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, in 1889 , Hugo de Vries published his book Intracellular Pangenesis , in which he postulated that different characters have individual hereditary carriers and that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles . De Vries called these units `` pangenes '' ( Pangens in German ) , after Darwin 's 1868 pangenesis theory . Sixteen years later , in 1905 , Wilhelm Johannsen introduced the term ' gene ' and William Bateson that of ' genetics ' while Eduard Strasburger , amongst others , still used the term ' pangene ' for the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity . Discovery of DNA ( edit ) Advances in understanding genes and inheritance continued throughout the 20th century . Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA ) was shown to be the molecular repository of genetic information by experiments in the 1940s to 1950s . The structure of DNA was studied by Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins using X-ray crystallography , which led James D. Watson and Francis Crick to publish a model of the double - stranded DNA molecule whose paired nucleotide bases indicated a compelling hypothesis for the mechanism of genetic replication . In the early 1950s the prevailing view was that the genes in a chromosome acted like discrete entities , indivisible by recombination and arranged like beads on a string . The experiments of Benzer using mutants defective in the rII region of bacteriophage T4 ( 1955 - 1959 ) showed that individual genes have a simple linear structure and are likely to be equivalent to a linear section of DNA . Collectively , this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology , which states that proteins are translated from RNA , which is transcribed from DNA . This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions , such as reverse transcription in retroviruses . The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics . In 1972 , Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene : the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein . The subsequent development of chain - termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool . An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project . Modern synthesis and its successors ( edit ) Main article : Modern synthesis ( 20th century ) The theories developed in the early 20th century to integrate Mendelian genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern synthesis , a term introduced by Julian Huxley . Evolutionary biologists have subsequently modified this concept , such as George C. Williams ' gene - centric view of evolution . He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition : `` that which segregates and recombines with appreciable | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Gene&oldid=826559114 | 6,336,823,791,467,260,000 | <P> Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent . </P> | their parents | 6336823791467259934_3 | false | In 1889, Hugo de Vries published his book Intracellular Pangenesis, in which he postulated that different characters have individual hereditary carriers and that inheritance of specific traits in organisms comes in particles. De Vries called these units "pangenes" (Pangens in German), after Darwin's 1868 pangenesis theory. Sixteen years later, in 1905, Wilhelm Johannsen introduced the term 'gene' and William Bateson that of 'genetics' while Eduard Strasburger, amongst others, still used the term 'pangene' for the fundamental physical and functional unit of heredity.
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In the early 1950s, the prevailing view was that the genes in a chromosome acted like discrete entities, indivisible by recombination and arranged like beads on a string. The experiments of Benzer using mutants defective in the rII region of bacteriophage T4 (1955-1959) showed that individual genes have a simple linear structure and are likely to be equivalent to a linear section of DNA. Collectively, this body of research established the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that proteins are translated from RNA, which is transcribed from DNA. This dogma has since been shown to have exceptions, such as reverse transcription in retroviruses. The modern study of genetics at the level of DNA is known as molecular genetics.
In 1972, Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent were the first to determine the sequence of a gene: the gene for Bacteriophage MS2 coat protein. The subsequent development of chain-termination DNA sequencing in 1977 by Frederick Sanger improved the efficiency of sequencing and turned it into a routine laboratory tool. An automated version of the Sanger method was used in early phases of the Human Genome Project.
The theories developed in the early 20th century to integrate Mendelian genetics with Darwinian evolution are called the modern synthesis, a term introduced by Julian Huxley. Evolutionary biologists have subsequently modified this concept, such as George C. Williams' gene-centric view of evolution. He proposed an evolutionary concept of the gene as a unit of natural selection with the definition: "that which segregates and recombines with appreciable. |
of natural selection with the definition : `` that which segregates and recombines with appreciable frequency . '' In this view , the molecular gene transcribes as a unit , and the evolutionary gene inherits as a unit . Related ideas emphasizing the centrality of genes in evolution were popularized by Richard Dawkins . Molecular basis ( edit ) Main article : DNA The chemical structure of a four base pair fragment of a DNA double helix . The sugar - phosphate backbone chains run in opposite directions with the bases pointing inwards , base - pairing A to T and C to G with hydrogen bonds . DNA ( edit ) The vast majority of living organisms encode their genes in long strands of DNA ( deoxyribonucleic acid ) . DNA consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits , each composed of : a five - carbon sugar ( 2 ' - deoxyribose ) , a phosphate group , and one of the four bases adenine , cytosine , guanine , and thymine . Two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix with the phosphate - sugar backbone spiralling around the outside , and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine . The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align to form two hydrogen bonds , whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds . The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary , with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand , and so on . Due to the chemical composition of the pentose residues of the bases , DNA strands have directionality . One end of a DNA polymer contains an exposed hydroxyl group on the deoxyribose ; this is known as the 3 ' end of the molecule . The other end contains an exposed phosphate group ; this is the 5 ' end . The two strands of a double - helix run in opposite directions . Nucleic acid synthesis , including DNA replication and transcription occurs in the 5 ' → 3 ' direction , because new nucleotides are added via a dehydration reaction that uses the exposed 3 ' hydroxyl as a nucleophile . The expression of genes encoded in DNA begins by transcribing the gene into RNA , a second type of nucleic acid that is very similar to DNA , but whose monomers contain the sugar ribose rather than deoxyribose . RNA also contains the base uracil in place of thymine . RNA molecules are less stable than DNA and are typically single - stranded . Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three - nucleotide sequences called codons , which serve as the `` words '' in the genetic `` language '' . The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids . The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms . Chromosomes ( edit ) Fluorescent microscopy image of a human female karyotype , showing 23 pairs of chromosomes . The | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Gene&oldid=826559114 | 6,336,823,791,467,260,000 | <P> Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent . </P> | their parents | 6336823791467259934_4 | false | An organism's genes are inherited from their parents. Genes are encoded in long strands of DNA, which consists of a chain made from four types of nucleotide subunits. The chemical structure of DNA consists of a sugar-phosphate backbone with the bases pointing inwards, and base-pairing A to T and C to G with hydrogen bonds. The two chains of DNA twist around each other to form a DNA double helix, with the phosphate-sugar backbone spiraling around the outside, and the bases pointing inwards with adenine base pairing to thymine and guanine to cytosine. The specificity of base pairing occurs because adenine and thymine align to form two hydrogen bonds, whereas cytosine and guanine form three hydrogen bonds. The two strands in a double helix must therefore be complementary, with their sequence of bases matching such that the adenines of one strand are paired with the thymines of the other strand, and so on. Genes that encode proteins are composed of a series of three-nucleotide sequences called codons, which serve as the "words" in the genetic "language". The genetic code specifies the correspondence during protein translation between codons and amino acids. The genetic code is nearly the same for all known organisms. |
Fluorescent microscopy image of a human female karyotype , showing 23 pairs of chromosomes . The DNA is stained red , with regions rich in housekeeping genes further stained in green . The largest chromosomes are around 10 times the size of the smallest . The total complement of genes in an organism or cell is known as its genome , which may be stored on one or more chromosomes . A chromosome consists of a single , very long DNA helix on which thousands of genes are encoded . The region of the chromosome at which a particular gene is located is called its locus . Each locus contains one allele of a gene ; however , members of a population may have different alleles at the locus , each with a slightly different gene sequence . The majority of eukaryotic genes are stored on a set of large , linear chromosomes . The chromosomes are packed within the nucleus in complex with storage proteins called histones to form a unit called a nucleosome . DNA packaged and condensed in this way is called chromatin . The manner in which DNA is stored on the histones , as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself , regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression . In addition to genes , eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division : replication origins , telomeres and the centromere . Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome . Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication . The length of the telomeres decreases each time the genome is replicated and has been implicated in the aging process . The centromere is required for binding spindle fibres to separate sister chromatids into daughter cells during cell division . Prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ) typically store their genomes on a single large , circular chromosome . Similarly , some eukaryotic organelles contain a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes . Prokaryotes sometimes supplement their chromosome with additional small circles of DNA called plasmids , which usually encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals . For example , the genes for antibiotic resistance are usually encoded on bacterial plasmids and can be passed between individual cells , even those of different species , via horizontal gene transfer . Whereas the chromosomes of prokaryotes are relatively gene - dense , those of eukaryotes often contain regions of DNA that serve no obvious function . Simple single - celled eukaryotes have relatively small amounts of such DNA , whereas the genomes of complex multicellular organisms , including humans , contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified | [
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In addition to genes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain sequences involved in ensuring that the DNA is copied without degradation of end regions and sorted into daughter cells during cell division. Prokaryotes typically store their genomes on a single large, circular chromosome, while some eukaryotic organelles contain a remnant circular chromosome with a small number of genes. Prokaryotes sometimes supplement their chromosome with additional small circles of DNA called plasmids, which usually encode only a few genes and are transferable between individuals.
The manner in which DNA is stored on the histones, as well as chemical modifications of the histone itself, regulate whether a particular region of DNA is accessible for gene expression. Replication origins, telomeres, and the centromere are also important sequences found on chromosomes. Replication origins are the sequence regions where DNA replication is initiated to make two copies of the chromosome. Telomeres are long stretches of repetitive sequence that cap the ends of the linear chromosomes and prevent degradation of coding and regulatory regions during DNA replication. The centromere is required for binding spindle fibers to separate sister chromatids into daughter cells during cell division.
Overall, an organism's genes come from its parents, as they are passed down through the process of reproduction. |
organisms , including humans , contain an absolute majority of DNA without an identified function . This DNA has often been referred to as `` junk DNA '' . However , more recent analyses suggest that , although protein - coding DNA makes up barely 2 % of the human genome , about 80 % of the bases in the genome may be expressed , so the term `` junk DNA '' may be a misnomer . Structure and function ( edit ) Structure ( edit ) Regulatory sequence Regulatory sequence Enhancer / silencer Promoter 5'UTR Open reading frame 3'UTR Enhancer / silencer Proximal Core Start Stop Terminator Transcription DNA Exon Exon Exon Intron Intron Post-transcriptional modification Pre - mRNA Protein coding region 5'cap Poly - A tail Translation Mature mRNA Protein The structure of a eukaryotic protein - coding gene . Regulatory sequence controls when and where expression occurs for the protein coding region ( red ) . Promoter and enhancer regions ( yellow ) regulate the transcription of the gene into a pre-mRNA which is modified to remove introns ( light grey ) and add a 5 ' cap and poly - A tail ( dark grey ) . The mRNA 5 ' and 3 ' untranslated regions ( blue ) regulate translation into the final protein product . Polycistronic operon Regulatory sequence Regulatory sequence Enhancer Enhancer / silencer / silencer Operator Promoter 5'UTR ORF ORF UTR 3'UTR Start Start Stop Stop Terminator Transcription DNA RBS RBS Protein coding region Protein coding region mRNA Translation Protein The structure of a prokaryotic operon of protein - coding genes . Regulatory sequence controls when expression occurs for the multiple protein coding regions ( red ) . Promoter , operator and enhancer regions ( yellow ) regulate the transcription of the gene into an mRNA . The mRNA untranslated regions ( blue ) regulate translation into the final protein products . The structure of a gene consists of many elements of which the actual protein coding sequence is often only a small part . These include DNA regions that are not transcribed as well as untranslated regions of the RNA . Flanking the open reading frame , genes contain a regulatory sequence that is required for their expression . First , genes require a promoter sequence . The promoter is recognized and bound by transcription factors and RNA polymerase to initiate transcription . The recognition typically occurs as a consensus sequence like the TATA box . A gene can have more than one promoter , resulting in messenger RNAs ( mRNA ) that differ in how far they extend in the 5 ' end . Highly transcribed genes have `` strong '' promoter sequences that form strong associations with transcription factors , thereby initiating transcription at a high rate . Others genes have `` weak '' promoters that form weak associations with transcription factors and initiate transcription less | [
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'' promoters that form weak associations with transcription factors and initiate transcription less frequently . Eukaryotic promoter regions are much more complex and difficult to identify than prokaryotic promoters . Additionally , genes can have regulatory regions many kilobases upstream or downstream of the open reading frame that alter expression . These act by binding to transcription factors which then cause the DNA to loop so that the regulatory sequence ( and bound transcription factor ) become close to the RNA polymerase binding site . For example , enhancers increase transcription by binding an activator protein which then helps to recruit the RNA polymerase to the promoter ; conversely silencers bind repressor proteins and make the DNA less available for RNA polymerase . The transcribed pre-mRNA contains untranslated regions at both ends which contain a ribosome binding site , terminator and start and stop codons . In addition , most eukaryotic open reading frames contain untranslated introns which are removed before the exons are translated . The sequences at the ends of the introns , dictate the splice sites to generate the final mature mRNA which encodes the protein or RNA product . Many prokaryotic genes are organized into operons , with multiple protein - coding sequences that are transcribed as a unit . The genes in an operon are transcribed as a continuous messenger RNA , referred to as a polycistronic mRNA . The term cistron in this context is equivalent to gene . The transcription of an operon 's mRNA is often controlled by a repressor that can occur in an active or inactive state depending on the presence of certain specific metabolites . When active , the repressor binds to a DNA sequence at the beginning of the operon , called the operator region , and represses transcription of the operon ; when the repressor is inactive transcription of the operon can occur ( see e.g. Lac operon ) . The products of operon genes typically have related functions and are involved in the same regulatory network . Functional definitions ( edit ) Defining exactly what section of a DNA sequence comprises a gene is difficult . Regulatory regions of a gene such as enhancers do not necessarily have to be close to the coding sequence on the linear molecule because the intervening DNA can be looped out to bring the gene and its regulatory region into proximity . Similarly , a gene 's introns can be much larger than its exons . Regulatory regions can even be on entirely different chromosomes and operate in trans to allow regulatory regions on one chromosome to come in contact with target genes on another chromosome . Early work in molecular genetics suggested the concept that one gene makes one protein . This concept ( originally called the one gene - one enzyme hypothesis ) emerged from an influential 1941 paper by George Beadle and Edward Tatum on experiments with mutants of the fungus | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Gene&oldid=826559114 | 6,336,823,791,467,260,000 | <P> Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent . </P> | their parents | 6336823791467259934_7 | false | Genes are inherited from an organism's parents. Eukaryotic promoter regions are more complex and difficult to identify than prokaryotic promoters. Genes can have regulatory regions many kilobases upstream or downstream of the open reading frame that alter expression. These regulatory regions can be on entirely different chromosomes and operate in trans to allow regulatory regions on one chromosome to come in contact with target genes on another chromosome. The transcribed pre-mRNA contains untranslated regions at both ends which contain a ribosome binding site, terminator and start and stop codons. In addition, most eukaryotic open reading frames contain untranslated introns which are removed before the exons are translated. Many prokaryotic genes are organized into operons, with multiple protein-coding sequences that are transcribed as a unit. The transcription of an operon's mRNA is often controlled by a repressor that can occur in an active or inactive state depending on the presence of certain specific metabolites. The products of operon genes typically have related functions and are involved in the same regulatory network. |
influential 1941 paper by George Beadle and Edward Tatum on experiments with mutants of the fungus Neurospora crassa . Norman Horowitz , an early colleague on the Neurospora research , reminisced in 2004 that `` these experiments founded the science of what Beadle and Tatum called biochemical genetics . In actuality they proved to be the opening gun in what became molecular genetics and all the developments that have followed from that . '' The one gene - one protein concept has been refined since the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins by alternative splicing and coding sequences split in short section across the genome whose mRNAs are concatenated by trans - splicing . A broad operational definition is sometimes used to encompass the complexity of these diverse phenomena , where a gene is defined as a union of genomic sequences encoding a coherent set of potentially overlapping functional products . This definition categorizes genes by their functional products ( proteins or RNA ) rather than their specific DNA loci , with regulatory elements classified as gene - associated regions . Gene expression ( edit ) Main article : Gene expression In all organisms , two steps are required to read the information encoded in a gene 's DNA and produce the protein it specifies . First , the gene 's DNA is transcribed to messenger RNA ( mRNA ) . Second , that mRNA is translated to protein . RNA - coding genes must still go through the first step , but are not translated into protein . The process of producing a biologically functional molecule of either RNA or protein is called gene expression , and the resulting molecule is called a gene product . Genetic code ( edit ) Schematic of a single - stranded RNA molecule illustrating a series of three - base codons . Each three - nucleotide codon corresponds to an amino acid when translated to protein The nucleotide sequence of a gene 's DNA specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein through the genetic code . Sets of three nucleotides , known as codons , each correspond to a specific amino acid . The principle that three sequential bases of DNA code for each amino acid was demonstrated in 1961 using frameshift mutations in the rIIB gene of bacteriophage T4 ( see Crick , Brenner et al. experiment ) . Additionally , a `` start codon '' , and three `` stop codons '' indicate the beginning and end of the protein coding region . There are 64 possible codons ( four possible nucleotides at each of three positions , hence 4 possible codons ) and only 20 standard amino acids ; hence the code is redundant and multiple codons can specify the same amino acid . The correspondence between codons and amino acids is nearly universal among all known living organisms . Transcription ( edit ) Transcription produces a single - stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA , whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Gene&oldid=826559114 | 6,336,823,791,467,260,000 | <P> Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent . </P> | their parents | 6336823791467259934_8 | false | Genes are the basic unit of heredity in living organisms. They are responsible for the transmission of traits from parents to offspring. The influential 1941 paper by George Beadle and Edward Tatum on experiments with mutants of the fungus Neurospora crassa laid the foundation for the science of biochemical genetics. This led to the development of molecular genetics and all the subsequent advancements in the field. The concept of one gene - one protein has evolved over time, with the discovery of genes that can encode multiple proteins through alternative splicing and coding sequences split across the genome. Gene expression involves the transcription of a gene's DNA to messenger RNA (mRNA), followed by the translation of that mRNA to protein. The genetic code, consisting of sets of three nucleotides known as codons, specifies the amino acid sequence of a protein. The correspondence between codons and amino acids is nearly universal among all known living organisms. Transcription produces a single-stranded RNA molecule known as messenger RNA, whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed. Genes are inherited from an organism's parents, and the genetic information they carry is passed down from generation to generation. |
RNA molecule known as messenger RNA , whose nucleotide sequence is complementary to the DNA from which it was transcribed . The mRNA acts as an intermediate between the DNA gene and its final protein product . The gene 's DNA is used as a template to generate a complementary mRNA . The mRNA matches the sequence of the gene 's DNA coding strand because it is synthesised as the complement of the template strand . Transcription is performed by an enzyme called an RNA polymerase , which reads the template strand in the 3 ' to 5 ' direction and synthesizes the RNA from 5 ' to 3 ' . To initiate transcription , the polymerase first recognizes and binds a promoter region of the gene . Thus , a major mechanism of gene regulation is the blocking or sequestering the promoter region , either by tight binding by repressor molecules that physically block the polymerase , or by organizing the DNA so that the promoter region is not accessible . In prokaryotes , transcription occurs in the cytoplasm ; for very long transcripts , translation may begin at the 5 ' end of the RNA while the 3 ' end is still being transcribed . In eukaryotes , transcription occurs in the nucleus , where the cell 's DNA is stored . The RNA molecule produced by the polymerase is known as the primary transcript and undergoes post-transcriptional modifications before being exported to the cytoplasm for translation . One of the modifications performed is the splicing of introns which are sequences in the transcribed region that do not encode protein . Alternative splicing mechanisms can result in mature transcripts from the same gene having different sequences and thus coding for different proteins . This is a major form of regulation in eukaryotic cells and also occurs in some prokaryotes . Translation ( edit ) Protein coding genes are transcribed to an mRNA intermediate , then translated to a functional protein . RNA - coding genes are transcribed to a functional non-coding RNA . ( PDB : 3BSE , 1OBB , 3TRA ) Translation is the process by which a mature mRNA molecule is used as a template for synthesizing a new protein . Translation is carried out by ribosomes , large complexes of RNA and protein responsible for carrying out the chemical reactions to add new amino acids to a growing polypeptide chain by the formation of peptide bonds . The genetic code is read three nucleotides at a time , in units called codons , via interactions with specialized RNA molecules called transfer RNA ( tRNA ) . Each tRNA has three unpaired bases known as the anticodon that are complementary to the codon it reads on the mRNA . The tRNA is also covalently attached to the amino acid specified by the complementary codon . When the tRNA binds to its complementary codon in an mRNA strand , the ribosome attaches its amino acid cargo to the new polypeptide chain , which is synthesized from amino terminus to carboxyl terminus . During and after synthesis , most new proteins must fold to | [
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amino terminus to carboxyl terminus . During and after synthesis , most new proteins must fold to their active three - dimensional structure before they can carry out their cellular functions . Regulation ( edit ) Genes are regulated so that they are expressed only when the product is needed , since expression draws on limited resources . A cell regulates its gene expression depending on its external environment ( e.g. available nutrients , temperature and other stresses ) , its internal environment ( e.g. cell division cycle , metabolism , infection status ) , and its specific role if in a multicellular organism . Gene expression can be regulated at any step : from transcriptional initiation , to RNA processing , to post-translational modification of the protein . The regulation of lactose metabolism genes in E. coli ( lac operon ) was the first such mechanism to be described in 1961 . RNA genes ( edit ) A typical protein - coding gene is first copied into RNA as an intermediate in the manufacture of the final protein product . In other cases , the RNA molecules are the actual functional products , as in the synthesis of ribosomal RNA and transfer RNA . Some RNAs known as ribozymes are capable of enzymatic function , and microRNA has a regulatory role . The DNA sequences from which such RNAs are transcribed are known as non-coding RNA genes . Some viruses store their entire genomes in the form of RNA , and contain no DNA at all . Because they use RNA to store genes , their cellular hosts may synthesize their proteins as soon as they are infected and without the delay in waiting for transcription . On the other hand , RNA retroviruses , such as HIV , require the reverse transcription of their genome from RNA into DNA before their proteins can be synthesized . RNA - mediated epigenetic inheritance has also been observed in plants and very rarely in animals . Inheritance ( edit ) Inheritance of a gene that has two different alleles ( blue and white ) . The gene is located on an autosomal chromosome . The white allele is recessive to the blue allele . The probability of each outcome in the children 's generation is one quarter , or 25 percent . Main articles : Mendelian inheritance and Heredity Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent . Mendelian inheritance ( edit ) According to Mendelian inheritance , variations in an organism 's phenotype ( observable physical and behavioral characteristics ) are due in part to variations in its genotype ( particular set of genes ) . Each gene specifies a particular trait with different sequence of a gene ( alleles ) giving rise to different phenotypes . Most eukaryotic organisms ( such as the pea plants Mendel worked on ) have two | [
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phenotypes . Most eukaryotic organisms ( such as the pea plants Mendel worked on ) have two alleles for each trait , one inherited from each parent . Alleles at a locus may be dominant or recessive ; dominant alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotypes when paired with any other allele for the same trait , whereas recessive alleles give rise to their corresponding phenotype only when paired with another copy of the same allele . If you know the genotypes of the organisms , you can determine which alleles are dominant and which are recessive . For example , if the allele specifying tall stems in pea plants is dominant over the allele specifying short stems , then pea plants that inherit one tall allele from one parent and one short allele from the other parent will also have tall stems . Mendel 's work demonstrated that alleles assort independently in the production of gametes , or germ cells , ensuring variation in the next generation . Although Mendelian inheritance remains a good model for many traits determined by single genes ( including a number of well - known genetic disorders ) it does not include the physical processes of DNA replication and cell division . DNA replication and cell division ( edit ) The growth , development , and reproduction of organisms relies on cell division ; the process by which a single cell divides into two usually identical daughter cells . This requires first making a duplicate copy of every gene in the genome in a process called DNA replication . The copies are made by specialized enzymes known as DNA polymerases , which `` read '' one strand of the double - helical DNA , known as the template strand , and synthesize a new complementary strand . Because the DNA double helix is held together by base pairing , the sequence of one strand completely specifies the sequence of its complement ; hence only one strand needs to be read by the enzyme to produce a faithful copy . The process of DNA replication is semiconservative ; that is , the copy of the genome inherited by each daughter cell contains one original and one newly synthesized strand of DNA . The rate of DNA replication in living cells was first measured as the rate of phage T4 DNA elongation in phage - infected E. coli and found to be impressively rapid . During the period of exponential DNA increase at 37 ° C , the rate of elongation was 749 nucleotides per second . After DNA replication is complete , the cell must physically separate the two copies of the genome and divide into two distinct membrane - bound cells . In prokaryotes ( bacteria and archaea ) this usually occurs via a relatively simple process called binary fission , in which each circular genome attaches to the cell membrane and is separated into the daughter cells as the membrane invaginates to split the cytoplasm into two membrane - bound portions . Binary fission is extremely fast compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes | [
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portions . Binary fission is extremely fast compared to the rates of cell division in eukaryotes . Eukaryotic cell division is a more complex process known as the cell cycle ; DNA replication occurs during a phase of this cycle known as S phase , whereas the process of segregating chromosomes and splitting the cytoplasm occurs during M phase . Molecular inheritance ( edit ) The duplication and transmission of genetic material from one generation of cells to the next is the basis for molecular inheritance , and the link between the classical and molecular pictures of genes . Organisms inherit the characteristics of their parents because the cells of the offspring contain copies of the genes in their parents ' cells . In asexually reproducing organisms , the offspring will be a genetic copy or clone of the parent organism . In sexually reproducing organisms , a specialized form of cell division called meiosis produces cells called gametes or germ cells that are haploid , or contain only one copy of each gene . The gametes produced by females are called eggs or ova , and those produced by males are called sperm . Two gametes fuse to form a diploid fertilized egg , a single cell that has two sets of genes , with one copy of each gene from the mother and one from the father . During the process of meiotic cell division , an event called genetic recombination or crossing - over can sometimes occur , in which a length of DNA on one chromatid is swapped with a length of DNA on the corresponding homologous non-sister chromatid . This can result in reassortment of otherwise linked alleles . The Mendelian principle of independent assortment asserts that each of a parent 's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes ; which allele an organism inherits for one trait is unrelated to which allele it inherits for another trait . This is in fact only true for genes that do not reside on the same chromosome , or are located very far from one another on the same chromosome . The closer two genes lie on the same chromosome , the more closely they will be associated in gametes and the more often they will appear together ; genes that are very close are essentially never separated because it is extremely unlikely that a crossover point will occur between them . This is known as genetic linkage . Molecular evolution ( edit ) Main article : Molecular evolution Mutation ( edit ) DNA replication is for the most part extremely accurate , however errors ( mutations ) do occur . The error rate in eukaryotic cells can be as low as 10 per nucleotide per replication , whereas for some RNA viruses it can be as high as 10 . This means that each generation , each human genome accumulates 1 -- 2 new mutations . Small mutations can be caused by DNA replication and the aftermath of DNA damage and include point mutations in which a single base is altered and frameshift mutations in which a single base is | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Gene&oldid=826559114 | 6,336,823,791,467,260,000 | <P> Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent . </P> | their parents | 6336823791467259934_12 | true | An organism's genes come from their parents. In asexually reproducing organisms, the offspring will be a genetic copy or clone of the parent organism. In sexually reproducing organisms, a specialized form of cell division called meiosis produces cells called gametes or germ cells that are haploid, or contain only one copy of each gene. The gametes produced by females are called eggs or ova, and those produced by males are called sperm. Two gametes fuse to form a diploid fertilized egg, a single cell that has two sets of genes, with one copy of each gene from the mother and one from the father. During the process of meiotic cell division, an event called genetic recombination or crossing-over can sometimes occur, in which a length of DNA on one chromatid is swapped with a length of DNA on the corresponding homologous non-sister chromatid. This can result in reassortment of otherwise linked alleles. The Mendelian principle of independent assortment asserts that each of a parent's two genes for each trait will sort independently into gametes; which allele an organism inherits for one trait is unrelated to which allele it inherits for another trait. This is in fact only true for genes that do not reside on the same chromosome, or are located very far from one another on the same chromosome. The closer two genes lie on the same chromosome, the more closely they will be associated in gametes and the more often they will appear together; genes that are very close are essentially never separated because it is extremely unlikely that a crossover point will occur between them. This is known as genetic linkage. |
mutations in which a single base is altered and frameshift mutations in which a single base is inserted or deleted . Either of these mutations can change the gene by missense ( change a codon to encode a different amino acid ) or nonsense ( a premature stop codon ) . Larger mutations can be caused by errors in recombination to cause chromosomal abnormalities including the duplication , deletion , rearrangement or inversion of large sections of a chromosome . Additionally , DNA repair mechanisms can introduce mutational errors when repairing physical damage to the molecule . The repair , even with mutation , is more important to survival than restoring an exact copy , for example when repairing double - strand breaks . When multiple different alleles for a gene are present in a species 's population it is called polymorphic . Most different alleles are functionally equivalent , however some alleles can give rise to different phenotypic traits . A gene 's most common allele is called the wild type , and rare alleles are called mutants . The genetic variation in relative frequencies of different alleles in a population is due to both natural selection and genetic drift . The wild - type allele is not necessarily the ancestor of less common alleles , nor is it necessarily fitter . Most mutations within genes are neutral , having no effect on the organism 's phenotype ( silent mutations ) . Some mutations do not change the amino acid sequence because multiple codons encode the same amino acid ( synonymous mutations ) . Other mutations can be neutral if they lead to amino acid sequence changes , but the protein still functions similarly with the new amino acid ( e.g. conservative mutations ) . Many mutations , however , are deleterious or even lethal , and are removed from populations by natural selection . Genetic disorders are the result of deleterious mutations and can be due to spontaneous mutation in the affected individual , or can be inherited . Finally , a small fraction of mutations are beneficial , improving the organism 's fitness and are extremely important for evolution , since their directional selection leads to adaptive evolution . Sequence homology ( edit ) A sequence alignment , produced by ClustalO , of mammalian histone proteins Genes with a most recent common ancestor , and thus a shared evolutionary ancestry , are known as homologs . These genes appear either from gene duplication within an organism 's genome , where they are known as paralogous genes , or are the result of divergence of the genes after a speciation event , where they are known as orthologous genes , and often perform the same or similar functions in related organisms . It is often assumed that the functions of orthologous genes are more similar than those of paralogous genes , although the difference is minimal . The relationship between genes can be measured by comparing the sequence alignment of their DNA . The | [
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relationship between genes can be measured by comparing the sequence alignment of their DNA . The degree of sequence similarity between homologous genes is called conserved sequence . Most changes to a gene 's sequence do not affect its function and so genes accumulate mutations over time by neutral molecular evolution . Additionally , any selection on a gene will cause its sequence to diverge at a different rate . Genes under stabilizing selection are constrained and so change more slowly whereas genes under directional selection change sequence more rapidly . The sequence differences between genes can be used for phylogenetic analyses to study how those genes have evolved and how the organisms they come from are related . Origins of new genes ( edit ) Evolutionary fate of duplicate genes . The most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages is gene duplication , which creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome . The resulting genes ( paralogs ) may then diverge in sequence and in function . Sets of genes formed in this way compose a gene family . Gene duplications and losses within a family are common and represent a major source of evolutionary biodiversity . Sometimes , gene duplication may result in a nonfunctional copy of a gene , or a functional copy may be subject to mutations that result in loss of function ; such nonfunctional genes are called pseudogenes . `` Orphan '' genes , whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes , are less common than gene duplicates . Estimates of the number of genes with no homologs outside humans range from 18 to 60 . Two primary sources of orphan protein - coding genes are gene duplication followed by extremely rapid sequence change , such that the original relationship is undetectable by sequence comparisons , and de novo conversion of a previously non-coding sequence into a protein - coding gene . De novo genes are typically shorter and simpler in structure than most eukaryotic genes , with few if any introns . Over long evolutionary time periods , de novo gene birth may be responsible for a significant fraction of taxonomically - restricted gene families . Horizontal gene transfer refers to the transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction . This mechanism is a common source of new genes in prokaryotes , sometimes thought to contribute more to genetic variation than gene duplication . It is a common means of spreading antibiotic resistance , virulence , and adaptive metabolic functions . Although horizontal gene transfer is rare in eukaryotes , likely examples have been identified of protist and alga genomes containing genes of bacterial origin . Genome ( edit ) The genome is the total genetic material of an organism and includes both the genes and non-coding sequences . Number of genes ( edit ) Representative genome sizes for plants ( green ) , vertebrates ( blue ) , | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Gene&oldid=826559114 | 6,336,823,791,467,260,000 | <P> Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent . </P> | their parents | 6336823791467259934_14 | false | Genes are the units of heredity that are passed down from one generation to the next. The relationship between genes can be measured by comparing the sequence alignment of their DNA. The degree of sequence similarity between homologous genes is called conserved sequence. Most changes to a gene's sequence do not affect its function and so genes accumulate mutations over time by neutral molecular evolution. Additionally, any selection on a gene will cause its sequence to diverge at a different rate. Genes under stabilizing selection are constrained and so change more slowly whereas genes under directional selection change sequence more rapidly. The sequence differences between genes can be used for phylogenetic analyses to study how those genes have evolved and how the organisms they come from are related.
The most common source of new genes in eukaryotic lineages is gene duplication, which creates copy number variation of an existing gene in the genome. The resulting genes (paralogs) may then diverge in sequence and in function. Sets of genes formed in this way compose a gene family. Gene duplications and losses within a family are common and represent a major source of evolutionary biodiversity. Sometimes, gene duplication may result in a nonfunctional copy of a gene, or a functional copy may be subject to mutations that result in loss of function; such nonfunctional genes are called pseudogenes.
"Orphan" genes, whose sequence shows no similarity to existing genes, are less common than gene duplicates. Estimates of the number of genes with no homologs outside humans range from 18 to 60. Two primary sources of orphan protein-coding genes are gene duplication followed by extremely rapid sequence change, such that the original relationship is undetectable by sequence comparisons, and de novo conversion of a previously non-coding sequence into a protein-coding gene. De novo genes are typically shorter and simpler in structure than most eukaryotic genes, with few if any introns. Over long evolutionary time periods, de novo gene birth may be responsible for a significant fraction of taxonomically-restricted gene families.
Horizontal gene transfer refers to the transfer of genetic material through a mechanism other than reproduction. This mechanism is a common source of new genes in prokaryotes, sometimes thought to contribute more to genetic variation than gene duplication. It is a common means of spreading antibiotic resistance, virulence, and adaptive metabolic functions. Although horizontal gene transfer is rare in eukaryotes, likely examples have been identified of protist and alga genomes containing genes of bacterial origin.
