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6a6599c5-857b-4f83-8500-aa4d88dc5b1b | Internet Society hay ISOC là một tổ chức quốc tế hoạt động phi lợi nhuận, phi chính phủ và bao gồm các thành viên có trình độ chuyên ngành. Tổ chức này chú trọng đến: tiêu chuẩn, giáo dục và các vấn đề về chính sách. Với trên 145 tổ chức thành viên và 65.000 thành viên cá nhân, ISOC bao gồm những con người cụ thể trong cộng đồng Internet. Mọi chi tiết có thể tìm thấy tại website của ISOC.
Internet Society nằm ở gần thủ đô Washington, DC, Hoa Kỳ và Geneva, Thụy Sĩ. Số hội viên của nó bao gồm hơn 145 tổ chức thành viên và hơn 65.000 cá nhân. Thành viên còn có thể tự lập một chi nhánh của tổ chức tùy theo vị trí hoặc sở thích. Hiện nay tổ chức có tới 90 chi nhánh trên toàn thế giới.
Nhiệm vụ và mục đích hoạt động
Bảo đảm, cổ vũ cho sự phát triển, mở rộng và sử dụng Internet được thuận lợi nhất cho mọi người trên toàn thế giới.
Xem thêm
Lịch sử Internet
Tham khảo
Liên kết ngoài
ISOC Việt Nam
IETF and the Internet Society - Về Internet Engineering Task Force và ISOC, bài của Vint Cerf 18/7/1995
L’Association Internationale de Lutte Contre la Cybercriminalité bản lưu
Public Interest Registry
Internet
Tổ chức quốc tế
Tổ chức phi lợi nhuận
Tiêu chuẩn Internet
Khởi đầu năm 1992
Quản lý Internet | [
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711c0901-512f-4336-9021-e830f6ffa64c | Tiếng Việt, cũng gọi là tiếng Việt Nam hay Việt ngữ là ngôn ngữ của người Việt và là ngôn ngữ chính thức tại Việt Nam. Đây là tiếng mẹ đẻ của khoảng 85% dân cư Việt Nam cùng với hơn 4 triệu người Việt kiều. Tiếng Việt còn là ngôn ngữ thứ hai của các dân tộc thiểu số tại Việt Nam và là ngôn ngữ dân tộc thiểu số được công nhận tại Cộng hòa Séc.
Dựa trên từ vựng cơ bản, tiếng Việt được phân loại là một ngôn ngữ thuộc ngữ hệ Nam Á. Tiếng Việt là ngôn ngữ có nhiều người nói nhất trong ngữ hệ này (nhiều hơn tổng số người nói của tất cả các ngôn ngữ còn lại trong ngữ hệ). Vì Việt Nam thuộc Vùng văn hoá Đông Á, tiếng Việt cũng chịu nhiều ảnh hưởng về từ tiếng Hán, do vậy là ngôn ngữ có ít điểm tương đồng nhất với các ngôn ngữ khác trong ngữ hệ Nam Á.
Lịch sử
Theo A. G. Haudricourt giải thích từ năm 1954, nhóm ngôn ngữ Việt-Mường ở thời kỳ khoảng đầu Công nguyên là những ngôn ngữ hay phương ngữ không thanh điệu. Về sau, qua quá trình giao thoa với Hoa ngữ và nhất là với các ngữ thuộc ngữ hệ Tai-Kadai vốn có hệ thống thanh điệu phát triển cao hơn, hệ thống thanh điệu trong tiếng Việt xuất hiện và có diện mạo như ngày nay, theo quy luật hình thành thanh điệu. Sự xuất hiện các thanh điệu, bắt đầu khoảng thế kỷ thứ VI (thời kỳ Bắc thuộc trong lịch sử Việt Nam) với 3 thanh điệu và phát triển thêm vào khoảng thế kỷ XII (nhà Lý) với 6 thanh điệu. Sau đó một số phụ âm đầu biến đổi cho tới ngày nay. Trong quá trình biến đổi, các phụ âm cuối rụng đi làm thay đổi các kết thúc âm tiết và phụ âm đầu chuyển từ lẫn lộn vô thanh với hữu thanh sang tách biệt.
Ví dụ của A.G. Haudricourt.
Trước thời Pháp thuộc
Tiếng Việt là ngôn ngữ dùng trong sinh hoạt giao tiếp của dân thường từ khi lập nước. Giai đoạn từ đầu Công nguyên, tiếng Việt có những âm không có trong tiếng Trung. Từ khi tiếng Trung có ảnh hưởng tới Việt Nam thông qua các con đường và bao gồm các giai đoạn khác nhau, tiếng Việt bắt đầu có những âm vay mượn từ tiếng Trung. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
3266f2e4-47f6-42bf-94da-5e591c8c608e | Các tác giả Mai Ngọc Chừ, Vũ Đức Nghiệu và Hoàng Trọng Phiến trong cuốn sách Cơ sở ngôn ngữ học và tiếng Việt chia quá trình tiếp xúc Hán – Việt thành 2 giai đoạn chính:
Giai đoạn từ đầu Công nguyên đến đầu thời nhà Đường (đầu thế kỷ VIII), từ vựng tiếng Hán ảnh hưởng tới tiếng Việt trong giai đoạn này gọi là từ Hán cổ;
Giai đoạn từ thời nhà Đường (thế kỷ VIII – thế kỷ X) trở về sau, từ vựng tiếng Hán ảnh hưởng tới tiếng Việt trong giai đoạn này gọi là từ Hán Việt.
Từ Hán cổ và từ Hán Việt gọi chung là từ gốc Hán.
1 số từ ngữ Hán cổ có thể kể đến như "đầu", "gan", "ghế", "ông", "bà", "cô", "chè", "ngà", "chén", "chém", "chìm", "buồng", "buồn", "buồm", "mùi", "mùa"... Từ Hán cổ là những từ gốc Hán du nhập vào tiếng Việt từ lâu hơn, đã đồng hoá mạnh hơn, nên những từ này hiện nay là từ thông thường trong hoạt động xã hội đối với người Việt.
Hệ thống từ Hán Việt trong tiếng Việt bằng cách đọc các chữ Hán theo ngữ âm hiện có của tiếng Việt (tương tự như người Nhật Bản áp dụng kanji đối với chữ Hán và katakana với các tiếng nước ngoài khác). Hiện nay có 1945 chữ Hán thông dụng trong tiếng Nhật, cũng có khoảng 2000 từ Hán–Hàn thông dụng. Số lượng từ vựng tiếng Việt có thêm hàng loạt các yếu tố Hán–Việt. | [
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a30970a7-4051-4138-9863-6ed1373069ed | Như là "chủ", "ở", "tâm", "minh", "đức", "thiên", "tự do",... giữ nguyên nghĩa chỉ khác cách đọc; hay thay đổi vị trí như "nhiệt náo" thành "náo nhiệt", "thích phóng" thành "phóng thích", "đảm bảo" thành "bảo đảm"...; hoặc rút gọn như "thừa trần" thành "trần" (trong trần nhà), "lạc hoa sinh" thành "lạc" (trong củ lạc, còn gọi là đậu phộng)...; hoặc đọc chệch đi như sáp nhập (chữ Hán: 插入) thành sát nhập, thống kế (統計) thành thống kê, để kháng (抵抗) thành đề kháng, chúng cư (眾居) thành chung cư, bảo cô (保辜) thành báo cô, vãng cảnh (往景) thành vãn cảnh (晚景), khuyến mãi (勸買) thành khuyến mại (勸賣), vân vân; hay đổi khác nghĩa hoàn toàn như "phương phi" trong tiếng Hán có nghĩa là "hoa cỏ thơm tho" thì trong tiếng Việt lại là "béo tốt", "bồi hồi" trong tiếng Hán nghĩa là "đi đi lại lại" sang tiếng Việt thành "bồn chồn, xúc động"... Mặt khác, người Trung Quốc gọi là Thái Sơn, Hoàng Hà, cổ thụ... thì người Việt lại đọc là núi Thái Sơn, sông Hoàng Hà, cây cổ thụ (mặc dù sơn = núi, hà = sông, thụ = cây)... Do tính quy ước của ngôn ngữ mà phần nào đó các cách đọc sai khác với tiếng Hán vẫn có ai đó chấp nhận và sử dụng trong khi các nhà nghiên cứu ngôn ngữ tiếng Việt hiện nay cũng như các cơ quan, các cấp quản lý, tổ chức xã hội – nghề nghiệp lẫn các nhà khoa học Việt Nam có thể chưa tìm được tiếng nói chung trong việc chuẩn hoá cách sử dụng tên riêng và từ vựng mượn từ tiếng nước ngoài. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
eb6ff8a3-0d8d-4102-ac20-3b237a833b3b | Bên cạnh đó, có những từ có thể đã dùng sai như "quan ngại" dùng và hiểu như "lo ngại", "vấn nạn" hiểu là "vấn đề nan giải", "vô hình trung" thì viết thành "vô hình chung" hay "vô hình dung", "việt dã" là "chạy dài"; "trứ tác" dùng như "sáng tác", "phong thanh" dùng như "phong phanh", "bàng quan" dùng như "bàng quang", "đào ngũ" dùng là "đảo ngũ", "tham quan" thành "thăm quan", "xán lạn" thành "sáng lạng"…
Theo ước lượng của các nhà nghiên cứu, từ Hán Việt chiếm khoảng trên dưới 70% vốn từ trong phong cách chính luận, khoa học (Maspéro thì cho rằng, chúng chiếm hơn 60% lượng từ tiếng Việt). Tác giả Lê Nguyễn Lưu trong cuốn sách Từ chữ Hán đến chữ Nôm thì cho rằng về lĩnh vực chuyên môn và khoa học tỉ lệ này có thể lên đến 80% nhưng khi nhận xét về văn ngữ trong một cuốn tiểu thuyết thì chỉ còn 12,8%, kịch nói rút xuống còn 8,9% và ngôn ngữ nói chuyện hằng ngày còn thấp hơn nữa.
Các từ và từ tố Hán Việt tạo ra các từ ngữ mới cho tiếng Việt như sĩ diện, phi công, bao gồm, sống động, sinh đẻ, vân vân. Trong khi tiếng Việt gọi là phát thanh (發聲) thì tiếng Hán lại gọi là 廣播 quảng bá; tiếng Việt gọi là truyền hình (傳形) thì tiếng Hán gọi là 電視 điện thị; tiếng Việt gọi là thành phố (城鋪), thị xã (市社) thì tiếng Hán gọi là 市 thị. Tiếng Việt đã lợi dụng được những thành tựu ngôn ngữ trong tiếng Hán để tự cải tiến mình.
Kể từ đầu thế kỷ thứ XI, Nho học phát triển, việc học cổ văn gia tăng, tầng lớp trí thức mở rộng tạo tiền đề cho một nền văn chương của người Việt bằng cổ văn phát triển với các áng văn thư ví dụ như Nam quốc sơn hà bên sông Như Nguyệt (sông Cầu).
Cùng thời gian này, ai đó xây riêng 1 hệ thống chữ viết cho người Việt theo nguyên tắc ghi âm tiết phát triển, đó là chữ Nôm. Để tiện cho việc học chữ Hán và chữ Nôm của người Việt, Ngô Thì Nhậm (1746–1803) đã biên soạn cuốn sách Tam thiên tự giải âm (còn gọi là Tam thiên tự, Tự học toản yếu). | [
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37c8e251-59b4-4b7d-8d41-c2c871928661 | Tam thiên tự giải âm chỉ lược dạy 3000 chữ Hán, Nôm thông thường, đáp ứng nhu cầu cần thiết, nhớ chữ, nhớ nghĩa từng chữ, mỗi câu 4 chữ. Hiệp vần cũng có điểm đặc biệt, tức là vần lưng (yêu vận, vần giữa câu). Tiếng thứ 4 câu đầu hiệp với tiếng thứ hai câu dưới rồi cứ thế mãi đến 3000 chữ, 750 câu. Ví dụ: Thiên – trời, địa – đất, cử – cất, tồn – còn, tử – con, tôn – cháu, lục – sáu, tam – ba, gia – nhà, quốc – nước, tiền – trước, hậu – sau, ngưu – trâu, mã – ngựa, cự – cựa, nha – răng, vô – chăng, hữu – có, khuyển – chó, dương – dê,... Trần Văn Giáp đánh giá đây tuy chỉ là quyển sách dạy học vỡ lòng về chữ Hán như đã nêu ở trên nhưng thực ra cũng có thể coi nó chính là sách Từ điển Hán Việt thông thường và phổ biến ở cuối thế kỷ XVIII, cùng thời với các sách Chỉ nam ngọc âm, Chỉ nam bị loại và xuất hiện trước các sách Nhật dụng thường đàm, Thiên tự văn và Đại Nam quốc ngữ.
Thời Pháp thuộc
Từ khi Pháp xâm lược Việt Nam vào nửa cuối thế kỷ thứ XIX, tiếng Pháp dần thay thế vị trí của cổ văn, trở thành ngôn ngữ chính thức trong giáo dục, hành chính và ngoại giao. Chữ Quốc ngữ (chữ Latinh tiếng Việt), do một số nhà truyền giáo châu Âu tạo ra, đặc biệt là hai tu sĩ người Bồ Đào Nha Gaspar do Amaral và Antonio Barbosa, với mục đích ban đầu là dùng ký tự Latinh ghi lại tiếng Việt, được chính quyền Pháp thuộc bảo hộ sử dụng nhằm thay thế chữ Hán với chữ Nôm để đồng văn tự với tiếng Pháp, dần dần sử dụng phổ biến trong xã hội cùng tiếng Pháp.
Gia Định báo là tờ báo đầu tiên mà phát hành bằng chữ Quốc ngữ tại Nam Kỳ vào năm 1865, đặt nền móng cho sự phát triển và xu hướng của chữ Quốc ngữ như là chữ viết chính của tiếng Việt sau này.
Mặt khác, những khái niệm chính trị xã hội, kỹ thuật mới dẫn đến việc nhập các thuật ngữ, từ ngữ mới. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
5775c3f7-c255-4e36-a719-162d7beba06b | Có 2 xu hướng về cách thức nhập thuật ngữ là:
Nhập từ phiên âm của ngôn ngữ phương Tây, chủ yếu là từ tiếng Pháp và có thể sử dụng bởi tầng lớp thị dân có thể vốn không thạo chữ Hán như ghi đông, phanh, lốp, găng, pê đan, phuốc tăng (nay gọi là phuộc),...
Nhập qua âm Hán Việt của chữ Hán từ tiếng Trung và tiếng Nhật (từ Hán-Việt gốc Nhật) như chính đảng, kinh tế, giai cấp, bán kính, câu lạc bộ,... Trong giới văn hoa thì các tên riêng phương tây mà dùng là từ Hán Việt như Á Căn Đình (Argentina), Nã Phá Luân (Napoleon),... hay Tòa Bạch Ốc (Nhà Trắng),...
Sau năm 1945
Tiếng Việt thay thế hoàn toàn tiếng Pháp và văn ngôn, trở thành ngôn ngữ làm việc cấp quốc gia duy nhất của Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hoà.
Trong thời kỳ chiến tranh Việt Nam, sự phát triển tiếng Việt trong chính thể Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa ở miền Bắc và Việt Nam Cộng hòa ở miền Nam diễn ra có khác nhau, chủ yếu ở sử dụng từ Hán-Việt và phiên âm tên trong tiếng nước ngoài.
Tại miền Bắc (Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa) có xu hướng chuyển sang sử dụng từ thuần Việt thay thế từ Hán Việt cùng nghĩa còn ở miền Nam (Việt Nam Cộng hòa) thì vẫn giữ nguyên việc sử dụng từ Hán Việt như thời trước 1945. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
3133da4a-fac9-472b-9064-3340929b51b2 | Ví dụ như miền Nam vẫn giữ tên "Ngân hàng Quốc gia" trong khi miền Bắc đổi thành "Ngân hàng Nhà nước" (1960), miền Nam gọi là "phi trường" thì miền Bắc gọi là "sân bay", miền Nam gọi là "Ngũ Giác Đài" thì miền Bắc gọi là "Lầu Năm Góc", miền Nam gọi là "Đệ nhứt thế chiến" thì miền Bắc gọi là "Chiến tranh thế giới thứ nhất", miền Nam gọi là "hỏa tiễn" thì miền Bắc gọi là "tên lửa", miền Nam gọi là "thủy quân lục chiến" còn miền Bắc đổi thành "lính thủy đánh bộ",... Ngược lại ở miền Bắc lại dùng một số danh từ bắt nguồn từ tiếng Hán như "tham quan", "sự cố", "nhất trí", "đăng ký", "đột xuất", "vô tư",... thì miền Nam lại dùng những chữ "thăm viếng", "trở ngại/trục trặc", "đồng lòng", "ghi tên", "bất ngờ", "thoải mái",...
Việc phiên dịch địa danh tiếng nước ngoài thì ở miền Nam vẫn theo cách trước 1945 là dùng tên theo từ Hán Việt, như Băng Đảo (Iceland), Úc Đại Lợi (Australia), Hung Gia Lợi (Hungary), Ba Tây (Brazil),... Tại miền Bắc thì chuyển sang dùng tên gọi bắt nguồn từ ngôn ngữ không phải tiếng Hán (thí dụ: Ai-xơ-len, Ô-xtrây-li-a, Hung-ga-ri...), trừ ra một số tên Hán Việt phổ biến như "Pháp", "Đức", "Anh", "Nga"... Cá biệt (có thể là duy nhất) 1 tên tiếng Trung là Zhuang (người Tráng) "phiên âm trực tiếp" thành Choang trong tên gọi chính thức "Khu tự trị dân tộc Choang Quảng Tây".
Sau khi Việt Nam thống nhất vào năm 1975, quan hệ Bắc-Nam đã kết nối lại. Gần đây, sự phổ biến hơn của các phương tiện truyền thanh và truyền hình trên toàn quốc góp phần chuẩn hóa tiếng Việt về chính tả và âm điệu. Từ Hán Việt và từ thuần Việt được người Việt sử dụng song song tùy thuộc ngữ cảnh hay văn phong. Sự di cư để học tập và làm việc giữa các vùng miền giúp mọi người ở Việt Nam được tiếp xúc và hiểu nhiều hơn với các phương ngữ tiếng Việt. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
6edc9a69-e3c1-419b-941d-9476e049124f | Phân bố
Theo Ethnologue, tiếng Việt có tại Anh, Ba Lan, Campuchia, Côte d'Ivoire, Đức, Hà Lan, Lào, Na Uy, Nouvelle-Calédonie, Phần Lan, Pháp, Philippines, Cộng hòa Séc, Sénégal, Thái Lan, Vanuatu, Đài Loan, Nga... Riêng Trung Quốc có người Kinh bản địa ở Đông Hưng, tiếng Việt của họ có pha trộn âm giọng của các ngôn ngữ Hán (Quan thoại, tiếng Quảng Đông,...).
Tiếng Việt là ngôn ngữ dân tộc thiểu số tại Cộng hòa Séc vì người Việt được công nhận là "dân tộc thiểu số" tại Séc.
Phương ngữ
Tiếng Việt có sự thay đổi trong giọng nói từ Bắc vào Nam, không đột ngột mà tiệm tiến dần theo từng vùng liền nhau. Trong đó, giọng Bắc (Nam Định – Thái Bình), giọng Trung Huế và giọng Nam Sài Gòn là 3 phân loại chính. Những tiếng địa phương này khác nhau ở giọng điệu và từ địa phương. Thanh ngã và thanh hỏi ở miền Bắc rõ hơn ở miền Nam và Trung. Miền Bắc phát âm một số phụ âm (tr, ch, n, l...) khác với miền Nam và miền Trung. Giọng Huế có nhiều từ vựng địa phương hơn những giọng khác. Từ điển Việt-Bồ-La (1651) của Alexandre de Rhodes lấy tiếng miền Bắc làm nền tảng, Dictionarium Anamitico Latinum (1772-1773) của Pierre Pigneaux de Béhaine lấy tiếng miền Nam làm nền tảng. Theo trang thông tin của Đại sứ quán Việt Nam tại Trung Quốc và học giả Laurence Thompson thì cách đọc tiêu chuẩn hiện nay dựa vào giọng Hà Nội. Tuy nhiên, chưa có quy định nào nói rằng giọng Hà Nội là chuẩn quốc gia.
Ngữ âm
Nguyên âm
Dưới đây là bảng các nguyên âm theo giọng Hà Nội.
Trong bảng trên, các nguyên âm trước, giữa và nguyên âm mở là nguyên âm không tròn môi, còn lại là nguyên âm tròn môi. Ă và â là dạng ngắn của a và ơ.
Đồng thời, tiếng Việt còn có hệ thống nguyên âm đôi và nguyên âm ba.
Phụ âm
Bảng dưới đây trình bày các phụ âm trong tiếng Việt và cách viết.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|-
! colspan=2|
! Môi
! Chân răng
! Quặt lưỡi
! Vòm
! Vòm mềm
! Thanh hầu
|-
! colspan=2| Mũi
| m
| n
|
| nh
| ng/ngh
|
|-
! rowspan=3| Tắc
! thường
| p
| t
| tr
| ch
| c/k/q
|
|-
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
85afba71-d4ab-4844-b551-40a8abbced7b | thanh hầu hóa
| b
| đ
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|-
! bật hơi
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| th
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| rowspan=2| kh
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! rowspan=2| Xát
! vô thanh
| ph
| x
| s
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| h
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! hữu thanh
| v
| d
| rowspan=2| r
| gi
| g/gh
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|-
! colspan=2| Tiếp cận
| u/o
| l
| y/i
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|}
1 số phụ âm chỉ có một cách viết (như b, p) nhưng một số có nhiều hơn một cách viết như k, có thể biểu diễn bằng c, k hay q.
Đồng thời, các phụ âm có thay đổi tuỳ theo địa phương. Sự khác biệt về phụ âm giữa các vùng miền trình bày kỹ càng hơn trong bài phương ngữ tiếng Việt.
Thanh điệu
Tiếng Việt là ngôn ngữ thanh điệu, mọi âm tiết của tiếng Việt luôn mang 1 thanh điệu nào đó. Do các thanh điệu của tiếng Việt trong chữ quốc ngữ biểu thị bằng các dấu thanh còn gọi là dấu nên một số người quen gọi các thanh điệu của tiếng Việt là các "dấu". Có sự khác biệt về số lượng thanh điệu và điệu trị của thanh điệu giữa các phương ngôn của tiếng Việt, thanh điệu có tên gọi giống nhau không đồng nghĩa với việc nói chúng sẽ giống nhau trong mọi phương ngôn của tiếng Việt. Phương ngôn tiếng Việt Bắc Bộ có 6 thanh điệu, phương ngôn tiếng Việt Trung Bộ và Nam Bộ có 5 thanh điệu. Thanh điệu của tiếng Việt tiêu chuẩn gồm 6 thanh: ngang (còn gọi là thanh không dấu do chữ quốc ngữ không có dấu thanh cho thanh điệu này), sắc, huyền, hỏi, ngã, nặng nhưng lại thiếu các quy định cụ thể về việc lấy cách phát âm trong phương ngôn nào của tiếng Việt làm cách phát âm tiêu chuẩn cho 6 thanh điệu này.
Các âm tiết mang vần nhập thanh, tức là các vần kết thúc bằng 1 trong 3 phụ âm cuối (chữ quốc ngữ ghi lại bằng chữ cái "c" hoặc chữ cái nhị hợp "ch"), (chữ quốc ngữ ghi lại bằng chữ cái "t"), (chữ quốc ngữ ghi lại bằng chữ cái "p") chỉ có thể mang thanh sắc hoặc thanh nặng. 3 âm tắc trên đã làm cho các âm tiết mang vần nhập thanh chỉ có thể mang các thanh điệu có điệu trị ngắn và nhanh.
Trong thơ ca các thanh điệu phân thành 2 nhóm: thanh bằng gồm có ngang và huyền, thanh trắc gồm các thanh còn lại. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
e5b0dad1-b845-41c8-85ca-12942bf65929 | Trong các thể thơ cổ như Đường luật và lục bát, có thể có sự hòa hợp thanh điệu bằng trắc giữa các tiếng trong 1 câu thơ.
Ngữ pháp
Tiếng Việt là 1 ngôn ngữ đơn lập. Các quan hệ ngữ pháp thể hiện chủ yếu thông qua hệ thống hư từ và cách sắp xếp trật tự từ trong câu. Trật tự từ thông dụng nhất trong tiếng Việt là chủ ngữ - vị ngữ - tân ngữ (SVO). Tuy nhiên, trật tự trong câu có thể trong một số trường hợp sắp xếp theo kiểu ngôn ngữ nổi bật chủ đề, vì thế mà 1 câu có thể theo trật tự Tân ngữ - Chủ ngữ - Vị ngữ (OSV).
Vị trí các từ sắp xếp theo thứ tự, từ mang ý chính đứng trước từ mang ý phụ đứng sau bổ sung nghĩa cho từ mang ý chính, tương tự như danh từ đứng trước tính từ đứng sau bổ sung nghĩa cho danh từ. Tuy nhiên trong một số trường hợp, bổ ngữ (bao gồm từ mang ý phụ và tính từ) sẽ đứng trước danh từ.
Tiếng Việt còn có hệ thống đại từ nhân xưng dựa trên các từ ngữ chỉ quan hệ xã hội và hệ thống danh từ đơn vị.
Từ vựng
Từ vựng tiếng Việt có 2 bộ phận chính: từ thuần Việt và từ mượn. Ngoài ra còn có những từ hỗn chủng là kết quả của sự kết hợp các yếu tố thuần Việt và ngoại lai.
Từ thuần Việt
Từ thuần Việt là những từ xuất hiện lâu hơn trong tiếng Việt, biểu thị những sự vật, hiện tượng, khái niệm cơ bản nhất trong đời sống hằng ngày. Do có sự tiếp xúc từ sớm hơn với các ngôn ngữ nhóm Tày-Thái nên nhiều từ thuần Việt và các từ tương ứng trong các tiếng này có sự giống nhau nhất định về ngữ âm và ngữ nghĩa.
Trước 1960, một số từ thuần Việt dùng để đặt tên thông tục cho người trong tầng lớp bình dân hoặc để tránh bị ma quỷ thần thánh bắt đi. Tại miền Bắc có các tên như "Rụt", "Tằm", "Cột", "Cu", "Gái",... Tại miền Nam có các tên như "Đực",... Sự phát triển dân trí dẫn đến cách đặt tên thông tục giảm dần.
Từ Hán Việt
Sự tiếp xúc giữa tiếng Việt và tiếng Hán bắt đầu khi nhà Hán của Trung Quốc xâm chiếm khu vực Việt Nam. Quá trình tiếp xúc đã đưa vào tiếng Việt một khối lượng từ ngữ của tiếng Hán. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
b7058c3c-02e4-428f-bb77-8d30b1245453 | Giai đoạn đầu, hiện tượng này diễn ra lẻ tẻ, rời rạc hơn chủ yếu thông qua đường khẩu ngữ qua sự tiếp xúc giữa người Việt và người Hán, tạo nên 1 lớp từ có nguồn gốc Hán cổ mà đã hoà lẫn với các từ thuần Việt. Đến đời Đường, tiếng Việt mới có sự tiếp nhận các từ ngữ Hán một cách có hệ thống qua đường sách vở. Các từ ngữ gốc Hán này chủ yếu đọc theo ngữ âm đời Đường tuân thủ nguyên tắc ngữ âm tiếng Việt gọi là âm Hán–Việt. Khi đưa vào tiếng Việt, bên cạnh việc thay đổi về mặt ngữ âm, một số từ Hán Việt thay đổi cả ngữ nghĩa.
Từ Hán-Việt chiếm 1 phần trong vốn từ vựng tiếng Việt, chúng hiện diện một số lĩnh vực của đời sống xã hội.
Từ có nguồn gốc Ấn–Âu
Kể từ khi Việt Nam trở thành thuộc địa của Pháp, tiếng Pháp đã có ảnh hưởng đến tiếng Việt và các từ ngữ gốc Pháp thâm nhập vào tiếng Việt. Sự ảnh hưởng này là do tiếng Pháp có sử dụng trong các văn bản, giấy tờ của Nhà nước và trong giảng dạy ở nhà trường cũng như trong các loại sách báo khác. Ảnh hưởng này kéo theo sự xuất hiện của các từ gốc Pháp trong các lĩnh vực khác nhau đặc biệt là trong khoa học kỹ thuật.
Trong thời kỳ Chiến tranh Việt Nam, miền Bắc Việt Nam chịu ảnh hưởng của Liên Xô. Do đó, một số từ ngữ gốc Nga có điều kiện du nhập vào tiếng Việt. Đồng thời, cùng với sự tiếp xúc, hội nhập sâu rộng hơn với thế giới, trong tiếng Việt cũng xuất hiện các từ ngữ có nguồn gốc từ tiếng Anh.
