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Category:Environmental law | {{Cat main}}
{{Commons category}}
{{Portal|Environment}}
{{see also|Category:Energy law}}
[[Category:Environmental humanities|Law]]
[[Category:environmental protection]]
[[Category:Environmental social science]]
[[Category:Law by issue]]
[[Category:Occupational safety and health]] |
Rio Declaration on Environment and Development | {{short description|1992 short document}}
The '''Rio Declaration on Environment and Development''', often shortened to '''Rio Declaration''', was a short document produced at the 1992 [[United Nations]] "Conference on Environment and Development" (UNCED), informally known as the [[Earth Summit]]. The Rio Declaration consisted of 27 principles intended to guide countries in future [[sustainable development]]. It was signed by over 175 countries.
==History==
The Rio Conference, which adopted the Declaration, took place from 3 to 14 June 1992. Subsequently, the international community has met twice to assess the progress made in implementing the principles of the document; first in [[New York City]] in 1997 during a General Assembly Session of the UN, and then in [[Johannesburg]] in 2002. While the document helped to raise environmental awareness, evidence from 2007 suggested that little of the document's environmental goals had at that time been achieved.<ref name="Robbins2007">{{cite encyclopedia |last1=Palmer |first1=Robert |last2=Nursey-Bray |first2=Melissa |editor1-last=Robbins |editor1-first=Paul |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Environment and Society |title=Rio Declaration on Environment and Development |volume=4 |date=2007 |publisher=Sage Publications |location=Thousand Oaks |isbn=9781412927611 |pages=1512–1514}}</ref>
== Content ==
Referring to the "integral and interdependent nature of the Earth, "our home", the Rio Declaration proclaims 27 principles. The first principle states that sustainable development primarily concerns [[human beings]], who are entitled to live [[Human health|health]]y and [[Productivity|productive]] lives in harmony with nature.<ref>UN Documentation Centre, [https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_CONF.151_26_Vol.I_Declaration.pdf Rio Declaration], Article 1</ref> Article 11 creates an expectation that states will enact [[environmental legislation]]. Further articles include formulations of the [[precautionary principle]], which should be "widely applied by states according to their capabilities" (principle 15), and of the [[polluter pays principle]], which states are encouraged to adopt where it is in the [[public interest]] to do so and it will not distort [[international trade]] and investment (principle 16). The final principle invites fulfillment of the other principles in a spirit of good faith.
The Rio Declaration expresses a positive view of [[traditional ecological knowledge]].<ref name=":9">{{Cite book |last=Taiban |first=Sasala |title=Greening East Asia: The Rise of the Eco-Developmental State |last2=Lin |first2=Hui-Nien |last3=Pei |first3=Kurtis Jia-Chyi |last4=Lu |first4=Dau-Jye |last5=Gau |first5=Hwa-Sheng |date=2020 |publisher=[[University of Washington Press]] |isbn=978-0-295-74791-0 |editor-last=Esarey |editor-first=Ashley |location=Seattle |chapter=Indigenous Conservation in Taiwan |jstor=j.ctv19rs1b2 |editor-last2=Haddad |editor-first2=Mary Alice |editor-last3=Lewis |editor-first3=Joanna I. |editor-last4=Harrell |editor-first4=Stevan}}</ref>{{Rp|page=132}}
==See also==
* [[Three generations of human rights]]
==References==
{{reflist}}
==External links==
{{Wikisource}}
* [https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcompact/A_CONF.151_26_Vol.I_Declaration.pdf UN Documentation Centre] The full text of the Rio Declaration.
* [http://legal.un.org/avl/ha/dunche/dunche.html Introductory note by Günther Handl, procedural history note and audiovisual material] on the ''Rio Declaration on Environment and Development'' in the [http://legal.un.org/avl/historicarchives.html Historic Archives of the United Nations Audiovisual Library of International Law]
{{Sustainability|state=collapsed}}
{{Portal bar|Politics}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:1992 documents]]
[[Category:1992 in the United Nations]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:International sustainable development]]
[[Category:United Nations Development Programme]] |
Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive | {{EngvarB|date=July 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2018}}
{{update|date=June 2016}}
{{Infobox EU legislation
|type=Directive
|title=Urban Waste Water Directive
|number= 91/271/EEC
|madeby=[[European Council]]
|madeunder=Article 130 S
|OJref= L 135 , 30 May 1991 P. 40 – 52
|OJrefurl=
|made= 21 May 1991
|commenced=
|implementation=
|CommProp=
|ESCOpin=
|ParlOpin=
|Reports=
|replaces=
|amends=
|amendedby=
|replacedby=
|status=Current}}
The '''Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive 1991''' ([https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A01991L0271-20140101 91/271/EEC]) [[European Union directive]] concerning urban waste water "collection, [[Waste water treatment|treatment]] and discharge of urban waste water and the treatment and discharge of waste water from certain industrial sectors". It aims "to protect the environment from adverse effects of waste water discharges from cities and "certain industrial sectors". Council Directive 91/271/EEC on Urban Wastewater Treatment was adopted on 21 May 1991,<ref>{{cite web|title=EUR-Lex – 31991L0271 – EN – EUR-Lex| date=21 May 1991 |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31991L0271:EN:NOT}}</ref> amended by the Commission Directive 98/15/EC.<ref>{{cite web|title=EUR-Lex – 31998L0015 – EN – EUR-Lex| date=27 February 1998 |url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31998L0015:EN:NOT}}</ref>
It prescribes the waste water collection and treatment in [[urban agglomeration]]s with a [[population equivalent]] of over 2000, and more advanced treatment in places with a population equivalent greater than 10,000 in "sensitive areas".
==Description==
The Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (full title "Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste-water treatment") is a [[European Union directive]] regarding urban wastewater collection, [[wastewater treatment]] and its discharge, as well as the treatment and discharge of "waste water from certain industrial sectors". It was adopted on 21 May 1991.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1991L0271:20081211:EN:PDF | title=Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste-water treatment (91/271/EEC) | access-date=19 July 2009}}</ref> It aims "to protect the environment from the adverse effects of urban waste water discharges and discharges from certain industrial sectors" by mandating waste water collection and treatment in [[urban agglomeration]]s with a [[population equivalent]] of over 2000, and more advanced treatment in places with a population equivalent above 10,000 in sensitive areas.<ref name="EC_Overview">{{cite web | url = http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-urbanwaste/index_en.html | title = Urban Waste Water Directive Overview | access-date = 19 July 2009 | publisher = [[European Commission]]}}</ref>
Member states in the European Union maintain and operate waste-water treatment plants to conform to the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive which sets standards for both treatment and disposal of sewage for communities of more than 200 person equivalents. Each member state is obliged to enact the requirements of the directive through appropriate local legislation. This directive also links to the Bathing Waters Directive and to the environmental standards set in the [[Water Framework Directive]] which are designed to protect all legitimate end uses of the receiving environment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hansen|first=Wenke|date=2003|title=EU Water Policy and Challenges for Regional and Local Authorities|journal=Ecologic Institute for International and European Environmental Policy, Berlin – Brussels|pages=1–17}}</ref>
Commission Decision 93/481/EEC defines the information that Member States should provide the commission on the state of implementation of the Directive.<ref>{{cite web|title=EUR-Lex – 31993D0481 – EN – EUR-Lex|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31993D0481:EN:NOT}}</ref>
Conventional wastewater treatment plants currently service over 90% of the EU population. Continuing implementation of the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directives plans to lower the EU's contribution to global [[microplastics]] discharge into the oceans.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bank |first=European Investment |date=2023-02-27 |title=Microplastics and Micropollutants in Water: Contaminants of Emerging Concern |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20230042-microplastics-and-micropollutants-in-water |language=EN}}</ref> According to a cost-benefit analysis prepared for the proposed Directive, the investment required to implement quaternary treatment in [[Wastewater treatment|wastewater treatment plants]] with a capacity of at least 10,000 person equivalents in the EU is estimated to be around €2.6 billion per year.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-10-26 |title=A promising proposal for the new Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive - Water Europe |url=https://watereurope.eu/a-promising-proposal-for-the-new-urban-wastewater-treatment-directive/ |access-date=2023-09-26 |language=en-US}}</ref>
===Sensitive areas===
The directive defines sensitive areas, as "[[freshwater]] bodies, [[Estuary|estuaries]] and coastal waters which are [[Eutrophy|eutrophic]] or which may become eutrophic if protective action is not taken", "surface freshwaters intended for the abstraction of [[drinking water]] which contain or are likely to contain more than 50 mg/L of nitrates", areas where further treatment is necessary to comply with other directives, such as the directives on fish waters, on bathing waters, on shellfish waters, on the conservation of wild birds and natural habitats, etc.<ref name="EC_Report_2004"/>
The directive contains a [[derogation]] for areas designated as "less sensitive"; such derogations were approved for areas in Portugal.<ref name="EC_Report_2004"/>{{page needed|date=June 2016}}
==Implementation==
{{update section|date=June 2016}}
[[Member states of the European Union|Member states]] were required to make waste water treatment facilities available
*By 31 December 1998 for all places with a population equivalent of over 10,000 where the effluent discharged into a sensitive area.<ref name="EC_Report_2004">{{cite web | url = http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:52004DC0248:EN:NOT | title = Implementation of Council Directive 91/271/EEC of 21 May 1991 concerning urban waste water treatment, as amended by Commission Directive 98/15/EC of 27 February 1998 | access-date = 19 July 2009 | date = 23 April 2004 | format = pdf | publisher = [[European Commission]] }}</ref>
*By 31 December 1998 for all places with a population equivalent of over 15,000, which discharged their effluent into so-called "normal areas" and that biodegradable waste water produced by [[Food processing industry|food-processing plants]],which discharged directly into water bodies, fulfilled certain conditions.<ref name="EC_Report_2004"/>
*by 31 December 2005 for all places with a population equivalent between 2000 and 10 000 where effluent is discharged into a sensitive area,
*by 31 December 2005 for all places with a population equivalent between 10,000 and 15,000 where the effluent is not discharged into such a sensitive area
In a 2004 Commission report on implementation by the member states, the Commission noted that some member states, in particular France and Spain, had been tardy in providing the required information, and infringement procedures had been initiated.<ref name="EC_Report_2004"/> The report mentioned Spain's non-provision of any advanced treatment in the [[Drainage basin|catchment areas]] of rivers identified as sensitive in their downstream section, such as the [[Ebro]] and the [[Guadalquivir]]; Italy's implementation in the catchment area of the [[Po River]], the delta and adjacent coastal waters; and the United Kingdom's interpretation and implementation of the directive in regard to the catchment areas of sensitive areas.<ref name="EC_Report_2004"/> Most member states planned to achieve conformity with the Directive by 2005 or 2008 at the latest.<ref name="EC_Report_2004"/>
In 2020 the Commission published its latest implementation report that covers over 23,600 agglomerations where people (and to a limited extent industry) generate wastewater.<ref>Report from the commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions, Tenth report on the implementation status and programmes for implementation (as required by Article 17 of Council Directive 91/271/EEC, concerning urban wastewater treatment) (2020)</ref> As the UWWTD will soon be revised in light of meeting the goals of the European Green Deal, this report carries out an evaluation of the directive.<ref>European Commission, ‘Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive – Review’ <https://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-urbanwaste/evaluation/index_en.htm> accessed 20 April 2022.</ref> This was followed by an impact assessment in order to determine policy options for an update, fit for the future UWWTD. Over the last decade, the compliance rates have gone up, with 95% for collection, 88% for secondary (biological) treatment, and 86% for more stringent treatment. There is positive trend in general, but full compliance with the directive is still not achieved. This is necessary, because this would show significant reductions in pollutant loads in the Member States.<ref>Joint Research Center, ‘Water quality in Europe: effects of the Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive’ (2019) Science for Policy Report</ref> In the long term, more investments are needed to reach and maintain compliance with the directive. Several towns and cities are still building or renewing infrastructure for the collection of wastewater. To support the Member States, the commission has set up funding and financial initiatives.
==Political significance==
The Urban Waste Water Directive marked a shift from legislation aimed at end-use standards to stricter legislation aimed at regulating water quality at the source. The directive applied both to domestic waste water and to waste water from industrial sectors, both of which account for much of the pollution. The Directive is an example of the detailed nature of European Union legislation and resulted in "significant costs in many member states".<ref name="Weale">. {{cite book | last = Weale | first = Albert |author2=Geoffrey Pridham |author3=Michelle Cini |author4=Martin Porter | title = Environmental governance in Europe: an ever closer ecological union? | year = 2000 | publisher = Oxford University Press | isbn = 978-0-19-829708-6 | page = 363 |doi= 10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199257478.001.0001 }}</ref>
Nine years after the directive was adopted, considerable variations remained in the provision of sewage treatment in the different member states.<ref name="Weale"/>
==Planned Revision==
On 13 July 2018, the European Commission published a Consultation on the Evaluation of the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive ahead of a potential revision. Since its adoption in 1991, new technical advances on treatment techniques for waste and emerging pollutants have been identified that might require removal. In addition, the EU has since enlarged from 12 to 28 countries and new different experiences and challenges need to be taken into account.
However, the biggest challenge of the revision will be to exploit the potential the [[wastewater treatment]] sector can contribute to the [[circular economy]] agenda and the fight against [[climate change]]. Globally, the wastewater treatment sector consumes 1% of the global total energy consumption.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20190518194946/https://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/WorldEnergyOutlook2016ExcerptWaterEnergyNexus.pdf Water Energy Nexus]</ref> Under a business as usual scenario, this figure is expected to increase by 60% by 2040 compared to 2014. With the introduction of energy efficiency requirements, the energy consumption of the wastewater treatment sector can be reduced by 50% only by using current technologies. On top of that, there are also opportunities to produce enough energy from wastewater to turn the whole water sector energy neutral.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20170709215504/https://www.americanbiogascouncil.org/pdf/ENER6C13_factSheet.pdf Energy from Wastewater]</ref> It uses the energy embedded in the [[sludge]] by producing [[biogas]] through [[anaerobic digestion]]. These features have been mainly overlooked due to the over-riding objective for utilities to meet existing and future needs for wastewater treatment.<ref>[http://ec.europa.eu/environment/enveco/resource_efficiency/pdf/final_report.pdf Study on the Energy Saving Potential of Increasing Resource Efficiency]</ref>
In October 2022, the planned revision included stricter goals and policies. These had time frames on either 2030, 2035, or 2040. The revision would have inclusion of areas with smaller populations, stricter limits on [[Nitrogen]] and [[Phosphorus]], reduction of Micropollutants, a goal of [[Carbon neutrality|Energy Neutrality]] for all purification plants with over 10,000 person equivalents by 2040, tracking of diseases, additional sanctions, and other goals. This proposal has currently been read by the European Council.<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Lindqvist |first1=Advokatfirman Lindahl-Johanna |last2=Gustavsson |first2=Jonathan |last3=Ahl |first3=Philip |date=2023-02-13 |title=The EU Commission is proposing a new Waste Water Directive |url=https://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=923108fa-b1d3-410b-a878-689836f5694b |access-date=2023-06-10 |website=Lexology |language=en}}</ref>
==See also==
*[[Water supply and sanitation in the European Union]]
*[[Population equivalent]]
*[[Sustainable Development Goal 6]]
*[[Water, energy and food security nexus]]
*[[Sewage sludge treatment]]
==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
* [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1991L0271:20081211:EN:PDF Text of the directive (as amended)]
* [http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31991L0271:EN:NOT Original text of the directive and other legislative information]
{{Waste}}
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:European Union directives]]
[[Category:European Union and the environment]]
[[Category:Sewerage]]
[[Category:1991 in law]]
[[Category:1991 in the European Economic Community]]
[[Category:1991 in the environment]]
[[Category:Waste legislation in the European Union]] |
Coral reef protection | {{Short description|Modifying human activities to reduce impact on coral reefs.}}
[[File:Coral Outcrop Flynn Reef.jpg|thumb|300px|right|A diversity of corals]]
'''Coral reef protection''' is the process of modifying human activities to avoid damage to healthy [[coral reef]]s and to help damaged reefs recover. The key strategies used in reef protection include defining measurable goals and introducing active management and community involvement to reduce stressors that damage reef health. One management technique is to create [[Marine Protected Area]]s (MPAs) that directly limit human activities such as fishing.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coral Reefs|url=http://www.nfwf.org/coralreef/Pages/home.aspx#.VUrJKl5N1ua|website=National Fish and Wildlife Foundation|access-date=2015-05-07|archive-date=2019-12-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222130812/https://www.nfwf.org/coralreef/Pages/home.aspx#.VUrJKl5N1ua|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[Recreational diving|Recreational scuba diving]] can have a [[Environmental impact of recreational diving|measurable adverse impact]] on tropical coral reefs, mostly due to contact damage of brittle and fragile branched [[Scleractinia|stony corals]]. The most common damages of corals while diving occurs due to the fins striking the corals as well as hands, knees, and equipment gauges.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Barker |first1=Nola H. L. |last2=Roberts |first2=Callum M. |date=2004-12-01 |title=Scuba diver behaviour and the management of diving impacts on coral reefs |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320704001466 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=120 |issue=4 |pages=481–489 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2004.03.021 |bibcode=2004BCons.120..481B |issn=0006-3207}}</ref> [[Low impact diving|This can be reduced]] by improving diver [[Scuba skills#Buoyancy control|buoyancy]] and [[Diver trim|trim]] skills, and by educating divers on the consequences of clumsy behavior on the reef ecosystem.<ref name="Hammerton 2014" >{{cite thesis |publisher=Southern Cross University |date=2014 |title=SCUBA-diver impacts and management strategies for subtropical marine protected areas |first=Zan |last=Hammerton |url=https://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1456&context=theses |access-date=2019-09-17 |archive-date=2020-05-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200526064457/https://epubs.scu.edu.au/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1456&context=theses |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name="Musa and Dimmock 2013" >{{cite book|title=Scuba Diving Tourism: Contemporary Geographies of Leisure, Tourism and Mobility |last=Johansen |first=Kelsey|editor1-first=Ghazali |editor1-last=Musa |editor2-first=Kay |editor2-last=Dimmock |chapter=Education and training |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |isbn=9781136324949}}</ref> Divers given a 45 minute presentation on coral biology and protected areas combined with a brief in water demonstration have been shown to cause less damages to corals during their dive.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Medio |first1=D. |last2=Ormond |first2=R. F. G. |last3=Pearson |first3=M. |date=1997-01-01 |title=Effect of briefings on rates of damage to corals by scuba divers |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0006320796000742 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=79 |issue=1 |pages=91–95 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3207(96)00074-2 |bibcode=1997BCons..79...91M |issn=0006-3207}}</ref>
It takes approximately 10 thousand years for coral polyps to form a reef, and between 100,000 and 30 million years for a fully mature reef to form.<ref name="Stanford : Types of Reefs">{{cite web|title=Stanford : Types of Reefs|url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/typesofreefs.html|website=web.stanford.edu|access-date=3 September 2019|archive-date=17 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117235001/https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/typesofreefs.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
== Coral reefs ==
Coral reefs are among the most productive and biologically diverse ecosystems on Earth.<ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last1=Moberg|first1=Fredrik|last2=Folke|first2=Carl|title=Ecological goods and services of coral reef ecosystems|journal=Ecological Economics|volume=29|issue=2|pages=215–233|doi=10.1016/s0921-8009(99)00009-9|year=1999}}</ref> Differences in exposure to wave patterns create a variety of habitat types.<ref>{{cite web|title=Stanford : Reef Structure|url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/reefstructure.html|access-date=2015-05-09|archive-date=2017-09-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909022634/https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/reefstructure.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The coral need a [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] relationship with [[Symbiodinium|zooxanthellae algae]] in order to build a reef. The single celled algae derive their nutrients by using [[photosynthesis]], and the coral provide shelter to the algae in return for some of the nutrients.<ref name="Stanford : Types of Reefs" /> Zooxanthellae populations can die with changing environmental conditions, causing the coral to lose color, known as [[coral bleaching]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/whatisacoral.html|title=Stanford : Reef Structure|access-date=2015-05-09|archive-date=2017-09-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170909022625/https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/whatisacoral.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Environmental conditions such as a rise in water temperature inflict stress on the corals causing their symbiont [[Zooxanthellae]] to be expelled. The loss of Zooxanthellae causes corals to starve because they have lost the sugar food source Zooxanthellae had provided.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=B. E. |date=1997-06-01 |title=Coral bleaching: causes and consequences |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s003380050249 |journal=Coral Reefs |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=S129–S138 |doi=10.1007/s003380050249 |s2cid=16449216 |issn=1432-0975}}</ref> Corals that require the symbiotic algae receive their vibrant colors from the different species of Zooxanthellae that inhabit them.