The genome is the total genetic material of an organism and includes both the genes and non-coding sequences. Representative genome sizes for plants (green), vertebrates (blue), |
of genes ( edit ) Representative genome sizes for plants ( green ) , vertebrates ( blue ) , invertebrates ( red ) , fungus ( yellow ) , bacteria ( purple ) , and viruses ( grey ) . An inset on the right shows the smaller genomes expanded 100-fold . The genome size , and the number of genes it encodes varies widely between organisms . The smallest genomes occur in viruses ( which can have as few as 2 protein - coding genes ) , and viroids ( which act as a single non-coding RNA gene ) . Conversely , plants can have extremely large genomes , with rice containing > 46,000 protein - coding genes . The total number of protein - coding genes ( the Earth 's proteome ) is estimated to be 5 million sequences . Although the number of base - pairs of DNA in the human genome has been known since the 1960s , the estimated number of genes has changed over time as definitions of genes , and methods of detecting them have been refined . Initial theoretical predictions of the number of human genes were as high as 2,000,000 . Early experimental measures indicated there to be 50,000 -- 100,000 transcribed genes ( expressed sequence tags ) . Subsequently , the sequencing in the Human Genome Project indicated that many of these transcripts were alternative variants of the same genes , and the total number of protein - coding genes was revised down to ~ 20,000 with 13 genes encoded on the mitochondrial genome . With the GENCODE annotation project , that estimate has continued to fall to 19,000 . Of the human genome , only 1 -- 2 % consists of protein - coding genes , with the remainder being ' noncoding ' DNA such as introns , retrotransposons , and noncoding RNAs . Every multicellular organism has all its genes in each cell of its body but not every gene functions in every cell . Essential genes ( edit ) Main article : Essential gene Gene functions in the minimal genome of the synthetic organism , Syn 3 . Essential genes are the set of genes thought to be critical for an organism 's survival . This definition assumes the abundant availability of all relevant nutrients and the absence of environmental stress . Only a small portion of an organism 's genes are essential . In bacteria , an estimated 250 -- 400 genes are essential for Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis , which is less than 10 % of their genes . Half of these genes are orthologs in both organisms and are largely involved in protein synthesis . In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae the number of essential genes is slightly higher , at 1000 genes ( ~ 20 % of their genes ) . Although the number is more difficult to measure in higher eukaryotes , mice and humans are estimated to have around 2000 essential genes ( ~ 10 % of their genes ) . The synthetic organism , Syn 3 , has a minimal genome of 473 essential genes and quasi-essential genes ( necessary for fast growth ) , although 149 have unknown function . Essential genes include Housekeeping genes ( | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Gene&oldid=826559114 | 6,336,823,791,467,260,000 | <P> Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent . </P> | their parents | 6336823791467259934_15 | false | An organism's genes come from their parents. The genome size and the number of genes it encodes varies widely between organisms. The smallest genomes occur in viruses, which can have as few as 2 protein-coding genes, and viroids, which act as a single non-coding RNA gene. Conversely, plants can have extremely large genomes, with rice containing over 46,000 protein-coding genes. The total number of protein-coding genes (the Earth's proteome) is estimated to be 5 million sequences. Although the number of base-pairs of DNA in the human genome has been known since the 1960s, the estimated number of genes has changed over time as definitions of genes and methods of detecting them have been refined. Initial theoretical predictions of the number of human genes were as high as 2,000,000. Early experimental measures indicated there to be 50,000 - 100,000 transcribed genes (expressed sequence tags). Subsequently, the sequencing in the Human Genome Project indicated that many of these transcripts were alternative variants of the same genes, and the total number of protein-coding genes was revised down to approximately 20,000 with 13 genes encoded on the mitochondrial genome. With the GENCODE annotation project, that estimate has continued to fall to 19,000. Of the human genome, only 1 - 2 % consists of protein-coding genes, with the remainder being 'noncoding' DNA such as introns, retrotransposons, and noncoding RNAs. Every multicellular organism has all its genes in each cell of its body but not every gene functions in every cell. Essential genes are the set of genes thought to be critical for an organism's survival. This definition assumes the abundant availability of all relevant nutrients and the absence of environmental stress. Only a small portion of an organism's genes are essential. In bacteria, an estimated 250 - 400 genes are essential for Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis, which is less than 10 % of their genes. Half of these genes are orthologs in both organisms and are largely involved in protein synthesis. In the budding yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the number of essential genes is slightly higher, at 1000 genes, which is approximately 20 % of their genes. Although the number is more difficult to measure in higher eukaryotes, mice and humans are estimated to have around 2000 essential genes, which is approximately 10 % of their genes. The synthetic organism, Syn 3, has a minimal genome of 473 essential genes and quasi-essential genes, although 149 have unknown function. |
) , although 149 have unknown function . Essential genes include Housekeeping genes ( critical for basic cell functions ) as well as genes that are expressed at different times in the organisms development or life cycle . Housekeeping genes are used as experimental controls when analysing gene expression , since they are constitutively expressed at a relatively constant level . Genetic and genomic Nomenclature ( edit ) Gene nomenclature has been established by the HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee ( HGNC ) for each known human gene in the form of an approved gene name and symbol ( short - form abbreviation ) , which can be accessed through a database maintained by HGNC . Symbols are chosen to be unique , and each gene has only one symbol ( although approved symbols sometimes change ) . Symbols are preferably kept consistent with other members of a gene family and with homologs in other species , particularly the mouse due to its role as a common model organism . Genetic engineering ( edit ) Comparison of conventional plant breeding with transgenic and cisgenic genetic modification . Main article : Genetic engineering Genetic engineering is the modification of an organism 's genome through biotechnology . Since the 1970s , a variety of techniques have been developed to specifically add , remove and edit genes in an organism . Recently developed genome engineering techniques use engineered nuclease enzymes to create targeted DNA repair in a chromosome to either disrupt or edit a gene when the break is repaired . The related term synthetic biology is sometimes used to refer to extensive genetic engineering of an organism . Genetic engineering is now a routine research tool with model organisms . For example , genes are easily added to bacteria and lineages of knockout mice with a specific gene 's function disrupted are used to investigate that gene 's function . Many organisms have been genetically modified for applications in agriculture , industrial biotechnology , and medicine . For multicellular organisms , typically the embryo is engineered which grows into the adult genetically modified organism . However , the genomes of cells in an adult organism can be edited using gene therapy techniques to treat genetic diseases . See also ( edit ) Copy number variation Epigenetics Full genome sequencing Gene - centric view of evolution Gene dosage Gene expression Gene family Gene nomenclature Gene patent Gene pool Gene redundancy Genetic algorithm List of gene prediction software List of notable genes Predictive medicine Pseudogene Quantitative trait locus References ( edit ) Main textbook ( edit ) Alberts B , Johnson A , Lewis J , Raff M , Roberts K , | [
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Main textbook ( edit ) Alberts B , Johnson A , Lewis J , Raff M , Roberts K , Walter P ( 2002 ) . Molecular Biology of the Cell ( Fourth ed . ) . New York : Garland Science . ISBN 978 - 0 - 8153 - 3218 - 3 . -- A molecular biology textbook available free online through NCBI Bookshelf . Referenced chapters of Molecular Biology of the Cell Glossary Ch 1 : Cells and genomes 1.1 : The Universal Features of Cells on Earth Ch 2 : Cell Chemistry and Biosynthesis 2.1 : The Chemical Components of a Cell Ch 3 : Proteins Ch 4 : DNA and Chromosomes 4.1 : The Structure and Function of DNA 4.2 : Chromosomal DNA and Its Packaging in the Chromatin Fiber Ch 5 : DNA Replication , Repair , and Recombination 5.2 : DNA Replication Mechanisms 5.4 : DNA Repair 5.5 : General Recombination Ch 6 : How Cells Read the Genome : From DNA to Protein 6.1 : DNA to RNA 6.2 : RNA to Protein Ch 7 : Control of Gene Expression 7.1 : An Overview of Gene Control 7.2 : DNA - Binding Motifs in Gene Regulatory Proteins 7.3 : How Genetic Switches Work 7.5 : Posttranscriptional Controls 7.6 : How Genomes Evolve Ch 14 : Energy Conversion : Mitochondria and Chloroplasts 14.4 : The Genetic Systems of Mitochondria and Plastids Ch 18 : The Mechanics of Cell Division 18.1 : An Overview of M Phase 18.2 : Mitosis Ch 20 : Germ Cells and Fertilization 20.2 : Meiosis References ( edit ) ^ Jump up to : Gericke , Niklas Markus ; Hagberg , Mariana ( 5 December 2006 ) . `` Definition of historical models of gene function and their relation to students ' understanding of genetics '' . Science & Education . 16 ( 7 -- 8 ) : 849 -- 881 . Bibcode : 2007Sc&Ed ... 16 ... 849G . doi : 10.1007 / s11191 - 006 - 9064 - 4 . Jump up ^ Pearson H ( May 2006 ) . `` Genetics : what is a gene ? '' . Nature . 441 ( 7092 ) : 398 -- 401 . Bibcode : 2006Natur. 441 ... 398P . doi : 10.1038 / 441398a . PMID 16724031 . ^ Jump up to : Pennisi E ( June 2007 ) . `` Genomics . DNA study forces rethink of what it means to be a gene '' . Science . 316 ( 5831 ) : 1556 -- 1557 . doi : 10.1126 / science. 316.5831. 1556 . PMID 17569836 . ^ Jump up to : Johannsen , W. ( 1905 ) . Arvelighedslærens elementer ( `` The Elements of Heredity '' . Copenhagen ) . Rewritten , enlarged and translated into German as Elemente der exakten Erblichkeitslehre ( Jena : Gustav Fischer , 1905 ; Scanned full text . Jump up ^ Noble D ( | [
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The textbook is referenced in various scientific articles and publications, and it provides a comprehensive overview of molecular biology concepts and principles. It is a valuable resource for students, researchers, and professionals in the field of biology.
References:
- Gericke, Niklas Markus; Hagberg, Mariana (5 December 2006). "Definition of historical models of gene function and their relation to students' understanding of genetics". Science & Education. 16 (7–8): 849–881. doi:10.1007/s11191-006-9064-4.
- Pearson H (May 2006). "Genetics: what is a gene?". Nature. 441 (7092): 398–401. doi:10.1038/441398a. PMID 16724031.
- Pennisi E (June 2007). "Genomics. DNA study forces rethink of what it means to be a gene". Science. 316 (5831): 1556–1557. doi:10.1126/science.316.5831.1556. PMID 17569836.
- Johannsen, W. (1905). Arvelighedslærens elementer ("The Elements of Heredity". Copenhagen). Rewritten, enlarged and translated into German as Elemente der exakten Erblichkeitslehre (Jena: Gustav Fischer, 1905; Scanned full text.
- Noble D |
( Jena : Gustav Fischer , 1905 ; Scanned full text . Jump up ^ Noble D ( September 2008 ) . `` Genes and causation '' ( Free full text ) . Philosophical Transactions . Series A , Mathematical , Physical , and Engineering Sciences . 366 ( 1878 ) : 3001 -- 3015 . Bibcode : 2008RSPTA. 366.3001 N . doi : 10.1098 / rsta. 2008.0086 . PMID 18559318 . Jump up ^ `` genesis '' . Oxford English Dictionary ( 3rd ed . ) . Oxford University Press . September 2005 . ( Subscription or UK public library membership required . ) Jump up ^ Magner , Lois N. ( 2002 ) . A History of the Life Sciences ( Third ed . ) . Marcel Dekker , CRC Press . p. 371 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 203 - 91100 - 6 . Jump up ^ Henig , Robin Marantz ( 2000 ) . The Monk in the Garden : The Lost and Found Genius of Gregor Mendel , the Father of Genetics . Boston : Houghton Mifflin . pp. 1 -- 9 . ISBN 978 - 0395 - 97765 - 1 . Jump up ^ Vries , H. de , Intracellulare Pangenese , Verlag von Gustav Fischer , Jena , 1889 . Translated in 1908 from German to English by C. Stuart Gager as Intracellular Pangenesis , Open Court Publishing Co. , Chicago , 1910 ^ Jump up to : Gerstein MB , Bruce C , Rozowsky JS , Zheng D , Du J , Korbel JO , Emanuelsson O , Zhang ZD , Weissman S , Snyder M ( June 2007 ) . `` What is a gene , post-ENCODE ? History and updated definition '' . Genome Research . 17 ( 6 ) : 669 -- 681 . doi : 10.1101 / gr. 6339607 . PMID 17567988 . Jump up ^ Gager , C.S. , Translator 's preface to Intracellular Pangenesis , page viii . Jump up ^ Avery , OT ; MacLeod , CM ; McCarty , M ( 1944 ) . `` Studies on the Chemical Nature of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types : Induction of Transformation by a Desoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type III '' . The Journal of Experimental Medicine . 79 ( 2 ) : 137 -- 58 . doi : 10.1084 / jem. 79.2. 137 . PMC 2135445 . PMID 19871359 . Reprint : Avery , OT ; MacLeod , CM ; McCarty , M ( 1979 ) . `` Studies on the chemical nature of the substance inducing transformation of pneumococcal types . Inductions of transformation by a desoxyribonucleic acid fraction isolated from pneumococcus type III '' . The Journal of Experimental Medicine . 149 ( 2 ) : 297 -- 326 . doi : 10.1084 / jem. 149.2. 297 . PMC 2184805 . PMID 33226 . Jump up ^ Hershey , AD ; Chase , M ( 1952 ) . `` Independent functions of viral protein and nucleic acid in growth of bacteriophage '' . The Journal of General Physiology. 36 ( 1 ) : 39 -- 56 . doi : 10.1085 / jgp. 36.1. 39 . PMC 2147348 . PMID 12981234 . Jump up ^ Judson , Horace ( 1979 ) . The Eighth Day of Creation : Makers of the Revolution in Biology . Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press . pp. 51 -- 169 . ISBN 0 - 87969 - 477 - 7 . Jump up ^ Watson , J.D. ; Crick , FH ( 1953 ) . `` Molecular Structure of Nucleic Acids : A Structure for Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid '' ( PDF ) . Nature | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Gene&oldid=826559114 | 6,336,823,791,467,260,000 | <P> Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent . </P> | their parents | 6336823791467259934_18 | false | Genes are inherited from an organism's parents. This process of inheritance has been studied and documented extensively throughout history. The study of genes and their causation has been a topic of interest for many years, with various researchers and scientists contributing to our understanding of genetics. The history of the life sciences, including genetics, has been chronicled in numerous publications, shedding light on the origins of our knowledge in this field. The discovery of genes and their role in inheritance has been a significant milestone in the history of biology. Researchers have made important contributions to our understanding of genes, including the definition and function of genes post-ENCODE. Studies on the chemical nature of genes and their role in transformation have also been instrumental in advancing our knowledge of genetics. The molecular structure of nucleic acids, particularly DNA, has been a key focus of research in genetics, leading to groundbreaking discoveries in this field. Overall, the study of genes and their origins has been a central focus of biological research, with significant contributions from scientists and researchers over the years. |
. Jump up ^ Braig M , Schmitt CA ( March 2006 ) . `` Oncogene - induced senescence : putting the brakes on tumor development '' . Cancer Research . 66 ( 6 ) : 2881 -- 4 . doi : 10.1158 / 0008 - 5472. CAN - 05 - 4006 . PMID 16540631 . ^ Jump up to : Bennett , PM ( March 2008 ) . `` Plasmid encoded antibiotic resistance : acquisition and transfer of antibiotic resistance genes in bacteria '' . British Journal of Pharmacology . 153 Suppl 1 : S347 -- 57 . doi : 10.1038 / sj. bjp. 0707607 . PMC 2268074 . PMID 18193080 . Jump up ^ International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium ( October 2004 ) . `` Finishing the euchromatic sequence of the human genome '' . Nature . 431 ( 7011 ) : 931 -- 45 . Bibcode : 2004Natur. 431 ... 931H . doi : 10.1038 / nature03001 . PMID 15496913 . ^ Jump up to : Shafee , Thomas ; Lowe , Rohan ( 2017 ) . `` Eukaryotic and prokaryotic gene structure '' . WikiJournal of Medicine . 4 ( 1 ) . doi : 10.15347 / wjm / 2017.002 . ISSN 2002 - 4436 . Jump up ^ Mortazavi A , Williams BA , McCue K , Schaeffer L , Wold B ( July 2008 ) . `` Mapping and quantifying mammalian transcriptomes by RNA - Seq '' . Nature Methods. 5 ( 7 ) : 621 -- 8 . doi : 10.1038 / nmeth. 1226 . PMID 18516045 . Jump up ^ Pennacchio , L.A. ; Bickmore , W. ; Dean , A. ; Nobrega , M.A. ; Bejerano , G. ( 2013 ) . `` Enhancers : Five essential questions '' . Nature Reviews Genetics . 14 ( 4 ) : 288 -- 95 . doi : 10.1038 / nrg3458 . PMID 23503198 . Jump up ^ Maston , G.A. ; Evans , S.K. ; Green , M.R. ( 2006 ) . `` Transcriptional Regulatory Elements in the Human Genome '' . Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics . 7 : 29 -- 59 . doi : 10.1146 / annurev. genom. 7.080505. 115623 . PMID 16719718 . Jump up ^ Mignone , Flavio ; Gissi , Carmela ; Liuni , Sabino ; Pesole , Graziano ( 2002 - 02 - 28 ) . `` Untranslated regions of mRNAs '' . Genome Biology . 3 ( 3 ) : reviews0004 . doi : 10.1186 / gb - 2002 - 3 - 3 - reviews0004 . ISSN 1465 - 6906 . PMC 139023 . PMID 11897027 . Jump up ^ Bicknell AA , Cenik C , Chua HN , Roth FP , Moore MJ ( December 2012 ) . `` Introns in UTRs : why we should stop ignoring them '' . BioEssays. 34 ( 12 ) : 1025 -- 34 . doi : 10.1002 / bies. 201200073 . PMID 23108796 . Jump up ^ Salgado , H. ; Moreno - Hagelsieb , G. ; Smith , T. ; Collado - Vides , J. ( 2000 ) . `` Operons in Escherichia coli : Genomic analyses and predictions '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 97 ( 12 ) : 6652 -- 6657 . Bibcode : 2000PNAS ... 97.6652 S . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 110147297 . PMC 18690 . PMID 10823905 . Jump up ^ Blumenthal , Thomas ( November 2004 ) . `` Operons in eukaryotes '' . Briefings in Functional Genomics & Proteomics. 3 ( 3 ) : 199 -- 211 . doi : 10.1093 / bfgp / 3.3. 199 . ISSN 2041 - 2649 . PMID 15642184 . Jump up ^ JACOB F , MONOD J ( 1961 ) . `` Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis of | [
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Jump up ^ JACOB F , MONOD J ( 1961 ) . `` Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis of proteins '' . J. Mol. Biol. 3 : 318 -- 56 . doi : 10.1016 / S0022 - 2836 ( 61 ) 80072 - 7 . PMID 13718526 . Jump up ^ Spilianakis CG , Lalioti MD , Town T , Lee GR , Flavell RA ( June 2005 ) . `` Interchromosomal associations between alternatively expressed loci '' . Nature . 435 ( 7042 ) : 637 -- 45 . Bibcode : 2005Natur. 435 ... 637S . doi : 10.1038 / nature03574 . PMID 15880101 . Jump up ^ Williams , A ; Spilianakis , CG ; Flavell , RA ( April 2010 ) . `` Interchromosomal association and gene regulation in trans '' . Trends in genetics : TIG. 26 ( 4 ) : 188 -- 97 . doi : 10.1016 / j. tig. 2010.01. 007 . PMC 2865229 . PMID 20236724 . Jump up ^ Beadle GW , Tatum EL ( 1941 ) . `` Genetic Control of Biochemical Reactions in Neurospora '' . Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 27 ( 11 ) : 499 -- 506 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 27.11. 499 . PMC 1078370 . PMID 16588492 . Jump up ^ Horowitz NH , Berg P , Singer M , Lederberg J , Susman M , Doebley J , Crow JF ( 2004 ) . `` A centennial : George W. Beadle , 1903 - 1989 '' . Genetics . 166 ( 1 ) : 1 -- 10 . doi : 10.1534 / genetics. 166.1. 1 . PMC 1470705 . PMID 15020400 . Jump up ^ Marande W , Burger G ( October 2007 ) . `` Mitochondrial DNA as a genomic jigsaw puzzle '' . Science . AAAS. 318 ( 5849 ) : 415 . Bibcode : 2007Sci ... 318 ... 415M . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1148033 . PMID 17947575 . Jump up ^ Parra G , Reymond A , Dabbouseh N , Dermitzakis ET , Castelo R , Thomson TM , Antonarakis SE , Guigó R ( January 2006 ) . `` Tandem chimerism as a means to increase protein complexity in the human genome '' . Genome Research . 16 ( 1 ) : 37 -- 44 . doi : 10.1101 / gr. 4145906 . PMC 1356127 . PMID 16344564 . ^ Jump up to : Eddy SR ( December 2001 ) . `` Non-coding RNA genes and the modern RNA world '' . Nat. Rev. Genet. 2 ( 12 ) : 919 -- 29 . doi : 10.1038 / 35103511 . PMID 11733745 . Jump up ^ CRICK FH , BARNETT L , BRENNER S , WATTS - TOBIN RJ ( 1961 ) . `` General nature of the genetic code for proteins '' . Nature . 192 : 1227 -- 32 . doi : 10.1038 / 1921227a0 . PMID 13882203 . Jump up ^ Crick , Francis ( 1962 ) . The genetic code . WH Freeman and Company . PMID 13882204 . Jump up ^ Woodson SA ( May 1998 ) . `` Ironing out the kinks : splicing and translation in bacteria '' . Genes & Development . 12 ( 9 ) : 1243 -- 7 . doi : 10.1101 / gad. 12.9. 1243 . PMID 9573040 . Jump up ^ Jacob F ; Monod J ( June 1961 ) . `` Genetic regulatory mechanisms in the synthesis of proteins '' . J Mol Biol. 3 ( 3 ) : 318 -- 56 . doi : 10.1016 / S0022 - 2836 ( 61 ) 80072 - 7 . PMID 13718526 . Jump up ^ Koonin , Eugene V. ; Dolja , Valerian V. ; Morris , T. Jack ( January 1993 ) . `` Evolution and Taxonomy of Positive - Strand RNA Viruses : Implications of Comparative Analysis of Amino Acid Sequences '' | [
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in classical and molecular biology '' . Molecular Biology and Evolution. 5 ( 6 ) : 603 -- 25 . PMID 3065587 . Jump up ^ Studer , RA ; Robinson - Rechavi , M ( May 2009 ) . `` How confident can we be that orthologs are similar , but paralogs differ ? '' . Trends in genetics : TIG. 25 ( 5 ) : 210 -- 6 . doi : 10.1016 / j. tig. 2009.03. 004 . PMID 19368988 . Jump up ^ Altenhoff , AM ; Studer , RA ; Robinson - Rechavi , M ; Dessimoz , C ( 2012 ) . `` Resolving the ortholog conjecture : orthologs tend to be weakly , but significantly , more similar in function than paralogs '' . PLOS Computational Biology . 8 ( 5 ) : e1002514 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pcbi. 1002514 . PMC 3355068 . PMID 22615551 . Jump up ^ NOSIL , PATRIK ; FUNK , DANIEL J. ; ORTIZ - BARRIENTOS , DANIEL ( February 2009 ) . `` Divergent selection and heterogeneous genomic divergence '' . Molecular Ecology. 18 ( 3 ) : 375 -- 402 . doi : 10.1111 / j. 1365 - 294X. 2008.03946. x . PMID 19143936 . Jump up ^ Emery , Laura . `` Introduction to Phylogenetics '' . EMBL - EBI . Retrieved 19 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Mitchell , Matthew W. ; Gonder , Mary Katherine ( 2013 ) . `` Primate Speciation : A Case Study of African Apes '' . Nature Education Knowledge . SciTable . Nature Publishing Group . 4 ( 2 ) : 1 . ^ Jump up to : Guerzoni , D ; McLysaght , A ( November 2011 ) . `` De novo origins of human genes '' . PLOS Genetics . 7 ( 11 ) : e1002381 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pgen. 1002381 . PMC 3213182 . PMID 22102832 . Jump up ^ Reams , AB ; Roth , JR ( 2 February 2015 ) . `` Mechanisms of gene duplication and amplification '' . Cold Spring Harbor perspectives in biology . 7 ( 2 ) : a016592 . doi : 10.1101 / cshperspect. a016592 . PMC 4315931 . PMID 25646380 . Jump up ^ Demuth , JP ; De Bie , T ; Stajich , JE ; Cristianini , N ; Hahn , MW ( 20 December 2006 ) . `` The evolution of mammalian gene families '' . PLoS ONE . 1 : e85 . Bibcode : 2006PLoSO ... 1 ... 85D . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pone. 0000085 . PMC 1762380 . PMID 17183716 . Jump up ^ Knowles , DG ; McLysaght , A ( October 2009 ) . `` Recent de novo origin of human protein - coding genes '' . Genome Research . 19 ( 10 ) : 1752 -- 9 . doi : 10.1101 / gr. 095026.109 . PMC 2765279 . PMID 19726446 . Jump up ^ Wu , DD ; Irwin , DM ; Zhang , YP ( November 2011 ) . `` De novo origin of human protein - coding genes '' . PLOS Genetics . 7 ( 11 ) : e1002379 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pgen. 1002379 . PMC 3213175 . PMID 22102831 . Jump up ^ McLysaght , Aoife ; Guerzoni , Daniele ( 31 August 2015 ) . `` New genes from non-coding sequence : the role of de novo protein - coding genes in eukaryotic evolutionary innovation '' . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B : Biological Sciences . 370 ( 1678 ) : 20140332 . doi : 10.1098 / rstb. 2014.0332 . PMC 4571571 . PMID 26323763 . Jump up ^ Neme , Rafik ; Tautz , | [
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/ rstb. 2014.0332 . PMC 4571571 . PMID 26323763 . Jump up ^ Neme , Rafik ; Tautz , Diethard ( 2013 ) . `` Phylogenetic patterns of emergence of new genes support a model of frequent de novo evolution '' . BMC Genomics. 14 ( 1 ) : 117 . doi : 10.1186 / 1471 - 2164 - 14 - 117 . PMC 3616865 . PMID 23433480 . Jump up ^ Treangen , TJ ; Rocha , EP ( 27 January 2011 ) . `` Horizontal transfer , not duplication , drives the expansion of protein families in prokaryotes '' . PLOS Genetics . 7 ( 1 ) : e1001284 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pgen. 1001284 . PMC 3029252 . PMID 21298028 . Jump up ^ Ochman , H ; Lawrence , JG ; Groisman , EA ( 18 May 2000 ) . `` Lateral gene transfer and the nature of bacterial innovation '' . Nature . 405 ( 6784 ) : 299 -- 304 . Bibcode : 2000Natur. 405 ... 299O . doi : 10.1038 / 35012500 . PMID 10830951 . Jump up ^ Keeling , PJ ; Palmer , JD ( August 2008 ) . `` Horizontal gene transfer in eukaryotic evolution '' . Nature Reviews Genetics . 9 ( 8 ) : 605 -- 18 . doi : 10.1038 / nrg2386 . PMID 18591983 . Jump up ^ Schönknecht , G ; Chen , WH ; Ternes , CM ; Barbier , GG ; Shrestha , RP ; Stanke , M ; Bräutigam , A ; Baker , BJ ; Banfield , JF ; Garavito , RM ; Carr , K ; Wilkerson , C ; Rensing , SA ; Gagneul , D ; Dickenson , NE ; Oesterhelt , C ; Lercher , MJ ; Weber , AP ( 8 March 2013 ) . `` Gene transfer from bacteria and archaea facilitated evolution of an extremophilic eukaryote '' . Science . 339 ( 6124 ) : 1207 -- 10 . Bibcode : 2013Sci ... 339.1207 S . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1231707 . PMID 23471408 . Jump up ^ Ridley , M. ( 2006 ) . Genome . New York , NY : Harper Perennial . ISBN 0 - 06 - 019497 - 9 Jump up ^ Watson , JD , Baker TA , Bell SP , Gann A , Levine M , Losick R. ( 2004 ) . `` Ch9 - 10 '' , Molecular Biology of the Gene , 5th ed. , Peason Benjamin Cummings ; CSHL Press . Jump up ^ `` Integr8 -- A. thaliana Genome Statistics : '' . Jump up ^ `` Understanding the Basics '' . The Human Genome Project . Retrieved 26 April 2015 . Jump up ^ `` WS227 Release Letter '' . WormBase. 10 August 2011 . Retrieved 19 November 2013 . Jump up ^ Yu , J. ( 5 April 2002 ) . `` A Draft Sequence of the Rice Genome ( Oryza sativa L. ssp . indica ) '' . Science . 296 ( 5565 ) : 79 -- 92 . Bibcode : 2002Sci ... 296 ... 79Y . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1068037 . PMID 11935017 . ^ Jump up to : Anderson , S. ; Bankier , A.T. ; Barrell , B.G. ; de Bruijn , M.H.L. ; Coulson , A.R. ; Drouin , J. ; Eperon , I.C. ; Nierlich , D.P. ; Roe , B.A. ; Sanger , F. ; Schreier , P.H. ; Smith , A.J.H. ; Staden , R. ; Young , I.G. ( 9 April 1981 ) . `` Sequence and organization of the human mitochondrial genome '' . Nature . 290 ( 5806 ) : 457 -- 465 . Bibcode : 1981Natur. 290 ... 457A . doi : 10.1038 / 290457a0 . PMID 7219534 . Jump up ^ Adams , M.D. ( 24 March 2000 ) . `` The Genome Sequence of Drosophila | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Gene&oldid=826559114 | 6,336,823,791,467,260,000 | <P> Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent . </P> | their parents | 6336823791467259934_24 | false | Genes are inherited from an organism's parents. This process is known as vertical gene transfer, where genetic material is passed down from one generation to the next. However, genes can also be acquired through horizontal gene transfer, which involves the transfer of genetic material between different organisms. This can lead to the expansion of protein families in prokaryotes and has been shown to drive the evolution of extremophilic eukaryotes. Additionally, the Human Genome Project has provided valuable insights into the genetic makeup of humans, while the sequencing of the rice genome has contributed to our understanding of plant genetics. Overall, the origin of an organism's genes can be traced back to both vertical and horizontal gene transfer processes. |
. Jump up ^ Adams , M.D. ( 24 March 2000 ) . `` The Genome Sequence of Drosophila melanogaster '' . Science . 287 ( 5461 ) : 2185 -- 2195 . Bibcode : 2000Sci ... 287.2185 ... doi : 10.1126 / science. 287.5461. 2185 . PMID 10731132 . ^ Jump up to : Pertea , Mihaela ; Salzberg , Steven L ( 2010 ) . `` Between a chicken and a grape : estimating the number of human genes '' . Genome Biology . 11 ( 5 ) : 206 . doi : 10.1186 / gb - 2010 - 11 - 5 - 206 . PMC 2898077 . PMID 20441615 . Jump up ^ Belyi , V.A. ; Levine , A.J. ; Skalka , A.M. ( 22 September 2010 ) . `` Sequences from Ancestral Single - Stranded DNA Viruses in Vertebrate Genomes : the Parvoviridae and Circoviridae Are More than 40 to 50 Million Years Old '' . Journal of Virology. 84 ( 23 ) : 12458 -- 12462 . doi : 10.1128 / JVI. 01789 - 10 . PMC 2976387 . PMID 20861255 . Jump up ^ Flores , Ricardo ; Di Serio , Francesco ; Hernández , Carmen ( February 1997 ) . `` Viroids : The Noncoding Genomes '' . Seminars in Virology. 8 ( 1 ) : 65 -- 73 . doi : 10.1006 / smvy. 1997.0107 . Jump up ^ Zonneveld , B.J.M. ( 2010 ) . `` New Record Holders for Maximum Genome Size in Eudicots and Monocots '' . Journal of Botany. 2010 : 1 -- 4 . doi : 10.1155 / 2010 / 527357 . Jump up ^ Yu J , Hu S , Wang J , Wong GK , Li S , Liu B , Deng Y , Dai L , Zhou Y , Zhang X , Cao M , Liu J , Sun J , Tang J , Chen Y , Huang X , Lin W , Ye C , Tong W , Cong L , Geng J , Han Y , Li L , Li W , Hu G , Huang X , Li W , Li J , Liu Z , Li L , Liu J , Qi Q , Liu J , Li L , Li T , Wang X , Lu H , Wu T , Zhu M , Ni P , Han H , Dong W , Ren X , Feng X , Cui P , Li X , Wang H , Xu X , Zhai W , Xu Z , Zhang J , He S , Zhang J , Xu J , Zhang K , Zheng X , Dong J , Zeng W , Tao L , Ye J , Tan J , Ren X , Chen X , He J , Liu D , Tian W , Tian C , Xia H , Bao Q , Li G , Gao H , Cao T , Wang J , Zhao W , Li P , Chen W , Wang X , Zhang Y , Hu J , Wang J , Liu S , Yang J , Zhang G , Xiong Y , Li Z , Mao L , Zhou C , Zhu Z , Chen R , Hao B , Zheng W , Chen S , Guo W , Li G , Liu S , Tao M , Wang J , Zhu L , Yuan L , Yang H ( April 2002 ) . `` A draft sequence of the rice genome ( Oryza sativa L. ssp . indica ) '' . Science . 296 ( 5565 ) : 79 -- 92 . Bibcode : 2002Sci ... 296 ... 79Y . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1068037 . PMID 11935017 . Jump up ^ Perez - Iratxeta C , Palidwor G , Andrade - Navarro MA ( December 2007 ) . `` Towards completion of the Earth 's proteome '' . EMBO Reports . 8 ( 12 ) : 1135 -- 1141 . doi : 10.1038 / sj. embor. 7401117 . PMC 2267224 . PMID 18059312 . Jump up ^ Kauffman SA ( 1969 ) . `` Metabolic stability and epigenesis in randomly constructed genetic nets '' . Journal of Theoretical Biology . Elsevier . 22 ( 3 ) : 437 -- 467 . doi : 10.1016 / 0022 - 5193 ( 69 ) 90015 - 0 . PMID 5803332 . Jump up ^ Schuler GD , Boguski MS , Stewart EA , Stein LD , Gyapay G , Rice K , White RE , Rodriguez - Tomé P , Aggarwal A , Bajorek | [
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, Stewart EA , Stein LD , Gyapay G , Rice K , White RE , Rodriguez - Tomé P , Aggarwal A , Bajorek E , Bentolila S , Birren BB , Butler A , Castle AB , Chiannilkulchai N , Chu A , Clee C , Cowles S , Day PJ , Dibling T , Drouot N , Dunham I , Duprat S , East C , Edwards C , Fan JB , Fang N , Fizames C , Garrett C , Green L , Hadley D , Harris M , Harrison P , Brady S , Hicks A , Holloway E , Hui L , Hussain S , Louis - Dit - Sully C , Ma J , MacGilvery A , Mader C , Maratukulam A , Matise TC , McKusick KB , Morissette J , Mungall A , Muselet D , Nusbaum HC , Page DC , Peck A , Perkins S , Piercy M , Qin F , Quackenbush J , Ranby S , Reif T , Rozen S , Sanders C , She X , Silva J , Slonim DK , Soderlund C , Sun WL , Tabar P , Thangarajah T , Vega - Czarny N , Vollrath D , Voyticky S , Wilmer T , Wu X , Adams MD , Auffray C , Walter NA , Brandon R , Dehejia A , Goodfellow PN , Houlgatte R , Hudson JR , Ide SE , Iorio KR , Lee WY , Seki N , Nagase T , Ishikawa K , Nomura N , Phillips C , Polymeropoulos MH , Sandusky M , Schmitt K , Berry R , Swanson K , Torres R , Venter JC , Sikela JM , Beckmann JS , Weissenbach J , Myers RM , Cox DR , James MR , Bentley D , Deloukas P , Lander ES , Hudson TJ ( October 1996 ) . `` A gene map of the human genome '' . Science . 274 ( 5287 ) : 540 -- 6 . Bibcode : 1996Sci ... 274 ... 540S . doi : 10.1126 / science. 274.5287. 540 . PMID 8849440 . Jump up ^ Chi , Kelly Rae ( 2016 - 08 - 17 ) . `` The dark side of the human genome '' . Nature . 538 ( 7624 ) : 275 -- 277 . doi : 10.1038 / 538275a . ^ Jump up to : Claverie JM ( September 2005 ) . `` Fewer genes , more noncoding RNA '' . Science . 309 ( 5740 ) : 1529 -- 30 . Bibcode : 2005Sci ... 309.1529 C . doi : 10.1126 / science. 1116800 . PMID 16141064 . Jump up ^ Carninci P , Hayashizaki Y ( April 2007 ) . `` Noncoding RNA transcription beyond annotated genes '' . Current Opinion in Genetics & Development . 17 ( 2 ) : 139 -- 44 . doi : 10.1016 / j. gde. 2007.02. 008 . PMID 17317145 . ^ Jump up to : Hutchison , Clyde A. ; Chuang , Ray - Yuan ; Noskov , Vladimir N. ; Assad - Garcia , Nacyra ; Deerinck , Thomas J. ; Ellisman , Mark H. ; Gill , John ; Kannan , Krishna ; Karas , Bogumil J. ( 2016 - 03 - 25 ) . `` Design and synthesis of a minimal bacterial genome '' . Science . 351 ( 6280 ) : aad6253 . Bibcode : 2016Sci ... 351 ... H . doi : 10.1126 / science. aad6253 . ISSN 0036 - 8075 . PMID 27013737 . Jump up ^ Glass , J.I. ; Assad - Garcia , N. ; Alperovich , N. ; Yooseph , S. ; Lewis , M.R. ; Maruf , M. ; Hutchison , C.A. ; Smith , H.O. ; Venter , J.C. ( 3 January 2006 ) . `` Essential genes of a minimal bacterium '' . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences . 103 ( 2 ) : 425 -- 430 . Bibcode : 2006PNAS ... 103 ... 425G . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 0510013103 . PMC 1324956 . PMID 16407165 . Jump up ^ Gerdes , SY ; Scholle , MD ; Campbell , JW ; Balázsi , G ; Ravasz , E ; Daugherty , MD ; Somera , AL | [
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, SY ; Scholle , MD ; Campbell , JW ; Balázsi , G ; Ravasz , E ; Daugherty , MD ; Somera , AL ; Kyrpides , NC ; Anderson , I ; Gelfand , MS ; Bhattacharya , A ; Kapatral , V ; D'Souza , M ; Baev , MV ; Grechkin , Y ; Mseeh , F ; Fonstein , MY ; Overbeek , R ; Barabási , AL ; Oltvai , ZN ; Osterman , AL ( October 2003 ) . `` Experimental determination and system level analysis of essential genes in Escherichia coli MG1655 '' . Journal of Bacteriology. 185 ( 19 ) : 5673 -- 84 . doi : 10.1128 / jb. 185.19. 5673 - 5684.2003 . PMC 193955 . PMID 13129938 . Jump up ^ Baba , T ; Ara , T ; Hasegawa , M ; Takai , Y ; Okumura , Y ; Baba , M ; Datsenko , KA ; Tomita , M ; Wanner , BL ; Mori , H ( 2006 ) . `` Construction of Escherichia coli K - 12 in - frame , single - gene knockout mutants : the Keio collection '' . Molecular Systems Biology . 2 : 2006.0008 . doi : 10.1038 / msb4100050 . PMC 1681482 . PMID 16738554 . ^ Jump up to : Juhas , M ; Reuß , DR ; Zhu , B ; Commichau , FM ( November 2014 ) . `` Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli essential genes and minimal cell factories after one decade of genome engineering '' . Microbiology. 160 ( Pt 11 ) : 2341 -- 51 . doi : 10.1099 / mic. 0.079376 - 0 . PMID 25092907 . Jump up ^ Tu , Z ; Wang , L ; Xu , M ; Zhou , X ; Chen , T ; Sun , F ( 21 February 2006 ) . `` Further understanding human disease genes by comparing with housekeeping genes and other genes '' . BMC Genomics. 7 : 31 . doi : 10.1186 / 1471 - 2164 - 7 - 31 . PMC 1397819 . PMID 16504025 . Jump up ^ Georgi , B ; Voight , BF ; Bućan , M ( May 2013 ) . `` From mouse to human : evolutionary genomics analysis of human orthologs of essential genes '' . PLOS Genetics . 9 ( 5 ) : e1003484 . doi : 10.1371 / journal. pgen. 1003484 . PMC 3649967 . PMID 23675308 . Jump up ^ Eisenberg , E ; Levanon , EY ( October 2013 ) . `` Human housekeeping genes , revisited '' . Trends in genetics : TIG. 29 ( 10 ) : 569 -- 74 . doi : 10.1016 / j. tig. 2013.05. 010 . PMID 23810203 . Jump up ^ Amsterdam , A ; Hopkins , N ( September 2006 ) . `` Mutagenesis strategies in zebrafish for identifying genes involved in development and disease '' . Trends in genetics : TIG. 22 ( 9 ) : 473 -- 8 . doi : 10.1016 / j. tig. 2006.06. 011 . PMID 16844256 . Jump up ^ `` About the HGNC '' . HGNC Database of Human Gene Names . HUGO Gene Nomenclature Committee . Retrieved 14 May 2015 . Jump up ^ Stanley N. Cohen ; Annie C.Y. Chang ( 1 May 1973 ) . `` Recircularization and Autonomous Replication of a Sheared R - Factor DNA Segment in Escherichia coli Transformants '' . PNAS. 70 : 1293 -- 1297 . doi : 10.1073 / pnas. 70.5. 1293 . Retrieved 17 July 2010 . Jump up ^ Esvelt , KM. ; Wang , HH. ( 2013 ) . `` Genome - scale engineering for systems and synthetic biology '' . Mol Syst Biol. 9 ( 1 ) : 641 . doi : 10.1038 / msb. 2012.66 . PMC 3564264 . PMID 23340847 . Jump up ^ Tan , WS. ; | [