Nhìn chung, khi đưa vào tiếng Việt, những từ này đã Việt hoá về mặt âm đọc (thêm thanh điệu, thay đổi âm hoặc giảm bớt âm tiết). Những từ đơn âm tiết (hoặc đơn âm hoá), vay mượn qua khẩu ngữ thâm nhập vào tiếng Việt. Trong khi đó, những từ có 2 âm tiết trở lên, vay mượn thông qua sách vở vẫn còn dấu ấn ngoại lai. Có những từ vay mượn nguyên dạng nên tạo ảnh hưởng trong cách phát âm. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
a7615d18-b6aa-487b-8cf8-f1892b8446b3 | Từ có nguồn gốc tiếng dân tộc thiểu số
Là 1 nước đa sắc tộc với 54 dân tộc đã công nhận, tiếng Việt phổ thông tiếp nhận 1 phần tiếng dân tộc thiểu số, gồm từ thông dụng và tên riêng của người hay địa vật và các từ này có thể có vần "phi Việt". Quá trình này diễn ra trong lịch sử. Dựa theo tên người/danh xưng đăng tải trên báo chí và các địa danh trên các bản đồ hành chính, chúng ta có thể phân loại các cách nhập tiếng dân tộc thiểu số như sau:
Từ tiếng nói của hầu hết các dân tộc từ Quảng Bình trở ra, đã cư trú lâu hơn cùng người Kinh và/hoặc thuộc vùng Văn hóa Đông Á, như người Mường, Tày, Nùng, Thái,... thì họ tên người thì theo từ Hán Việt như các họ "Triệu", "Đàm", "Cầm", "Đèo",..., còn địa danh thì theo ghi âm như "Nậm", "Huổi/ Khuổi", "Pắc",... Đôi khi sự giao lưu với người Kinh dẫn đến những tên hỗn hợp như Hang Bua (tên tiếng Thái là Thẩm Bua, nghĩa là Hang Sen).
Từ tiếng H'Mông thì theo ghi âm mà không theo từ Hán Việt, mặc dù tiếng H'Mông có quan hệ gần hơn với tiếng Hoa. Ví dụ như các họ Vàng (Vương, Vang), Giàng (Dương, Yang),... hay các địa danh như Lào Cai (nghĩa chữ là Chợ Cũ, từ Hán Việt là Lão Nhai 老街), Sa Pa (Sa Pả, nghĩa chữ là Bãi Cát),... Trường hợp loại trừ là họ tên vua Mèo mà dùng từ Hán Việt như Vương Chí Sình.
Từ tiếng nói của các dân tộc ở Tây Nguyên, Nam Bộ,... thì theo ghi âm là chính, như Đắk Lắk, Krông Pắc,... hoặc biến âm như Sóc Trăng, Nha Trang,... Cá biệt có việc giới chức biên phòng đã "Kinh hóa" địa danh đặt tên đồn biên phòng, ví dụ tại xã Pờ Y có Đồn/Cửa khẩu Bờ Y.
Các chữ và vần "phi Việt" viết theo hướng dẫn trong Quyết định 240/QĐ "Về tên riêng không phải tiếng Việt", trong đó các chữ cái F, J, W, Z có thể tùy nghi sử dụng.
Từ hỗn chủng
Từ hỗn chủng là những từ tạo thành từ các yếu tố có nguồn gốc khác nhau như giữa yếu tố thuần Việt và Hán Việt, giữa yếu tố thuần Việt và yếu tố Ấn-Âu. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
6cdaad08-111f-49b2-ac26-ccc7a668c350 | Cùng với sự phát triển của tiếng Việt, các từ hỗn chủng đã gia tăng, đóng 1 vai trò trong việc diễn đạt các khái niệm mới hơn trong xã hội.
Ví dụ:
vôi hoá () – "vôi" là thuần Việt, "hoá" là Hán-Việt.
ôm kế – "ôm" là từ tiếng Đức Ohm, "kế" là Hán-Việt.
nhà băng – "nhà" là thuần Việt, "băng" là từ tiếng Pháp banque.
game thủ – "game" là tiếng Anh, "thủ" là Hán-Việt.
Chữ viết
liên_kết=https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%E1%BA%ADp_tin:I_speak_vietnamese.JPG|nhỏ|"Tôi nói tiếng Việt Nam" (碎呐㗂越南), bên trên viết bằng Chữ Quốc ngữ (chữ Latinh), bên dưới viết bằng chữ Nôm (gạch chân) với chữ Hán
Theo dòng lịch sử phát triển, tiếng Việt có 3 dạng ký tự để viết là chữ Hán, chữ Nôm (dựa trên chữ Hán) và chữ Quốc ngữ (chữ Latinh).
Chữ Hán và chữ Nôm là văn tự chính của Việt Nam trước thế kỷ 20. Tất cả các tác phẩm sử học và văn học cổ truyền Việt Nam đều viết bằng chữ Hán, chữ Nôm như Chiếu dời đô, Hịch tướng sĩ, Bình Ngô đại cáo, Đoạn trường tân thanh, Đại Việt sử ký toàn thư,...
Chữ Quốc ngữ là chữ Latinh dựa trên bảng chữ cái và âm vị của tiếng Bồ Đào Nha đối chiếu với tiếng Việt, do các nhà truyền giáo Dòng Tên Bồ Đào Nha xây dựng vào đầu thế kỷ 17 rồi do giáo sĩ Alexandre de Rhodes người Avinhon chuẩn định. Đây là người cho in cuốn Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum năm 1651. Cuối thế kỷ 18 tại Đàng Trong diễn ra cuộc chỉnh lý chữ Quốc ngữ dưới sự điều phối của Giám mục Pierre Pigneau de Behaine (hay còn biết tới dưới tên Bá Đa Lộc), từ điển có tên Dictionarium Anamatico-Latinum soạn quãng năm 1772–1773 nhưng mới chỉ là bản viết tay. Sau đó, từ điển của Taberd mang tên Nam Việt–Dương Hiệp Tự vị (tựa Latinh giống với tựa cuốn của Bá Đa Lộc) xuất bản năm 1838 tại Serampore, Ấn Độ.
Chữ Quốc ngữ từ lúc ra đời tuy có hơn 200 năm hình thành và phát triển, nhưng chưa đủ phổ biến để là văn tự chính ở Việt Nam vì chữ Hán và chữ Nôm vẫn là dạng văn tự phổ biến của tiếng Việt. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
d752af46-750a-4e49-ae16-cb230a555477 | Phải đến cuối thế kỷ 19, vào thời kỳ Pháp thuộc, chính quyền thuộc địa bảo hộ chữ Quốc ngữ và cổ súy thay thế chữ Hán và chữ Nôm để tiếng Việt đồng văn tự Latinh với tiếng Pháp, bắt đầu từ Nam Kỳ rồi tới Bắc Kỳ và Trung Kỳ để dễ dàng phổ biến tiếng Pháp và văn hóa Pháp. Còn các nhà cải cách Việt Nam ủng hộ việc truyền bá hệ chữ Latinh như phương tiện để khai dân trí, chấn dân khí. Cải cách giáo dục năm 1906 của vua Thành Thái cũng bao gồm chương trình dạy chữ Quốc ngữ. Tuy vậy trong giai đoạn này, sự bóc lột của Thực dân Pháp khiến người Việt không được đi học đầy đủ, nên hầu hết người Việt giai đoạn này trở nên mù chữ với cả chữ Hán, chữ Nôm và chữ Quốc ngữ. Ngay sau khi Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa lập quốc, Chính phủ phát động Bình dân học vụ với mục tiêu nhanh chóng giải quyết nạn mù chữ bằng cách đẩy mạnh dạy chữ Quốc ngữ cho người dân. Chữ Hán và chữ Nôm vẫn được một lượng người Việt sử dụng song song cùng chữ Quốc ngữ, nhưng đến năm 1950, giảng dạy chữ Hán Nôm bị loại ra khỏi chương trình giáo dục của Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa vì độ phổ biến ở Việt Nam không còn nhiều.
Tại Việt Nam hiện nay, người dân chủ yếu sử dụng chữ Quốc ngữ là chính, còn chữ Hán và chữ Nôm thường dùng trong các hoạt động liên quan tới văn hóa truyền thống như viết thư pháp, câu đối, tìm hiểu lịch sử và văn học cổ, và được giảng dạy trong chuyên ngành Hán Nôm bậc đại học cũng như tại các tổ chức phong trào dạy học chữ Hán và chữ Nôm được sử dụng trong tiếng Việt. Trái ngược lại là cộng đồng người Kinh bản địa ở Đông Hưng (Trung Quốc), do không bị ảnh hưởng bởi chính sách thay thế chữ Hán và chữ Nôm bằng chữ Quốc ngữ của Thực dân Pháp (vùng đất họ sống trở thành lãnh thổ Đại Thanh theo Công ước Pháp-Thanh ký năm 1887, nên họ không bị Thực dân Pháp đô hộ), những thế hệ con cháu ở đây không bị gián đoạn chuyện đi học và không bị mù chữ. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
178d406a-e623-4b46-9c03-a03f50b00334 | Người Kinh bản địa ở Đông Hưng vẫn duy trì được sự phổ biến của chữ Hán và chữ Nôm trong cộng đồng và vẫn dùng làm văn tự chính cho tiếng Việt ở thời hiện đại giống như người Việt xưa, thay vì dùng chữ Latinh như người Việt ở Việt Nam hiện tại.
Hiến pháp nước Cộng hòa xã hội chủ nghĩa Việt Nam 2013, tại Chương I Điều 5 Mục 3, ghi tiếng Việt là ngôn ngữ quốc gia của Việt Nam. Không có bất kỳ văn bản nào ở cấp nhà nước quy định giọng chuẩn và quốc tự ("chữ viết quốc gia" hoặc văn tự chính thức) của tiếng Việt. Phần lớn các văn bản hành chính tiếng Việt ở Việt Nam được viết bằng chữ Quốc ngữ theo "Quy định về chính tả tiếng Việt và về thuật ngữ tiếng Việt" áp dụng cho các sách giáo khoa, báo và văn bản của ngành giáo dục, nêu tại Quyết định của Bộ Giáo dục số 240/QĐ ngày 5 tháng 3 năm 1984 do những người thụ hưởng giáo dục đó sau này ra làm việc trong mọi lĩnh vực xã hội hướng tới việc chuẩn hóa chính tả tiếng Việt. Không có luật lệ nào cấm người Việt viết tiếng Việt hiện đại bằng chữ Hán Nôm.
Thư pháp
Cùng với chữ Hán, Kana và Hangul, có người "yêu thích" thư pháp nâng chữ viết tiếng Việt lên thành một bộ môn nghệ thuật.
Thư pháp chữ Việt ban đầu là thư pháp chữ Nôm và chữ Hán. Sau này chữ Quốc ngữ trở nên phổ biến hơn trong khi nhu cầu và sở thích treo chữ trong nhà vẫn còn, người chơi chữ đã khởi xướng thư pháp chữ Quốc ngữ. Còn thư pháp chữ Hán và chữ Nôm hiện nay vẫn duy trì song song.
Bộ gõ tiếng Việt và giao tiếp tiếng Việt qua mạng
Tuy cùng là chữ Latinh, ngoài 22 ký tự không dấu có trong bảng chữ cái tiếng Anh thì chữ Quốc ngữ còn chứa lượng ký tự có dấu, bao gồm 7 ký tự Ă, Â, Đ, Ê, Ô, Ơ, Ư cùng 60 chữ nguyên âm (A, Ă, Â, E, Ê, I, O, Ô, Ơ, U, Ư, Y) mang thanh điệu sắc-huyền-hỏi-ngã-nặng. Tổng cộng là máy tính hay điện thoại cần phải nạp thêm 67 ký tự, gấp hơn 2,5 lần bảng chữ cái của tiếng Anh (26 ký tự) thì mới đủ để viết tiếng Việt. | [
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a0e3de91-5700-48a3-9e0d-e3d47b6d65d6 | Nên để có thể viết tiếng Việt trên máy tính và điện thoại di động cần có bộ gõ là phần mềm hỗ trợ soạn thảo văn bản bằng tiếng Việt đi kèm một số phông chữ Quốc ngữ. Người dùng cũng có thể cài đặt thêm các phông ký tự chữ Quốc ngữ khác phục vụ trang trí và nghệ thuật. Các bộ gõ tiếng Việt khác nhau sẽ quy định các phím bấm khác nhau để hiển thị các dấu thanh, dấu mũ và dấu móc. Có những quy ước chuẩn dấu tiếng Việt, bộ mã, cách gõ và những phần mềm khác nhau. Có bộ mã chữ Việt theo chuẩn quốc tế Unicode.
Do ký tự có dấu phải mã hóa mất lượng bộ nhớ lớn hơn ký tự không dấu, việc tin nhắn SMS bằng tiếng Việt có dấu bị hạn chế 70 ký tự/tin nhắn (ít hơn một nửa so với 180 ký tự/tin nhắn của tiếng Anh) nên trước đây người Việt thường nhắn tin SMS không dấu để có thể viết nhiều nội dung hơn và tiết kiệm tiền hơn dù nội dung bằng tiếng Việt không dấu có thể gây hiểu nhầm. Một số trường hợp lợi dụng viết tắt, biến đổi ký tự nhằm giảm số lượng (j=gi; f=ph; bỏ h trong "gh","ngh") hay thể hiện rõ âm (z=d vì "đ" viết không dấu thành "d"). Hiện nay nhờ sự phát triển của Internet trên di động (như Wi-Fi, 4G không giới hạn dung lượng) cùng các ứng dụng OTT và mạng xã hội, việc nhắn tin bằng tiếng Việt có dấu trở nên thoải mái hơn mà không lo bị hạn chế ký tự.
Đối với việc gõ chữ Hán và chữ Nôm bằng tiếng Việt, do dạng ký tự này hiện không được sử dụng phổ biến ở Việt Nam nên các hãng sản xuất máy tính, điện thoại hay phần mềm coi như loại bỏ. Thời gian gần đây để phục vụ cho nhu cầu tìm hiểu về lịch sử hay văn học cổ cũng như chuyên ngành Hán Nôm, một số cá nhân hay tổ chức đã tạo ra những trang web hay phần mềm giúp viết chữ Hán và chữ Nôm bằng bộ gõ chữ Quốc ngữ. Với chữ Hán do đồng bộ với các chữ của bộ gõ tiếng Trung và tiếng Nhật nên việc hiển thị không khó khăn, còn chữ Nôm do một lượng chữ chưa được mã hoá đầy đủ nên có thể hiển thị bị lỗi trên một số máy tính và điện thoại dưới dạng ô vuông hay dấu hỏi chấm. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
611c60ab-bbcf-45c2-bd3d-e876a4e83079 | Xem thêm
Tiếng Việt tại Hoa Kỳ
Chú thích
Tham khảo
Thư mục
Tiếng Việt
Tiếng Anh
Liên kết ngoài
Từ điển Việt-Bồ-La của Alexandre de Rhodes trên mạng
Từ điển tiếng Việt xưa trên mạng nhà sách Sông Hương : Từ điển Việt-Latinh của J.L. Taberd, Từ điển Việt Bồ La, Đại Nam Quấc Âm Tự Vị
Giáo sĩ Bồ Đào Nha và chữ Quốc ngữ
* GS Lâm Văn Bé, Sách tiếng Việt và Việt học tại các thư viện ngoài Việt Nam (Phần 1) , Phần 2 , hay là Phần 1, Phần 2
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Nhóm ngôn ngữ Việt-Mường | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
90e20346-fbb4-4172-a44f-64b1fbd9ad96 | Ohio (viết tắt là OH, viết tắt cũ là O.) là một tiểu bang khu vực Trung Tây (cũ) nằm ở miền đông bắc Hoa Kỳ. Tên "Ohio" theo tiếng Iroquois có nghĩa là "sông đẹp" và đó cũng là tên của một dòng sông dùng làm ranh giới phía nam của tiểu bang này với tiểu bang Kentucky.
Hải quân Hoa Kỳ có đặt tên một vài con tàu được đặt tên là USS Ohio (Chiến Hạm Hoa Kỳ Ohio) để tỏ lòng trân trọng tiểu bang này.
Đây là nơi sinh của các Tổng thống: Ulysses S. Grant (tại Point Pleasant), Rutherford B. Hayes (tại Delaware), James A. Garfield (tại Orange, Cuyahoga County), Benjamin Harrison (tại North Bend), William McKinley (tại Niles), William Howard Taft (tại Cincinnati), Warren G. Harding (tại Blooming Grove). Ngoài ra đây còn là nơi sinh của nhà phát minh nổi tiếng Thomas Edison (tại Milan).
Lịch sử
Ohio là tiểu bang đầu tiên được chia ra từ Lãnh thổ Tây Bắc.
Vào thế kỷ 18, Pháp xây dựng lên các cửa khẩu dùng để buôn bán, trao đổi hàng hóa (chủ yếu là lông thú) tại đây.
Vào năm 1754, Pháp và Anh giao chiến trên đất Mỹ vì xung đột quyền lợi trong một cuộc chiến mà sau này được gọi là Chiến tranh Pháp với người da đỏ. Vì Hiệp ước Paris, Pháp đành phải chuyển quyền quản lý Ohio cho phía Anh.
Anh thông qua Tuyên ngôn 1763 cấm những thực dân Mỹ đừng bố trí trong Vùng Ohio. Quyền kiểm soát của Anh đối với Ohio kết thúc bởi chiến thắng của Mỹ trong Cuộc cách mạng Mỹ.
Hoa Kỳ tạo ra vùng lãnh thổ Tây Bắc vào năm 1787. Ohio nằm trong vùng lãnh thổ Tây Bắc. Vùng lãnh thổ Indiana sau đó được tạo ra do Ohio chuẩn bị được trở thành tiểu bang, làm vùng lãnh thổ Tây Bắc nhỏ đi bằng Ohio ngày nay cộng với khoảng một nửa diện tích phía đông của đồng bằng Michigan (Mi-chi-gân).
Theo Sắc lệnh Tây Bắc (Northwest Ordinance), Ohio có thể được trở thành tiểu bang khi mà dân số có hơn 60.000 người. Ngày 19 tháng 2 năm 1803, Tổng thống Jefferson ký một đạo luật của Quốc hội công nhận Ohio là tiểu bang thứ 17. Thông lệ của Quốc hội về công bố ngày chính thức có quyền tiểu bang không diễn ra cho đến tận năm 1812, khi Louisiana được nhận vào, cho nên vào năm 1953 Tổng thống Eisenhower ký một đạo luật công bố ngày 1 tháng 3 năm 1803 là ngày chính thức mà Ohio được trở thành tiểu bang Mỹ. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio | Ohio |
ac427cfd-7c70-40f3-9ef3-0f0e827037fd | Vào năm 1835, Ohio chiến đấu với Michigan trong một cuộc chiến không đổ máu để có được thành phố Gargamesh (ngày nay là Toledo), cuộc chiến này được gọi là Chiến tranh Toledo.
Luật pháp và chính quyền
Thủ phủ của Ohio là Columbus, gần trung tâm tiểu bang. Thống đốc hiện nay là John Kasich (đảng Cộng hòa), với hai thượng nghị sĩ liên bang là J. D. Vance (Cộng hòa) và Sherrod Brown (đảng Dân chủ).
Địa lý
Sông Ohio là biên giới phía nam của Ohio (chính xác là ở mực nước sông thấp nhất vào năm 1793 ở bờ bắc của dòng sông) và nhiều đoạn biên giới phía bắc của tiểu bang được xác định theo hồ Erie của Ngũ Đại Hồ (giáp tỉnh Ontario của Canada). Ohio tiếp giáp với Pennsylvania ở phía đông, Michigan ở phía bắc, Indiana ở phía tây, Kentucky ở phía nam, và Tây Virginia ở phía đông nam.
Nhiều vùng ở Ohio là đồng bằng bị băng xói mòn, trừ một vùng bằng phẳng về phía tây bắc, ngày xưa gọi là Đầm Lầy Tối Tăm (Great Black Swamp). Vùng đất bị băng xói mòn này ở vùng tây bắc và miền trung bị ngăn cách về phía đông và đông nam bởi vùng bị băng xói mòn thuộc Cao Nguyên Allegheny, tiếp theo đó là một vùng gọi là vùng chưa bị băng xói mòn thuộc Cao Nguyên Allegheny. Nhiều phần của Ohio là vùng đất thấp, nhưng vùng không bị băng xói mòn thuộc cao nguyên Allegheny có núi và rừng nhấp nhô.
Những dòng sông quan trọng thuộc tiểu bang này có thể kể là Sông Miami, Sông Scioto, Sông Cuyahoga, và Sông Muskingum.
Kinh tế
Ohio là tiểu bang quan trọng trong sản xuất máy móc, công cụ, và nhiều vật khác, là một trong những tiểu bang công nghiệp chính của Hoa Kỳ. Vì Ohio nằm trong khu vực trồng ngô của Mỹ, nông nghiệp cũng đóng vai trò quan trọng trong kinh tế của tiểu bang. Ngoài ra, các địa danh lịch sử, những thắng cảnh và các hoạt động giải trí của Ohio là nền tảng cho ngành du lịch phát triển. Hơn 2.500 hồ và 70.000 kilômét của những thắng cảnh bên sông là thiên đường cho những người du lịch bằng thuyền, người đánh cá và người đi bơi.
Những địa điểm khảo cổ học về dân da đỏ bao gồm các ngôi mộ và các địa điểm khác thu hút được sự quan tâm đặc biệt về lịch sử.
Tổng sản phẩm của Ohio vào năm 1999 là 362 tỷ Mỹ kim, đứng thứ bảy trên toàn nước Mỹ. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio | Ohio |
985f5864-201f-487b-8b26-38236edbe1bb | Thu nhập tính theo đầu người của tiểu bang vào năm 2000 là $28.400 (USD), đứng thứ 19 trong cả nước. Sản phẩm nông nghiệp chính của Ohio là đậu nành, sản phẩm từ sữa, ngô, cà chua, lợn, bò, gia cầm và trứng. Sản phẩm công nghiệp là thiết bị chuyên chở, sản phẩm kim loại đúc sẵn, máy móc, chế biến đồ ăn và thiết bị điện.
Dân số
Theo Thống kê Dân số năm 2000, dân số là 11.353.140 người. Dân số tăng lên 4,7% (506.025 người) so với năm 1990. Theo thống kê 2000:
85% (9.645.453 người) là người da trắng.
11,5% (1.301.307 người) là người da đen.
1,9% (217.123 người) là người Hispanic hay Latino (người Mỹ nói tiếng Tây Ban Nha hay Bồ Đào Nha).
1,2% (132.633 người) là người Mỹ gốc châu Á.
0,2% (24.486 người) là người da đỏ.
0,02% (2.749 người) là người gốc Hawaii hay từ các đảo ngoài Thái Bình Dương.
Trong số đó:
0,8% (88.627 người) là chủng tộc khác.
1,4% (157.885 người) là người có máu hỗn hợp.
Năm nhóm người chính theo chủng tộc là người Đức (25,2%), Ailen (12,7%), Mỹ gốc Phi (11,5%), Anh (9,2%), Mỹ (8,5%).
6,6% dân số Ohio dưới 5 tuổi; 25,4% dưới 18 tuổi; và 13,3% từ 65 tuổi trở lên. Nữ giới chiếm khoảng 51,4% số dân.
Những thành phố quan trọng
Giáo dục
Trường đại học
13 trường đại học công lập, trong đó trường lớn nhất là Đại học Tiểu bang Ohio.
24 chi nhánh các trường đại học công lập và khu vực.
46 trường nghệ thuật tự do.
2 trường y tế nhận sự hỗ trợ công.
15 trường cộng đồng.
8 trường kỹ thuật.
Trên 24 trường độc lập phi lợi nhuận.
Xem Danh sách các trường đại học ở Ohio
Thể thao chuyên nghiệp
Tham khảo
Liên kết ngoài
Ohio.gov – website chính thức của chính phủ tiểu bang Ohio
Tối cao Pháp Viện Ohio
Hạ viện Ohio
Thượng viện Ohio
Đảng Dan Chủ Ohio
Đảng Cộng Hòa Ohio
Đài Tin Ohio (ONN)
Tiểu bang Hoa Kỳ
Trung Tây Hoa Kỳ
Cựu thuộc địa và xứ bảo hộ Anh tại châu Mỹ
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio | Ohio |
9bfe34c4-c6d7-4bba-952b-e58cc75fdf8e | California (phát âm như "Ca-li-phót-ni-a" hay "Ca-li-phoóc-ni-a", nếu nhanh: "Ca-li-phoóc-nha"), còn được người Việt gọi vắn tắt là Cali hay phiên âm Hán Việt là Cựu Kim Sơn, là một tiểu bang ven biển phía tây của Hoa Kỳ. Với dân số là 38 triệu người và diện tích 410,000 km² (158,402 mi2), lớn hơn Việt Nam (331,000 km2) California là tiểu bang đông dân nhất Hoa Kỳ và lớn thứ ba theo diện tích.
Đây là nơi sinh của Tổng thống Richard Nixon (tại Yorba Linda).
Địa lý
California kề cận với Thái Bình Dương, Oregon, Nevada, Arizona và tiểu bang Baja California của México. Tiểu bang này có nhiều cảnh tự nhiên rất đẹp, bao gồm Central Valley rộng rãi, núi cao, sa mạc nóng nực, và hàng trăm dặm bờ biển đẹp. Với diện tích 411,000 km² (160,000 mi2), nó là tiểu bang lớn thứ ba của Hoa Kỳ và lớn hơn cả nước Đức và cũng như Việt Nam. Hầu hết các thành phố lớn của tiểu bang nằm sát hay gần bờ biển Thái Bình Dương, đáng chú ý là Los Angeles, San Francisco, San Jose, Long Beach, Oakland, Santa Ana/Quận Cam, và San Diego. Tuy nhiên, thủ phủ của tiểu bang, Sacramento, là một thành phố lớn nằm trong thung lũng Trung tâm. Trung tâm địa lý của tiểu bang thuộc về Bắc Fork, California.
Địa lý California phong phú, phức tạp và đa dạng. Giữa tiểu bang có thung lũng Trung tâm, một thung lũng lớn, màu mỡ được bao quanh bởi những dãy núi bờ biển ở phía tây, dãy núi đá granit Sierra Nevada ở phía đông, dãy núi Cascade có đá lửa ở miền bắc, và dãy núi Tehachapi ở miền nam. Các sông, đập nước, và kênh chảy từ các núi để tưới thung lũng Trung tâm. Nguồn nước của phần lớn tiểu bang do Dự án Nước Tiểu bang cung cấp. Dự án Thung lũng Trung tâm hỗ trợ hệ thống nước của một số thành phố, nhưng chủ yếu cung cấp cho việc tưới tiêu nông nghiệp. Nhờ nạo vét, vài con sông đã đủ rộng và sâu để cho vài thành phố nội địa (nhất là Stockton) được trở thành hải cảng. Trung lũng Trung tâm nóng nực và màu mỡ là trung tâm nông nghiệp của California và trồng một phần lớn cây lương thực của Mỹ. Tuy nhiên, việc trồng trọt bị tàn phá bởi nhiệt độ thấp gần điểm đông trong mùa đông. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/California | California |
76f278ac-2dde-404b-b564-9b36071daade | Phía nam của thung lũng, một phần là sa mạc, được gọi là thung lũng San Joaquin, do nước chảy xuống sông San Joaquin, còn phía bắc được gọi là thung lũng Sacramento, do nước chảy xuống sông Sacramento. Châu thổ vịnh Sacramento – San Joaquin vừa là cửa sông quan trọng hỗ trợ hệ sinh thái nước mặn và vừa là nguồn nước chủ yếu của phần lớn dân cư tiểu bang.
Dãy núi Sierra Nevada (tức "dãy núi tuyết" trong tiếng Tây Ban Nha) ở phía đông và trung tâm tiểu bang, có núi Whitney là đỉnh núi cao nhất trong 48 tiểu bang (4,421 mét (14,505 feet)). Trong dãy Sierra còn có Công viên Quốc gia Yosemite và hồ Tahoe (một hồ nước ngọt sâu và là hồ lớn nhất của tiểu bang theo thể tích). Bên phía đông của dãy Sierra là thung lũng Owens và hồ Mono – nơi sinh sống chủ yếu của chim biển. Còn bên phía tây là hồ Clear, hồ nước ngọt lớn nhất của California theo diện tích. Vào mùa đông, nhiệt độ ở dãy Sierra Nevada xuống tới nhiệt độ đóng băng và ở đây có hàng chục dòng sông băng nhỏ, trong đó có sông băng cực nam của Hoa Kỳ, sông băng Palisade.
Rừng che phủ khoảng 35% tổng diện tích tiểu bang và California có nhiều loại thông hơn bất cứ tiểu bang nào khác. Về diện tích rừng, California chỉ đứng sau Alaska mặc dù tỉ lệ rừng theo diện tích nhỏ hơn một số tiểu bang khác. Phần lớn của rừng ở đây ở phía tây bắc tiểu bang và triền phía tây dãy Sierra Nevada. Những cánh rừng nhỏ hơn với chủ yếu là cây sồi dọc theo những dãy núi California gần bờ biển hơn, và cả những đồi thấp dưới chân dãy Sierra Nevada. Những rừng thông nhỏ hơn có ở các dãy núi San Gabriel và San Bernardino ở miền Nam California cũng như trên những vùng núi ở miền trung Quận San Diego.
