned to that text string when you click the OK button. 6. Below is what you will see if you followed these directions. 7. Click OK. The formula now appears in cell C4 and on the formula bar. 8. Pull the formula down for the other students and watch as either “Pass” or “Fail” appears for each student. Notes: More Logical Operators CC licensed content, Original 4.07: East End Building Materials Assignment The purpose of this assignment is to: 1. Apply the AND formula 2. Apply the IF formula 3. Use argument boxes successfully Preparation: (Review these terms) • Insert extra rows • Change font and size • Adjust columns as needed New Terms: (Terms are bolded in the steps in the assignment below) • Apply the AND function (Step 12, page 2) • Apply the IF function (Step 13, page 2) Narrative: It is one thing to understand a formula and quite another to apply that formula. This exercise allows you to practice the If and AND functions and to view the results. (THIS ASSIGNMENT IS WORTH 20 POINTS. THE RUBRIC IS ON PAGE 2.) East End Building Materials Assignment 1. Open the spreadsheet called East End Building Materials and save it as East End. 2. Center the title (East End Building Materials) over the entire table and change the font to 14 Aharoni, 3. Center the sub title (Bonus Pay Summary) over the entire table and change the font to 12 pt Aharoni. 4. Insert an extra row below the sub title but above the column headings. In that row, type your name and center it. Choose the font and size you would like 5. Select the Title, Sub Title, Your Name and the column headings (entire rows of each) and shade them in light gray. 6. With that section still highlighted, place a border underneath the column headings. 7. Select the column headings and bold them. 8. Adjust the columns as necessary 9. Adjust the Performance Rating column heading using the Wrap Text so the heading is on two lines. 10. Adjust the Bonus Amount heading to display two lines 11. Select the numbers in the Performance Rating column and center those numbers within the column. 12. In Cell E6 insert an AND formula that will determine if the employee is eligible for a bonus. An employee is eligible if Sales exceeded Quota AND if the performance rating was greater than 6. (Hint: The end result should only be three TRUE’s once the formula is pulled down.) 13. To figure the bonus amount for those employees who ARE eligible, use all three boxes of IF formula. In the first box, response in the Eligibility should be equal True (no quotation marks needed). If true, then the second box should be a calculation of two percent of the sales amount. If the statement is FALSE, (third box) the bonus amount is 0. (Hint: Only those employees with True in the Eligible column should have Bonus Amount, the rest are 0.) 14. Save this worksheet as East End. 15. Submit this worksheet in the East End Submit box. Check the rubric below to be sure you have completed all the tasks. CC licensed content, Original

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/04%3A_Week_4/4.06%3A_IF_function_for_Spreadsheets-_Information.txt