== Ecosystem services ==
Corals provide millions of people with [[ecosystem services]] such as fisheries, medicine, tourism and recreation, coastal protection as well as aesthetic and cultural benefits,<ref name=":3" /> yet they constitute a mere 0.2% of the world's marine ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Souter|first1=David W|last2=Lindén|first2=Olof|date=January 2000|title=The health and future of coral reef systems|journal=Ocean & Coastal Management|volume=43|issue=8–9|pages=657–688|doi=10.1016/S0964-5691(00)00053-3|bibcode=2000OCM....43..657S }}</ref>
=== Biodiversity ===
Also known as the "rainforests of the sea," coral reefs cover less than 10% of the ocean yet provide a habitat to over 9 million species, approximately one fourth of all marine life, for food, shelter, and even hunting grounds for predators.<ref name=":4">{{Cite web|url=https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/marine-life-education-resources/coral-reef-ecosystems|title=Coral reef ecosystems {{!}} National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|website=www.noaa.gov|access-date=2019-12-02|archive-date=2020-04-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200430200847/https://www.noaa.gov/education/resource-collections/marine-life-education-resources/coral-reef-ecosystems|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/species.html |title=Species on Coral Reefs |publisher=Coral Reef Alliance |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200212085409/https://web.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/species.html |archive-date=12 February 2020}}</ref> Species found on coral reefs include fish, invertebrates, birds, and megafauna such as sharks, sea turtles, and marine mammals.<ref name=":4" /> Finally, they serve as essential spawning, nursing, and breeding grounds for numerous organisms.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scripps.ucsd.edu/projects/coralreefsystems/about-coral-reefs/value-of-corals/|title=Value of Corals {{!}} Coral Reef Systems|access-date=2019-12-02|archive-date=2019-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011012947/https://scripps.ucsd.edu/projects/coralreefsystems/about-coral-reefs/value-of-corals/|url-status=live}}</ref>
=== Coastal Protection ===
Coral reefs provide complex structures that buffer the ocean's waves, protecting coastlines from strong currents and nasty storms. Approximately 500 million people live within 100 km of coral reefs and rely on them for this protection. Not only are they critical in preventing the loss of lives, property damage, and erosion, but they also serve as a barrier for harbors and ports that depend on them economically.<ref name=":4" />
=== Fisheries ===
Over a billion people globally depend on the fish that live among coral reefs as a major food source.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=https://scripps.ucsd.edu/projects/coralreefsystems/about-coral-reefs/value-of-corals/|title=Value of Corals {{!}} Coral Reef Systems|access-date=2019-12-03|archive-date=2019-10-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191011012947/https://scripps.ucsd.edu/projects/coralreefsystems/about-coral-reefs/value-of-corals/|url-status=live}}</ref> It is estimated that half of all US commercial and recreational fisheries depend on coral reefs to provide them over $100 million annually.<ref name=":4" /> Globally, fisheries account for $5.7 billion of the net income provided by coral reefs.<ref name=":5" />
=== Medicine ===
Species found in coral ecosystems produce chemical compounds that are used to develop new medicines to treat cancer, arthritis, asthma, heart disease, ulcers, bacterial infections, and viruses.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral07_importance.html|title=NOAA National Ocean Service Education: Corals|website=oceanservice.noaa.gov|access-date=2019-12-03|archive-date=2019-09-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190922034459/https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral07_importance.html|url-status=live}}</ref> As early as the 14th century, the medicinal properties of coral reef dwelling species were utilized. Antiviral extracts and tonics continue to be studied and toxic compounds such as [[neurotoxins]] discovered in coral reefs have proven beneficial as painkillers. [[Diterpenes]] isolated from coral have been shown to exhibit anti-inflammatory as well as anti-microbial properties that are useful in medicinal therapies.<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1155/2014/184959 |doi-access=free |title=Corals and Their Potential Applications to Integrative Medicine |year=2014 |last1=Cooper |first1=Edwin L. |last2=Hirabayashi |first2=Kyle |last3=Strychar |first3=Kevin B. |last4=Sammarco |first4=Paul W. |journal=Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine |volume=2014 |pages=1–9 |pmid=24757491 |pmc=3976867 }}</ref> The [[limestone]] skeleton of coral has been tested and used for human [[Bone grafting|bone grafts]], due to its porous nature and has a lower rate of rejection than artificial bone graft materials.<ref name="NOAA">{{cite web|title = NOAA|url = http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/medicine/#b|access-date = 2015-05-09|archive-date = 2015-04-27|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150427155306/http://coralreef.noaa.gov/aboutcorals/values/medicine/#b|url-status = live}}</ref>
=== Tourism & Recreation ===
Millions of scuba divers and snorkelers visit coral reefs every year to observe their incredible beauty, as well as beachgoers who are protected by the reefs. Local economies rely heavily on coral reefs, receiving about $9.6 billion through diving tours, recreational fishing trips, hotels, and restaurants.<ref name=":5" />
== General interests ==
There are four main categories of interest the public should have for the preservation of coral reefs: the preservation of natural beauty and value, the promotion of the local economy, potential source of new biological products, and preservation of the world ecosystems of which they are a part.
Over one-third of marine species live in coral reef ecosystems. These provide a beautiful underwater experience for snorkelers and divers with a significant tourism value.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Done|first=Terry|year=2004|title=Coral Reef Protection|journal=Issues in Science & Technology|volume=20|issue=3|pages=14–16|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref><ref name="Musa and Dimmock 2013" /> This great genetic biodiversity has a lot of potential for industries like pharmaceutics, biochemistry, and cosmetics. This biodiversity also boosts the economy through an increase in marine tourism and commercial fisheries. Long-term, coral reefs have been recognized as large contributors to the absorption of carbon dioxide emissions which has been an important part of the mitigation of climate change.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Caillaud|first=Anne|year=2012|title=Preventing Coral Grief: A Comparison Of Australian And French Coral Reef Protection Strategies In A Changing Climate|journal=Sustainable Development Law & Policy|volume=12|issue=2|pages=26–64|via=Academic Search Complete}}</ref>
== Stressors ==
Two types of stressors are associated with [[reef]] systems: natural and human-induced. The effects of these stressors can range from negligible to catastrophic.
[[File:Marine debris on Hawaiian coast.jpg|thumbnail|left|Debris on the coast of Hawaii.]]The warming waters, ocean pH changes and [[sea level rise]] associated with [[climate change]] operate on a global basis.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/oceans/coral/|title=Water Resources|date=2016-11-08|access-date=2009-10-20|archive-date=2009-11-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091102084744/http://www.epa.gov/OWOW/oceans/coral/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Wagner | first1 = D. E. | last2 = Kramer | first2 = P. | last3 = Van Woesik | first3 = R. | title = Species composition, habitat, and water quality influence coral bleaching in southern Florida | doi = 10.3354/meps08584 | journal = Marine Ecology Progress Series | volume = 408 | pages = 65–78 | year = 2010 | bibcode = 2010MEPS..408...65W | doi-access = free }}</ref>
Localized examples include residential, developmental, agricultural and industrial runoff, sedimentation from land clearing, human [[sewage]] and [[toxic]] discharges.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://time.com/4080985/sunscreen-coral-reefs/|title=How Sunscreen May Be Destroying Coral Reefs|date=21 October 2015 |access-date=2016-12-05|archive-date=2016-12-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161205163519/http://time.com/4080985/sunscreen-coral-reefs/|url-status=live}}</ref>
Acute stressors can inflict other damage, via unsustainable fishing practices, boat [[anchor]]s or accidental groundings. Some fishing practices are destructive to reef habitats, such as [[bottom trawling]], [[blast fishing|dynamite fishing]] and [[cyanide fishing]]. [[ghost net|Ghost fishing]] (unintended damage from abandoned fishing equipment) harms many coral reefs. Even small-scale fishing can damage reefs if herbivores are removed and thereby not allowed to protect reefs from encroachment by algae.<ref>{{cite web|title=WWF - Fishing problems: Destructive fishing practices|url=http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/problems_fishing/destructive_fishing/|website=WWF Global|access-date=23 April 2015|archive-date=24 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150424230200/http://wwf.panda.org/about_our_earth/blue_planet/problems/problems_fishing/destructive_fishing/|url-status=live}}</ref> Boaters can damage [[coral]] by dropping their anchors on reefs instead of sand.<ref name="Bartels">Bartels, Paul. "Fragile reefs: handle with care." Cruising World 22.n1 (Jan 1996). 15 Oct. 2009 [http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510172355/http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS|date=2013-05-10}}.</ref> Accidental boat groundings can obliterate areas of coral reef. Lettuce [[coral]]s and branching corals such as [[Elkhorn coral|elkhorn]] and finger coral are fragile, but even massive boulder corals can be crushed or broken and turned upside down to die by a sailboat keel. Groundings in sand, or even the churning action of [[propellers]], can cause major localized siltation, indirectly killing adjacent corals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS|title=Gale - Enter Product Login|access-date=2009-10-20|archive-date=2013-05-10|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510172355/http://find.galegroup.com/gps/start.do?prodId=IPS|url-status=live}}</ref>
During the 20th century recreational scuba diving was considered to have generally low environmental impact, and was consequently one of the activities permitted in most marine protected areas. Basic diver training has concentrated on an acceptable risk to the diver, and paid less attention to the environment. The increase in the popularity of diving and in tourist access to sensitive ecological systems has led to the recognition that the activity can have significant environmental consequences.<ref name="Hammerton 2014" />
Scuba diving has grown in popularity during the 21st century, as is shown by the number of certifications issued worldwide.<ref name="Lucrezi 2016" >{{cite web |url=http://theconversation.com/how-scuba-diving-is-warding-off-threats-to-its-future-52504 |title=How scuba diving is warding off threats to its future |date=18 January 2016 |last=Lucrezi |first=Serena |website=The Conversation |access-date=5 September 2019 |archive-date=25 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125151346/https://theconversation.com/how-scuba-diving-is-warding-off-threats-to-its-future-52504 |url-status=live }}</ref> Scuba diving tourism is a growth industry, and it is necessary to consider [[environmental sustainability]], as the expanding impact of divers can adversely affect the [[marine environment]] in several ways, and the impact also depends on the specific environment. Tropical coral reefs are more easily damaged by poor diving skills than reefs where the environment is more robust. The same pleasant sea conditions that allow development of relatively delicate and highly diverse ecologies also attract the greatest number of tourists, including divers who dive infrequently, exclusively on vacation and never fully develop the skills to dive in an environmentally friendly way.<ref name="Dimmock et al 2013" >{{cite book |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259489022 |title=Scuba Diving Tourism |chapter=Chapter 10: The business of Scuba diving |pages=161–173 |publisher=Routledge |year=2013 |first1=Kay |last1=Dimmock |first2=Terry |last2=Cummins |first3=Ghazali |last3=Musa |editor1-first=Ghazali |editor1-last=Musa |editor2-first=Kay |editor2-last=Dimmock |access-date=2020-04-19 |archive-date=2021-07-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210723092824/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/259489022_Kay_Dimmock_Terry_Cummins_and_Ghazali_Musa_2013_The_Business_of_SCUBA_Diving_Chapter_10_161-173_in_SCUBA_Diving_Tourism_edited_by_Ghazali_Musa_and_Kay_DimmockRoutledge_London_and_New_York |url-status=live }}</ref>
=== Sediment ===
Sediment pollution from land has severe consequences for coral reef ecosystems. However, even along one coastline, separate reefs can experience different water flow conditions that affect sediment distribution. A 2015 study assessed sediment from two streambeds less than a mile apart on the island of [[Lānaʻi]], [[Hawaii]]. One site experienced quick-moving currents that efficiently flushed away sediment, protecting the reef, while the other was subjected to currents and wave conditions that allowed sediment to be continuously re-suspended in the water, starving the reef of light.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|title = Study clears the waters on a dirty threat to Hawai'i's reefs –...|url = http://blog.conservation.org/2016/01/study-clears-the-waters-on-a-dirty-threat-to-hawaiis-reefs/|website = Human Nature – Conservation International Blog|access-date = 2016-02-21|date = 2016-01-20|archive-date = 2016-02-25|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160225012517/http://blog.conservation.org/2016/01/study-clears-the-waters-on-a-dirty-threat-to-hawaiis-reefs/|url-status = live}}</ref>
=== Overfishing ===
The vast biodiversity of coral reefs consequently create an abundant fishing area for locals. This leads to [[overfishing]] of reef herbivore organisms which makes the coral reefs more vulnerable and unable to recover from large environmental disturbances.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Rasher|first=Douglas|year=2012|title=Effects of Herbivory, Nutrients, And Reef Protection On Algal Proliferation And Coral Growth On A Tropical Reef|journal=Oecologia|volume=169|issue=1|pages=187–198|via=Academic Search Complete|doi=10.1007/s00442-011-2174-y|pmid=22038059|pmc=3377479|bibcode=2012Oecol.169..187R}}</ref> Unfortunately, most marine ecologists expect future oceans to be more overfished than now.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Lowe|first=Phillip|year=2011|title=Empirical Models Of Transitions Between Coral Reef States: Effects of Region, Protection, and Environmental Change|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0026339 |pmid=22073157|pmc=3206808|journal=PLOS ONE|volume=6|issue=11|pages=1–15|bibcode=2011PLoSO...626339L|doi-access=free}}</ref>
=== Other ===
See [[Environmental issues with coral reefs#Issues]]
{{expand section|date=September 2019}}
UV Filters
UV radiation is a threat to public health in terms of sunburn risk, and skin cancer. In turn People use sunscreen that has UV filters in it to absorb excess UV radiation. Protecting the skin, and each UV filter has its own absorption rate based on the SPF amount for skin sensitivity. UV filters in sunscreen can be either organic or inorganic. Inorganic UV filters reflect and absorb UV light. Zinc oxide is widely used inorganic UV filters and are mainly incorporated into sunscreen because the larger, size particles usually leave unpleasant white marks on the skin. Some of the mineral UV filters do get additional coatings such as alumina or incorporated manganese to minimize the formation of free radicals. Exposure to all tested sunscreen and led to the conclusion that UV filters induce a lytic viral cycle that leads to coral bleaching. However, the study is limited by the lack of analytical data as well as flaws in the experimental setup.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Moeller |first1=Pawlowski |title=Challenges in Current Coral Reef Protection - Possible Impacts of UV Filters Used in Sunscreens, a Critical Review |year=2021 |journal=Frontiers in Marine Science |volume=8 |doi=10.3389/fmars.2021.665548 |doi-access=free }}</ref>
== Monitoring ==
The continuous assessment of the health state of coral reef is an important task. To perform large-scale studies on the condition and bleaching of shallow-water coral reefs usually satellite or airborne imagery is used.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Normile |first=D. |date=2016 |title=El Niño's warmth devastating reefs worldwide |url=https://www.science.org/content/article/el-ni-o-s-warmth-devastating-reefs-worldwide |journal=Science |volume=352 |issue=6281 |pages=15–16|doi=10.1126/science.352.6281.15 |pmid=27034348 }}</ref> To more accurately document the status of the reef, recently, photogrammetric techniques have been introduced to generate orthophotos of the interested areas either by using consumer drones<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Burns |first1=J. H. R. |last2=Delparte |first2=D. |last3=Gates |first3=R. D. |last4=Takabayashi |first4=M. |date=2015 |title=Integrating structure-from-motion photogrammetry with geospatial software as a novel technique for quantifying 3D ecological characteristics of coral reefs |url=https://peerj.com/articles/1077/ |journal=PeerJ |volume=1077}}</ref> or by capturing photos with scuba divers.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nocerino |first1=Erica |last2=Menna |first2=Fabio |last3=Gruen |first3=Armin |last4=Troyer |first4=Matthias |last5=Capra |first5=Alessandro |last6=Castagnetti |first6=Cristina |last7=Rossi |first7=Paolo |last8=Brooks |first8=Andrew J. |last9=Schmitt |first9=Russell J. |last10=Holbrook |first10=Sally J. |date=January 2020 |title=Coral Reef Monitoring by Scuba Divers Using Underwater Photogrammetry and Geodetic Surveying |journal=Remote Sensing |language=en |volume=12 |issue=18 |pages=3036 |doi=10.3390/rs12183036 |issn=2072-4292 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2020RemS...12.3036N |hdl=20.500.11850/446222 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> To analyze and annotate the large [[Orthophoto|orthographic images]] generated with these techniques semi-automatic [[Image segmentation|segmentation]] techniques are applied using open source tools like [[TagLab]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pavoni |first1=Gaia |last2=Corsini |first2=Massimiliano |last3=Ponchio |first3=Federico |last4=Muntoni |first4=Alessandro |last5=Edwards |first5=Clinton |last6=Pedersen |first6=Nicole |last7=Sandin |first7=Stuart |last8=Cignoni |first8=Paolo |date=May 2022 |title=TagLab: AI-assisted annotation for the fast and accurate semantic segmentation of coral reef orthoimages |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/rob.22049 |journal=Journal of Field Robotics |language=en |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=246–262 |doi=10.1002/rob.22049 |s2cid=244648241 |issn=1556-4959}}</ref>
== Restoration ==
[[File:ORAcoral1.jpg|thumbnail|Coral growing in an aquaculture tank]]
It is difficult to create a substantial plan for the protection of coral reefs due to their location out in open water; there is no distinct ownership over certain parts of the ocean, which creates difficulty in delegating responsibility.<ref name=":2" /> But private and government groups whose purpose is to help the environment have made steps towards the restoration of coral reefs.