Các sa mạc ở California chiếm 25% tổng diện tích. Ở miền nam có dãy núi Transverse và một hồ nước mặn lớn – biển Salton. Sa mạc phía trung nam được gọi là Mojave. Phía đông nam của sa mạc này là thung lũng Chết, là nơi có Badwater Flat – điểm thấp nhất và nóng nhất của Bắc Mỹ. Điểm thấp nhất của thung lũng Chết cách đỉnh của núi Whitney ít hơn 322 km (200 dặm). Con người đã vài lần cố gắng đi bộ từ điểm này tới điểm kia và người nổi tiếng nhất là Lee Bergthold. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/California | California |
b25e7d3e-3c77-482d-bf5b-26f6c5d33e8b | Thực sự hầu như cả miền đông nam California là sa mạc khô cằn và nóng bức, và các thung lũng Coachella và Imperial thường có nhiệt độ rất cao vào mùa hè.
Nằm theo bờ biển dài và đông đúc dân cư của California là vài khu vực đô thị lớn, bao gồm San Jose–San Francisco–Oakland, Los Angeles–Long Beach, Santa Ana–Irvine–Anaheim, và San Diego. Thời tiết gần Thái Bình Dương rất ôn hòa so với những khí hậu trong đất liền. Nhiệt độ không bao giờ xuống tới điểm đông vào mùa đông (hầu như không có tuyết) và nhiệt độ hiếm khi lên trên 30°C (gần 80°F).
California được biết đến với động đất vì có nhiều vết đứt gãy, nhất là vết đứt gãy San Andreas. Tuy ở nhiều tiểu bang khác như Alaska, Washington, Oregon, và Missouri đã xảy ra các trận động đất rất mạnh (gây ra bởi vết đứt gãy New Madrid), nhưng nhiều người biết đến những động đất ở California hơn vì chúng xảy ra thường xuyên và hay xảy ra ở những vùng đông dân cư.
California cũng có vài núi lửa, một số còn hoạt động như núi lửa Mammoth. Những núi lửa khác bao gồm đỉnh Lassen, nó phun nham thạch từ 1914 đến 1921, và núi lửa Shasta.
Các thành phố quan trọng
Tiểu bang California có 478 thành phố, trong đó phần lớn nằm trong những khu vực đô thị lớn. 68% của dân cư California sống trong hai khu vực đô thị lớn nhất gồm vùng Đại Los Angeles và vùng vịnh San Francisco. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/California | California |
e92c5803-720e-4c7e-90d6-048fdd31888c | Dân số vài thành phố lớn (2000):
Los Angeles: 3.694.820
San Jose: 894.943
San Francisco: 776.733
San Diego: 1.223.400
Các công viên quốc gia
Dịch vụ Vườn Quốc gia (NPS) quản lý nhiều công viên quốc gia ở California:
Đảo Alcatraz gần San Francisco
Đài kỷ niệm Quốc gia Cabrillo tại San Diego
Đường mòn California
Công viên Quốc gia Quần đảo Eo biển gần Ventura
Công viên Quốc gia Thung lũng Chết
Đài kỷ niệm Quốc gia Devils Postpile gần Mammoth Lakes
Khu tưởng niệm Eugene O'Neill tại Danville
Pháo đài Pointtại Presidio
Khu giải trí Quốc gia Cổng Vàng trong San Francisco
Khu tưởng niệm John Muir tại Martinez
Công viên Quốc gia Joshua Tree, trụ sở tại Twentynine Palms
Đường mòn Juan Bautista de Anza
Công viên Quốc gia Kings Canyon
Công viên Quốc gia Núi lửa Lassen gần Mineral
Đài kỷ niệm Quốc gia Lớp dung nham gần Tulelake
Trại giam Manzanar tại Independence
Khu bảo tồn Quốc gia Mojave, trụ sở tại Barstow
Đài kỷ niệm Quốc gia Muir Woods tại Thung lũng Mill
Đường mòn Tây Ban Nha Cũ
Đài kỷ niệm Quốc gia Pinnacles gần Paicines
Bờ biển Quốc gia Mũi Reyes gần Mũi Reyes
Đường mòn Pony Express
Đài kỷ niệm Quốc gia Kho đạn Hải quân Cảng Chicago tại Trạm Vũ khí Hải quân Concord
Công viên Quốc gia Redwood
Công viên lịch sử Quốc gia Hậu phương Chiến tranh thế giới thứ hai Rosie the Riveter tại Richmond
Công viên lịch sử Quốc gia Hàng hải San Francisco
Khu giải trí Quốc gia Dãy núi Santa Monica
Công viên Quốc gia Củ tùng
Khu giải trí Quốc gia Whiskeytown gần Whiskeytown
Công viên Quốc gia Yosemite
Lịch sử
Trước khi người châu Âu đến California thì đây là một trong những vùng đa dạng về văn hóa và ngôn ngữ nhất ở Bắc Mỹ thời thổ dân. Nhiều người ở bờ biển phía tây Hoa Kỳ săn những con thú biển, câu cá hồi và thu nhặt tôm cua, trong khi những dân tộc cơ động hơn ở bên trong California đi săn thú rừng và hái lượm những quả hạch, quả đầu, và quả mọng. Các dân tộc ở California có nhiều hình thức tổ chức khác nhau như nhóm, bộ lạc, tiểu bộ lạc, và các cộng đồng lớn hơn trên bờ biền dồi dào tài nguyên như dân tộc Chumash, Pomo, và Salinas. Việc buôn bán, hôn nhân khác dân tộc, và liên minh quân sự làm cho những dân tộc khác nhau có nhiều mối liên hệ xã hội và kinh tế. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/California | California |
e8515834-58ae-4a7a-9b31-4fbda7b2c155 | João Rodrigues Cabrilho người Bồ Đào Nha là người châu Âu đầu tiên thám hiểm một phần bờ biển California năm 1542. Còn Francis Drake là người đầu tiên thám hiểm cả bờ biển và tuyên bố chủ quyền đối với vùng đất này năm 1579. Từ cuối thế kỷ 18, các hội truyền giáo Tây Ban Nha đã xây dựng các ngôi làng rất nhỏ trên những vùng đất trợ cấp lớn khổng lồ thuộc miền rộng rãi về phía bắc của Baja California.
Ban đầu, vùng đất có tên California bao gồm vùng tây bắc của Đế quốc Tây Ban Nha, tức là bán đảo Baja California (Hạ California), và phần lớn những vùng đất hiện nay của các tiểu bang California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, và Wyoming, được gọi là Alta California (Thượng California). Trong thời kỳ đầu, những ranh giới của biển Cortez và bờ biển Thái Bình Dương chưa được thám hiểm đầy đủ, cho nên California được vẽ như một hòn đảo trên những bản đồ thời đó. Tên California được đặt ra cho vùng này theo hòn đảo lạc viên California trong Las sergas de Esplandián (Các truyện phiêu lưu của Splandian), một tiểu thuyết tiếng Tây Ban Nha do Garci Rodríguez de Montalvo viết vào thế kỷ 16.
Vùng đất này có người thổ dân trước khi có các cuộc thám hiểm lác đác của người châu Âu vào thế kỷ 16. Đến cuối thế kỷ 18, Tây Ban Nha chiếm vùng này thành thuộc địa của mình. Và khi Mexico giành được độc lập trong cuộc Chiến tranh giành độc lập México (1810–1821), California thành một phần của nước này. Hơn 200 năm sau khi Mexico giành được độc lập, California là tỉnh xa thuộc miền bắc của quốc gia. Các trại rất lớn nuôi bò, được gọi rancho, trở thành chế độ chính của California thuộc Mexico. Các thương gia và thực dân bắt đầu đến từ Hoa Kỳ, báo hiệu những thay đổi quyết liệt sẽ xảy ra khắp miền California.
Vào thời kỳ này, một số quý tộc Nga cũng thử thám hiểm và tuyên bố chủ quyền một phần California, nhưng các lần thám hiểm này không thành công do Sa hoàng không quan tâm và do chính phủ Mexico xây dựng một số pháo đài (presidio) để chặn những cuộc xâm nhập vào miền này. California không có nhiều người sinh sống cho đến khi y học hiện đại loại trừ được sự bùng nổ các bệnh sốt vàng, sốt rét, và dịch hạch gây ra bởi muỗi và bọ chét, những loài sẽ bị giết chết khi bị đông cứng, mà ở California lại thiếu điều này. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/California | California |
33ab5dcd-8142-44dd-bd02-feca4bb5eb48 | Khi Mexico giành được độc lập từ Tây Ban Nha thì các hội truyền giáo Tây Ban Nha tại California thuộc về chính phủ Mexico, và họ vội vàng giải tán và bãi bỏ những hội này. Tuy nhiên, nhiều thành phố lớn của California đã phát triển xung quanh những hội truyền giáo này, bởi vậy những thành phố đó có tên thánh, thí dụ như Los Angeles được đặt tên theo Đức Bà Maria, San Francisco theo Thánh Phanxicô thành Assisi, San Jose theo Thánh Giuse, và San Diego theo Thánh Điđacô.
Vào Chiến tranh Mỹ-Mexico (1846–1848), người dân Mỹ nổi lên chống lại chính phủ Mexico. Năm đầu tiên của cuộc chiến, 1846, Cộng hòa California được thành lập và Cờ Gấu tung bay. Trên lá cờ này có hình một con gấu vàng và một ngôi sao. Tuy nhiên, nền cộng hòa bị chấm dứt đột ngột khi Thiếu tướng John D. Sloat của Hải quân Hoa Kỳ tiến vào vịnh San Francisco và tuyên bố chủ quyền của Hoa Kỳ đối với California. Sau chiến tranh, California bị chia thành 2 phần thuộc Mexico (phía nam) và Hoa Kỳ (phía bắc). Phần phía bắc, đầu tiên được gọi Alta California, rồi trở thành tiểu bang California thuộc Hoa Kỳ; còn phần phía nam được Mexico chia thành hai tiểu bang Baja California và Baja California Sur.
Vào năm 1848, có khoảng 4.000 người Tây Ban Nha ở vùng thượng California tới vào người, nhưng vàng đã được phát hiệm gần Sacramento, làm cho nhiều người đến đây từ Mỹ, Âu Châu, và những nơi khác với hy vọng tìm vàng trong cuộc đổ xô tìm vàng ở California năm 1849. Do đó, rất nhiều người nhập cư vào miền này, và California được trở thành tiểu bang thứ 31 của Hoa Kỳ năm 1850. Khi tiểu bang này gia nhập Liên bang, nó được coi là một trong những tiểu bang tự do, tức là nó cấm chế độ nô lệ.
Đầu tiên, việc đi lại lại giữa miền Tây và các trung tâm ở miền Đông tốn thì giờ và nguy hiểm. Hành khách phải đi theo các chuyến đường biển dài hoặc đi bằng xe ngựa hay đi bộ rất khó khăn trên những con đường đất. Năm 1869, đường xe lửa xuyên lục địa đầu tiên được hoàn thành, tạo ra một lối đi thẳng hơn. Sau đó, hàng trăm ngàn người Mỹ tới California, nơi những người mới đến khám phá ra rằng nếu tưới đất vào những tháng hè khô cạn, đất đó rất hợp để trồng cây ăn quả và làm nông nghiệp nói chung. Các loại cây giống cam quýt được trồng phổ biến (nhất là cây cam), và từ đó ngành sản xuất nông nghiệp California bắt đầu rất thành công đến ngày nay. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/California | California |
77d4dc3d-01b3-4ea1-aab3-e1d98b03661a | Đầu thế kỷ 20, sự di trú đến California tăng nhanh sau khi hoàn thành những con đường xuyên lục địa lớn như Đường Lincoln và Xa lộ 66. Từ 1900 đến 1965, dân số California tăng tới gần một triệu và California trở thành tiểu bang đông dân nhất Liên bang. Từ năm 1965 đến nay, nhân khẩu của tiểu bang thay đổi hoàn toàn làm California trở thành một trong những địa điểm có nhiều chủng loại người nhất trên thế giới. Nói chung, tiểu bang có khuynh hướng tự do, hiểu biết về kỹ thuật và văn hóa, và là trung tâm quốc tế về công ty kỹ thuật, ngành công nghiệp điện ảnh và truyền hình, công nghiệp âm nhạc, và ngành sản xuất nông nghiệp đã nói ở trên.
Nhân khẩu
Dân số
Năm 2006, California có khoảng 36.132.147 người, tăng 290.109 người hay 0,8% so với năm 2005 và tăng 2.260.494 người hay 6,7% so với năm 2000. Với tỷ lệ tăng này, California đứng hàng thứ 13 trong số các tiểu bang tăng dân số nhanh nhất. Số người tăng lên gồm 1.557.112 tăng trưởng tự nhiên (2.781.539 người sinh trừ 1.224.427 người chết) và 751.419 người nhập cư. California là tiểu bang đông dân nhất với trên 12% người Mỹ sống tại đây. Nếu là một quốc gia riêng, California sẽ là nước đông dân thứ 34 trên thế giới. California nhiều hơn Canada 4 triệu dân.
Chủng tộc
Không sắc tộc nào chiếm đa số tại California. Đây là một trong ba tiểu bang (California, Hawaii và New Mexico) mà người thiểu số nhiều hơn người da trắng. Người da trắng không có gốc từ châu Mỹ Latinh vẫn là nhóm đông nhất, nhưng họ không chiếm đại đa số. Người gốc từ châu Mỹ Latinh chiếm trên một phần ba số dân; các nhóm khác, theo thứ tự là: Người Mỹ gốc Á, Người Mỹ gốc Phi và Người thổ dân da đỏ.
Vì có nhiều người nhập cư từ châu Mỹ Latinh, nhất là từ México, và tỉ lệ sinh sản của người Mỹ Latinh cao hơn, các nhà nghiên cứu phỏng đoán rằng họ sẽ chiếm đa số vào năm 2040. California có tỉ lệ người gốc châu Á cao thứ nhì toàn quốc, chỉ sau Hawaii.
Ngôn ngữ
Tính đến năm 2000, số người California từ 5 tuổi trở lên sử dụng tiếng Anh và tiếng Tây Ban Nha tại nhà lần lượt là 60,5% và 25,8%. Tiếng Trung Quốc đứng thứ ba với 2,6%, sau đó là tiếng Tagalog (2,0%) và tiếng Việt (1,3%). | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/California | California |
e727e3f6-0df7-4e86-b09e-bffc17a9d9cb | Có trên 100 ngôn ngữ thổ dân tại đây, nhưng hầu hết đang ở tình trạng mai một. Từ năm 1986, Hiến pháp California đã chỉ định tiếng Anh làm ngôn ngữ phổ thông và chính thức trong tiểu bang.
Tôn giáo
Người dân California theo các tôn giáo sau (2014):
Kitô giáo – 75%
Giáo hội Công giáo Rôma – 32%
Tin Lành – 28%
Baptist – 8%
Trưởng Lão – 3%
Giám Lý – 2%
Giáo hội Luther – 2%
Các giáo hội Kháng Cách khác – 23%
Các giáo phái Kitô khác – 3%
Do Thái giáo – 2%
Phật giáo – 2%
Hồi giáo – 1%
Các tôn giáo khác – 3%
Không tôn giáo – 27%
Như các tiểu bang miền tây khác, số người tự nhận là "không tôn giáo" cao hơn các nơi khác tại Hoa Kỳ.
Kinh tế
Tuy tiểu bang có tiếng về thái độ thoải mái khi so sánh với các tiểu bang ở bờ biển đông Hoa Kỳ, nền kinh tế California lớn thứ sáu trên thế giới và đóng góp 13% vào tổng sản phẩm quốc nội (GDP) Hoa Kỳ. Các ngành công nghiệp lớn nhất của tiểu bang bao gồm nông nghiệp, hàng không vũ trụ, giải trí, công nghiệp nhẹ, và du lịch. California cũng có vài trung tâm kinh tế quan trọng như Hollywood (về điện ảnh), thung lũng Trung tâm California (về nông nghiệp), thung lũng Silicon (về máy tính và công nghệ cao), và vùng Rượu vang (về rượu vang).
Chính phủ
Giống chính phủ liên bang Hoa Kỳ, California có chính phủ kiểu cộng hòa, với ba nhánh chính phủ: hành pháp gồm Thống đốc California và các quan chức được bầu riêng rẽ; Cơ quan lập pháp bang California gồm Hạ viện và Thượng viện; và tư pháp có Tòa án Tối cao California và các tòa cấp dưới. Tiểu bang cũng để cử tri tham gia vào quá trình chính phủ qua kiến nghị, trưng cầu dân ý, bãi miễn, và phê chuẩn.
Giáo dục
Do một tu chính án của hiến pháp tiểu bang, California phải chi phí 40% của thu nhập tiểu bang cho hệ thống trường công. California là tiểu bang duy nhất có điều khoản như vậy.
Các trường tiểu học công lập có chất lượng khác nhau tùy theo trường. Chất lượng của các trường địa phương phần lớn tùy theo tiền thuế ở vùng đấy và cỡ của ban phụ trách các trường. Ở một số vùng, chi phí quản lý tốn một phần lớn của tiền đã dùng cho giáo dục. Ở những vùng nghèo, tỷ lệ người biết đọc viết có thể ít hơn 70% dân cư. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/California | California |
d0467cb6-91c9-44a1-b946-f051afe6699b | Hệ thống trường trung học công lập dạy những lớp tùy chọn về nghề nghiệp, ngôn ngữ, và khoa học nhân văn có cấp riêng cho những học sinh giỏi, sinh viên tương lai, và học sinh công nghiệp. Họ nhận học sinh bắt đầu từ khoảng 14–18 tuổi, và chính phủ ngừng đòi hỏi người phải đi học khi đến 16 tuổi. Ở nhiều khu vực trường học, những trường trung học cơ sở có lớp tùy chọn với chương trình tập trung vào cách học, người 11–13 tuổi đi những trường học này. Những trường tiểu học chỉ dạy về cách học, lịch sử, và xã hội, và có trường mẫu giáo tùy chọn nửa ngày bắt đầu từ 5 tuổi. Chính phủ đòi hỏi trẻ em phải đến trường từ 6 tuổi.
Hệ thống các viện đại học nghiên cứu chính của tiểu bang là hệ thống Viện Đại học California (UC), có nhiều nhà nghiên cứu đã đoạt giải Nobel hơn bất cứ cơ sở nào trên thế giới và được coi như một trong những hệ thống viện đại học công lập hàng đầu của Hoa Kỳ. Hệ thống UC có mục đích nhận 12,5% của những học sinh cao điểm nhất và thực hiện nghiên cứu sau đại học.
UC hiện có 10 viện đại học thành viên và 1 trường luật liên kết ở San Francisco:
UC-Berkeley
UC-San Francisco chỉ đào tạo những sinh viên sau đại học ngành y
UC-Los Angeles
UC-San Diego
UC-Davis
UC-Santa Cruz
UC-Santa Barbara
UC-Irvine
UC-Riverside
UC-Merced
Trường Đại học Luật Hastings (Hastings College of Law) liên kết với UC, tồn tại độc lập và không bị kiểm soát bởi UC
UC cũng quản lý một số phòng thí nghiệm liên bang cho Bộ Năng lượng Hoa Kỳ:
Phòng thí nghiệm Quốc gia Lawrence Berkeley (Berkeley, California) do UC trực tiếp quản lý và điều hành, tiến hành nghiên cứu chưa được phân loại trên nhiều lĩnh vực khoa học với những nỗ lực chính tập trung vào nghiên cứu cơ bản về vũ trụ, sinh học định lượng, khoa học nano, hệ thống năng lượng mới và giải pháp môi trường và sử dụng điện toán tích hợp làm công cụ khám phá.
Phòng thí nghiệm Quốc gia Lawrence Livermore (Livermore, California) UC quản lý và vận hành thông qua một công ty trách nhiệm hữu hạn tư nhân riêng biệt và là đối tác hạn chế, sử dụng khoa học và công nghệ tiên tiến để đảm bảo rằng vũ khí hạt nhân của Mỹ vẫn đáng tin cậy. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/California | California |
f70d0c5f-3f28-4ef7-8fca-ddb520b42134 | Tại đây cũng có các chương trình nghiên cứu lớn về mô hình siêu máy tính và dự đoán, năng lượng và môi trường, sinh học và công nghệ sinh học, khoa học cơ bản và công nghệ ứng dụng, chống phổ biến vũ khí hủy diệt hàng loạt và an ninh nội địa. Đây cũng là nơi có những siêu máy tính mạnh nhất thế giới.
Phòng thí nghiệm Quốc gia Los Alamos (Los Alamos, New Mexico) UC quản lý và vận hành thông qua một công ty trách nhiệm hữu hạn tư nhân riêng biệt và là đối tác hạn chế, tập trung hầu hết các công việc của mình vào việc đảm bảo độ tin cậy của vũ khí hạt nhân Mỹ. Các công việc khác tại đây liên quan đến các chương trình nghiên cứu nhằm ngăn chặn sự lây lan của vũ khí hủy diệt hàng loạt và an ninh quốc gia Hoa Kỳ, như bảo vệ Hoa Kỳ khỏi cuộc tấn công khủng bố.
Hệ thống Viện Đại học California State (CSU) cũng được coi như một trong những hệ thống trường học ưu việt trên thế giới. Hệ thống CSU bao gồm 23 viện đại học:
Đại học Tiểu bang Humboldt
Đại học Tiểu bang Chico
Đại học Tiểu bang Sonoma
Đại học Tiểu bang Sacramento
Đại học Tiểu bang San Francisco
Đại học Tiểu bang California tại Vịnh Đông
Đại học Tiểu bang California tại Bakersfield
Đại học Tiểu bang California tại Quần đảo Eo biển
Đại học Tiểu bang California tại Dominguez Hills
Đại học Tiểu bang California tại Fresno
Đại học Tiểu bang California tại Fullerton
Đại học Tiểu bang California tại Long Beach
Đại học Tiểu bang California tại Los Angeles
Học viện Hàng hải California
Đại học Tiểu bang California tại Vịnh Monterey
Đại học Tiểu bang California tại Northridge
Đại học Bách khoa Tiểu bang California tại Pomona
Đại học Tiểu bang California tại San Bernardino
Đại học Tiểu bang San Diego
Đại học Tiểu bang San Jose
Đại học Bách khoa Tiểu bang California tại San Luis Obispo
Đại học Tiểu bang California tại San Marcos
Đại học Tiểu bang California tại Stanislaus
Với hơn 400.000 sinh viên, hệ thống CSU là hệ thống viện đại học lớn nhất của Hoa Kỳ. Nó có mục đích nhận phần ba học sinh trung học phổ thông cao điểm nhất. Các viện đại học thuộc hệ thống CSU phần nhiều dành cho sinh viên đại học, nhưng nhiều trường lớn trong hệ thống, như là CSU-Long Beach, CSU-Fresno, San Diego State University, và San Jose State University, đang quan tâm thêm về nghiên cứu, nhất là về những ngành khoa học ứng dụng. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/California | California |
4f84445f-33f6-4d44-aa86-378d076ffa60 | CSU sắp làm trái với một phần của Sơ đồ Kerr năm 1960 vào năm 2007 khi họ bắt đầu phong học vị tiến sĩ (Ph.D.) về giáo dục. Cán bộ Thư viện Tiểu bang Kevin Star và các người khác đã nói rằng thay đổi nhỏ này là bước đầu tiên để cải tổ hệ thống đại học ở California.
Hệ thống Trường Đại học Cộng đồng California (California Community Colleges System - CCCS) cung cấp những lớp "giáo dục tổng quát", có thể chuyển đơn vị lớp học qua những hệ thống CSU và UC, và cũng cung cấp chương trình dạy nghề, dạy lớp thấp, và học tiếp. Các trường này cấp giấy chứng nhận và bằng cao đẳng (associate's degree). Nó bao gồm 109 trường đại học được tổ chức thành 72 khu vực, dạy hơn 2,9 triệu sinh viên.
Những viện đại học tư thục có tiếng bao gồm:
Viện Đại học Stanford
Viện Đại học Nam California (USC)
Viện Đại học Santa Clara (SCU)
Viện Đại học Claremont
Viện Công nghệ California (Caltech). Caltech cũng quản lý Phòng Thí nghiệm Sức đẩy Phản lực cho NASA.
California có thêm hàng trăm trường và viện đại học tư thục, bao gồm nhiều học viện tôn giáo và học viện chuyên biệt. Bởi vậy California có nhiều cơ hội đặc biệt về giải trí và giáo dục cho dân cư. Cho thí dụ, miền nam California, một trong những vùng đông đại học nhất trên thế giới, có rất nhiều người hát giỏi mà thi trong đại hội ca đoàn lớn. Gần Los Angeles có nhiều học viện nghệ thuật và điện ảnh, bao gồm Học viện Nghệ thuật California (CalArts).
Chú thích
Tham khảo
Welcome to California – Chính phủ California (tiếng Anh)
Counting California – Thư viện Đại học California (tiếng Anh)
Tiểu bang Hoa Kỳ
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4a7b3446-2148-40c9-927a-569b73be2a43 | {{Hộp thông tin quốc gia
| conventional_long_name = Vương quốc Thụy Điển
| native_name =
| common_name = Thụy Điển
| linking_name = Thụy Điển
| image_flag = Flag of Sweden.svg
| image_coat = Greater coat of arms of Sweden.svg
| symbol_type = Đại quốc huy
| symbol = Huy hiệu hoàng gia Thụy Điển
| national_motto = ""
| national_anthem = ()
| royal_anthem = ()
| image_map =
| map_caption = Vị trí của Thụy Điển (đỏ) trong Liên minh châu Âu (trắng)
| map_width = 250px
| official_languages = Tiếng Thụy Điển (de facto) ³Ngôn ngữ thiểu số chính thức:Phần LanTiếng SamiTiếng DiganTiếng Yiddish
| ethnic_groups = Không có số liệu thống kê chính thức
| demonym =
| capital = Stockholm
| coordinates =
| largest_city = thủ đô
| government_type = Đơn nhất quân chủ lập hiến đại nghị chế|
| leader_title1 = Quốc vương
| leader_name1 = Carl XVI Gustaf
| leader_title2 = Chủ tịch Quốc hội
| leader_name2 = Andreas Norlén
| leader_title3 = Thủ tướng
| leader_name3 = Ulf Kristersson
| legislature = Riksdag đơn viện
| sovereignty_type = Hình thành
| established_event1 = Vương quốc thống nhất
| established_date1 = Đầu thế kỷ XII
| established_event2 = Liên minh Kalmar
| established_date2 = 1397–1523
| established_event3 = Thụy Điển-Na Uy
| established_date3 = 4 tháng 11 năm 1814–tháng 8 năm 1905
| established_event4 = Gia nhập Liên minh châu Âu
| established_date4 = 1 tháng 1 năm 1995
| area_km2 = 450.295
| area_sq_mi = 175.896
| area_rank = 55
| area_magnitude = 1 E11
| percent_water = 8.67
| population_census = 10.053.061
| population_census_year = 2017
| population_census_rank = 89
| population_density_km2 = 22
| population_density_rank = 196
| GDP_PPP_year = 2016
| GDP PPP =
| GDP_PPP_rank = 34
| GDP_PPP_per_capita = 49.678 USD
| GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 17
| GDP_nominal_year = 2016
| GDP_nominal =
| GDP_nominal_rank = 21
| GDP_nominal_per_capita = 51.603 USD
| GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 11
| Gini = 28,0
| Gini_year = 2017
| Gini_change = increase
| Gini_ref =
| Gini_rank =
| HDI = 0,933
| HDI_year = 2017
| HDI_change = increase
| HDI_ref =
| HDI_rank = 7
| currency = Krona (kr)
| currency_code = SEK
| time_zone = CET
| utc_offset = +1
| utc_offset_DST = +2
| drives_on = phải
| date_format = nn/tt/nnnn (AD)
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
9f5332a5-ccf9-43c1-85bc-2251d055e920 | se
| calling_code = +46
| iso3166code = SE
| ISO_3166–1_alpha2 =
| ISO_3166–1_alpha3 =
| sport_code =
| vehicle_code =
| footnotes = ¹ För Sverige – i tiden (tiếng Thụy Điển: Cho Thụy Điển – theo thời gian) được Carl XVI Gustaf sử dụng là khẩu hiệu cá nhân làm vai quốc vương.² Không có nghị quyết nào tuyên bố rằng bản nhạc này là quốc ca.³ Xem đoạn về ngôn ngữ.
| Bản đồ 2 = EU-Sweden.svg
| Chú thích bản đồ = Vị trí Thụy Điển trên thế giới
| Chú thích bản đồ 2 =
| GDP_PPP =
| today =
}}
Thụy Điển (, , tiếng Anh: Sweden), tên chính thức là Vương quốc Thụy Điển (, tiếng Anh: Kingdom of Sweden), là một quốc gia ở Bắc Âu, giáp Na Uy ở phía Tây và Phần Lan ở phía Đông Bắc, nối với Đan Mạch bằng cầu Öresund ở phía Nam, phần biên giới còn lại giáp Biển Baltic và Biển Kattegat.