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641 . doi : 10.1038 / msb. 2012.66 . PMC 3564264 . PMID 23340847 . Jump up ^ Tan , WS. ; Carlson , DF. ; Walton , MW. ; Fahrenkrug , SC. ; Hackett , PB. ( 2012 ) . `` Precision editing of large animal genomes '' . Adv Genet . Advances in Genetics . 80 : 37 -- 97 . doi : 10.1016 / B978 - 0 - 12 - 404742 - 6.00002 - 8 . ISBN 9780124047426 . PMC 3683964 . PMID 23084873 . Jump up ^ Puchta , H. ; Fauser , F. ( 2013 ) . `` Gene targeting in plants : 25 years later '' . Int. J. Dev. Biol. 57 ( 6 -- 7 -- 8 ) : 629 -- 637 . doi : 10.1387 / ijdb. 130194hp . Jump up ^ Ran FA , Hsu PD , Wright J , Agarwala V , Scott DA , Zhang F ( 2013 ) . `` Genome engineering using the CRISPR - Cas9 system '' . Nat Protoc. 8 ( 11 ) : 2281 -- 308 . doi : 10.1038 / nprot. 2013.143 . PMC 3969860 . PMID 24157548 . Jump up ^ Kittleson , Joshua ( 2012 ) . `` Successes and failures in modular genetic engineering '' . Current Opinion in Chemical Biology . 16 ( 3 -- 4 ) : 329 -- 336 . doi : 10.1016 / j. cbpa. 2012.06. 009 . PMID 22818777 . Jump up ^ Berg , P. ; Mertz , J.E. ( 2010 ) . `` Personal Reflections on the Origins and Emergence of Recombinant DNA Technology '' . Genetics . 184 ( 1 ) : 9 -- 17 . doi : 10.1534 / genetics. 109.112144 . PMC 2815933 . PMID 20061565 . Jump up ^ Austin , Christopher P. ; Battey , James F. ; Bradley , Allan ; Bucan , Maja ; Capecchi , Mario ; Collins , Francis S. ; Dove , William F. ; Duyk , Geoffrey ; Dymecki , Susan ( September 2004 ) . `` The Knockout Mouse Project '' . Nature Genetics . 36 ( 9 ) : 921 -- 924 . doi : 10.1038 / ng0904 - 921 . ISSN 1061 - 4036 . PMC 2716027 . PMID 15340423 . Jump up ^ Guan , Chunmei ; Ye , Chao ; Yang , Xiaomei ; Gao , Jiangang ( 2010 ) . `` A review of current large - scale mouse knockout efforts '' . Genesis : NA . doi : 10.1002 / dvg. 20594 . Jump up ^ Deng C ( 2007 ) . `` In celebration of Dr. Mario R. Capecchi 's Nobel Prize '' . International Journal of Biological Sciences . 3 ( 7 ) : 417 -- 419 . doi : 10.7150 / ijbs. 3.417 . PMC 2043165 . PMID 17998949 . Further reading ( edit ) Watson JD , Baker TA , Bell SP , Gann A , Levine M , Losick R ( 2013 ) . Molecular Biology of the Gene ( 7th ed . ) . Benjamin Cummings . ISBN 978 - 0 - 321 - 90537 - 6 . Dawkins R ( 1990 ) . The Selfish Gene . Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 - 19 - 286092 - 5 . Google Book Search ; first published 1976 . Ridley M ( 1999 ) . Genome : The Autobiography of a Species in 23 Chapters . Fourth Estate . ISBN 0 - 00 - 763573 - 7 . Brown , T ( 2002 ) . Genomes ( 2nd ed . ) . New York : Wiley - Liss . ISBN 0 - 471 - 25046 - 5 . External links ( edit ) Comparative Toxicogenomics Database DNA From The Beginning -- a primer on genes and DNA Entrez Gene -- a searchable database of genes IDconverter -- converts gene IDs between | [
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Entrez Gene -- a searchable database of genes IDconverter -- converts gene IDs between public databases iHOP -- Information Hyperlinked over Proteins TranscriptomeBrowser -- Gene expression profile analysis The Protein Naming Utility , a database to identify and correct deficient gene names Genes -- an Open Access journal IMPC ( International Mouse Phenotyping Consortium ) -- Encyclopedia of mammalian gene function Global Genes Project -- Leading non-profit organization supporting people living with genetic diseases ENCODE threads Explorer Characterization of intergenic regions and gene definition . Nature GND : 4128987 - 0 NDL : 00563885 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gene&oldid=826559114 '' Categories : Cloning Genes Molecular biology Wikipedia articles with sections published in WikiJournal of Medicine Hidden categories : Wikipedia indefinitely move - protected pages Use dmy dates from May 2015 Good articles Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Pages using Columns - list with deprecated parameters Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Talk Contents About Wikipedia Afrikaans Alemannisch Asturianu Azərbaycanca বাংলা Bân - lâm - gú Башҡортса Беларуская Беларуская ( тарашкевіца ) Български Bosanski Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gaeilge Galego 한국어 Հայերեն हिन्दी Hrvatski Ido Bahasa Indonesia IsiXhosa Íslenska Italiano עברית Basa Jawa ಕನ್ನಡ ქართული Қазақша Kiswahili Kreyòl ayisyen Kurdî Кыргызча ລາວ | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Gene&oldid=826559114 | 6,336,823,791,467,260,000 | <P> Organisms inherit their genes from their parents . Asexual organisms simply inherit a complete copy of their parent 's genome . Sexual organisms have two copies of each chromosome because they inherit one complete set from each parent . </P> | their parents | 6336823791467259934_29 | false | Genes are the basic unit of heredity in living organisms. They are passed down from one generation to the next and are responsible for the traits and characteristics of an organism. The source of an organism's genes is its parents. Genes are inherited from both the mother and the father, and they determine everything from physical appearance to susceptibility to certain diseases. The study of genes and their inheritance is known as genetics, and it plays a crucial role in understanding the diversity of life on Earth. |
Financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008 - wikipedia Financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008 Jump to : navigation , search This article is about the financial crisis that peaked in 2008 . For the global recession triggered by the financial crisis , see Great Recession . The TED spread ( in red ) increased significantly during the financial crisis , reflecting an increase in perceived credit risk World map showing real GDP growth rates for 2009 ( Countries in brown were in recession . ) Subprime mortgage crisis Major dimensions ( show ) Subprime crisis impact timeline 2000s energy crisis United States housing bubble United States housing market correction Financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 Great Recession of 2008 -- 09 Automotive industry crisis of 2008 -- 10 Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act Causes ( show ) Causes of the United States housing bubble Credit rating agencies and the subprime crisis Government policies and the subprime mortgage crisis Causes of the Great Recession Summit meetings ( show ) 34th G8 summit ( July 2008 ) G - 20 Washington summit ( November 2008 ) APEC Peru ( November 2008 ) China -- Japan -- South Korea trilateral summit ( December 2008 ) G - 20 London Summit ( April 2009 ) Legislation and spending ( show ) 2008 European Union stimulus plan 2008 -- 09 Keynesian resurgence American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 Banking ( Special Provisions ) Act 2008 Chinese economic stimulus program Economic Stimulus Act of 2008 Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 Federal Reserve responses to the subprime crisis Government intervention during the subprime mortgage crisis Green New Deal Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 National fiscal policy response to the Great Recession Regulatory responses to the subprime crisis Subprime mortgage crisis solutions debate Term Asset - Backed Securities Loan Facility Troubled Asset Relief Program ( TARP ) Company bailouts ( show ) American International Group Chrysler Citigroup Fannie Mae Freddie Mac General Motors Royal Bank of Scotland Group UBS List of banks acquired or bankrupted during the Great Recession The financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008 , also known as the global financial crisis | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_1 | false | The financial crisis of 2007-2008, also known as the global financial crisis, was a significant event that had a major impact on the global economy. It was characterized by a sharp increase in perceived credit risk, as reflected by the TED spread. The crisis was primarily caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market, which had a ripple effect on various dimensions such as the United States housing bubble, the housing market correction, and the Great Recession of 2008-2009. The crisis led to a series of summit meetings and legislative responses, including the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 and the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP). Additionally, several major companies, including American International Group, Citigroup, and General Motors, required bailouts to prevent further economic turmoil. The financial crisis of 2008 had far-reaching implications and sparked a global recession. |
The financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008 , also known as the global financial crisis and the 2008 financial crisis , is considered by many economists to have been the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s . It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . The Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act of 2010 was enacted in the US in the aftermath of the crisis to `` promote the financial stability of the United States '' . The Basel III capital and liquidity standards were adopted by countries around the world . Contents ( hide ) 1 Summary 1.1 Subprime mortgage bubble 1.2 Banking crisis 1.3 Consequences 1.4 Background causes 2 Causes 2.1 Subprime lending 2.2 Growth of the housing bubble 2.3 Easy credit conditions 2.4 Weak and fraudulent underwriting practices 2.5 Predatory lending 2.6 Deregulation 2.7 Increased debt burden or overleveraging 2.8 Financial innovation and complexity 2.9 Incorrect pricing of risk 2.10 Boom and collapse of the shadow banking system 2.11 Commodities boom 2.12 Systemic crisis 2.13 Role of economic forecasting 3 Impact on financial markets 3.1 US stock market 3.2 Financial institutions 4 IndyMac 4.1 Collapse 4.2 Credit markets and the shadow banking system 4.3 Wealth effects 4.4 European contagion 5 Effects on the global economy ( as of 2009 ) 5.1 Global effects 5.2 US economic effects 5.2. 1 Real gross domestic product 5.2. 2 Distribution of wealth in the US 5.3 Official economic projections 6 Government responses 6.1 Emergency and short - term responses 6.2 Regulatory proposals and long - term responses 6.3 United States Congress response 6.4 Court proceedings 6.5 Continuation of the financial crisis in the US housing market 7 Stabilization 8 | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_2 | true | The financial crisis of 2007-2008, also known as the global financial crisis, is considered one of the worst financial crises since the Great Depression of the 1930s. It began with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States and escalated into a full-blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15, 2008. This crisis was exacerbated by excessive risk-taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers, leading to a global economic downturn known as the Great Recession. The European debt crisis followed later, impacting the banking system of European countries using the euro.
The causes of the financial crisis can be attributed to various factors, including subprime lending, the growth of the housing bubble, easy credit conditions, weak and fraudulent underwriting practices, predatory lending, deregulation, increased debt burden or overleveraging, financial innovation and complexity, incorrect pricing of risk, the boom and collapse of the shadow banking system, commodities boom, and systemic crisis. These factors contributed to the crisis and its impact on financial markets, including the US stock market and financial institutions.
The crisis also had significant effects on the global economy, including the distribution of wealth in the US and official economic projections. In response to the crisis, emergency and short-term measures were implemented, along with regulatory proposals and long-term responses. The United States Congress also took action, and court proceedings were initiated to address the continuation of the financial crisis in the US housing market.
Overall, the financial crisis of 2007-2008 was a complex event with far-reaching implications for the global economy, and its causes were rooted in a combination of factors such as the subprime mortgage bubble, banking crisis, and other background causes. |
the financial crisis in the US housing market 7 Stabilization 8 Media coverage 9 Emerging and developing economies drive global economic growth 10 See also 11 References 12 Further reading 13 External links Summary ( edit ) Subprime mortgage bubble ( edit ) The precipitating factor for the Financial Crisis of 2007 -- 2008 was a high default rate in the United States subprime home mortgage sector -- the bursting of the `` subprime bubble '' . While the causes of the bubble are disputed , some or all of the following factors must have contributed . Low interest rates encouraged mortgage lending . Securitization . Many mortgages were bundled together and formed into new financial instruments called mortgage - backed securities , in a process known as securitization . These bundles could be sold as ( ostensibly ) low - risk securities partly because they were often backed by credit default swaps insurance . Because mortgage lenders could pass these mortgages ( and the associated risks ) on in this way , they could and did adopt loose underwriting criteria ( due in part to outdated and lax regulation ) . Lax regulation allowed predatory lending in the private sector , especially after the federal government overrode anti-predatory state laws in 2004 . The Community Reinvestment Act ( CRA ) , a US federal law designed to help low - and moderate - income Americans get mortgage loans encouraged banks to grant mortgages to higher risk families . Mortgage guarantees . Many of the subprime ( high risk ) loans were bundled and sold , finally accruing to quasi-government agencies ( Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac ) . The implicit guarantee by the US federal government created a moral hazard and contributed to a glut of risky lending . The accumulation and subsequent high default rate of these subprime mortgages led to the financial crisis and the consequent damage to the world economy . Banking crisis ( edit ) High mortgage approval rates led to a large pool of homebuyers , which drove up housing prices . This appreciation in value led large numbers of homeowners ( subprime or not ) to borrow against their homes as an apparent windfall . This `` bubble '' would be burst by a rising single - family residential mortgages delinquency rate beginning in August 2006 and peaking in the first quarter , 2010 . The high delinquency rates led to a rapid devaluation of financial instruments ( mortgage - backed securities including bundled loan portfolios , derivatives and credit default swaps ) . As the value of these assets plummeted , the market ( buyers ) for these securities evaporated and banks who were heavily invested in these assets began to experience a liquidity crisis . Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae were taken over by the federal | [
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The US Senate 's Levin -- Coburn Report concluded that the crisis was the result of `` high risk , complex financial products ; undisclosed conflicts of interest ; the failure of regulators , the credit rating agencies , and the market itself to rein in the excesses of Wall Street . '' The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission concluded that the financial crisis was avoidable and was caused by `` widespread failures in financial regulation and supervision '' , `` dramatic failures of corporate governance and risk management at many systemically important financial institutions '' , `` a combination of excessive borrowing , risky investments , and lack of transparency '' by financial institutions , ill preparation and inconsistent action by government that `` added to the uncertainty and panic '' , a `` systemic breakdown in accountability and ethics '' , `` collapsing mortgage - lending standards and the mortgage securitization pipeline '' , deregulation of over-the - counter derivatives , especially credit default swaps , and `` the failures of credit rating agencies '' to correctly price risk . The 1999 repeal of the Glass - Steagall Act effectively removed the separation between investment banks and depository banks in the United States . Critics argued that credit rating agencies and investors failed to accurately price the risk involved with mortgage - related financial products , and that governments did not adjust their regulatory practices to address 21st - century financial markets . Research into the causes of the financial crisis has also focused on the role of interest rate spreads . Fair value accounting was issued as US accounting standard SFAS 157 in 2006 by the privately run Financial Accounting Standards Board ( FASB ) -- delegated by the SEC with the task of establishing financial reporting standards . This required that tradable assets such as mortgage securities be valued according to their current market value rather than their historic cost or some future expected value . When the market for such securities became volatile and collapsed , the resulting loss of value had a major financial effect upon the institutions holding them even if they had no immediate plans to sell them . Causes ( edit ) Main article : Causes of the Great Recession The immediate cause or trigger of the crisis was the bursting of the US housing bubble , which peaked in 2006 / 2007 . Already - rising default rates on `` subprime '' and adjustable - rate mortgages ( ARM ) began to increase quickly thereafter . Easy availability of credit in the US , fueled by large inflows of foreign funds after the Russian debt crisis and Asian financial crisis of the 1997 -- 1998 period , led to a housing construction boom and facilitated debt - financed consumer spending . As banks began to give out more loans to potential home owners , housing prices began to rise . Lax lending | [
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] | the financial crisis of 2008 was caused by | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_5 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was the result of a combination of factors, as concluded by various reports and inquiries. The US Senate's Levin-Coburn Report attributed the crisis to high-risk financial products, undisclosed conflicts of interest, and the failure of regulators and credit rating agencies to rein in the excesses of Wall Street. The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission also found that the crisis was avoidable and caused by widespread failures in financial regulation and supervision, as well as dramatic failures of corporate governance and risk management at many financial institutions.
Additionally, the repeal of the Glass-Steagall Act in 1999 effectively removed the separation between investment banks and depository banks in the United States, contributing to the crisis. Critics argued that credit rating agencies and investors failed to accurately price the risk involved with mortgage-related financial products, and that governments did not adjust their regulatory practices to address 21st-century financial markets.
The bursting of the US housing bubble, which peaked in 2006/2007, was identified as the immediate cause or trigger of the crisis. Rising default rates on subprime and adjustable-rate mortgages, along with easy availability of credit fueled by large inflows of foreign funds, led to a housing construction boom and facilitated debt-financed consumer spending. As banks began to give out more loans to potential home owners, housing prices began to rise, ultimately leading to a crisis in the subprime mortgage market. |
began to give out more loans to potential home owners , housing prices began to rise . Lax lending standards and rising real estate prices also contributed to the real estate bubble . Loans of various types ( e.g. , mortgage , credit card , and auto ) were easy to obtain and consumers assumed an unprecedented debt load . As part of the housing and credit booms , the number of financial agreements called mortgage - backed securities ( MBS ) and collateralized debt obligations ( CDO ) , which derived their value from mortgage payments and housing prices , greatly increased . Such financial innovation enabled institutions and investors around the world to invest in the US housing market . As housing prices declined , major global financial institutions that had borrowed and invested heavily in subprime MBS reported significant losses . Falling prices also resulted in homes worth less than the mortgage loan , providing the lender with a financial incentive to enter foreclosure . The ongoing foreclosure epidemic that began in late 2006 in the US and only reduced to historical levels in early 2014 drained significant wealth from consumers , losing up to $4.2 trillion in wealth from home equity . Defaults and losses on other loan types also increased significantly as the crisis expanded from the housing market to other parts of the economy . Total losses are estimated in the trillions of US dollars globally . Share in GDP of US financial sector since 1860 While the housing and credit bubbles were building , a series of factors caused the financial system to both expand and become increasingly fragile , a process called financialization . US government policy from the 1970s onward has emphasized deregulation to encourage business , which resulted in less oversight of activities and less disclosure of information about new activities undertaken by banks and other evolving financial institutions . Thus , policymakers did not immediately recognize the increasingly important role played by financial institutions such as investment banks and hedge funds , also known as the shadow banking system . Some experts believe these institutions had become as important as commercial ( depository ) banks in providing credit to the US economy , but they were not subject to the same regulations . These institutions , as well as certain regulated banks , had also assumed significant debt burdens while providing the loans described above and did not have a financial cushion sufficient to absorb large loan defaults or MBS losses . These losses affected the ability of financial institutions to lend , slowing economic activity . Concerns regarding the stability of key financial institutions drove central banks to provide funds to encourage lending and restore faith in the commercial paper markets , which are integral to funding business operations . Governments also bailed out key financial institutions and implemented economic stimulus | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_6 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a result of a series of factors that caused the financial system to expand and become increasingly fragile, a process known as financialization. The crisis was primarily caused by the housing and credit bubbles that were building, as well as lax lending standards and rising real estate prices. This led to an unprecedented debt load assumed by consumers and an increase in the number of financial agreements such as mortgage-backed securities (MBS) and collateralized debt obligations (CDO). As housing prices declined, major global financial institutions reported significant losses, leading to an ongoing foreclosure epidemic that drained significant wealth from consumers. Additionally, the crisis expanded from the housing market to other parts of the economy, resulting in trillions of dollars in losses globally. The US government's policy of deregulation from the 1970s onward also played a role in the crisis, as it resulted in less oversight of activities and less disclosure of information about new activities undertaken by banks and other evolving financial institutions. This allowed financial institutions to assume significant debt burdens while providing loans and not have a sufficient financial cushion to absorb large loan defaults or MBS losses. These losses affected the ability of financial institutions to lend, slowing economic activity and driving central banks to provide funds to encourage lending and restore faith in the commercial paper markets. Governments also bailed out key financial institutions and implemented economic stimulus measures to address the crisis. |
. Governments also bailed out key financial institutions and implemented economic stimulus programs , assuming significant additional financial commitments . The US Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission reported its findings in January 2011 . It concluded that : ... the crisis was avoidable and was caused by : widespread failures in financial regulation , including the Federal Reserve 's failure to stem the tide of toxic mortgages ; dramatic breakdowns in corporate governance including too many financial firms acting recklessly and taking on too much risk ; an explosive mix of excessive borrowing and risk by households and Wall Street that put the financial system on a collision course with crisis ; key policy makers ill prepared for the crisis , lacking a full understanding of the financial system they oversaw ; and systemic breaches in accountability and ethics at all levels . -- Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission -- Press Release -- January 27 , 2011 Subprime lending ( edit ) Main article : Subprime mortgage crisis The 2000s were the decade of subprime borrowers ; no longer was this a segment left to fringe lenders . The relaxing of credit lending standards by investment banks and commercial banks drove this about - face . Subprime did not become magically less risky ; Wall Street just accepted this higher risk . During a period of tough competition between mortgage lenders for revenue and market share , and when the supply of creditworthy borrowers was limited , mortgage lenders relaxed underwriting standards and originated riskier mortgages to less creditworthy borrowers . In the view of some analysts , the relatively conservative government - sponsored enterprises ( GSEs ) policed mortgage originators and maintained relatively high underwriting standards prior to 2003 . However , as market power shifted from securitizers to originators and as intense competition from private securitizers undermined GSE power , mortgage standards declined and risky loans proliferated . The worst loans were originated in 2004 -- 2007 , the years of the most intense competition between securitizers and the lowest market share for the GSEs . US subprime lending expanded dramatically 2004 -- 2006 As well as easy credit conditions , there is evidence that competitive pressures contributed to an increase in the amount of subprime lending during the years preceding the crisis . Major US investment banks and GSEs such as Fannie Mae played an important role in the expansion of lending , with GSEs eventually relaxing their standards to try to catch up with the private banks . A contrarian view is that Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac led the way to relaxed underwriting standards , starting in 1995 , by advocating the use of easy - to - qualify automated underwriting and appraisal systems , by designing the no - down - payment products issued by lenders , | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_7 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was caused by a combination of factors, including widespread failures in financial regulation, dramatic breakdowns in corporate governance, and an explosive mix of excessive borrowing and risk by households and Wall Street. The crisis was avoidable and was attributed to key policy makers being ill prepared for the crisis and systemic breaches in accountability and ethics at all levels. Additionally, the relaxing of credit lending standards by investment banks and commercial banks led to an increase in subprime lending, which ultimately contributed to the crisis. The years preceding the crisis saw a significant expansion of subprime lending, as well as competitive pressures that further increased the amount of subprime lending. Major US investment banks and government-sponsored enterprises played a crucial role in the expansion of lending, with the GSEs eventually relaxing their standards to try to catch up with the private banks. Overall, the financial crisis of 2008 was a result of a combination of factors, with the subprime mortgage market playing a significant role in the lead up to the crisis. |
and appraisal systems , by designing the no - down - payment products issued by lenders , by the promotion of thousands of small mortgage brokers , and by their close relationship to subprime loan aggregators such as Countrywide . Depending on how `` subprime '' mortgages are defined , they remained below 10 % of all mortgage originations until 2004 , when they rose to nearly 20 % and remained there through the 2005 -- 2006 peak of the United States housing bubble . The majority report of the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission , written by the six Democratic appointees , the minority report , written by three of the four Republican appointees , studies by Federal Reserve economists , and the work of several independent scholars generally contend that government affordable housing policy was not the primary cause of the financial crisis . Although they concede that governmental policies had some role in causing the crisis , they contend that GSE loans performed better than loans securitized by private investment banks , and performed better than some loans originated by institutions that held loans in their own portfolios . In his dissent to the majority report of the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission , American Enterprise Institute fellow Peter J. Wallison stated his belief that the roots of the financial crisis can be traced directly and primarily to affordable housing policies initiated by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development ( HUD ) in the 1990s and to massive risky loan purchases by government - sponsored entities Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac . Later , based upon information in the SEC 's December 2011 securities fraud case against six former executives of Fannie and Freddie , Peter Wallison and Edward Pinto estimated that , in 2008 , Fannie and Freddie held 13 million substandard loans totaling over $2 trillion . In the early and mid-2000s , the Bush administration called numerous times for investigation into the safety and soundness of the GSEs and their swelling portfolio of subprime mortgages . On September 10 , 2003 , the House Financial Services Committee held a hearing at the urging of the administration to assess safety and soundness issues and to review a recent report by the Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight ( OFHEO ) that had uncovered accounting discrepancies within the two entities . The hearings never resulted in new legislation or formal investigation of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac , as many of the committee members refused to accept the report and instead rebuked OFHEO for their attempt at regulation . Some believe this was an early warning to the systemic risk that the growing market in subprime mortgages posed to the US financial system that went unheeded . A 2000 United States Department of the Treasury study of lending trends for 305 cities from 1993 to 1998 showed that $467 billion of mortgage lending was made by Community Reinvestment Act ( CRA ) - | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_8 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was influenced by various factors, including the subprime mortgage market. This market saw a significant rise in subprime mortgages, reaching nearly 20% of all mortgage originations during the peak of the United States housing bubble in 2005-2006. The majority report of the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission, along with studies by Federal Reserve economists and independent scholars, suggests that government affordable housing policy was not the primary cause of the crisis. However, dissenting opinions, such as that of American Enterprise Institute fellow Peter J. Wallison, argue that the crisis can be traced back to affordable housing policies initiated by the US Department of Housing and Urban Development in the 1990s, as well as risky loan purchases by government-sponsored entities Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. The Bush administration also called for investigations into the safety and soundness of these entities and their portfolio of subprime mortgages, but these efforts did not result in new legislation or formal investigation. Additionally, a 2000 United States Department of the Treasury study showed that a significant amount of mortgage lending was made by the Community Reinvestment Act, further contributing to the crisis. |
1998 showed that $467 billion of mortgage lending was made by Community Reinvestment Act ( CRA ) - covered lenders into low and mid level income ( LMI ) borrowers and neighborhoods , representing 10 % of all US mortgage lending during the period . The majority of these were prime loans . Sub-prime loans made by CRA - covered institutions constituted a 3 % market share of LMI loans in 1998 , but in the run - up to the crisis , fully 25 % of all sub-prime lending occurred at CRA - covered institutions and another 25 % of sub-prime loans had some connection with CRA . Furthermore , most sub-prime loans were not made to the LMI borrowers targeted by the CRA , especially in the years 2005 -- 2006 leading up to the crisis , nor did it find any evidence that lending under the CRA rules increased delinquency rates or that the CRA indirectly influenced independent mortgage lenders to ramp up sub-prime lending . To other analysts the delay between CRA rule changes ( in 1995 ) and the explosion of subprime lending is not surprising , and does not exonerate the CRA . They contend that there were two , connected causes to the crisis : the relaxation of underwriting standards in 1995 and the ultra-low interest rates initiated by the Federal Reserve after the terrorist attack on September 11 , 2001 . Both causes had to be in place before the crisis could take place . Critics also point out that publicly announced CRA loan commitments were massive , totaling $4.5 trillion in the years between 1994 and 2007 . They also argue that the Federal Reserve 's classification of CRA loans as `` prime '' is based on the faulty and self - serving assumption that high - interest - rate loans ( 3 percentage points over average ) equal `` subprime '' loans . Others have pointed out that there were not enough of these loans made to cause a crisis of this magnitude . In an article in Portfolio Magazine , Michael Lewis spoke with one trader who noted that `` There were n't enough Americans with ( bad ) credit taking out ( bad loans ) to satisfy investors ' appetite for the end product . '' Essentially , investment banks and hedge funds used financial innovation to enable large wagers to be made , far beyond the actual value of the underlying mortgage loans , using derivatives called credit default swaps , collateralized debt obligations and synthetic CDOs . As of March 2011 , the FDIC had paid out $9 billion to cover losses on bad loans at 165 failed financial institutions . The Congressional Budget Office estimated , in June 2011 , that the bailout to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac exceeds $300 billion ( calculated by adding the fair value deficits of the entities to the direct bailout funds at the time ) . Economist Paul Krugman argued in January 2010 that the simultaneous growth of the residential and commercial real estate pricing bubbles and the global nature of the crisis undermines the case made by those who argue that Fannie Mae , Freddie | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_9 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a result of various factors, including the subprime mortgage market. In 1998, Community Reinvestment Act (CRA) covered lenders provided $467 billion in mortgage lending to low and mid-level income borrowers and neighborhoods, representing 10% of all US mortgage lending during that period. However, the majority of these loans were prime loans, and subprime loans made by CRA-covered institutions only constituted a 3% market share of LMI loans in 1998.
In the years leading up to the crisis, there was a significant increase in subprime lending, with 25% of all subprime lending occurring at CRA-covered institutions and another 25% of subprime loans having some connection with CRA. However, it was found that most subprime loans were not made to the LMI borrowers targeted by the CRA, especially in the years 2005-2006 leading up to the crisis. Additionally, there was no evidence that lending under the CRA rules increased delinquency rates or indirectly influenced independent mortgage lenders to ramp up subprime lending.
Some analysts argue that the delay between CRA rule changes in 1995 and the explosion of subprime lending does not exonerate the CRA. They contend that the relaxation of underwriting standards in 1995 and the ultra-low interest rates initiated by the Federal Reserve after the terrorist attack on September 11, 2001, were connected causes to the crisis. Critics also point out that publicly announced CRA loan commitments were massive, totaling $4.5 trillion in the years between 1994 and 2007.
Others have pointed out that there were not enough of these loans made to cause a crisis of this magnitude. Investment banks and hedge funds used financial innovation to enable large wagers to be made, far beyond the actual value of the underlying mortgage loans, using derivatives called credit default swaps, collateralized debt obligations, and synthetic CDOs. As a result, the FDIC had to pay out $9 billion to cover losses on bad loans at 165 failed financial institutions, and the bailout to Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac exceeded $300 billion.