The aim of coral restoration is to help coral adapt to stressors and changing environments. [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration|NOAA's]] Coral Reef Conservation Program and Damage Assessment, Remediation and Restoration Program approaches restoration by responding to and restoring physically damaged reefs, preventing the loss of habitat, implementing coral conservation projects, focusing on restoring endangered coral species and controlling [[invasive species]].<ref>{{cite web|title=NOAA Habitat Conservation|url=http://www.habitat.noaa.gov/restoration/approaches/corals.html|access-date=2015-05-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150423171112/http://www.habitat.noaa.gov/restoration/approaches/corals.html|archive-date=2015-04-23|url-status=dead}}</ref> The [[Coral reef organizations|Coral Restoration Foundation]] has restored over 100 genotypes of [[staghorn coral]]s (''Acropora cervicornis'') using coral nurseries, and also has research goals of determining ecological success, ideal restoration locations and how surrounding organisms affect restoration.<ref>{{cite web|title=Coral Restoration Foundation|url=http://www.coralrestoration.org/research/priorities/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518074223/http://www.coralrestoration.org/research/priorities/|archive-date=2015-05-18}}</ref> Laboratories located near reefs, such as Elizabeth Moore International Center for Coral Reef Research & Restoration — which has planted more than 43,000 corals in the Florida Keys — play a crucial role in maintaining these nurseries.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mote.org/research/program/coral-reef-restoration|title=Coral Reef Restoration {{!}} Mote Field Stations|website=mote.org|access-date=2019-10-24|archive-date=2019-10-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024070352/https://mote.org/research/program/coral-reef-restoration|url-status=live}}</ref>
Coral reefs can be grown both asexually or sexually- in land-based or ocean nurseries. One of the first and most crucial steps taken to restore coral reefs is assess the land using acoustic technology. Gathering live coral and coral fragments is essential. Once coral reach a certain size in the nursery, they are out-planted and then transported to coral reefs for the restoration process. Planting nursery-grown corals back onto reefs is a tedious process. However, it is of the utmost importance to make sure the habitat is suitable for natural coral growth. It is best to build coral that is resilient to threats like climate change. Moreover, each coral must be handled manually and transplanted to the reef by hand.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lippsett|first=Lonny|date=12 Nov 2018|title=How Do Corals Build Their Skeletons?|url=https://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/how-do-corals-build-their-skeletons/#:~:text=Coral%20skeletons%20are%20made%20of,a%20framework%20of%20aragonite%20crystals.&text=They%20pump%20hydrogen%20ions%20(H,CaCO3)%20for%20their%20skeletons.|url-status=live|website=Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution|access-date=23 July 2021|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415054715/https://www.whoi.edu/oceanus/feature/how-do-corals-build-their-skeletons/#:~:text=Coral%20skeletons%20are%20made%20of,a%20framework%20of%20aragonite%20crystals.&text=They%20pump%20hydrogen%20ions%20(H,CaCO3)%20for%20their%20skeletons.}}</ref> Researchers and marine biologists have used 3D printing to produce coral structures designed to stimulate coral growth and preserve the underwater ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Randall|first=Ryan|date=September 13, 2021|title=New Research Examines 3D Coral Printing Possibilities|url=https://phys.org/news/2021-09-3d-coral-possibilities.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210913150846/https://phys.org/news/2021-09-3d-coral-possibilities.html |archive-date=2021-09-13 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-09-09|title=7 Projects That Are Restoring Coral Reefs by 3D Printing Them|url=https://3dprint.com/271739/7-projects-that-are-restoring-coral-reefs-by-3d-printing-them/|access-date=2021-09-14|website=3DPrint.com {{!}} The Voice of 3D Printing / Additive Manufacturing|language=en-US}}</ref>
=== Managing stream flow ===
Sediment flux can be reduced in steep watersheds on montane tropical islands in the [[Hawaiian Islands|Hawaiian archipelago]] by restoring vegetation and controlling [[invasive species]]. [[Gabion]]s — check dams — created by planting normally invasive [[Prosopis pallida|kiawe trees]] by a local community group, stopped 77 tons of sediment from flowing into the ocean that would have needed about five weeks of natural water flow to flush from the reef.<ref name=":1" />{{clarify|reason=Gabions are not made of trees, how was 77 tons established?|date=September 2019}}
=== Coral nurseries ===
[[Aquaculture of coral|Coral aquaculture]], the process of using coral nurseries to restore the world's reefs is a project that is capable of improving [[biodiversity]], structural integrity and coral cover.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Gateño|first1=D.|title=Aquarium Maintenance of Reef Octocorals Raised from Field Collected Larvae|journal=Aquarium Sciences and Conservation|volume=2|issue=4|pages=227–236|doi=10.1023/A:1009627313037|year=1998|s2cid=82102974}}</ref> Coral nurseries can provide young corals for transplantation to rehabilitate areas of reef decline or physical damaged. Direct transplantation is a common process where corals from coral nurseries or salvaged coral that has been dislodged is transplanted and attached in a new area.<ref>Bayraktarov E, Banaszak AT, Montoya Maya P, Kleypas J, Arias-Gonza´lez JE, Blanco M, et al. (2020) Coral reef restoration efforts in Latin American countries and territories. PLoS ONE 15 (8): e0228477. {{doi|10.1371/journal}}. pone.0228477</ref> In this process, coral [[gamete]]s are harvested from spawning grounds and grown in a laboratory environment, then replanted when they grow larger. This allows the coral to grow safely in controlled amounts under lab conditions.<ref>{{cite news|title=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-23773672|date=2013-08-21|access-date=2018-06-21|archive-date=2018-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180521160223/http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-23773672|url-status=live}}</ref> Nurseries can begin as small patches of rescued coral colonies, and may be salvaged and restored before transplantation.<ref>{{cite web|title=Florida Keys NOAA|url=http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/resource_protection/coralnurseries.html|access-date=2015-05-09|archive-date=2015-05-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518104009/http://floridakeys.noaa.gov/resource_protection/coralnurseries.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2009, [[The Nature Conservancy]] began to grow over 30,000 young coral in underwater nurseries in Florida and the Caribbean for transplantation.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Nature Conservancy|url=http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/florida/howwework/stimulating-coral-restoration.xml|access-date=2015-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150518104018/http://www.nature.org/ourinitiatives/regions/northamerica/unitedstates/florida/howwework/stimulating-coral-restoration.xml|archive-date=2015-05-18|url-status=dead}}</ref>
== Management Strategies of Invasive Species ==
[[Invasive species]] are non-native species that are introduced to an [[ecosystem]] through a variety of pathways such as: intentional introductions, accidental releases, and natural events like tsunamis.<ref name=":6">{{Cite web |title=What are Invasive Species? {{!}} National Invasive Species Information Center |url=https://www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov/what-are-invasive-species |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=www.invasivespeciesinfo.gov}}</ref> The most common pathways are said by researches to be ballast water exchange of ocean going vessels and the marine ornamental trade.<ref name=":6" /> Many species that are introduced into non-native areas either die out because they are not able to adapt to their new environment fast enough or they do survive but don’t alter the ecosystems enough to cause any damage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Invasive Species |url=https://www.nwf.org/Home/Educational-Resources/Wildlife-Guide/Threats-to-Wildlife/Invasive-Species |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=National Wildlife Federation |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":7">{{Cite web |title=MASNA » Release and Invasion |url=https://masna.org/masna-education/release-invasion/?gclid=Cj0KCQiAyMKbBhD1ARIsANs7rEEA1mMEoRtBdY7CrBs9S62juqGA43vJ6HplDeTcqCJNaamLKnNfqM4aAsW_EALw_wcB |access-date=2022-11-29 |website=masna.org |language=en-US}}</ref> However, invasive species are given their name because they are able to adapt and thrive in non-native ecosystems causing significant damage to their new ecosystems, the food-web and the environment itself which why it is necessary to develop these management strategies to control them.<ref name=":7" />
Invasive species affect coral reefs both directly and indirectly, corallivores like the [[Crown-of-thorns starfish|Crown of Thorns Starfish]] directly consume corals while [[Pterois]] pose a threat through their over consumption of native species within [[coral reef]] ecosystems.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Crown of Thorns Starfish {{!}} Reef Resilience |url=https://reefresilience.org/stressors/predator-outbreaks/crown-of-thorns-starfish/ |access-date=2022-11-29 |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":7" /> Management strategies may vary depending on the type of invasive species.<ref name=":7" /> Outbreaks of these invasive species have become more frequent over the past century and are adding to the frequency at which coral cover is being lost.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Babcock |first1=Russell C. |last2=Dambacher |first2=Jeffrey M. |last3=Morello |first3=Elisabetta B. |last4=Plagányi |first4=Éva E. |last5=Hayes |first5=Keith R. |last6=Sweatman |first6=Hugh P. A. |last7=Pratchett |first7=Morgan S. |date=2016-12-30 |title=Assessing Different Causes of Crown-of-Thorns Starfish Outbreaks and Appropriate Responses for Management on the Great Barrier Reef |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=11 |issue=12 |pages=e0169048 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0169048 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=5201292 |pmid=28036360|bibcode=2016PLoSO..1169048B |doi-access=free }}</ref>
=== Crown of Thorns Starfish ===
Native to the [[Indo-Pacific|Indo-pacific]] these [[marine invertebrates]] feed on [[coral]] and play a critical role in the coral reef ecosystem, regulating the diversity of corals and maintaining balance within the reefs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Crown of Thorns Starfish {{!}} Reef Resilience |url=https://reefresilience.org/stressors/predator-outbreaks/crown-of-thorns-starfish/ |access-date=2022-11-30 |language=en-US}}</ref> However, the [[Crown-of-thorns starfish|crown of thorns starfish]] (''[[Acanthaster]]'' ''sp''., COTS) is also a natural boom-and-bust species which mean that their population dynamics are characterized by the extreme fluctuations in adult abundance, followed by population collapse as coral food levels decline, leaving a swath of dead coral behind.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Westcott |first=David |date=2020 |title=Relative efficacy of three approaches to mitigate Crown-of-Thorns Starfish outbreaks on Australia's Great Barrier Reef |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343319638 |access-date=2022-11-30 |journal=Scientific Reports|volume=10 |issue=1 |page=12594 |doi=10.1038/s41598-020-69466-1 |pmid=32724152 |pmc=7387460 |bibcode=2020NatSR..1012594W }}</ref> COTS outbreaks were first discovered in the 1960’s on the [[Great Barrier Reef|GBR]], occurring under natural conditions as frequently as every 50–80 years. However, unnaturally there has been an increase in the frequency of outbreaks to every 15 years has led to further research that still hasn’t been answered.<ref name=":8" />
'''Manual control'''
Manual control is the process in which experienced COTS control divers remove COTS from reefs either by [[lethal injection]]s or hand collections and disposal on shore.<ref name=":9">{{Cite journal |date=2022 |title=Crown of thorns starfish life-history traits contribute to outbreaks, a continuing concern for coral reefs |url=https://portlandpress.com/emergtoplifesci/article/6/1/67/230852/Crown-of-thorns-starfish-life-history-traits |journal=Nature}}</ref> This method has been around from the 1960s, since then 17 million starfish have been killed or removed as a collective by 84 manual control programs at an estimated cost of $15–44 million USD.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" /> Due to the large cost and limited success in preventing COTS outbreaks and coral loss, scientists doubt the effectivity of this method.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" /> Sites are selected by the national governments of individual countries with coasts based on the potential significance in the overall pattern of coral and COTS larval spread for example: economically important for tourism, or located on reefs that oceanographic modeling suggested were highly connected to other reefs.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":9" /><ref name=":12">{{Citation |last1=Matthews |first1=S. A. |title=Chapter Nine - Larval connectivity and water quality explain spatial distribution of crown-of-thorns starfish outbreaks across the Great Barrier Reef |date=2020-01-01 |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0065288120300390 |journal=Advances in Marine Biology |volume=87 |pages=223–258 |editor-last=Riegl |editor-first=Bernhard M. |series=Population Dynamics of the Reef Crisis |publisher=Academic Press |language=en |access-date=2022-11-30 |last2=Mellin |first2=C. |last3=Pratchett |first3=Morgan S.|issue=1 |doi=10.1016/bs.amb.2020.08.007 |pmid=33293012 |s2cid=226407282 }}</ref> Selected sites including permanent survey marked sites are used to precisely relocate RHIS survey sites for continuous measurements of coral cover.<ref name=":8" />
'''Marine Protected Area zoning'''
Marine Protected Area zones are areas created by [[Marine national parks|Marine National Parks]] or other management operators of a country. There are two components to a Marine protected area, zoning and the degree of protection for each zone.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":11">{{Cite journal |last1=Rogers |first1=Jacob G. D. |last2=Plagányi |first2=Éva E. |date=2022-05-09 |title=Culling corallivores improves short-term coral recovery under bleaching scenarios |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=2520 |doi=10.1038/s41467-022-30213-x |pmid=35534497 |pmc=9085818 |bibcode=2022NatCo..13.2520R |issn=2041-1723}}</ref> Marine zoning has in previous studies been highly successful in minimizing outbreaks of COTS when it is paired with manual control.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":11" /> There are three different types of zoning, ‘no-take’, ‘limited-take’ and ‘take’ zones on COTS numbers and coral cover.<ref name=":11" />
'''Water quality management'''
Increasing water quality has the ability to increase or decrease COTS outbreaks.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":12"/> According to earlier studies, controlling the quality of the water can help prevent breakouts to some extent but this is not always tangible.<ref name=":8" /> Exposure to flood plumes variables and the presence of COTS indicated a positive threshold type response at low levels, highlighting the significance of larval nutrition availability for the establishment of COTS populations.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Castro-Sanguino |first1=Carolina |last2=Ortiz |first2=Juan Carlos |last3=Thompson |first3=Angus |last4=Wolff |first4=Nicholas H. |last5=Ferrari |first5=Renata |last6=Robson |first6=Barbara |last7=Magno-Canto |first7=Marites M. |last8=Puotinen |first8=Marji |last9=Fabricius |first9=Katharina E. |last10=Uthicke |first10=Sven |date=2021-04-01 |title=Reef state and performance as indicators of cumulative impacts on coral reefs |journal=Ecological Indicators |language=en |volume=123 |pages=107335 |doi=10.1016/j.ecolind.2020.107335 |s2cid=233569637 |issn=1470-160X|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=":12" /> Excess nutrients run-off from agricultural land uses (grazing, grain, sugar cane, and horticulture) create [[Algal bloom|phytoplankton blooms]] in reef waters that can be carried to COTS populations.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":12" /> Water quality can be managed by controlling how [[Drainage basin|catchments]] discharge water, but this requires intensive land management employing best management practices.<ref name=":8" /><ref name=":12"/>
==Marine protected areas==
[[File:NPS channel-islands-marine-reserve-map.jpg|thumb|252x252px|This map shows all the marine reserve areas around the Santa Barbara Channel islands, where fishing is not permitted. Also labeled are marine conservation areas and visitor centers on the mainland.]]
[[Marine protected area]]s (MPAs) have become an increasingly prominent tool for reef management. MPAs promote responsible [[Fisheries management|fishery management]] and [[habitat]] protection. Much like [[national park]]s and [[wildlife refuge]]s, and to varying degrees, MPAs restrict potentially damaging activities. MPAs encompass both social and biological objectives, including reef restoration, aesthetics, biodiversity and economic activity. MPAs have not been universally accepted. Conflicts relate to lack of participation, clashing views, effectiveness and funding.{{citation needed|date=December 2010}} Many MPAs offer inadequate protection for coral reefs. Only 27% of coral reefs are in MPAs globally. Only 15% of MPA sites were considered effective, with 38% partially effective and 47% ineffective. This leaves only 6% of coral reefs in effectively managed MPAs.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pdf.wri.org/reefs_at_risk_revisited_executive_summary.pdf |title=Reefs at Risk Revisited |publisher=World Resources Institute |date=February 2011 |access-date=March 16, 2012 |archive-date=June 13, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190613030504/http://pdf.wri.org/reefs_at_risk_revisited_executive_summary.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> In some situations, as in [[Kiribati]]'s [[Phoenix Islands Protected Area]], MPAs provide revenue that is potentially equal to the income they would have generated without controls.<ref>{{cite web
|title=Phoenix Rising
|publisher=National Geographic Magazine
|date=January 2011
|access-date=April 30, 2011
|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/01/phoenix-islands/stone-text
|archive-date=August 9, 2011
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110809040407/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/01/phoenix-islands/stone-text
|url-status=dead
}}</ref>
[[Biosphere reserve]], [[marine park]], [[national monument]] and [[world heritage]] status can protect reefs. For example, Belize's Barrier reef, [[Chagos Archipelago]], [[Sian Ka'an Biosphere Reserve|Sian Ka'an]], the [[Galápagos Islands]], [[Great Barrier Reef]], [[Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)|Henderson Island]], [[Palau]] and [[Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument]] are world heritage sites.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}
The [[Parcel de Manuel Luís Marine State Park]] protects the largest coral reef in the South Atlantic.<ref>{{citation|title=Decreto nº 11.902 de 11 de Junho de 1991|language=pt|author1=Edison Lobão|author2=Fernando César de Moreira Mesquita|date=11 June 1991|publisher=State of Maranhão|url=https://documentacao.socioambiental.org/ato_normativo/UC/305_20100823_151217.pdf|access-date=2016-08-03|archive-date=2019-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191021072153/https://documentacao.socioambiental.org/ato_normativo/UC/305_20100823_151217.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref>
This became a Ramsar Site in February 2000.<ref>{{citation|date=23 January 2015|title=Parcel de Manuel Luís, sítio Ramsar e parque marinho|author=Marcelo Carota|publisher=MMA: Ministério do Meio Ambiente|language=pt|url=http://mma.gov.br/index.php/comunicacao/agencia-informma?view=blog&id=709|access-date=2016-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150523093132/http://mma.gov.br/index.php/comunicacao/agencia-informma?view=blog&id=709|archive-date=23 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]], and is the subject of much legislation, including a biodiversity action plan.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}}
Inhabitants of Ahus Island, [[Manus Province]], [[Papua New Guinea]], have followed a generations-old practice of restricting fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. Their cultural traditions allow line fishing, but not net or [[spear fishing]]. The result is both the [[biomass]] and individual fish sizes are significantly larger than in places where fishing is unrestricted.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cinner |first1=Joshua E. |first2=Michael J.|last2= MARNANE |first3=Tim R.|last3= McClanahan |year=2005 |title=Conservation and community benefits from traditional coral reef management at Ahus Island, Papua New Guinea |journal=[[Conservation Biology (journal)|Conservation Biology]] |volume=19 |issue=6 |pages=1714–1723 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00209.x-i1 |bibcode=2005ConBi..19.1714C |s2cid=83619557 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url=http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17182 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061001013329/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17182 | url-status=dead | archive-date=1 October 2006 |title=Coral Reef Management, Papua New Guinea |publisher = [[NASA]] [[Earth Observatory]]|access-date=2 November 2006}}</ref>
==See also==
* [[Environmental issues with coral reefs]]
* [[Coral Reef Alliance]]
* [[Seacology]]
* [[Great Barrier Reef Marine Park]]
* [[Marine cloud brightening#Research|Marine cloud brightening]]
*[[Frozen zoo]]
*[[National Ice Core Laboratory]]
*[[Amphibian Ark]]
*[[Svalbard Global Seed Vault]]
*[[Rosetta Project]]
== References ==
{{Reflist|36em}}
==Further reading==
* {{Cite book|publisher=The National Academies Press, National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine|author=|title=A Research Review of Interventions to Increase the Persistence and Resilience of Coral Reefs|location=Washington, DC|date=2019|doi=10.17226/25279|isbn=978-0-309-48535-7|s2cid=134877358}} {{open access}}
== External links ==
* {{Cite web|url = http://www.mnmrc.com/wp-content/uploads/pdf/Maui_Coral_Reef_Recovery_Plan_MASTER.pdf|title = Maui Coral Reef Recovery Plan|date = 2012|access-date = 2016-02-21|website = mnmrc.org|publisher = Maui Nui Marine Resource Council|last = Maui Coral Reef Recovery Team}}
{{Corals}}
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Coral reefs|*]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]] |
Category:Environmental protection agencies | {{Commons category|Environmental protection agencies}}
Government bodies and agencies whose role includes the oversight, administration and enforcement of environmental policy.
[[Category:Environmental agencies|Protection agencies]]
[[Category:Environmental protection|Agencies]] |
Low-emission zone | {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}}
{{short description|Area established to improve air quality}}
A '''low-emission zone''' ('''LEZ''') is a defined area where access by some polluting vehicles is restricted or deterred with the aim of improving [[air quality]]. This may favour vehicles such as bicycles, [[micromobility]] vehicles, (certain) [[alternative fuel vehicle]]s, [[hybrid electric vehicle]]s, [[plug-in hybrid]]s, and [[zero-emission vehicle]]s such as [[all-electric vehicle]]s.
A '''zero-emission zone''' ('''ZEZ''') is a LEZ where only zero-emissions vehicles (ZEVs) are allowed. In such areas, all [[internal combustion engine]] vehicles are banned; this includes any [[plug-in hybrid vehicle]]s which cannot run zero-emission.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20216/air_quality_management/1306/oxford_zero_emission_zone_zez_frequently_asked_questions|title=Oxford Zero Emission Zone (ZEZ) frequently asked questions|last=Council|first=Oxford City|website=www.oxford.gov.uk|language=en|access-date=6 January 2020}}</ref> Only [[battery electric vehicle]]s and [[hydrogen vehicle]]s are allowed in a ZEZ, along with walking and cycling and fully electric public transport vehicles, e.g. trams, [[electric bus]]es etc.
==Workings==
In many LEZs, vehicles that do not meet the emission standards set by the LEZ are not barred from entry into the LEZ (i.e. using automated [[boom barrier]]s), but rather simply fined if they enter the zone. A fine is not issued if entering the LEZ with a vehicle that does not meet the emission standards, when a fee (LEZ daily charge, ...) has been paid. In some LEZs, such as the one in London, this is done by [[automatic number-plate recognition]] (ANPR) cameras which read the vehicle registration number plate as they enter the LEZ and then compare it against a database of vehicles which:
* either meet the LEZ emissions standards,
* or are either exempt or registered for a 100 percent discount,
* or if the LEZ daily charge has been paid<ref>[https://www.ifsecglobal.com/uncategorized/anpr-cameras-used-for-london-emission-zone/ ANPR cameras used for London emission zone]</ref>
This fee/fine works as a deterrent for those having a vehicle that does not meet the LEZ emission standard for entering the city, and those having such vehicles will hence try to avoid paying this fee/fine (using various means, see "intent and actual impact").
==Intent and actual impact==
The intent of LEZs is generally to improve air quality within cities.<ref>[https://airqualitynews.com/2017/11/30/london-emissions-crackdown/ Views sought on ‘inner London’ ULEZ]</ref> This intent is indeed achieved, with diesel particulates (PM10) dropping in most LEZs,<ref name="Impact of Low Emission Zones">[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/low-emission-zones-main/impact-of-low-emission-zones Impact of Low Emission Zones]</ref> and health improving.<ref> {{Cite news |last=Fuller |first=Gary |date=2023-06-30 |title=Low emission zones are improving health, studies show |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jun/30/low-emission-zones-lez-improving-health-studies |access-date=2023-07-12 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
Often, this is achieved as people with polluting vehicles replace them with vehicles that attain a higher emission standard,<ref>{{cite journal | url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S136192091300059X | doi=10.1016/j.trd.2013.03.010 | title=Five years of London's low emission zone: Effects on vehicle fleet composition and air quality | year=2013 | last1=Ellison | first1=Richard B. | last2=Greaves | first2=Stephen P. | last3=Hensher | first3=David A. | journal=Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment | volume=23 | pages=25–33 }}</ref> which may mean buying a new vehicle, or travelling throughout avenues and roads distant from the areas where pollution is concentrated. Some people (such as workers on night shift or carrying heavy tools or cargo) however can't do without a car, but might not be able to afford to purchase unsubsidized cleaner vehicles. Therefore in some places the LEZ is only enforced when public transport is available, or electric taxis<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://news.bristol.gov.uk/news/subsidies-on-offer-to-taxi-drivers-who-switch-to-electric-vehicles-2|title=Subsidies on offer to taxi drivers who switch to electric vehicles|website=Bristol City Council News|language=english|access-date=6 January 2020}}</ref> or [[cargobike]]s are subsidized.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/carltonreid/2019/04/03/london-wants-vans-replaced-by-cargobikes-introduces-subsidy-and-behavior-change-program/|title=London Wants Vans Replaced By Cargobikes, Introduces Subsidy And Behavior Change Program|last=Reid|first=Carlton|website=Forbes|language=en|access-date=6 January 2020}}</ref>
The [[European Federation for Transport and Environment]] is of the opinion that LEZs should be gradually turned into zero-emission mobility zones and complement policies promoting a switch to [[Alternatives to car use|clean alternatives]], including walking and cycling, among others.<ref>{{cite web |last=Bannon |first=Eoin |title=Low-Emission Zones are a success – but they must now move to zero-emission mobility |url=https://www.transportenvironment.org/publications/low-emission-zones-are-success-%E2%80%93-they-must-now-move-zero-emission-mobility |website=Transport & Environment |access-date=1 April 2021 |date=10 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Sumantran |first1=Venkat |last2=Fine |first2=Charles |last3=Gonsalvez |first3=David |title=Our cities need fewer cars, not cleaner cars |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/16/our-cities-need-fewer-cars-not-cleaner-cars-electric-green-transport |access-date=1 April 2021 |website=The Guardian |date=16 October 2017}}</ref>
Most LEZs which are not also congestion charge zones do not change the number of vehicles entering the zone: but some LEZs (such as the one in Milan) double as congestion charge zones and thus have the potential to reduce the numbers travelling into the city.<ref name="Impact of Low Emission Zones"/>
==Implementation by country==
[[File:Umweltzone rot, gelb, grün frei.svg|thumb|Sign marking a German low-emission zone. Vehicles with red, yellow, and green emissions stickers are permitted in the zone.]]
{{As of|2019}} there are about 250 low-emission zones (LEZ),<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-47816360|title=London's ULEZ: How does it compare?|last=McGrath|first=Matt|date=8 April 2019|access-date=19 June 2019|language=en-GB}}</ref> which help meet EU health-based [[Air pollution#European Union|air quality limit values]]. This means that vehicles may be banned from a LEZ, or in some cases charged if they enter a LEZ when their emissions are over a set level. Although common in Europe the continent's largest cities are lacking: Istanbul has no LEZ and Moscow's is not enforced.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Kholod |first1=Nazar |last2=Evans |first2=Meredydd |date=2016-02-01 |title=Reducing black carbon emissions from diesel vehicles in Russia: An assessment and policy recommendations |journal=Environmental Science & Policy |language=en |volume=56 |pages=1–8 |doi=10.1016/j.envsci.2015.10.017 |issn=1462-9011|doi-access=free }}</ref>
Different vehicles may be regulated, depending on local conditions. All LEZs apply to heavy vehicles, some to diesel vans, others also to diesel and petrol cars; in Italy, motor cycles and three-wheelers are also liable to control.