Với diện tích 449 964 km², Thụy Điển là nước lớn thứ ba trong Liên minh châu Âu, với dân số 10.2 triệu người, trong đó có khoảng 2,4 triệu người được sinh ra ở nước ngoài . Thụy Điển có mật độ dân số thấp với 21 người/km² nhưng lại tập trung cao ở nửa phía Nam của đất nước. Khoảng 85% dân số sống ở thành thị và theo dự đoán con số này sẽ tăng dần vì quá trình đô thị hóa đang diễn ra. Thủ đô của Thụy Điển là Stockholm, đây cũng là thành phố lớn nhất nước. Thành phố lớn thứ hai là Göteborg với dân số khoảng 500.000 người và 900.000 người trên tổng vùng. Thành phố lớn thứ ba là Malmö với dân số khoảng 260.000 người và 650.000 người ở tổng vùng. Ngày nay, Thuỵ Điển là một nước quân chủ lập hiến với thể chế đại nghị. Quyền lực lập pháp của đất nước thuộc về Quốc hội (Riksdag) đơn viện gồm 349 đại biểu. Quyền hành pháp được thực hiện bởi chính phủ do thủ tướng chủ trì. Thụy Điển là một nhà nước đơn nhất, được chia thành 21 hạt và 290 đô thị.
Một nhà nước độc lập của Thụy Điển đã xuất hiện trong đầu thế kỷ 12. Sau khi đại dịch Cái Chết Đen bùng nổ vào giữa thế kỷ 14 giết chết khoảng một phần ba dân số Scandinavia , Liên minh Hanse xuất hiện và trở thành mối đe doạ đối với văn hoá, tài chính và ngôn ngữ của người Scandinavia . | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
0e459f01-0b8a-4490-822e-a80717620ee1 | Điều này dẫn đến việc hình thành Liên minh Kalmar giữa các nước Scandinavia vào năm 1397 , tuy vậy sau đó Thụy Điển đã rời bỏ Liên minh vào năm 1523. Khi Thụy Điển tham gia vào cuộc Chiến tranh Ba mươi năm bên phe Tân giáo, họ bắt đầu quá trình mở rộng lãnh thổ của mình và sau đó không lâu Đế chế Thụy Điển đã được hình thành, trở thành một trong những thế lực hùng mạnh nhất của châu Âu cho đến đầu thế kỷ 18. Lãnh thổ của Thụy Điển nằm ngoài bán đảo Scandinavia đã dần dần bị mất trong thế kỷ 18 và thế kỷ 19. Nửa phía Đông của Thụy Điển (Phần Lan ngày nay), rơi vào tay Đế quốc Nga năm 1809. Cuộc chiến tranh cuối cùng Thụy Điển tham gia trực tiếp vào năm 1814, khi Thụy Điển sử dụng quân sự ép Na Uy nhập vào Liên minh Thụy Điển và Na Uy, một liên minh tồn tại đến tận năm 1905. Kể từ đó, Thụy Điển là một nước hòa bình, áp dụng chính sách đối ngoại không liên kết vào thời bình và chính sách trung lập thời chiến . Thụy Điển giữ vai trò trung lập trong cả hai cuộc chiến tranh thế giới và Chiến tranh Lạnh, mặc dù từ năm 2009 Thụy Điển đã chuyển sang hợp tác công khai với NATO.
Sau khi kết thúc Chiến tranh Lạnh, Thụy Điển gia nhập Liên minh châu Âu vào ngày 1 tháng 1 năm 1995, nhưng đã từ chối trở thành một thành viên của NATO, cũng như từ chối gia nhập Khu vực đồng euro sau một cuộc trưng cầu dân ý. Thụy Điển hiện là thành viên của nhiều tổ chức như Liên Hợp Quốc, Hội đồng Bắc Âu, Hội đồng Châu Âu, Tổ chức Thương mại Thế giới và Tổ chức Hợp tác và Phát triển Kinh tế (OECD). Thụy Điển là một nước có nền kinh tế phát triển cao, duy trì một hệ thống phúc lợi xã hội rộng rãi theo mô hình Bắc Âu, cung cấp dịch vụ chăm sóc sức khỏe tổng quát và giáo dục đại học miễn phí cho người dân. Thụy Điển đứng thứ 11 thế giới về thu nhập bình quân đầu người, ngoài ra nước này cũng đạt thứ hạng cao trong nhiều bảng xếp hạng quốc tế, đặc biệt là về chất lượng cuộc sống, y tế, giáo dục, bảo vệ tự do dân sự, cạnh tranh kinh tế, bình đẳng, thịnh vượng và phát triển con người . | [
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fd245465-18f5-4027-b64e-867e724bef91 | Từ nguyên
Tên gọi của Thuỵ Điển trong tiếng Việt bắt nguồn từ tiếng Trung. Trong tiếng Anh, Thụy Điển được gọi là "Sweden". Bằng tiếng Trung, "Swe-den" được phiên âm là "瑞典" (pinyin: "Ruì diǎn"). "瑞典" có âm Hán Việt là "Thuỵ Điển".
Tên gọi Thụy Điển (Sweden) được mượn từ tiếng Hà Lan trong thế kỉ 17 nói tới Thụy Điển như một cường quốc mới nổi. Trước khi đế quốc Thụy Điển bành trướng, tiếng Anh hiện đại thời kì đầu sử dụng từ Swedeland. Sweden (Thụy Điển) được bắt nguồn từ sự tái tạo từ tiếng Anh cổ Swēoþēod, có nghĩa là dân Swedes (Old Norse Svíþjóð, Latin Suetidi). Từ đó nguồn gốc từ Sweon/Sweonas (Old Norse Sviar, Latin Suiones). Người Thụy Điển (Swedish) gọi là Sverige, nghĩa là vương quốc của người Swedes (Thụy Điển).
Biến thể của tên Sweden (Thụy Điển) được sử dụng trong hầu hết các ngôn ngữ, ngoại trừ tiếng Đan Mạch và tiếng Na Uy sử dụng từ Sverige, tiếng Faroese dùng từ Svøríki, tiếng Iceland Svíþjóð, và ngoại lệ đáng chú ý hơn của một số ngôn ngữ Finnic nơi mà từ Ruotsi (tiếng Phần Lan) và Rootsi (tiếng Estonia) được sử dụng, những cái tên thường được coi là đề cập đến những người từ các khu vực ven biển của Roslagen, Uppland (thuộc Thụy Điển), những người được biết đến với cái tên Rus, và thông qua họ có liên quan về mặt từ ngữ với tên tiếng Anh của Russia (Nga).
Lịch sử
Vào cuối thời kỳ băng hà (khoảng 12.000 TCN), những người đầu tiên đã bắt đầu di dân đến các vùng ven biển bằng đường bộ ở giữa Đức và Scania (miền Nam Thụy Điển ngày nay). Các di chỉ khảo cổ lâu đời nhất có niên đại vào khoảng 13.000 năm trước đây được tìm thấy ở vùng Scania. Khi con đường bộ này biến mất vào khoảng 5.000 năm TCN miền Trung và vùng ven biển của Thụy Điển đã có dân cư. Cũng theo các di chỉ khảo cổ, trong thời gian từ Công Nguyên cho đến năm 400 đã có một nền thương mại phát đạt với Đế quốc La Mã. Vùng Scandinavia được nhắc đến lần đầu tiên trong các văn kiện của La Mã từ năm 79 như trong Naturalis Historiae của Gaius Plinius Secundus hay trong De Origine et situ Germanorum của Gaius Cornelius Tacitus. | [
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64a20a9b-88d2-401a-a57c-66729fd3c7d0 | Đầu thế kỷ XI, vương quốc này là một liên minh lỏng lẻo của các vùng tự trị với các hội đồng, luật lệ và tòa án riêng biệt, chỉ được liên kết với nhau qua cá nhân của vị vua có quyền lực tương đối ít. Vương quốc thật ra được thành lập trong thời kỳ Trung Cổ, giữa năm 1000 và 1300, đồng thời với việc theo Công giáo. Sau năm 1000 danh hiệu vua bắt đầu thành hình ở Götaland (miền nam Thuỵ Điển) và ở Svealand (miền trung Thuỵ Điển). Ban đầu chức vị này thường hay bị tranh cãi, không bền vững và thường chỉ có tầm quan trọng trong vùng. Dưới thời của Birger Jarl, người có quan hệ mật thiết với anh rể của ông là vua Erik Eriksson, bắt đầu có những cải cách xã hội và chính trị rộng lớn, mang lại một quyền lực tập trung và một xã hội được tổ chức theo gương của các quốc gia phong kiến châu Âu.
Năm 1388, nữ hoàng Đan Mạch Margarethe I được một phái quý tộc chống đối công nhận là người trị vì Thuỵ Điển. Năm 1397 cháu của Margarethe là Erik của Pommern lên ngôi vua trị vì 3 vương quốc Đan Mạch, Na Uy và Thuỵ Điển, thành lập Liên minh Kalmar.
Năm 1611, sau khi vua cha qua đời, Gustav II Adolf lên ngôi lúc 17 tuổi, bắt đầu thời kỳ Thuỵ Điển vươn lên trở thành cường quốc. Ông tham chiến trong nhiều cuộc chiến tranh thời đó. Vào năm 1700, ba nước láng giềng là Đan Mạch, Ba Lan và Nga mở đầu cuộc Đại chiến Bắc Âu (1700-1721) chống lại Thuỵ Điển. Vua Karl XII của Thụy Điển lần lượt đánh tan tác quân Đan Mạch, quân Nga và cả quân Ba Lan. Nhưng vào năm 1709, một vị vua lớn trong lịch sử Nga là Pyotr Đại Đế đánh tan tác quân Thuỵ Điển trong trận Poltava (1709). Vua Karl XII chết vào năm 1718, và rồi Thuỵ Điển không còn là cường quốc nữa, mất đất về tay Đế quốc Nga và Vương quốc Phổ. Tuy thế, chính phủ Thuỵ Điển vẫn mong muốn lập lại vai trò liệt cường của đất nước. Họ đẩy đất nước vào cuộc chiến tranh với quân Nga trong thập niên 1740, kết quả là quân Thuỵ Điển lại bại trận. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
8fbb256d-5577-498e-a939-ecb69d7abaa4 | Từ đó, Nga hoàng càng can thiệp vào nội bộ Thụy Điển Trong cuộc Chiến tranh Bảy năm (1756 - 1763), Thuỵ Điển tham chiến trong liên quân Áo - Pháp - Nga, để đánh nước Phổ với mong muốn giành lại tỉnh Pomerania. Nhưng một vị vua lớn trong lịch sử Phổ là Friedrich II Đại Đế đã đấu tranh anh dũng, sau cùng liên quân dần dần tan rã và quân Thuỵ Điển cũng phải rút lui.
Trong cuộc cuộc chiến chống Nga (1788–1790) của vua Gustav III, Quân đội Thuỵ Điển gặt không ít rắc rối và cũng chẳng nhận được một vùng đất nào.. Không những vậy, cuộc chiến tranh chống Napoléon của vua Gustav IV Adolf còn gây cho Thuỵ Điển nhiều thiệt hại hơn. Do Nga hoàng Aleksandr I lúc đó liên minh với Napoléon (1807), quân Nga đánh đuổi quân Thuỵ Điển ra khỏi xứ Phần Lan, và điều này khiến một nhóm quý tộc Thuỵ Điển nổi điên lật đổ vua Gustav IV Adolf vào năm 1809. Vào năm 1813, Thụy Điển tham chiến trong liên quân chống Pháp - một liên minh có cả Nga và Phổ; sau khi Hoàng đế Napoléon đại bại trong trận Leipzig, vua Karl XIV Johan còn lâm chiến với Đan Mạch. Trong Hiệp ước Kiel năm 1814 Đan Mạch bắt buộc phải nhượng Na Uy để đổi lại phần đất Vorpommern của Thuỵ Điển. Khi Na Uy tuyên bố độc lập sau đó, trong một cuộc chiến ngắn ngủi và gần như không đổ máu vua Karl XIV Johan đã thành công trong việc ép buộc thành lập liên minh Thuỵ Điển – Na Uy mà trong đó Na Uy vẫn là một vương quốc riêng biệt. Sau cuộc chiến tranh cuối cùng này Karl XIV Johan đã áp dụng một chính sách hòa bình nhất quán, là cơ sở cho nền trung lập của Thuỵ Điển. Thời gian 200 năm hòa bình của Thuỵ Điển tính từ thời điểm này cho đến nay là độc nhất trên toàn thế giới ngày nay.
Dân số Thuỵ Điển tăng rõ rệt trong thế kỷ XIX, từ năm 1750 đến 1850 dân số đã tăng gấp đôi. Nhiều người ở vùng nông thôn, là nơi cư ngụ của đa phần người dân, không có việc làm, đi đến nghèo nàn và nghiện rượu. Vì thế trong thời gian từ 1850 đến 1910 đã có một cuộc di dân lớn mà chủ yếu là đến Mỹ. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
bd87f463-d460-4f66-ac92-0ea7a5740cdd | Mặc dầu vậy khi cuộc Cách mạng công nghiệp bắt đẩu tiến triển tại Thuỵ Điển, người dân từng bước gia nhập vào thành phố và tổ chức các công đoàn xã hội chủ nghĩa. Một cuộc cách mạng của những người theo chủ nghĩa xã hội đang đe dọa xảy ra được tránh khỏi vào năm 1917, sau đó là việc tái thành lập chế độ nghị viện và quốc gia này trở thành dân chủ.
Trong thế kỷ XX, Thuỵ Điển trung lập trong Chiến tranh thế giới thứ nhất và Chiến tranh thế giới thứ hai, mặc dầu là sự trung lập của quốc gia này trong Chiến tranh thế giới thứ hai vẫn còn bị tranh cãi. Thụy Điển tiếp tục trung lập trong cuộc Chiến tranh Lạnh và cho đến ngày nay, vẫn không là thành viên của một liên minh quân sự nào. Sau Chiến tranh thế giới thứ hai, nhờ nguồn tài nguyên thiên nhiên không bị tàn phá, Thụy Điển đã có thể phát triển ngành công nghiệp cung cấp cho công cuộc tái xây dựng châu Âu và vì thế trở thành một trong những quốc gia giàu có nhất trên thế giới vào thập niên 1960. Khi các nền kinh tế khác bắt đầu vững mạnh, Thụy Điển tuy đã bị vượt qua vào thập niên 1970 nhưng vẫn thuộc về các quốc gia đứng đầu về mặt hạnh phúc của người dân.
Ngày 19 tháng 12 năm 1946, Thuỵ Điển gia nhập Liên Hợp Quốc, tháng 11 năm 1959 gia nhập Hiệp hội mậu dịch tự do châu Âu (EFTA).
Dưới triều vua Gustavus V (1907-1950), kinh tế phát triển thịnh vượng chưa từng có. Thuỵ Điển duy trì tính trung lập trong Chiến tranh thế giới thứ I. Một lần nữa, Thuỵ Điển vẫn giữ vai trò trung lập trong Chiến tranh thế giới thứ II. Đảng Dân chủ xã hội liên tục cầm quyền dưới thời Thủ tướng Per Albin Hasson (1932-1946), Thủ tướng Tage Erlander (1946- 1969). Kinh tế vẫn phát triển và mô hình Thuỵ Điển tiếp tục được củng cố. Tuy nhiên, dưới thời Thủ tướng Olof Palme (1969- 1979), Chính phủ phải đương đầu vớị cuộc khủng hoảng kinh tế - xã hội.
Năm 1976, phe bảo thủ lên cầm quyền. Năm 1982, O. Palme trở lại giữ chức Thủ tướng. Palme bị Ám sát năm 1986, Ingvar Carlsson trở thành người kế nhiệm. Năm 1991, lãnh đạo phe bảo thủ, Carl Bildt, trở thành Thủ tướng. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
bd090618-1cf6-47ea-881d-a4e72a2aca14 | Năm 1994, Đảng Dân chủ Xã hội trở lại cầm quyền. Năm 1995, Thuỵ Điển gia nhập Liên hiệp châu Âu, nhưng từ chối thông qua việc sử dụng đồng euro năm 1999.
Trong những thập kỷ gần đây, Thụy Điển đã trở thành một quốc gia đa dạng về văn hóa do làn sóng nhập cư ồ ạt vào quốc gia này; trong năm 2013, người ta ước tính rằng 15% dân số Thụy Điển sinh ra ở nước ngoài. Dòng người nhập cư đã mang lại những thách thức mới về xã hội. Nhiều sự cố bạo lực đã xảy ra có liên quan đến những người nhập cư trong đó có cuộc bạo loạn tại Stockholm năm 2013 xảy ra sau vụ việc một người nhập cư Bồ Đào Nha già bị bắn chết bởi một viên cảnh sát. Để đối phó với những sự kiện bạo lực này, đảng Dân chủ Thụy Điển, một đảng đối lập có lập trường chống người nhập cư, đã thúc đẩy các chính sách chống nhập cư của họ, trong khi phe đối lập cánh tả đổ lỗi cho sự bất bình đẳng ngày càng tăng do những chính sách kinh tế xã hội sai lầm của chính phủ trung hữu . Thụy Điển đã bị ảnh hưởng nặng nề bởi cuộc khủng hoảng di cư châu Âu năm 2015, tình trạng này cuối cùng cũng đã buộc chính phủ nước này phải thắt chặt hơn các quy định về nhập cư.
Chính trị
Thụy Điển có bốn đạo luật cơ bản () kết hợp với nhau hình thành nên hiến pháp của đất nước, bao gồm: Văn kiện của chính phủ (), Đạo luật Kế vị (), Đạo luật về quyền tự do báo chí (), Luật Cơ bản về quyền tự do ngôn luận ().Petersson: pp. 38–40.
Thụy Điển là một nhà nước quân chủ lập hiến với Vua Carl XVI Gustaf là người đứng đầu nhà nước kể từ năm 1973, song vai trò của quốc vương chỉ giới hạn trong các chức năng nghi lễ và đại diện. Theo quy định của Văn kiện Chính phủ năm 1974, nhà vua không có bất kỳ quyền lực chính trị chính thức nào. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
e876b63d-2884-469f-ab15-d4ee3172cce7 | Nhà vua là người mở phiên họp Quốc hội hàng năm, tổ chức Hội đồng Thông tin thường kỳ với Thủ tướng và Chính phủ, chủ trì các cuộc họp của Hội đồng Tư vấn Ngoại giao (Tiếng Thụy Điển: Utrikesnämnden) và là người tiếp nhận quốc thư của các đại sứ nước ngoài gửi tới Thụy Điển cũng như đóng dấu quốc thư gửi ra nước ngoài. Ngoài ra, nhà Vua cũng là người thanh toán chi phí cho những chuyến thăm cấp nhà nước ở nước ngoài và tiếp đón khách nước ngoài với tư cách là chủ nhà. Ngoài những nhiệm vụ chính thức, Vua và những thành viên khác trong gia đình hoàng gia cũng thực hiện một loạt các nhiệm vụ đại diện không chính thức khác cả ở trong nước và ngoài nước.
Cơ quan lập pháp là Riksdag (tức Quốc hội) chỉ có một viện bao gồm 349 đại biểu và được bầu 4 năm một lần, đứng đầu bởi một Chủ tịch. Các cuộc tổng tuyển cử được tổ chức bốn năm một lần, vào ngày chủ nhật thứ hai của tháng chín. Luật pháp có thể được soạn thảo bởi chính phủ hoặc bởi thành viên của Riksdag. Các thành viên của Riksdag được bầu lên theo cơ sở đại diện tỷ lệ cho một nhiệm kỳ bốn năm. Các đạo luật cơ bản chỉ có thể được thay đổi nếu đạt được sự đồng thuận bởi Riksdag.
Chính phủ Thụy Điển () nắm vai trò hành pháp, bao gồm một vị thủ tướng được bổ nhiệm hoặc miễn nhiệm bởi Chủ tịch Riksdag (dựa trên một cuộc bỏ phiếu bởi các thành viên của Riksdag) và các bộ trưởng (), được bổ nhiệm hoặc bị sa thải tùy thuộc vào quyết định của thủ tướng. Chính phủ là cơ quan hành pháp tối cao và chịu trách nhiệm về mọi hành động của mình trước Quốc hội.
Cơ quan tư pháp của Thụy Điển hoàn toàn độc lập với Quốc hội, chính phủ và các cơ quan hành chính nhà nước. Vai trò của việc xem xét pháp lý về pháp luật không được thực hiện bởi các tòa án; mà thay vào đó, Hội đồng Pháp luật đưa ra những ý kiến không ràng buộc về tính hợp pháp. Tòa án không bị ràng buộc bởi tiền lệ pháp, mặc dù nó có ảnh hưởng. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
42287a08-7c18-4845-b7dd-ca93978ccbf1 | Tại Thuỵ Điển có nguyên tắc công khai, tức là giới báo chí và tất cả các cá nhân đều có thể xem các văn kiện của công sở nhà nước, ngoại trừ một số ít trường hợp đặc biệt. Không một người nào phải nêu lý do tại sao muốn xem một văn kiện nhất định và cũng không phải trình chứng minh thư.
Một điều đặc biệt khác là hệ thống các thanh tra viên (ombudsman). Những người này bảo vệ quyền lợi của cá nhân trong khi họ tiếp xúc với chính quyền và theo dõi việc thi hành các luật lệ quan trọng. Người công dân khi cho rằng bị đối xử không công bằng có thể tìm đến thanh tra viên, những người sẽ điều tra trường hợp này và có thể mang vụ việc ra trước tòa án với tư cách là nguyên cáo đặc biệt. Đồng thời họ cũng có nhiệm vụ cộng tác với các cơ quan nhà nước để nắm bắt tình hình trong phạm vi của họ, thi hành các công tác giải thích và đưa ra những đề nghị thay đổi luật lệ. Bên cạnh những thanh tra viên về luật pháp còn có thanh tra viên của người tiêu dùng, thanh tra viên về trẻ em, thanh tra viên về quyền bình đẳng và các thanh tra viên về phân biệt đối xử chủng tộc và phân biệt đối xử vì các khuynh hướng tình dục.
Trong một thời gian dài Thụy Điển đã được xem như là một nước dân chủ xã hội điển hình và nhiều người theo cánh tả ở châu Âu đã xem Thuỵ Điển như là một thí dụ điển hình cho một "con đường thứ ba", kết hợp giữa chủ nghĩa xã hội và kinh tế thị trường.
Vào ngày 14 tháng 9 năm 2003, việc đưa đồng euro vào sử dụng làm tiền tệ quốc gia được biểu quyết tại Thuỵ Điển. Những người hoài nghi euro đã thắng thế (tỷ lệ đi bầu: 81,2%, kết quả bầu cử: 56,1% chống, 41,8% thuận, 2,1% phiếu trắng và 0,1% phiếu không hợp lệ).
Đảng chính trị và các cuộc bầu cử
Đảng Dân chủ Xã hội Thụy Điển đã đóng một vai trò chủ đạo trong nền chính trị Thụy Điển kể từ năm 1917, thời điểm những người dân chủ xã hội đã khẳng định được sức mạnh của mình và những người cách mạng cánh tả thành lập đảng phái riêng của họ. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
627cd478-0318-4933-8004-e01ec9201c1a | Kể từ năm 1932 tới nay, hầu hết các chính phủ nắm quyền ở Thụy ĐIển đều chịu sự chi phối của Đảng Dân chủ Xã hội. Trong các cuộc tổng tuyển cử kể từ sau thế chiến II cho tới nay, các đảng phái cánh hữu chỉ có 5 lần đạt đủ số ghế trong Quốc hội để có thể lập thành chính phủ
Trong hơn 50 năm, Thụy Điển chỉ có 5 đảng liên tục nhận được đủ số phiếu bầu để giành được ghế trong Quốc hội - đó là Đảng Dân chủ Xã hội, Đảng Ôn hòa, Đảng Trung tâm, Đảng Nhân dân Tự do và Đảng Cánh tả — trước khi Đảng Xanh trở thành đảng thứ 6 có ghế trong Quốc hội sau cuộc bầu cử năm 1988. Trong cuộc bầu cử năm 1991, trong khi Đảng Xanh bị mất ghế, thì lại có hai đảng mới giành được ghế lần đầu tiên: Đảng Dân chủ Thiên chúa giáo và Đảng Dân chủ Mới. Cuộc bầu cử năm 1994 đã chứng kiến sự trở lại của Đảng Xanh và sự sụp đổ của Đảng Dân chủ mới. Mãi cho đến khi cuộc bầu cử vào năm 2010 mới có một đảng thứ tám, đảng Dân chủ Thụy Điển, giành được ghế trong Riksdag .
Trong cuộc tổng tuyển cử năm 2014, 4 đảng trung hữu là Đảng Ôn hòa, Đảng Nhân dân Tự do, Đảng Trung tâm và Đảng Dân chủ Thiên chúa giáo đã tiếp tục hợp thành một liên minh cánh hữu có tên gọi là Liên minh Thụy Điển, với hi vọng có lần thứ ba liên tiếp thắng lợi cuộc bầu cử (Ở hai cuộc bầu cử trước đó, Liên minh này đều đã chiến thắng và thành lập được chính phủ). Ở chiều ngược lại, ba đảng lớn nhất của phe cánh tả (Đảng Dân chủ Xã hội, Đảng Xanh, và Đảng Cánh tả) lại tham gia chiến dịch bầu cử này hoàn toàn độc lập chứ không còn liên minh với nhau như cuộc bầu cử năm 2010. Ngoài ra bên cánh hữu còn có Đảng Dân chủ Thụy Điển là đảng cực hữu, đảng này không lập liên minh với bất kỳ đảng nào khác. Kết quả chung cuộc ba đảng cánh tả lớn nhất đã vượt qua Liên minh Thụy Điển, với cách biệt là 159 ghế và 141 ghế. Đảng Dân chủ Thụy Điển nhận được sự ủng hộ lớn gấp đôi so với cuộc bầu cử trước đó khi giành được 49 ghế còn lại. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
1243f745-88cb-4dcc-a536-89255d67a6a2 | Fredrik Reinfeldt, Thủ tướng đương nhiệm thuộc Liên minh Thụy Điển, đã không thể có nhiệm kỳ thứ ba liên tiếp nắm quyền. Vào ngày 3 tháng 10, ông được thay thế bởi Stefan Löfven, người đã thành lập một chính phủ thiểu số bao gồm các thành viên của đảng Dân chủ Xã hội và Đảng Xanh.
Tỉ lệ cử tri đi bầu cử ở Thụy Điển luôn luôn cao so với tiêu chuẩn quốc tế. Mặc dù đã có sự suy giảm trong một vài thập kỳ qua, những cuộc bầu cử gần đây đã ghi nhận tỉ lệ cử tri đi bầu ngày càng tăng (80.11% trong năm 2002, 81.99% vào năm 2006, 84.63% trong năm 2010 và 85.81 trong năm 2014. Các chính trị gia Thụy Điển luôn nhận được sự tin tưởng cao từ các công dân kể từ những năm 1960. Tuy nhiên, mức độ tin tưởng đó đã giảm dần, và hiện đang ở mức thấp hơn đáng kể so với các nước láng giềng Scandinavia.
Phân chia hành chính
Vương quốc này được chia thành 21 hạt (län). Các nhiệm vụ quản lý nhà nước ở cấp tỉnh được thống đốc (hoặc thủ hiến) (landshövding) và chính quyền cấp tỉnh (länsstyrelse) thi hành.
Theo truyền thống Thuỵ Điển được chia ra thành ba vùng (landsdelar) là Götaland, Svealand và Norrland. Vùng lịch sử thứ tư của Thụy Điển cho đến năm 1809 là Österland, thuộc nước Phần Lan ngày nay. Cho đến cuộc cải cách hành chính do Axel Oxenstierna tiến hành năm 1634 các vùng này được chia là 25 khu vực (landskap)
21 đơn vị hành chính chính thức (län) không hoàn toàn trùng hợp với các khu vực trên là:
Thành phố lớn nhất là thủ đô Stockholm. Các thành phố quan trọng khác là Göteborg, Malmö, Uppsala, Linköping, Västerås, Örebro và Norrköping.