Economist Paul Krugman argued that the simultaneous growth of the residential and commercial real estate pricing bubbles and the global nature of the crisis undermines the case made by those who argue that Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, and the CRA were the primary causes of the crisis. |
global nature of the crisis undermines the case made by those who argue that Fannie Mae , Freddie Mac , CRA , or predatory lending were primary causes of the crisis . In other words , bubbles in both markets developed even though only the residential market was affected by these potential causes . Countering Krugman , Peter J. Wallison wrote : `` It is not true that every bubble -- even a large bubble -- has the potential to cause a financial crisis when it deflates . '' Wallison notes that other developed countries had `` large bubbles during the 1997 -- 2007 period '' but `` the losses associated with mortgage delinquencies and defaults when these bubbles deflated were far lower than the losses suffered in the United States when the 1997 -- 2007 ( bubble ) deflated . '' According to Wallison , the reason the US residential housing bubble ( as opposed to other types of bubbles ) led to financial crisis was that it was supported by a huge number of substandard loans -- generally with low or no downpayments . Krugman 's contention ( that the growth of a commercial real estate bubble indicates that US housing policy was not the cause of the crisis ) is challenged by additional analysis . After researching the default of commercial loans during the financial crisis , Xudong An and Anthony B. Sanders reported ( in December 2010 ) : `` We find limited evidence that substantial deterioration in CMBS ( commercial mortgage - backed securities ) loan underwriting occurred prior to the crisis . '' Other analysts support the contention that the crisis in commercial real estate and related lending took place after the crisis in residential real estate . Business journalist Kimberly Amadeo reported : `` The first signs of decline in residential real estate occurred in 2006 . Three years later , commercial real estate started feeling the effects . Denice A. Gierach , a real estate attorney and CPA , wrote : ... most of the commercial real estate loans were good loans destroyed by a really bad economy . In other words , the borrowers did not cause the loans to go bad , it was the economy . Growth of the housing bubble ( edit ) Main article : United States housing bubble A graph showing the median and average sales prices of new homes sold in the United States between 1963 and 2016 ( not adjusted for inflation ) Between 1998 and 2006 , the price of the typical American house increased by 124 % . During the two decades ending in 2001 , the national median home price ranged from 2.9 to 3.1 times median household income . This ratio rose to 4.0 in 2004 , and 4.6 in 2006 . This housing bubble resulted in many homeowners refinancing their homes at lower interest rates , or financing consumer spending by taking out second mortgages secured by the price appreciation . In a Peabody Award winning program , NPR correspondents argued that a `` Giant Pool of Money '' ( represented by $70 trillion in worldwide fixed | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_10 | false | The global nature of the crisis undermines the case made by those who argue that Fannie Mae, Freddie Mac, CRA, or predatory lending were primary causes of the crisis. In other words, bubbles in both markets developed even though only the residential market was affected by these potential causes. Countering Krugman, Peter J. Wallison wrote: "It is not true that every bubble -- even a large bubble -- has the potential to cause a financial crisis when it deflates." Wallison notes that other developed countries had "large bubbles during the 1997 -- 2007 period" but "the losses associated with mortgage delinquencies and defaults when these bubbles deflated were far lower than the losses suffered in the United States when the 1997 -- 2007 (bubble) deflated." According to Wallison, the reason the US residential housing bubble (as opposed to other types of bubbles) led to financial crisis was that it was supported by a huge number of substandard loans -- generally with low or no downpayments.
Krugman's contention (that the growth of a commercial real estate bubble indicates that US housing policy was not the cause of the crisis) is challenged by additional analysis. After researching the default of commercial loans during the financial crisis, Xudong An and Anthony B. Sanders reported (in December 2010): "We find limited evidence that substantial deterioration in CMBS (commercial mortgage-backed securities) loan underwriting occurred prior to the crisis." Other analysts support the contention that the crisis in commercial real estate and related lending took place after the crisis in residential real estate. Business journalist Kimberly Amadeo reported: "The first signs of decline in residential real estate occurred in 2006. Three years later, commercial real estate started feeling the effects. Denice A. Gierach, a real estate attorney and CPA, wrote: ... most of the commercial real estate loans were good loans destroyed by a really bad economy. In other words, the borrowers did not cause the loans to go bad, it was the economy.
The financial crisis of 2008 was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market. |
argued that a `` Giant Pool of Money '' ( represented by $70 trillion in worldwide fixed income investments ) sought higher yields than those offered by US Treasury bonds early in the decade . This pool of money had roughly doubled in size from 2000 to 2007 , yet the supply of relatively safe , income generating investments had not grown as fast . Investment banks on Wall Street answered this demand with products such as the mortgage - backed security and the collateralized debt obligation that were assigned safe ratings by the credit rating agencies . In effect , Wall Street connected this pool of money to the mortgage market in the US , with enormous fees accruing to those throughout the mortgage supply chain , from the mortgage broker selling the loans to small banks that funded the brokers and the large investment banks behind them . By approximately 2003 , the supply of mortgages originated at traditional lending standards had been exhausted , and continued strong demand began to drive down lending standards . The collateralized debt obligation in particular enabled financial institutions to obtain investor funds to finance subprime and other lending , extending or increasing the housing bubble and generating large fees . This essentially places cash payments from multiple mortgages or other debt obligations into a single pool from which specific securities draw in a specific sequence of priority . Those securities first in line received investment - grade ratings from rating agencies . Securities with lower priority had lower credit ratings but theoretically a higher rate of return on the amount invested . By September 2008 , average US housing prices had declined by over 20 % from their mid-2006 peak . As prices declined , borrowers with adjustable - rate mortgages could not refinance to avoid the higher payments associated with rising interest rates and began to default . During 2007 , lenders began foreclosure proceedings on nearly 1.3 million properties , a 79 % increase over 2006 . This increased to 2.3 million in 2008 , an 81 % increase vs. 2007 . By August 2008 , 9.2 % of all US mortgages outstanding were either delinquent or in foreclosure . By September 2009 , this had risen to 14.4 % . Easy credit conditions ( edit ) Lower interest rates encouraged borrowing . From 2000 to 2003 , the Federal Reserve lowered the federal funds rate target from 6.5 % to 1.0 % . This was done to soften the effects of the collapse of the dot - com bubble and the September 2001 terrorist attacks , as well as to combat a perceived risk of deflation . As early as 2002 it was apparent that credit was fueling housing instead of business investment as some economists went so far as to advocate that the Fed `` needs to create a housing bubble to replace the Nasdaq bubble '' . Moreover , empirical studies using data from advanced countries show that excessive credit growth contributed greatly to the severity of | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_11 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was caused by a variety of factors, including the collapse of the subprime mortgage market. During the early 2000s, a significant amount of money was seeking higher yields than those offered by US Treasury bonds. This led to an increase in the demand for relatively safe, income-generating investments, which was not met with a corresponding increase in the supply of such investments. Investment banks on Wall Street responded to this demand by creating products such as mortgage-backed securities and collateralized debt obligations, which were given safe ratings by credit rating agencies.
As a result, the pool of money was connected to the mortgage market in the US, with significant fees accruing to those involved in the mortgage supply chain. By 2003, the supply of mortgages originated at traditional lending standards had been exhausted, leading to a lowering of lending standards. The collateralized debt obligation allowed financial institutions to obtain investor funds to finance subprime and other lending, contributing to the housing bubble and generating large fees.
The decline in US housing prices by over 20% from their peak in mid-2006 led to borrowers with adjustable-rate mortgages being unable to refinance and beginning to default. This resulted in a significant increase in foreclosure proceedings on properties, reaching 2.3 million in 2008. Additionally, easy credit conditions, including lower interest rates, encouraged borrowing and contributed to the severity of the crisis.
Overall, the financial crisis of 2008 was caused by a combination of factors, including the collapse of the subprime mortgage market, the increase in foreclosure proceedings, and the easy credit conditions that encouraged borrowing. |
from advanced countries show that excessive credit growth contributed greatly to the severity of the crisis . US current account deficit . Additional downward pressure on interest rates was created by the high and rising US current account deficit , which peaked along with the housing bubble in 2006 . Federal Reserve chairman Ben Bernanke explained how trade deficits required the US to borrow money from abroad , in the process bidding up bond prices and lowering interest rates . Bernanke explained that between 1996 and 2004 , the US current account deficit increased by $650 billion , from 1.5 % to 5.8 % of GDP . Financing these deficits required the country to borrow large sums from abroad , much of it from countries running trade surpluses . These were mainly the emerging economies in Asia and oil - exporting nations . The balance of payments identity requires that a country ( such as the US ) running a current account deficit also have a capital account ( investment ) surplus of the same amount . Hence large and growing amounts of foreign funds ( capital ) flowed into the US to finance its imports . All of this created demand for various types of financial assets , raising the prices of those assets while lowering interest rates . Foreign investors had these funds to lend either because they had very high personal savings rates ( as high as 40 % in China ) or because of high oil prices . Ben Bernanke has referred to this as a `` saving glut '' . A flood of funds ( capital or liquidity ) reached the US financial markets . Foreign governments supplied funds by purchasing Treasury bonds and thus avoided much of the direct effect of the crisis . US households , on the other hand , used funds borrowed from foreigners to finance consumption or to bid up the prices of housing and financial assets . Financial institutions invested foreign funds in mortgage - backed securities . The Fed then raised the Fed funds rate significantly between July 2004 and July 2006 . This contributed to an increase in 1 - year and 5 - year adjustable - rate mortgage ( ARM ) rates , making ARM interest rate resets more expensive for homeowners . This may have also contributed to the deflating of the housing bubble , as asset prices generally move inversely to interest rates , and it became riskier to speculate in housing . US housing and financial assets dramatically declined in value after the housing bubble burst . Weak and fraudulent underwriting practices ( edit ) Subprime lending standards declined in the USA : in early 2000 , a subprime borrower had a FICO score of 660 or less . By 2005 , many lenders dropped the required FICO score to 620 , making it much easier to qualify for prime loans and making subprime lending a riskier business . Proof of income and assets were de-emphasized . Loans moved from full documentation to low documentation to no documentation . One subprime mortgage product that gained | [
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documentation to low documentation to no documentation . One subprime mortgage product that gained wide acceptance was the no income , no job , no asset verification required ( NINJA ) mortgage . Informally , these loans were aptly referred to as `` liar loans '' because they encouraged borrowers to be less than honest in the loan application process . Testimony given to the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission by Richard M. Bowen III on events during his tenure as the Business Chief Underwriter for Correspondent Lending in the Consumer Lending Group for Citigroup ( where he was responsible for over 220 professional underwriters ) suggests that by the final years of the US housing bubble ( 2006 -- 2007 ) , the collapse of mortgage underwriting standards was endemic . His testimony stated that by 2006 , 60 % of mortgages purchased by Citi from some 1,600 mortgage companies were `` defective '' ( were not underwritten to policy , or did not contain all policy - required documents ) -- this , despite the fact that each of these 1,600 originators was contractually responsible ( certified via representations and warrantees ) that its mortgage originations met Citi 's standards . Moreover , during 2007 , `` defective mortgages ( from mortgage originators contractually bound to perform underwriting to Citi 's standards ) increased ... to over 80 % of production '' . In separate testimony to Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission , officers of Clayton Holdings -- the largest residential loan due diligence and securitization surveillance company in the United States and Europe -- testified that Clayton 's review of over 900,000 mortgages issued from January 2006 to June 2007 revealed that scarcely 54 % of the loans met their originators ' underwriting standards . The analysis ( conducted on behalf of 23 investment and commercial banks , including 7 `` too big to fail '' banks ) additionally showed that 28 % of the sampled loans did not meet the minimal standards of any issuer . Clayton 's analysis further showed that 39 % of these loans ( i.e. those not meeting any issuer 's minimal underwriting standards ) were subsequently securitized and sold to investors . There is strong evidence that the GSEs -- due to their large size and market power -- were far more effective at policing underwriting by originators and forcing underwriters to repurchase defective loans . By contrast , private securitizers have been far less aggressive and less effective in recovering losses from originators on behalf of investors . Predatory lending ( edit ) Predatory lending refers to the practice of unscrupulous lenders , enticing borrowers to enter into `` unsafe '' or `` unsound '' secured loans for inappropriate purposes . A classic bait - and - switch method was used by Countrywide Financial , advertising low interest rates for home refinancing . Such loans were covered by very detailed contracts , and swapped for more expensive | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_13 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market. This crisis was a result of the widespread acceptance of subprime mortgage products, such as the "no income, no job, no asset verification required" (NINJA) mortgage. These loans, informally known as "liar loans," encouraged borrowers to be less than honest in the loan application process. Testimony given to the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission revealed that by the final years of the US housing bubble, the collapse of mortgage underwriting standards was endemic. It was reported that a significant percentage of mortgages purchased by major financial institutions were "defective," meaning they did not meet underwriting standards or contain all policy-required documents. Additionally, predatory lending practices, such as enticing borrowers into "unsafe" or "unsound" secured loans for inappropriate purposes, also contributed to the crisis. The crisis was further exacerbated by the lack of aggressive action by private securitizers in recovering losses from originators on behalf of investors. Overall, the financial crisis of 2008 was caused by a combination of factors, including the collapse of mortgage underwriting standards, predatory lending practices, and the lack of effective policing by private securitizers. |
refinancing . Such loans were covered by very detailed contracts , and swapped for more expensive loan products on the day of closing . Whereas the advertisement might state that 1 % or 1.5 % interest would be charged , the consumer would be put into an adjustable rate mortgage ( ARM ) in which the interest charged would be greater than the mortgage payments , creating negative amortization which the credit consumer might not notice until long after the loan transaction had been consummated . Countrywide , sued by California Attorney General Jerry Brown for `` unfair business practices '' and `` false advertising '' , was making high cost mortgages `` to homeowners with weak credit , adjustable rate mortgages ( ARMs ) that allowed homeowners to make interest - only payments '' . When housing prices decreased , homeowners in ARMs then had little incentive to pay their monthly payments , since their home equity had disappeared . This caused Countrywide 's financial condition to deteriorate , ultimately resulting in a decision by the Office of Thrift Supervision to seize the lender . One Countrywide employee -- who would later plead guilty to two counts of wire fraud and spent 18 months in prison -- stated that , `` If you had a pulse , we gave you a loan . '' Former employees from Ameriquest , which was United States ' leading wholesale lender , described a system in which they were pushed to falsify mortgage documents and then sell the mortgages to Wall Street banks eager to make fast profits . There is growing evidence that such mortgage frauds may be a cause of the crisis . Deregulation ( edit ) Further information : Government policies and the subprime mortgage crisis A 2012 OECD study suggest that bank regulation based on the Basel accords encourage unconventional business practices and contributed to or even reinforced the financial crisis . In other cases , laws were changed or enforcement weakened in parts of the financial system . Key examples include : Jimmy Carter 's Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980 ( DIDMCA ) phased out a number of restrictions on banks ' financial practices , broadened their lending powers , allowed credit unions and savings and loans to offer checkable deposits , and raised the deposit insurance limit from $40,000 to $100,000 ( thereby potentially lessening depositor scrutiny of lenders ' risk management policies ) . In October 1982 , US President Ronald Reagan signed into law the Garn -- St. Germain Depository Institutions Act , which provided for adjustable - rate mortgage loans , began the process of banking deregulation , and contributed to the savings and loan crisis of the late 1980s / early 1990s . In November 1999 , US President Bill Clinton signed into law the Gramm -- Leach -- Bliley Act , which repealed provisions of the Glass - Steagall Act that prohibit a bank holding company from owning other | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_14 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market. This crisis was a result of various factors, including the practice of offering high-cost mortgages to homeowners with weak credit, as well as the deregulation of the financial industry. The subprime mortgage market saw lenders engaging in unfair business practices and false advertising, leading to a situation where homeowners were put into adjustable rate mortgages with interest rates that were greater than their mortgage payments. This created negative amortization, which many consumers did not notice until long after the loan transaction had been completed. Additionally, the deregulation of the financial industry, including the repeal of certain provisions of the Glass-Steagall Act, contributed to the crisis. These factors, along with others, ultimately led to the financial crisis of 2008. |
provisions of the Glass - Steagall Act that prohibit a bank holding company from owning other financial companies . The repeal effectively removed the separation that previously existed between Wall Street investment banks and depository banks , providing a government stamp of approval for a universal risk - taking banking model . Investment banks such as Lehman would now be thrust into direct competition with commercial banks . Most analysts say that this repeal directly contributed to the severity of the Financial crisis of 2007 -- 2010 . However , there is perspective that repeal made little difference because the institutions that were greatly affected did not fall under the jurisdiction of the act itself . In December 2000 , President Clinton signed the Commodities Futures Modernization Act of 2000 into law . Written by Congress with lobbying assistance from the financial industry , it banned the further regulation of the derivatives market . In 2004 , the US Securities and Exchange Commission relaxed the net capital rule , which enabled investment banks to substantially increase the level of debt they were taking on , fueling the growth in mortgage - backed securities supporting subprime mortgages . The SEC has conceded that self - regulation of investment banks contributed to the crisis . Financial institutions in the shadow banking system are not subject to the same regulation as depository banks , allowing them to assume additional debt obligations relative to their financial cushion or capital base . This was the case despite the Long - Term Capital Management debacle in 1998 , where a highly leveraged shadow institution failed with systemic implications . Regulators and accounting standard - setters allowed depository banks such as Citigroup to move significant amounts of assets and liabilities off - balance sheet into complex legal entities called structured investment vehicles , masking the weakness of the capital base of the firm or degree of leverage or risk taken . One news agency estimated that the top four US banks will have to return between $500 billion and $1 trillion to their balance sheets during 2009 . This increased uncertainty during the crisis regarding the financial position of the major banks . Off - balance sheet entities were also used by Enron as part of the scandal that brought down that company in 2001 . As early as 1997 , Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan fought to keep the derivatives market unregulated . With the advice of the President 's Working Group on Financial Markets , the US Congress and President Bill Clinton allowed the self - regulation of the over-the - counter derivatives market when they enacted the Commodity Futures Modernization Act of 2000 . Derivatives such as credit default swaps ( CDS ) can be used to hedge or speculate against particular credit risks without necessarily owning the underlying debt instruments . The volume of CDS | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_15 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a result of various factors, including the repeal of the provisions of the Glass-Steagall Act, the Commodities Futures Modernization Act of 2000, and the relaxation of the net capital rule by the US Securities and Exchange Commission. These legislative changes allowed for the integration of investment banks and depository banks, leading to increased risk-taking in the banking industry. Additionally, the shadow banking system, which is not subject to the same regulations as depository banks, assumed additional debt obligations, contributing to the crisis. Furthermore, the use of off-balance sheet entities by financial institutions, such as Citigroup, and the unregulated derivatives market, particularly credit default swaps, also played a role in the crisis. Overall, the crisis was caused by a combination of factors, including the housing market crash and the subsequent crisis in the subprime mortgage market. |
credit risks without necessarily owning the underlying debt instruments . The volume of CDS outstanding increased 100-fold from 1998 to 2008 , with estimates of the debt covered by CDS contracts , as of November 2008 , ranging from US $33 to $47 trillion . Total over-the - counter ( OTC ) derivative notional value rose to $683 trillion by June 2008 . Warren Buffett famously referred to derivatives as `` financial weapons of mass destruction '' in early 2003 . Increased debt burden or overleveraging ( edit ) Leverage ratios of investment banks increased significantly between 2003 and 2007 . Prior to the crisis , financial institutions became highly leveraged , increasing their appetite for risky investments and reducing their resilience in case of losses . Much of this leverage was achieved using complex financial instruments such as off - balance sheet securitization and derivatives , which made it difficult for creditors and regulators to monitor and try to reduce financial institution risk levels . These instruments also made it virtually impossible to reorganize financial institutions in bankruptcy , and contributed to the need for government bailouts . Household debt relative to disposable income and GDP . US households and financial institutions became increasingly indebted or overleveraged during the years preceding the crisis . This increased their vulnerability to the collapse of the housing bubble and worsened the ensuing economic downturn . Key statistics include : Free cash used by consumers from home equity extraction doubled from $627 billion in 2001 to $1,428 billion in 2005 as the housing bubble built , a total of nearly $5 trillion over the period , contributing to economic growth worldwide . US home mortgage debt relative to GDP increased from an average of 46 % during the 1990s to 73 % during 2008 , reaching $10.5 trillion . US household debt as a percentage of annual disposable personal income was 127 % at the end of 2007 , versus 77 % in 1990 . In 1981 , US private debt was 123 % of GDP ; by the third quarter of 2008 , it was 290 % . From 2004 to 2007 , the top five US investment banks each significantly increased their financial leverage ( see diagram ) , which increased their vulnerability to a financial shock . Changes in capital requirements , intended to keep US banks competitive with their European counterparts , allowed lower risk weightings for AAA securities . The shift from first - loss tranches to AAA tranches was seen by regulators as a risk reduction that compensated the higher leverage . These five institutions reported over $4.1 trillion in debt for fiscal year 2007 , about 30 % of US nominal GDP for 2007 . Lehman Brothers went bankrupt and was liquidated , Bear Stearns and Merrill Lynch were sold at fire - sale prices , and Goldman Sachs and Morgan Stanley became commercial banks , subjecting themselves to more stringent regulation . With the | [
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Stanley became commercial banks , subjecting themselves to more stringent regulation . With the exception of Lehman , these companies required or received government support . Lehman reported that it had been in talks with Bank of America and Barclays for the company 's possible sale . However , both Barclays and Bank of America ultimately declined to purchase the entire company . Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac , two US government - sponsored enterprises , owned or guaranteed nearly $5 trillion in mortgage obligations at the time they were placed into conservatorship by the US government in September 2008 . These seven entities were highly leveraged and had $9 trillion in debt or guarantee obligations ; yet they were not subject to the same regulation as depository banks . Behavior that may be optimal for an individual ( e.g. , saving more during adverse economic conditions ) can be detrimental if too many individuals pursue the same behavior , as ultimately one person 's consumption is another person 's income . Too many consumers attempting to save ( or pay down debt ) simultaneously is called the paradox of thrift and can cause or deepen a recession . Economist Hyman Minsky also described a `` paradox of deleveraging '' as financial institutions that have too much leverage ( debt relative to equity ) can not all de-leverage simultaneously without significant declines in the value of their assets . In April 2009 , US Federal Reserve vice-chair Janet Yellen discussed these paradoxes : Once this massive credit crunch hit , it did n't take long before we were in a recession . The recession , in turn , deepened the credit crunch as demand and employment fell , and credit losses of financial institutions surged . Indeed , we have been in the grips of precisely this adverse feedback loop for more than a year . A process of balance sheet deleveraging has spread to nearly every corner of the economy . Consumers are pulling back on purchases , especially on durable goods , to build their savings . Businesses are cancelling planned investments and laying off workers to preserve cash . And , financial institutions are shrinking assets to bolster capital and improve their chances of weathering the current storm . Once again , Minsky understood this dynamic . He spoke of the paradox of deleveraging , in which precautions that may be smart for individuals and firms -- and indeed essential to return the economy to a normal state -- nevertheless magnify the distress of the economy as a whole . Financial innovation and complexity ( edit ) IMF Diagram of CDO and RMBS The term financial innovation refers to the ongoing development of financial products designed to achieve particular client objectives , such as offsetting a particular risk exposure ( such as the default of a borrower ) or to assist with obtaining financing . Examples pertinent to this crisis included : the adjustable - rate mortgage ; | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_17 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event that had a widespread impact on the global economy. It was characterized by the failure of several major financial institutions, including Lehman Brothers, and the need for government support for others such as Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac. The crisis was exacerbated by the high levels of debt and leverage in the financial system, as well as the paradox of thrift, where excessive saving and debt repayment by consumers led to a deepening recession. Additionally, financial innovation and complexity, such as adjustable-rate mortgages, played a role in the crisis. The subprime mortgage market crisis was a key factor in the financial crisis of 2008. |
obtaining financing . Examples pertinent to this crisis included : the adjustable - rate mortgage ; the bundling of subprime mortgages into mortgage - backed securities ( MBS ) or collateralized debt obligations ( CDO ) for sale to investors , a type of securitization ; and a form of credit insurance called credit default swaps ( CDS ) . The usage of these products expanded dramatically in the years leading up to the crisis . These products vary in complexity and the ease with which they can be valued on the books of financial institutions . CDO issuance grew from an estimated $20 billion in Q1 2004 to its peak of over $180 billion by Q1 2007 , then declined back under $20 billion by Q1 2008 . Further , the credit quality of CDO 's declined from 2000 to 2007 , as the level of subprime and other non-prime mortgage debt increased from 5 % to 36 % of CDO assets . As described in the section on subprime lending , the CDS and portfolio of CDS called synthetic CDO enabled a theoretically infinite amount to be wagered on the finite value of housing loans outstanding , provided that buyers and sellers of the derivatives could be found . For example , buying a CDS to insure a CDO ended up giving the seller the same risk as if they owned the CDO , when those CDO 's became worthless . Diagram of CMLTI 2006 -- NC2 This boom in innovative financial products went hand in hand with more complexity . It multiplied the number of actors connected to a single mortgage ( including mortgage brokers , specialized originators , the securitizers and their due diligence firms , managing agents and trading desks , and finally investors , insurances and providers of repo funding ) . With increasing distance from the underlying asset these actors relied more and more on indirect information ( including FICO scores on creditworthiness , appraisals and due diligence checks by third party organizations , and most importantly the computer models of rating agencies and risk management desks ) . Instead of spreading risk this provided the ground for fraudulent acts , misjudgments and finally market collapse . Martin Wolf further wrote in June 2009 that certain financial innovations enabled firms to circumvent regulations , such as off - balance sheet financing that affects the leverage or capital cushion reported by major banks , stating : `` ... an enormous part of what banks did in the early part of this decade -- the off - balance - sheet vehicles , the derivatives and the ' shadow banking system ' itself -- was to find a way round regulation . '' Incorrect pricing of risk ( edit ) A protester on Wall Street in the wake of the AIG bonus payments controversy is interviewed by news media . The pricing of risk refers to the incremental compensation required by investors for taking on additional risk , which may be measured by interest rates or fees . Several scholars have argued that a lack of transparency about banks ' risk | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_18 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was caused by a variety of factors, including the widespread use of financial products such as adjustable-rate mortgages, mortgage-backed securities, collateralized debt obligations, and credit default swaps. These products became increasingly complex and difficult to value, leading to a boom in innovative financial products that ultimately contributed to the crisis. Additionally, the pricing of risk and the lack of transparency about banks' risk also played a role in the crisis. Overall, the crisis was a result of a combination of factors, including the subprime mortgage market and the use of complex financial products. |
rates or fees . Several scholars have argued that a lack of transparency about banks ' risk exposures prevented markets from correctly pricing risk before the crisis , enabled the mortgage market to grow larger than it otherwise would have , and made the financial crisis far more disruptive than it would have been if risk levels had been disclosed in a straightforward , readily understandable format . For a variety of reasons , market participants did not accurately measure the risk inherent with financial innovation such as MBS and CDOs or understand its effect on the overall stability of the financial system . For example , the pricing model for CDOs clearly did not reflect the level of risk they introduced into the system . Banks estimated that $450 billion of CDO were sold between `` late 2005 to the middle of 2007 '' ; among the $102 billion of those that had been liquidated , JPMorgan estimated that the average recovery rate for `` high quality '' CDOs was approximately 32 cents on the dollar , while the recovery rate for mezzanine CDO was approximately five cents for every dollar . Another example relates to AIG , which insured obligations of various financial institutions through the usage of credit default swaps . The basic CDS transaction involved AIG receiving a premium in exchange for a promise to pay money to party A in the event party B defaulted . However , AIG did not have the financial strength to support its many CDS commitments as the crisis progressed and was taken over by the government in September 2008 . US taxpayers provided over $180 billion in government support to AIG during 2008 and early 2009 , through which the money flowed to various counterparties to CDS transactions , including many large global financial institutions . The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission ( FCIC ) made the major government study of the crisis . It concluded in January 2011 : The Commission concludes AIG failed and was rescued by the government primarily because its enormous sales of credit default swaps were made without putting up the initial collateral , setting aside capital reserves , or hedging its exposure -- a profound failure in corporate governance , particularly its risk management practices . AIG 's failure was possible because of the sweeping deregulation of over-the - counter ( OTC ) derivatives , including credit default swaps , which effectively eliminated federal and state regulation of these products , including capital and margin requirements that would have lessened the likelihood of AIG 's failure . The limitations of a widely used financial model also were not properly understood . This formula assumed that the price of CDS was correlated with and could predict the correct price of mortgage - backed securities . Because it was highly tractable , it rapidly came to be used by a huge percentage of CDO and CDS investors , issuers , and rating agencies . According to one wired.com | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_19 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a result of various factors, including a lack of transparency in banks' risk exposures, inaccurate measurement of risk associated with financial innovation, and the failure of widely used financial models. The crisis was exacerbated by the growth of the mortgage market and the disruptive nature of the financial crisis due to undisclosed risk levels. For example, the pricing model for collateralized debt obligations (CDOs) did not accurately reflect the level of risk they introduced into the system. Additionally, AIG's failure and subsequent government bailout were primarily attributed to the company's enormous sales of credit default swaps without adequate collateral or capital reserves. The Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission (FCIC) concluded that AIG's failure was a result of a profound failure in corporate governance and risk management practices, exacerbated by the deregulation of over-the-counter derivatives. Furthermore, the limitations of a widely used financial model were not properly understood, leading to the assumption that the price of credit default swaps could predict the correct price of mortgage-backed securities. These factors collectively contributed to the financial crisis of 2008. |
percentage of CDO and CDS investors , issuers , and rating agencies . According to one wired.com article : Then the model fell apart . Cracks started appearing early on , when financial markets began behaving in ways that users of Li 's formula had n't expected . The cracks became full - fledged canyons in 2008 -- when ruptures in the financial system 's foundation swallowed up trillions of dollars and put the survival of the global banking system in serious peril ... Li 's Gaussian copula formula will go down in history as instrumental in causing the unfathomable losses that brought the world financial system to its knees . As financial assets became more complex and harder to value , investors were reassured by the fact that the international bond rating agencies and bank regulators accepted as valid some complex mathematical models that showed the risks were much smaller than they actually were . George Soros commented that `` The super-boom got out of hand when the new products became so complicated that the authorities could no longer calculate the risks and started relying on the risk management methods of the banks themselves . Similarly , the rating agencies relied on the information provided by the originators of synthetic products . It was a shocking abdication of responsibility . '' Moreover , a conflict of interest between professional investment managers and their institutional clients , combined with a global glut in investment capital , led to bad investments by asset managers in over-priced credit assets . Professional investment managers generally are compensated based on the volume of client assets under management . There is , therefore , an incentive for asset managers to expand their assets under management in order to maximize their compensation . As the glut in global investment capital caused the yields on credit assets to decline , asset managers were faced with the choice of either investing in assets where returns did not reflect true credit risk or returning funds to clients . Many asset managers continued to invest client funds in over-priced ( under - yielding ) investments , to the detriment of their clients , so they could maintain their assets under management . They supported this choice with a `` plausible deniability '' of the risks associated with subprime - based credit assets because the loss experience with early `` vintages '' of subprime loans was so low . Despite the dominance of the above formula , there are documented attempts of the financial industry , occurring before the crisis , to address the formula limitations , specifically the lack of dependence dynamics and the poor representation of extreme events . The volume `` Credit Correlation : Life After Copulas '' , published in 2007 by World Scientific , summarizes a 2006 conference held by Merrill Lynch in London where several practitioners attempted to propose models rectifying some of the copula limitations . | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_20 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a result of various factors within the financial industry. The complexity of financial assets and the reliance on mathematical models that underestimated risks played a significant role in the crisis. The international bond rating agencies and bank regulators accepted complex mathematical models that showed smaller risks than they actually were, leading to a false sense of security among investors. Additionally, a conflict of interest between professional investment managers and their institutional clients, combined with a global glut in investment capital, led to bad investments in over-priced credit assets. This was further exacerbated by the lack of dependence dynamics and poor representation of extreme events in the dominant formula used in the financial industry. These factors, along with the shockingly low loss experience with early "vintages" of subprime loans, contributed to the financial crisis of 2008. |
where several practitioners attempted to propose models rectifying some of the copula limitations . See also the article by Donnelly and Embrechts and the book by Brigo , Pallavicini and Torresetti , that reports relevant warnings and research on CDOs appeared in 2006 . Mortgage risks were underestimated by almost all institutions in the chain from originator to investor by underweighting the possibility of falling housing prices based on historical trends of the past 50 years . Limitations of default and prepayment models , the heart of pricing models , led to overvaluation of mortgage and asset - backed products and their derivatives by originators , securitizers , broker - dealers , rating - agencies , insurance underwriters and the vast majority of investors with the exception of hedge funds . Boom and collapse of the shadow banking system ( edit ) Securitization markets were impaired during the crisis There is strong evidence that the riskiest , worst performing mortgages were funded through the `` shadow banking system '' and that competition from the shadow banking system may have pressured more traditional institutions to lower their own underwriting standards and originate riskier loans . In a June 2008 speech , President and CEO of the New York Federal Reserve Bank Timothy Geithner -- who in 2009 became Secretary of the United States Treasury -- placed significant blame for the freezing of credit markets on a `` run '' on the entities in the `` parallel '' banking system , also called the shadow banking system . These entities became critical to the credit markets underpinning the financial system , but were not subject to the same regulatory controls . Further , these entities were vulnerable because of maturity mismatch , meaning that they borrowed short - term in liquid markets to purchase long - term , illiquid and risky assets . This meant that disruptions in credit markets would make them subject to rapid deleveraging , selling their long - term assets at depressed prices . He described the significance of these entities : In early 2007 , asset - backed commercial paper conduits , in structured investment vehicles , in auction - rate preferred securities , tender option bonds and variable rate demand notes , had a combined asset size of roughly $2.2 trillion . Assets financed overnight in triparty repo grew to $2.5 trillion . Assets held in hedge funds grew to roughly $1.8 trillion . The combined balance sheets of the five largest investment banks totaled $4 trillion . In comparison , the total assets of the top five bank holding companies in the United States at that point were just over $6 trillion , and total assets of the entire banking system were about $10 trillion . The combined effect of these factors was a financial system vulnerable to self - reinforcing asset price and credit cycles . Paul Krugman , laureate of the Nobel Prize in Economics , described the run on | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_21 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market. This crisis led to several practitioners attempting to propose models rectifying some of the copula limitations. Mortgage risks were underestimated by almost all institutions in the chain from originator to investor by underweighting the possibility of falling housing prices based on historical trends of the past 50 years. Limitations of default and prepayment models, the heart of pricing models, led to overvaluation of mortgage and asset-backed products and their derivatives by originators, securitizers, broker-dealers, rating-agencies, insurance underwriters, and the vast majority of investors with the exception of hedge funds. The boom and collapse of the shadow banking system also played a significant role in the crisis. There is strong evidence that the riskiest, worst performing mortgages were funded through the "shadow banking system" and that competition from the shadow banking system may have pressured more traditional institutions to lower their own underwriting standards and originate riskier loans. In a June 2008 speech, President and CEO of the New York Federal Reserve Bank Timothy Geithner placed significant blame for the freezing of credit markets on a "run" on the entities in the "parallel" banking system, also called the shadow banking system. These entities became critical to the credit markets underpinning the financial system, but were not subject to the same regulatory controls. Further, these entities were vulnerable because of maturity mismatch, meaning that they borrowed short-term in liquid markets to purchase long-term, illiquid, and risky assets. This meant that disruptions in credit markets would make them subject to rapid deleveraging, selling their long-term assets at depressed prices. The combined effect of these factors was a financial system vulnerable to self-reinforcing asset price and credit cycles. Paul Krugman, laureate of the Nobel Prize in Economics, described the run on. |