A publicly funded website run by a network of cities and ministries operating or preparing LEZs gives up-to-date information on LEZs, such as which cities have LEZs, the vehicle types affected, the required emissions standards and their application dates.<ref name=LEZEurope>{{cite web|url=https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/ |title=Urban Access Regulations in Europe |publisher=Sadler Consultants Ltd. |date= |accessdate=19 June 2019}}</ref>
===Belgium===
* [[Antwerp]]: Since 2017, there has been a LEZ in [[Antwerp]], 24/7. Only diesel vehicles above Euro 3/III norm and petrol vehicles above Euro 1/I norm are allowed to enter the LEZ.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.slimnaarantwerpen.be/en/lez |title=Antwerp LEZ |publisher=Stad Antwerpen |accessdate=8 March 2017}}</ref>
* Brussels: Since 2018, the entire [[Brussels Capital Region]] has been a LEZ.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.brussels.be/lez |title=Low Emission Zone |date=3 October 2017 |publisher=Brussels Capital Region |accessdate=30 June 2021}}</ref> Only diesel vehicles above Euro 4/IV norm are allowed to enter Brussels.<ref>{{Cite web|date=21 December 2021|title=Low Emission Zone: new ban from 2022|url=https://www.brussels.be/low-emission-zone-new-ban-2022|access-date=8 January 2022|website=www.brussels.be|language=en}}</ref> <br/>Since 2019 petrol or gas-powered vehicles need to be Euro 2/II or more.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://lez.brussels/mytax/en/practical?tab=Agenda |title=In practice: Everything you need to know about the LEZ in the Brussels-Capital Region. |publisher=Brussels Capital Region |accessdate=30 June 2021}}</ref>
* [[Ghent]] introduced a LEZ on 1 January 2020.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://stad.gent/natuur-milieu/lage-emissiezone-2020 |title=Lage-Emissiezone 2020 |publisher=Stad Gent |accessdate=11 November 2017}}</ref>
===China===
An LEZ is present in Beijing.<ref>[https://wrirosscities.org/our-work/project-city/beijing-low-emission-zone Beijing Low Emission Zone]</ref><ref>[http://www.sustainabletransport.org/archives/tag/low-emission-zones LEZ examples]</ref>
===Denmark===
Denmark has LEZs that are applicable to vehicles over 3.5 t.<ref name=LEZEurope/>
In Denmark, LEZs exist in Aalborg, Aarhus, Copenhagen, Frederiksberg and Odense.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/denmark-mainmenu-221 LEZs Denmark]</ref>
===Finland===
A LEZ is present in Helsinki.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/finland LEZs Finland]</ref>
===France===
France has LEZs in Greater Paris, Grenoble, Lyon, Paris and Strasbourg<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/france LEZs in France]</ref>
===Germany===
In Germany, an LEZ is called an environmental zone (''Umweltzone''). There are currently 47 LEZs in operation or in planning in Germany.<ref name="LEZEurope" /> The cities of [[Berlin]], [[Cologne]], [[Hanover]], [[Mannheim]] and [[Stuttgart]] started LEZs in their respective central city areas in 2008 and more cities followed in the years after.
===Hong Kong===
Since the end of 2015, the Hong Kong Government has designated three major junctions in [[Central, Hong Kong|Central]], [[Causeway Bay]] and [[Mong Kok]] as low emission zone for [[Bus services in Hong Kong|franchised buses]]. For bus routes entering the three zones, franchised bus operators are required to use only buses meeting emission standards of [[European emission standards|Euro IV]] or above except when necessary. The LEZ scheme does not cover vehicles other than franchised buses.<ref>[http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201512/31/P201512310204.htm Government sets up franchised bus low emission zones starting today] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160202173836/http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/201512/31/P201512310204.htm |date=2 February 2016 }}</ref> As of 31 December 2019, the standard for entry into the LEZ has been increased to Euro V.
=== Indonesia ===
The first LEZ in Indonesia is implemented at the old downtown of [[Jakarta]], the [[Kota Tua Jakarta]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Wibawana |first=Widhia Arum |date=2022-09-11 |title=Low Emission Zone Artinya Apa? LEZ Berlaku di Kota Tua Jakarta |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-6285913/low-emission-zone-artinya-apa-lez-berlaku-di-kota-tua-jakarta |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=[[Detik.com|detiknews]] |language=id-ID}}</ref> It was first implemented on 8 February 2021 after having a trial run from 18-23 December 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2020-12-19 |title=Membatasi Kendaraan Bermotor di Kota Tua |url=https://koran.tempo.co/read/metro/460878/membatasi-kendaraan-bermotor-di-kota-tua |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=[[Tempo (Indonesian magazine)|koran.tempo.co]] |language=id}}</ref> The city government chose Kota Tua Jakarta as an LEZ in order to reduce air pollution on the site due to its rich historical value.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Anjani |first=Anatasia |date=2021-11-17 |title=Kota Tua Dijadikan Kawasan Emisi Rendah, Mengapa? |url=https://www.detik.com/edu/detikpedia/d-5814882/kota-tua-dijadikan-kawasan-emisi-rendah-mengapa |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=[[Detik.com|detikedu]] |language=id-ID}}</ref> Air pollution is concerned to damage the structure of old buildings within the site. The LEZ implementation is permanent and only [[TransJakarta]] buses, bicycles, pedestrians, and vehicles with special marker are allowed to enter the streets of the old town.<ref name=":0" />
Beside that, LEZ is also implemented at the surrounding area of [[Tebet Eco Park]] in [[South Jakarta]]. Unlike the previous one in Kota Tua, LEZ in Tebet Eco Park is only implemented on weekends and public holidays.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Budi |first=Mulia |date=2022-08-20 |title=Pro Kontra Opini Pengunjung soal Tebet Eco Park Masuk Zona Emisi Rendah |url=https://news.detik.com/berita/d-6244645/pro-kontra-opini-pengunjung-soal-tebet-eco-park-masuk-zona-emisi-rendah |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=detiknews |language=id-ID}}</ref> Residents or workers in the surrounding area of the park have to place a sticker with [[QR code]] on their vehicle.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-07-11 |title=Ini 2 Ruas Jalan di Sekitar Tebet Eco Park yang Bakal Dilarang untuk Dilintasi Kendaraan Bermotor |url=https://voi.id/amp/188983/ini-2-ruas-jalan-di-sekitar-tebet-eco-park-yang-bakal-dilarang-untuk-dilintasi-kendaraan-bermotor |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=VOI - Waktunya Merevolusi Pemberitaan |language=id}}</ref>
===Italy===
Italy has LEZs that are applicable to all vehicles.<ref name=LEZEurope/>
There are combined LEZs and urban road tolling schemes in Milan and Palermo as well as low emission zones with differing standards and time periods. The latter are mainly found in north Italy, but also in mid Italy and Sicily.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/italy-mainmenu-81 LEZs Italy]</ref> Some [[limited traffic zone]]s are also aimed at limiting pollution levels.
===Japan===
In Tokyo, the municipal government decided to tackle controlling diesel vehicle emissions (particulate matter emissions, ...) far ahead of the national government.<ref>[https://www.japanfs.org/en/news/archives/news_id030817.html Tokyo Metropolitan Government's Efforts to Control Diesel Vehicle Emissions]</ref><ref>[http://www.kankyo.metro.tokyo.jp/en/automobile/diesel.html TMG: Measures against Diesel Emissions]</ref>
===Netherlands===
[[Amsterdam]], [[The Hague]], [[Utrecht]] and [[Arnhem]] have LEZs (''milieuzone'') applying to passenger cars and delivery vans. Only diesel passenger cars and diesel delivery vans meeting the emission standards of Euro 4 and above are allowed to enter the LEZs. Diesel trucks and diesel Buses/coaches have to meet Euro VI (6) or above to enter the LEZs. The LEZ of Arnhem does not apply to buses/coaches.<ref>[https://www.milieuzones.nl/locaties-milieuzones LEZs in the Netherlands]</ref>
The LEZ of Amsterdam covers practically the entire area within the [[A10 motorway (Netherlands)|A10 highway]]. The highway itself is not part of the LEZ.<ref>[https://www.amsterdam.nl/en/traffic-transport/low-emission-zone/ LEZ for diesel vehicles]</ref>
The LEZ of The Hague covers the area enclosed by the Centrumring (S100) and Professor B.M. Teldersweg (S200). These roads themselves, as well as the road from Lijnbaan to the visitors’ car park and the parking garage of the HMC Westeinde hospital, are not part of the LEZ.<ref>[https://www.denhaag.nl/en/in-the-city/getting-there-and-around/low-emission-zone-for-diesel-cars-.htm LEZ for diesel cars]</ref>
[[Rotterdam]] has an LEZ applying to trucks only. Diesel trucks have to meet the Euro VI (6) emission standard or above.<ref>[https://www.rotterdam.nl/wonen-leven/milieuzone/ LEZ Rotterdam]</ref>
===Norway===
Norway has LEZs in Bergen and Oslo.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/norway-mainmenu-197 LEZs in Norway]</ref>
===Portugal===
Portugal has an LEZ in Lisbon.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/portugal LEZs in Portugal]</ref>
===Spain===
[[Pontevedra]] was the first Spanish city to ban traffic in its core, in 1999.<ref>[https://elpais.com/sociedad/2018/11/30/actualidad/1543595906_838257.html Pontevedra, the city that defeated cars]. [[El País]]</ref> [[Málaga]] and [[Seville]] were the next cities to establish low emission zones, with traffic only allowed for residents, in 2009.<ref>[https://www.20minutos.es/noticia/475742/0/pilonas/centro/malaga/ Málaga: The historic center closes to traffic]. [[20 minutos]]</ref> Seville rolled back its low-emission zone under the mayorship of [[Juan Ignacio Zoido]] in 2011,<ref>[https://www.lainformacion.com/estilo-de-vida-y-tiempo-libre/el-alcalde-deroga-el-plan-que-restringia-los-coches-en-centro-de-sevilla_boVsoW4oQEN35u7MigLE04/ Mayor abolishes plan to restrict cars in Seville center]. La Información</ref> but at date of August 2021 a new system was in the process of implementation.<ref>[https://www.sevilla.org/respira/casco-antiguo-triana Restricted traffic zones]. Seville City Council</ref>
[[Madrid]] established [[Madrid Central|its LEZ]] in 2018 in its [[Centro (Madrid)|city center]], and [[Barcelona]] approved it in 2020.<ref>[https://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/spain LEZs in Spain]</ref>
===Sweden===
The cities of [[Gothenburg]], [[Lund]], [[Malmö]], Helsingborg, Mölndal, Uppsala, Umeå and [[Stockholm]] have low-emission zones.<ref>{{cite web|title=Urban Access Regulation in Europe|url=http://urbanaccessregulations.eu/countries-mainmenu-147/sweden-mainmenu-248|accessdate=21 December 2016}}</ref> Heavy trucks and buses with compression ignited engines (mainly diesel engines) may not be allowed inside the environmental zones depending on their age and on their emission class.<ref>{{cite web|title=Miljözoner|url=https://www.transportstyrelsen.se/sv/vagtrafik/Miljo/Miljozoner/|accessdate=12 January 2017}}</ref>
===United Kingdom===
{{See also|Clean Air Zone}}
[[File:Sign for London ultra low emission zone (geograph 6183970).jpg|thumb|Sign for the [[Ultra Low Emission Zone]] (ULEZ) in London (left)]]
The [[London low emission zone]] came into effect in 2008 covering almost all of [[Greater London]] – the largest such zone in the world. The [[Low Emission Zone]] targets emissions of these pollutants from older diesel-engined [[lorries]], buses, [[Coach (vehicle)|coaches]], vans, [[minibus]]es and other heavy vehicles that are derived from lorries and vans such as motor caravans and motorised horse boxes. There was a phased introduction of the scheme from 2008 through to 2012. Different vehicles were affected over time and increasingly tougher emissions standards applied.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tfl.gov.uk/roadusers/lez/vehicles/2535.aspx |title=Emissions standards |publisher=Transport for London |accessdate=21 November 2007}}</ref>
The London [[Ultra Low Emission Zone]] started on 8 April 2019 and initially covered [[Central London]], the same area as the existing [[London congestion charge|congestion charge]]. On 25 October 2021, the zone was extended to cover the [[Inner London]] area within the [[North Circular Road|North Circular]] and [[South Circular Road, London|South Circular]] roads.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ft.com/content/167d27aa-d7e1-4b6b-b8d2-b657310efe01|title=Londoners get ready for expansion of low emission zone|date=24 October 2021|website=[[Financial Times]]}}</ref> It was expanded again on 29 August 2023 to coincide with the London low emission zone, covering almost all of [[Greater London]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-london-63754724 |title=ULEZ: Ultra Low Emissions Zone to cover all of London |date=25 November 2022 |website=[[BBC News]]}}</ref>
[[File:UK traffic sign TA4754.H.svg|thumb|upright|Ultra Low Emission Zone (ULEZ) sign]]
[[Glasgow]] introduced a Low Emission Zone (LEZ) at the end of 2018. Initially, only local buses in the centre of the city are affected. On 1 June 2023 restrictions were extended to all vehicles, including older petrol and diesel cars.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.glasgow.gov.uk/LEZ | title=Glasgow's Low Emission Zone (LEZ) | date=20 July 2018 }}</ref> [[Norwich]], and [[York]] also introduced a LEZ.<ref>[Norwich Low Emission Zone https://laqm.defra.gov.uk/documents/Norwich_lez.pdf]</ref><ref name=UKZEZ/>
Since 2015, more than 60 local authorities have been ordered to tackle illegal levels of air pollution, which is why many of these planning to introduce [[clean air zone]]s. The following cities have plans to introduce LEZs: [[Aberdeen]] (2020), [[Bath, Somerset|Bath]] (2021), [[Birmingham]] (2019), [[Derby]], Dundee (2020), [[Edinburgh]] (2020), [[Manchester]] (2022), [[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]] (2021), and [[Sheffield]] (2021).<ref name=UKZEZ/> [[Leeds]] also intended to introduce a LEZ, however increased uptake of cleaner vehicles led to the scheme's cancellation in 2020.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://news.leeds.gov.uk/news/leeds-clean-air-zone-has-achieved-its-aims-early-and-is-no-longer-required-joint-review-finds |title=Leeds' Clean Air Zone has achieved its aims early and is no longer required, joint review finds |date=2020-10-13 |access-date=2023-05-31 |author=[[Leeds City Council]] }}</ref>
{{Asof|2020|06}}, [[Oxford]] is claiming to become the first city to implement a Zero Emission Zone (ZEZ) scheme, beginning with a small area to go into effect by mid 2021. It was postponed from a 2020 start due to the economic impacts of the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. However, the proposals can more accurately be described as a Low Emission Zone or Ultra Low Emission Zone as any vehicle can enter on payment of a charge.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20299/air_quality_projects/1305/oxford_zero_emission_zone_zez | title=Oxford's Zero Emission Zone – 20/03/2020 update | author=Oxford City Council |publisher=[[Oxford City Council]] | date=20 March 2020 | accessdate=18 June 2020}}</ref> The plan is to expand the ZEZ gradually into a much larger zone, until the ZEZ encompasses the majority of the city centre by 2035.<ref>{{cite web| url=https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20299/air_quality_projects/1305/oxford_zero_emission_zone_zez | title=Oxford's Zero Emission Zone – 20/03/2020 update | author=Oxford City Council |publisher=[[Oxford City Council]] | date=20 March 2020 | accessdate=18 June 2020}}</ref><ref name=UKZEZ>{{Cite web|url=https://www.buyacar.co.uk/cars/economical-cars/523/clean-air-zone-charges-where-are-britains-low-emission-zones |first=Dominic |last=Tobin |title=Clean air zone charges: where are Britain's low emission zones?|publisher=buyacar.co.uk |date=12 March 2019|access-date=29 March 2020}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.oxford.gov.uk/info/20216/air_quality_management/208/oxfords_low_emission_zone_lez|title=Oxford's Low Emission Zone (LEZ)}}</ref>
==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
*[[Automatic number-plate recognition]]
*[[Battery electric vehicle]]
*''[[Crit'air]]''
*[[Carfree city]]
*[[Congestion pricing]]
*[[Cyclability]]
*[[Ecopass]]
*[[Electric car]]
*[[Environmental aspects of the electric car]]
*[[Fenceline community]]
*[[List of modern production plug-in electric vehicles]]
*[[Phase-out of fossil fuel vehicles]]
*[[Plug-in electric vehicle]]
*[[Plug-in hybrid]]
*[[Road space rationing]]
*[[Sustainable transport]]
*[[Transit mall]]
*[[Zero-emissions vehicle]]
{{div col end}}
==References==
{{Reflist}}
==External links==
*[http://www.lowemissionzones.eu Low-emission zones in Europe]
[[Category:Air pollution]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Traffic calming]]
[[Category:Transportation planning]] |
Three generations of human rights | {{short description|Division of human rights into three chronological categories}}
{{Rights|Human}}
The division of [[human rights]] into '''three generations''' was initially proposed in 1979 by the [[Czech people|Czech]] jurist [[Karel Vasak]] at the [[International Institute of Human Rights]] in [[Strasbourg]]. He used the term at least as early as November 1977.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Vašák|first=Karel|title=A 30-year struggle; the sustained efforts to give force of law to the Universal Declaration of Human Rights|url=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000048063|access-date=2021-09-20|website=UNESDOC}}</ref> Vasak's theories have primarily taken root in European law.
In a speech two years later, his divisions follow the three watchwords of the [[French Revolution]]: ''[[Liberté, égalité, fraternité|Liberty, Equality, Fraternity]]''.<ref>Etudes et essais sur le droit international humanitaire et sur les principes de la Croix-Rouge en l'honneur de Jean Pictet, red. by Christophe Swinarski, Comité Internat. de la Croix-Rouge ; Nijhoff, 1984</ref> The three generations are reflected in some of the rubrics of the [[Charter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union]].{{citation needed|date=April 2015}} While the [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] lists first- and second-generation rights, the document itself does not specifically order them in accordance with Vasak's framework.
== First-generation human rights ==
First-generation human rights, sometimes called "blue rights", deal essentially with liberty and participation in political life. They are fundamentally [[civil and political rights|civil and political]] in nature: They serve [[negative and positive rights|negatively to protect]] the individual from excesses of the state. First-generation rights include, among other things, the [[right to life]], [[equality before the law]], [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of religion]], [[property right]]s, the [[right to a fair trial]], and [[voting rights]]. Some of these rights and the right to due process date back to the [[Magna Carta]] of 1215 and the [[Rights of Englishmen]], which were expressed in the [[English Bill of Rights]] in 1689. A more full set of first-generation human rights was pioneered in [[France]] by the [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen]] in 1789, and by the [[United States Bill of Rights]] in 1791.
They were enshrined at the global level and given status in [[international law]] first by Articles 3 to 21 of the 1948 [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] and later in the 1966 [[International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights]]. In Europe, they were enshrined in the [[European Convention on Human Rights]] in 1953.
== Second-generation human rights ==
Second-generation human rights are related to equality and began to be recognized by governments after [[World War II]]. They are fundamentally [[economic, social and cultural rights|economic, social, and cultural]] in nature. They guarantee different members of the citizenry equal conditions and treatment. Secondary rights would include a [[right to work|right to be employed]] in [[decent work|just and favorable condition]], rights to [[right to food|food]], [[public housing|housing]] and [[universal health care|health care]], as well as [[social security]] and [[unemployment benefit]]s. Like first-generation rights, they were also covered by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and further embodied in Articles 22 to 28 of the Universal Declaration, and the [[International Covenant on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights]].
In the [[United States of America]], President [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] proposed a [[Second Bill of Rights]], covering much the same grounds, during his State of the Union Address on January 11, 1944. Today, many nations, states, or groups of nations have developed legally binding declarations guaranteeing comprehensive sets of human rights, e.g. the [[European Social Charter]].
Some [[U.S. state|U.S. states]] have enacted some of these economic rights; for example, the state of [[New York (state)|New York]] has enshrined the [[Campaign for Fiscal Equity#Campaign for Fiscal Equity.2C Inc. v. State|right to a free education]],<ref>N.Y. Const. ART. XI, § 1, found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA11S1+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=14425895+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website]. Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref><ref>''Campaign for Fiscal Equity, Inc. v. State'', 86 N.Y.2d 307 (1995). Case brief found at [https://www.law.cornell.edu/nyctap/comments/i95_0156.htm] [[Cornell Law School]] website. Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref> as well as "the right to [[Labor union|organize]] and to [[Collective bargaining|bargain collectively]]",<ref>N.Y. Const. ART. I, § 17, found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA1S17+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=08222978+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website]. Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref> and [[workers' compensation]],<ref>N.Y. Const. ART. I, § 18, found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA1S18+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=08222978+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website]. Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref> in its [[constitutional law]].
These rights are sometimes referred to as "[[Red#Use by political movements|red]]" rights. They impose upon the government the duty to respect and promote and fulfill them, but this depends on the availability of resources. The duty is imposed on the state because it controls its own resources. No one has the direct [[right to housing]] and [[right to education]]. (In [[South Africa]], for instance, the right is not, ''per se'', to housing, but rather "to have access to adequate housing",<ref>[[Constitution of South Africa|Constitution of the Republic of South Africa]], [[1996 in South Africa|1996]], s 26(1).</ref> realised on a progressive basis.<ref>s s 26(2).</ref>)
The duty of government is in the realization of these positive rights.
== Third-generation human rights ==
Third-generation human rights are those rights that go beyond the mere civil and social, as expressed in many progressive documents of [[international law]], including the 1972 [[Stockholm Declaration]] of the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]], the 1992 [[Rio Declaration]] on Environment and Development, and other pieces of generally aspirational "[[soft law]]".