Nói chung Thuỵ Điển có thể được chia ra làm vùng phía Nam đông dân cư và phát triển nhiều hơn là vùng miền Bắc rất ít dân cư. Miền Bắc bắt đầu từ phía bắc của các thành phố Borlänge, Falun và Gävle, khoảng trên đường nối Söderhamn-Mora. Vào khoảng năm 1900 miền Bắc Thuỵ Điển bắt đầu được khai thác. Trong thời gian từ năm 1907 đến 1937 đường sắt Thụy Điển được xây dựng giữa Kristinehamn và Gällivare nhằm để đẩy mạnh công cuộc khai thác này. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
c0fe731c-15aa-46f0-a2fa-20a9c88fec43 | Việc tự quản lý ở cấp làng xã được phân chia thành 2 cấp: các nhiệm vụ của làng xã như hệ thống trường học, phục vụ xã hội, chăm sóc người già và trẻ em và hạ tầng cơ sở của làng xã thuộc về nhiệm vụ của 289 làng (kommun), các khu vực vượt quá khả năng của từng làng xã một như hệ thống y tế, giao thông trong vùng, kế hoạch hóa giao thông,... thuộc về quyền hạn của các hội đồng tỉnh (landsting). Làng xã và các hội đồng tỉnh dùng thuế thu nhập, các khoản thu khác và trợ cấp quốc gia để chi phí cho các hoạt động này.
Quân đội
Luật pháp được thực thi ở Thụy Điển bởi các cơ quan của chính phủ. Cảnh sát Thụy Điển là cơ quan của Chính phủ liên quan đến các vấn đề của cảnh sát. Lực lượng Đặc Nhiệm Quốc gia là một đơn vị SWAT quốc gia trực thuộc Bộ Cảnh Sát. Trách nhiệm của Cơ quan An ninh Thụy Điển là các hoạt động chống gián điệp, chống khủng bố, bảo vệ hiến pháp và bảo vệ người dân. Försvarsmakten (lực lượng vũ trang Thụy Điển) trực thuộc Bộ Quốc phòng Thụy Điển, chịu trách nhiệm về hoạt động trong thời bình của lực lượng vũ trang Thụy Điển. Nhiệm vụ chính của cơ quan là đào tạo và triển khai lực lượng hỗ trợ hòa bình ở nước ngoài, đồng thời duy trì khả năng tập trung dài hạn vào việc bảo vệ Thụy Điển trong trường hợp chiến tranh. Lực lượng vũ trang được chia thành Lục quân, Không quân và Hải quân. Người đứng đầu lực lượng vũ trang là Tư lệnh tối cao (Överbefälhavaren, ÖB), sĩ quan cao cấp nhất trong cả nước. Cho tới năm 1974, nhà vua là Tư lệnh tối cao của quân đội, nhưng trên thực tế trong suốt thế kỷ 20 nhà vua hoàn toàn không nắm vai trò lãnh đạo quân sự.
Cho đến thời điểm kết thúc Chiến tranh Lạnh, hầu hết nam giới ở Thụy Điển đều phải thực hiện nghĩa vụ quân sự bắt buộc khi họ đủ tuổi. Đến ngày 1 tháng bảy,năm 2010 Thụy Điển bãi bỏ chế độ nghĩa vụ quân sự bắt buộc, chuyển sang chế độ nghĩa vụ quân sự tự nguyện. Điều này khiến cho tổng số quân hiện dịch của lực lượng vũ trang Thụy Điển chỉ còn khoảng 60.000 người. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
4c7b2b01-2f74-4515-9474-01ce34e876ce | Con số này thua xa những năm 1980 thời điểm trước sự sụp đổ của Liên Xô, với 1,000,000 quân.
Tuy nhiên, ngày 11 tháng 12 năm 2014, do căng thẳng ở khu vực Baltic, chính phủ Thụy Điển khôi phục lại một phần hệ thống nghĩa vụ quân sự bắt buộc, đào tạo bồi dưỡng. Ngày 2 tháng 3 năm 2017 chính phủ Thụy Điển khôi phục lại hoàn toàn chế độ nghĩa vụ quân sự bắt buộc, bắt đầu có hiệu lực từ ngày 1 tháng 1 năm 2018.
Các lực lượng Thụy Điển đã tham gia vào những hoạt động gìn giữ hòa bình tại Cộng hòa Dân chủ Congo, Síp, Bosnia và Herzegovina, Kosovo, Liberia, Liban, Afghanistan và Chad.
Quan hệ ngoại giao
Trong suốt thế kỷ 20, chính sách đối ngoại của Thụy Điển dựa trên nguyên tắc không liên kết trong thời bình và trung lập trong thời chiến.
Nguyên tắc trung lập của Thụy Điển đã bắt nguồn từ thế kỷ 19 khi đất nước này đã không ở trong trạng thái chiến tranh kể từ khi kết thúc chiến dịch chống lại Na Uy vào năm 1814. Trong Thế chiến thứ hai Thụy Điển đứng ngoài cuộc chiến và không gia nhập cả hai phe Đồng minh cũng như phe Trục. Tuy nhiên sự trung lập của quốc gia này trong Chiến tranh thế giới thứ hai vẫn còn đang là một chủ đề gây tranh cãi. Trong một số trường hợp, Thụy Điển đã cho phép quân đội Đức Quốc xã sử dụng hệ thống đường sắt của họ để vận chuyển quân đội và hàng hóa. đặc biệt là quặng sắt từ mỏ ở phía bắc Thụy Điển, một nguyên liệu tối quan trọng đối với bộ máy chiến tranh của Đức. Tuy nhiên, Thụy Điển cũng gián tiếp góp phần bảo vệ Phần Lan trong Chiến tranh mùa đông, và đã đồng ý cho quân Đồng minh được đào tạo binh lính Na Uy và Đan Mạch ở Thụy Điển sau năm 1943.
Trong những năm đầu Chiến tranh Lạnh, Thụy Điển kết hợp chính sách không liên kết và một sự tham gia thấp trong các vấn đề quốc tế với chính sách an ninh dựa trên quốc phòng mạnh mẽ. Nhiệm vụ của quân đội Thụy Điển là ngăn chặn mọi cuộc tấn công vào quốc gia này. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
fd1c7313-1ce3-4314-b623-795037fafe57 | Đồng thời, nước này duy trì một mối quan hệ gần gũi không chính thức với khối phương Tây, đặc biệt là trong lĩnh vực trao đổi thông tin tình báo. Năm 1952, một chiếc DC-3 của Thụy Điển bị bắn rơi trên Biển Baltic bởi một máy bay phản lực Mig-15 của Liên Xô. Sau đó một cuộc điều tra cho thấy chiếc máy bay này thực sự đã thu thập thông tin cho NATO. Một chiếc máy bay khác, máy bay tìm kiếm và cứu hộ Catalina, được gửi đi vài ngày sau đó và đã bị Liên Xô bắn hạ. Thủ tướng Olof Palme đã có chuyến thăm chính thức tới Cuba trong những năm 1970, trong đó ông lên án chính phủ của Fulgencio Batista và ca ngợi những người cộng sản cách mạng Cuba và Campuchia trong một bài phát biểu.
Bắt đầu từ cuối những năm 1960, Thụy Điển đã cố gắng đóng một vai trò tích cực hơn, quan trọng hơn và độc lập hơn trong quan hệ quốc tế. Họ đã có những đóng góp đáng kể trong nỗ lực giữ gìn hòa bình quốc tế, đặc biệt là thông qua Liên Hợp Quốc, cũng như hỗ trợ cho các nước nghèo thuộc thế giới thứ ba.
Vào ngày 27 tháng 10 năm 1981, một tàu ngầm lớp Whiskey (U 137) của Liên bang Xô viết bị mắc cạn gần căn cứ hải quân tại Karlskrona ở miền nam Thụy ĐIển. Vụ việc đã gây ra một cuộc khủng hoảng ngoại giao giữa Thụy Điển và Liên Xô. Sau vụ ám sát Olof Palme năm 1986 và sự kết thúc của Chiến tranh Lạnh, Thụy Điển đã thực hiện một chính sách đối ngoại mang tính truyền thống hơn. Tuy nhiên, đất nước vẫn hoạt động tích cực trong các nhiệm vụ gìn giữ hòa bình và duy trì một ngân sách đáng kể dành cho viện trợ nước ngoài.
Từ năm 1995 Thụy Điển đã trở thành một thành viên của Liên minh châu Âu, và trong bối cảnh tình hình an ninh thế giới có những biến đổi mới, chính sách đối ngoại của Thụy Điển đã có sự điều chỉnh, qua đó Thụy Điển đóng một vai trò tích cực hơn trong vấn đề hợp tác bảo đảm an ninh trên toàn châu Âu.
Thuỵ Điển thiết lập quan hệ ngoại giao với Việt Nam ngày 11 tháng 1 năm 1969.
Địa lý
Thuỵ Điển có biên giới với biển Kattegatt, các quốc gia Na Uy và Phần Lan và Biển Đông (Thụy Điển). | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
b0b9b082-c23d-4d1e-9f5e-971e01aedcf1 | Hai đảo lớn của Biển Đông thuộc về Thuỵ Điển là Gotland (khoảng 3.000 km²) và Öland (khoảng 1.300 km²). Ngoài ra, Thuỵ Điển còn có khoảng 221.800 đảo, làm cho đất nước này trở thành quốc gia có nhiều đảo nhất thế giới. Chiều dài lớn nhất từ Bắc đến Nam là 1.572 km, từ Đông sang Tây là 499 km.
Trong khi địa hình đất nước phần lớn là bằng phẳng hay có đồi thì dọc theo biên giới với Na Uy là dãy núi Scandinavia (Skanderna) cao đến trên 2.000 m với đỉnh cao nhất là Kebnekaise (2.111 m). Có rất nhiều vườn quốc gia rải rác trên toàn nước.
Địa hình
Miền Nam và Trung Thuỵ Điển (Götaland và Svealand), hai vùng mà chỉ bao gồm 2/5 Thuỵ Điển, được chia từ Nam đến Bắc ra thành 3 vùng đất lớn. Miền Bắc Thuỵ Điển, bao gồm 3/5 còn lại của Thuỵ Điển được chia từ Đông sang Tây ra thành 3 vùng có phong cảnh khác nhau.
Phần cực Nam, tỉnh Skåne, là phần đất nối tiếp của vùng đồng bằng miền Bắc nước Đức và Đan Mạch. Điểm thấp nhất của Thuỵ Điển với 2,4 m dưới mặt biển cũng ở Schonen. Trải dài từ phía bắc của vùng này là cao nguyên Nam Thuỵ Điển, miền đất nhiều đồi với rất nhiều hồ có hình dáng dài được hình thành qua xói mòn của thời kỳ băng hà. Vùng đất lớn thứ ba là vùng trũng Trung Thuỵ Điển, là một vùng bằng phẳng nhưng lại bị chia cắt nhiều với các đồng bằng lớn, đồi núi, vịnh hẹp và nhiều hồ (trong đó có 4 hồ lớn nhất Thuỵ Điển là Vänern, Vättern, Mälaren và Hjälmaren).
Phía tây của Bắc Thuỵ Điển là dãy núi Bắc Âu, là biên giới với Na Uy, có chiều cao từ 1.000 m đến 2.000 m trên mực nước biển. Trên dãy núi Bắc Âu là ngọn núi cao nhất Thuỵ Điển, ngọn núi Kebnekaise (2.111 m). Nối liền về phía Đông là vùng đất lớn nhất của Thuỵ Điển. Dọc theo dãy núi là các vùng cao nguyên rộng lớn ở độ cao 600 m đến 700 m trên mực nước biển và chuyển tiếp sang thành một vùng đất có nhiều đồi với địa thế mấp mô thấp dần đi về phía Đông. | [
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d59b57ee-aa3b-4444-ad3d-6eb652f4047b | Các mỏ lớn (sắt, đồng, kẽm, chì) của Thuỵ Điển cũng nằm trong vùng đất này. Các sông lớn của Thuỵ Điển đều bắt nguồn từ dãy núi Bắc Âu và chảy gần như song song với nhau qua các đồng bằng về hướng Biển Đông. Dọc theo bờ Biển Đông là vùng đất bằng phẳng bị chia cắt giữa Härnösand và Örnsköldsvik bởi một nhánh núi (Höga kusten). Các sông dài nhất của Thuỵ Điển là Klarälven, Torneälv, Dalälven, Umeälv và Ångermanälven.
Khí hậu
So với vị trí địa lý, khí hậu của Thuỵ Điển tương đối ôn hòa vì trước tiên là do gần Đại Tây Dương với dòng hải lưu Gơn strim ấm áp. Phần lớn nước Thuỵ Điển có khí hậu ẩm, mưa nhiều và nhiệt độ tương đối ít thay đổi giữa mùa đông và mùa hè. Tại miền nam Thuỵ Điển, được cây lá rộng chi phối, rừng lá kim phát triển ở phía bắc, với thông và vân sam thống trị cảnh quan. Vì Thụy Điển nằm giữa 55° vĩ độ và 69° vĩ độ và một phần ở trong vòng cực Bắc nên sự cách biệt giữa ánh sáng ban ngày dài trong mùa hè và ban đêm dài trong mùa đông rất lớn. Ở phần phía bắc, với sự xuất hiện của nhiều núi và biểu hiện của khí hậu cận cực, mùa đông lạnh hơn và tuyết rơi nhiều hơn so với miền nam. Vào một phần của mùa hè mặt trời sẽ xuất hiện tới nữa đêm hoặc không lặn và vào mùa đông, mặt trời chỉ xuất hiện trong vài giờ hoặc không xuất hiện. Lượng mưa trung bình hàng năm là khoảng 1.000 mm, với lượng mưa tương đối lớn ở phía tây cao nguyên Småland và bờ biển phía tây. Tháng giêng, nhiệt độ trung bình ban ngày vào khoảng 0 độ C ở phía nam, nhiệt độ âm ở miền trung và - 16 độ C ở phía bắc. Vào tháng bảy, nhiệt động trong bình vào khoảng 17 - 18 độ C ở Götaland och Svealand, và chỉ hơn 10 độ C ở phía cực bắc của Thuỵ Điển. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
6a8cf6f3-c7fa-45ae-b5f4-9c1d363a0394 | Nhiệt độ thấp nhất được ghi nhận ở Thụy Điển là và ngày 2 tháng 2 năm 1966 ở Vuoggatjålme, Lappland với - 52,6 độ C. Nhiệt độ cao nhất được ghi nhận là 38 độ C ở Ultuna, Uppland (ngày 9 tháng 7 năm 1933) và Målilla, Småland (ngày 29 tháng 6 năm 1947).
Hệ thực vật và động vật
Miền Bắc Thụy Điển có nhiều rừng cây lá kim rộng lớn, càng về phía Nam thì càng có nhiều rừng tạp. Tại miền Nam Thụy Điển, các rừng cây lá rộng đã phải nhường chỗ cho canh nông hay được thay thế bằng cây lá kim vì chúng có độ tăng trưởng nhanh hơn. Hai đảo Gotland và Öland có một hệ thực vật đa dạng gây nhiều ấn tượng, đặc biệt là có rất nhiều loài hoa lan.
Heo rừng và Hươu đỏ (Cervus elaphus) phân bố ở đây nhiều. Heo rừng tuy đã bị tiêu diệt trong tự nhiên vào cuối thế kỷ XIX nhưng sau khi thoát ra khỏi được các khu vực cấm săn bắn đã lại phát triển đến một dân số có thể tự sống được. Các dã thú như gấu, sói và linh miêu đã phát triển trở lại trong những năm gần đây nhờ vào các quy định bảo vệ môi trường nghiêm ngặt.
Năm 1910, Thụy Điển là quốc gia đầu tiên của châu Âu thành lập các vùng bảo vệ thiên nhiên và cho đến ngày hôm nay vẫn luôn luôn bảo vệ thiên nhiên của đất nước. Người Thụy Điển có ý thức bảo vệ môi trường rất cao.
Kinh tế
Thụy Điển đứng thứ 7 thế giới về GDP (tổng sản phẩm quốc nội) bình quân đầu người và công dân nước này được hưởng một mức sống rất cao. Kinh tế Thụy Điển là một nền kinh tế hỗn hợp theo định hướng xuất khẩu. Gỗ, thủy điện và quặng sắt là những nguồn tài nguyên quan trọng nhất của Thụy Điển. Lĩnh vực kỹ thuật của Thụy Điển chiếm 50% sản lượng và xuất khẩu, trong khi viễn thông, công nghiệp ô tô và các ngành công nghiệp dược phẩm cũng rất quan trọng. Thụy Điển là nước xuất khẩu vũ khí đứng thứ 9 trên thế giới. Nông nghiệp chiếm 2% trong cơ cấu GDP và tổng số lao động. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
c7a006be-ec90-440a-b227-397785d1f63a | Thụy Điển cũng là một trong những nước có tỉ lệ người dân sử dụng điện thoại và truy cập internet cao nhất trên thế giới
Năm 2010, hệ số Gini thu nhập của Thụy Điển thấp thứ ba trong số các nước phát triển: 0,25 - cao hơn một chút so với Nhật Bản và Đan Mạch - cho thấy Thụy Điển có sự bất bình đẳng thu nhập ở mức thấp. Tuy nhiên, hệ số Gini tài sản của Thụy Điển lại lên tới 0,853, cao thứ hai trong các nước phát triển, và cao hơn mức trung bình của châu Âu và Bắc Mỹ, cho thấy sự bất bình đẳng tài sản ở mức khá cao.
Về cơ cấu, nền kinh tế Thụy Điển được đặc trưng bởi một khu vực chế tạo quy mô lớn, tập trung tri thức và định hướng xuất khẩu; các ngành dịch vụ kinh doanh ngày càng phát triển, nhưng quy mô vẫn tương đối nhỏ; và một ngành dịch vụ công lớn theo tiêu chuẩn quốc tế. Các tổ chức lớn, cả về sản xuất và dịch vụ, đều thống trị nền kinh tế Thụy Điển. Các ngành sản xuất công nghệ cao và trung bình chiếm khoảng 9.9% tổng số GDP.
20 công ty lớn nhất Thụy Điển (tính theo doanh thu) vào năm 2007 là Volvo, Ericsson,Vattenfall, Skanska, Sony Ericsson Mobile Communications AB, Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget, Electrolux, Volvo Personvagnar, TeliaSonera, Sandvik, Scania, ICA, Hennes & Mauritz,IKEA, Nordea, Preem, Atlas Copco, Securitas, Nordstjernan và SKF. 20 công ty lớn nhất Thụy Điển (tính theo doanh thu) vào năm 2013 là Volvo, Ericsson, Vattenfall, Skanska, Hennes & Mauritz, Electrolux, Volvo Personvagnar, Preem, TeliaSonera, Sandvik, ICA, Atlas Copco, Nordea, Svenska Cellulosa Aktiebolaget, Scania, Securitas, Nordstjernan, SKF, ABB Norden Holding, and Sony Mobile Communications AB. Phần lớn các ngành công nghiệp của Thụy Điển thuộc quyền kiểm soát của tư nhân, không giống như nhiều nước phương Tây khác, và hầu hết các doanh nghiệp thuộc sở hữu của nhà nước có tầm quan trọng rất nhỏ.
Ước tính khoảng 4,5 triệu người dân Thụy Điển hiện có việc làm và khoảng một phần ba lực lượng lao động tại Thụy Điển đã hoàn thành giáo dục đại học. | [
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f27b0ab8-7162-4ce7-85d5-ad66d8d6b65a | Xét về GDP mỗi giờ làm việc, thước đo năng suất của một quốc gia khi không tính đến tỷ lệ thất nghiệp hoặc số giờ làm việc mỗi tuần thì Thụy Điển đứng thứ chín trên thế giới vào năm 2006 với 31 USD, so với 22 USD ở Tây Ban Nha và 35 USD ở Hoa Kỳ. Thụy Điển là nước dẫn đầu thế giới về các khoản trợ cấp hưu trí và các vấn đề về lương hưu ở Thụy Điển là tương đối ít so với một số nước Tây Âu khác.
Một người lao động điển hình của Thụy Điển sẽ chỉ còn nhận được 40% chi phí lao động của họ sau khi nộp thuế. Tỉ lệ ngân sách thu được từ thuế trong GDP của Thụy Điển đạt tới 52.3% vào năm 1990. Nước này phải đối mặt với cuộc khủng hoảng ngân hàng và bất động sản trong hai năm 1990-1991, và do đó đã thông qua cải cách thuế năm 1991 để thực hiện cắt giảm thuế và mở rộng cơ sở thuế theo thời gian. Từ năm 1990, tỉ lệ thu thuế trên GDP của Thụy Điển đã giảm, với tổng mức thuế đánh vào nhóm người có thu nhập cao đã giảm nhiều nhất.. Trong năm 2010 thì 45,8% GDP của Thụy Điển có được từ việc thu thuế, cao thứ hai trong số các nước OECD, và gần gấp đôi so với tỷ lệ ở Mỹ và Hàn Quốc.
Thụy Điển là nền kinh tế đứng thứ tư thế giới về tính cạnh tranh theo Báo cáo cạnh tranh toàn cầu 2012–2013 của Diễn đàn Kinh tế Thế giới . Thụy Điển là quốc gia đứng hàng đầu trong Chỉ số Kinh tế Xanh toàn cầu năm 2014 (GGEI).. Thụy Điển được xếp thứ tư trong Niên giám cạnh tranh thế giới IMD 2013.
Dù đã gia nhập EU, Thụy Điển tiếp tục duy trì đồng tiền riêng của mình, đồng krona Thụy Điển (SEK), do dân Thụy Điển đã chống lại việc đưa euro trở thành đồng tiền chính thức của quốc gia sau một cuộc trưng cầu dân ý được tổ chức vào năm 2003. Riksbank Thụy Điển - được thành lập năm 1668 và là ngân hàng trung ương lâu đời nhất trên thế giới - hiện đang tập trung vào nhiệm vụ ổn định giá với mục tiêu duy trì mức lạm phát ở ngưỡng 2%. Theo khảo sát kinh tế của Thụy Điển năm 2007 thực hiện bởi OECD, từ giữa những năm 1990 Thụy Điển luôn nằm trong số những nước có tỉ lệ lạm phát trung bình thấp nhất châu Âu. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
58ee3f4d-d688-4073-82e2-4c9c3a630fb6 | Những đối tác thương mại lớn nhất của Thụy Điển là Đức, Hoa Kỳ, Na Uy, Anh, Đan Mạch và Phần Lan.
Trong nửa sau của thế kỷ XIX, mặc dầu đã có xây dựng đường sắt, Thụy Điển vẫn còn là một quốc gia nông nghiệp rõ rệt với 90% dân số sống nhờ vào nông nghiệp. Mãi cho đến thập niên cuối cùng của thế kỷ XIX mới có công nghiệp hóa rộng lớn, làm cơ sở cho một xã hội công nghiệp hiện đại cho đến cuộc khủng hoảng kinh tế thế giới năm 1929. Sau Chiến tranh thế giới thứ hai Thụy Điển trở thành một trong những quốc gia công nghiệp dẫn đầu của thế giới. Việc phát triển công nghiệp đạt đến đỉnh cao vào giữa thập niên 1960, từ thập niên 1970 số người lao động trong công nghiệp giảm xuống trong khi khu vực dịch vụ tăng trưởng thêm. Trong năm 2012 nông nghiệp chỉ chiếm hơn 1.8% của tổng sản phẩm quốc nội, tỷ lệ của khu vực công nghiệp là 27.4% trong khi 70.7% của tổng sản phẩm quốc nội là do khu vực dịch vụ tạo nên. Tính đến năm 2016, GDP của Thụy Điển đạt 517.440 USD, đứng thứ 23 thế giới và đứng thứ 10 châu Âu. Năm 2017, mức tăng trưởng GDP của Thụy Điển là 2.4%
Nông nghiệp và lâm nghiệp
Nền nông nghiệp Thụy Điển mang dấu ấn của những điều kiện về địa chất và của khí hậu. Khoảng 10% diện tích quốc gia được sử dụng trong nông nghiệp. 90% diện tích trồng trọt là ở miền Nam và miền Trung của Thụy Điển. Một phần lớn các công ty trong nông nghiệp là sở hữu gia đình. Được trồng nhiều nhất là ngũ cốc, khoai tây và các loại cây cho dầu. Thế nhưng hơn phân nửa thu nhập trong nông nghiệp (58%) là từ chăn nuôi mà nhiều nhất là sản xuất sữa. Trợ giá nông nghiệp của Liên minh châu Âu chiếm 24% thu nhập. 3/4 các công ty nông nghiệp đều có rừng và kết hợp nông nghiệp với lâm nghiệp. Do Thụy Điển là một trong những nước giàu rừng nhất thế giới (25% diện tích quốc gia là rừng) nên lâm nghiệp cũng đóng vai trò quan trọng trong nền kinh tế.
Khai thác mỏ và công nghiệp
Thụy Điển giàu về khoáng sản và đã bắt đầu khai thác từ thời kỳ Trung Cổ. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
b62ea2cb-45d2-496a-a872-1cd88c8afbed | Sau cuộc khủng hoảng sắt và thép của thập niên 1970, quặng sắt chỉ còn được khai thác ở Norrland (thành phố Kiruna) và được xuất khẩu. Đồng, chì và kẽm đều vượt quá nhu cầu trong nước gấp nhiều lần và cũng được xuất khẩu trong khi bạc chỉ đáp ứng được 60% và vàng 80% nhu cầu trong nước. Cũng còn có nhiều dự trữ quặng nhưng việc khai thác trong thời gian này không có hiệu quả kinh tế.
Điểm đặc biệt của nền công nghiệp Thụy Điển là thành phần của các công ty lớn tương đối cao. Sau một cuộc khủng hoảng vào đầu những năm 1990 (sản xuất giảm 10% trong vòng 2 năm) công nghiệp bắt đầu phục hồi. Các ngành công nghiệp lớn nhất là chế tạo xe cơ giới (chiếm 13% giá trị sản xuất năm 1996) với các công ty như Volvo, Scania, Saab và Saab AB (máy bay và kỹ thuật du hành vũ trụ), công nghiệp gỗ và giấy (cũng chiếm 13% giá trị sản xuất) với 4 công ty lớn, chế tạo máy (12%) với các công ty như Electrolux, SKF, Tetra-Pak, Alfa-Laval và công nghiệp điện-điện tử (19%) với các công ty chiếm ưu thế là Ericsson và ABB.
Dịch vụ
Khu vực dịch vụ đóng góp 70% của tổng sản phẩm quốc nội mà trước tiên là do khu vực nhà nước đã tăng trưởng rất mạnh trong các thập niên gần đây. Mặc dù vậy khu vực dịch vụ tư nhân vẫn chiếm hơn 2/3 sản lượng.
Ngoại thương
Kinh tế Thụy Điển phụ thuộc mạnh vào ngoại thương. Trong năm 2017 các nước xuất khẩu chính là Đức (11%), Na Uy (10,2%), Phần Lan (6,9), Hoa Kỳ (6,8%), Đan Mạch (6,8%), Vương quốc Anh (6.2%), Hà Lan (5,4%), Trung Quốc (4,6%) . Các sản phẩm nhập khẩu quan trọng nhất là máy móc, xăng dầu và các sản phẩm dầu mỏ, hoá chất, phương tiện cơ giới, sắt thép; thực phẩm, quần áo...
Tỷ lệ đầu tư trực tiếp của nước ngoài tại Thụy Điển tương đối cao. Nguyên nhân là do một số ít tập đoàn kinh doanh quốc tế chiếm thế áp đảo trong nền kinh tế của Thụy Điển. Vào khoảng 50 tập đoàn chiếm 2/3 xuất khẩu của Thụy Điển.
Năng lượng
Thị trường năng lượng của Thụy Điển phần lớn được tư nhân hoá. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
280c65d4-720c-4583-ba42-5d808fc9e116 | Thị trường năng lượng Bắc Âu là một trong những thị trường năng lượng tự do đầu tiên ở châu Âu, được giao dịch tại NASDAQ OMX Commodities Europe và Nord Pool Spot. Năm 2006, trong tổng sản lượng điện 139 TWh của Thụy Điển, thì có 61 TWh (44%) được sản xuất từ thủy điện, 65 TWh (47%) được sản xuất bằng năng lượng hạt nhân. Đồng thời, việc sử dụng nhiên liệu sinh học, than bùn... cũng sản xuất được 13 TWh (9%) điện, trong khi năng lượng gió sản xuất 1 TWh (1%).
Cuộc khủng hoảng dầu mỏ năm 1973 đã tăng cường nỗ lực của Thụy Điển nhằm giảm sự phụ thuộc vào nhiên liệu hóa thạch nhập khẩu. Kể từ đó, điện chủ yếu được sản xuất từ thủy điện và năng lượng hạt nhân. Tuy nhiên, năng lượng hạt nhân đã dần bị hạn chế. Ngoài ra, tai nạn của Trạm phát điện hạt nhân Three Mile Island (Hoa Kỳ) đã thúc giục Riksdag đưa ra quy định cấm xây thêm các nhà máy điện hạt nhân mới. Vào tháng 3 năm 2005, một cuộc thăm dò ý kiến cho thấy 83% chính trị gia ủng hộ việc giảm sự phụ thuộc vào dầu mỏ, khí thiên nhiên và các nguyên liệu hóa thạch ở Thụy Điển, đồng thời giảm điện hạt nhân và đầu tư hàng tỷ đô la vào năng lượng tái tạo và năng lượng hiệu quả . Nước này đã nhiều năm theo đuổi một chiến lược đánh thuế gián tiếp như là một phần của chính sách môi trường, bao gồm cả thuế năng lượng nói chung và thuế carbon dioxide . Vào năm 2014 Thụy Điển là một nước xuất khẩu ròng điện với lợi nhuận 16 TWh; sản lượng từ các nhà máy điện gió đã tăng lên đến 11,5 TWh .