cycles . Paul Krugman , laureate of the Nobel Prize in Economics , described the run on the shadow banking system as the `` core of what happened '' to cause the crisis . He referred to this lack of controls as `` malign neglect '' and argued that regulation should have been imposed on all banking - like activity . The securitization markets supported by the shadow banking system started to close down in the spring of 2007 and nearly shut - down in the fall of 2008 . More than a third of the private credit markets thus became unavailable as a source of funds . According to the Brookings Institution , the traditional banking system does not have the capital to close this gap as of June 2009 : `` It would take a number of years of strong profits to generate sufficient capital to support that additional lending volume . '' The authors also indicate that some forms of securitization are `` likely to vanish forever , having been an artifact of excessively loose credit conditions . '' Commodities boom ( edit ) Main article : 2000s commodities boom Rapid increases in a number of commodity prices followed the collapse in the housing bubble . The price of oil nearly tripled from $50 to $147 from early 2007 to 2008 , before plunging as the financial crisis began to take hold in late 2008 . Experts debate the causes , with some attributing it to speculative flow of money from housing and other investments into commodities , some to monetary policy , and some to the increasing feeling of raw materials scarcity in a fast - growing world , leading to long positions taken on those markets , such as Chinese increasing presence in Africa . An increase in oil prices tends to divert a larger share of consumer spending into gasoline , which creates downward pressure on economic growth in oil importing countries , as wealth flows to oil - producing states . A pattern of spiking instability in the price of oil over the decade leading up to the price high of 2008 has been recently identified . The destabilizing effects of this price variance has been proposed as a contributory factor in the financial crisis . Global copper prices Copper prices increased at the same time as oil prices . Copper traded at about $2,500 per ton from 1990 until 1999 , when it fell to about $1,600 . The price slump lasted until 2004 , when a price surge pushed copper to $7,040 per ton in 2008 . Nickel prices boomed in the late 1990s , then declined from around $51,000 / £ 36,700 per metric ton in May 2007 to about $11,550 / £ 8,300 per metric ton in January 2009 . Prices were only just starting to recover as of January 2010 , but most of Australia 's nickel mines had gone bankrupt by then . As the price for high grade nickel sulphate ore recovered in 2010 , so did the Australian nickel mining industry . Coincidentally with these price fluctuations , long - only commodity index funds became popular -- by one estimate investment | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_22 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a result of various factors, including the collapse of the housing bubble and the subsequent rapid increases in commodity prices. Paul Krugman, a Nobel Prize-winning economist, pointed to the lack of regulation in the shadow banking system as a core cause of the crisis. The securitization markets, supported by the shadow banking system, began to close down in 2007, leading to a significant reduction in available funds. Additionally, the boom in commodity prices, particularly in oil, contributed to the crisis. The increase in oil prices diverted consumer spending into gasoline, putting downward pressure on economic growth in oil-importing countries. The instability in the price of oil over the decade leading up to the crisis has also been identified as a contributing factor. Furthermore, fluctuations in copper and nickel prices also played a role in the financial crisis. These price fluctuations coincided with the popularity of long-only commodity index funds, further exacerbating the crisis. |
runs the firm for its benefit rather than for the shareholders , a variation on the principal -- agent problem ; the burgeoning executive compensation ; the management of earnings , mainly a focus on share price rather than the creation of genuine value ; and the failure of gatekeepers , including auditors , boards of directors , Wall Street analysts , and career politicians . An analysis conducted by Mark Roeder , a former executive at the Swiss - based UBS Bank , suggested that large - scale momentum , or The Big Mo `` played a pivotal role '' in the 2008 -- 09 global financial crisis . Roeder suggested that `` recent technological advances , such as computer - driven trading programs , together with the increasingly interconnected nature of markets , has magnified the momentum effect . This has made the financial sector inherently unstable . '' Robert Reich attributes the current economic downturn to the stagnation of wages in the United States , particularly those of the hourly workers who comprise 80 % of the workforce . He says this stagnation forced the population to borrow to meet the cost of living . Economists Ailsa McKay and Margunn Bjørnholt argue that the financial crisis and the response to it revealed a crisis of ideas in mainstream economics and within the economics profession , and call for a reshaping of both the economy , economic theory and the economics profession . Role of economic forecasting ( edit ) The former Governor of the Reserve Bank of India , Raghuram Rajan , had predicted the crisis in 2005 when he became chief economist at the International Monetary Fund . In 2005 , at a celebration honouring Alan Greenspan , who was about to retire as chairman of the US Federal Reserve , Rajan delivered a controversial paper that was critical of the financial sector . In that paper , Rajan `` argued that disaster might loom . '' Rajan argued that financial sector managers were encouraged to `` take risks that generate severe adverse consequences with small probability but , in return , offer generous compensation the rest of the time . These risks are known as tail risks . But perhaps the most important concern is whether banks will be able to provide liquidity to financial markets so that if the tail risk does materialise , financial positions can be unwound and losses allocated so that the consequences to the real economy are minimised . '' The financial crisis was not widely predicted by mainstream economists . Karim Abadir , based on his work with Gabriel Talmain , predicted the timing of the recession whose trigger had already started manifesting itself in the real economy from early 2007 . A number of heterodox economists predicted the crisis , with varying arguments . Dirk Bezemer in his research credits ( with supporting argument and estimates of timing ) 12 economists with predicting the crisis : Dean Baker ( US ) , Wynne | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_24 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was caused by a variety of factors, including the management of earnings, executive compensation, and the failure of gatekeepers such as auditors and boards of directors. Additionally, the crisis was attributed to the stagnation of wages in the United States, which forced the population to borrow in order to meet the cost of living. The crisis also revealed a crisis of ideas in mainstream economics and within the economics profession, leading to calls for a reshaping of both the economy and economic theory. The role of economic forecasting also played a part, with some economists predicting the timing of the recession and the trigger that had already started manifesting itself in the real economy from early 2007. However, the financial crisis was not widely predicted by mainstream economists, and a number of heterodox economists had varying arguments about the causes of the crisis. |
and estimates of timing ) 12 economists with predicting the crisis : Dean Baker ( US ) , Wynne Godley ( UK ) , Fred Harrison ( UK ) , Michael Hudson ( US ) , Eric Janszen ( US ) , Steve Keen ( Australia ) , Jakob Brøchner Madsen & Jens Kjaer Sørensen ( Denmark ) , Med Jones ( US ) Kurt Richebächer ( US ) , Nouriel Roubini ( US ) , Peter Schiff ( US ) , and Robert Shiller ( US ) . Examples of other experts who gave indications of a financial crisis have also been given . The Austrian economic school regarded the crisis as a vindication and classic example of a predictable credit - fueled bubble that could not forestall the disregarded but inevitable effect of an artificial , manufactured laxity in monetary supply , a perspective that even former Fed Chair Alan Greenspan in Congressional testimony confessed himself forced to return to . A cover story in BusinessWeek magazine claims that economists mostly failed to predict the worst international economic crisis since the Great Depression of the 1930s . The Wharton School of the University of Pennsylvania 's online business journal examines why economists failed to predict a major global financial crisis . Popular articles published in the mass media have led the general public to believe that the majority of economists have failed in their obligation to predict the financial crisis . For example , an article in the New York Times informs that economist Nouriel Roubini warned of such crisis as early as September 2006 , and the article goes on to state that the profession of economics is bad at predicting recessions . According to The Guardian , Roubini was ridiculed for predicting a collapse of the housing market and worldwide recession , while The New York Times labelled him `` Dr. Doom '' . Shiller , an expert in housing markets , wrote an article a year before the collapse of Lehman Brothers in which he predicted that a slowing US housing market would cause the housing bubble to burst , leading to financial collapse . Schiff regularly appeared on television in the years before the crisis and warned of the impending real estate collapse . Within mainstream financial economics , most believe that financial crises are simply unpredictable , following Eugene Fama 's efficient - market hypothesis and the related random - walk hypothesis , which state respectively that markets contain all information about possible future movements , and that the movements of financial prices are random and unpredictable . Recent research casts doubt on the accuracy of `` early warning '' systems of potential crises , which must also predict their timing . Stock trader and financial risk engineer Nassim Nicholas Taleb , author of the 2007 book The Black Swan , spent years warning against the breakdown of the banking system in particular and the economy in general owing to their use of and reliance on bad risk models and reliance on forecasting , and framed the problem as part of `` | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_25 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a major global economic downturn that caught many economists by surprise. Despite warnings from a number of experts, including Nouriel Roubini and Peter Schiff, the majority of economists failed to predict the severity of the crisis. Some experts, such as those from the Austrian economic school, saw the crisis as a predictable result of a credit-fueled bubble and laxity in monetary supply. However, within mainstream financial economics, the prevailing belief was that financial crises are simply unpredictable, following the efficient-market hypothesis and the random-walk hypothesis. Nassim Nicholas Taleb, author of The Black Swan, warned against the breakdown of the banking system and the economy due to bad risk models and reliance on forecasting. Despite these warnings, the financial crisis of 2008 was a result of a crisis in the subprime mortgage market. |
and reliance on bad risk models and reliance on forecasting , and framed the problem as part of `` robustness and fragility '' . He also took action against the establishment view by making a big financial bet on banking stocks and making a fortune from the crisis ( `` They did n't listen , so I took their money '' ) . According to David Brooks from the New York Times , `` Taleb not only has an explanation for what 's happening , he saw it coming . '' Impact on financial markets ( edit ) US stock market ( edit ) Main article : United States bear market of 2007 -- 2009 The US stock market peaked in October 2007 , when the Dow Jones Industrial Average index exceeded 14,000 points . It then entered a pronounced decline , which accelerated markedly in October 2008 . By March 2009 , the Dow Jones average had reached a trough of around 6,600 . Four years later , it hit an all - time high . It is probable , but debated , that the Federal Reserve 's aggressive policy of quantitative easing spurred the partial recovery in the stock market . Market strategist Phil Dow believes distinctions exist `` between the current market malaise '' and the Great Depression . He says the Dow Jones average 's fall of more than 50 % over a period of 17 months is similar to a 54.7 % fall in the Great Depression , followed by a total drop of 89 % over the following 16 months . `` It 's very troubling if you have a mirror image , '' said Dow . Floyd Norris , the chief financial correspondent of The New York Times , wrote in a blog entry in March 2009 that the decline has not been a mirror image of the Great Depression , explaining that although the decline amounts were nearly the same at the time , the rates of decline had started much faster in 2007 , and that the past year had only ranked eighth among the worst recorded years of percentage drops in the Dow . The past two years ranked third , however . Financial institutions ( edit ) See also : Nationalisation of Northern Rock and Federal takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac 2007 bank run on Northern Rock , a UK bank The first notable event signaling a possible financial crisis occurred in the United Kingdom on August 9 , 2007 , when BNP Paribas , citing `` a complete evaporation of liquidity '' , blocked withdrawals from three hedge funds . The significance of this event was not immediately recognized but soon led to a panic as investors and savers attempted to liquidate assets deposited in highly leveraged financial institutions . The International Monetary Fund estimated that large US and European banks lost more than $1 trillion on toxic assets and from bad loans from January 2007 to September 2009 . These losses are expected to top $2.8 trillion from 2007 to 2010 . US bank losses were forecast to hit $1 trillion and European bank losses will reach $1.6 trillion . The International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) estimated in 2009 that US banks were about 60 | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_26 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a result of a crisis in the subprime mortgage market, which led to a significant decline in the US stock market. The crisis also had a major impact on financial institutions, with large US and European banks losing trillions of dollars on toxic assets and bad loans. The crisis was further exacerbated by the Federal Reserve's aggressive policy of quantitative easing, which spurred a partial recovery in the stock market. The significance of the crisis was first recognized in the United Kingdom when BNP Paribas blocked withdrawals from three hedge funds, leading to a panic among investors and savers. The crisis ultimately led to a decline in the Dow Jones average, with the US stock market peaking in October 2007 and then entering a pronounced decline, which accelerated markedly in October 2008. The crisis also had a significant impact on financial institutions, with the International Monetary Fund estimating that large US and European banks lost trillions of dollars on toxic assets and bad loans. The crisis was a result of a combination of factors, including bad risk models, reliance on forecasting, and a crisis in the subprime mortgage market. The crisis was further exacerbated by the Federal Reserve's aggressive policy of quantitative easing, which spurred a partial recovery in the stock market. The crisis ultimately led to a decline in the Dow Jones average, with the US stock market peaking in October 2007 and then entering a pronounced decline, which accelerated markedly in October 2008. The crisis also had a significant impact on financial institutions, with the International Monetary Fund estimating that large US and European banks lost trillions of dollars on toxic assets and bad loans. |
trillion . The International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) estimated in 2009 that US banks were about 60 % through their losses , but British and eurozone banks only 40 % . One of the first victims was Northern Rock , a medium - sized British bank . The highly leveraged nature of its business led the bank to request security from the Bank of England . This in turn led to investor panic and a bank run in mid-September 2007 . Calls by Liberal Democrat Treasury Spokesman Vince Cable to nationalise the institution were initially ignored ; in February 2008 , however , the British government ( having failed to find a private sector buyer ) relented , and the bank was taken into public hands . Northern Rock 's problems proved to be an early indication of the troubles that would soon befall other banks and financial institutions . IndyMac ( edit ) The first visible institution to run into trouble in the United States was the Southern California -- based IndyMac , a spin - off of Countrywide Financial . Before its failure , IndyMac Bank was the largest savings and loan association in the Los Angeles market and the seventh largest mortgage originator in the United States . The failure of IndyMac Bank on July 11 , 2008 , was the fourth largest bank failure in United States history up until the crisis precipitated even larger failures , and the second largest failure of a regulated thrift . IndyMac Bank 's parent corporation was IndyMac Bancorp until the FDIC seized IndyMac Bank . IndyMac Bancorp filed for Chapter 7 bankruptcy in July 2008 . IndyMac Bank was founded as Countrywide Mortgage Investment in 1985 by David S. Loeb and Angelo Mozilo as a means of collateralizing Countrywide Financial loans too big to be sold to Freddie Mac and Fannie Mae . In 1997 , Countrywide spun off IndyMac as an independent company run by Mike Perry , who remained its CEO until the downfall of the bank in July 2008 . The primary causes of its failure were largely associated with its business strategy of originating and securitizing Alt - A loans on a large scale . This strategy resulted in rapid growth and a high concentration of risky assets . From its inception as a savings association in 2000 , IndyMac grew to the seventh largest savings and loan and ninth largest originator of mortgage loans in the United States . During 2006 , IndyMac originated over $90 billion of mortgages . IndyMac 's aggressive growth strategy , use of Alt - A and other nontraditional loan products , insufficient underwriting , credit concentrations in residential real estate in the California and Florida markets -- states , alongside Nevada and Arizona , where the housing bubble was most pronounced -- and heavy reliance on costly funds borrowed from a Federal Home Loan Bank ( FHLB ) and from brokered deposits , led to its demise when the mortgage market declined in 2007 . IndyMac often made loans without verification of the borrower 's income | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_27 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a result of various factors, one of which was the crisis in the subprime mortgage market. This crisis was characterized by the failure of institutions such as Northern Rock and IndyMac Bank, which were heavily impacted by the highly leveraged nature of their businesses and the rapid growth and high concentration of risky assets. The failure of IndyMac Bank, in particular, was attributed to its aggressive growth strategy, use of nontraditional loan products, insufficient underwriting, and heavy reliance on costly funds borrowed from a Federal Home Loan Bank and brokered deposits. These factors, alongside the housing bubble in states such as California and Florida, contributed to the demise of these institutions and ultimately played a role in the financial crisis of 2008. |
declined in 2007 . IndyMac often made loans without verification of the borrower 's income or assets , and to borrowers with poor credit histories . Appraisals obtained by IndyMac on underlying collateral were often questionable as well . As an Alt - A lender , IndyMac 's business model was to offer loan products to fit the borrower 's needs , using an extensive array of risky option - adjustable - rate - mortgages ( option ARMs ) , subprime loans , 80 / 20 loans , and other nontraditional products . Ultimately , loans were made to many borrowers who simply could not afford to make their payments . The thrift remained profitable only as long as it was able to sell those loans in the secondary mortgage market . IndyMac resisted efforts to regulate its involvement in those loans or tighten their issuing criteria : see the comment by Ruthann Melbourne , Chief Risk Officer , to the regulating agencies . May 12 , 2008 , in a small note in the `` Capital '' section of its what would become its last 10 - Q released before receivership , IndyMac revealed -- but did not admit -- that it was no longer a well - capitalized institution and that it was headed for insolvency . IndyMac reported that during April 2008 , Moody 's and Standard & Poor 's downgraded the ratings on a significant number of Mortgage - backed security ( MBS ) bonds -- including $160 million issued by IndyMac that the bank retained in its MBS portfolio . IndyMac concluded that these downgrades would have harmed the Company 's risk - based capital ratio as of June 30 , 2008 . Had these lowered ratings been in effect at March 31 , 2008 , IndyMac concluded that the bank 's capital ratio would have been 9.27 % total risk - based . IndyMac warned that if its regulators found its capital position to have fallen below `` well capitalized '' ( minimum 10 % risk - based capital ratio ) to `` adequately capitalized '' ( 8 -- 10 % risk - based capital ratio ) the bank might no longer be able to use brokered deposits as a source of funds . Senator Charles Schumer ( D - NY ) later pointed out that brokered deposits made up more than 37 percent of IndyMac 's total deposits , and ask the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation ( FDIC ) whether it had considered ordering IndyMac to reduce its reliance on these deposits . With $18.9 billion in total deposits reported on March 31 , Senator Schumer would have been referring to a little over $7 billion in brokered deposits . While the breakout of maturities of these deposits is not known exactly , a simple averaging would have put the threat of brokered deposits loss to IndyMac at $500 million a month , had the regulator disallowed IndyMac from acquiring new brokered deposits on June 30 . IndyMac was taking new measures to preserve capital , such as deferring interest payments on some preferred securities . Dividends on common shares had already been suspended for the first quarter of 2008 , after being cut in | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_28 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market. This crisis was a result of IndyMac's risky business model, which involved offering loan products to fit the borrower's needs, using an extensive array of risky option-adjustable-rate-mortgages (option ARMs), subprime loans, 80/20 loans, and other nontraditional products. IndyMac often made loans without verification of the borrower's income or assets, and to borrowers with poor credit histories. The thrift remained profitable only as long as it was able to sell those loans in the secondary mortgage market. IndyMac resisted efforts to regulate its involvement in those loans or tighten their issuing criteria. Ultimately, loans were made to many borrowers who simply could not afford to make their payments. This led to a significant number of Mortgage-backed security (MBS) bonds being downgraded, including $160 million issued by IndyMac that the bank retained in its MBS portfolio. This resulted in IndyMac's capital position falling below "well capitalized," which contributed to the financial crisis of 2008. |
on common shares had already been suspended for the first quarter of 2008 , after being cut in half the previous quarter . The company still had not secured a significant capital infusion nor found a ready buyer . IndyMac reported that the bank 's risk - based capital was only $47 million above the minimum required for this 10 % mark . But it did not reveal some of that $47 million capital it claimed it had , as of March 31 , 2008 , was fabricated . Collapse ( edit ) Wikinews has related news : IndyMac Bank placed into conservatorship by US Government When home prices declined in the latter half of 2007 and the secondary mortgage market collapsed , IndyMac was forced to hold $10.7 billion of loans it could not sell in the secondary market . Its reduced liquidity was further exacerbated in late June 2008 when account holders withdrew $1.55 billion or about 7.5 % of IndyMac 's deposits . This `` run '' on the thrift followed the public release of a letter from Senator Charles Schumer to the FDIC and OTS . The letter outlined the Senator 's concerns with IndyMac . While the run was a contributing factor in the timing of IndyMac 's demise , the underlying cause of the failure was the unsafe and unsound way they operated the thrift . On June 26 , 2008 , Senator Charles Schumer ( D - NY ) , a member of the Senate Banking Committee , chairman of Congress ' Joint Economic Committee and the third - ranking Democrat in the Senate , released several letters he had sent to regulators , which warned that , `` The possible collapse of big mortgage lender IndyMac Bancorp Inc. poses significant financial risks to its borrowers and depositors , and regulators may not be ready to intervene to protect them . '' Some worried depositors began to withdraw money . On July 7 , 2008 , IndyMac announced on the company blog that it : Had failed to raise capital since its May 12 , 2008 quarterly earnings report ; Had been notified by bank and thrift regulators that IndyMac Bank was no longer deemed `` well - capitalized '' ; IndyMac announced the closure of both its retail lending and wholesale divisions , halted new loan submissions , and cut 3,800 jobs . On July 11 , 2008 , citing liquidity concerns , the FDIC put IndyMac Bank into conservatorship . A bridge bank , IndyMac Federal Bank , FSB , was established to assume control of IndyMac Bank 's assets , its secured liabilities , and its insured deposit accounts . The FDIC announced plans to open IndyMac Federal Bank , FSB on July 14 , 2008 . Until then , depositors would have access their insured deposits through ATMs , their existing checks , and their existing debit cards . Telephone and Internet account access was restored when the bank reopened . The FDIC guarantees the funds of all insured accounts up to US $100,000 , and has declared a special advance dividend to the | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_29 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a result of a crisis in the subprime mortgage market. This crisis led to a significant decline in home prices and the collapse of the secondary mortgage market. IndyMac Bank, in particular, was heavily impacted by the reduced liquidity and the inability to sell $10.7 billion of loans in the secondary market. This, combined with a "run" on the bank by worried depositors, ultimately led to the bank's demise. Senator Charles Schumer also played a role in the bank's failure by releasing letters to regulators warning of the potential collapse of IndyMac Bancorp Inc. This caused further concern among depositors, leading to a significant withdrawal of funds. Ultimately, on July 11, 2008, the FDIC put IndyMac Bank into conservatorship due to liquidity concerns. This led to the establishment of a bridge bank, IndyMac Federal Bank, FSB, to assume control of the bank's assets and insured deposit accounts. The FDIC guaranteed the funds of all insured accounts up to US $100,000, and took steps to address the crisis in the subprime mortgage market. |
reportedly told them : `` If we do n't do this , we may not have an economy on Monday . '' The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act , which implemented the Troubled Asset Relief Program ( TARP ) , was signed into law on October 3 , 2008 . Economist Paul Krugman and US Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner explain the credit crisis via the implosion of the shadow banking system , which had grown to nearly equal the importance of the traditional commercial banking sector as described above . Without the ability to obtain investor funds in exchange for most types of mortgage - backed securities or asset - backed commercial paper , investment banks and other entities in the shadow banking system could not provide funds to mortgage firms and other corporations . This meant that nearly one - third of the US lending mechanism was frozen and continued to be frozen into June 2009 . According to the Brookings Institution , at that time the traditional banking system did not have the capital to close this gap : `` It would take a number of years of strong profits to generate sufficient capital to support that additional lending volume . '' The authors also indicate that some forms of securitization were `` likely to vanish forever , having been an artifact of excessively loose credit conditions . '' While traditional banks raised their lending standards , it was the collapse of the shadow banking system that was the primary cause of the reduction in funds available for borrowing . Wealth effects ( edit ) The New York City headquarters of Lehman Brothers There is a direct relationship between declines in wealth and declines in consumption and business investment , which along with government spending , represent the economic engine . Between June 2007 and November 2008 , Americans lost an estimated average of more than a quarter of their collective net worth . By early November 2008 , a broad US stock index , the S&P 500 , was down 45 % from its 2007 high . Housing prices had dropped 20 % from their 2006 peak , with futures markets signaling a 30 -- 35 % potential drop . Total home equity in the United States , which was valued at $13 trillion at its peak in 2006 , had dropped to $8.8 trillion by mid-2008 and was still falling in late 2008 . Total retirement assets , Americans ' second - largest household asset , dropped by 22 % , from $10.3 trillion in 2006 to $8 trillion in mid-2008 . During the same period , savings and investment assets ( apart from retirement savings ) lost $1.2 trillion and pension assets lost $1.3 trillion . Taken together , these losses total a staggering $8.3 trillion . Since peaking in the second quarter of 2007 , household wealth is down $14 trillion . Further , US homeowners had extracted significant equity in their homes in the years leading up to the crisis , which they could no longer do once housing prices collapsed . Readily obtainable cash used by consumers from home equity | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_31 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a result of various factors, including the implosion of the shadow banking system and the decline in wealth and consumption. The Emergency Economic Stabilization Act, which implemented the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP), was signed into law on October 3, 2008, in an effort to address the crisis. Economist Paul Krugman and US Treasury Secretary Timothy Geithner explained that the credit crisis was due to the collapse of the shadow banking system, which had grown to nearly equal the importance of the traditional commercial banking sector. This led to a freeze in the US lending mechanism, as traditional banks did not have the capital to close the gap left by the shadow banking system. Additionally, declines in wealth and consumption, along with the collapse of the subprime mortgage market, contributed to the crisis. Americans lost a significant portion of their collective net worth, with housing prices and retirement assets also experiencing substantial declines. These factors, combined with the inability of homeowners to extract equity from their homes, ultimately led to the financial crisis of 2008. |
do once housing prices collapsed . Readily obtainable cash used by consumers from home equity extraction doubled from $627 billion in 2001 to $1,428 billion in 2005 as the housing bubble built , a total of nearly $5 trillion over the period . US home mortgage debt relative to GDP increased from an average of 46 % during the 1990s to 73 % during 2008 , reaching $10.5 trillion . To offset this decline in consumption and lending capacity , the US government and US Federal Reserve committed $13.9 trillion , of which $6.8 trillion was invested or spent as of June 2009 . In effect , the Fed went from being the `` lender of last resort '' to the `` lender of only resort '' for a significant portion of the economy . In some cases the Fed was considered the `` buyer of last resort . '' In November 2008 , economist Dean Baker observed : There is a really good reason for tighter credit . Tens of millions of homeowners who had substantial equity in their homes two years ago have little or nothing today . Businesses are facing the worst downturn since the Great Depression . This matters for credit decisions . A homeowner with equity in her home is very unlikely to default on a car loan or credit card debt . They will draw on this equity rather than lose their car and / or have a default placed on their credit record . On the other hand , a homeowner who has no equity is a serious default risk . In the case of businesses , their creditworthiness depends on their future profits . Profit prospects look much worse in November 2008 than they did in November 2007 ... While many banks are obviously at the brink , consumers and businesses would be facing a much harder time getting credit right now even if the financial system were rock solid . The problem with the economy is the loss of close to $6 trillion in housing wealth and an even larger amount of stock wealth . At the heart of the portfolios of many of these institutions were investments whose assets had been derived from bundled home mortgages . Exposure to these mortgage - backed securities , or to the credit derivatives used to insure them against failure , caused the collapse or takeover of several key firms such as Lehman Brothers , AIG , Merrill Lynch , and HBOS . European contagion ( edit ) The crisis rapidly developed and spread into a global economic shock , resulting in a number of European bank failures , declines in various stock indexes , and large reductions in the market value of equities and commodities . Both MBS and CDO were purchased by corporate and institutional investors globally . Derivatives such as credit default swaps also increased the linkage between large financial institutions . Moreover , the de-leveraging of financial institutions , as assets were sold to pay back obligations that could not be refinanced in frozen credit markets , further accelerated the solvency crisis and caused a decrease in international trade | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_32 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a result of a significant decline in housing prices, leading to a collapse in the subprime mortgage market. This decline in housing prices resulted in a substantial decrease in consumption and lending capacity, prompting the US government and US Federal Reserve to commit trillions of dollars to offset the impact. The crisis quickly spread into a global economic shock, causing European bank failures and declines in various stock indexes. The collapse of several key firms, such as Lehman Brothers, AIG, Merrill Lynch, and HBOS, was attributed to exposure to mortgage-backed securities and credit derivatives. Additionally, the de-leveraging of financial institutions further accelerated the solvency crisis and caused a decrease in international trade. The crisis was also exacerbated by the rapid increase in the linkage between large financial institutions through the purchase of MBS, CDO, and derivatives such as credit default swaps. |
markets , further accelerated the solvency crisis and caused a decrease in international trade . World political leaders , national ministers of finance and central bank directors coordinated their efforts to reduce fears , but the crisis continued . At the end of October 2008 a currency crisis developed , with investors transferring vast capital resources into stronger currencies such as the yen , the dollar and the Swiss franc , leading many emergent economies to seek aid from the International Monetary Fund . Effects on the global economy ( as of 2009 ) ( edit ) Main article : Great Recession Global effects ( edit ) Several commentators have suggested that if the liquidity crisis continues , an extended recession or worse could occur . The continuing development of the crisis has prompted fears of a global economic collapse although there are now many cautiously optimistic forecasters in addition to some prominent sources who remain negative . The financial crisis is likely to yield the biggest banking shakeout since the savings - and - loan meltdown . Investment bank UBS stated on October 6 that 2008 would see a clear global recession , with recovery unlikely for at least two years . Three days later UBS economists announced that the `` beginning of the end '' of the crisis had begun , with the world starting to make the necessary actions to fix the crisis : capital injection by governments ; injection made systemically ; interest rate cuts to help borrowers . The United Kingdom had started systemic injection , and the world 's central banks were now cutting interest rates . UBS emphasized the United States needed to implement systemic injection . UBS further emphasized that this fixes only the financial crisis , but that in economic terms `` the worst is still to come '' . UBS quantified their expected recession durations on October 16 : the Eurozone 's would last two quarters , the United States ' would last three quarters , and the United Kingdom 's would last four quarters . The economic crisis in Iceland involved all three of the country 's major banks . Relative to the size of its economy , Iceland 's banking collapse is the largest suffered by any country in economic history . At the end of October UBS revised its outlook downwards : the forthcoming recession would be the worst since the early 1980s recession with negative 2009 growth for the US , Eurozone , UK ; very limited recovery in 2010 ; but not as bad as the Great Depression . The Brookings Institution reported in June 2009 that US consumption accounted for more than a third of the growth in global consumption between 2000 and 2007 . `` The US economy has been spending too much and borrowing too much for years and the rest of the world depended on the US consumer as a source of global demand . '' With a recession in the US and the increased savings rate of US consumers , declines in growth elsewhere have been dramatic . | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_33 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a global event that had significant impacts on the world economy. It was characterized by a liquidity crisis, a currency crisis, and a decrease in international trade. The crisis was further accelerated by a solvency crisis in the subprime mortgage market, which caused a ripple effect throughout the global financial system. World political leaders, national ministers of finance, and central bank directors coordinated their efforts to reduce fears, but the crisis continued to unfold.
The effects of the crisis on the global economy were significant, with many commentators suggesting that an extended recession or worse could occur if the liquidity crisis persisted. The crisis prompted fears of a global economic collapse, although there were cautiously optimistic forecasters in addition to some prominent sources who remained negative. The crisis also led to the biggest banking shakeout since the savings-and-loan meltdown, with many emergent economies seeking aid from the International Monetary Fund.
The crisis also had a significant impact on specific countries, such as Iceland, where the economic crisis involved all three of the country's major banks. The banking collapse in Iceland was the largest suffered by any country in economic history relative to the size of its economy.
Overall, the financial crisis of 2008 was a complex event with multiple contributing factors, including the solvency crisis in the subprime mortgage market, a liquidity crisis, and a currency crisis. The crisis had far-reaching effects on the global economy and prompted fears of a global economic collapse. |
and the increased savings rate of US consumers , declines in growth elsewhere have been dramatic . For the first quarter of 2009 , the annualized rate of decline in GDP was 14.4 % in Germany , 15.2 % in Japan , 7.4 % in the UK , 18 % in Latvia , 9.8 % in the Euro area and 21.5 % for Mexico . Some developing countries that had seen strong economic growth saw significant slowdowns . For example , growth forecasts in Cambodia show a fall from more than 10 % in 2007 to close to zero in 2009 , and Kenya may achieve only 3 -- 4 % growth in 2009 , down from 7 % in 2007 . According to the research by the Overseas Development Institute , reductions in growth can be attributed to falls in trade , commodity prices , investment and remittances sent from migrant workers ( which reached a record $251 billion in 2007 , but have fallen in many countries since ) . This has stark implications and has led to a dramatic rise in the number of households living below the poverty line , be it 300,000 in Bangladesh or 230,000 in Ghana . Especially states with a fragile political system have to fear that investors from Western states withdraw their money because of the crisis . Bruno Wenn of the German DEG recommends to provide a sound economic policymaking and good governance to attract new investors The World Bank reported in February 2009 that the Arab World was far less severely affected by the credit crunch . With generally good balance of payments positions coming into the crisis or with alternative sources of financing for their large current account deficits , such as remittances , Foreign Direct Investment ( FDI ) or foreign aid , Arab countries were able to avoid going to the market in the latter part of 2008 . This group is in the best position to absorb the economic shocks . They entered the crisis in exceptionally strong positions . This gives them a significant cushion against the global downturn . The greatest effect of the global economic crisis will come in the form of lower oil prices , which remains the single most important determinant of economic performance . Steadily declining oil prices would force them to draw down reserves and cut down on investments . Significantly lower oil prices could cause a reversal of economic performance as has been the case in past oil shocks . Initial impact will be seen on public finances and employment for foreign workers . US economic effects ( edit ) Real gross domestic product ( edit ) The output of goods and services produced by labor and property located in the United States decreased at an annual rate of approximately 6 % in the fourth quarter of 2008 and first quarter of 2009 , versus activity in the year - ago periods . The US unemployment rate increased to 10.1 % by October 2009 , the highest rate since 1983 and roughly twice the pre-crisis rate . The average hours per work week declined to 33 , the lowest level since the government began collecting the data in 1964 . | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_34 | false | The global financial crisis of 2008 had a significant impact on economies around the world. Many countries experienced declines in growth, with some seeing dramatic decreases in GDP. For example, Germany experienced a 14.4% decline, Japan 15.2%, the UK 7.4%, Latvia 18%, the Euro area 9.8%, and Mexico 21.5%. Developing countries also saw significant slowdowns in economic growth, with Cambodia's growth forecast falling from more than 10% in 2007 to close to zero in 2009, and Kenya's growth dropping from 7% in 2007 to only 3-4% in 2009.
The Overseas Development Institute's research attributed reductions in growth to falls in trade, commodity prices, investment, and remittances sent from migrant workers. This led to a rise in the number of households living below the poverty line in countries such as Bangladesh and Ghana. Additionally, states with fragile political systems feared that investors from Western states would withdraw their money due to the crisis.
The Arab World was less severely affected by the credit crunch, as they had good balance of payments positions and alternative sources of financing for their large current account deficits. However, lower oil prices were expected to have a significant impact on their economic performance.
In the United States, the crisis led to a decrease in real gross domestic product and an increase in the unemployment rate to 10.1% by October 2009, the highest rate since 1983. The average hours per work week also declined to 33, the lowest level since the government began collecting the data in 1964.