Also known as '''Solidarity human rights''', they are rights that try to go beyond the framework of individual rights to focus on collective concepts, such as community or people. However, the term remains largely unofficial,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://derecho.isipedia.com/optativas/derechos-humanos/18-los-derechos-humanos-de-solidaridad |title=Los Derechos Humanos de solidaridad |access-date=May 12, 2020 |work=Isipedia |language=es }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://eacnur.org/blog/derechos-humanos-tercera-generacion-tc_alt45664n_o_pstn_o_pst/ |title=¿Cuáles son los derechos humanos de tercera generación? |access-date=May 12, 2020 |date=April 2017 |publisher=Spanish committee of ACNUR |language=es }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.amnistiacatalunya.org/edu/es/historia/dh-futuros.html |title=Los derechos de tercera generación |access-date=May 12, 2020 |publisher=Amnesty International Catalonia |language=es }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalization101.org/es/three-generations-of-rights/ |title=Three Generations of Human Rights |access-date=May 12, 2020 |work=Globalization 101 |publisher=Levin Institute - State University of New York }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.openglobalrights.org/putting-to-rest-the-three-generations-theory-of-human-rights/ |title=Putting to rest the Three Generations Theory of human rights |access-date=May 12, 2020 |last=Jensen |first=Steven |work=Open Global Rights }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Karel Vasak's Generations of Rights and the Contemporary Human Rights Discourse |last1=Domaradzki |first1=Spasimir |last2=Khvostova |first2=Margaryta |last3=Pupovac |first3=David |date=September 6, 2019 |journal=Human Rights Review |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=423–443 |publisher=Springer |doi=10.1007/s12142-019-00565-x |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.law.muni.cz/sborniky/dny_prava_2009/files/prispevky/tvorba_prava/Cornescu_Adrian_Vasile.pdf |title=The generations of human's rights |access-date=May 12, 2020 |last=Cornescu |first=Adrian |date=2009 }}</ref> just as the also-used moniker of "[[Green politics|green]]" rights, and thus houses an extremely broad spectrum of rights, including:
* [[Group rights|Group]] and [[collective rights]]
* Right to [[self-determination]]
* [[right to development|Right to economic and social development]]
* [[Right to a healthy environment]]
* Right to [[natural resources]]
* Right to [[communication|communicate]] and [[Communication Rights|communication rights]]
* Right to participation in [[cultural heritage]]
* Rights to [[intergenerational equity]] and [[sustainability]]
The [[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]] ensures many of those: the right to self-determination, right to development, right to natural resources and right to satisfactory environment.<ref>[[African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights]], Article 20, 21, 22 and 24</ref> Some countries also have constitutional mechanisms for safeguarding third-generation rights. For example, the Hungarian [[Parliamentary Commissioner for Future Generations]],<ref>[http://www.pieandcoffee.org/2010/02/26/sandor-fulop/ Notes: Hungarian Parliamentary Commissioner for Future Generations]</ref> the [[Eduskunta|Parliament of Finland]]'s {{ill|Committee for the Future|fi|Tulevaisuusvaliokunta}}, and the erstwhile [[Commission for Future Generations]] in the Israeli [[Knesset]].
Some international organizations have offices for safeguarding such rights. An example is the [[High Commissioner on National Minorities]] of the [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]]. The [[Directorate-General for the Environment]] of the European Commission has as its mission "protecting, preserving and improving the environment for present and future generations, and promoting sustainable development".
A few jurisdictions have enacted provisions for [[environmental protection]], e.g. New York's "forever wild" constitutional article,<ref>N.Y. Const. ART XIV, § 1. Found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA14S1+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=08222978+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website]. Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref> which is enforceable by action of the [[New York State Attorney General]] or by any citizen ''[[ex rel.]]'' with the consent of the [[New York Supreme Court, Appellate Division|Appellate Division]].<ref>N.Y. Const. ART XIV, § 5. Found at [http://public.leginfo.state.ny.us/LAWSSEAF.cgi?QUERYTYPE=LAWS+&QUERYDATA=**CNSA14S5+&LIST=LAW+&BROWSER=EXPLORER+&TOKEN=08222978+&TARGET=VIEW New York State Assembly website]. Retrieved February 23, 2012.</ref>
==Fourth generation==
Several analysts claim that a fourth generation of human rights is emerging, which would include rights that cannot be included in the third generation, future claims of first and second generation rights and new rights, especially in relation to technological development and information and communication technologies and cyberspace.<ref name=oei>{{cite web |url=https://www.oei.es/historico/revistactsi/numero1/bustamante.htm |title=Hacia la cuarta generación de Derechos Humanos: repensando la condición humana en la sociedad tecnológica |access-date=May 12, 2020 |last=Bustamante |first=Javier |date=September 2001 |work=Revista Iberoamericana de Ciencia, Tecnología, Sociedad e Innovación |publisher=[[Organization of Ibero-American States]] |location=Madrid |language=es }}</ref>
However, the content of it is not clear, and these analysts do not present a unique proposal. They normally take some rights from the third generation and include them in the fourth, such as the right to a healthy [[natural environment|environment]] or aspects related to [[bioethics]]. Some of those analysts believe that the fourth generation is given by human rights in relation to [[Information and communications technology|new technologies]],<ref name=oei /> while others prefer to talk about digital rights,<ref>{{cite journal |url=https://www.revistas.una.ac.cr/index.php/derechoshumanos/article/view/6117 |title=La cuarta ola de derechos humanos: los derechos digitales |access-date=May 12, 2020 |last=Riofrío |first=Juan Carlos |date=2014 |journal=Revista Latinoamericana de Derechos Humanos |volume=25 |issue=1 |pages=15–45 |language=es }}</ref> where a new range of rights would be found, such as:
* The right to equally access computing and digital
* The right to digital self-determination
* The right to digital security
* The right to access one's own digital data (''[[habeas data]]'')<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.encuentrojuridico.com/2013/01/los-derechos-humanos-de-tercera-y.html |title=Los derechos humanos de tercera y cuarta generación |access-date=May 12, 2020 |date=January 2013 |work=Encuentro Jurídico |language=es }}</ref>
Others point out that the differentiating element would be that, while the first three generations refer to the human being as a member of society, the rights of the fourth would refer to the human being as a species.
== Commentary ==
[[Maurice Cranston]] argued that [[scarcity]] means that supposed second-generation and third-generation rights are not really rights at all.<ref>Cranston, Maurice. "Human Rights: Real and Supposed," in ''Political Theory and the Rights of Man'', edited by D. D. Raphael (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1967), pp. 43-51.</ref> If one person has a right, others have a duty to respect that right, but governments lack the resources necessary to fulfill the duties implied by citizens' supposed second- and third-generation rights.
[[Charles Kesler]], a professor of government at [[Claremont McKenna College]] and senior fellow of the [[Claremont Institute]], has argued that second- and third-generation human rights serve as an attempt to cloak political goals, which the majority may well agree are good things in and of themselves, in the language of rights, and thus grant those political goals inappropriate connotations. In his opinion, calling socio-economic goods "rights" inherently creates a related concept of "[[duties]]", so that other citizens have to be coerced by the government to give things to other people in order to fulfill these new rights. He also has stated that, in the U.S., the new rights create a "nationalization" of political decision-making at the federal level in violation of federalism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/47825927.html |title=Charles Kesler on the Grand Liberal Project |date=May 28, 2009 |access-date=January 5, 2010 |publisher=[[Uncommon Knowledge]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090715094108/http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/47825927.html |archive-date=July 15, 2009 }}</ref> In his book ''Soft Despotism, Democracy's Drift'', Paul Rahe, professor at [[Hillsdale College]], wrote that focusing on equality-based rights leads to a subordination of the initial civil rights to an ever-expanding government, which would be too incompetent to provide for its citizens correctly and would merely seek to subordinate more rights.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/72025472.html |title=Soft Despotism with Paul Rahe |date=November 19, 2009 |access-date=January 5, 2010 |publisher=[[Uncommon Knowledge]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100104072827/http://www.hoover.org/multimedia/uk/72025472.html |archive-date=January 4, 2010 }}</ref>
19th century philosopher [[Frederic Bastiat]] summarized the conflict between these [[negative and positive rights]] by saying: {{quote|M. de Lamartine wrote me one day: "Your doctrine is only the half of my program; you have stopped at liberty; I go on to fraternity." I answered him: "The second half of your program will destroy the first half." And, in fact, it is quite impossible for me to separate the word "fraternity" from the word "voluntary". It is quite impossible for me to conceive of fraternity as legally enforced, without liberty being legally destroyed, and justice being legally trampled underfoot.<ref>{{cite book|last=Bastiat|first=Frédéric|author-link=Frédéric Bastiat|chapter=The Law|title=Selected Essays on Political Economy|publisher=Irvington-on-Hudson, NY: The Foundation for Economic Education, Inc|date=1850}}</ref>}}
Economist [[Friedrich Hayek]] has argued that the second generation concept of "[[social justice]]" cannot have any practical political meaning: {{quote|No state of affairs as such is just or unjust: it is only when we assume that somebody is responsible for having brought it about ... In the same sense, a [[free market|spontaneously working market]], where prices act as guides to action, cannot take account of what people in any sense need or deserve, because it creates a distribution which nobody has designed, and something which has not been designed, a mere state of affairs as such, cannot be just or unjust. And the idea that things ought to be designed in a "just" manner means, in effect, that we must abandon the market and turn to a [[planned economy]] in which somebody decides how much each ought to have, and that means, of course, that we can only have it at the price of the complete abolition of personal liberty.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://reason.com/archives/1992/07/01/the-road-from-serfdom/4|magazine=[[Reason Magazine|Reason]]|access-date=January 4, 2010|title=The Road from Serfdom: Forseeing the Fall|first=Thomas W.|last=Hazlett|date=July 1992}}</ref>}}
[[New York University School of Law]] professor of law [[Jeremy Waldron]] has written in response to critics of the second-generation rights: {{quote|In any case, the argument from first-generation to second-generation rights was never supposed to be a matter of conceptual analysis. It was rather this: if one is really concerned to secure civil or political liberty for a person, that commitment should be accompanied by a further concern about the conditions of the person's life that make it possible for him to enjoy and exercise that liberty. Why on earth would it be worth fighting for this person's liberty (say, his liberty to choose between A and B) if he were left in a situation in which the choice between A and B meant nothing to him, or in which his choosing one rather than the other would have no impact on his life?"<ref>Jeremy Waldron, 1993. Liberal Rights: Collected Papers, page 7, 1981–91. {{ISBN|0-521-43617-6}}</ref>}}
[[Hungarian people|Hungarian]] [[socialist]] and [[political economist]] [[Karl Polanyi]] made the antithetical argument to Hayek in the book ''[[The Great Transformation (book)|The Great Transformation]]''. Polanyi wrote that an uncontrolled free market would lead to repressive economic concentration and then to a co-opting of democratic governance that degrades civil rights.<ref>{{cite book|author=Karl Polanyi|title=The Great Transformation|publisher=[[Beacon Press]]|year=2001|isbn=978-0-8070-5643-1|author-link=Karl Polanyi|title-link=The Great Transformation (book)}}</ref>
The [[World Conference on Human Rights]] in 1993 opposed the distinction between [[civil and political rights]] (negative rights) and [[economic, social and cultural rights]] (positive rights) that resulted in the [[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]] proclaiming that "all human rights are universal, indivisible, interdependent and interrelated".<ref>[[Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action]], Part I para 5</ref>
== See also ==
* [[Human security]]
* "[[Two Concepts of Liberty]]", a lecture by [[Isaiah Berlin]] which distinguished between [[Positive liberty|positive]] and [[negative liberty]]
== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}
{{Human rights}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Three Generations Of Human Rights}}
[[Category:Human rights concepts]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:1977 introductions]] |
Earth Hour | {{Short description|Annual symbolic environmental event}}
{{distinguish|Earth Day}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Oxford spelling|date=November 2017}}
{{Infobox holiday
| holiday_name = Earth Hour
| type =
| image = EH Logo stacked RGB.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption =
| official_name =
| nickname =
| observedby = World Wild Fund for Nature (WWF)
| litcolor =
| longtype = International, Movement, World Wildlife Fund (WWF)
| significance = Climate change and to save Earth
| begins = 8:30 pm
| ends = 9:30 pm
| date = Last Saturday of March (or the penultimate Saturday of March if the last Saturday coincides with [[Holy Saturday]])
| scheduling = Different day each year
| duration = 1 hour
| frequency = Annual
| week_ordinal = last
| weekday = Saturday
| month = March
| date2022 = March 26
| date2023 = March 25
| date2024 = March 23
| date2025 = March 29
| date2026 = March 28
| date2027 = March 20
| celebrations = Mass activations to encourage the public to give an hour for the planet; Switching off national and international monuments and landmarks
| observances =
| relatedto = [[Earth Day]]
}}
'''Earth Hour''' is a worldwide movement organized by the [[World Wide Fund for Nature|World Wildlife Fund]] (WWF). The event is held annually, encouraging the individuals, communities, and businesses to give an hour for Earth, and additionally marked by landmarks and businesses switching off non-essential electric lights, for one hour from 8:30 to 9:30 p.m., usually on the last Saturday of March, as a symbol of commitment to the planet.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.earthhour.org/about-us |title=About Us |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=March 31, 2014}}</ref> It was started as a lights-off event in [[Sydney]], Australia, in 2007.
Occasionally, in years when [[Holy Saturday]] falls on the last Saturday of March (as in 2024), Earth Hour is held a week earlier.
== History of Earth Hour ==
=== Conception and start: 2004–2007 ===
In 2004, confronted with scientific findings, WWF Australia met with advertising agency [[Leo Burnett Worldwide|Leo Burnett Sydney]] to "discuss ideas for engaging Australians on the issue of climate change".<ref name="earthhour1">{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/page/media-centre/earth-hour-history |title=history |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=March 31, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120327103047/http://www.earthhour.org/page/media-centre/earth-hour-history |archive-date=March 27, 2012 }}</ref> The idea of a large scale switch off was coined and developed in 2006, originally under the working title "The Big Flick". WWF Australia presented their concept to [[Fairfax Media]] who, along with Sydney Lord Mayor [[Clover Moore]], agreed to back the event.<ref name="earthhour1"/> The 2007 Earth Hour was held on March 31 in Sydney, Australia at 7:30 pm, local time.
In October 2007, [[San Francisco]] ran its own "Lights Out" program inspired by the Sydney Earth Hour.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.latimes.com/2007/sep/19/local/me-lightsout19 |title= Hour leg of darkness | newspaper =[[Los Angeles Times]] | date = September 19, 2007| author = John M. Glionna}}</ref> After their successful event in October, the organizers decided to rally behind the Earth Hour being planned for March 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://lightsoutsf.org/2007/10/24/moving-forward/ |title=Moving forward | Lights Out San Francisco |publisher=Lightsoutsf.org |date=October 24, 2007 |access-date=September 30, 2013}}</ref>
=== 2008 ===
[[File:Sydney Opera House - After.jpg|thumb|Overview of Sydney during Earth Hour 2008]]
{{Wikinews|Businesses and individuals worldwide turn lights off as part of Earth Hour 2008}}
Earth Hour 2008 was held internationally on March 29, 2008, from 8 p.m. to 9 p.m. local time, marking the first anniversary of the event. 35 countries around the world participated as official flagship cities and over 400 cities also supported. Landmarks around the world turned off their non-essential lighting for Earth Hour. Some websites took part in the event, with [[Google]]'s homepage going "dark" on the day .<ref>{{cite news|title=World Cities Shut Lights for Earth Hour 2008|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/2008/03/29/world-cities-shut-lights-for-earth-hour-2008/|agency=Associated Press|access-date=February 4, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140302101303/http://www.foxnews.com/story/2008/03/29/world-cities-shut-lights-for-earth-hour-2008/|archive-date=March 2, 2014|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref>
According to a [[Zogby International]] online survey, 36 million Americans—approximately 16 percent of the United States adult population—participated in Earth Hour 2008. The survey also showed there was a 4 percentage point increase in the level of interest in environmental issues such as climate change and pollution directly after the event (73 percent pre-event versus 77 percent post-event).<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.reuters.com/article/2008/04/21/idUS134396+21-Apr-2008+BW20080421 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151006004516/http://www.reuters.com/article/2008/04/21/idUS134396+21-Apr-2008+BW20080421 | url-status = dead | archive-date = October 6, 2015 | title = 36 Million Americans Take Part in World Wildlife Fund's Global 'Earth Hour' | publisher = [[Reuters]] | date = April 28, 2008 | access-date = October 5, 2015}}</ref>
[[File:Sydney Harbour Bridge and Opera House Earth Hour.jpg|thumb|[[Sydney Harbour Bridge]] and [[Sydney Opera House]] were darkened during Earth Hour 2007.]]
[[Tel Aviv]] scheduled their Earth Hour for Thursday March 27, 2008 to avoid conflict with [[Shabbat|Sabbath]].<ref>{{Cite news | last = Ross | first = Oakland | title = Tel Aviv rock concert gets power from pedals | newspaper = [[Toronto Star]] | pages = A1, A10 | date = March 28, 2008 | url = https://www.thestar.com/SpecialSections/EarthHour/article/404826 |access-date = March 29, 2008}}</ref> [[Dublin]] moved their Earth Hour to between 9 and 10 p.m. due to their northern geographical location.<ref>{{Cite news | last = Winsa | first = Patty | title = Someone get the lights | newspaper = [[Toronto Star]] | date = March 27, 2008 | url = https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/earthour/2008/03/27/someone_get_the_lights.html | access-date = October 2, 2015 | archive-date = October 4, 2015 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151004042458/http://www.thestar.com/news/canada/earthour/2008/03/27/someone_get_the_lights.html | url-status = dead }}</ref>
[[File:AzrieliCenterEarthHour2010.png|thumb|left|[[Azrieli Center]] in [[Tel Aviv]] darkened for Earth Hour 2010.]]
[[File:Colosseum Earth Hour.jpg|thumb|[[Colosseum]] darkened for Earth Hour 2008]]
According to WWF Thailand, [[Bangkok]] decreased electricity usage by 73.34 [[megawatts]], which, [[megawatt-hour|over one hour]], is equivalent to 41.6 [[tonnes]] of [[carbon dioxide]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/world/canadians-go-dark-with-world-for-earth-hour-1.749682 |title= Canadians go dark with world for Earth Hour |publisher=[[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|CBC]] |date= March 2008 |access-date = March 30, 2008}}</ref> The ''Bangkok Post'' gave different figures of 165 [[megawatt-hours]] and 102 tonnes of carbon dioxide. This was noted to be significantly less than a similar campaign initiated by [[Bangkok]]'s City Hall the previous year in May, when 530 megawatt-hours were saved and 143 tonnes of [[carbon dioxide emission]] were cut.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bangkokpost.com/News/30Mar2008_news03.php|title=Lights out campaign disappointing: Bangkok helps save very little energy |date= March 2008 |access-date = March 30, 2008 |publisher=[[Bangkok Post]]}} {{Dead link|date=March 2010}}</ref>
Philippine Electricity Market Corp. noted that power consumption dropped by about 78.63 megawatts in [[Metro Manila]], and up to 102.2 megawatts on [[Luzon]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://globalnation.inquirer.net/news/breakingnews/view/20080331-127542/Earth-Hour-made-dent-in-power-use |title=Earth Hour made dent in power use |publisher=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |date=March 31, 2008 |access-date=March 29, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080526020555/http://globalnation.inquirer.net/news/breakingnews/view/20080331-127542/Earth-Hour-made-dent-in-power-use |archive-date=May 26, 2008 }}</ref> The maximum demand drop of around 39 MW was experienced at 8:14 p.m. in Metro Manila and of around 116 MW at 8:34 p.m. in the Luzon grid.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.inquirer.net/specialfeatures/theenvironmentreport/view.php?db=1&article=20081211-177480 |title=WWF calls for 'lights out' event in 2009 |publisher=[[Philippine Daily Inquirer]] |date=December 11, 2008 |access-date=March 29, 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081212211646/http://www.inquirer.net/specialfeatures/theenvironmentreport/view.php?db=1&article=20081211-177480 |archive-date=December 12, 2008 }}</ref>
[[Ontario]] used approximately 900 megawatt-hours less electrical energy during Earth Hour. At one point, [[Toronto]] saw an 8.7% reduction in consumption as compared to a typical March Saturday night.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thestar.com/SpecialSections/EarthHour/article/407246 |title= Toronto hits energy target |publisher=[[Toronto Star]] |date= March 2008 |access-date = March 30, 2008 | first=Peter | last=Gorrie}}</ref>
Ireland, as a whole, had a reduction in electricity use of about 1.5% for the evening.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rte.ie/news/2008/0330/environment.html |title= Ireland uses less power for 'Earth Hour' |publisher=[[RTÉ News And Current Affairs|RTÉ News]] |date= March 2008 |access-date = March 30, 2008}}</ref> In the three-hour period between 6:30 p.m. and 9:30 pm, there was a reduction of 50 megawatts, saving 150 megawatt-hours, or approximately 60 tonnes of carbon dioxide.<ref name = "continuation">{{cite news |url=http://www.breakingnews.ie/ireland/mhojojmhcwoj/ |title=Call for continuation of Earth Hour ethos |publisher=Breakingnews.ie |date=March 2008 |access-date=March 31, 2008 |archive-date=June 14, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110614041306/http://www.breakingnews.ie/ireland/mhojojmhcwoj/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
In [[Dubai]], where external lighting on several major city landmarks was turned off and street lighting in selected areas was dimmed by 50%, the Electricity and Water Authority reported savings of 100 megawatt-hours of electricity. This represented a 2.4% reduction in demand compared to before the hour began.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.arabianbusiness.com/515051-dubai-slashes-energy-use-for-earth-hour?ln=en |title=Dubai slashes energy use for Earth Hour |publisher=[[Arabian Business]] |date=March 2008 |access-date=April 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305053058/http://www.arabianbusiness.com/515051-dubai-slashes-energy-use-for-earth-hour?ln=en |archive-date=March 5, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
[[File:Earth Hour Sky Tower Auckland.jpg|thumb|The [[Sky Tower (Auckland)|Sky Tower]] in [[Auckland]], New Zealand, switched off its usual floodlighting during the Earth Hour, and re-lit afterwards. (the red lights in the middle image are [[aircraft warning lights]]) ]]
The best result was from [[Christchurch]], New Zealand, with the city reporting a drop of 13% in electricity demand. However, national grid operator [[Transpower New Zealand Limited|Transpower]] reported that New Zealand's power consumption during Earth Hour was 335 megawatts, higher than the 328 megawatt average of the previous two Saturdays.<ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/4457620a11.html Lights on, power use up for Earth Hour] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080620172110/http://www.stuff.co.nz/4457620a11.html |date=June 20, 2008 }}. Kelly Andrew. ''[[The Dominion Post (Wellington)|The Dominion Post]]''. Monday, March 31, 2008.</ref> [[Melbourne]], Australia reduced demand by 10.1%. Sydney, being the city that participated in both the 2007 and 2008 Earth Hours, cut electricity consumption by 8.4%. This is less than the previous year's 10.2%; however, Earth Hour executive director Andy Ridley made the claim that after factoring [[margin of error]], the participation in this city was the same.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.thestar.com/article/407472 |title= Where do we go from here? |work=[[Toronto Star]] |pages=A1, A17 |date= March 31, 2008 |access-date = March 31, 2008 | first=Peter | last=Gorrie}}</ref>
The worst result was from [[Calgary]], Canada. The city's power consumption actually went up 3.6% at the hour's peak electricity demand.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.canada.com/globaltv/calgary/story.html?id=1b997ecc-3465-499f-ab5c-913213ba229a&k=48356 |title=Calgary's Earth Hour effort uses more power, not less |publisher=[[Global Calgary]] |date=March 30, 2008 |access-date=March 30, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305044146/http://www.canada.com/globaltv/calgary/story.html?id=1b997ecc-3465-499f-ab5c-913213ba229a&k=48356 |archive-date=March 5, 2009 }}</ref> Calgary's weather plays a large role in power consumption, and the city experienced weather 12 °C (around 22 °F) colder than the previous Saturday's recorded temperature in the inaugural year.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/cityplus/story.html?id=5f6ba0de-d209-45e6-b568-d1df7772d4b4&k=44185 |title=Edmontonians cut power consumption by 1.5 per cent during Earth Hour |work=[[Edmonton Journal]] |date=April 1, 2008 |access-date=April 7, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090305053537/http://www2.canada.com/edmontonjournal/news/cityplus/story.html?id=5f6ba0de-d209-45e6-b568-d1df7772d4b4&k=44185 |archive-date=March 5, 2009 }}</ref> [[Enmax]], the city's power supplier, has confirmed that in all subsequent years, Calgarians have not supported the Earth Hour initiative, noting that power consumption changed only marginally during the hour in 2010 and 2011 (1% or less) and in 2012 and 2013 showed no appreciable change in power usage at all.<ref>{{cite web |last=Nolais |first=Jeremy |url=http://metronews.ca/news/calgary/27937/earth-hour-sees-little-change-in-calgary-electricity-use |title=Earth Hour sees little change in Calgary electricity use | Metro |publisher=Metronews.ca |access-date=September 30, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140219160919/http://metronews.ca/news/calgary/27937/earth-hour-sees-little-change-in-calgary-electricity-use/ |archive-date=February 19, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/story/2013/03/24/calgary-earth-hour.html |title=CBC News report 24 March 2013 |publisher=Cbc.ca |date=March 24, 2013 |access-date=September 30, 2013}}</ref>
=== 2009 ===
{{Wikinews|Businesses and individuals worldwide to turn lights off as part of Earth Hour 2009}}
Earth Hour 2009 was from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. local time, March 28, 2009. The campaign was titled "Vote Earth" and was dubbed "the world's first global vote" with one billion votes was the stated aim for Earth Hour 2009,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.campaignbrief.com/2009/02/vote-earth-worlds-first-global.html |title=Vote Earth – Leo Burnett to Launch the World's First Global Election |work=Campaign Brief Australia |date=February 6, 2009 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> in the context of the pivotal [[2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference]]. WWF reported that 88 countries and 4,159 cities participated in Earth Hour 2009,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ecology.com/2010/03/11/step-forward-earth-hour-2010/ |title=Step Forward – Earth Hour 2010 |work=Ecology Global Network |access-date=May 31, 2015 |archive-date=November 17, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117030043/http://www.ecology.com/2010/03/11/step-forward-earth-hour-2010/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> ten times more cities than Earth Hour 2008 had (2008 saw 400 cities participate).