Du lịch
Du lịch tham gia đóng góp vào khoảng 3% (4 tỉ USD năm 2000) trong tổng sản phẩm quốc nội. 4/5 khách du lịch là người trong nước và chỉ có 1/5 là đến từ nước ngoài. Trong số khách du lịch từ nước ngoài năm 1998, 23% đến từ Đức, 19% từ Đan Mạch, 10% từ Na Uy, 9% từ Anh và 9% từ Hà Lan.
An sinh xã hội
Thụy Điển là một trong những nhà nước phúc lợi phát triển cao nhất trên thế giới. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
3bb1fbf2-307f-484f-9d66-33590ebd5745 | Theo báo cáo của OECD năm 2012, quốc gia này có mức chi tiêu dành cho phúc lợi xã hội cao thứ hai theo tỷ lệ phần trăm GDP, chỉ xếp sau Pháp (27,3% và 28,4%), và chi tiêu phúc lợi xã hội (công cộng và tư nhân) ở mức 30,2 % GDP, chỉ xếp sau Pháp và Bỉ (tương ứng là 31,3% và 31,0%) . Thụy Điển dành 6,3% GDP của nước này, cao thứ 9 trong số 34 nước OECD, để cung cấp quyền tiếp cận giáo dục bình đẳng cho mọi người dân . Quốc gia này cũng dành khoảng 10% GDP cho hệ thống chăm sóc sức khỏe .
Sau Thế chiến II các chính phủ của Thụy Điển đã liên tục mở rộng nhà nước phúc lợi bằng cách tăng các loại thuế. Trong giai đoạn này kinh tế của Thụy Điển cũng là một trong những nền kinh tế đạt mức tăng trưởng cao nhất. Một loạt các cải cách xã hội liên tiếp đã biến Thụy Điển trở thành một trong những đất nước bình đẳng và phát triển nhất trên Trái Đất. Sự tăng trưởng nhất quán của nhà nước phúc lợi đã dẫn đến thành quả rực rỡ hiện nay là người Thụy Điển được hưởng một mức sống rất cao, chất lượng cuộc sống của người dân Thụy Điển đứng hàng đầu thế giới. Ngày nay Thụy Điển luôn đứng đầu trong các bảng xếp hạng quốc gia về y tế, giáo dục và phát triển con người - vượt xa một số nước giàu hơn (ví dụ như Hoa Kỳ) .
Tuy nhiên, từ thập niên 1970 trở đi, mức tăng trưởng GDP của Thuỵ Điển đã có sự giảm so với các nước công nghiệp khác và thứ hạng về thu nhập bình quân đầu người của nước này đã tụt từ vị trí thứ 4 xuống vị trí thứ 14 thế giới chỉ trong vài thập kỷ . Từ giữa những năm 1990 đến nay, tăng trưởng kinh tế của Thụy Điển đã một lần nữa có sự tăng tốc và đạt mức cao hơn so với hầu hết các nước công nghiệp khác (kể cả Mỹ) trong 15 năm qua . Một báo cáo của Chương trình Phát triển Liên Hợp Quốc dự đoán rằng Chỉ số phát triển con người của Thụy Điển sẽ giảm từ 0,949 trong năm 2010- xuống còn 0,906 vào năm 2030 .
Thụy Điển bắt đầu làm chậm lại sự mở rộng của nhà nước phúc lợi trong những năm 1980. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
dc079f96-348b-4658-abbc-910e33e983e5 | Gần đây Thụy Điển đã áp dụng các chính sách mang hơi hướng chủ nghĩa tân tự do, như tư nhân hóa, tài chính hóa và bãi bỏ các quy định ngặt nghèo của nhà nước đối với nền kinh tế . Chính phủ Thụy Điển hiện nay đang tiếp tục xu hướng khôi phục vừa phải các cải cách xã hội trước đây . Cũng kể từ giữa những năm 1980, mức độ bất bình đẳng ở Thụy Điển đã tăng nhanh hơn so với tất cả các quốc gia phát triển khác, theo OECD. Tình trạng này xảy ra chủ yếu là do việc giảm phúc lợi của nhà nước và sự chuyển dịch sang tư nhân hoá các dịch vụ công. Theo Barbro Sorman, một nhà hoạt động của Đảng Cánh tả đối lập, "Người giàu đang ngày càng giàu hơn, và người nghèo đang trở nên nghèo hơn. Thụy Điển bắt đầu trở nên giống như Mỹ". Tuy nhiên, rõ ràng là Thụy Điển vẫn còn bình đẳng hơn nhiều so với hầu hết các quốc gia khác .
Hệ thống an sinh xã hội của Thụy Điển chủ yếu được quản lý bởi Cơ quan Bảo hiểm xã hội Thụy Điển và bao gồm rất nhiều phúc lợi khác nhau. Những khoản trợ cấp chủ yếu bao gồm :
"Barnbidrag": khoản trợ cấp dành cho trẻ em từ khi mới sinh cho đến khi 16 tuổi (trợ cấp cũng có sẵn dành cho sinh viên lớn tuổi), được trao cho các bậc cha mẹ để giảm gánh nặng phải nuôi con. Khoản trợ cấp này thường là 1500 SEK (tức 165 USD)/tháng cho mỗi đứa trẻ.
"Föräldrapenning": Khoản tiền trợ cấp dành cho các cặp cha mẹ nghỉ phép để chăm sóc đứa con mới sinh của họ. Mỗi cặp vợ chồng mới sinh con sẽ được nghỉ làm 480 ngày liên tiếp (tức 16 tháng) kèm theo khoản tiền này. Ngoài ra còn có một khoản trợ cấp chăm sóc trẻ em, "vårdbidrag", dành cho các cặp vợ chồng có con bị mắc bệnh.
"Bostadsbidrag": Trợ cấp nhà ở cho bất kỳ ai không có khả năng mua nhà ở.
"Sjukpenning", "Sjukersättning", "Aktivitetsersättning" và "Handikappersättning": Khoản trợ cấp dành cho người bị bệnh hoặc bị khuyết tật và không thể làm việc. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
b351c7e7-7c9a-40c7-8671-21a97aacddfb | "Arbetslöshetsersättning": Khoản trợ cấp dành cho người thất nghiệp (thời gian giới hạn 300 ngày, năm ngày một tuần, có nghĩa là 60 tuần)
"Ålderspension", "Garantipension": Khoản trợ cấp cho những người đã nghỉ hưu.
"Försörjningsstöd": Khoản trợ cấp dành cho bất cứ ai không thể có được một mức sống hợp lý.
Giao thông
Thụy Điển có 162.707 km (101.101 dặm) đường trải nhựa và 1.428 km (887 mi) đường cao tốc. Đường cao tốc chạy ngang qua lãnh thổ Thụy Điển và qua Cầu Øresund để đến Đan Mạch. Nhiều tuyến đường cao tốc mới vẫn đang được xây dựng và một tuyến đường cao tốc mới từ Uppsala đến Gävle đã được hoàn thành vào ngày 17 tháng 10 năm 2007. Thụy Điển duy trì giao thông tay trái (Vänstertrafik trong tiếng Thụy Điển) từ khoảng năm 1736 và tiếp tục duy trì đến thế kỷ 20. Các cử tri đã từ chối chuyển sang giao thông tay phải vào năm 1955, nhưng sau khi Riksdag thông qua luật vào năm 1963, sự thay đổi đã diễn ra vào ngày 3 tháng 9 năm 1967, được biết đến bằng tiếng Thụy Điển là Dagen H. Kể từ đó, Thụy Điển thực hiện quy tắc giao thông tay phải.
Tàu điện ngầm Stockholm là hệ thống tàu điện ngầm duy nhất ở Thụy Điển và phục vụ trong thành phố thủ đô Stockholm với 100 nhà ga. Thị trường vận tải đường sắt được tư nhân hóa, nhưng trong khi có nhiều doanh nghiệp tư nhân, các nhà điều hành lớn nhất vẫn thuộc sở hữu của nhà nước. Các hạt (county) có trách nhiệm về tài chính, vé và tiếp thị cho các chuyến tàu địa phương. Các nhà điều hành lớn bao gồm SJ, Veolia Transport, DSB, Green Cargo, Tågkompaniet và Inlandsbanan. Hầu hết mạng lưới đường sắt đều do Trafikverket sở hữu và điều hành.
Các sân bay lớn nhất của Thụy Điển bao gồm sân bay Stockholm-Arlanda (16,1 triệu hành khách trong năm 2009) cách Stockholm 40 km về phía bắc, sân bay Göteborg Landvetter (4,3 triệu hành khách trong năm 2008) và sân bay Stockholm-Skavsta (2,0 triệu hành khách).
Nhân khẩu
Dân số
Tổng dân số của Thụy Điển là 10.142.686 người vào ngày 31 tháng 3 năm 2018. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
18e67125-d313-406a-acbb-7aa2803f00ae | Dân số Thụy Điển đã vượt mốc 9 triệu người vào ngày 12 tháng 8 năm 2004 và 9,5 triệu vào mùa xuân năm 2012, theo Thống kê Thụy Điển . Mật độ dân số là 22,5 người / km² (58,2 mỗi dặm vuông), trong đó mật độ dân số ở miền nam của đất nước cao hơn đáng kể so với miền bắc. Khoảng 85% dân số sống ở các đô thị . Thành phố thủ đô Stockholm có dân số khoảng 950.000 người (chưa bao gồm dân số của vùng đô thị). Các thành phố lớn thứ hai và thứ ba là Gothenburg và Malmö. Vùng đô thị Gothenburg chỉ có hơn một triệu cư dân và phần phía tây của Scania, dọc theo Öresund cũng có số dân tương tự. Vùng đô thị Copenhagen và Skåne, nằm ở biên giới Đan Mạch-Thụy Điển xung quanh Öresund mà thành phố Malmö là một phần (khu vực này trước đây gọi là Vùng Öresund), có dân số 4 triệu người. Bên cạnh các thành phố lớn, các khu vực có mật độ dân số cao hơn đáng kể so với phần còn lại của đất nước bao gồm khu vực nông nghiệp của Östergötland, vùng bờ biển phía tây, khu vực xung quanh hồ Mälaren và khu vực nông nghiệp quanh Uppsala.
Norrland, chiếm khoảng 60% lãnh thổ Thụy Điển, có mật độ dân số rất thấp (dưới 5 người mỗi km2). Vùng núi cao và hầu hết các vùng ven biển xa xôi hầu như không có dân cư. Ở những vùng rộng lớn phía tây Svealand, hay phần phía nam và trung tâm của Småland mật độ dân số cũng rất thấp. Một khu vực được gọi là Finnveden, nằm ở phía tây nam của Småland, cũng có thể coi là gần như không có sự hiện diện của con người.
Từ năm 1820 tới năm 1930, khoảng 1,3 triệu người Thụy Điển, tức một phần ba dân số của đất nước, đã di cư đến Bắc Mỹ, và hầu hết trong số họ đến Hoa Kỳ. Hiện có hơn 4,4 triệu người Mỹ gốc Thuỵ Điển theo ước tính của Cục Điều tra Dân số Hoa Kỳ năm 2006 . Tại Canada người gốc Thụy Điển có khoảng 330.000 người.
Theo Thống kê Thụy Điển thì vào năm 2017, khoảng 3.193.089 người tức 31,5% dân số của Thụy Điển có nguồn gốc nước ngoài, được định nghĩa là những người sinh ra ở nước ngoài hoặc sinh ra ở Thụy Điển nhưng có bố hoặc mẹ (hoặc cả hai) sinh ra ở nước ngoài . | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
099af6a1-7624-4d08-8bab-e4e47882fb18 | Những người Thụy Điển gốc nước ngoài có xuất xứ nhiều nhất từ các nước Syria (1,70%), Phần Lan (1,49%), Iraq (1,39%), Ba Lan (0,90%), Iran (0,73%) và Somalia (0,66%) .
Ngôn ngữ
Ngôn ngữ chính thức của Thụy Điển là tiếng Thụy Điển , một ngôn ngữ German Bắc, rất giống với tiếng Đan Mạch và tiếng Na Uy, chỉ khác về cách phát âm và chính tả. Người Na Uy có thể dễ dàng hiểu được tiếng Thuỵ Điển, và người Đan Mạch cũng có thể hiểu nó tuy sẽ gặp một chút khó khăn hơn so với người Na Uy. Ngược lại, những người nói tiếng Thụy Điển cũng có thể dễ dàng hiểu được tiếng Na Uy hoặc tiếng Đan Mạch, tuy nhiên tiếng Na Uy sẽ dễ hơn một chút đối với họ. Các phương ngữ được nói ở Scania, phần cực nam của đất nước, chịu ảnh hưởng lớn bởi tiếng Đan Mạch bởi vì khu vực này trước đây là một phần lãnh thổ của Đan Mạch và ngày nay vẫn nằm tiếp giáp với quốc gia này. Những người Thụy Điển nói tiếng Phần Lan chiếm khoảng 5% dân số Thụy Điển , và tiếng Phần Lan đã được công nhận là một ngôn ngữ thiểu số tại Thụy Điển. Do những người nói tiếng Ả rập nhập cư vào Thụy Điển rất nhiều trong những năm gần đây, việc sử dụng tiếng Ả Rập có thể đã trở nên phổ biến rộng rãi ở trong nước hơn so với tiếng Phần Lan. Tuy nhiên, không có thống kê chính thức nào về điều này .
Tại Thụy Điển, tiếng Phần Lan, tiếng Meänkieli, tiếng Jiddisch, tiếng Romani và tiếng Sami có địa vị là các ngôn ngữ thiểu số được công nhận. Gần 90% người Thụy Điển có khả năng nói được tiếng Anh vì một phần tiếng Anh là ngoại ngữ bắt buộc trong trường học và phần khác là vì tiếng Anh có rất nhiều trong chương trình truyền hình. Đa số học sinh chọn tiếng Đức là ngoại ngữ thứ nhì, nhưng gần đây tiếng Tây Ban Nha đang được ưa chuộng và đã vượt qua tiếng Đức tại một số trường. Thật ra tiếng Đức là ngoại ngữ đầu tiên tại Thụy Điển cho đến năm 1950 cũng như trong phần còn lại của Bắc Âu.
Tôn giáo
Giáo hội Thụy Điển, một giáo hội Lutheran, đã là giáo hội quốc gia từ 1527 cho đến 1999. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
774d0530-7937-433c-a73a-e313fce071bd | Tỉ lệ thành viên của Giáo hội trên tổng dân số suy giảm dần qua các năm: từ 95,2% năm 1972 xuống còn 67,5% năm 2012 và 61,5% vào năm 2016 . Số người của nhóm lớn thứ nhì, những người theo Hồi giáo, rất khó được đoán chính xác. Sự hiện diện của những người Hồi giáo ở Thụy Điển vẫn còn yếu cho đến những năm 1960, khi Thụy Điển bắt đầu nhận được những người di cư từ vùng Balkan và Thổ Nhĩ Kỳ. Làn sóng nhập cư ồ ạt từ Bắc Phi và Trung Đông đã đưa dân số Hồi giáo tại Thụy Điển tăng đáng kể, ngày nay ước tính lên đến 600.000 người . Công giáo Rôma có vào khoảng 150.000 người và Chính thống giáo Đông phương khoảng 100.000 người. Bên cạnh đó tại Thụy Điển có khoảng 23.000 người của Nhân chứng Jehova, 20.000 người là tín đồ Phật giáo và vào khoảng 10.000 người theo Do Thái giáo.
Theo cuộc thăm dò ý kiến Eurobarometer vào năm 2010:
18% công dân Thụy Điển trả lời rằng họ tin Thượng đế là có thật
45% trả lời rằng họ tin có một dạng thế lực tâm linh nào đó.
34% còn lại tin rằng không có bất kỳ vị thần linh, thượng đế nào.
Nhập cư
Nhập cư đã và đang là nguồn tăng trưởng dân số và thay đổi văn hóa quan trọng trong suốt chiều dài lịch sử Thụy Điển, và trong nhiều thế kỷ gần đây, Thụy Điển từ một quốc gia di cư ròng sau Thế chiến thứ nhất đã trở thành một quốc gia nhập cư ròng kể từ Thế chiến II trở đi. Các khía cạnh về kinh tế, xã hội và chính trị của vấn đề nhập cư đã gây ra rất nhiều tranh cãi .
Trong năm 2016, ước tính 2.320.302 cư dân Thụy Điển có nguồn gốc nước ngoài, chiếm khoảng 23% dân số Thụy Điển . Số người dân Thụy Điển có cha mẹ là người nước ngoài lên tới 3.060.115 người, chiếm 30% dân số cả nước . Trong số những người này, 1.784.497 người hiện sống ở Thụy Điển nhưng được sinh ra ở nước ngoài. Ngoài ra, 535.805 người được sinh ra ở Thụy Điển nhưng có cả cha và mẹ sinh ra ở nước ngoài và 739,813 người khác có một trong hai người cha hoặc mẹ sinh ra ở nước ngoài (còn người còn lại sinh ra ở Thụy Điển) . | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
45f340f5-4fba-4ef1-b5b4-5ccea2e32461 | Theo Eurostat, trong năm 2010, đã có 1,33 triệu người Thụy Điển được sinh ra ở nước ngoài, tương ứng với 14,3% tổng dân số. Trong số này, 859.000 (9,2%) được sinh ra ở các nước ngoài EU và 477,000 (5,1%) được sinh ra ở một nước thành viên EU khác .
Năm 2009, số người nhập cư đạt mức kỷ lục, với 102.280 người đã di cư đến Thụy Điển chỉ riêng trong năm này . Người nhập cư ở Thụy Điển chủ yếu tập trung trong các khu vực đô thị ở Svealand và Götaland. Từ đầu những năm 1970, những người nhập cư vào Thụy Điển chủ yếu là dân tị nạn và những người tới Thụy Điển để đoàn tụ với gia đình từ các nước Trung Đông và châu Mỹ Latinh .
Mười nhóm di dân nước ngoài lớn nhất trong sổ đăng ký dân sự Thụy Điển năm 2016 tới từ các nước sau:
(153,620)
(149,418)
(135,129)
(88,704)
(70,637)
(66,539)
(63,853)
(58,181)
(50,189)
Tội phạm
Các số liệu từ Khảo sát Tội phạm Thụy Điển (SCS) năm 2013 cho thấy tỉ lệ tội phạm nhìn chung đã giảm trong khoảng thời gian từ năm 2005 đến năm 2013. Kể từ năm 2014 đã có tình trạng gia tăng ở một số loại tội phạm, bao gồm gian lận thuế, một số tội phạm liên quan đến tài sản và đặc biệt là tội phạm tình dục (vào năm 2016 tỉ lệ tội phạm tình dục đã tăng 70% so với năm 2013).
Mức độ tham nhũng ở Thụy Điển là rất thấp . Hệ thống pháp lý và thể chế ở Thụy Điển được coi là có hiệu quả trong việc chống tham nhũng, và đặc trưng của các cơ quan chính phủ tại Thụy Điển là mức độ minh bạch, liêm chính và trách nhiệm cao .
Tỷ lệ giết người ở Thụy Điển là khá thấp, với khoảng 1.14 vụ giết người trên 100.000 dân vào năm 2015. Số vụ "bạo lực chết người được xác nhận" đã dao động giữa 68 và 112 vụ trong giai đoạn 2006-2015, giảm từ 111 vụ năm 2007 xuống còn 68 vụ vào năm 2012, tiếp theo là tăng lên 112 vụ vào năm 2015 và giảm xuống 106 vụ vào năm 2016
. Các nghiên cứu về những vụ bạo lực gây chết người ở Thụy Điển đã chỉ ra rằng hơn một nửa các vụ án được báo cáo không thực sự là những vụ giết người hay ngộ sát. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
8ca001ce-87a0-49fd-afc9-98de13186dc2 | Nhiều vụ án giết người được báo cáo trên thực tế là những vụ tự tử, tai nạn hoặc tử vong tự nhiên . Tuy vậy tỉ lệ những vụ bạo lực liên quan đến súng đạn ở Thụy Điển là cao hơn đáng kể so với nhiều nước Tây Âu khác .
Theo SCS năm 2016, 1,7% số người Thụy Điển được hỏi đã trả lời rằng họ là nạn nhân của hành vi bạo lực tình dục. Con số này tăng hơn 100% so với năm 2012 và 70% so với năm 2014. Nạn nhân của tội phạm tình dục thường là phổ biến hơn ở phụ nữ so với nam giới, và phổ biến nhất trong khung tuổi 20-24. Tội phạm tình dục xảy ra phổ biến nhất ở nơi công cộng và trong hầu hết các trường hợp, thủ phạm không hề quen biết với nạn nhân . Trong năm 2014, đã có 6,697 vụ hiếp dâm tại Thụy Điển được báo cáo cho cảnh sát nước này, tỉ lệ là 69 vụ trên 100.000 dân, theo Hội đồng Quốc gia Thụy Điển về Phòng chống tội phạm (BRÅ), tăng 11% so với năm 2013 . Trong năm 2016, tổng số vụ hiếp dâm được báo cáo đã tăng lên 6.715 vụ . Vào tháng 8 năm 2018, SVT báo cáo rằng thống kê hiếp dâm ở Thụy Điển cho thấy 58% nam giới bị kết án hiếp dâm trong 5 năm qua được sinh ra ngoài Liên minh châu Âu, phần lớn là dân nhập cư từ các nước Nam Phi, Bắc Phi, Ả Rập, Trung Đông và Afghanistan . Những con số chính thức cho thấy tỷ lệ tội phạm tình dục tại Thụy Điển đang tiếp tục có dấu hiệu gia tăng .
Giáo dục
Trẻ em từ 1-5 tuổi ở Thụy Điển được đảm bảo theo học tại các trường mẫu giáo công lập (förskola). Giáo dục tại trường học là bắt buộc đối với mọi trẻ em từ 6 đến 16 tuổi. Sau khi hoàn thành lớp 9, khoảng 90% học sinh tại Thụy Điển tiếp tục theo học tại một trường trung học trong vòng ba năm. Hệ thống trường học tại Thụy Điển phần lớn được tài trợ bởi các loại thuế.
Chính phủ Thụy Điển đảm bảo sự đối xử công bằng cho cả trường công lập cũng như trường tư thục . | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
d86166e4-bf4f-4aad-86e1-191a0e130839 | Bất cứ ai cũng có thể thành lập một trường học nhằm mục đích thu lợi nhuận và các khu vực đô thị phải cấp cho các trường tư thục một số tiền tương đương với số tiền mà các trường thuộc sở hữu của chính quyền thành phố nhận được. Bữa ăn trưa ở trường cho học sinh là miễn phí tại tất cả các trường học ở Thụy Điển, và việc cung cấp bữa sáng miễn phí cũng được khuyến khích .
Có một số trường đại học và cao đẳng khác nhau ở Thụy Điển, lâu đời nhất và lớn nhất trong số đó nằm ở các thành phố Uppsala, Lund, Gothenburg và Stockholm. Năm 2000, 32% người Thụy Điển có bằng đại học, đưng thứ 5 trong các nước OECD . Cùng với một số quốc gia châu Âu khác, chính phủ Thụy Điển cũng trợ cấp học phí cho các sinh viên quốc tế theo học tại các học viện ở Thụy Điển, mặc dù một dự luật gần đây được thông qua tại Riksdag sẽ hạn chế khoản rợ cấp này cho sinh viên đến từ các nước EEA và Thụy Sĩ .
Sự gia tăng của dòng người nhập cư vào Thụy Điển là nguyên nhân chính khiến cho Thụy Điển tụt hạng liên tục trong bảng xếp hạng PISA (Chương trình đánh giá học sinh quốc tế) .
Y tế
Hệ thống chăm sóc sức khỏe Thụy Điển chủ yếu là do chính phủ tài trợ, mặc dù chăm sóc sức khỏe tư nhân cũng tồn tại. Nguồn kinh phí dành cho hệ thống chăm sóc sức khỏe ở Thụy Điển chủ yếu là thông qua các loại thuế. Hệ thống chăm sóc sức khỏe ở Thụy Điển có chất lượng rất cao, tương đương với các quốc gia phát triển khác. Thụy Điển nằm trong top 5 quốc gia có tỷ lệ tử vong trẻ sơ sinh thấp nhất thế giới. Tuổi thọ trung bình của người dân Thụy Điển cũng thuộc top đầu thế giới. Nước uống ở Thụy Điển cũng được cho là an toàn bậc nhất thế giới. Theo bảng xếp hạng của EHCI về những quốc gia có dịch vụ y tế tốt nhất ở châu Âu năm 2016, Thụy Điển xếp ở vị trí thứ 12 .
Cuộc sống xã hội
"Mô hình Thụy Điển", một khái niệm của thập niên 1970, ám chỉ hệ thống phúc lợi xã hội, một hệ thống phúc lợi và chăm lo xã hội rộng khắp, là kết quả của sự phát triển hằng trăm năm. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
45fad08b-ad7f-4717-bef1-2a6e8cae397b | Trong thời gian từ năm 1890 đến 1930 một phần cơ sở cho một hệ thống phúc lợi xã hội đã thành hình, nhưng mãi đến những năm của thập niên 1930, đặc biệt là từ khi Đảng Công nhân Dân chủ Xã hội Thụy Điển thành lập chính phủ năm 1932, việc xây dựng một quốc gia phúc lợi xã hội mới trở thành một dự án chính trị và được đẩy mạnh. Hệ thống phúc lợi xã hội Thụy Điển cuối cùng đã bao gồm tất cả mọi người từ trẻ em (thông qua hệ thống chăm sóc trẻ em của làng xã) cho đến những người về hưu (thông qua hệ thống chăm sóc người già của làng xã).
Mãi đến thập niên vừa qua mới có những thay đổi lớn. Một cuộc khủng hoảng kinh tế trầm trọng đầu thập niên 1990 đã dẫn đến việc cắt giảm các phúc lợi xã hội và sự phát triển nhân khẩu như đã dự đoán đã buộc phải xây dựng lại toàn bộ hệ thống hưu trí, hệ thống mà từ nay được gắn liền vào phát triển kinh tế. Thế nhưng các cuộc bầu cử vừa qua đã cho thấy là chính những phần cốt lõi của hệ thống phúc lợi xã hội rất được người công dân yêu mến.
Khoa học và kỹ thuật
Trong thế kỷ 18, cuộc cách mạng khoa học của Thụy Điển đã diễn ra. Năm 1739, Viện Hàn lâm Khoa học Hoàng gia Thụy Điển được thành lập, với những cá nhân kiệt xuất như Carl Linnaeus và Anders Celsius (người phát minh ra Nhiệt kế Celsius) là thành viên ban đầu. Nhiều công ty được thành lập bởi những người tiên phong đầu tiên cho đến nay vẫn là những thương hiệu quốc tế lớn. Nhà vật lý Thụy Điển Gustaf Dalén là người đã thành lập nên công ty AGA và nhận giải Nobel Vật lý cho phát minh ra van mặt trời của mình. Nhà hóa học Thụy Điển Alfred Nobel là người đã phát minh ra thuốc nổ và là người sáng lập nên giải Nobel. Nhà phát minh Thụy Điển Lars Magnus Ericsson đã thành lập công ty mang tên của mình, Ericsson, đến nay đây vẫn là một trong những công ty viễn thông lớn nhất thế giới. Nhà vật lý Thụy Điển Jonas Wenström là người tiên phong đầu tiên trong những nghiên cứu về dòng điện xoay chiều và cùng với nhà phát minh người Serbia Nikola Tesla, ông được công nhận là một trong những người đã phát minh ra hệ thống điện ba pha. Tetra Pak là một phát minh dùng để lưu trữ thực phẩm lỏng, được phát minh bởi Erik Wallenberg. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
065be5d2-c009-4238-9c35-a5066df02b8f | Omeprazole, một loại thuốc chữa bệnh loét dạ dày, là loại thuốc bán chạy nhất thế giới trong những năm 1990 và được phát triển bởi công ty Thụy Điển AstraZeneca. Gần đây hơn, Håkan Lans là người đã phát minh ra Hệ thống nhận dạng tự động (AIS).
Các nhà phát minh Thụy Điển đang nắm giữ 47.112 bằng sáng chế tại Hoa Kỳ vào năm 2014, theo Văn phòng Sáng chế và Nhãn hiệu Hoa Kỳ. Chỉ có mười quốc gia khác trên thế giới nắm giữ nhiều bằng sáng chế hơn Thụy Điển .
Theo tỷ lệ phần trăm GDP, chính phủ Thụy Điển phân bổ nguồn lực dành cho nghiên cứu và phát triển nhiều hơn bất cứ quốc gia nào khác trên thế giới . Thụy Điển đứng đầu châu Âu về số lượng các sản phẩm khoa học được công bố tính theo bình quân đầu người .