Overall, the financial crisis of 2008 had far-reaching effects on economies around the world, leading to declines in growth, increased unemployment, and significant challenges for households living below the poverty line. |
week declined to 33 , the lowest level since the government began collecting the data in 1964 . With the decline of gross domestic product came the decline in innovation . With fewer resources to risk in creative destruction , the number of patent applications flat - lined . Compared to the previous 5 years of exponential increases in patent application , this stagnation correlates to the similar drop in GDP during the same time period . Distribution of wealth in the US ( edit ) US inequality from 1913 to 2008 . Typical American families did not fare as well , nor did those `` wealthy - but - not wealthiest '' families just beneath the pyramid 's top . On the other hand , half of the poorest families did not have wealth declines at all during the crisis . The Federal Reserve surveyed 4,000 households between 2007 and 2009 , and found that the total wealth of 63 percent of all Americans declined in that period . 77 percent of the richest families had a decrease in total wealth , while only 50 percent of those on the bottom of the pyramid suffered a decrease . A 2015 study commissioned by the ACLU found that white home - owning households recovered from the financial crisis faster than black home - owning households , and projected that the financial crisis will likely widen the racial wealth gap in the US . Official economic projections ( edit ) On November 3 , 2008 , the European Commission at Brussels predicted for 2009 an extremely weak growth of GDP , by 0.1 % , for the countries of the Eurozone ( France , Germany , Italy , Belgium etc . ) and even negative number for the UK ( − 1.0 % ) , Ireland and Spain . On November 6 , the IMF at Washington , D.C. , launched numbers predicting a worldwide recession by − 0.3 % for 2009 , averaged over the developed economies . On the same day , the Bank of England and the European Central Bank , respectively , reduced their interest rates from 4.5 % down to 3 % , and from 3.75 % down to 3.25 % . As a consequence , starting from November 2008 , several countries launched large `` help packages '' for their economies . The US Federal Reserve Open Market Committee release in June 2009 stated : ... the pace of economic contraction is slowing . Conditions in financial markets have generally improved in recent months . Household spending has shown further signs of stabilizing but remains constrained by ongoing job losses , lower housing wealth , and tight credit . Businesses are cutting back on fixed investment and staffing but appear to be making progress in bringing inventory stocks into better alignment with sales . Although economic activity is likely to remain weak for a time , the Committee continues to anticipate that policy actions to stabilize financial markets and institutions , fiscal and monetary stimulus , and market forces will contribute to a gradual resumption of sustainable economic growth in a context of price stability . Economic projections from | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_35 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event in the United States, leading to a decline in the gross domestic product and a subsequent decline in innovation. This decline in GDP also had an impact on the distribution of wealth in the US, with typical American families and those just beneath the wealthiest families experiencing declines in wealth. The crisis also had a disproportionate impact on black home-owning households, widening the racial wealth gap in the US. Official economic projections from various organizations predicted a worldwide recession, leading to the implementation of large "help packages" for economies. The US Federal Reserve Open Market Committee noted that the pace of economic contraction was slowing, but that conditions in financial markets and household spending remained constrained. The crisis was a result of various factors, including a crisis in the subprime mortgage market. |
agencies have committed or spent trillions of dollars in loans , asset purchases , guarantees , and direct spending . Significant controversy has accompanied the bailout , leading to the development of a variety of `` decision making frameworks '' , to help balance competing policy interests during times of financial crisis . The US executed two stimulus packages , totaling nearly $1 trillion during 2008 and 2009 . Other countries also implemented fiscal stimulus plans beginning in 2008 . Regulatory proposals and long - term responses ( edit ) Further information : Obama financial regulatory reform plan of 2009 , Regulatory responses to the subprime crisis , and Subprime mortgage crisis solutions debate United States President Barack Obama and key advisers introduced a series of regulatory proposals in June 2009 . The proposals address consumer protection , executive pay , bank financial cushions or capital requirements , expanded regulation of the shadow banking system and derivatives , and enhanced authority for the Federal Reserve to safely wind - down systemically important institutions , among others . In January 2010 , Obama proposed additional regulations limiting the ability of banks to engage in proprietary trading . The proposals were dubbed `` The Volcker Rule '' , in recognition of Paul Volcker , who has publicly argued for the proposed changes . The US Senate passed a reform bill in May 2010 , following the House , which passed a bill in December 2009 . These bills must now be reconciled . The New York Times provided a comparative summary of the features of the two bills , which address to varying extent the principles enumerated by the Obama administration . For instance , the Volcker Rule against proprietary trading is not part of the legislation , though in the Senate bill regulators have the discretion but not the obligation to prohibit these trades . European regulators introduced Basel III regulations for banks . It increased capital ratios , limits on leverage , narrow definition of capital ( to exclude subordinated debt ) , limit counter-party risk , and new liquidity requirements . Critics argue that Basel III does n't address the problem of faulty risk - weightings . Major banks suffered losses from AAA - rated created by financial engineering ( which creates apparently risk - free assets out of high risk collateral ) that required less capital according to Basel II . Lending to AA - rated sovereigns has a risk - weight of zero , thus increasing lending to governments and leading to the next crisis . Johan Norberg argues that regulations ( Basel III among others ) have indeed led to excessive lending to risky governments ( see European sovereign - debt crisis ) and the ECB pursues even more lending as the solution . United States Congress response ( edit ) At least two major reports were produced by Congress : the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission report | [
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Russia 758 ( 07 ) Australia 534 ( 08 ) Germany 492 ( 09 ) Indonesia 424 ( 10 ) Japan 413 ( 11 ) Saudi Arabia 362 ( 12 ) Nigeria 341 ( 13 ) Canada 336 ( 14 ) South Korea 327 ( 15 ) Mexico 252 ( 16 ) France 236 ( 17 ) Switzerland 228 ( 18 ) Argentina 207 ( 19 ) Colombia 193 ( 20 ) Turkey 167 ( 21 ) United Arab Emirates 159 The twenty largest economies contributing to global GDP growth ( 2007 -- 2014 ) See also ( edit ) Wall Street Crash of 1929 2008 Greek riots Banking ( Special Provisions ) Act 2008 ( United Kingdom ) 2008 -- 2011 bank failures in the United States 2008 -- 2009 Keynesian resurgence 2009 G - 20 London summit protests 2009 Icelandic financial crisis protests 2009 May Day protests 2009 Moldova civil unrest 2010 United States foreclosure crisis 2012 May Day protests Crisis ( Marxian ) Europeans for Financial Reform Financial Crisis Responsibility Fee Kondratiev wave List of banks acquired or bankrupted during the Great Recession List of acquired or bankrupt United States banks in the late 2000s financial crisis List of acronyms : European sovereign - debt crisis List of economic crises List of entities involved in 2007 -- 08 financial crises List of largest U.S. bank failures Low - Income Countries Under Stress Mark - to - market accounting Neoliberalism Occupy movement Pessimism porn PIGS ( economics ) Private equity in the 2000s Subprime crisis impact timeline The Chicago Plan Revisited References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Two top economists agree 2009 worst financial crisis since great depression ; risks increase if right steps are not taken '' . Reuters . February 27 , 2009 . Archived from the original on February 12 , 2010 . Retrieved November 10 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Eigner , Peter ; Umlauft , Thomas S. ( July 1 , 2015 ) . `` The Great Depression ( s ) of 1929 -- 1933 and 2007 -- 2009 ? Parallels , Differences and Policy Lessons '' . MTA - ELTE Crisis History Working Paper No. 2 : Hungarian Academy of Science . SSRN 2612243 . Jump up ^ Eichengreen ; O'Rourke . `` A tale of two | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_40 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event that had a global impact. It was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market, which led to a chain reaction of events that affected economies around the world. The crisis resulted in widespread economic downturns, bank failures, and a significant impact on the global GDP growth. The top twenty largest economies contributing to global GDP growth from 2007 to 2014 were affected by the crisis, with some experiencing more severe consequences than others. The aftermath of the financial crisis of 2008 led to various protests, bank failures, and a resurgence of Keynesian economic policies. The impact of the crisis was felt across different sectors and industries, and it prompted a reevaluation of financial regulations and policies. The causes and consequences of the financial crisis of 2008 continue to be studied and analyzed by economists and policymakers to prevent similar events in the future. |
Academy of Science . SSRN 2612243 . Jump up ^ Eichengreen ; O'Rourke . `` A tale of two depressions : What do the new data tell us ? '' . VoxEU.org . Retrieved February 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Temin , Peter ( 2010 ) . `` The Great Recession & the Great Depression '' . Daedalus. 139 ( 4 ) : 115 -- 124 . doi : 10.1162 / DAED_a_00048 . Jump up ^ Williams , Mark ( April 12 , 2010 ) . Uncontrolled Risk . McGraw - Hill Education . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 163829 - 6 . Jump up ^ Williams , Mark ( April 12 , 2010 ) . Uncontrolled Risk . McGraw - Hill Education . p. 213 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 163829 - 6 . Jump up ^ Pub. L. 111 -- 203 Jump up ^ `` Monitoring adoption of Basel standards '' . Bank for International Settlements . Retrieved February 2 , 2016 . Jump up ^ https://fisher.osu.edu/supplements/10/10402/credit-default-swaps-and-the-credit-crisis.pdf Jump up ^ `` The 2008 Housing Crisis '' . americanprogress.org . Retrieved April 13 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Victimizing the Borrowers : Predatory Lending 's Role in the Subprime Mortgage Crisis '' . knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu . Retrieved February 20 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Denning . `` Lest We Forget : Why We Had A Financial Crisi '' . forbes.com . Retrieved November 22 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The Fed - Community Reinvestment Act '' . federalreserve.gov . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` The Clinton - Era Roots of the Financial Crisis '' . Jump up ^ Carney . `` Here 's How The Community Reinvestment Act Led To The Housing Bubble 's Lax Lending '' . businessinsider.com . Retrieved December 22 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` UNC Center Study Debunks Role of CRA in Housing Crisis - NCSHA '' . www.ncsha.org . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ https://object.cato.org/sites/cato.org/files/pubs/pdf/bp120.pdf Jump up ^ `` Delinquency Rate on Single - Family Residential Mortgages , Booked in Domestic Offices , All Commercial Banks ( DRSFRMACBS ) '' . Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System ( US ) . Retrieved December 28 , 2016 -- via FRED , Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis . Jump up ^ Collins , Mike ( July 14 , 2015 ) . `` The Big Bank Bailout '' . Forbes . Jump up ^ `` Brookings - Financial Crisis '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on June 2 , 2010 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Williams , Carol J. ( May 22 , 2012 ) . `` Euro crisis imperils recovering global economy , OECD warns '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved May 23 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Larry Elliott , economics editor of The Guardian ( August 5 , 2012 ) . `` Three myths that sustain the economic crisis '' ( blog by expert ) . The Guardian . Retrieved August 6 , 2012 . Five years ago the banks stopped lending to each other . ^ Jump up to : `` Median and Average Sales Prices of New Homes Sold in United States '' ( | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_41 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a result of various factors, including a crisis in the subprime mortgage market. This crisis led to a widespread economic downturn that had significant impacts on the global economy. The collapse of the housing market, predatory lending practices, and the failure of major financial institutions all played a role in the events that led to the crisis. Additionally, the lack of regulation and oversight in the financial sector contributed to the instability that ultimately resulted in the 2008 financial crisis. These factors combined to create a perfect storm that had far-reaching consequences for individuals, businesses, and governments around the world. |
^ Jump up to : `` Median and Average Sales Prices of New Homes Sold in United States '' ( PDF ) . United States Census Bureau , United States Department of Commerce . ^ Jump up to : `` Quarterly Homeownership Rates and Seasonally Adjusted Homeownership Rates for the United States : 1997 -- 2014 '' ( PDF ) . US Census . May 5 , 2006 . Retrieved May 18 , 2014 . Jump up ^ This American Life ( April 2009 ) . `` The Giant Pool of Money '' . Pri.org . Archived from the original on April 15 , 2010 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Michael Simkovic , Competition and Crisis in Mortgage Securitization Jump up ^ `` Money , Power and Wall Street , Part 1 '' . PBS . Retrieved August 4 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Michael Simkovic , `` Secret Liens and the Financial Crisis of 2008 '' American Bankruptcy Law Journal , Vol. 83 , p. 253 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Ivry , Bob ( September 24 , 2008 ) . `` quoting Joshua Rosner as stating ' It 's not a liquidity problem , it 's a valuation problem '' . Bloomberg . Retrieved June 27 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Keller , Christopher ; Stocker , Michael . `` Executive Compensation 's Role in the Financial Crisis '' . The National Law Journal . Retrieved January 7 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` World Economic Outlook : Crisis and Recovery , April 2009 '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Kavaljit Singh , Fixing Global Finance : A Developing Country Perspective on Global Financial Reforms , Stichting Onderzoek Multinationale Ondernemingen : Centre for Research on Multinational Corporations , at 14 '' . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on April 20 , 2016 . Retrieved April 23 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Bernanke - Four Questions '' . Federalreserve.gov. April 14 , 2009 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Senate Financial Crisis Report , 2011 '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved April 22 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Final Report of the National Commission on the Causes of the Financial and Economic Crisis in the United States Jump up ^ Kevin Drum ( March 25 , 2009 ) . `` The Repeal of Glass - Steagall '' . Mother Jones . Retrieved May 16 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Strategische Unternehmensfuehrung Nr. 1 , 1999 . Munich , St. Gallen 1999 , ISSN 1436 - 5812 Jump up ^ Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung GmbH ( September 22 , 2007 ) . `` Alan Greenspan : `` Die Ratingagenturen wissen nicht was sie tun '' `` . FAZ.NET . ^ Jump up to : `` Declaration of G20 '' . Whitehouse.gov . Retrieved February 27 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis , Facts and Myths about the Financial Crisis of 2008 , October 2008 Jump up ^ Christian Laux ; Christian Leuz ( 2009 ) , Did Fair - Value Accounting Contribute to the Financial Crisis ? ( PDF ) , archived from the original ( PDF ) on March 4 , 2016 , retrieved April 26 , 2016 Jump up ^ MR Young , PBW Miller ( May | [
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) on March 4 , 2016 , retrieved April 26 , 2016 Jump up ^ MR Young , PBW Miller ( May 2008 ) , `` The role of fair value accounting in the subprime mortgage meltdown '' , Journal of Accountancy : 34 -- 38 Jump up ^ `` President Bush 's Address to Nation '' . The New York Times . September 24 , 2008 . Retrieved May 2 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Bernanke - Four Questions About the Financial Crisis '' . Federalreserve.gov. April 14 , 2009 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Krugman , Paul ( March 2 , 2009 ) . `` Revenge of the Glut '' . The New York Times . ^ Jump up to : `` IMF Loss Estimates '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` RealtyTrac Foreclosure Rates '' . Retrieved June 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` Estimate of Household Wealth lost '' . Retrieved June 3 , 2016 . Jump up ^ Confer Thomas Philippon : `` The future of the financial industry '' , Finance Department of the New York University Stern School of Business at New York University , link to blog ( 1 ) ^ Jump up to : `` Geithner - Speech Reducing Systemic Risk in a Dynamic Financial System '' . Newyorkfed.org . June 9 , 2008 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Greenspan - We Need a Better Cushion Against Risk '' . Financial Times . March 26 , 2009 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` FCIC Final Report Conclusions. pdf '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original on March 4 , 2011 . Retrieved March 4 , 2011 . CS1 maint : Unfit url ( link ) Jump up ^ Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission , press release of January 27 , 2011 Archived January 30 , 2011 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Williams , Mark ( April 12 , 2010 ) . Uncontrolled Risk . McGraw - Hill Education . p. 125 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 163829 - 6 . Jump up ^ Labaton , Stephen ( October 2 , 2008 ) . `` NY Times - The Reckoning - Agency 04 Rule Lets Banks Pile on Debt '' . The New York Times . Retrieved April 22 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Duhigg , Charles ( October 4 , 2008 ) . `` NYT - The Reckoning - Pressured to Take More Risk , Fannie Reached Tipping Point '' . The New York Times . Retrieved April 22 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Joseph Fried , Who Really Drove the Economy into the Ditch ? ( New York , NY : Algora Publishing , 2012 ) , 16 -- 42 , 67 -- 119 . Jump up ^ Graham Fisher ( June 29 , 2001 ) . `` Housing in the New Millennium : A Home without Equity Is Just a Rental with debt '' . Ssrn.com . SSRN 1162456 . Missing or empty url = ( help ) ; access - date = requires url = ( help ) Jump up ^ `` Harvard Report - State of the Nation 's Housing 2008 Report '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on June 30 , 2010 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Wallison , Peter J. ( December 9 , 2008 ) . `` What Got Us Here ? , December 2008 '' . Aei.org . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Peter J. Wallison ; Edward Pinto ( | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_43 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event in the United States and global economy. It was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market, which led to widespread economic turmoil. The crisis was characterized by a sharp increase in mortgage delinquencies and foreclosures, as well as a collapse in the value of mortgage-backed securities. This had a ripple effect throughout the financial system, leading to a severe credit crunch and a deep recession. The crisis was the result of a combination of factors, including lax lending standards, excessive risk-taking by financial institutions, and regulatory failures. The aftermath of the crisis led to significant changes in financial regulation and a prolonged period of economic recovery. |
'' . Aei.org . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Peter J. Wallison ; Edward Pinto ( December 27 , 2011 ) . `` Why the Left Is Losing the Argument over the Financial Crisis '' . American Enterprise Institute . Archived from the original on June 26 , 2013 . Retrieved November 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Bush White House Archive '' . whitehouse.gov . Jump up ^ `` OFHEO Report on Systemic Risk '' ( PDF ) . fhfa.gov . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on June 11 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` House Hearing on OFHEO Report '' . house.gov . Jump up ^ `` Attempts at Regulating Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac '' ( PDF ) . international-economy.com . Jump up ^ `` The Community Reinvestment Act After Financial Modernization , April 2000 '' . Ustreas.gov. April 15 , 2000 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Robert Gordon ( April 7 , 2008 ) . `` ' Did Liberals Cause the Sub-Prime Crisis ? ' '' . American Prospect . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Joseph Fried , Who Really Drove the Economy Into the Ditch ? ( New York , NY : Algora Publishing , 2012 ) , 5 . Jump up ^ Joseph Fried , Who Really Drove the Economy Into the Ditch ? ( New York , NY : Algora Publishing , 2012 ) , 148 . Jump up ^ Joseph Fried , Who Really Drove the Economy Into the Ditch ? ( New York , NY : Algora Publishing , 2012 ) , 140 -- 41 . Jump up ^ `` Portfolio - Michael Lewis - '' The End `` - December 2008 '' . Portfolio.com . September 11 , 2008 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Sidel , Robin ( March 16 , 2011 ) . `` FDIC 's Tab For Failed U.S. Banks Nears $9 Billion '' . Wall Stree Journal . Jump up ^ Joseph Fried , Who Really Drove the Economy into the Ditch ? ( New York , NY : Algora Publishing , 2012 ) , 75 . Jump up ^ `` CRE - ative destruction '' . Krugman.blogs.nytimes.com . January 7 , 2010 . Retrieved November 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Peter J. Wallison ( January 2011 ) . `` Dissent from the Majority Report of the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission '' . American Enterprise Institute . Retrieved November 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Sanders , Anthony B. and An , Xudong , Default of CMBS Loans During the Crisis ( November 29 , 2010 ) . 46th Annual AREUEA Conference Paper . Available at SSRN : http://ssrn.com/abstract=1717062 Jump up ^ Amadeo , Kimberly , `` Commercial Real Estate Lending '' in News & Issues -- US Economy ( About.com , November 2013 ) , http://useconomy.about.com/od/grossdomesticproduct/tp/Commercial-Real-Estate-Loan-Defaults.htm Jump up ^ Gierach , Denice A. , `` Waiting for the other shoe to drop in commercial real estate , '' ( Chicago , IL , The Business Ledger , March 4 , 2010 ) Jump up ^ `` CSI : credit crunch '' . The Economist . October 18 , 2007 . Retrieved May 19 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Ben Steverman ; David Bogoslaw ( October 18 , 2008 ) . `` The Financial Crisis | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_44 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event in the United States and global economy. Many experts have debated the causes of this crisis, with some pointing to a crisis in the subprime mortgage market as a key factor. The American Enterprise Institute has published research on this topic, as well as the House of Representatives and the Federal Housing Finance Agency. Additionally, scholars such as Joseph Fried and Peter J. Wallison have written extensively on the subject. The crisis also had a significant impact on the commercial real estate market, as evidenced by the high number of defaults on commercial real estate loans. Overall, the causes of the financial crisis of 2008 are complex and multifaceted, and continue to be the subject of ongoing research and analysis. |
Jump up ^ Ben Steverman ; David Bogoslaw ( October 18 , 2008 ) . `` The Financial Crisis Blame Game -- BusinessWeek '' . BusinessWeek . Retrieved October 24 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : This American Life . `` NPR - The Giant Pool of Money '' . Pri.org . Archived from the original on April 15 , 2010 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Eavis , Peter ( November 25 , 2007 ) . `` CDO Explained '' . CNN . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Portfolio - CDO Explained '' . Portfolio.com . September 11 , 2008 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Standard & Poor 's Rating Services Australia / New Zealand '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Economist - A Helping Hand to Homeowners '' . The Economist . October 23 , 2008 . Retrieved February 27 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. FORECLOSURE ACTIVITY INCREASES 75 PERCENT IN 2007 '' . RealtyTrac . January 29 , 2008 . Retrieved June 6 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` RealtyTrac Press Release 2008FY '' . Realtytrac.com . January 15 , 2009 . Retrieved February 27 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` MBA Survey '' . Archived from the original on May 14 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` MBA Survey - Q3 2009 '' . Mbaa.org . November 19 , 2009 . Archived from the original on July 28 , 2010 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Federal Reserve Board : Monetary Policy and Open Market Operations '' . Retrieved May 19 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` The Wall Street Journal Online -- Featured Article '' . 2008 . Retrieved May 19 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Krugman , Paul ( August 2 , 2002 ) . `` Dubya 's Double Dip ? '' . The New York Times . Retrieved July 30 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Babecký , Jan ; Havránek , Tomáš ; Matějů , Jakub ; Rusnák , Marek ; Šmídková , Kateřina ; Vašíček , Bořek ( July 11 , 2017 ) . `` Leading indicators of crisis incidence : Evidence from developed countries '' . Journal of International Money and Finance . 35 ( C ) : 1 -- 19 . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 -- via RePEc - IDEAS . Jump up ^ `` Bernanke - The Global Saving Glut and U.S. Current Account Deficit '' . Federalreserve.gov . Retrieved February 27 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Chairman Ben S. Bernanke , At the Bundesbank Lecture , Berlin , Germany September 11 , 2007 : Global Imbalances : Recent Developments and Prospects '' . Federalreserve.gov . Retrieved May 3 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Fed Historical Data - Fed Funds Rate '' . Federalreserve.gov . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ John Mastrobattista . `` Mastrobattista '' . National Review . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Max , Sarah ( July 27 , 2004 ) . `` CNN - The Bubble Question '' . CNN . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Business Week - Is a Housing Bubble About to Burst ? '' . BusinessWeek . July 19 , 2004 . Archived from the original on March 4 , 2008 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Economist - | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_45 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a result of a crisis in the subprime mortgage market. This crisis led to a chain reaction of events that ultimately caused the collapse of major financial institutions and had a significant impact on the global economy. The subprime mortgage market refers to the lending of money to individuals with poor credit histories who were unable to qualify for conventional mortgages. This risky lending behavior, combined with the bundling and selling of these mortgages as complex financial products, created a situation that ultimately led to the financial crisis of 2008. |
from the original on March 4 , 2008 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Economist - When a Flow Becomes a Flood '' . The Economist . January 22 , 2009 . Retrieved February 27 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Roger C. Altman . `` The Great Crash of 2008 '' . Foreignaffairs.org . Archived from the original on February 23 , 2009 . Retrieved February 27 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Williams , Mark ( April 12 , 2010 ) . Uncontrolled Risk . McGraw - Hill Education . p. 124 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 163829 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Hearing on Subprime Lending And Securitization And Government Sponsored Enterprises , April 7 , 2010 '' ( PDF ) . 2010 . Retrieved October 29 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Morgenson , Gretchen ( September 26 , 2010 ) . `` Raters Ignored Proof of Unsafe Loans , Panel Is Told '' . The New York Times . Retrieved October 28 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` All Clayton Trending Reports 1st quarter 2006 -- 2nd quarter 2007 '' ( PDF ) . 2010 . Retrieved October 28 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Letter from the Comptroller of the Currency Regarding Predatory Lending '' . Banking.senate.gov . Retrieved November 11 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` BofA Modifies 64,000 Home Loans as Part of Predatory Lending Settlement Debt Relief Blog '' . Thinkdebtrelief.com . May 25 , 2009 . Archived from the original on October 24 , 2009 . Retrieved November 11 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` ' If you had a pulse , we gave you a loan ' '' . NBCNews.com . March 22 , 2009 . Retrieved April 12 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Road to Ruin : Mortgage Fraud Scandal Brewing May 13 , 2009 , by American News Project hosted by The Real News Jump up ^ `` Systemically Important Banks and Capital Regulation Challenges '' . OECD Economics Department Working Papers . doi : 10.1787 / 5kg0ps8cq8q6 - en . Jump up ^ Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation , History of the Eighties -- Lessons for the Future , Vol. 1 . December 1997. http://www.fdic.gov/bank/historical/history/3_85.pdf Jump up ^ Leibold , Arthur . `` Some Hope for the Future After a Failed National Policy for Thrifts '' . In Barth , James R. ; Trimbath , Susanne ; Yago , Glenn . The Savings and Loan Crisis : Lessons from a Regulatory Failure . Milken Institute . pp. 58 -- 59 . ISBN 1 - 4020 - 7871 - 4 . ( further references : Strunk ; Case ( 1988 ) . Where Deregulation Went Wrong : A Look at the Causes Behind the Savings and Loan Failures in the 1980s . U.S. League of Savings Institutions . pp. 14 -- 16 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 929097 - 32 - 9. ) Jump up ^ Williams , Mark ( April 12 , 2010 ) . Uncontrolled Risk . McGraw - Hill Education . p. 44 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 07 - 163829 - 6 . Jump up ^ Corinne Crawford , `` The repeal of the Glass - Steagall Act and the current financial crisis . '' Journal of Business & Economics Research 9 # 1 ( 2011 ) : 127 + online Jump up ^ Andrew Ross Sorkin ( May 22 , 2012 ) . `` Reinstating an Old | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_46 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event that had a major impact on the global economy. It was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market, which led to a widespread collapse of financial institutions and a severe economic downturn. The crisis was the result of a combination of factors, including lax lending standards, excessive risk-taking by financial institutions, and a lack of regulatory oversight. The collapse of the subprime mortgage market had far-reaching consequences, and its effects are still being felt today. |
) : 127 + online Jump up ^ Andrew Ross Sorkin ( May 22 , 2012 ) . `` Reinstating an Old Rule Is Not a Cure for Crisis '' . New York Times . Jump up ^ Labaton , Stephen ( September 27 , 2008 ) . `` SEC Concedes Oversight Flaws '' . The New York Times . Retrieved May 2 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Labaton , Stephen ( October 3 , 2008 ) . `` The Reckoning '' . The New York Times . Retrieved May 2 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Krugman , Paul ( 2009 ) . The Return of Depression Economics and the Crisis of 2008 . W.W. Norton Company Limited . ISBN 978 - 0 - 393 - 07101 - 6 . Jump up ^ `` Bloomberg - Bank Hidden Junk Menaces $1 Trillion Purge '' . Bloomberg . March 25 , 2009 . Archived from the original on June 7 , 2012 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Bloomberg - Citigroup SIV Accounting Tough to Defend '' . Bloomberg . October 24 , 2007 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Healy , Paul M. & Palepu , Krishna G. : `` The Fall of Enron '' -- Journal of Economics Perspectives , Volume 17 , Number 2 . ( Spring 2003 ) , p. 13 Jump up ^ Greenspan , Alan ( February 21 , 1997 ) . Government regulation and derivative contracts ( Speech ) . Coral Gables , FL . Retrieved October 22 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Summers , Lawrence ; Alan Greenspan , Arthur Levitt , William Ranier ( November 1999 ) . `` Over-the - Counter Derivatives Markets and the Commodity Exchange Act : Report of The President 's Working Group on Financial Markets '' ( PDF ) : 1 . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on October 13 , 2010 . Retrieved July 20 , 2009 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Figlewski , Stephen ( May 18 , 2009 ) . `` Forbes - Geithner 's Plan for Derivatives '' . Forbes . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` The Economist - Derivatives - A Nuclear Winter ? '' . The Economist . September 18 , 2008 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Buffett Warns on Investment ' Time Bomb ' '' . BBC News . March 4 , 2003 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` The End of the Affair '' . Economist . October 30 , 2008 . Retrieved February 27 , 2009 . ^ Jump up to : `` A Minsky Meltdown : Lessons for Central Bankers '' . frbsf.org . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` Greenspan Kennedy Report -- Table 2 -- Sources and Uses of Equity Extracted from Homes '' ( PDF ) . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Equity extraction -- Charts '' . Seekingalpha.com. April 25 , 2007 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : `` Reuters - Spending Boosted by Home Equity Loans '' . Reuters. April 23 , 2007 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Barr , Colin ( May 27 , 2009 ) . `` Fortune - The $4 trillion housing headache '' . CNN . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` FT - Wolf Japan 's Lessons '' . Financial Times . February 17 , 2009 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_47 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event that had a widespread impact on the global economy. Various factors contributed to the crisis, with one of the key causes being a crisis in the subprime mortgage market. This led to a chain reaction of financial instability and ultimately resulted in a severe economic downturn. The crisis was also influenced by oversight flaws in the SEC, as well as the use of derivative contracts and equity extraction from homes. These factors, combined with other economic and regulatory issues, created the perfect storm that led to the financial crisis of 2008. |
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March 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Floyd Norris ( November 24 , 2008 ) . `` News Analysis : Another Crisis , Another Guarantee '' . The New York Times . Retrieved April 22 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Soros , George ( January 22 , 2008 ) . `` The worst market crisis in 60 years '' . Financial Times . London , UK . Retrieved March 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Calomiris , Charles ( Spring 2009 ) . `` The Subprime Turmoil : What 's Old , What 's New , and What 's Next '' ( PDF ) . Journal of Structured Finance . Institutional Investor Journals. 15 ( 1 ) : 6 -- 52 . doi : 10.3905 / JSF. 2009.15. 1.006 . Retrieved August 19 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Lipton , A. , and A. Rennie , ( Editors ) ( 2007 ) . `` Credit Correlation : Life after Copulas '' . World Scientific . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Donnelly , C , Embrechts , P , ( 2010 ) . `` The devil is in the tails : actuarial mathematics and the subprime mortgage crisis '' . ASTIN Bulletin 40 ( 1 ) , 1 -- 33 . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Brigo , D , Pallavicini , A , and Torresetti , R , ( 2010 ) . `` Credit Models and the Crisis : A Journey into CDOs , Copulas , Correlations and dynamic Models '' . Wiley and Sons . CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list ( link ) Jump up ^ Samuelson , Robert J. ( 2011 ) . `` Reckless Optimism '' . Claremont Review of Books . XII ( 1 ) : 13 . Archived from the original on December 24 , 2013 . Jump up ^ Kourlas , James ( April 12 , 2012 ) . `` Lessons Not Learned From the Housing Crisis '' . The Atlas Society . Retrieved April 12 , 2012 . ^ Jump up to : Search Site . `` Nicole Gelinas - Can the Fed 's Uncrunch Credit ? '' . City-journal.org . Retrieved February 27 , 2009 . Jump up ^ -- ( June 15 , 2009 ) . `` Brookings Institution -- U.S. Financial and Economic Crisis June 2009 PDF Page 14 '' . Brookings.edu . Archived from the original on June 3 , 2010 . Retrieved January 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Light Crude Oil Chart '' . Futures.tradingcharts.com . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Conway , Edmund ( May 26 , 2008 ) . `` Soros -- Rocketing Oil Price is a Bubble '' . The Daily Telegraph . London . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` The Oil Price Bubble '' . Mises.org . June 2 , 2008 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Tom Therramus , ( editor , Gail the Actuary ) -- Was Volatility in the Price of Oil a Cause of the 2008 Financial Crisis ? '' . Energybulletin.net . December 8 , 2009 . Retrieved January 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Historical Copper Prices , Copper Prices History '' . Dow-futures.net . January 22 , 2007 . Archived from the original on May 12 , 2010 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Business Miner BHP to lay off 6,000 staff '' . BBC News . January 21 , 2009 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_49 | false | The financial crisis of 2008, also known as the subprime mortgage crisis, was a significant event that had far-reaching implications for the global economy. The crisis was caused by a number of factors, including the housing bubble, risky lending practices, and the subsequent collapse of the subprime mortgage market. This led to a domino effect that ultimately resulted in a widespread financial meltdown. The crisis was also exacerbated by other factors such as the skyrocketing oil prices and the volatility in the price of oil, which further contributed to the economic downturn. The aftermath of the crisis led to significant job losses and layoffs, as well as a general sense of economic instability. The financial crisis of 2008 was a complex and multifaceted event that had a lasting impact on the global economy. |
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_50 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event that had a widespread impact on the global economy. It was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market, which led to a domino effect that affected various sectors of the economy. The crisis resulted in the layoff of thousands of staff by major mining companies such as BHP, and it also had implications for commodity futures markets. The impact of index and swap funds on these markets was a contributing factor to the crisis. Additionally, the financialization of capital and the causes of the crisis were subjects of much discussion and analysis in the aftermath of the event. The crisis was also attributed to the development of financial markets and the risks associated with it. Overall, the financial crisis of 2008 was a complex event with multiple contributing factors, but the crisis in the subprime mortgage market was a key catalyst for the economic downturn. |