Among the participants in 2009 was, for the first time, the [[United Nations Headquarters]] in New York City.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID=573&ArticleID=6105&l=en |title=Press release March 2009 – UNEP to observe Earth Hour in support of action on climate change – United Nations Environment Programme |publisher=UNEP |access-date=March 25, 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20090907221502/http%3A//www.unep.org/Documents.Multilingual/Default.asp?DocumentID%3D573%26ArticleID%3D6105%26l%3Den |archive-date=September 7, 2009 }}</ref>
In Egypt, the lights went out on the [[Sphinx]] and the [[Great Pyramids of Giza]] from 8:30 to 9:30 pm.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/news/default:en/article?id=eh6974755038146759259 |title=Great Pyramids of Giza to switch off for Earth Hour |publisher=EarthHour.org |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327073456/http://www.earthhour.org/news/default%3Aen/article?id=eh6974755038146759259 |archive-date=March 27, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The [[Philippines]] saw participation from 647 cities and towns; over 10 million Filipinos were estimated to have joined in the hour-long lights-off.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://globalvoicesonline.org/2010/04/06/philippines-earth-hour-2010/|title=Philippines: Earth Hour 2010 |work=Global Voices|date=April 6, 2010 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> This was followed by Greece with 484 cities and towns participating, and Australia with 309.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ecology.com/2009/03/31/step-forward-earth-wins-in-2009-vote-earth-earth-hour-campaign/|title=Step Forward – Earth Wins in 2009 Vote Earth / Earth Hour Campaign|work=Ecology Global Network|access-date=May 31, 2015|archive-date=November 17, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117014649/http://www.ecology.com/2009/03/31/step-forward-earth-wins-in-2009-vote-earth-earth-hour-campaign/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Despite official organizers WWF stating that the event is not about the reduction in electricity, a number of public institutions reported on electricity savings in their cities to see participation numbers. The [[Canadian province]] of [[Ontario]], excluding the city of [[Toronto]], saw a decrease of 6% in electricity usage while Toronto saw a decrease of 15.1% (nearly doubled from 8.7% the previous year) as many businesses darkened, including the landmark [[CN Tower]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://toronto.ctvnews.ca/earth-hour-prompts-15-per-cent-t-o-power-drop-1.384119 |title=CTV Toronto – Earth Hour prompts 15 per cent T.O. power drop – CTV News |date=March 29, 2009 |publisher=Toronto.ctv.ca |access-date=March 25, 2010}}</ref>
The [[Philippines]] was able to save 611 MWh of electricity during the time period, which is said to be equivalent to shutting down a dozen coal-fired power plants for an hour.<ref>{{cite news |last=Adraneda |first=Katherine |url=http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleid=454057 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130131113049/http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleid=454057 |url-status=dead |archive-date=January 31, 2013 |title=RP's Earth Hour savings: 611 megawatt-hours |newspaper=The Philippine Star |date=April 1, 2009 |access-date=January 25, 2011 }}</ref>
Swedish electricity operator [[Svenska Kraftnät]] recorded a 2.1% decrease in power consumption from its projected figure between 8 p.m. and 9 pm. The following hour, the corresponding number was 5%.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dn.se/nyheter/sverige/tio-villors-arliga-elforbrukning-1.832821 |title=Tjugofem villors årliga elförbrukning |language=sv |publisher=DN.se |date=March 28, 2009 |access-date=March 25, 2010}}</ref> This is equivalent to the consumption of approximately half a million households out of the total 4.5 million households in Sweden.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.svk.se/Press--info/Nyheter/Nyheter-pressmeddelanden/Nyheter/Sa-paverkade-Earth-Hour-det-svenska-elsystemet/ | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100812001332/http://www.svk.se/Press--info/Nyheter/Nyheter-pressmeddelanden/Nyheter/Sa-paverkade-Earth-Hour-det-svenska-elsystemet/ | archive-date = August 12, 2010 | title=Så påverkade Earth Hour det svenska elsystemet – Svenska Kraftnät |publisher=Svk.se |date=March 28, 2009 }}</ref>
According to the National Power Dispatch Centre, [[Vietnam]]'s electricity demand fell 140 [[MWh]] during Earth Hour.<ref>{{cite web |title=Earth Hour in Vietnam: a perspective from the electricity industry |date = April 21, 2020|url=https://socialsciences.nature.com/posts/66561-earth-hour-in-vietnam-a-perspective-from-the-electricity-industry#:~:text=In%202009%2C%20the%20World%20Wide,Earth%20Hour%20campaign%20in%20Vietnam.&text=This%20year%2C%20the%20National%20Power,one%20hour%20of%20the%20event. |publisher=Nature Research}}</ref>
<!-- mostly uncited
==== Participation ====
96 countries and territories on 6 continents participated in the event in 2009.
==== Participating television and radio stations ====
* The [[National Geographic Channel]] suspended regular programming for an hour and showed how to reduce energy consumption during Earth Hour.
** [[National Geographic Channel (Asia)|National Geographic Channel Asia]] suspended broadcast on March 28, 2009 from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m.
* [[Cartoon Network (UK & Ireland)|Cartoon Network]] and [[Magic 105.4 FM]] broadcast Earth Hour at 20:30 for the event.
[[Malaysia]]'s [[8TV (Malaysia)|8TV]] halted transmission for one hour starting from 20:30<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myfew.net/2009/03/06/8tv-to-halt-its-prime-time-programme-transmission-for-earth-hour.html |title= 8TV to Halt Its Prime Time Programme Transmission for Earth Hour |publisher=Myfew.net |date=March 6, 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090313190343/http://www.myfew.net/2009/03/06/8tv-to-halt-its-prime-time-programme-transmission-for-earth-hour.html | archive-date = March 13, 2009}}</ref>
* [[DhiTV]] and [[Villa TV]] halted transmission for one hour in [[Maldives]] from 20:30.
* [[XHGC-TV|Canal 5]] in Mexico halted transmission for one hour in [[Mexico City]] at 20:30.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}
* [[Philippine]] network [[ABS-CBN]] turned off the lights in their studio from 20:30 to 21:30.
** [[Naga, Camarines Sur|Naga City]] internet radio stations Zone105 and XFM Naga went offline at 20:30.
* [[RTVE|Radiotelevisión Española (RTVE)]] turned off the lights in their newsrooms and their sets.
-->
=== 2010 ===
[[File:Botanical Garden of Curitiba, Paraná, Brazil (Earth Hour 2010).gif|thumb|The metal structure of the [[greenhouse]]s of the [[Botanical Garden of Curitiba|curitiban Botanic Garden]] ([[Curitiba]], Paraná, Southern Brazil), with its lights off on March 27, 2010]]
Earth Hour 2010 was held from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. local time on March 27.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myearthhour.org/about/faq | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100323024425/http://www.myearthhour.org/about/faq | archive-date = March 23, 2010 | title=Frequently Asked Questions – Earth Hour website (2010) |publisher=Earth Hour }}</ref> In Israel, the hour was held on April 22.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-3874552,00.html |title=Israel to mark 3rd Earth Hour |newspaper=Ynetnews |publisher=[[Ynet]] News |date=April 16, 2010 |last1=Ben-David |first1=Amir |last2=Ahronoth |first2=Yedioth }}</ref>
126 countries participated in Earth Hour 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wwf.es/que_hacemos/cambio_climatico/la_hora_del_planeta_2010/|language=es|title=La Hora de la Tierra 2010 |work=[[World Wide Fund for Nature|WWF]] |publisher=WWF Spain|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100329214434/http://www.wwf.es/que_hacemos/cambio_climatico/la_hora_del_planeta_2010 | archive-date = March 29, 2010 }}</ref>
In the United States polling showed that an estimated 90,000,000 Americans participated in Earth Hour as lights were turned off around the country, including landmarks such as [[Mount Rushmore]], the [[Las Vegas Strip]], the [[Empire State Building]] and [[Niagara Falls]].
Some cities and landmarks took the opportunity to make more long-term adjustments to their everyday power consumption. In [[Chicago]], the Building Owners and Managers Association (BOMA) developed lighting guidelines to reduce light pollution and reduce the carbon footprint of downtown buildings. [[Mount Rushmore]] in [[South Dakota]] started powering down each night around 9 p.m. instead of 11 p.m.
In [[Vietnam]], electricity demand fell 500,000 kWh during Earth Hour 2010, which was three times larger than the first time the country joined the event in 2009.<ref>{{cite web |author=[Trở về] |url=http://www.vnexpress.net/GL/Kinh-doanh/2010/03/3BA1A2E1/ |title=Tiết kiệm 450 triệu đồng trong giờ Trái đất |publisher=VnExpress |date=March 28, 2010 |access-date=March 31, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120118001037/http://vnexpress.net/gl/kinh-doanh/2010/03/3ba1a2e1/ |archive-date=January 18, 2012 |url-status=dead |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
In the Philippines, 1,067 towns and cities pledged participation in 2010 and over 15 million Filipinos participated in the event.
About 4000 cities participated, including landmarks such as [[Big Ben]], the [[Empire State Building]], the [[Sydney Opera House]], the [[Eiffel Tower]], the [[Parthenon]], the [[Brandenburg Gate]], and the [[Forbidden City]].<ref>Alastair Jamieson (March 27, 2010). [https://web.archive.org/web/20100329190746/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/earth/earthnews/7531183/Big-Ben-in-darkness-as-4000-cities-switch-off-for-Earth-Hour.html Big Ben in darkness as 4,000 cities switch off for Earth Hour]. ''The Telegraph''. Retrieved April 6, 2009.</ref>
<!-- uncited
==== Participating TV channels and radio stations ====
* [[National Geographic Channel (Asia)|National Geographic Channel Asia]] and [[Cartoon Network]] both suspended broadcasting from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm
* In the Philippines, [[GMA Network]] turned off lights in their building from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm, while [[ABS-CBN]] stopped broadcasting and turned off their lights.
* Vietnam's FBNC channel joined hands with Earth Hour Vietnam.
* ''The Agenda with Steve Paikin'' on [[TVOntario]] ran its full program running only on candlelight again.
-->
=== 2011 ===
Earth Hour 2011 was the biggest year in the campaign's five-year history, reaffirming it as the largest ever voluntary action for the environment. In 2011, the tagline "Beyond the Hour" was adopted by organizers as a way to encourage people to take their commitment to the cause beyond the 60-minute event. Together with agency Leo Burnett, Earth Hour unveiled an updated planet themed logo that included a small plus symbol to the right of the signature "60" which was used in previous years. The 60+ symbol continues to be the main logo used by campaign organizers around the world.
Earth Hour 2011 took place in a record 5,251 cities and towns in 135 countries and territories on all seven continents.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthhour.org/page/about/about-earth-hour |title=about |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=March 31, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120330132314/http://www.earthhour.org/page/about/about-earth-hour |archive-date=March 30, 2012 }}</ref> It had an estimated reach of 1.8 billion people across the globe. In addition to this, the campaign's digital footprint grew to 91 million.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://earthhour.org/blog/earthhour-heats-social-media |title=#Earthhour Heats Up on Social Media |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=October 2, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120628120010/http://earthhour.org/blog/earthhour-heats-social-media |archive-date=June 28, 2012 }}</ref>
In [[India]], Earth Hour 2011 was held on March 26, 2011, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 pm. IST, flagged off by the [[Chief Minister of Delhi]] [[Sheila Dikshit]] and Earth Hour 2011 Ambassador and Bollywood actress [[Vidya Balan]] in the presence of Jim Leape, Director General, WWF International.<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.indiaprwire.com/pressrelease/environmental-services/2011032881849.htm|title=India switches off on March 26 from 8.30 p.m. and beyond|publisher=India PRwire|date=March 28, 2011|access-date=October 3, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151005000920/http://www.indiaprwire.com/pressrelease/environmental-services/2011032881849.htm|archive-date=October 5, 2015|url-status=dead|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Rosebowl channel suspended broadcasting from 8.30 p.m. to 9.30 p.m. to mark the observance of Earth Hour.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=2018-06-06|title=Earth Hour|url=https://www.greenergyexpo.eu/earth-hour/|access-date=2020-11-24|website=greenergyexpo.eu|language=en-US|archive-date=November 23, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123193644/https://www.greenergyexpo.eu/earth-hour/|url-status=dead}}</ref>
In Azerbaijan, [[Maiden Tower (Baku)|Maiden Tower]] darkened for Earth Hour.<ref>{{cite web|last=Rustamov |first=Elshan |title=Девичья башня на час останется без света ради природы |url=http://www.1news.az/society/20110324035120563.html |publisher=1news.az |access-date=March 26, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326054316/http://www.1news.az/society/20110324035120563.html |archive-date=March 26, 2011 }}</ref>
The Philippines, which has been an active participant of the Earth Hour, had an early "earth hour" when power was accidentally interrupted,<ref>{{cite web|last=Gatdulla and Villanueva|first=Rodina and Donabelle|title=Earth Hour comes early in Metro|website=[[The Philippine STAR]] |url=http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=670245&publicationSubCategoryId=68&newsalert|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120910094316/http://www.philstar.com/Article.aspx?articleId=670245&publicationSubCategoryId=68&newsalert|url-status=dead|archive-date=September 10, 2012|access-date=March 27, 2011}}</ref> plunging Metro Manila and nearby [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]] into darkness. After power was restored, major buildings, commercial centers and residential areas in Metro Manila and most [[Provinces of the Philippines|provinces]] continued to turn off their lights, while participating channels in the Philippines, ABS-CBN, Nickelodeon and Cartoon Network halted their transmissions for an hour.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.premiere.fr/Tele/Earth-Hour-Nickelodeon-et-Nickelodeon-Junior-coupent-leur-antenne-le-26-mars-2011
|title=Earth Hour: Nickelodeon and Nickelodeon Junior cut their antenna on March 26, 2011 |publisher=Presscenter.org.vn |date=March 8, 2011 |access-date=March 8, 2011}}</ref>
30 provinces and cities in Vietnam took part in Earth Hour 2011 with the main event held in [[Nha Trang]]. The nation's electricity demand fell 400,000 kWh, one-fifth less than the previous year's. Vietnam managed to save 500 million [[VND]] (US$23,809) thanks to the saved power.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presscenter.org.vn/en/content/view/5038/51/ |title=Vietnam Foreign Press Center – Vietnam saves 400,000 kWh of power during Earth Hour |publisher=Presscenter.org.vn |date=March 29, 2011 |access-date=March 31, 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120322162359/http://www.presscenter.org.vn/en/content/view/5038/51/ |archive-date=March 22, 2012 }}</ref>
YouTube promoted the Earth Hour by changing its logo, and by adding a switch on/off feature near the title of each video, so that users could change the background colour from white to black.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}
One of the least co-operative areas traditionally has been [[Alberta]]; in 2008, Calgary's power consumption went up during Earth Hour. The trend continued in 2011 when [[Edmonton]]'s power usage also increased. While [[Calgary]]'s power usage went down in 2011 during the event, electricity officials could not distinguish their readings between normal usage and a conscious attempt to participate.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/edmonton/story/2011/03/28/edmonton-earth-hour-failure.html |title=No Energy for Earth Hour |publisher=Cbc.ca |date=March 28, 2011 |access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref>
=== 2012 ===
Earth Hour Global headquarters was moving from Sydney to Singapore in February 2012. A launch event took place at ION Orchard on February 20, with the move supported by Singapore's [[Economic Development Board]] (EDB) and WWF-Singapore.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.asiaone.com/News/Latest%2BNews/Singapore/Story/A1Story20120221-329146.html |title=Earth Hour to move HQ to Singapore |publisher=Asiaone.com |date=February 21, 2012 |access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref>
Earth Hour 2012 was observed on March 31, 2012, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. (participants' local time).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/ |title=Earth Hour |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref> It took place in more than 7000 cities and towns across 152 countries and territories, making it the biggest growth year for the campaign since 2009. It was also the first year that Earth Hour was celebrated in space, with Dutch astronaut [[André Kuipers]] tweeting at various moments during the event's trek around the globe.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.esa.int/Our_Activities/Human_Spaceflight/PromISSe/Andre_Kuipers_takes_Earth_Hour_into_orbit |title=André Kuipers takes Earth Hour into orbit |work=European Space Agency|access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref>
=== 2013 ===
[[File:Ora della Terra Verona Piazza Bra Arena 2013 WWF Verona Paolo Villa 9954.JPG|thumb|Italy, Verona, Arena with backlight off on square Bra, in the bottom Town Hall during Earth Hour 2013]]
Earth Hour 2013 was held across the world on Saturday, March 23 at 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. local time<ref>{{cite web |last=Malezer |first=Rosie |url=https://www.facebook.com/earthhour |title= Dare the World to Save the Planet |website=[[Facebook]] |access-date = November 24, 2012}}</ref> to avoid taking place after [[European Summer Time]] began, ensuring a greater impact for the lights-off event. It was also changed to avoid coinciding with the Christian Holy Saturday, which fell on March 30 of that year.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Earth Hour|url=http://www.unishineopto.com/earth-hour.html|access-date=2020-11-26|website=www.unishineopto.com}}</ref>
==== Africa ====
In 2013, the world's first Earth Hour Forest began in Uganda, an ongoing project that aims to restore 2700 hectares of degraded land. Standard Chartered Bank-Uganda pledged to help fill the forest with more than 250,000 trees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/uganda2013 |title=Uganda Unveils The World's First Earth Hour Forest |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=September 30, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130915221131/http://earthhour.org/uganda2013 |archive-date=September 15, 2013 }}</ref>
Earth Hour commemorations in Madagascar had as their highlight the distribution of one thousand wood-saving stoves to victims of the cyclone Haruna in the southern town of Toliara, extensively damaged in the February 22 storm. WWF-Madagascar and ADES (Association pour le Développement de l'Energie Solaire) distributed an additional 2,200 wood-saving stoves later that year.