Trong năm 2009, các quyết định về việc xây dựng hai cơ sở khoa học lớn nhất của Thụy Điển, các cơ sở bức xạ synchrotron MAX IV và European Spallation Source, đã được thông qua .Cả hai cơ sở đều sẽ được xây dựng tại Lund. European Spallation Source, tốn 14 tỷ SEK để xây dựng , sẽ bắt đầu hoạt động vào năm 2019 và sẽ cung cấp chùm tia neutron mạnh hơn khoảng 30 lần so với bất kỳ hệ thống cung cấp neutron nào hiện nay.. MAX IV, chi phí khoảng 3 tỷ SEK, đi vào hoạt động từ năm 2015. Cả hai cơ sở này đều có ý nghĩa lớn đối với nghiên cứu vật chất.
Văn hoá
Văn học
Vào đầu Phong trào Cải cách nền tảng cho một tiếng Thụy Điển thống nhất bắt đầu hình thành. Văn học mang tính chất tôn giáo chiếm lĩnh ưu thế trong suốt thời kỳ này.
Vào năm 1732 số đầu tiên của tờ tuần báo đầu tiên, Then swänska Argus, được phát hành. Olof Dalin, người phát hành tờ tuần báo này, chủ yếu hướng về giới bạn đọc là người thường dân. Trong những người cùng thời với Dalin nổi bật nhất là bà Hedvig Charlotta Nordenflycht. Thơ của bà một phần mang tính chất cá nhân và trữ tình, một phần khác mang dấu ấn của cuộc đấu tranh vì các quyền trí thức của phụ nữ.
Erik Gustaf Geijer cũng như người sau ông là Esaias Tegnér là những người đại diện cho trường phái lãng mạn quốc gia trong Thời kỳ Lãng mạn. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
aa0b9580-1043-416a-950a-7bc58b51cf37 | Với bài thơ Vikingen Geijer đã đưa hình tượng của người Viking đi vào văn học. Cũng trong thời kỳ này các tiểu thuyết đầu tiên bắt đầu được phát hành, đáng kể nhất là Carl Jonas Love Almqvist với quyển tiểu thuyết Drottningens juvelsmycke (Châu báu của hoàng hậu).
August Strindberg và Selma Lagerlöf là hai nhà văn nổi bật nhất trong thời gian từ cuối thế kỷ XIX cho đến Chiến tranh thế giới thứ nhất. Với hai tác phẩm Fadren (Cha) năm 1887 và Fröken Julie (Người con gái tên Julie) Strindberg đã đạt đến giới bạn đọc quốc tế. Người đoạt giải Nobel Selma Lagerhöf bắt đầu được giới công khai biết đến qua quyển tiểu thuyết Gösta Berlings saga.
Nền văn học sau năm 1914 hướng về các đề tài xã hội nhiều hơn thời gian trước đó. Sigfrid Siwertz, Elin Wägner và Hjalmar Bergman miêu tả đất nước Thụy Điển đương thời trong thời gian chuyển đổi từ xã hội nông nghiệp sang xã hội công nghiệp.
Thời kỳ Hiện đại trong văn học Thụy Điển bắt đầu trong những thập niên sau Chiến tranh thế giới thứ hai. Giữa những năm 1960 bắt đầu có một cuộc đổi hướng trong văn học Thụy Điển. Nhận thức mới về chính trị thế giới đòi hỏi một nền văn học phê bình xã hội. Per Olov Enquist viết quyển tiểu thuyết mang tính chất tài liệu về việc trục xuất những người Balt từ Thụy Điển về Liên bang Xô viết. Các nhà văn khác như Pär Westberg và Sara Lidman viết về tình trạng của thế giới bên ngoài. Trong những năm của thập kỷ 1970 văn học Thụy Điển trở về đề tài sử thi. Trong nhiều tác phẩm cùng chủ đề, từng vùng đất của Thụy Điển đã được miêu tả lại trong lúc chuyển đổi giữa cũ và mới. Lars Norén với bi kịch gia đình Modet att döda (Can đảm để giết người) năm 1980 đã trở thành nhà viết bi kịch nổi tiếng nhất của những thập niên kế tiếp.
Phim
Vào khoảng năm 1910 Thụy Điển bắt đầu sản xuất phim thường xuyên. Chẳng bao lâu phim Thụy Điển đạt chất lượng đến một mức độ làm cho cả thế giới biết đến. Thế nhưng khi phim có âm thanh ra đời và kèm theo đó là việc tự giới hạn trong thị trường nhỏ nói tiếng Thụy Điển, phim Thụy Điển giảm sút xuống mức độ thấp về nghệ thuật. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
21c87ec8-874c-450e-92e1-52ffa4eb1176 | Mãi đến sau Chiến tranh thế giới thứ hai phim Thụy Điển mới trải qua một cuộc đổi mới về chất lượng nghệ thuật. Trước tiên là trong thể loại phim tài liệu, thí dụ như phim Con người trong thành phố của Arne Sucksdorf đã đoạt được giải thưởng Oscar. Thể loại phim thiếu niên và nhi đồng cũng đạt được sự quan tâm của thế giới.
Âm nhạc
Năm 2007, với doanh thu hơn 800 triệu đô la, Thụy Điển là nước xuất khẩu âm nhạc lớn thứ ba trên thế giới, chỉ xếp sau Mỹ và Anh Interesting facts about EU countries. casgroup.fiu.edu. ABBA là một trong những ban nhạc Thụy Điển nổi tiếng thế giới đầu tiên, và hiện nay vẫn nằm trong số những ban nhạc nổi tiếng nhất trên thế giới. Với ABBA, nền âm nhạc Thụy Điển bước vào một kỷ nguyên mới, khi mà nhạc pop Thụy Điển đạt được danh tiếng ở tầm quốc tế. Đã có nhiều ban nhạc của Thụy Điển đạt được thành công quốc tế kể từ đó, chẳng hạn như Roxette, Ace of Base, Europe, A-teens, The Cardigans, Robyn, The Hives và Soundtrack of Our Lives. Thụy Điển cũng là một đất nước có nền nhạc Metal phát triển cực kì mạnh mẽ với những cái tên đã quá quen thuộc với các rockfan trên toàn thế giới như Arch Enemy, In Flames,Dark Funeral, Dark Tranquillity hay Pain Of Salvation.
Thụy Điển cũng là một trong những quốc gia thành công nhất tại cuộc thi Eurovision Song Contest, với tổng cộng sáu lần giành chiến thắng (1974, 1984, 1991, 1999, 2012 và 2015), chỉ xếp sau Ireland với bảy lần chiến thắng.
Kiến trúc
Các lễ hội và phong tục tập quán đặc trưng
Ngày 6 tháng 1 là ngày lễ Trettondedag jul (lễ Ba Vua còn gọi là lễ Hiển Linh), đây là ngày lễ quốc gia tại Thụy Điển chủ yếu theo đạo Tin Lành.
Vào ngày 13 tháng 1, Tjugondedag jul (còn gọi là Tjugondag jul hay Knut), mùa Giáng Sinh chấm dứt. Thỉnh thoảng có lễ hội cuối cùng, nến và các vật trang hoàng được tháo gỡ xuống và cây Nô en được mang ra ngoài.
Valborgsmässoafton được chào mừng vào ngày 30 tháng 4. Người dân quay quanh các lửa trại lớn, có phát biểu chào mừng mùa Xuân và hát các bài ca về mùa Xuân. Đặc biệt ở tại Lund và Uppsala thì Valborg vào đêm trước ngày 1 tháng 5 là một lễ hội sinh viên quan trọng. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
575f8916-03be-469b-bf71-46449a536fb4 | Đúng 15 giờ tất cả mọi người đều đội mũ sinh viên lên là hát những bài ca sinh viên. Vào đêm đó thường người ta uống nhiều rượu.
Ngày 6 tháng 6, Svenska flaggans dag, là ngày lễ quốc khánh của Thụy Điển. Đầu tiên là "Flaggentag" (Ngày Quốc kỳ), ra đời vào năm 1916, ngày 6 tháng 6 là lễ quốc khánh từ năm 1983 và từ năm 2005 cũng là ngày lễ chính thức.
Lễ hội giữa hè (Midsommarfest) được mừng vào đêm rạng sáng ngày thứ Bảy đầu tiên sau ngày 21 tháng 6. Lễ hội này được ăn mừng lớn chỉ có thể so sánh được với lễ Giáng Sinh. Thụy Điển đẹp nhất vào đêm "midsommarafton" cuối tháng 6, khi ánh sáng mặt trời có thể nhìn thấy 24 tiếng liên tục ở miền Bắc và ở miền Nam chỉ có vài tiếng là hoàng hôn và rạng sáng. Ngày lễ này có truyền thống rất lâu đời và có nguồn gốc từ các lễ hội chào mừng mùa Hè từ thời kỳ Tiền Lịch sử. Trên khắp mọi nơi ở Thụy Điển người dân ca hát và nhảy múa chung quanh cây nêu tháng 5 được trang hoàng bằng cành cây và bông hoa, có lẽ là biểu tượng quốc gia Thụy Điển nổi tiếng nhất.
Vào tháng 8 bắt đầu có tôm cua tươi đầu mùa ở chợ. Lễ hội chào mừng được gọi là Kräftskiva và được tổ chức không có thời điểm nhất định. Người dân ăn tôm cua luộc cho đến khi no và uống kèm theo đó là rượu mạnh.
Tại miền Bắc Thụy Điển còn có Surströmmingsfest vào cuối mùa Hè. Việc ăn cá trích được ủ trước cùng với khoai tây hay với tunnbröd (một loại bánh mì khô) trong dịp lễ này đòi hỏi phải có khẩu vị "cứng cáp".
Lễ Lucia (Luciafest) bắt đầu vào sáng ngày 13 tháng 12 và tại Thụy Điển là ngày của Nữ hoàng ánh sáng. Người con gái đầu trong gia đình xuất hiện với một váy trắng và mang trên đầu một vòng hoa được làm từ cành cây của một loài cây việt quất (Vaccinium vitis-idaea) và nến, đánh thức gia đình và mang thức ăn sáng đến tận giường. Trường học và nơi làm việc trên toàn nước được các đoàn diễu hành đến thăm viếng vào sáng sớm. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
b5d64eea-c9ad-43d3-af41-a91f5ba77233 | Các cô gái trẻ mang váy trắng dài đến gót chân cùng với nến trên đầu và tay, đi cùng là các nam thiếu niên mang quần áo trắng và đội nón chóp dài được trang điểm bằng nhiều ngôi sao.
Thể thao
Thể thao là một phong trào quần chúng tại Thụy Điển với khoảng độ một nửa dân số tham gia tích cực. Hai môn thể thao chính là bóng đá và khúc côn cầu trên băng. Zlatan Ibrahimovic, Henrik Larsson và Fredrik Ljungberg thuộc về những ngôi sao bóng đá của Thụy Điển và trong số những người nổi tiếng trong bộ môn khúc côn cầu trên băng phải kể đến Markus Näslund, Peter Forsberg, Mats Sundin, Daniel Alfredsson, Niklas Lidström, Börje Salming và Pelle Lindbergh.
Số người chơi các môn thể thao cưỡi ngựa nhiều chỉ sau bóng đá, phần lớn là phụ nữ. Tiếp theo sau đó là golf, điền kinh và các môn thể thao đồng đội như bóng ném, khúc côn cầu trong nhà (tiếng Anh: Floorball''), bóng rổ và ngoài ra là bandy tại các vùng phía Bắc.
Các vận động viên quần vợt thành công bao gồm Björn Borg, Mats Wilander,Stefan Edberg và Robin Soderling.
Rất nhiều người Thụy Điển đã lập thành tích quốc tế trong điền kinh, thí dụ như Patrik Sjöberg - kỷ lục nhảy cao nam châu Âu, hay Kajsa Bergqvist - kỷ lục nhảy cao nữ, và người đoạt huy chương vàng Thế vận hội Stefan Holm. Hai vận động viên Thụy Điển khác đoạt huy chương vàng tại Thế vận hội mùa Hè 2004 là Carolina Klüft trong bộ môn điền kinh nữ bảy môn và Christian Olsson trong bộ môn nhảy ba bước.
Các vận động viên nổi tiếng khác của Thụy Điển bao gồm Ingemar Johansson (đấm bốc hạng nặng), Annika Sörenstam (đánh golf), Jan-Ove Waldner (nguyên vô địch bóng bàn 5 lần) và Tony Rickardsson (đua mô tô).
Trong trường học, trên bãi cỏ hay trong công viên brännboll, một bộ môn thể thao tương tự như bóng chày, thường hay được chơi để giải trí. Trong các thế hệ lớn tuổi các bộ môn thể thao giải trí khác là kubb và boules.
Ẩm thực
Ẩm thực Thụy Điển là thực phẩm truyền thống của người Thụy Điển. Do Thụy Điển trải dài từ bắc tới nam, nó nhiều khác biệt giữa ẩm thực phía bắc và phía nam. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
b85a4189-e48c-49d7-87ae-c5037216ea48 | Trong lịch sử, ở phía Bắc, người ta từng ăn các loại thịt như tuần lộc, hoặc các loại thịt thú săn khác, nó có nguồn gốc từ văn hóa Sami, trong khi các loại rau tươi có vai trò quan trọng hơn ở phía Nam.
Những ngày lễ
Biểu tượng quốc gia
Quốc kỳ
Quốc kỳ Thụy Điển hình chữ nhật, nền cờ màu lam, chữ thập màu vàng chia mặt cờ thành 4 hình chữ nhật màu lam. Diện tích của 2 hình chữ nhật trên và dưới bên trái bằng nhau, 2 hình chữ nhật trên và dưới bên phải cũng có diện tích bằng nhau. Hai màu lam và vàng bắt nguồn từ màu của Hoàng gia Thuỵ Điển. Lá cờ chữ thập màu vàng từng là quân kỳ của hải quân Hoàng gia Thuỵ Điển. Ngày 22/06/1906 chính thức quy định lá quốc kỳ này.
Quốc huy
Lai lịch quốc huy Thuỵ Điển có thể truy nguyên về những năm 1408–1470. Phía trên tấm áo choàng là chiếc vương miện, mặt tấm lá chắn trong tấm áo choàng có màu lam. Một chữ thập màu vàng chia mặt tấm lá chắn thành 4 phần: phần trên bên trái và phần dưới bên phải mỗi phần có 3 phần chiếc vương miện màu vàng, phần trên bên phải và phần dưới bên trái có con sư tử vàng đội vương miện vàng thè lưỡi đỏ. Trung tâm lá chắn lớn có một lá chắn tương đối nhỏ, mặt tấm lá chắn chia 2 phần phải và trái: mặt bên trái do các sọc chéo 3 màu lam, trắng bạc, đỏ và một chiếc bình vàng tạo thành, mặt bên phải có vẽ một tháp chuông kiểu lô cốt và một con chim ưng vàng. Hình trên tấm lá chắn nhỏ là phù hiệu của Hoàng gia Thụy Điển khoảng năm 1200. Phía trên tấm lá chắn là một chiếc vương miện, 2 bên là hai con sư tử vàng đầu đội vương miện ngoảnh về phía sau đỡ lấy. Sư tử đứng trên đế tấm lá chắn, đuôi cong hướng lên trên, thè lưỡi đỏ. Xung quanh tấm lá chắn là huân chương trang trí. Năm 1908 chính thức chế định quốc huy dạng tấm áo choàng này. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%E1%BB%A5y%20%C4%90i%E1%BB%83n | Thụy Điển |
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Quốc gia thành viên Liên minh Địa Trung Hải | [
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42478890-2aba-4418-b7aa-67e06c26a929 | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh (viết tắt TP.HCM) hay Sài Gòn, là thành phố lớn nhất Việt Nam và là một siêu đô thị trong tương lai gần. Đây còn là trung tâm kinh tế, giải trí, một trong hai trung tâm văn hóa và giáo dục quan trọng tại Việt Nam. Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh là thành phố trực thuộc trung ương thuộc loại đô thị đặc biệt của Việt Nam. Nằm trong vùng chuyển tiếp giữa Đông Nam Bộ và Tây Nam Bộ, thành phố này hiện có 16 quận, 1 thành phố và 5 huyện, tổng diện tích 2.095 km2 (809 dặm vuông Anh). Theo kết quả điều tra dân số sơ bộ vào năm 2021 thì dân số thành phố là 9.166.800 người (chiếm 9,3% dân số Việt Nam), mật độ dân số trung bình 4.375 người/km² (cao nhất cả nước). Tuy nhiên, nếu tính những người cư trú không đăng ký hộ khẩu thì dân số thực tế của thành phố này năm 2018 là gần 14 triệu người.
Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh năm 2011 chiếm 21,3% tổng sản phẩm (GDP) và 29,38% tổng thu ngân sách của cả Việt Nam. Thành phố có chỉ số phát triển con người ở mức cao, đứng thứ hai trong số các đơn vị hành chính của Việt Nam. Năm 2020, thành phố có GRDP theo giá hiện hành ước là 1.372 ngàn tỷ đồng, theo giá so sánh 2010 đạt 991.424 tỷ đồng (số liệu địa phương cung cấp, Tổng cục Thống kê sẽ công bố GRDP đánh giá lại), tăng 1,39% so với năm 2019, đóng góp trên 22% GDP và 27% tổng thu ngân sách cả nước. GRDP bình quân đầu người ước năm 2020 là 6.328 USD/người, xếp thứ 4 trong số các tỉnh thành cả nước, nhưng so với năm 2019 là giảm. Thu nhập bình quân đầu người năm 2019 sơ bộ là 6,758 triệu VND/tháng, cao thứ hai cả nước sau Bình Dương. Nhờ điều kiện tự nhiên, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh trở thành một đầu mối giao thông của Việt Nam và Đông Nam Á, bao gồm cả đường bộ, đường sắt, đường thủy và đường hàng không. Vào năm 2019, thành phố đón khoảng 8,6 triệu khách du lịch quốc tế. Các lĩnh vực giáo dục, truyền thông, thể thao, giải trí, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh đều giữ vị thế hàng đầu.
Tuy nhiên, khoảng một thập kỷ gần đây, dưới nhiều tác động và áp lực khác nhau, các chỉ số trên của thành phố có sự giảm sút. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
200bf842-5411-4cb5-8044-d1510c4ad718 | Thành phố cần được tháo gỡ nhiều điểm nghẽn để đóng góp nhiều hơn cho đất nước.
Tên gọi
Vùng đất này ban đầu được gọi là Prey Nokor theo tiếng Khmer của người dân bản địa, có nghĩa là "thành trong rừng". Vì sự sụp đổ của đế chế Khmer, vùng Nam Bộ trở thành đất vô chủ, về sau đã sáp nhập vào Đại Việt nhờ công cuộc khai phá miền Nam của chúa Nguyễn. Năm 1698, Nguyễn Hữu Cảnh cho lập huyện Tân Bình thuộc phủ Gia Định, đánh dấu sự ra đời thành phố. Phủ Gia Định khi đó bao gồm Sài Gòn và các tỉnh xung quanh hiện nay (Tây Ninh, Long An...), còn huyện Tân Bình là chỉ vùng đất Sài Gòn.
Địa danh Sài Gòn có trên 300 năm và từng được dùng để chỉ một khu vực với diện tích khoảng 1 km² (Chợ Lớn) có đông người Hoa sinh sống trong thế kỷ 18. Địa bàn đó gần tương ứng với khu Chợ Lớn ngày nay. Năm 1747, theo danh mục các họ đạo trong Launay, Histoire de la Mission Cochinchine, có ghi chép "Rai Gon Thong" (Sài Gòn Thượng) và "Rai Gon Ha" (Sài Gòn Hạ). Theo Phủ biên tạp lục của Lê Quý Đôn viết năm 1776, năm 1674, Thống suất Nguyễn Dương Lâm vâng lệnh chúa Nguyễn đánh Cao Miên và phá vỡ "Lũy Sài Gòn" (theo chữ Hán viết là 柴棍 - "Sài Côn"). Đây là lần đầu tiên chữ "Sài Gòn" xuất hiện trong tài liệu Việt Nam. Vì thiếu chữ viết nên chữ Hán 棍 - "Côn" được dùng thế cho "Gòn". Nếu đọc theo chữ Nôm là "Gòn", còn đọc theo chữ Hán thì là "Côn". Trong tiếng Trung thì Sài Gòn còn được gọi là "Tây Cống" (chữ Hán: 西貢, bính âm: Xī Gòng, Việt bính: Sai1Gung3). Sau đó, danh xưng Sài Gòn được dùng để chỉ các khu vực nằm trong "lũy Lão Cầm" (năm 1700), "lũy Hoa Phong" (năm 1731) và "lũy Bán Bích" (năm 1772), chỉ với diện tích 5 km². Ngoài ra theo một số nhà nghiên cứu thì Thụ Nại cũng từng là tên gọi của vùng đất Sài Gòn xưa trước khi Nguyễn Hữu Cảnh đến khai phá. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
bf4e76ae-80cd-4259-abf1-39067c3cd095 | Khi Pháp vào Đông Dương, để phục vụ công cuộc khai thác thuộc địa, thành phố Sài Gòn được thành lập và nhanh chóng phát triển, trở thành một trong hai đô thị quan trọng nhất Việt Nam. Địa giới Sài Gòn lúc này bao gồm vùng đất Sài Gòn và Bến Nghé cũ. Sài Gòn cũng là thủ đô của Liên bang Đông Dương giai đoạn 1887–1901 (về sau, Pháp chuyển thủ đô Liên bang Đông Dương ra Hà Nội). Năm 1931 Khu Sài Gòn - Chợ Lớn được thành lập, bao gồm Thành phố Sài Gòn và Thành phố Chợ Lớn. Năm 1941 Chợ Lớn được sáp nhập vào Sài Gòn. Năm 1946, Sài Gòn trở thành thủ đô của Cộng hòa tự trị Nam Kỳ rồi Quốc gia Việt Nam, và sau này là thủ đô của Việt Nam Cộng hòa sau Hiệp định Genève năm 1954 với tên gọi chính thức là Đô Thành Sài Gòn. Kể từ đó, Sài Gòn được xem là thủ đô và trở thành một trong những đô thị quan trọng nhất của miền Nam Việt Nam.
Sau khi Việt Nam Cộng hòa sụp đổ trong sự kiện 30 tháng 4 năm 1975, Cộng hòa Miền Nam Việt Nam tiếp quản chính quyền và quyết định hợp nhất Đô thành Sài Gòn và tỉnh Gia Định thành Thành phố Sài Gòn – Gia Định. Ngày 2 tháng 7 năm 1976, Việt Nam tái thống nhất và Quốc hội nước Việt Nam thống nhất quyết định đổi tên "Sài Gòn – Gia Định" thành "Hồ Chí Minh", theo tên Chủ tịch nước đầu tiên của Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa.
Hiện nay trong văn bản hành chính thì thành phố luôn được gọi đầy đủ là "Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh" (viết tắt là "TP. HCM") thay vì chỉ gọi "Hồ Chí Minh", để tránh nhầm lẫn với chủ tịch Hồ Chí Minh. Tương tự với tiếng Anh là "Ho Chi Minh City" (viết tắt là "HCMC"). Tên "Sài Gòn" vẫn được sử dụng thường xuyên vì sự lâu đời và thân thuộc của nó.
Lịch sử
Thời kỳ hoang sơ
Con người xuất hiện ở Sài Gòn từ khá sớm. Các cuộc khai quật khảo cổ trên địa phận Sài Gòn và khu vực lân cận cho thấy, ở đây đã tồn tại nhiều nền văn hóa từ thời kỳ đồ đá cho tới thời kim khí. Những cư dân cổ từ nhiều thiên niên kỷ về trước đã biết đến kỹ thuật canh tác nông nghiệp. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
45982361-bcff-491e-bc0d-863a1d46b82d | Văn hóa Sa Huỳnh từng tồn tại trên khu vực này với những nét rất riêng. Thời kỳ văn hóa Óc Eo, từ đầu Công Nguyên cho tới thế kỷ 7, khu vực miền Nam Đông Dương có nhiều tiểu quốc và Sài Gòn khi đó là miền đất có quan hệ với những vương quốc này.
Sau khi Đế quốc Khmer hình thành, lãnh thổ miền Nam Đông Dương thuộc quyền kiểm soát của đế chế này. Tuy nhiên, dân cư của Đế quốc Khmer sống ở vùng này rất thưa thớt, không có khu dân cư lớn nào hình thành tại đây. Cho đến trước thế kỷ 16, vị trí tiếp giáp với các quốc gia cổ cũng khiến Sài Gòn trở thành nơi gặp gỡ của nhiều cộng đồng dân cư như Khmer, Châu Ro, S'Tiêng. Sài Gòn – Gia Định vẫn là địa bàn của một vài nhóm dân cư cổ cho tới khi người Việt xuất hiện.
Khai phá
Những người Việt đầu tiên tự động vượt biển tới khai phá vùng đất này hoàn toàn không có sự tổ chức của nhà Nguyễn. Nhờ cuộc hôn nhân giữa Công nữ Ngọc Vạn với vua Chân Lạp Chey Chetta II từ năm 1620, mối quan hệ giữa Đại Việt và Chân Lạp trở nên êm đẹp, dân cư hai nước có thể tự do qua lại sinh sống. Khu vực Sài Gòn, Đồng Nai bắt đầu xuất hiện những người Việt định cư. Trước đó, người Khmer, người Chăm, người Man cũng sinh sống rải rác ở đây từ xa xưa.
Giai đoạn từ 1623 tới 1698 được xem như thời kỳ hình thành của Sài Gòn sau này. Năm 1623, chúa Nguyễn sai một phái bộ tới yêu cầu con rể là vua Chey Chettha II cho lập đồn thu thuế tại Prey Nokor (Sài Gòn) và Kas Krobei (Bến Nghé). Tuy đây là vùng rừng rậm hoang vắng, nhưng lại nằm trên đường giao thông của các thương nhân Việt Nam, Trung Quốc,... qua Campuchia và Xiêm. Hai sự kiện quan trọng tiếp theo của thời kỳ này là lập doanh trại và dinh thự của Phó vương Nặc Nộn và lập đồn dinh ở Tân Mỹ (gần ngã tư Cống Quỳnh – Nguyễn Trãi ngày nay). Có thể nói Sài Gòn hình thành từ 3 cơ quan chính quyền này.
Năm 1679, chúa Nguyễn Phúc Tần cho một số nhóm người Hoa tị nạn triều Mãn Thanh tới Mỹ Tho, Biên Hòa và Sài Gòn để lánh nạn. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
1096c5bf-6934-47a2-8b44-76fc6974afc1 | Đến năm 1698, chúa Nguyễn sai tướng Nguyễn Hữu Cảnh vào kinh lý miền Nam. Trên cơ sở những lưu dân Việt đã tự phát tới khu vực này trước đó, Nguyễn Hữu Cảnh cho lập phủ Gia Định và hai huyện Phước Long, Tân Bình. Vùng Đông Nam Bộ được sáp nhập vào cương vực Việt Nam.
Thời điểm ban đầu này, khu vực Biên Hòa, Gia Định có khoảng 10.000 hộ với 200.000 khẩu. Công cuộc khai hoang được tiến hành theo những phương thức mới, mang lại hiệu quả hơn.
Cuối thế kỷ 17 và đầu thế kỷ 18, Mỹ Tho và Cù lao Phố là hai trung tâm thương mại lớn nhất Nam Bộ. Tuy nhiên, cuối thế kỷ 18, sau các biến loạn và chiến tranh, thương nhân dần chuyển về vùng Chợ Lớn. Khu vực Sài Gòn dần trở thành trung tâm kinh tế lớn nhất Nam Bộ.
Năm 1788, chúa Nguyễn Ánh tái chiếm Sài Gòn, lấy nơi đây làm cơ sở để chống lại Tây Sơn. Năm 1790, với sự giúp đỡ của hai sĩ quan công binh người Pháp là kỹ sư Theodore Lebrun và Victor Olivier de Puymanel (1768–1799), Chúa Nguyễn Ánh cho xây dựng Thành Bát Quái làm trụ sở của chính quyền mới. "Gia Định thành" khi đó được đổi thành "Gia Định kinh". Năm 1802, sau khi chiến thắng Tây Sơn, vua Gia Long lên ngôi và đẩy mạnh công cuộc khai khẩn miền Nam. Miền Nam được chia thành 5 trấn, gọi là "Gia Định ngũ trấn". Các công trình kênh đào Rạch Giá – Hà Tiên, Vĩnh Tế... được thực hiện. Qua 300 năm, các trung tâm nông nghiệp phát triển bao quanh những đô thị sầm uất được hình thành. Sáu năm sau, 1808, "Gia Định trấn" lại được đổi thành "Gia Định thành". Trong khoảng thời gian 1833 đến 1835, Lê Văn Khôi khởi binh chống lại nhà Nguyễn, Thành Bát Quái trở thành địa điểm căn cứ. Sau khi trấn áp cuộc nổi dậy, năm 1835, vua Minh Mạng cho phá Thành Bát Quái, xây dựng Phụng Thành thay thế.