Berner , `` Perfect Storm for the American Consumer '' . Morgan Stanley Global Economic Forum , November 12 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Kabir Chibber , `` Goldman Sees Subprime Cutting $2 Trillion in Lending '' . Bloomberg.com , November 16 , 2007 . Jump up ^ Austrian Business Cycle Theory and the Global Financial Crisis : : Confessions of a Mainstream Economist by Jerry Tempelman Jump up ^ `` Greenspan admits ' mistake ' that helped crisis '' . Associated Press . October 23 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Coy , Peter ( April 16 , 2009 ) . `` Businessweek Magazine '' . BusinessWeek . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Why Economists Failed to Predict the Financial Crisis '' . Knowledge.wharton.upenn.edu . Archived from the original on September 13 , 2010 . Retrieved November 11 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Dr. Doom '' , By Stephen Mihm , August 15 , 2008 , New York Times Magazine Jump up ^ Brockes , Emma ( January 24 , 2009 ) . `` He Told Us So '' . The Guardian . London . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Bubble Trouble '' by Robert J. Shiller . Project Syndicate ( September 17 , 2007 ) . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Predictions from the man who forecast the meltdown . CNN , January 23 , 2009 . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` John Cochrane 's Response to Paul Krugman : Full Text '' Modeled Behavior `` . Modeledbehavior.com . September 11 , 2009 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Cross-Country Causes and Consequences of the 2008 Crisis : Early Warning , Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco , July 2009 Jump up ^ `` Pablo Triana : Why Nassim Taleb is the True Predictor of this Crisis '' . Huffington Post . August 19 , 2009 . Retrieved January 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` The Black Swan : Quotes & Warnings that the Imbeciles Chose to Ignore '' . fooledbyrandomness.com. April 2007 . Retrieved July 7 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Nocera , Joe ( January 4 , 2009 ) . `` Risk Mismanagement '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ Brooks , David ( October 28 , 2008 ) . `` The Behavioral Revolution '' . The New York Times . Jump up ^ `` Quantitative Easing and Asset Price Inflation '' . Ciovacco Capital Management . October 29 , 2010 . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` Impact of Quantitative Easing on the Stock Market '' . Mtpredictor.us . February 6 , 2011 . Archived from the original on April 26 , 2012 . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ McFarlane , Steve ( May 20 , 2011 ) . `` The Effects of Manipulating Money Supply on Equities '' . Brighthub.com . Retrieved May 15 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Kawamoto , Dawn ( March 2 , 2009 ) . `` Dow Jones decline rate mimics Great Depression Business Tech -- CNET News '' . News.cnet.com . Retrieved January 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Plunging Markets , Then and Now -- Floyd Norris Blog '' . Norris.blogs.nytimes.com . March 5 , | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_51 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event that had a major impact on the global economy. Many experts have analyzed the causes of this crisis, and there are various opinions on what led to the collapse. Some have pointed to the subprime mortgage market as a key factor in triggering the crisis. This market experienced a crisis of its own, which ultimately had far-reaching consequences for the broader financial system. The subprime mortgage market refers to the lending of money to individuals with poor credit histories, often at higher interest rates. When this market experienced a downturn, it had a ripple effect throughout the entire financial industry, leading to widespread economic turmoil. The crisis in the subprime mortgage market is widely considered to be a major contributing factor to the financial crisis of 2008. |
^ `` Plunging Markets , Then and Now -- Floyd Norris Blog '' . Norris.blogs.nytimes.com . March 5 , 2009 . Retrieved January 21 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Bloomberg - U.S. European Bank Writedowns & Losses - November 5 , 2009 '' . Reuters . November 5 , 2009 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ HM Treasury , Bank of England and Financial Services Authority ( September 14 , 2007 ) . `` News Release : Liquidity Support Facility for Northern Rock plc '' . Archived from the original on February 8 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Key Lessons from Alan Sugar Autobiography ( 562 ) '' . Retrieved January 28 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` IndyMac Bancorp Announces Earnings Webcast & Teleconference Call for First Quarter 2008 Financial Results '' . Reuters . August 8 , 2008 . Archived from the original on December 5 , 2008 . Retrieved July 13 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Shalal - Esa , Andrea ( September 25 , 2008 ) . `` FACTBOX : Top ten U.S. bank failures '' . Reuters . Thomson Reuters . Retrieved September 26 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : Veiga , Alex ( July 12 , 2008 ) . `` Government shuts down mortgage lender IndyMac '' . Associated Press ( Newsday ) . Archived from the original on July 17 , 2008 . Retrieved July 12 , 2008 . ^ Jump up to : LaCapra , Lauren Tara ( August 1 , 2008 ) . `` IndyMac Bancorp to Liquidate '' . TheStreet.com . Retrieved August 1 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` US Lender IndyMac Collapses '' Archived July 5 , 2009 , at the Wayback Machine ... Sky News . July 13 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Lacter , Mark ( July 11 , 2008 ) . `` IndyMac taken over '' . LA Biz Observed . Retrieved July 12 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Paletta , Damian ; Enrich , David ( July 12 , 2008 ) . `` Crisis Deepens as Big Bank Fails : IndyMac Seized In Largest Bust In Two Decades '' . Wall Street Journal . ^ Jump up to : `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on April 19 , 2009 . Retrieved March 18 , 2010 . Audit Report Office of Inspector General Jump up ^ `` FDIC : Press Releases - PR - 1 - 2009 1 / 2 / 2009 '' . www.fdic.gov . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Archived copy '' ( PDF ) . Archived from the original ( PDF ) on February 16 , 2012 . Retrieved February 24 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` IndyMac Reassures Customers After Schumer Letter '' Archived July 11 , 2008 , at the Wayback Machine. , AP Jump up ^ `` SEC Info - Indymac Bancorp Inc - ' 10 - Q ' for 3 / 31 / 08 '' . www.secinfo.com . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` To - date , we have not been successful with these efforts ... '' Company Blog Jump up ^ `` Indymac Seeks to Preserve Capital '' , The Street Jump up ^ `` SEC Info - Indymac Bancorp Inc - ' 10 - Q ' for 3 / 31 / 08 '' . www.secinfo.com . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Schumer says he 's not to blame for IndyMac '' , CNN , July 13 , 2008 . Jump | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_52 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event that had a major impact on the global economy. It was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market, which led to a widespread collapse of financial institutions and a severe economic downturn. The crisis was characterized by a series of bank failures, including the collapse of IndyMac Bancorp, which was one of the largest bank failures in two decades. The crisis also led to significant losses and writedowns for U.S. and European banks, as well as the need for liquidity support for institutions such as Northern Rock plc. The aftermath of the crisis saw a number of key lessons learned, as well as efforts to preserve capital and reassure customers. Overall, the financial crisis of 2008 was a complex and multifaceted event that had far-reaching implications for the global financial system. |
up ^ `` Schumer says he 's not to blame for IndyMac '' , CNN , July 13 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Schumer : concern over IndyMac stability '' . Associated Press . June 26 , 2008 . Retrieved July 11 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Veiga , Alex ( July 7 , 2008 ) . `` IndyMac stops new mortgage loans , to cut workforce by half -- The Mercury News '' . Mercury News . Associated Press . Retrieved November 26 , 2016 . Jump up ^ `` IndyMac Taken Over By Regulators '' . Reuters . July 11 , 2008 . Archived from the original on September 22 , 2017 . Retrieved July 11 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Wagner , Evan ( July 11 , 2008 ) . `` FDIC Notification to All Employees '' ( PDF ) . IndyMac Bank . Retrieved July 11 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Federal Regulators Close California Mortgage Lender '' . Fox News . July 11 , 2008 . Retrieved July 11 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Heisel , William ( February 28 , 2009 ) . `` Lax IndyMac regulation worsened exposure of depositors '' . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 -- via LA Times . Jump up ^ DRR . `` FDIC : Failed Bank Information - Bank Closing Information for IndyMac Bank , F.S.B. , Pasadena , CA '' . www.fdic.gov . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : Roger C. Altman . `` The Great Crash '' . Foreign Affairs . Archived from the original on February 23 , 2009 . Retrieved February 27 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Sterngold , James ( April 29 , 2010 ) . `` How Much Did Lehman CEO Dick Fuld Really Make ? '' . businessweek.com . Retrieved December 16 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Gullapalli , Diya ( September 20 , 2008 ) . `` Bailout of Money Funds Seems to Stanch Outflow '' . The Wall Street Journal . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` 3 year chart '' TED spread Bloomberg.com `` Investment Tools '' Archived May 28 , 2010 , at the Wayback Machine . Jump up ^ Ross , Andrew ( October 1 , 2008 ) . `` As Crisis Spiraled , Alarm Led to Action '' . The New York Times . Retrieved April 22 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Economic rescue swiftly signed into law '' . Google News . AFP . October 3 , 2008 . Archived from the original on April 29 , 2012 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. Financial and Economic Crisis June 2009 PDF Page 14 '' . Brookings Institution . June 15 , 2009 . Archived from the original on June 3 , 2010 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Tami Luhby , Americans ' wealth drops $1.3 trillion : Fed report shows a decline of home values and the stock market cut the nation 's wealth to $50.4 trillion `` , CNN Money , June 11 , 2009 . Accessed July 25 , 2007 . Luhby reports that in Q2 2007 , collective American wealth totaled $64.4 trillion , and by Q1 2009 this value had fallen to $50.4 trillion . Jump up ^ writer , By Tami Luhby , CNNMoney.com senior . `` Americans ' wealth drops $1.3 trillion - Jun. 11 , 2009 '' . money.cnn.com . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Government Support for Financial Assets and | [
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. Retrieved July 11 , 2017 . Jump up ^ `` Government Support for Financial Assets and Liabilities Announced in 2008 and Soon Thereafter ( $ in billions ) . Page 7 '' ( PDF ) . FDIC Supervisory Insights . Summer 2009 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Baker , Dean ( November 29 , 2008 ) . `` It 's Not the Credit Crisis , Damn It ! '' . Retrieved March 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Uchitelle , Louis ( September 18 , 2008 ) . `` Pain Spreads as Credit Vise Grows Tighter '' . The New York Times . p . A1 . Retrieved March 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Sorkin , Andrew Ross ( September 14 , 2008 ) . `` Lehman Files for Bankruptcy ; Merrill Is Sold '' . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 -- via NYTimes.com . Jump up ^ Werdigier , Julia ( September 17 , 2008 ) . `` Lloyds Bank Is Discussing Purchase of British Lender '' . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 -- via NYTimes.com . Jump up ^ Norris , Floyd ( October 24 , 2008 ) . `` United Panic '' . The New York Times . Retrieved October 24 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Evans - Pritchard , Ambrose ( July 25 , 2007 ) . `` Dollar tumbles as huge credit crunch looms '' . The Daily Telegraph . London : Telegraph Media Group Limited . Retrieved October 15 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` Central banks act to calm markets '' , The Financial Times , September 18 , 2008 Jump up ^ Landler , Mark ( October 23 , 2008 ) . `` West Is in Talks on Credit to Aid Poorer Nations '' . The New York Times . Retrieved October 24 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Fackler , Martin ( October 23 , 2008 ) . `` Trouble Without Borders '' . The New York Times . Retrieved October 24 , 2008 . Jump up ^ Goodman , Peter S. ( September 26 , 2008 ) . `` Credit Enters a Lockdown '' . The New York Times . pp. A1 . Retrieved March 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Cho , David ; Appelbaum , Binyamin ( October 7 , 2008 ) . `` Unfolding Worldwide Turmoil Could Reverse Years of Prosperity '' . The Washington Post . pp. A01 . Retrieved March 8 , 2009 . Jump up ^ `` Bank on this : bank failures will rise in next year '' . Associated Press . October 5 , 2008 . Archived from the original on October 9 , 2008 . Jump up ^ UBS AG . `` Recession '' . There is no alternative on YouTube . Daily roundup for October 6 , 2008 . Retrieved October 12 , 2008 . ' global growth at 2.2 % yoy ( previously 2.8 % ) . The IMF brands 2.5 % yoy a `` recession '' . ' ' global collapse is inevitable ' ... ' at least two years before we can talk of a normalisation in economic activity ' Jump up ^ UBS AG . A plan to save the world on YouTube . Daily roundup for October 9 , 2008 . Retrieved October 13 , 2008 . `` The actions yesterday can not stop a significant economic downturn . '' Jump up ^ UBS AG . Fears of recession loom on YouTube . Daily roundup for October 9 , 2008 . Retrieved October 17 , 2008 . `` short by historical standards '' Jump up ^ `` Cracks in the crust '' . The | [
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, 2008 . `` short by historical standards '' Jump up ^ `` Cracks in the crust '' . The Economist . December 11 , 2008 . Retrieved November 11 , 2009 . Jump up ^ UBS AG . The IMF in March 2009 forecast that it would be the first occasion since the great depression that the world economy as a whole would contract . Be afraid . Be very afraid on YouTube . Daily roundup for October 31 , 2008 . Retrieved November 2 , 2008 . `` NEGATIVE growth in 2009 for the US , UK , Euro area . Japan is the fastest growing G7 economy at 0.1 % growth , Followed close behind by Canada with . 098 % growth . Global growth in 2009 forecast at 1.3 % . '' Jump up ^ `` Untold Stories : Latvia : Sobering Lessons in Unregulated Lending '' . Pulitzercenter.typepad.com . May 18 , 2009 . Archived from the original on May 22 , 2009 . Retrieved November 11 , 2009 . Jump up ^ Baily , Martin Neil ; Elliott , Douglas J. ( June 15 , 2009 ) . `` The U.S. Financial and Economic Crisis : Where Does It Stand and Where Do We Go From Here ? '' . Brookings.edu . Archived from the original on June 3 , 2010 . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . ^ Jump up to : Dirk Willem te Velde ( 2009 ) Briefing Paper 54 -- The global financial crisis and developing countries : taking stock , taking action . London : Overseas Development Institute Jump up ^ Bruno Wenn ( January 2013 ) . `` Exceedingly high interest rates '' . D + C Development and Cooperation / dandc.eu . Jump up ^ Dina Elnaggar . ( February 1 , 2009 ) . `` Update on the Impact of the Global Financial Crisis on Arab Countries '' . World Bank . Retrieved November 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` BEA Press Releases '' . Bea.gov . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` BLS - Historical Unemployment Rate Table '' . Data.bls.gov . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Herbst , Moira ( July 10 , 2009 ) . `` Business Week - Unemployed lose with hour and wage cuts '' . BusinessWeek . Retrieved May 1 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` U.S. Patent Statistics '' ( PDF ) . uspto.gov . Retrieved April 26 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Fed Survey : We 're 45 % Poorer Jill Schlesinger -- CBS MoneyWatch.com '' . Moneywatch.bnet.com . March 25 , 2011 . Retrieved April 22 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Taibbi , Matt ( 2010 ) . Griftopia : Bubble Machines , Vampire Squids , and the Long Con That Is Breaking America . Spiegel & Grau . p. 12 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 385 - 52995 - 2 . Retrieved October 13 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Wolff , Edward N ( 2010 ) . `` Recent Trends in Household Wealth in the United States : Rising Debt and the Middle - Class Squeeze -- An Update to 2007 '' . Levy Economics Institute Working Papers Series . Social Science Research Network ( 159 ) . SSRN 1585409 . Jump up ^ Sarah Burd - Sharps and Rebecca Rasch . Impact of the US Housing Crisis on the Racial Wealth Gap Across Generations . The Social Science Research Council and the ACLU. 2015 . | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_55 | false | The global financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event that had a major impact on the world economy. The crisis was characterized by negative growth in the US, UK, Euro area, and other countries, with Japan and Canada being the only G7 economies to experience any growth. The crisis also had a profound impact on developing countries, with exceedingly high interest rates and significant economic challenges. The crisis also led to a rise in unemployment and a decrease in household wealth in the United States. The impact of the crisis was felt across generations and had a significant effect on the racial wealth gap. The causes of the crisis were complex, but it is widely acknowledged that a crisis in the subprime mortgage market played a significant role in triggering the events that led to the global financial crisis. |
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_56 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event that had a widespread impact on the global economy. It was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market, which led to a chain reaction of financial instability. The crisis resulted in a number of government interventions and regulatory reforms in an effort to stabilize the financial system and prevent future crises. The effects of the crisis were felt for years, and it remains an important topic of study and analysis in the field of economics. |
Elliott , Douglas J. ( July 26 , 2010 ) . `` Basel III , the Banks , and the Economy '' . Brookings Institution . Jump up ^ `` Third time 's the charm ? '' . The Economist . September 13 , 2010 . Retrieved April 28 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Norberg , Johan ( May 2012 ) . `` Financial Crisis II : European governments fail to learn from history '' . Reason . Jump up ^ `` H.R. 4173 : Dodd - Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act -- U.S. Congress '' . OpenCongress . July 21 , 2010 . Retrieved January 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` S. 3217 : Restoring American Financial Stability Act of 2010 -- U.S. Congress '' . OpenCongress . July 21 , 2010 . Retrieved January 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` Bill Summary & Status -- 111th Congress ( 2009 -- 2010 ) -- H.R. 4173 -- All Information -- THOMAS ( Library of Congress ) '' . Library of Congress . Retrieved July 22 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` Bank - reform bill sent to Obama '' . Marketwatch.com . December 29 , 2010 . Retrieved January 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Snow , Jon ( September 13 , 2011 ) . `` Why have no bankers been arrested ? '' . Channel 4 ( Snowblog ) . Retrieved December 11 , 2015 . The publication of the Vickers report into British banking reform sparks the question why the UK has so far failed to prosecute a single individual for his or her misdeeds during the financial meltdown of 2008 Jump up ^ Binyamin Appelbaum ( August 19 , 2012 ) . `` Cautious Moves on Foreclosures Haunting Obama '' . The New York Times . Retrieved August 20 , 2012 . Jump up ^ Mark Hulbert ( July 15 , 2010 ) . `` It 's Dippy to Fret About a Double - Dip Recession '' . Jump up ^ TIME magazine Friday , April 10 , 2009 ( 2 ) Jump up ^ Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission , Get the Report , accessed February 14 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Chan , Sewell ( January 25 , 2011 ) . `` Financial Crisis Was Avoidable , Inquiry Concludes '' . Retrieved July 11 , 2017 -- via NYTimes.com . Jump up ^ Troubled Asset Relief Program : Two Year Retrospective United States Department of the Treasury , Office of Financial Stability Jump up ^ Norris , Floyd ( March 10 , 2011 ) . `` Crisis Is Over , but Where 's the Fix ? '' . New York Times . Retrieved March 10 , 2011 . Jump up ^ Tcherneva , Pavlina R. ( August 2014 ) . `` This Chart Shows Just How ( Un ) Equal Things Are During A ' Champion ' Of The 99 % 's Administration '' . Independent Journal Review . Retrieved September 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Binyamin , Appelbaum ( September 4 , 2014 ) . `` Fed Says Growth Lifts the Affluent , Leaving Behind Everyone Else '' . New York Times . Retrieved September 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Chokshi , Niraj ( August 11 , 2014 ) . `` Income inequality seems to be rising in more than 2 in 3 metro areas '' . Washington Post . Retrieved September 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kurtzleben , Danielle ( August | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_57 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event that had a widespread impact on the global economy. It was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market, which led to a chain reaction of financial instability. The crisis resulted in a number of legislative and regulatory responses, including the Dodd-Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act, as well as the Restoring American Financial Stability Act of 2010. Despite the severity of the crisis, there has been criticism of the lack of accountability for those responsible, with no bankers being arrested for their role in the meltdown. The aftermath of the crisis also saw a rise in income inequality, with the affluent benefiting from economic growth while leaving behind the rest of the population. The crisis was avoidable, according to the Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission, and its impact continues to be felt in various aspects of the economy. |
Post . Retrieved September 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Kurtzleben , Danielle ( August 23 , 2014 ) . `` Middle class households ' wealth fell 35 percent from 2005 to 2011 '' . Vox.com . Retrieved September 13 , 2014 . Jump up ^ `` Overdose : A Film about the Next Financial Crisis '' . Cato.org . May 17 , 2010 . Retrieved January 2 , 2011 . Jump up ^ `` 25 People to Blame for the Financial Crisis '' . Time . Jump up ^ Drummond , Norman ( 2010 ) . The Power of Three : Discovering what really matters in life . London : Hachette ( Hodder & Stoughton ) . p. 1 . ISBN 978 - 0 - 340 - 97991 - 4 . Jump up ^ Hasmath , Reza , ed. ( 2015 ) . Inclusive Growth , Development and Welfare Policy : A Critical Assessment . Routledge . ISBN 978 - 1 - 138 - 84079 - 9 . Jump up ^ `` International Monetary Fund , World Economic Outlook Database , October 2014 : GDP list of countries . Data for the year 2014 '' . Imf.org . Retrieved December 6 , 2014 . Jump up ^ Figures from the October 2014 update of the International Monetary Fund 's World Economic Outlook Database . Figure for EU , accessed December 6 , 2014 . Figures for the countries of the world , accessed December 6 , 2014 . The initial articles and some subsequent material were adapted from the Wikinfo article Financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008 released under the GNU Free Documentation License Version 1.2 Further reading ( edit ) Mercille , J. & Murphy , E. , 2015 , Deepening neoliberalism , austerity , and crisis : Europe 's treasure Ireland , Palgrave Macmillan , Basingstoke . Fried , Joseph , Who Really Drove the Economy into the Ditch ? ( New York : Algora Publishing , 2012 ) ISBN 978 - 0 - 87586 - 942 - 1 . Wallison , Peter , Bad History , Worse Policy ( Washington , D.C. : AEI Press , 2013 ) ISBN 978 - 0 - 8447 - 7238 - 7 . Awasthi , Sharad. ( 2012 ) . The Global Financial Crisis is NOT Financial : Quality of Information in Question . ISBN 978 - 1479312818 . Koller , Cynthia A. ( 2012 ) . White Collar Crime in Housing : Mortgage Fraud in the United States . El Paso , TX : LFB Scholarly . ISBN 978 - 1593325343 . Kotz , David M. ( 2015 ) . The Rise and Fall of Neoliberal Capitalism . Harvard University Press . ISBN 9780674725652 . Patterson , Laura A. , & Koller , Cynthia A. Koller ( 2011 ) . `` Diffusion of Fraud Through Subprime Lending : The Perfect Storm . '' In Mathieu Deflem ( ed . ) Economic Crisis and Crime ( Sociology of Crime Law and Deviance , Volume 16 ) , Emerald Group Publishing , pp. 25 -- 45 . ISBN 9780857248022 Pezzuto , Ivo ( 2013 ) . Predictable and Avoidable : Repairing Economic Dislocation and Preventing the Recurrence of Crisis , Publisher : Gower Pub Co ; New edition . ISBN 978 - 1 - 4094 - 5445 - 8 . Konecny Ladis , ( 2013 ) , Stocks and Exchange -- the only Book you need , ISBN | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_58 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event that had a major impact on the global economy. It was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market, which led to a widespread collapse of financial institutions and a severe economic downturn. The crisis resulted in a significant decrease in the wealth of middle-class households and had long-lasting effects on the global economy. Various factors contributed to the crisis, including the diffusion of fraud through subprime lending and the rise and fall of neoliberal capitalism. Further reading on the topic includes books such as "Deepening Neoliberalism, Austerity, and Crisis: Europe's Treasure Ireland" and "The Rise and Fall of Neoliberal Capitalism." The financial crisis of 2008 was a complex event with far-reaching consequences, and its causes continue to be the subject of extensive study and analysis. |
- 8 . Konecny Ladis , ( 2013 ) , Stocks and Exchange -- the only Book you need , ISBN 9783848220656 , `` Great financial crisis 2007 -- 2009 '' , chapter 17 . Nomi Prins : Collusion : How Central Bankers Rigged the World , Nation Books 2018 , ISBN 978 - 1568585628 External links ( edit ) Suntheim , Felix , `` Managerial Compensation in the Financial Service Industry '' A Recipe for the Financial Crisis -- An explanation of the factors that caused the 2008 Financial Crisis , including a Timeline of Events from 2000 . US Financial Crisis Inquiry Commission US Senate -- Anatomy of a financial collapse - an Investigations Subcommittee report on the mortgage market Times of Crisis -- Reuters : Multimedia interactive charting the year of global change `` Inside the Meltdown '' -- PBS Frontline documentation including additional background article and in depth interviews `` Money , Power & Wall Street '' -- PBS Frontline documentation including additional background article and in depth interviews Stewart , James B. , `` Eight Days : the battle to save the American financial system '' , The New Yorker magazine , September 21 , 2009 . pp. 58 -- 81 . Summarizing September 15 -- 23 , 2008 , with interviews of Paulson , Bernanke , and Geithner by James Stewart Credit Crisis -- The Essentials topic page from The New York Times How nations around the world are responding to the global financial crisis from PBS In depth : Global financial crisis from the Financial Times Timeline : Global credit crunch Published in BBC News on October 6 , 2008 . Financial Crisis - IMF Global Financial Crisis impact on insurance industry ( infographic ) Financial Crisis - World Bank Group The Global Economic Crisis : Challenges for Developing Asia and ADB 's Response -- Asian Development Bank `` What Caused the Crisis '' : A collection of papers at the Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis Lectures by Ben Bernanke to an economics class at George Washington University March 2012 `` Chairman Ben Bernanke Lecture Series Part 1 '' Recorded live on March 20 , 2012 10 : 35 am MST `` Chairman Ben Bernanke Lecture Series Part 3 '' Recorded live on March 27 , 2012 10 : 38 am MST `` Three myths that sustain the economic crisis '' blog by The Guardian 's economics editor Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis ' Financial Crisis Timeline of key events and actions surrounding the crisis ( hide ) Great Recession By region Africa Americas United States South America Asia Europe Oceania | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_59 | false | The financial crisis of 2008, also known as the Great Recession, was a significant event that had a global impact. It was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market, which led to a chain reaction of financial instability. This crisis affected various regions around the world, including Africa, the Americas, Asia, Europe, and Oceania. The impact of the financial crisis was far-reaching, and it led to significant challenges for the global economy. To understand the causes and effects of this crisis, it is essential to examine the key events and actions surrounding the crisis, as well as the response of nations and international organizations. Additionally, various resources such as books, articles, and multimedia documentation provide valuable insights into the factors that contributed to the 2008 financial crisis. By exploring these resources, individuals can gain a deeper understanding of the complexities of the crisis and its implications for the global financial system. |
South America Asia Europe Oceania United States - specific Automotive industry crisis California budget crisis Housing bubble Housing market correction Subprime mortgage crisis Banking losses and fraud Anglo Irish Bank hidden loans controversy Libor scandal Tom Hayes Société Générale trading loss Forex scandal Seán FitzPatrick Bernard Madoff Tom Petters Scott W. Rothstein Allen Stanford Government entities Consumer Financial Protection Bureau Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation Federal Home Loan Banks Federal Housing Administration Federal Housing Finance Agency Federal Housing Finance Board Federal Reserve System Government National Mortgage Association Irish Bank Resolution Corporation National Asset Management Agency Office of Federal Housing Enterprise Oversight Office of Financial Stability UK Financial Investments Government policy and spending responses Banking and finance stability and reform Anglo Irish Bank Corporation Act 2009 Banking ( Special Provisions ) Act 2008 China -- Japan -- South Korea trilateral summit Commercial Paper Funding Facility Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 Irish emergency budget , 2009 Irish budget , 2010 Irish budget , 2011 Irish budget , 2012 Irish budget , 2013 Temporary Liquidity Guarantee Program Term Asset - Backed Securities Loan Facility Troubled Asset Relief Program 2008 United Kingdom bank rescue package Bank stress tests EU U.S. Stimulus and recovery 2008 European Union stimulus plan 2008 -- 09 Keynesian resurgence American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 Chinese economic stimulus program Economic Stimulus Act of 2008 Fraud Enforcement and Recovery Act of 2009 Green New Deal Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 National fiscal policy response to the Great Recession Zero interest - rate policy Government interventions , rescues , and acquisitions List of banks acquired or | [
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interventions , rescues , and acquisitions List of banks acquired or bankrupted during the Great Recession Non-banking Chrysler General Motors Securities involved and financial markets Auction rate securities Collateralized debt obligations Collateralized mortgage obligations Credit default swaps Mortgage - backed securities Secondary mortgage market Social responses Tea Party protests ( United States ; c. 2009 ) May Day protests ( Europe , Middle East and North Africa , Asia ; 2009 ) Occupy movement ( worldwide ) Related topics 2000s energy crisis Central Asia : 2008 Effects on museums Decline of newspapers World food price crisis European debt crisis Financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 List of countries by public debt U.S. subprime mortgage crisis Background / timeline Background information Impact timeline Causes United States housing bubble / housing market correction Role of credit rating agencies Government policies Impacts Financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 Great Recession Writedowns Indirect economic effects Responses Economic Stimulus Act of 2008 Housing and Economic Recovery Act of 2008 Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008 Dodd -- Frank Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act Acquired or bankrupt banks in the late 2000s financial crisis Capital Assistance Program Capital Purchase Program Federal Reserve responses Federal takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac Government intervention Homeowners Affordability and Stability Plan Hope Now Alliance Loan modification Public -- Private Investment Program for Legacy Assets Regulatory responses Primary Dealer Credit Facility 2009 Supervisory Capital Assessment Program Tea Party protests Term Asset - Backed Securities Loan Facility Troubled Asset Relief Program Wall Street reform Related topics Error accounts Financial position of the United | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_61 | false | The financial crisis of 2008, also known as the Great Recession, was a result of various factors. These included the United States housing bubble and the subsequent correction in the housing market, the role of credit rating agencies, and government policies. The crisis was further exacerbated by the collapse of the subprime mortgage market, which had a significant impact on the overall financial stability. The effects of the crisis were far-reaching, leading to widespread writedowns, indirect economic effects, and the need for various responses and interventions from both the government and financial institutions. |
Related topics Error accounts Financial position of the United States Foreclosure rescue scheme Property derivatives Banking panics in the United States 1792 1796 -- 97 1819 1825 1837 1847 1857 1866 1873 1884 1890 ( Baring crisis ) 1893 1896 1901 1907 1910 - 11 1929 2007 -- 08 Stock market crashes 17th century Early stock market crashes in the Dutch Republic 18th century The Mississippi Bubble South Sea Bubble of 1720 Panic of 1792 Panic of 1796 -- 97 19th century Panic of 1819 Panic of 1825 Panic of 1837 Panic of 1847 Panic of 1857 Black Friday ( 1869 ) Panic of 1873 Paris Bourse crash of 1882 Panic of 1884 Encilhamento Panic of 1893 Panic of 1896 20th century Panic of 1901 Panic of 1907 Depression of 1920 -- 21 Wall Street Crash of 1929 Recession of 1937 -- 38 1971 Brazilian markets crash 1973 -- 74 stock market crash Souk Al - Manakh stock market crash ( 1982 ) Japanese asset price bubble ( 1986 -- 1991 ) Black Monday ( 1987 ) Rio de Janeiro Stock Exchange collapse Friday the 13th mini-crash ( 1989 ) 1990s Japanese stock market crash Dot - com bubble ( 1995 -- 2000 ) 1997 Asian financial crisis October 27 , 1997 , mini-crash 1998 Russian financial crisis 21st century Economic effects arising from the September 11 attacks ( 2001 ) Stock market downturn of 2002 Chinese stock bubble of 2007 United States bear market of 2007 -- 09 Financial crisis of 2007 -- 08 Dubai debt standstill European debt crisis 2010 Flash Crash 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami ( Aftermath ) August 2011 stock markets fall 2011 Bangladesh share market scam 2015 -- 16 Chinese stock market turbulence 2015 -- 16 stock market crash 2016 United Kingdom EU referendum ( Aftermath ) 2018 Cryptocurrency crash | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932008&oldid=843434777 | 1,297,567,946,299,564,300 | <P> It began in 2007 with a crisis in the subprime mortgage market in the United States , and developed into a full - blown international banking crisis with the collapse of the investment bank Lehman Brothers on September 15 , 2008 . Excessive risk - taking by banks such as Lehman Brothers helped to magnify the financial impact globally . Massive bail - outs of financial institutions and other palliative monetary and fiscal policies were employed to prevent a possible collapse of the world financial system . The crisis was nonetheless followed by a global economic downturn , the Great Recession . The European debt crisis , a crisis in the banking system of the European countries using the euro , followed later . </P> | a crisis in the subprime mortgage market | 1297567946299564249_62 | false | The financial crisis of 2008 was a significant event in the 21st century that had widespread economic effects. It was caused by a crisis in the subprime mortgage market, which led to a collapse in the housing market and ultimately triggered a broader financial crisis. This crisis had far-reaching implications for the global economy and led to a period of economic downturn and instability. |
EU referendum ( Aftermath ) 2018 Cryptocurrency crash See also : List of stock market crashes and bear markets History of the United States Timeline Prehistory Pre-Columbian Colonial 1776 -- 89 1789 -- 1849 1849 -- 65 1865 -- 1918 1918 -- 45 1945 -- 64 1964 -- 80 1980 -- 91 1991 -- 2008 2008 -- present Topics American Century Cities Constitution Demographic Diplomatic Economic Education Immigration Medical Merchant Marine Military Musical Religious Slavery Southern Technological and industrial Territorial acquisitions Territorial evolution Voting rights Women Portal 2000s portal 2010s portal Business and economics portal Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Financial_crisis_of_2007 -- 2008&oldid = 843434777 '' Categories : Great Recession 2000s economic history 2007 in economics 2008 in economics September 2008 events in North America Economic bubbles Economy of the United States Economy of the United Kingdom Financial crises Systemic risk Presidency of Barack Obama Presidency of George W. Bush Stock market crashes Great Recession in the United States Great Recession in the United Kingdom Hidden categories : CS1 maint : Unfit url Webarchive template wayback links Pages using web citations with no URL Pages using citations with accessdate and no URL All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2016 CS1 maint : Multiple names : authors list CS1 maint : Extra text : authors list Use mdy dates from December 2017 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from September 2016 Wikipedia articles needing clarification from February 2013 Talk Contents | [
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Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Български Bosanski Català Čeština Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto فارسی Føroyskt Français Frysk Galego ગુજરાતી 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia עברית ಕನ್ನಡ Latviešu Lëtzebuergesch Lietuvių مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本 語 Norsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Plattdüütsch Polski Português Ripoarisch Русский Simple English Suomi Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் ไทย Українська Tiếng Việt 粵語 中文 38 more Edit links This page was last edited on 29 May 2018 , at 04 : 08 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | [
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Field of Dreams - wikipedia Field of Dreams Jump to : navigation , search For other uses , see Field of Dreams ( disambiguation ) . Field of Dreams Promotional poster by Olga Kaljakin Directed by Phil Alden Robinson Produced by Lawrence Gordon Charles Gordon Screenplay by Phil Alden Robinson Based on Shoeless Joe by W.P. Kinsella Starring Kevin Costner Amy Madigan James Earl Jones Ray Liotta Burt Lancaster Music by James Horner Cinematography John Lindley Edited by Ian Crafford Distributed by Universal Pictures ( USA ) TriStar Pictures / Carolco Pictures ( International ) Release date April 21 , 1989 ( 1989 - 04 - 21 ) Running time 107 minutes Country United States Language English Budget $15 million Box office $84.4 million Field of Dreams is a 1989 American fantasy - drama sports film directed by Phil Alden Robinson , who also wrote the screenplay , adapting W.P. Kinsella 's novel Shoeless Joe . It stars Kevin Costner , Amy Madigan , James Earl Jones , Ray Liotta and Burt Lancaster in his final role . It was nominated for three Academy Awards , including for Best Original Score , Best Adapted Screenplay and Best Picture . In 2017 , the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being `` culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant '' . Contents ( hide ) 1 Plot 2 Cast 3 Production 3.1 Casting 3.2 Filming 3.3 Field 3.4 Music 4 Historical connections 5 Release and reception 6 Honors 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Plot ( edit ) Ray Kinsella is a novice Iowa farmer who lives with his wife , Annie , and daughter , Karin . In the opening narration , he explains how he had a troubled relationship with his father , John Kinsella , who had been a devoted baseball fan . While walking through his cornfield one evening , he hears a voice whispering , `` If you build it , he will come . '' He continues hearing this before finally seeing a vision of a baseball diamond in his field . Annie is skeptical , but she allows him to plow the corn | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Field_of_Dreams&oldid=825337460 | 3,582,454,729,028,629,000 | <Li> Amy Madigan as Annie Kinsella </Li> | Amy Madigan | 3582454729028629003_1 | true | Field of Dreams is a 1989 American fantasy-drama sports film directed by Phil Alden Robinson, who also wrote the screenplay, adapting W.P. Kinsella's novel Shoeless Joe. It stars Kevin Costner, Amy Madigan, James Earl Jones, Ray Liotta, and Burt Lancaster in his final role. The film was nominated for three Academy Awards, including for Best Original Score, Best Adapted Screenplay, and Best Picture. In 2017, the film was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant".
The plot of the film follows Ray Kinsella, a novice Iowa farmer who lives with his wife, Annie, and daughter, Karin. In the opening narration, he explains how he had a troubled relationship with his father, John Kinsella, who had been a devoted baseball fan. While walking through his cornfield one evening, he hears a voice whispering, "If you build it, he will come." He continues hearing this before finally seeing a vision of a baseball diamond in his field. Annie is skeptical, but she allows him to plow the corn.