Former President of [[Botswana]], [[Festus Mogae]] promised to plant one million [[Indigenous (ecology)|indigenous trees]] over four years, as part of his "I Will If You Will" challenge for Earth 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/blog/botswana-plant-one-million-trees-restore-forests |title=Botswana To Plant One Million Trees To Restore Forests |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=September 30, 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130919230521/http://earthhour.org/blog/botswana-plant-one-million-trees-restore-forests |archive-date=September 19, 2013 }}</ref>
==== Europe ====
WWF-Russia launched its 2013 campaign aiming to secure more than 100,000 signatures from Russian citizens to petition for amendments to the current forest legislation. The petition reached more than 127,000 signatures before the Earth Hour event, ensuring the legislation was debated in the State Duma by politicians.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/?207667/Earth-Hour-Seeks-Law-Reform-For-Protective-Forests-In-Russia |title=WWF – Earth Hour Seeks Law Reform For Protective Forests in Russia |work=panda.org |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref>
=== 2014 ===
Earth Hour 2014 took place on Saturday, March 29, during the same 8:30 to 9:30 p.m. local timeslot. Earth Hour Blue was launched as a global crowdfunding and crowdsourcing platform for the planet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.crowdfundinsider.com/2014/03/34849-earth-hour-targets-2014-crowdfunding-center-innovation-creativity-planet/ |title=Earth Hour Targets 2014 to be the Crowdfunding Center For Innovation and Creativity for the Planet |work=crowdfundinsider.com |date=March 30, 2014 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> "It is all about the collective effort of individuals around the world getting together to help fund or add their voice to support on-the-ground environmental and social projects that deliver real outcomes."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.greenafricadirectory.org/earth-hour-blue-mobilising-crowdfunding-support-conservation-sustainable-development/ |title=Earth Hour Blue: mobilising crowdfunding to support conservation and sustainable development |work=Green Africa Directory |access-date=May 31, 2015 |archive-date=March 29, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329090032/http://www.greenafricadirectory.org/earth-hour-blue-mobilising-crowdfunding-support-conservation-sustainable-development/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>
The Earth Hour 2014 Report<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.earthhour.org/earth-hour-2014-report|title=2014 Report|work=Earth Hour|access-date=May 31, 2015|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150524150131/https://www.earthhour.org/earth-hour-2014-report|archive-date=May 24, 2015}}</ref> highlighted a broad range of environmental outcomes achieved by the movement across 162 countries and territories around the world. More than US$60,000 was raised on the Earth Hour Blue platform for grassroots environmental projects run by WWF. The movement also saw campaigns to help protect Australia's Great Barrier Reef,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Our Reef needs more than an hour|url=https://www.wwf.org.au/news/blogs/our-reef-needs-more-than-an-hour#gs.lr8n1g|access-date=24 November 2020|website=World Wide Fund Australia|archive-date=February 21, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210221074418/https://www.wwf.org.au/news/blogs/our-reef-needs-more-than-an-hour#gs.lr8n1g|url-status=dead}}</ref> the launch of a Blue Sky App in China,<ref>{{Cite news|title=Smog Ruining Your Pictures? There's an App For That|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/BL-CJB-21381|access-date=24 November 2020|newspaper=WSJ}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=App can transform gray sky to blue|url=https://www.adobomagazine.com/global-news/wwf-china-and-om-china-launch-blue-sky-app-for-clean-air/|access-date=24 November 2020|website=Adobo Magazine|date=March 26, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=App can transform gray sky to blue|url=http://europe.chinadaily.com.cn/business/2014-03/29/content_17391868.htm|access-date=24 November 2020|website=ChinaDaily Europe}}</ref> and the delivery of thousands of wood efficient stoves to communities in Madagascar.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cook stoves project combating deforestation in Madagascar gets an Earth Hour boost|url=https://wwf.panda.org/?227997/Cook-stoves-project-combating-deforestation-in-Madagascar-gets-an-Earth-Hour-boost|access-date=24 November 2020|website=World Wide Fund}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=WWF China Launch Blue Sky App {{!}} LBBOnline|url=https://www.lbbonline.com/news/wwf-china-launch-blue-sky-app|access-date=2020-11-27|website=www.lbbonline.com|language=en}}</ref>
=== 2015 ===
Earth Hour 2015 took place on Saturday, March 28, again between 8:30 and 9:30 p.m. local time.<ref name="earthhour2">[http://www.earthhour.org/celebrating-earth-hour Celebrating Earth Hour] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219191454/http://earthhour.org/celebrating-earth-hour |date=February 19, 2017 }} Earth Hour/WWF Website</ref> The tagline for the global campaign was "Change Climate Change", returning to the movement's original focus to initiate citizen action on global warming. A day before the event, over 170 countries and territories had confirmed their participation; with more than 1200 landmarks and close to 40 UNESCO world heritage sites set for the switch off.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.skynews.com.au/news/national/2015/03/25/earth-hour-to-illuminate-climate.html |title=Earth Hour to illuminate climate |work=skynews.com.au |date=March 25, 2015 |access-date=May 31, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503055916/http://www.skynews.com.au/news/national/2015/03/25/earth-hour-to-illuminate-climate.html |archive-date=May 3, 2015 }}</ref>
For the second year running, Earth Hour Blue aims to raise funds for WWF organized climate focused projects on a crowdfunding platform.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/earth-hour-2015-why-world-turning-off-its-lights-1493492 |title=Earth Hour 2015: Why is the world turning off its lights? |work=International Business Times UK |date=March 25, 2015 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> This year, crowdfunding projects include solar light distribution in the Philippines<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gmanetwork.com/news/story/456925/news/nation/palace-encourages-pinoys-to-join-earth-hour-2015-on-march-28|title=Palace encourages Pinoys to join Earth Hour 2015 on March 28|work=GMA News Online|date=March 22, 2015 |access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> and India,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dnaindia.com/mumbai/report-wwf-india-will-run-earth-hour-campaign-to-help-sundarbans-village-2070290|title=WWF-India will run Earth Hour campaign to help Sundarbans village|work=dna|access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref> and wildlife based projects from Colombia,<ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nOOD1suB_-8 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/nOOD1suB_-8 |archive-date=2021-12-15 |url-status=live|title=Let Sea Turtles Off the Hook – Earth Hour 2015|date=March 7, 2015|work=YouTube|access-date=May 31, 2015}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Uganda and Indonesia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wwf.or.id/?36082/SOSSebangau-Seruan-Aksi-Peduli-Kebakaran-Hutan-Kalimantan|title=#SOSSebangau: Seruan Aksi Peduli Kebakaran Hutan Kalimantan|work=WWF Indonesia|access-date=May 31, 2015|language=id|archive-date=September 26, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180926122459/https://www.wwf.or.id/?36082%2FSOSSebangau-Seruan-Aksi-Peduli-Kebakaran-Hutan-Kalimantan|url-status=dead}}</ref>
Uniquely participating in the Earth Hour activity are the inhabitants of an island called [[Sibuyan]] in the Philippines who turned on their lights to elevate the message of using renewable energy. The island's source of electricity is a mini-hydro power plant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rappler.com/move-ph/88271-philippines-sibuyan-island-lights-earth-hour|title=PH island switches on lights during Earth Hour|work=Rappler|date=March 28, 2015|access-date=March 20, 2016}}</ref>
=== 2016 ===
Earth Hour 2016 was on Saturday, March 19, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. during participants' local time. It was also changed to avoid coinciding with the Christian Holy Saturday, which fell on March 26 of that year.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}} It was the 10th anniversary of the campaign's beginnings in Sydney, Australia. Östersund in Sweden cancelled the 2016 event, following a spate of sex attacks, highlighting safety as a subject for discussion when saving resources.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Virtue|first=Rob|date=2016-03-18|title=The terrified town which has even cancelled Earth Hour over migrant sex attack fears|url=https://www.express.co.uk/news/world/653754/Ostersund-cancels-Earth-Hour-festival-over-fears-of-migrant-sex-attacks|access-date=2020-12-29|website=Express.co.uk|language=en}}</ref> Almost all the countries in the world observed Earth Hour.{{citation needed|date=March 2019}}
=== 2017 ===
Earth Hour occurred on Saturday, March 25 from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm.<ref>{{Cite web|last=International|first=W. W. F.|title=Reports {{!}} Earth Hour 2020|url=https://www.earthhour.org/earth-hour-reports|access-date=2020-11-26|website=www.earthhour.org|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Earth Hour 2017 Date, Time, and Everything Else You Need to Know|url=https://gadgets.ndtv.com/others/features/earth-hour-2017-date-time-and-everything-else-you-need-to-know-1673057|access-date=2020-11-26|website=NDTV Gadgets 360|date=March 24, 2017 |language=en}}</ref>
=== 2018 ===
Earth Hour 2018 took place on March 24, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 p.m. in participants' time,<ref>{{Cite web|title=Earth Hour 2018 – A New Generation of Leaders Turn Out to Turn Up Climate Action {{!}} Press Releases {{!}} WWF|url=https://www.worldwildlife.org/press-releases/earth-hour-2018-a-new-generation-of-leaders-turn-out-to-turn-up-climate-action|access-date=2020-11-26|website=World Wildlife Fund|language=en}}</ref> in order to avoid coinciding with Christian Holy Saturday which fell on March 31.<ref>{{Cite web|last=International|first=W. W. F.|title=Join One Of The World's Largest Movements for Nature {{!}} Earth Hour 2020|url=https://www.earthhour.org/|access-date=2020-11-26|website=www.earthhour.org|language=en}}</ref>
=== 2019 ===
Earth Hour 2019 was held on March 30, from 8:30 p.m. to 9:30 pm. A total of 188 countries participated in Earth Hour 2019.<ref name="twitter.com">{{Cite web|url=https://twitter.com/earthhour|title=Earth Hour (@earthhour) {{!}} Twitter|website=twitter.com|language=en|access-date=March 29, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/local/lanow/la-me-ln-lights-out-20190330-story.html|title=Earth Hour: Landmarks in L.A. and around the world are going dark to promote energy conservation|last=Lozano|first=Carlos|date=March 30, 2019|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|access-date=2019-03-30}}</ref> [[Miss Earth 2018]] [[Nguyễn Phương Khánh]] from Vietnam was designated as the Earth Hour Ambassador to implement several environmental protection activities.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Lan |first1=Ngọc |title=Miss Earth 2018 Phương Khánh becomes Ambassador of the Earth Hour 2019(Miss Earth 2018 Phương Khánh Tro Thanh Dai Su Gio Trai Dat 2019)|url=https://translate.google.com/translate?sl=auto&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.quochoitv.vn%2Fvan-hoa-giai-tri%2F2019%2F3%2Fmiss-earth-2018-phuong-khanh-tro-thanh-dai-su-gio-trai-dat-2019%2F231198%3Ffbclid%3DIwAR30a_pQco7TJF63XES3girUUfQapbjQYye750Pyddwg8h6TD3LiEEVGeiM |access-date=25 March 2019 |agency=National Assembly Television (QuocHoiTV))|publisher=TRANG TIN ĐIỆN TỬ TRUYỀN HÌNH QUỐC HỘI VIỆT NAM |date=25 March 2019}}</ref> As ambassador, Phuong Khanh urged everyone to voluntarily turn off unnecessary lights and equipment for an hour, contributing to spreading the message "Save Energy, Save Earth – Energy saving, Earth protection".<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://laodong.vn/xa-hoi/hoa-hau-trai-dat-phuong-khanh-tham-gia-chien-dich-gio-trai-dat-665929.ldo|title=Hoa hậu Trái đất Phương Khánh tham gia Chiến dịch "Giờ Trái đất"|last=Quan|first=Ky|date=31 March 2019|work=Báo Lao Động|access-date=15 April 2019}}</ref>
=== 2020 ===
Earth Hour 2020 took place on Saturday, 28 March from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time and it went digitally due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. 190 countries and territories came together to support this movement and few of the many public personalities such as UN Secretary General [[António Guterres]], [[Pope Francis]], environmental activist [[Greta Thunberg]], Canadian Prime Minister [[Justin Trudeau]], Indian film star [[Amitabh Bachchan]], UN Environment Goodwill ambassador [[Dia Mirza]], Kenyan singing sensation [[Nikita Kering]], Colombian model [[:es:Claudia Bahamón|Claudia Bahamon]] and British Singer Songwriter, [[Cat Stevens]] also participated in Earth Hour 2020.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://latest.earthhour.org/earth-hour-2020-wrap-up|title = Millions unite online making Earth Hour 2020 one of the largest virtual movements for the environment}}</ref>
=== 2021 ===
Earth Hour 2021 took place on Saturday, 27 March from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time.
=== 2022 ===
Earth Hour 2022 took place on Saturday, 26 March from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time.
=== 2023 ===
Earth Hour 2023 took place on Saturday, 25 March at 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time.<ref>{{cite web |title=WWF's Earth Hour Launches 'The Biggest Hour for Earth' |url=https://wwf.panda.org/wwf_news/press_releases/?7838441/WWFs-Earth-Hour-Launches-The-Biggest-Hour-for-Earth |website=World Wide Fund for Nature |access-date=20 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref> Ahead of the event, Earth Hour was rebranded as the "Biggest Hour for Earth",<ref>{{cite web |title=WWF rebrands its Earth Hour campaign to deliver the Biggest Hour for Earth |url=https://www.marketing-beat.co.uk/2023/03/17/wwf-biggest-hour-for-earth/ |website=Marketing Beat |date=March 17, 2023 |access-date=24 April 2023 |language=en}}</ref> which included a bigger focus on community action and less reliance on the 'switch off'. Over the course of the event Earth Hour measured over 410,000 hours of planet-positive activities pledged<ref>{{cite web |title=Millions celebrate WWF's Earth Hour 2023, creating The Biggest Hour for Earth |url=https://latest.earthhour.org/millions-celebrate-earth-hour-2023-creating-the-biggest-hour-for-earth |website=Earth Hour |access-date=24 April 2023 |language=en}}</ref> as part of the 'Hour Bank' which collated committed actions by the public.<ref>{{cite web |title=Give an Hour for Earth |url=https://www.earthhour.org/take-part/give-an-hour |website=Earth Hour |access-date=24 April 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
=== 2024 ===
Earth Hour 2024 will take place on Saturday, 23 March from 8:30 pm to 9:30 pm local time in order to avoid coinciding with [[Western Christianity|Western Christian]] Holy Saturday which will fall on March 30.<ref>{{cite web |title=Earth Hour |url=https://www.earthhour.org/ |access-date=26 March 2023 |language=en}}</ref>
== Measurement of reduction in electricity use ==
The Earth Hour Global FAQ page states:
{{Blockquote|Earth Hour does not purport to be an energy/[[Carbon neutrality|carbon reduction]] exercise, it is a symbolic action. Therefore, we do not engage in the measurement of energy/carbon reduction levels for the hour itself. Earth Hour is an initiative to encourage individuals, businesses and governments around the world to take accountability for their [[ecological footprint]] and engage in dialogue and resource exchange that provides real solutions to our environmental challenges. Participation in Earth Hour symbolizes a commitment to change beyond the hour.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.earthhour.org/celebrating-earth-hour |title=Celebrating Earth Hour |publisher=Earth Hour |access-date=2014-03-29 |archive-date=February 19, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219191454/http://earthhour.org/celebrating-earth-hour |url-status=dead }}</ref>}}
A 2014 study published in ''Energy Research and Social Science'' compiled 274 measurements of observed changes in electricity demand caused by Earth Hour in 10 countries, spanning 6 years, and found that the events reduced electricity consumption an average of 4%.<ref>{{cite journal|title=The electricity impacts of Earth Hour: An international comparative analysis of energy-saving behavior| doi=10.1016/j.erss.2014.04.014|volume=2|journal=Energy Research & Social Science|pages=159–182|year=2014|last1=Olexsak|first1=Sarah J.|last2=Meier|first2=Alan| s2cid=153963717|url=https://cloudfront.escholarship.org/dist/prd/content/qt4bj0h7bc/qt4bj0h7bc.pdf?t=pd3sl2}}</ref> The study noted the policy challenge of converting Earth Hour's short-term energy saving into longer-term actions, including sustained changes in behaviour and investment.
== Reception ==
{{Undue weight|date=March 2023}}
[[Bjørn Lomborg]], author of ''[[The Skeptical Environmentalist]]'', wrote, "It is vital to make [[solar power|solar]] and [[green energy|other new technology]] cheaper than [[fossil fuels]] quickly so we can turn off carbon energy sources for a lot longer than one hour and keep the planet running... Fossil fuels literally gave us an enlightenment, by lighting our world and giving us protection from the fury of the elements. It is ironic that today's pure symbolism should hark back to a darker age."<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25247677-7583,00.html | title = Hour of no power increases emissions | publisher = The Australian | date = March 27, 2009 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090329232500/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,25197,25247677-7583,00.html | archive-date = March 29, 2009 | access-date = March 30, 2009 | url-status = dead | df = mdy-all }}</ref> Lomborg also pointed out the feel-good factor Earth Hour creates, noting that it is an "ineffective feel good event" that makes people feel they are doing something for the environment, while in reality the amount of carbon emissions reduced by the earth hour is negligible.<ref>{{cite news|title=Q&A: Why Bjorn Lomborg won't be turning off the lights during Earth Hour|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/world/q-a-why-bjorn-lomborg-won-t-be-turning-off-the-lights-during-earth-hour-1.2591072|access-date=June 12, 2014|work=Mark Gollom, CBC News|agency=CBC News|issue=March 29, 2014}}</ref>
Other criticisms of Earth Hour have included the following:
* Some critics point out that the reduction in power consumption during Earth Hour itself is relatively insignificant.<ref name = "rage against dimming">{{cite news | last = Soloman | first = David | url = http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,21694864-7583,00.html | title = Rage, rage against dimming of the light | publisher = The Australian | date = May 9, 2007 | access-date = March 29, 2008 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080602041228/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au/story/0,20867,21694864-7583,00.html | archive-date = June 2, 2008 | url-status = dead | df = mdy-all }}</ref> ''[[The Herald Sun]]'' equated the power savings in the Sydney central business district to "taking 48,613 cars off the road for 1 hour".{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} Australian columnist [[Andrew Bolt]] pointed out that "A cut so tiny is trivial – equal to taking six cars off the road for a year".<ref>Bolt, Andrew (March 28, 2008). [http://www.heraldsun.com.au/opinion-old/earth-hour-coverage-should-be-grounded/story-e6frfifx-1111115907103 "Earth Hour coverage should be grounded"], Herald Sun, Retrieved March 20, 2011</ref>
*Other environmentalists have criticized Earth Hour's focus on individual behaviour, when a small number of fossil fuel companies have emitted the vast majority of man-made carbon emissions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sustainababble.fish/?p=101|title=Sustainababble Podcast – Earth Hour|date=March 29, 2015|access-date=March 25, 2017}}</ref> [[Adam McGibbon]], writing for ''[[The Independent]]'', criticized Earth Hour for releasing fossil fuel companies and politicians from their responsibility to deal with climate change.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/voices/earth-hour-climate-change-environment-fossil-fuels-boycott-make-change-happen-really-care-a7643971.html|title=If you really care about climate change, boycott Earth Hour|date=March 22, 2017|work=The Independent|access-date=March 25, 2017|language=en-GB}}</ref>
* ''[[The Christian Science Monitor]]'' said that most candles are made from [[Paraffin wax|paraffin]], a heavy [[hydrocarbon]] derived from [[crude oil]], a [[fossil fuel]], and that depending on how many candles a person burns (if one uses candles during Earth Hour), whether or not they normally use [[compact fluorescent light]] bulbs, and what source of energy is used to produce their electricity, in some cases, replacing light bulbs with candles will cause an increase, instead of a decrease, in carbon dioxide emissions.<ref>[http://features.csmonitor.com/environment/2009/03/27/does-lighting-candles-for-earth-hour-defeat-the-purpose/ Does lighting candles for Earth Hour defeat the purpose?], ''Christian Science Monitor'', March 27, 2009</ref>
* On March 29, 2009, one day after Earth Hour 2009, ''Dân Trí Daily News'' published an editorial expressing concern that many young people chose to drive around the darkened city of [[Hanoi]] for fun, exhausting petroleum instead of electricity and resulting in long traffic jams.<ref>[http://dantri.com.vn/xa-hoi/cai-nhin-khac-trong-gio-trai-dat-316112.htm "Cái nhìn khác trong Giờ Trái đất"], ''Dân Trí Daily News'', by Cường Cao, date: March 29, 2009. {{in lang|vi}}</ref>
* George Marshall of the Climate Outreach Information Network criticized Earth Hour for "playing into the hands of (the critics of environmentalists)," as darkness is symbolic of fear and decay. "The overwhelming need at the moment is to inspire ordinary people with a vision of a better world, to make them feel that action on climate change is utterly desirable and positive.... the cultural resonance (of Earth Hour) couldn't be any worse."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/cif-green/2009/mar/27/climate-change-carbon-emissions|title=Earth Hour: Turning out the lights plays into the hands of our critics|last=Marshall|first=George|date=March 27, 2009|work=The Guardian|access-date=March 25, 2017|language=en-GB|issn=0261-3077}}</ref>
* The [[Competitive Enterprise Institute]] has introduced an opposing ''Human Achievement Hour'' in celebration of human progress in various fields of industry, including technology, medicine, energy, and more. During this hour, the Institute suggests that people celebrate by using modern technology such as electricity, telecommunications and indoor plumbing.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://cei.org/content/human-achievement-hour-2015|title=Human Achievement Hour 2015|work=cei.org|access-date=May 31, 2015|archive-date=January 20, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160120025719/https://cei.org/content/human-achievement-hour-2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* In 2009, economist [[Ross McKitrick]] criticized the idea, saying, "Abundant, cheap electricity has been the greatest source of human liberation in the 20th century.[...] The whole mentality around Earth Hour demonizes electricity."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.rossmckitrick.com/uploads/4/8/0/8/4808045/earthhour.pdf | title=Earth Hour: A Dissent | last=McKitrick | first=Ross | author-link=Ross McKitrick | year=2009 | access-date=March 31, 2012}}</ref>
* In March 2010, ''The Daily Telegraph'' quoted Ross Hayman, head of media relations at the [[UK National Grid]], as saying "it could therefore result in an increase in carbon emissions" due to complications related to rapidly lowering then raising electricity generation.<ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/environment/climatechange/7527469/Earth-Hour-will-not-cut-carbon-emissions.html | location=London | work=The Daily Telegraph | title=Earth Hour 'will not cut carbon emissions' | date=March 27, 2010}}</ref>
* In February 2010, Rick Giles, president of [[ACT on Campus]], the youth wing of New Zealand's [[ACT Party]], appeared on the [[morning television]] show ''[[Sunrise (New Zealand TV program)|Sunrise]]'' to denounce Earth Hour and instead suggested the celebration of "Edison Hour". He argued that Earth Hour is an "anti-technology" cause, and that people will simply use candles instead, which is undesirable as they are petroleum-based. He argued that if we are heading for some kind of disaster, it makes sense to use technology to combat this.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2B9MqNzQuuk |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211215/2B9MqNzQuuk |archive-date=2021-12-15 |url-status=live|title=I think my argument is so powerful that it's not necessary to talk about it |publisher=YouTube |date=March 29, 2010 |access-date=March 31, 2012}}{{cbignore}}</ref> Rick said "I think my argument is so powerful that it's not necessary to talk about it".