This is the last week of instruction. Three different topics are introduced, with only two assignments due. The first two topics are required for the exercised called Student Gradebook Assignment. They are 3-D referencing and VLOOKUP. The 3D referencing allows you to add up figures in multiple sheets and place the results on a Summary Sheet. The VLOOKUP allows you to locate specific values in a table. The computer will read across the row and finds the value in a column you specify. Be sure to do the practice parts before completing the assignment. There are new formulas for both topics. The last topic is creating a Subtotal Sheet. Steps are outlined for creating Sheet Names, changing a spreadsheet into a table and then into a range as well as using a dialog box to create Subtotals and Grand Totals automatically. Learning Outcomes: The student will: • Understand the concept of 3-D referencing • Understand the VLOOKUP function. • Apply the 3D Referencing and VLOOKUP functions • Understand the difference between IF and the AND functions • Apply the IF and the AND functions • Understand the use subtotals • Apply the subtotal feature to actual data. Tasks: 1. 3D Referencing Sheet Information and Practice. This information explains the formula used for 3D Referencing and gives a short practice exercise to try 2. VLOOKUP Information. Another new formula that allows creates a way to look up information and deliver that information back to a cell reference point. 3. Student Gradebook Assignment. This assignment reinforces both the 3D Referencing and the VLOOKUP features. (20 points) 4. Subtotals Information and Practice. This information directs you step by step to create a subtotal sheet. There is a practice to complete before doing the assignment. 5. Employees Assignment. Follow the steps and complete the Subtotal. Sheet. (20 Points) Submitting your Work: 1. When completing each task, make sure to save your document to the desktop or your personal storage unit (memory stick, jump drive, etc.) 2. Click on the underlined word(s) at the top of each assignment. An “email-like” format appears with the number of points possible in the upper left corner. 3. Find a box “Browse My Computer.” Click on that and find your saved document. 4. Click Submit. 5. For additional help, please see the EXTRA HELP folder in the CONTENT area called “How to Submit Your Work. CC licensed content, Original 5.02: 3-D Reference Sheet Information and Practice What are sheets? Sheets are separate, individual spreadsheets. To access sheets, look at the bottom of the screen of a spreadsheet and notice the tab called “Sheets.” A “workbook” is comprised of any number of sheets. Sheets can be added by clicking the plus sign next to the tab “sheets.” Sheet tabs can be changed from the word “sheets” to any label. To change a name on a sheet, double click the sheet tab and insert a new label name. In the example below, a company has business in several cities. Each city has a separate sheet in a workbook. The sheets have been renamed New York, Chicago, Tampa and Summary. Each sheet has the same format, that is each sheet is set up with the same cell references. Notice that Quarter 1 sales for New York is in cell A4; Quarter 1 sales for Chicago and Tampa are also in A4 on that sheet. What is 3-D referencing? The 3-D referencing is used to summarize specific information on each of the sheets and place the total on a separate summary page. For example, in the illustration above, the total of Quarter 1 in cell A4 for each of the cities can be quickly summarized and placed on the Summary sheet in a different position such as B3. It would look like this: How do I develop the formula? When summarizing data, you are actually adding. The SUM formula works well for a 3-D referencing exercise. In a regular worksheet when one adds multiply columns, a range is selected. When AutoSum is used, that automatically references a range of numbers. If AutoSum is not used, a range of numbers can be selected by highlighting the column or row to add. In both the AutoSum feature or using the SUM feature, the formula shows a colon between the first and the last cell reference. For example, =SUM(B4:B10) would add up rows 4 through 10 in column B. The part that is different is 3-D referencing is incorporating the different sheets. To get the Quarter 1 Sales for three different cities- New York, Chicago, and Tampa – (in the example above), start by placing your mouse cursor in the cell of the Summary sheet where you want the result to show. In the example above, I put my mouse cursor in B3. It doesn’t matter what cell, but you do have to start on the Summary Sheet. Then follow the next steps. 1. Type the equal sign followed by the word SUM and an open parenthesis. 2. Click the first city sheet (New York). Hold down the SHIFT key and click the last city (Tampa). In the formula, you will notice that the colon was placed automatically between New York and Tampa which would also include Chicago. 3. Next click the cell reference on the New York, or first sheet, that contains the amount you want to total. In this case, click on A4. 4. Enter. 5. The total (100698) appears on the Summary Sheet in cell B3 where you started the formula. 6. The formula displays in the formula bar above the worksheet. The formula is =SUM(‘New York:Tampa’!A4) 7. Notice the exclamation point before the cell reference. This indicates a 3-D Reference. The apostrophes automatically appear when a 3-D reference is used. PRACTICE EXERCISE: (This isn’t graded, but you might find it useful for understanding 3-D Referencing.) 1. Create a spreadsheet using the information below. Merge and Center the title. 2. At the bottom of the screen, double-click on the tab “Sheet 1” and type Alaska. This spread sheet will be used for Alaska. Please see illustration below Step 5. 3. Next click the circled plus sign at the very bottom of the window next to the tab “Sheet” and create a “Sheet 2”. Name this sheet Arkansas. 4. Once again click the plus sign at the bottom for “Sheet 3” and name that sheet Alabama. 5. Finally click the plus sign again for “Sheet 4” and name it Summary. 6. Click on the Alaska tab. 7. On the sheet for Alaska, insert a SUM formula to add the total for Quarter 1. Although there are no amounts at this time, you can insert a formula which will compute totals after you put in the figures. A zero will show for now indicating there is a formula in that cell. 8. Using AutoFill, pull the formula from B6 to E6. 9. After the formula has been inserted, select A1 to E6. Release the mouse then right click on the selected columns and rows. From the short cut menu that displays, click COPY. (You can also select A1 to E6 and click on COPY from the HOME tab, Clipboard Group.) 10. Click Arkansas tab then click in cell A1. 11. Click paste (either from the short cut menu or from the ribbon). An exact duplicate of information on the Alaska sheet including a SUM formula is now on the Arkansas sheet. 12. Follow steps 7 to Step 9 to paste the formatted table to the Alabama sheet. 13. Next, insert different amounts in the four Quarters for the three different car types on ALL three sheets. As you put the amounts in, notice that you are also getting a total for the columns. 14. Next click on the Summary sheet tab. 15. In cell A3 on the Summary sheet, type “Ford.” In cell A4 type “Kia.” In cell A5 type “Subaru.” In cell A6 type “Total.” (See the illustration below.) 16. In cell A1 give this table a title: “Summary 4th Quarter Total Sales.” 17. Use the merge and center feature to center the title over the table between columns A to D. 18. In cell B 2, type the heading “Quarter 4”. 19. Create a 3-D Reference formula by clicking in cell B3. Start with an equal sign followed by the word SUM. (=SUM). See the instructions for 3D formulas on the 3-D Reference Sheets Information Step 1. 20. Follow Steps 2-6 to create a 3D Referencing formula. 21. The formula and summary sheet should look like this one: (although the total will be different depending on the amounts inputted for each city 16. Once the formula in B3 on the SUMMARY sheet is inserted, use the AutoFill to pulled down the 3D Referencing formula from B3 to B6. Notice that the formula cell reference changed for each city but the rest of the formula stated the same. You have completed a 3D Referencing exercise! CC licensed content, Original • 3-D Reference Sheet u2013 Information and Practice. Authored by: Fran Wells. License: CC BY: Attribution

textbooks/workforce/Information_Technology/Computer_Applications/Introduction_to_Spreadsheets_(Lumen)/05%3A_Week_5/5.01%3A_Week_5_Overview.txt