Amy Madigan played Kevin Costner's wife in Field of Dreams. |
of a baseball diamond in his field . Annie is skeptical , but she allows him to plow the corn under in order to build a baseball field . As he builds , he tells Karin the story of the 1919 Black Sox Scandal . Months pass and nothing happens ; his family faces financial ruin until , one night , Karin spots a uniformed man on the field . Ray recognizes him as Shoeless Joe Jackson , a deceased baseball player idolized by John . Thrilled to be able to play baseball again , he asks to bring others to the field to play . He later returns with the seven other players banned as a result of the 1919 scandal . Ray 's brother - in - law , Mark , ca n't see the players and warns him that he will go bankrupt unless he replants his corn . While in the field , Ray hears the voice again , this time urging him to `` ease his pain . '' Ray attends a PTA meeting at which the possible banning of books by radical author Terence Mann is discussed . He decides the voice was referring to Mann . He comes across a magazine interview dealing with Mann 's childhood dream of playing for the Brooklyn Dodgers . After Ray and Annie both dream about him and Mann attending a baseball game together at Fenway Park , he convinces her that he should seek out Mann . He heads to Boston and persuades a reluctant , embittered Mann to attend a game with him at Fenway Park . While there , he hears the voice again , this time urging him to `` go the distance . '' At the same time , the scoreboard `` shows '' statistics for a player named Archibald `` Moonlight '' Graham , who played one game for the New York Giants in 1922 , but never had a turn at bat . After the game , Mann eventually admits that he , too , saw it . Ray and Mann then travel to Chisholm , Minnesota where they learn that Graham had become a doctor and had died sixteen years earlier . During a late night walk , Ray finds himself back in 1972 and encounters the then - living Graham , who states that he had moved on from his baseball career . He also says that the greater disappointment would have been not having a medical career . He declines Ray 's invitation to fulfill his dream ; however , during the drive back home , Ray picks up a young hitchhiker who introduces himself as Archie Graham . While Archie sleeps , Ray reveals to Mann that John had wanted him to live out his dream of being a baseball star . He stopped playing catch with him after reading one of Mann 's books at 14 . At 17 , he had denounced Shoeless Joe as a criminal to John and that was the reason for the rift between them . Ray expresses regret that he did n't get a chance to make things right before John died . When they arrive back at Ray 's farm , they find that enough players have arrived to field two teams . A game is played and Archie finally gets his turn at bat . The Field of Dreams , Dyersville , Iowa -- May 2006 The next morning , Mark returns and demands that Ray sell the farm . Karin says that they will not | [
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Century Fox , part of the time as its president , and repeatedly mentioned that the book should be adapted into a film . The studio , however , always turned down the suggestion because they felt the project was too esoteric and noncommercial . Meanwhile , Robinson went ahead with his script , frequently consulting W.P. Kinsella , the book 's author , for advice on the adaptation . Lawrence Gordon left Fox in 1986 and started pitching the adaptation to other studios . Universal Studios accepted the project in 1987 and hired USC coach Rod Dedeaux as baseball advisor . Dedeaux brought along World Series champion and USC alumnus Don Buford to coach the actors . The film was shot using the novel 's title ; eventually , an executive decision was made to rename it Field of Dreams . Robinson did not like the idea saying he loved Shoeless Joe , and that the new title was better suited for one about dreams deferred . Later , Kinsella told Robinson that his originally chosen title for the book had been The Dream Field and that the title Shoeless Joe had been imposed by the publisher . Casting ( edit ) Robinson and the producers did not originally consider Kevin Costner for the part of Ray because they did not think that he would want to follow Bull Durham with another baseball film . He , however , did end up reading the script and became interested in the project , stating that he felt it would be `` this generation 's It 's a Wonderful Life '' . Since Robinson 's directing debut In the Mood had been a commercial failure , Costner also said that he would help him with the production . Amy Madigan , a fan of the book , joined the cast as Ray 's wife , Annie . In the book , the writer Ray seeks out is real - life author J.D. Salinger . When Salinger threatened the production with a lawsuit if his name was used , Robinson decided to rewrite the character as reclusive Terence Mann . He wrote with James Earl Jones in mind because he thought it would be fun to see Ray trying to kidnap such a big man . Robinson had originally envisioned Shoeless Joe Jackson as being played by an actor in his 40s , someone who would be older than Costner and who could thereby act as a father surrogate . Ray Liotta did not fit that criterion , but Robinson thought he would be a better fit for the part because he had the `` sense of danger '' and ambiguity which Robinson wanted in the character . Burt Lancaster had originally turned down the part of Moonlight Graham , but changed his mind after a friend , who was also a baseball fan , told him that he had to work on the film . Filming ( edit ) Filming began on May 25 , 1988 . The shooting schedule was built around Costner 's availability because he would be leaving in August to film Revenge . Except for some weather delays and other time constraints , production rolled six days a week . The interior scenes were the first ones shot because the cornfield planted by the filmmakers was | [
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. The interior scenes were the first ones shot because the cornfield planted by the filmmakers was taking too long to grow . Irrigation had to be used to quickly grow the corn to Costner 's height . Primary shot locations were in Dubuque County , Iowa ; a farm near Dyersville was used for the Kinsella home ; an empty warehouse in Dubuque was used to build various interior sets . Galena , Illinois served as Moonlight Graham 's Chisholm , Minnesota . One week was spent on location shots in Boston , most notably Fenway Park . Robinson , despite having a sufficient budget as well as the cast and crew he wanted , constantly felt tense and depressed during filming . He felt that he was under too much pressure to create an outstanding film , and that he was not doing justice to the original novel . Lawrence Gordon convinced him that the end product would be effective . During a lunch with the Iowa Chamber of Commerce , Robinson broached his idea of a final scene in which headlights could be seen for miles along the horizon . The Chamber folks replied that it could be done and the shooting of the final scene became a community event . The film crew was hidden on the farm to make sure the aerial shots did not reveal them . Dyersville was then blacked out and local extras drove their vehicles to the field . In order to give the illusion of movement , the drivers were instructed to continuously switch between their low and high beams . Field ( edit ) The baseball field from the film Scenes of the Kinsella farm were taken on the property of Don Lansing ; some of the baseball field scenes were shot on the neighboring farm of Al Ameskamp . Because the shooting schedule was too short for grass to naturally grow , the experts on sod laying responsible for Dodger Stadium and the Rose Bowl were hired to create the baseball field . Part of the process involved painting the turf green . After shooting , Ameskamp again grew corn on his property ; Lansing maintained his as a tourist destination . He did not charge for admission or parking , deriving revenue solely from the souvenir shop . By the film 's twentieth anniversary , approximately 65,000 people visited annually . In July 2010 , the farm containing the `` Field '' was listed as for sale . It was sold on October 31 , 2011 , to Go The Distance Baseball , LLC , for an undisclosed fee , believed to be around $5.4 million . In January 2018 , a man went off - roading on the field , causing large tire gashes and damaging the sprinkler system . The following week , he turned himself in and was charged with felony mischief . Music ( edit ) At first , James Horner was unsure if he could work on the film due to scheduling restrictions . Then he watched a rough cut and was so moved that he accepted the job of scoring it . Robinson had created a temp track which was disliked by Universal executives . When the announcement of Horner as composer | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Field_of_Dreams&oldid=825337460 | 3,582,454,729,028,629,000 | <Li> Amy Madigan as Annie Kinsella </Li> | Amy Madigan | 3582454729028629003_5 | false | The filming of the movie "Field of Dreams" took place in various locations, including Dubuque County, Iowa and Galena, Illinois. The interior scenes were the first ones shot due to the slow growth of the cornfield planted by the filmmakers. The Kinsella home was located on a farm near Dyersville, and an empty warehouse in Dubuque was used to build various interior sets. Moonlight Graham's Chisholm, Minnesota was portrayed in Galena, Illinois. Additionally, one week was spent on location shots in Boston, particularly at Fenway Park.
Director Phil Alden Robinson experienced tension and depression during filming, feeling the pressure to create an outstanding film and do justice to the original novel. However, Lawrence Gordon convinced him that the end product would be effective. The final scene of the film, featuring headlights seen for miles along the horizon, became a community event with the help of the Iowa Chamber of Commerce.
The baseball field scenes were shot on the property of Don Lansing and the neighboring farm of Al Ameskamp. Due to the short shooting schedule, experts on sod laying were hired to create the baseball field, which involved painting the turf green. After shooting, Ameskamp grew corn on his property again, while Lansing maintained his as a tourist destination.
The music for the film was composed by James Horner, who initially had scheduling restrictions but was moved by a rough cut of the film and accepted the job of scoring it. The announcement of Horner as composer was disliked by Universal executives, but he ultimately worked on the film.
Overall, "Field of Dreams" was a significant production that involved various locations and challenges, ultimately resulting in a beloved film. |
temp track which was disliked by Universal executives . When the announcement of Horner as composer was made , they felt more positive because they expected a big orchestral score , similar to Horner 's work for An American Tail . Horner , in contrast , liked the temporary score , finding it `` quiet and kind of ghostly . '' He decided to follow the idea of the temp track , creating an atmospheric soundtrack which would `` focus on the emotions '' . In addition to Horner 's score , portions of several pop songs are heard during the film . They are listed in the following order in the closing credits : `` Crazy '' , written by Willie Nelson and performed by Beverly D'Angelo `` Daydream '' , written by John Sebastian and performed by The Lovin ' Spoonful `` Jessica '' , written by Dickey Betts and performed by The Allman Brothers Band `` China Grove '' , written by Tom Johnston and performed by The Doobie Brothers `` Lotus Blossom '' , written by Billy Strayhorn and performed by Duke Ellington Historical connections ( edit ) The character played by Burt Lancaster and Frank Whaley , Archibald `` Moonlight '' Graham , is based on an actual baseball player with the same name . His character is largely true to life except for a few factual liberties taken for artistic reasons . For instance , the real Graham 's lone major league game occurred in June 1905 , rather than on the final day of the 1922 season . The real Graham also died in 1965 , as opposed to 1972 as the film depicts . In the film , Terence Mann interviews a number of people about Graham . The DVD special points out that the facts they gave him were taken from articles written about the real one . Release and reception ( edit ) This section needs expansion . You can help by adding to it . ( July 2017 ) Universal scheduled the film to open in the U.S. on April 21 , 1989.It debuted in just a few theaters and was gradually released to more screens so that it would have a spot among the summer blockbusters . It ended up playing until December . As of June 2017 , review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes rates the film 86 % , based on 57 reviews with an average score of 7.9 out of 10 . The consensus states : `` Field of Dreams is sentimental , but in the best way ; it 's a mix of fairy tale , baseball , and family togetherness . '' Honors ( edit ) In June 2008 , after having polled over 1,500 people in the creative community , AFI revealed its `` Ten Top Ten '' -- the best ten films in ten `` classic '' American film genres . The film was acknowledged as the sixth best one in the fantasy genre . American Film Institute Lists AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies -- nominated AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes : `` If you build it , he will come . '' -- # 39 | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Field_of_Dreams&oldid=825337460 | 3,582,454,729,028,629,000 | <Li> Amy Madigan as Annie Kinsella </Li> | Amy Madigan | 3582454729028629003_6 | false | Field of Dreams is a 1989 film that features a score by composer James Horner. The announcement of Horner as composer was well-received, as Universal executives expected a big orchestral score similar to Horner's previous work. However, Horner decided to follow the idea of the temporary track, creating an atmospheric soundtrack that focused on the emotions. In addition to Horner's score, portions of several pop songs are heard during the film. The character played by Burt Lancaster and Frank Whaley, Archibald "Moonlight" Graham, is based on an actual baseball player with the same name. The film was released in the U.S. on April 21, 1989, and received positive reviews, with an 86% rating on Rotten Tomatoes. In June 2008, the American Film Institute acknowledged the film as the sixth best in the fantasy genre. The film also received nominations for AFI's 100 Years...100 Movies and AFI's 100 Years...100 Movie Quotes. |
's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes : `` If you build it , he will come . '' -- # 39 AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores -- nominated AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Cheers -- # 28 AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) -- nominated AFI 's 10 Top 10 -- # 6 Fantasy Film See also ( edit ) Baseball portal Film in the United States portal List of ghost films References ( edit ) Jump up ^ `` Field of Dreams ( 1989 ) '' . IMDb . Retrieved March 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ Laff at the Movies ( April 20 , 2012 ) . `` Review : `` Touchback '' Is an Inspiring Drama that Will Make You Smile `` . Grand Rapids , MI : WOOD - TV . Retrieved August 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` ' Field of Dreams ' '' . JeffCarneyFilms.com . Retrieved August 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` Box Office Information for ' Field of Dreams ' '' . Box Office Mojo . August 26 , 2013 . Jump up ^ `` 2017 National Film Registry Is More Than a ' Field of Dreams ' '' . Retrieved December 13 , 2017 . ^ Jump up to : `` The ' Field of Dreams ' Scrapbook '' . Field of Dreams ( DVD ) . Jump up ^ Easton , Nina J. ( April 21 , 1989 ) . `` Diamonds Are Forever : Director Fields the Lost Hopes of Adolescence '' . Los Angeles Times . Retrieved March 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` Production Notes '' . Field of Dreams ( DVD ) . Jump up ^ King , Susan ( December 15 , 2009 ) . `` ' Field of Dreams ' Screens to Mark 20th Anniversary '' . Los Angeles Times . Jump up ^ Grossfeld , Stan ( July 20 , 2010 ) . `` Living in a Dream World ? '' . Boston Globe . Retrieved July 20 , 2010 . Jump up ^ Wilson , Greg ( October 31 , 2011 ) . `` ' Field of Dreams ' Iowa Farm Sold for Millions '' . Chicago : WMAQ - TV . Retrieved August 1 , 2012 . Jump up ^ https://www.msn.com/en-us/sports/mlb/man-who-tore-up-field-of-dreams-identified-and-arrested/ar-BBIAgm3?li=BBnba9I Jump up ^ `` Moonlight Graham '' . Retrosheet.org . Retrieved June 5 , 2010 . Jump up ^ `` ' Field of Dreams ' '' . Rotten Tomatoes . Jump up ^ `` AFI Crowns Top 10 Films in 10 Classic Genres '' ( Press release ) . American Film Institute . June 17 , 2008 . Retrieved June 18 , 2008 -- via ComingSoon.net . Jump up ^ `` Top 10 Fantasy '' . American Film Institute . Archived from the original on June 19 , 2008 . Retrieved June 18 , 2008 . Jump up ^ `` AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies Nominees '' ( PDF ) . American Film Institute . Retrieved March 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` AFI 's 100 Years of Film Scores : Honoring America 's Greatest Film Music '' ( PDF ) ( Official ballot ) . American Film Institute . Retrieved March 19 , 2015 . Jump up ^ `` AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies '' ( PDF ) ( Official ballot ) ( 10th | [
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. Jump up ^ `` AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies '' ( PDF ) ( Official ballot ) ( 10th Anniversary ed . ) . American Film Institute . Retrieved March 19 , 2015 . External links ( edit ) Wikiquote has quotations related to : Field of Dreams Wikimedia Commons has media related to Field of Dreams . Official website Field of Dreams on IMDb Field of Dreams at the TCM Movie Database Field of Dreams at AllMovie Field of Dreams at Rotten Tomatoes Field of Dreams at Box Office Mojo Films directed by Phil Alden Robinson In the Mood ( 1987 ) Field of Dreams ( 1989 ) Sneakers ( 1992 ) Freedom Song ( 2000 ) The Sum of All Fears ( 2002 ) The Angriest Man in Brooklyn ( 2014 ) Black Sox Scandal Banned players Eddie Cicotte Happy Felsch Chick Gandil Shoeless Joe Jackson Fred McMullin Swede Risberg Buck Weaver Lefty Williams Other figures Abe Attell Sleepy Bill Burns Charles Comiskey Judge Hugo Friend Hugh Fullerton Joe Gedeon Kid Gleason Ban Johnson Kenesaw Mountain Landis Billy Maharg Arnold Rothstein Sport Sullivan Films Eight Men Out Field of Dreams Miscellaneous 1919 Chicago White Sox season 1919 Cincinnati Reds season 1919 World Series Curse of the Black Sox Shoeless Joe ( novel ) Book : Black Sox Scandal Boston Red Sox Formerly the Boston Americans Based in Boston , Massachusetts Franchise History Seasons Records No - hitters Awards Players Owners and executives Managers Coaches Captains Broadcasters Opening Day starters First - round draft picks Logos and uniforms Hall of Fame Ballparks Huntington Avenue Grounds Braves Field Fenway Park | [
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Huntington Avenue Grounds Braves Field Fenway Park Spring training Venues Majestic Park Plant Field Whittington Park Riverside Park Ninth Street Park Payne Park Bader Field Scottsdale Stadium Chain of Lakes Park City of Palms Park JetBlue Park at Fenway South Culture Red Sox Nation Royal Rooters `` Nuf Ced '' McGreevy Curse of the Bambino Green Monster Pesky 's Pole Wally the Green Monster Victoria Snelgrove `` Tessie '' `` Dirty Water '' `` Sweet Caroline '' `` Dream On '' `` I 'm Shipping Up to Boston '' `` Three Little Birds '' Field of Dreams Good Will Hunting Fever Pitch Moneyball Game 6 The Town The Jimmy Fund Yawkey Way Kenmore Square Citgo Sign Golden Outfield Carl Beane Sherm Feller Cheers Still , We Believe : The Boston Red Sox Movie Four Days in October Red Sox Rule Lore Cy Young 's perfect game Slaughter 's Mad Dash Babe Ruth 's 573 - foot home run into Alligator Farm 1948 AL tie - breaker game The Impossible Dream Carlton Fisk waves it fair 1978 AL East tie - breaker game Bill Buckner 's error Aaron Boone 's home run The bloody sock `` Idiots '' break the curse Boston Strong Rivalries New York Yankees Administration Owners : Fenway Sports Group John W. Henry Tom Werner President and CEO : Sam Kennedy President of Baseball Operations : Dave Dombrowski General Manager : Vacant Manager : Alex Cora World Series Championships ( 8 ) 1903 1912 1915 1916 1918 2007 2013 League Pennants ( 13 ) 1903 1904 1912 1915 1916 1918 1946 1967 1986 2007 2013 Division championships ( 9 ) 1986 1988 1990 1995 2007 2013 2016 2017 Wild card berths ( 7 | [
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2013 2016 2017 Wild card berths ( 7 ) 1998 1999 2003 2005 2008 2009 Minor league affiliates AAA Pawtucket Red Sox AA Portland Sea Dogs A Adv . Salem Red Sox Greenville Drive Short A Lowell Spinners Rookie GCL Red Sox DSL Red Sox Broadcasting Television New England Sports Network ( NESN ) Radio WEEI - FM Radio network affiliates Broadcasters Dave O'Brien Jerry Remy Joe Castiglione Tim Neverett Uri Berenguer Juan Oscar Baez Seasons ( 118 ) 1900s 1900 1901 1902 1903 1904 1905 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910s 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 1917 1918 1919 1920s 1920 1921 1922 1923 1924 1925 1926 1927 1928 1929 1930s 1930 1931 1932 1933 1934 1935 1936 1937 1938 1939 1940s 1940 1941 1942 1943 1944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950s 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960s 1960 1961 1962 1963 1964 1965 1966 1967 1968 1969 1970s 1970 1971 1972 1973 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980s 1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 | [
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1980 1981 1982 1984 1985 1986 1988 1990s 1990 1991 1995 1998 1999 2000s 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010s 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 Retrieved from `` https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Field_of_Dreams&oldid=825337460 '' Categories : 1989 films English - language films 1980s drama films 1980s fantasy films 1980s ghost films 1980s sports films American baseball films American drama films American fantasy films American films American ghost films Culture of Dubuque , Iowa Films scored by James Horner Films about families Films based on Canadian novels Films based on works by W.P. Kinsella Films directed by Phil Alden Robinson Films set in Boston Films set in Iowa Films set in Minnesota Films shot in Illinois Films shot in Iowa Films shot in Massachusetts Sports drama films Time travel films Universal Pictures films United States National Film Registry films Hidden categories : Articles needing more detailed references Use mdy dates from March 2015 Pages using div col without cols and colwidth parameters Articles to be expanded from July 2017 All articles to be expanded Articles using small message boxes Talk Contents About Wikipedia Wikiquote Български Català Deutsch Español فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia | [
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] | https://en.wikipedia.org//w/index.php?title=Field_of_Dreams&oldid=825337460 | 3,582,454,729,028,629,000 | <Li> Amy Madigan as Annie Kinsella </Li> | Amy Madigan | 3582454729028629003_11 | false | Field of Dreams is a 1989 American film directed by Phil Alden Robinson. The film is based on the novel Shoeless Joe by W.P. Kinsella. It stars Kevin Costner in the lead role and features Amy Madigan as his wife. The film is categorized as a sports drama and fantasy film and is set in Iowa. Field of Dreams was well-received and has been included in the United States National Film Registry. It was also scored by James Horner. |
فارسی Français 한국어 Հայերեն Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Македонски Nederlands 日本 語 Polski Português Русский Suomi Svenska Українська 中文 14 more Edit links This page was last edited on 12 February 2018 , at 20 : 48 . Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution - ShareAlike License ; additional terms may apply . By using this site , you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy . Wikipedia ® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation , Inc. , a non-profit organization . About Wikipedia | [
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Heat transfer - wikipedia Heat transfer Jump to : navigation , search Simulation of thermal convection in the Earth 's mantle . Colors span from red and green to blue with decreasing temperatures . A hot , less - dense lower boundary layer sends plumes of hot material upwards , and cold material from the top moves downwards . Heat transfer is a discipline of thermal engineering that concerns the generation , use , conversion , and exchange of thermal energy ( heat ) between physical systems . Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms , such as thermal conduction , thermal convection , thermal radiation , and transfer of energy by phase changes . Engineers also consider the transfer of mass of differing chemical species , either cold or hot , to achieve heat transfer . While these mechanisms have distinct characteristics , they often occur simultaneously in the same system . Heat conduction , also called diffusion , is the direct microscopic exchange of kinetic energy of particles through the boundary between two systems . When an object is at a different temperature from another body or its surroundings , heat flows so that the body and the surroundings reach the same temperature , at which point they are in thermal equilibrium . Such spontaneous heat transfer always occurs from a region of high temperature to another region of lower temperature , as described in the second law of thermodynamics . Heat convection occurs when bulk flow of a fluid ( gas or liquid ) carries heat along with the flow of matter in the fluid . The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes , or sometimes ( in gravitational fields ) by buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid ( for example in a fire plume ) , thus influencing its own transfer . The latter process is often called `` natural convection '' . All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion , as well . Another form of convection is forced convection . In this case the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump , fan or other mechanical means . Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium ( solid or fluid ) . It is the transfer of energy by means of photons in electromagnetic waves governed by the same laws . Contents ( hide ) 1 Overview 2 Mechanisms 2.1 Advection 2.2 Conduction 2.3 Convection 2.3. 1 Convection - cooling 2.4 Convection vs. conduction 2.5 Radiation 3 Phase transition 3.1 Boiling 3.2 Condensation 3.3 Melting 4 Modeling approaches 4.1 Climate models 4.2 Heat equation 4.3 Lumped system analysis 5 Engineering 5.1 Insulation , radiance and resistance 5.2 Devices 5.2. 1 Heat exchangers | [
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Forced convection is the process by which a mechanical device is used to move a fluid or gas to transfer heat. This occurs when the fluid is forced to flow by use of a pump, fan, or other mechanical means. The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes, thus influencing its own transfer. This form of convection is known as forced convection and is a key aspect of heat transfer in various engineering applications. |
and resistance 5.2 Devices 5.2. 1 Heat exchangers 6 Applications 6.1 Architecture 6.2 Climate engineering 6.3 Greenhouse effect 6.4 Heat transfer in the human body 6.5 Cooling techniques 6.5. 1 Evaporative cooling 6.5. 2 Laser cooling 6.5. 3 Magnetic cooling 6.5. 4 Radiative cooling 6.6 Thermal energy storage 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Overview ( edit ) See also : Heat transfer physics Earth 's long wave thermal radiation intensity , from clouds , atmosphere and surface . Heat is defined in physics as the transfer of thermal energy across a well - defined boundary around a thermodynamic system . The thermodynamic free energy is the amount of work that a thermodynamic system can perform . Enthalpy is a thermodynamic potential , designated by the letter `` H '' , that is the sum of the internal energy of the system ( U ) plus the product of pressure ( P ) and volume ( V ) . Joule is a unit to quantify energy , work , or the amount of heat . Heat transfer is a process function ( or path function ) , as opposed to functions of state ; therefore , the amount of heat transferred in a thermodynamic process that changes the state of a system depends on how that process occurs , not only the net difference between the initial and final states of the process . Thermodynamic and mechanical heat transfer is calculated with the heat transfer coefficient , the proportionality between the heat flux and the thermodynamic driving force for the flow of heat . Heat flux is a quantitative , vectorial representation of heat - flow through a surface . In engineering contexts , the term heat is taken as synonymous to thermal energy . This usage has its origin in the historical interpretation of heat as a fluid ( Caloric ) that can be transferred by various causes , and that is also common in the language of laymen and everyday life . The transport equations for thermal energy ( Fourier 's law ) , mechanical momentum ( Newton 's law for fluids ) , and mass transfer ( Fick 's laws of diffusion ) are similar , and analogies among these three transport processes have been developed to facilitate prediction of conversion from any one to the others . Thermal engineering concerns the generation , use , conversion , and exchange of heat transfer . As such , heat transfer is involved in almost every sector of the economy . Heat transfer is classified into various mechanisms , such as thermal conduction , thermal convection , thermal radiation , and transfer of energy by phase changes . Mechanisms ( edit ) The fundamental modes of heat transfer are : Advection Advection is the transport mechanism of a fluid from one | [
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One of the mechanisms of heat transfer is advection, which involves the transport of a fluid from one place to another. However, the process by which a mechanical device is used to move a fluid or gas to transfer heat is known as forced convection. This mechanism plays a significant role in various industrial and technological applications, contributing to the efficient exchange and utilization of thermal energy. |
are : Advection Advection is the transport mechanism of a fluid from one location to another , and is dependent on motion and momentum of that fluid . Conduction or diffusion The transfer of energy between objects that are in physical contact . Thermal conductivity is the property of a material to conduct heat and evaluated primarily in terms of Fourier 's Law for heat conduction . Convection The transfer of energy between an object and its environment , due to fluid motion . The average temperature is a reference for evaluating properties related to convective heat transfer . Radiation The transfer of energy by the emission of electromagnetic radiation . Advection ( edit ) By transferring matter , energy -- including thermal energy -- is moved by the physical transfer of a hot or cold object from one place to another . This can be as simple as placing hot water in a bottle and heating a bed , or the movement of an iceberg in changing ocean currents . A practical example is thermal hydraulics . This can be described by the formula : Q = v ρ c p Δ T ( \ displaystyle Q = v \ rho c_ ( p ) \ Delta T ) where Q is heat flux ( W / m2 ) , ρ is density ( kg / m3 ) , c p ( \ displaystyle c_ ( p ) ) is heat capacity at constant pressure ( J / kg K ) , ΔT is the change in temperature ( K ) , v ( \ displaystyle v ) is velocity ( m / s ) . Conduction ( edit ) Main article : Thermal conduction On a microscopic scale , heat conduction occurs as hot , rapidly moving or vibrating atoms and molecules interact with neighboring atoms and molecules , transferring some of their energy ( heat ) to these neighboring particles . In other words , heat is transferred by conduction when adjacent atoms vibrate against one another , or as electrons move from one atom to another . Conduction is the most significant means of heat transfer within a solid or between solid objects in thermal contact . Fluids -- especially gases -- are less conductive . Thermal contact conductance is the study of heat conduction between solid bodies in contact . The process of heat transfer from one place to another place without the movement of particles is called conduction . Example : Heat transfer through Metal rods . Steady state conduction ( see Fourier 's law ) is a form of conduction that happens when the temperature difference driving the conduction is constant , so that after an equilibration time , the spatial distribution of temperatures in the conducting object does not change any further . In steady state conduction , the amount of heat entering a section is equal to amount of heat coming out . Transient conduction ( see Heat equation ) occurs when the temperature within an object changes as a function of time . Analysis of transient systems is more complex and often calls for the application of approximation | [
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Forced convection is the process by which a mechanical device is used to move a fluid or gas to transfer heat. This can be as simple as placing hot water in a bottle and heating a bed, or the movement of an iceberg in changing ocean currents. A practical example of forced convection is thermal hydraulics. This process is essential for the transfer of heat and plays a significant role in various industrial and natural processes. |
Analysis of transient systems is more complex and often calls for the application of approximation theories or numerical analysis by computer . Convection ( edit ) Main article : Convection The flow of fluid may be forced by external processes , or sometimes ( in gravitational fields ) by buoyancy forces caused when thermal energy expands the fluid ( for example in a fire plume ) , thus influencing its own transfer . The latter process is often called `` natural convection '' . All convective processes also move heat partly by diffusion , as well . Another form of convection is forced convection . In this case the fluid is forced to flow by using a pump , fan or other mechanical means . Convective heat transfer , or convection , is the transfer of heat from one place to another by the movement of fluids , a process that is essentially the transfer of heat via mass transfer . Bulk motion of fluid enhances heat transfer in many physical situations , such as ( for example ) between a solid surface and the fluid . Convection is usually the dominant form of heat transfer in liquids and gases . Although sometimes discussed as a third method of heat transfer , convection is usually used to describe the combined effects of heat conduction within the fluid ( diffusion ) and heat transference by bulk fluid flow streaming . The process of transport by fluid streaming is known as advection , but pure advection is a term that is generally associated only with mass transport in fluids , such as advection of pebbles in a river . In the case of heat transfer in fluids , where transport by advection in a fluid is always also accompanied by transport via heat diffusion ( also known as heat conduction ) the process of heat convection is understood to refer to the sum of heat transport by advection and diffusion / conduction . Free , or natural , convection occurs when bulk fluid motions ( streams and currents ) are caused by buoyancy forces that result from density variations due to variations of temperature in the fluid . Forced convection is a term used when the streams and currents in the fluid are induced by external means -- such as fans , stirrers , and pumps -- creating an artificially induced convection current . Convection - cooling ( edit ) See also : Nusselt number Convective cooling is sometimes described as Newton 's law of cooling : The rate of heat loss of a body is proportional to the temperature difference between the body and its surroundings . However , by definition , the validity of Newton 's law of Cooling requires that the rate of heat loss from convection be a linear function of ( `` proportional to '' ) the temperature difference that drives heat transfer , and in convective cooling this is sometimes not the case . In general , convection is not linearly dependent on temperature gradients , and in some cases is strongly nonlinear . In these cases , Newton 's law does not | [
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gradients , and in some cases is strongly nonlinear . In these cases , Newton 's law does not apply . Convection vs. conduction ( edit ) In a body of fluid that is heated from underneath its container , conduction and convection can be considered to compete for dominance . If heat conduction is too great , fluid moving down by convection is heated by conduction so fast that its downward movement will be stopped due to its buoyancy , while fluid moving up by convection is cooled by conduction so fast that its driving buoyancy will diminish . On the other hand , if heat conduction is very low , a large temperature gradient may be formed and convection might be very strong . The Rayleigh number ( R a ( \ displaystyle Ra ) ) is the product of the Grashof and Prandtl numbers . It is a measure which determines the relative strength of conduction and convection . R a = G r P r = g Δ ρ L 3 μ α = g β Δ T L 3 ν α ( \ displaystyle Ra = GrPr = ( \ frac ( g \ Delta \ rho L ^ ( 3 ) ) ( \ mu \ alpha ) ) = ( \ frac ( g \ beta \ Delta TL ^ ( 3 ) ) ( \ nu \ alpha ) ) ) where g is acceleration due to gravity , ρ is the density with Δ ρ ( \ displaystyle \ Delta \ rho ) being the density difference between the lower and upper ends , μ is the dynamic viscosity , α is the Thermal diffusivity , β is the volume thermal expansivity ( sometimes denoted α elsewhere ) , T is the temperature , ν is the kinematic viscosity , and L is characteristic length . The Rayleigh number can be understood as the ratio between the rate of heat transfer by convection to the rate of heat transfer by conduction ; or , equivalently , the ratio between the corresponding timescales ( i.e. conduction timescale divided by convection timescale ) , up to a numerical factor . This can be seen as follows , where all calculations are up to numerical factors depending on the geometry of the system . The buoyancy force driving the convection is roughly g Δ ρ L 3 ( \ displaystyle g \ Delta \ rho L ^ ( 3 ) ) , so the corresponding pressure is roughly g Δ ρ L ( \ displaystyle g \ Delta \ rho L ) . In steady state , this is canceled by the shear stress due to viscosity , and therefore roughly equals μ V / L = μ / T c o n v ( \ displaystyle \ mu V / L = \ mu / T_ ( conv ) ) , where V is the typical fluid velocity due to convection and T c o n v ( \ displaystyle T_ ( conv ) ) the order of its timescale . The conduction timescale , on the other hand , is of the order of T c o n d = L 2 / α ( \ displaystyle T_ ( cond ) = L ^ ( 2 ) / \ alpha ) . Convection occurs when the Rayleigh number is above 1,000 -- 2,000 . Radiation ( edit ) Red - hot iron object , transferring heat to the surrounding environment through thermal radiation Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium ( solid or | [
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radiation Thermal radiation occurs through a vacuum or any transparent medium ( solid or fluid ) . It is the transfer of energy by means of photons in electromagnetic waves governed by the same laws . Thermal radiation is energy emitted by matter as electromagnetic waves , due to the pool of thermal energy in all matter with a temperature above absolute zero . Thermal radiation propagates without the presence of matter through the vacuum of space . Thermal radiation is a direct result of the random movements of atoms and molecules in matter . Since these atoms and molecules are composed of charged particles ( protons and electrons ) , their movement results in the emission of electromagnetic radiation , which carries energy away from the surface . The Stefan - Boltzmann equation , which describes the rate of transfer of radiant energy , is as follows for an object in a vacuum : Q = ε σ T 4 . ( \ displaystyle Q = \ epsilon \ sigma T ^ ( 4 ) . ) For radiative transfer between two objects , the equation is as follows : Q = ε σ ( T a 4 − T b 4 ) , ( \ displaystyle Q = \ epsilon \ sigma ( T_ ( a ) ^ ( 4 ) - T_ ( b ) ^ ( 4 ) ) , ) where Q is the heat flux , ε is the emissivity ( unity for a black body ) , σ is the Stefan -- Boltzmann constant , and T is the absolute temperature ( in kelvins or degrees Rankine ) . Radiation is typically only important for very hot objects , or for objects with a large temperature difference . Radiation from the sun , or solar radiation , can be harvested for heat and power . Unlike conductive and convective forms of heat transfer , thermal radiation can be concentrated in a small spot by using reflecting mirrors , which is exploited in concentrating solar power generation . For example , the sunlight reflected from mirrors heats the PS10 solar power tower and during the day it can heat water to 285 ° C ( 545 ° F ) . Phase transition ( edit ) Lightning is a highly visible form of energy transfer and is an example of plasma present at Earth 's surface . Typically , lightning discharges 30,000 amperes at up to 100 million volts , and emits light , radio waves , X-rays and even gamma rays . Plasma temperatures in lightning can approach 28,000 kelvins ( 27,726.85 ° C ) ( 49,940.33 ° F ) and electron densities may exceed 10 m . Phase transition or phase change , takes place in a thermodynamic system from one phase or state of matter to another one by heat transfer . Phase change examples are the melting of ice or the boiling of water . The Mason equation explains the growth of a water droplet based on the effects of heat transport on evaporation and condensation . Phase transitions involve the four fundamental states of matter : Solid -- Deposition , freezing and solid to solid transformation . Gas -- Boiling / evaporation , recombination / deionization , and sublimation | [
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Phase transition, or phase change, takes place in a thermodynamic system from one phase or state of matter to another one by heat transfer. Examples of phase change include the melting of ice or the boiling of water. Phase transitions involve the four fundamental states of matter: solid, gas, liquid, and plasma. Lightning is a highly visible form of energy transfer and is an example of plasma present at Earth's surface, discharging high amperes at high volts and emitting various forms of energy such as light, radio waves, X-rays, and gamma rays.
Forced convection is the process by which a mechanical device is used to move a fluid or gas to transfer heat. |