* The [[Ayn Rand Institute]] wrote, "Participants spend an enjoyable sixty minutes in the dark, safe in the knowledge that the life-saving benefits of industrial civilization are just a light switch away... Forget one measly hour with just the lights off. How about Earth Month... Try spending a month shivering in the dark without heating, electricity, refrigeration; without power plants or generators; without any of the labor-saving, time-saving, and therefore life-saving products that industrial energy makes possible."<ref>[https://ari.aynrand.org/issues/science-and-industrialization/environmental-issues/The-Real-Meaning-of-Earth-Hour The Real Meaning of Earth Hour], by Keith Lockitch, Ayn Rand Institute, March 23, 2009</ref>
* Expressing sarcastic support for Earth Hour, the pro-carbon Carbon Sense Coalition wants Earth Hour to be renamed "Blackout Night", and to be held outside on the shortest and coldest day of the year "...to prepare our population for the dark days ahead".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://carbon-sense.com/|title=The Carbon Sense Coalition|work=carbon-sense.com|access-date=May 31, 2015}}</ref>
* During the 2010 Earth Hour in the city of [[Uusikaupunki]] in Finland, a 17-year-old female motorcyclist hit a 71-year-old man, who was walking on the street instead of the sidewalk for an unknown reason. The man died from his injuries, while the motorcyclist and her passenger were uninjured. At the time of the accident, the street lights had been turned off as part of the Earth Hour. The police stated that the lack of street lighting may have played a part in the accident, while the mayor believed the city's street lights would have been too dim to prevent it even if they had been on.<ref>{{cite web | title=Mies kuoli moottoripyörän alle pimeystempauksen pimentämällä tiellä | work=[[Helsingin Sanomat]] | url=<!-- http://www.hs.fi/kotimaa/artikkeli/Mies+kuoli+moottoripy%C3%B6r%C3%A4n+alle+pimeystempauksen+piment%C3%A4m%C3%A4ll%C3%A4+tiell%C3%A4/1135255005911 -->http://hommaforum.org/index.php?topic=25901.5;imode | date=March 27, 2010 | access-date=March 28, 2010 | language=fi | archive-date=March 29, 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329150314/https://hommaforum.org/index.php?topic=25901.5;imode | url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Kaupunki sammutti katuvalot Earth Hourin ajaksi – Mies jäi moottoripyörän alle pimeällä tiellä ja kuoli |work=[[Aamulehti]] |url=http://www.aamulehti.fi/uutiset/kotimaa/174590.shtml |date=March 28, 2010 |access-date=March 28, 2010 |language=fi }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
* [[Jeremy Clarkson]], ex-host of the [[BBC]] motoring programme ''[[Top Gear (2002 TV series)|Top Gear]]'', claimed switching on all electrical items in his home as a protest against the perceived impact of Earth Hour, claiming the event would have little to no effect on attitudes towards climate change.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/driving/jeremy_clarkson/article1976771.ece |location=London |work=The Times |title=Jeremy Clarkson |url-access=subscription }}{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref>
== See also ==
{{portal|Environment|Energy}}
* [[88888 Lights Out]]
* [[Denmark plants trees]]
* [[Earth Anthem]]
* [[Earth Day]]
* [[Earth Strike]]
* [[Flick Off]]
* [[International Dark Sky Week]]
* [[Light pollution]]
* [[Planet Relief]]
== References ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}
== External links ==
{{Wikinews|Businesses and individuals worldwide to turn lights off as part of Earth Hour 2009 | Businesses and individuals worldwide turn lights off as part of Earth Hour 2008}}
* {{Commons category-inline|Earth hour|Earth Hour}}
* [https://www.earthhour.org/ Earth Hour]
{{Authority control}}
[[Category:Climate change and society]]
[[Category:Annual events]]
[[Category:Recurring events established in 2007]]
[[Category:World Wide Fund for Nature]]
[[Category:Energy conservation]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:March observances]]
[[Category:Saturday observances]] |
Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. | {{Short description|U.S. watershed organization}}
{{multiple issues|
{{cleanup-PR|date=January 2016}}
{{overly detailed|date=January 2016}}
}}
'''Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc.''', or "CU", is a [[501(c)(3)]] (nonprofit) regional [[Drainage basin|watershed]] organization. It was founded in 1979 and incorporated in 1986.
CU received Environmental Quality Awards from the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) in 1994 <ref>[http://yosemite.epa.gov/opa/admpress.nsf/016bcfb1deb9fecd85256aca005d74df/ccaf54bc14551e9985257173006765a3!OpenDocument EPA]</ref> and again in 2000 for their efforts to procure the federal [[National Wild and Scenic River|Wild and Scenic]] designation for the [[Maurice River|Maurice]], [[Menantico River|Menantico]], [[Manumuskin River]]s and the [[Muskee Creek]]. In the year 2000 CU was also acknowledged by the EPA for the work on an osprey colony, their annual raptor and waterfowl survey, the film “Down Jersey” and accompanying teachers’ guide, and the [[North American Wetlands Conservation Act]].
In 2002 Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. took first place in the category of Education and Learning Institute, NJ Department of Environmental Protection, Division of Watershed Management for their PBS film “Down Jersey” and the teachers’ curriculum, “Down Jersey: Celebrating Our Sense of Place.” Over 500 teachers have taken workshops in order to teach the curriculum.
CU also co-produced a documentary with [[New Jersey Network]] for which they received a Mid-Atlantic [[Emmy]] award for Outstanding Arts Program or Special.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061006232152/http://www.njn.net/about/pressrelease/06archive/06sept-emmywinners.html NJN Media Release: NJN Brings Home 2 Emmys]</ref>
==Mission==
Their mission reads:
:''Citizens United is dedicated to protecting the watershed of the Maurice River and the region known as Down Jersey, thereby enabling current and future generations to enjoy the environmental, recreational, cultural, and scenic resources of this Wild & Scenic global treasure.''
:''CU empowers individuals, organizations, and neighboring communities to promote the region’s enduring well-being and quality of life. CU invites participation and fosters responsible stewardship. CU supports education, awareness, and informed decision-making utilizing field work, research, and advocacy<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/pages/about.html Citizen's United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries]</ref>''.
==Work==
CU's work in the [[Maurice River]] watershed typically begins geographically at Willow Grove Lake and continues south; the South Jersey Land and Water Trust begins its work in the vicinity of Willow Grove Lake and extends northward to the headwaters of Scotland Run.
The Maurice River watershed has a drainage of {{convert|386|sqmi|km2}} and runs south through Cumberland County, New Jersey to the Delaware Bay. The major tributaries of the Maurice River include [[Scotland Run]], [[Menantico Creek]], Muskee Creek, [[Muddy Run (Maurice River)|Muddy Run]], and the [[Manumuskin River]].<ref>[http://www.nj.gov/dep/watershedmgt/DOCS/WMAFactsheets/WMA17.pdf NJ DEP Watershed Management Area] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080725070608/http://www.nj.gov/dep/watershedmgt/DOCS/WMAFactsheets/WMA17.pdf |date=2008-07-25 }}</ref>
On December 1, 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] signed a congressional act designating {{convert|10.3|mi|km}} of the Maurice River, {{convert|7.9|mi|km}} of the Menantico Creek, {{convert|14.3|mi|km}} of the Manumuskin River, and {{convert|2.7|mi|km}} of the Muskee Creek as Wild and Scenic.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/maur/ National Park Service: Maurice River, Wild and Scenic]</ref>
The Delaware Bay estuary is a [[Ramsar convention|Ramsar]] Wetlands of International Importance listed site.<ref>[http://ramsar.org/sitelist.pdf Ramsar List of Wetlands of International Importance] {{webarchive|url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20060206174606/http%3A//ramsar.org/sitelist.pdf |date=2006-02-06 }}</ref> It has also been named by [[The Nature Conservancy]] as one of the "Last Great Places on Earth".<ref>[http://training.fws.gov/library/pubs5/web_link/text/nj_pine.htm Fish and Wildlife Services: Significant habitats and habitat complexes of the NJ Pinelands]</ref>
=== Ecological significance ===
The Maurice River watershed includes a variety of habitat supporting rare wildlife and plant populations. Its vast wetland and forest complexes host wintering waterfowl and spring migratory shorebirds. A 1992 report by the National Wild and Scenic River Study states that “[t]he study area functions as critical migration-related habitat for shorebirds, songbirds, waterfowl, raptors, rails and fish. The Maurice River and its tributaries drain the Southwest portion of the Pinelands National Reserve, which is also an International Biosphere Reserve under the United Nations Man and Biosphere Program.”
The New Jersey Landscape mapping indicates the Maurice River watershed as habitat for bald eagles, waterfowl, and several other migratory birds.<ref>[http://www.state.nj.us/dep/fgw/ensp/landscape New Jersey's Landscape Project]</ref> In addition, the area contains the world's largest population of ''Aeschynomene virginica'', (sensitive joint vetch). Its NatureServ Conservation Status is G2, globally imperiled.<ref>[http://www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServe?searchName=Aeschynomene%20virginica NatureServ Plant Profile: Aeschynomene virginica]</ref> The watershed also contains the state's largest expanse of wild rice marsh, within the Glades Refuge,<ref>[http://www.natlands.org/projects/project.asp?fldProjectId=9 Natural Lands Trust Glades Refuge] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071013025410/http://www.natlands.org/projects/project.asp?fldProjectId=9 |date=2007-10-13 }}</ref> and an old growth swamp forest, [[Bear Swamp, New Jersey|Bear Swamp]], a NJ state listed Natural Heritage Priority Site.<ref>[http://www.state.nj.us/dep/gis/digidownload/metadata/statewide/prisites.htm NJ Natural Heritage Priority Sites]</ref>
=== Cultural history ===
The Native Americans called the Maurice River “Wahatquenack”. The river's current name is thought to be derived from the Prince Maurice, a 17th-century Dutch ship reputed to have sunk in its waters.
The river's maritime history is intertwined with the oyster harvest, commercial fishing, and shipbuilding.<ref>[http://www.nps.gov/history/history/online_books/nj2/chap3a.htm National Park Service: Historic Themes and Resources within the New Jersey Coastal Heritage Trail Route]</ref> The [[A. J. Meerwald|AJ Meerwald]], a 1928 oyster schooner that operated on the Maurice and in the Delaware Bay, dubbed “NJ’s Tall Ship” by former [[Christine Todd Whitman|Governor Christie Whitman]], has been restored by the Bayshore Discovery Project for educational purposes.<ref>[http://www.ajmeerwald.org/ Bayshore Discovery Project]</ref>
=== Economic importance and recreational opportunities ===
The Maurice River supports such industries as commercial crabbing, eeling, net fishing, and oystering. Boating, kayaking, canoeing, birding, hiking, fishing, hunting and railbirding are several of the recreational activities pursued on the river. [[Benjamin Harrison|President Benjamin Harrison]] hunted on the Maurice River during his presidential term.<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/downjersey/maritime/m-lesson3.html Maritime History: Railbird hunting]</ref>
==Approach==
* Education
* Fieldwork
* Research
* Advocacy
=== Education ===
CU created a curriculum called “Down Jersey” which won the 2000 EPA Regional Education Award, and the 2001 NJDEP Statewide Watershed Award for Education. CU also partnered with [[New Jersey Network]] Public Television in 1997 to create a documentary by the same name in conjunction with this curriculum. Additionally, CU and NJN partnered on two other documentaries: “Bayshore Artists: Celebrating Our Sense of Place,” in 2001, and “Glenn Rudderow: Reflections of a Bayshore Painter,” in 2005, the second of which was awarded a Mid-Atlantic Emmy award for Outstanding Arts Program or Special.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20061006232152/http://www.njn.net/about/pressrelease/06archive/06sept-emmywinners.html NJN Media Release: NJN Brings Home 2 Emmys]</ref> The documentary aired nationally in 2006.
CU has also created various educational slideshows such as “Eggs to Flight” which follows the maturation of osprey from hatching to fledging, and “Fish and Chicks” which traces the decline and subsequent restoration efforts involving the osprey on the Maurice River.
Additionally, CU has created a botanical site that focuses on the flora of southern New Jersey and the [[Pine Barrens (New Jersey)|Pine Barrens]] of New Jersey.
CU has documented the local history of a number of [[reach (geography)|reaches]] on the Maurice River as well as securing source material on the Burcham Farm, the last remaining diked farm in southern New Jersey.<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/pages/burchamfarmthesis2.pdf Burcham Farm Thesis by Patricia Ball Bover]</ref>
Other aspects of CU's educational approach include:
* Participation in various community festivals such as the Cumberland County Winter Eagle Festival and Bay Days;
* “Raptor Discovery Days,” which involve programming for approximately 600 school children preceding the Eagle Festival; and
* Various activities and events for the public including bimonthly meetings with speakers, presentations for local groups, and opportunities such as birding, kayaking, and hiking.
The group also provides a scholarship for art students.<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/downjersey/maritime/m-cjost-schl.html Connie Jost Scholarship]</ref> The Connie Jost Scholarship was created in 1998 in memory of the late Connie Jost, a local artist, painter, sculptor, and educator who frequently incorporated fish and marine animals into her works.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/28/nyregion/art-review-fishing-for-meaning-and-for-a-good-time.html NY Times Art Review; Fishing for Meaning And for a Good Time]</ref>
=== Fieldwork ===
CU's fieldwork includes an osprey colony project, purple martin banding, wood ducks, Adopt-a-Swamp pink population, eagle nest monitoring, and international shorebird team assistance.
'''Osprey colony project''': The [[osprey]] (Pandion haliaetus) ) is a bird of prey (raptor) which feeds almost exclusively on fish. Seen in the coastal estuaries of many countries, the osprey is present on every continent with the exception of Antarctica. Its head is white with a black eye stripe. Its wing span is four and half to six feet and it is highly streamlined, making it an extremely maneuverable flier. Its talons are extremely sharp, which helps in piercing through the scales of a fish. Osprey generally mate for life but they will choose a new partner if a mate perishes. They normally lay three eggs; four is rare. On average they raise 2.5 young each season. Under the management of the New Jersey State Division of Fish and Wildlife, the NJ Endangered and Nongame Species Program monitors osprey populations statewide. Historically there were 500 nesting pair of osprey in NJ. In the 1950s and 1960s the use of DDT reduced their numbers to 50 pair. They were not productive, so chicks were brought in from nests in regions that had not been exposed to these chemical contaminants and the young were fostered by NJ's remaining birds. The fledglings imprinted to the area and returned as adults to build their own nests along New Jersey's rivers and bays.
Citizens statewide volunteered to help restore populations by providing nesting platforms for this threatened species. In the mid-1980s Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. (Citizens United or CU) began an osprey colony. In 2007 the State passed the milestone of 400 nesting pair. Citizens United's volunteers monitor approximately 50 nesting platforms and they have constructed and erected more than 50 platforms for other organizations and corporations, including the NJ Endangered and Nongame Species Program, NJ Department of Protection Bureau of Emergency Response, Community Energy, PSE&G and The Natural Lands Trust.
CU volunteers maintain the 50+ platforms along the Maurice River. Each June and July they band the offspring in these structures. Between 1985 and 2007 more than 150 people participated in this project. When the program was begun in 1985, an average of three chicks fledged each year. Since 2006, nesting pairs have produced in excess of 60 chicks. The platform design developed by Citizens United has become the official design of the State of New Jersey. The platform plans and materials list, available online, have been utilized by people from a number of different geographical regions.<ref>[http://www.cumauriceriver.org/pages/npmats.html Osprey platform plans]</ref>
'''Purple martin banding:''' [[Purple martin]]s (Progne subis) are the largest of the North American swallows and, in the eastern U.S., are entirely dependent upon man for their housing. In conjunction with CU, members and other individuals band the birds for research purposes. In 2008, CU member Allen Jackson and those working with him banded over 8000 purple martins, an increase of 2000 birds from the prior year. CU also donates funds to purchase the bands.
'''Wood ducks:''' CU has put up a number of [[wood duck]] boxes on both the Manumuskin and the Maurice, and has also taught various groups of local high school students to build them, as well as making the plans for the boxes available online.
'''Adopt a swamp pink population:''' [[Swamp pink]] (Helonias bullata) is a federally threatened member of the lily family. Seventy percent of its global population occurs in New Jersey. CU has partnered with the United States Fish and Wildlife Service on a monitoring project, “Adopt-a-Swamp-Pink Population”.<ref>[http://www.fws.gov/northeast/njfieldoffice/Fact%20Sheets%20PDF%20holding/Swamp_Pink_PDF.pdf U.S. Fish Wildlife Service Adopt a swamp pink program]</ref> The survey results are shared with U.S.F.W.S. and NJ Natural Heritage.
'''Assisting NJ Division of Fish and Wildlife, Endangered and Nongame Species Program:''' CU assists in two facets: a number of volunteers monitor eagles’ nests for the State; and their members also provide support to the international Shorebird Team that visits May–June of each year to study the migratory shorebird phenomenon. CU members help with the banding of shorebirds, as well as hosting the scientists during their stay by providing them with meals and local cultural activities.
'''[[World Series of Birding]]:''' CU's team, the “Fish Hawks”, was formed in 2007 and placed second in the category of limited geographical region that year. A portion of the monies raised by the team defray the expenses of hosting the international shorebird scientists.
=== Research ===
CU has funded in part or wholly a number of studies of flora and fauna in the Maurice River watershed including an annual Raptor Waterfowl study carried out since 1988, a number of botanical surveys, and the Parvin-Tarkiln Branch Water Study.
=== Advocacy ===
Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc. has been involved in environmental advocacy since its inception, and has made presentations and given testimony at local, state, and national levels for local land protection efforts.
Some of those include:
* Giving testimony on behalf of the Maurice River Project Area, a cooperative endeavor under the North American Wetlands Conservation Act.<ref>[http://www.acjv.org/Fact_Sheets/NJ08.pdf Atlantic Coast Joint Venture: New Jersey]{{dead link|date=August 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
* Initiating a number of nominations that were submitted to the National Park Service and Congress requesting the dedication of the Maurice River and three of its tributaries: the Manantico, Manumuskin, and Muskee River as Wild and Scenic River by the US Congress
* Serving on the Wild and Scenic Task Force that developed the summary of the resource values and the ultimate management plan for the rivers
* Challenging the placement of structures within the wild and scenic corridor and making suggestions to cell tower companies on locating towers
* Assisting local governments with the design of various city ordinances for tree harvesting, land mining, and communication towers
* Proposing alternatives to the development of environmentally sensitive sites
* Assisting corporations to help them meet project mitigation standards
* Opposing pollution of sites that were later deemed US EPA Superfund Sites
==Partnerships==
Since its inception, CU has partnered with other conservation organizations. Partners have included National Park Service, Natural Lands Trust, The Nature Conservancy, New Jersey Network, New Jersey Audubon Society, NJ Conservation Foundation, Bayshore Discovery Project, NJ Division of Fish and Wildlife, Rutgers Environmental Law Clinic, Columbia Environmental Law Clinic, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. CU also works with corporations on their habitat projects: Community Energy, PSE&G Estuary Enhancement Project, Morie Sand and Gravel and others.
CU is also a member of the South Jersey Bayshore Coalition.<ref>[http://sjbayshore.org/Coalition.htm South Jersey Bayshore Coalition]</ref>
==Notes==
{{reflist}}
== External links ==
*[http://www.cumauriceriver.org Citizens United to Protect the Maurice River and Its Tributaries, Inc.]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060219182724/http://njn.net/television/highlights/05november/bayshore/ New Jersey Network]
*[http://www.nps.gov/maur/ National Park Service]
*[http://www.ramsar.org Ramsar]
*[http://www.rivers.gov National Wild and Scenic Rivers System]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Citizens United To Protect The Maurice River And Its Tributaries, Inc.}}
[[Category:Environmental organizations based in New Jersey]]
[[Category:Cumberland County, New Jersey]]
[[Category:Environmental protection]]
[[Category:Water organizations in the United States]] |
Metropolitan River Protection Act | "'''Metropolitan River Protection Act''' (Georgia Code 12-5-440 et seq.) was enacted in 1973 by the (...TRUNCATED) |
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