Thời kỳ Pháp thuộc
Ngay sau khi chiếm được thành Gia Định vào năm 1859, thực dân Pháp gấp rút quy hoạch lại Sài Gòn thành một đô thị lớn nhằm phục vụ mục đích khai thác thuộc địa và làm nơi cư trú cho quan chức Pháp. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
c4a8be15-f50b-4b51-95e4-93f7f1706756 | Đồ án thiết kế được Phó Đô đốc Pháp là Page (về sau là Charner) cử trung tá công binh Pháp là Paul Florent Lucien Coffyn (1810 – 1871), nguyên Lãnh sự Pháp ở Hoa Kỳ, thiết kế. Theo bản đồ của Coffyn được công bố vào ngày 13/5/1862, quy hoạch ban đầu của Sài Gòn bao gồm cả tỉnh Chợ Lớn với khoảng 500.000 dân (Saigon ville de 500.000 âmes), tức khoảng 20.000 dân/km². Quy hoạch này tương ứng với quy hoạch khu vực phòng thủ của tướng Nguyễn Cửu Đàm năm 1772, khi dân số Sài Gòn chỉ khoảng 20.000–30.000 người. Nhưng đến 1864, nhận thấy diện tích dự kiến của thành phố quá rộng, khó bảo đảm về an ninh, Soái phủ Pháp ở Nam Kỳ (Gouverneur Amiral de la Cochinchine) lúc đó là Chuẩn đô đốc Pierre Rose quyết định tách Chợ Lớn khỏi Sài Gòn. Ngày 3 tháng 10 năm 1865, Pierre Rose ra lệnh quy hoạch lại Sài Gòn chỉ còn là khu vực nằm giữa rạch Thị Nghè, sông Sài Gòn, rạch Bến Nghé và đường mới khu cầu Ông Lãnh hiện nay. Toàn bộ quy hoạch chỉ còn rộng khoảng 3 km².Rất nhanh chóng, các công trình quan trọng của thành phố, như Dinh Thống đốc Nam Kỳ, Dinh Toàn quyền, được Pháp thiết kế và huy động nhân công xây dựng. Sau 2 năm người Pháp xây dựng và cải tạo, khu quy hoạch rộng khoảng 3 km² nói trên đã hoàn toàn thay đổi.
Thành phố Sài Gòn khi đó được thiết kế theo mô hình châu Âu, nơi đặt văn phòng nhiều cơ quan công vụ như: dinh thống đốc, nha giám đốc nội vụ, tòa án, tòa thượng thẩm, tòa sơ thẩm, tòa án thương mại, tòa giám mục,... Nam Kỳ Lục tỉnh là thuộc địa của Pháp và Sài Gòn nằm trong tỉnh Gia Định. Vào năm 1861, địa phận Sài Gòn được giới hạn bởi một bên là rạch Thị Nghè và rạch Bến Nghé với một bên là sông Sài Gòn cùng con đường nối liền chùa Cây Mai với những phòng tuyến cũ của đồn Kỳ Hòa.
Đến năm 1867, việc quản lý Sài Gòn được giao cho Ủy ban thành phố gồm một ủy viên và 12 hội viên; đứng đầu là viên Thị trưởng người Pháp tên là Charles Marie Louis Turc (1867–1871). | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
3c88f8bf-83b6-4709-a92d-e3b93b2d543a | Cho tới nửa đầu thập niên 1870, thành phố Sài Gòn vẫn nằm trong địa hạt hành chính tỉnh Gia Định. Ngày 15 tháng 3 năm 1874, Tổng thống Pháp Jules Grévy ký sắc lệnh thành lập thành phố Sài Gòn. Đứng đầu là viên Thị trưởng người Pháp, đầu tiên là G. Vinson (1874 –1876). Đến năm 1879 thì Pháp cho lập thêm Hội đồng thành phố Sài Gòn (hay đúng ra là Ủy hội thành phố – Commission municipale).
Sau Cách mạng Tháng Tám, ngày 23 tháng 9 năm 1945, quân Pháp tái chiếm thành phố. Tháng 8 năm 1946, phòng Nam Bộ Trung ương đã tổ chức họp, bác sĩ Trần Hữu Nghiệp đã đề nghị đổi tên Sài Gòn thành Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, và 57 người phòng Nam Bộ Trung ương (đứng đầu danh sách là Trần Hữu Nghiệp, Trần Công Tường, Nguyễn Tấn Gi Trọng,...) đã ra quyết nghị, gửi lên Quốc hội và Chính phủ Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa đề xuất này, tuy nhiên, do nhiều việc cấp bách phải giải quyết nên chưa được quyết định chính thức.
Về danh hiệu Hòn ngọc viễn Đông thời Pháp thuộc
Trong suốt thời kỳ Pháp thuộc, Sài Gòn trở thành trung tâm quan trọng, cả về hành chính lẫn kinh tế, văn hóa, giáo dục của Liên bang Đông Dương, được thực dân Pháp mệnh danh là Hòn ngọc Viễn Đông ("la perle de l'Extrême-Orient") hoặc một Paris nhỏ ở Viễn Đông ("le petit Paris de l'Extrême-Orient") trong số các thuộc địa của Pháp. Trước đó, thực dân Anh đã chiếm Ấn Độ và gọi nước này là "hòn ngọc trên vương miện của Nữ hoàng Anh", vì vậy Pháp đặt ra danh xưng này cho Sài Gòn để tỏ ý muốn cạnh tranh việc xâm chiếm thuộc địa với đối thủ Anh.
Tuy được Pháp gọi là "Hòn ngọc Viễn Đông", nhưng thực ra thời ấy Sài Gòn rất nhỏ, chỉ cần đi xa 20 km là có thể săn thú rừng. Theo quy hoạch của Pháp, Sài Gòn khi đó chỉ rộng khoảng 3 km²; gần bằng một nửa Quận 1 hiện nay (rộng khoảng 8 km²), bao bọc bởi sông Sài Gòn – Nguyễn Thái Học – Nguyễn Thị Minh Khai – rạch Bến Nghé. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
568a2cc8-4229-43de-b9ce-811a8e436bba | Chính quyền thuộc địa Pháp tập trung tất cả những gì sang trọng, giàu có nhất mà họ có được ở diện tích 3 km² này, phần còn lại của Sài Gòn thì vẫn còn rất hoang sơ, đầm lầy ngổn ngang. Theo Sơn Nam trong "Bến Nghé xưa" thì khi Chợ Bến Thành hoàn thành năm 1914, "trước mặt còn là ao vũng sình lầy. Giữa Sài Gòn và Chợ Lớn phía đất thấp (...), còn ruộng lúa với người cày, ao nuôi vịt, ngọn rạch cạn. Giữa Sài Gòn và ở phần đất cao còn nhiều chòm tre, cây da, mồ mả to xen vào những đám rẫy trồng rau cải và bông hoa, những xóm nhà ổ chuột; bầy bò dê đi lang thang ăn cỏ". Khu Hòa Hưng (Quận 10 hiện nay) cho đến ngã tư Bảy Hiền hiện nay có vô số nghĩa trang, mồ mả. Khu Nguyễn Thiện Thuật, Lý Thái Tổ, Nguyễn Đình Chiểu (Quận 3 hiện nay) toàn nhà lá nền đất xây dựng tạm bợ không theo quy hoạch nào. Khu Quận 4, Quận 7, khu Cầu Ông Lãnh, Cầu Kho,... sát cạnh chợ Bến Thành đa số là nhà tranh vách lá tạm bợ.
Sau Chiến tranh thế giới thứ nhất, kiến trúc sư He'brerd được mời sang Đông Dương chỉnh lý lại các dự án quy hoạch Sài Gòn. Ông đề ra hướng phát triển công nghiệp và xuất khẩu cho Sài Gòn, điều chỉnh hệ thống kỹ thuật hạ tầng, củng cố thêm phố thị Khánh Hội và Nhà Bè. Nhưng kế hoạch bất thành do thiếu ngân sách, đụng chạm quyền lợi của giới độc quyền kinh doanh địa ốc, cũng như xung đột nội bộ. Nó chứng minh rằng các mô hình lý thuyết về quy hoạch xây dựng thường vấp phải trở ngại từ giới cầm quyền thực dân, giới tư bản chỉ nhìn thấy quyền lợi trước mắt.
Như vậy, từ lúc đánh chiếm Gia Định năm 1859 cho đến khi rời Sài Gòn (năm 1954), người Pháp chỉ tập trung "trau chuốt" khu vực rộng 3 km², nơi mà kiều dân Pháp sinh sống (Quận 1 hiện nay). Dù nhiều lần điều chỉnh địa giới mở rộng, nhưng những khu mở rộng này không được Pháp đầu tư nên khá là tạm bợ. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
b997a771-9234-49de-bb38-bbcd44693281 | Đến năm 1954, những phần Sài Gòn mở rộng này (rộng khoảng 50 km²) vẫn hoang sơ, thậm chí đầm lầy ngổn ngang.
Phê phán quy hoạch thành phố Sài Gòn thời kỳ Pháp thuộc, nhiều nhà nghiên cứu phương Tây cho rằng: người Pháp nặng về việc phô trương quyền lực thực dân với một số trục đường hoành tráng, cửa nhà khang trang, nhưng lại chưa xây dựng được cơ sở hạ tầng đô thị, và nhất là đẩy người bản xứ vào các khu ở chật chội, lầy lội, thiếu vệ sinh. Nhà nghiên cứu Mỹ Gwendolyn Wright khi nghiên cứu về các đô thị thuộc địa Pháp cho rằng kiểu làm đó là lối "quy hoạch giả tạo" không giải quyết được các vấn đề cơ bản của đô thị và mang tính phân biệt đối xử giữa người Pháp và dân thuộc địa. Theo cụ Vương Hồng Sển ghi chép thì danh xưng "Hòn ngọc Viễn Đông" do quan chức thực dân Pháp đặt ra để chỉ nơi ăn chơi của họ, người Việt chẳng được thụ hưởng gì mà còn phải chịu sự bóc lột để người Pháp duy trì sự xa xỉ đó, và rằng "Nó hoàn toàn không phải là "hòn ngọc" với thợ thuyền người Việt ở xưởng đóng tàu Ba Son, cu li bốc vác ở cảng Sài Gòn, phu xe kéo và đông đảo người dân bản xứ mang trên mình bản án kiếp nô lệ, kẻ mất nước. Để phục vụ cho hòn ngọc ấy, cả một xã hội Sài Gòn trở thành thuộc địa, phải cung phụng cho Pháp mà nhiều địa danh còn được giữ đến tận bây giờ: Xóm Củi, Xóm Than, Xóm Dầu, Xóm Bàu Sen (gần đồn Cây Mai), Xóm Giá (làm giá đậu xanh gần cầu Cây Gõ), xóm Lò Bún (gần giếng Hộ Tùng), Xóm Ụ Ghe, Xóm Rẫy Cái, Xóm Cây Cui..."
Nhà sử học Henry Kamn nhận xét về sự tương phản giữa đời sống của giới thượng lưu Pháp với người dân Sài Gòn địa phương:
So với các thuộc địa của Nhật Bản hoặc một số nước thực dân khác (Anh, Mỹ, Hà Lan,...), các thuộc địa của Thực dân Pháp ở Đông Dương chỉ có một trạng thái mong manh yếu ớt. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
d885711c-1710-48c6-9011-34c9504cf26a | Chủ nghĩa thực dân Pháp ở Việt Nam kiếm lợi nhuận chủ yếu thông qua việc bóc lột tài nguyên thuộc địa, nên Pháp không cần thành lập một bộ máy hành chính hiệu quả nhằm tăng năng suất, cũng không cần thực hiện công nghiệp hóa ở quy mô lớn. Quy mô nền công nghiệp của thực dân Pháp ở Việt Nam quá nhỏ, kinh tế Việt Nam khi đó vẫn chủ yếu là nông nghiệp. Điều này dẫn tới quy mô các đô thị do Pháp xây dựng ở thuộc địa Đông Dương (tiêu biểu là Sài Gòn) cũng khá nhỏ bé, ngay cả khi so sánh với các thành phố thuộc địa của Anh, Mỹ và Hà Lan.
Xét về quy mô dân số, các phương pháp thống kê khác nhau từ những nguồn khác nhau cho ra những số liệu khác nhau. Năm 1940, theo điều tra dân số, khu vực đô thị Sài Gòn và tỉnh Chợ Lớn có tổng cộng 256.000 dân. So với các thành phố lớn trong khu vực thì khá nhỏ, như Singapore năm 1940 có 755.000 dân, Hồng Kông năm 1941 có 1,6 triệu dân, Manila hay Jakarta cũng có khoảng gần một triệu dân.
Đô thành Sài Gòn
Từ năm 1946, Sài Gòn đã là thủ đô của Cộng hòa tự trị Nam Kỳ rồi năm 1949 là thủ đô của Quốc gia Việt Nam. Đến năm 1955, Việt Nam Cộng hòa được thành lập, Sài Gòn khi đó là thành phố lớn nhất tại miền Nam Việt Nam đã được chọn làm thủ đô với tên gọi chính thức "Đô thành Sài Gòn" (lưu ý, cách viết thông dụng thời đó là "Saigon" hoặc "Sài-gòn"). Sau năm 1955, tên đường phố Sài Gòn vốn trước kia toàn là tên Pháp nay đồng loạt đổi tên tiếng Việt (trừ một số ngoại lệ). Việc này do Phòng Họa đồ thuộc Ty Kỹ thuật do Ngô Văn Phát điều hành; ông sắp xếp và chọn lựa tên các danh nhân dựa trên tầm vóc lịch sử và quy tụ gần nhau những nhân vật cùng thời kỳ có liên quan với nhau, như đường Cô Giang và Cô Bắc thì phải gần đường Nguyễn Thái Học; đường Lê Lai thì nhỏ, gần Đại lộ Lê Lợi lớn hơn. Những ý tưởng như Công lý, Tự do, Cộng hòa cũng được dùng đặt tên, tạo cho thành phố những đặc trưng mới. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
579fa6f4-6576-4d44-a800-00b3d8083393 | Khi Chiến tranh Đông Dương lan rộng thì di dân từ nông thôn lên thành thị tăng nhanh. Vào thời điểm 1948, vùng Sài Gòn dân số đã lên đến 1,179 triệu người, đến năm 1949 thì dân số khu vực đã tăng lên 1.200.000, và sang năm 1954 với hàng trăm ngàn người di cư mới (phần đông là người Công giáo, còn gọi là dân Bắc Kỳ Công giáo) từ phía bắc vĩ tuyến 17 thì dân số Sài Gòn leo cao, đạt 2.000.000. Dân di cư tập trung tại các khu vực như Xóm Mới – Gò Vấp, Bình An – Quận 8, và rải rác tại các quận khác. Với Nghị định số 110-NV ngày 27 tháng 3 năm 1959 của Tổng thống Ngô Đình Diệm, từ 6 quận, Sài Gòn được chia lại thành 8 quận với tổng cộng 41 phường.
Vào nửa cuối thập niên 1950, nhờ viện trợ đáng kể của Chính phủ Hoa Kỳ, Sài Gòn trở thành một trung tâm về chính trị, kinh tế, văn hóa, giải trí tại miền Nam Việt Nam, là thành phố lớn nhất của kinh tế Việt Nam Cộng hòa Từ giữa thập niên 1960 đến những năm đầu thập niên 1970, việc Quân đội Hoa Kỳ vào tham chiến tại miền Nam Việt Nam cũng gây nên những xáo trộn đối với thành phố. Nhiều cao ốc, công trình quân sự mọc lên. Lối sống của giới trẻ Sài Gòn cũng chịu ảnh hưởng bởi văn hóa phương Tây được du nhập từ binh lính và sách báo Mỹ.
Trung tâm thành phố có một số công trình, khu phố được xây dựng to đẹp và sang trọng, tuy nhiên, các công trình này chủ yếu do Pháp xây dựng từ thập niên 1940, các khu nhà mới rất ít được xây dựng kể từ sau năm 1950, trong khi đó dân cư nông thôn đổ về thành thị tìm việc và tránh chiến sự khiến một số khu vực ở Sài Gòn dần trở thành những khu ổ chuột khổng lồ. Khảo sát cho thấy khoảng 40% dân số khu vực Sài Gòn khi đó (tức khoảng 1,2 triệu người) phải sống tại khu ổ chuột với những điều kiện về y tế, vệ sinh rất kém
Trên tạp chí Xây dựng tháng 9/1967, tác giả Phạm Hoàng Thanh viết: "Mỗi ngày dân chúng ở quê lũ lượt kéo lên thành phố khiến dân số nơi đây gia tăng một cách kinh khủng, có nơi mật độ lên tới 28.000 người một cây số vuông. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
9942a6a7-f550-4108-93a2-3c5d3fcede3c | Người ta chen lấn giành giựt nhau từng tấc đất để xây cất. Hiện giờ ở Sài Gòn, sau những cao ốc đẹp đẽ, có ai ngờ là hàng ngàn hàng vạn ngôi nhà ván lợp tôn chèn ép nhau, tối tăm bẩn thỉu, bên cạnh những ao tù nước đọng, những đống rác thối tha ghê tởm". Để giải quyết nạn khan hiếm nhà hết sức trầm trọng ở Sài Gòn lúc đó, theo tính toán, thành phố cần xây mới 50.000 căn hộ và giải tỏa 110.000 nhà ổ chuột. Thế nhưng, trong suốt 10 năm, chỉ có 15.700 căn hộ được xây dựng.
Trong thời kỳ chiến tranh leo thang, viện trợ kinh tế dồi dào từ Mỹ đã tạo ra một khuynh hướng tiêu thụ xa xỉ "quá trớn" trong dân chúng (nhất là việc người giàu đua nhau mua xe máy, ô tô). Trong giai đoạn 1964–1969, số xe du lịch nhập khẩu đã bằng 80% số xe nhập khẩu trong suốt 10 năm trước, năm 1966, số xe gắn máy được nhập khẩu cao gấp 5 lần so với năm 1963. Nhiều người ngoại quốc tới Sài Gòn lúc đó đã đặt cho thành phố cái tên là "thành phố Honda", do có nhiều xe máy hiệu Honda được nhập khẩu. Nhìn bề ngoài thì nền kinh tế Sài Gòn đang "phát triển phồn vinh", nhưng thực ra đó chỉ là bề ngoài mang tính tạm thời và bất ổn, bởi đó là do yếu tố bên ngoài đem lại (viện trợ của Mỹ) chứ không phải nhờ khả năng sản xuất nội tại của nền kinh tế. Quan chức kinh tế chính phủ Sài Gòn cũng cảm thấy lo ngại về tình trạng này, khi nguồn ngoại tệ bị phung phí vào những mặt hàng xa xỉ chứ không được dùng để mua phương tiện sản xuất.
Tuy số lượng xe máy, xe ô tô tăng nhanh nhờ viện trợ của Mỹ từ năm 1963, nhưng nhìn chung vẫn còn khá ít xét theo tỷ lệ dân số. Đầu thập niên 1970, toàn thành phố Sài Gòn có khoảng 250.000 xe gắn máy, 800 xe buýt và khoảng 20.000 xe ô tô (trên tổng dân số 2,5 triệu), trung bình cứ 10 người dân thì mới có một xe máy. Phần lớn người dân không có phương tiện di chuyển nào khác hơn là đi bộ hoặc đi xe đạp, người nghèo từ các khu ổ chuột ngoại ô thường phải đi bộ 2 giờ để tới làm việc ở trung tâm thành phố. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
1d8be5a5-74f4-4acb-abb7-fbf9563b8803 | Khi Mỹ dần rút quân thì các phương tiện giao thông cũng xuống dốc do thiếu tiền. Đến cuối năm 1969, do Mỹ ngừng thuê lao động người Việt và giảm viện trợ, nên kinh tế Việt Nam Cộng hòa bị suy thoái, lạm phát trở nên nghiêm trọng, Chính phủ Việt Nam Cộng hòa phải ban lệnh cấm nhập khẩu xe hơi từ nước ngoài. Cuộc Khủng hoảng dầu mỏ 1973 tiếp tục giáng một đòn mạnh vào hệ thống giao thông Sài Gòn. Do giá dầu nhập khẩu tăng cao trong khi Mỹ giảm viện trợ kinh tế, xăng dầu trở nên khan hiếm, nhiều loại xe cộ phải xếp xó do chủ nhân không có đủ tiền mua xăng. Ngay cả ở Sài Gòn, số lượng người dân đi làm bằng xe đạp cũng tăng nhanh chóng từ năm 1973.
Viện trợ của Mỹ có vai trò rất quan trọng đối với nền kinh tế Sài Gòn thời kỳ này. Cơ quan Phát triển Quốc tế Hoa Kỳ (USAID) giống như một "Phủ Toàn quyền Đông Dương" có quyền lực cao hơn cả Chính phủ Sài Gòn. Nếu sức sản xuất của Sài Gòn kém, viện trợ từ Mỹ sẽ cung cấp một lượng hàng hóa nhập khẩu để tiêu thụ, nếu ngân sách bị thâm hụt thì viện trợ của Mỹ sẽ giúp bù đắp từ Quỹ đối giá. Kết quả là nền kinh tế Sài Gòn bị hàng nhập khẩu chi phối quá mức, cả những nhu yếu phẩm hàng ngày như gạo, thịt, cá cũng phải nhập khẩu. Sự sống của nền kinh tế Sài Gòn phụ thuộc chủ yếu vào nhập khẩu, mà nhập khẩu lại phụ thuộc vào viện trợ của Mỹ. Do vậy, khi nguồn viện trợ Mỹ bị cắt giảm đột ngột thì nền kinh tế của Sài Gòn cũng bị cắt nguồn sống, sức tiêu thụ cũng hết và ngân sách cũng cạn kiệt. Giáo sư Nguyễn Cao Hách – Phó Chủ tịch Hội đồng Kinh tế Xã hội của Chính phủ Sài Gòn nhận định rằng "nếu Hoa Kỳ cắt giảm viện trợ, chính phủ chỉ có thể sống được 4 tháng thôi".
Nói chung, từ năm 1963, nguồn viện trợ lớn từ Hoa Kỳ đã không giải quyết vấn đề cơ bản và cốt lõi nhất của nền kinh tế là "sự tự chủ". Trái lại, nó đã trở thành một loại ma túy nguy hại cho bản thân Sài Gòn. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
454fcf40-b642-4a9b-95d2-525007580e52 | Nó tạo ra sự ỷ lại của người dân và quan chức, nền kinh tế phụ thuộc nặng vào viện trợ và thiếu động lực để tự lực cánh sinh. Về bản chất, viện trợ mà Hoa Kỳ cho Việt Nam Cộng hòa là mấu chốt để duy trì một lãnh thổ phụ thuộc vào Mỹ thay vì xây dựng một đất nước có thể tự lực
Tới năm 1973 thì hậu quả của việc phụ thuộc quá mức vào viện trợ đã xảy đến: nền kinh tế miền Nam (trong đó có Sài Gòn) lâm vào khủng hoảng do Mỹ giảm viện trợ kinh tế. Nạn lạm phát trở nên nghiêm trọng: Năm 1970, tỷ lệ lạm phát (tính toán dựa trên chỉ số giá tiêu dùng tại Sài Gòn áp dụng cho tầng lớp lao động) đã là 36,8%. Năm 1973, tỷ lệ lạm phát tăng lên 44,5%, và năm 1974 đã vượt quá 200%. Hệ lụy và hậu quả trực tiếp của cuộc khủng hoảng kinh tế gây ảnh hưởng xấu tới Sài Gòn. Với việc Mỹ giảm viện trợ trong khi nền sản xuất nội tại thì yếu kém, nền kinh tế tiêu dùng dựa vào viện trợ của Việt Nam Cộng hòa đã không thể phát triển ổn định, bền vững
Việc rút đi của hơn nửa triệu quân Mỹ đã để lại một khoảng trống khổng lồ trong nền kinh tế: hàng tỷ đôla hàng năm trước đây được lính viễn chinh Mỹ tung vào xã hội qua các dịch vụ mua sắm ở thành phố, nay không còn nữa. Một khối lượng lớn người lao động làm việc trong các "sở Mỹ" (các văn phòng, trụ sở quân sự của Mỹ) cũng không còn việc làm. Số lượng công nhân làm ở các cơ sở của Mỹ năm 1971 là 100.000 người, đến tháng 12 năm 1972 chỉ còn lại 10.000 người, tạo ra thất nghiệp hàng loạt". Theo phúc trình của VECCO xuất bản tháng 1/1975 thì: Sài Gòn năm 1974 có 3 triệu dân thì có đến 600.000 người thất nghiệp. Chênh lệch giàu nghèo rất lớn khi thu nhập của thiểu số "tầng lớp trên" chiếm 43,5% GDP, tầng lớp dưới chỉ đạt 1,8%. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
29a856a0-76ad-40f3-bf73-3caac8c66f66 | Nhà văn đoạt giải Nobel Gabriel García Márquez đã đến thăm Việt Nam mô tả: "Dưới thời Mỹ chiếm đóng, thành phố không còn giữ được bản sắc văn hóa của mình, trở thành một thiên đường nhân tạo được bao bọc bởi quân đội và sự trợ giúp của Mỹ, của hàng tấn đồ tiếp tế. Người dân Sài Gòn cuối cùng lại tin rằng đây là cuộc sống thực của họ. Vì thế, chiến tranh kết thúc khiến họ trở nên lạc lõng và xa rời thực tế, để rồi 4 năm sau khi người Mỹ cuối cùng rút đi, họ không thể gượng dậy được."
Sau sự kiện 30 tháng 4 năm 1975, nhiều thường dân ở thành phố hoặc binh lính, sĩ quan, viên chức Việt Nam Cộng hòa và những người cộng tác với Mỹ đã ra nước ngoài định cư. Cũng trong thời gian này, ước tính 700.000 người khác được vận động đi kinh tế mới; nền văn hóa có ảnh hưởng phương Tây bị lu mờ rồi tàn lụi.
20 năm chiến tranh đã để lại cho Sài Gòn nhiều di sản nặng nề về xã hội. Theo một ước tính, thời điểm năm 1975, dân số Sài Gòn có khoảng 4 triệu người thì trong số đó đã có tới 150.000 người nghiện heroin. Thời điểm năm 1972, 500.000 người là gái mại dâm và gái quán bar, và khoảng 800.000 trẻ mồ côi lang thang trên các đường phố.
Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh
Từ 30 tháng 4 năm 1975, chế độ Việt Nam Cộng hòa bị xóa bỏ và Chính phủ Cách mạng lâm thời Cộng hòa Miền Nam Việt Nam quản lý miền Nam. Đô thành Sài Gòn, tỉnh Gia Định và 2 quận Củ Chi và Phú Hòa kế cận dưới thời Việt Nam Cộng hòa được hợp nhất thành một đơn vị hành chính gọi là thành phố Sài Gòn – Gia Định. Đầu năm 1976, Đảng bộ và Ủy ban Nhân dân thành phố bắt đầu hoạt động. Ngày 2 tháng 7 năm 1976, Quốc hội đầu tiên của nước Việt Nam thống nhất quyết định đổi tên nước thành Cộng hòa Xã hội Chủ nghĩa Việt Nam, đồng thời đổi tên thành phố Sài Gòn – Gia Định thành Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, theo tên của nhà lãnh đạo cộng sản và Chủ tịch nước Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hoà đầu tiên, Hồ Chí Minh.
Sau năm 1975, vấn đề người Hoa tại Sài Gòn trở nên trầm trọng. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
db23705a-1524-4684-a405-6b488cdb4e1c | Người Hoa treo quốc kỳ Trung Quốc và ảnh Mao Trạch Đông trong vùng Chợ Lớn, đồng thời từ chối đăng ký quốc tịch Việt Nam. Hoa kiều kiểm soát gần như toàn bộ các vị trí kinh tế quan trọng ở miền Nam từ năm 1963 đến năm 1975, và đặc biệt nắm chắc 3 lĩnh vực quan trọng: sản xuất, phân phối, và tín dụng. Đến cuối năm 1974, người Hoa kiểm soát hơn 80% các cơ sở sản xuất của các ngành công nghiệp thực phẩm, dệt may, hóa chất, luyện kim, điện...và gần như đạt được độc quyền thương mại: 100% bán buôn, hơn 50% bán lẻ, và 90% xuất nhập khẩu. Hoa kiều ở miền Nam gần như hoàn toàn kiểm soát giá cả thị trường.
Cuối năm 1976, chính quyền mới đóng cửa tất cả trường học và tòa báo của người Hoa. Năm 1978, các tư doanh bị quốc hữu hóa. Trong bối cảnh quan hệ Hà Nội – Bắc Kinh chuyển biến xấu, tâm lý bài Hoa lan rộng khắp miền Bắc Việt Nam. Chính quyền Hà Nội thúc ép nhiều gia đình gốc Hoa hồi hương về Quảng Tây..
Vấn đề Hoa kiều được Chính phủ Việt Nam xem là một thử thách đối với chủ quyền quốc gia hơn là một vấn đề nội bộ đơn giản. Các chiến dịch Cải tạo tư sản miền Nam nhằm xóa bỏ giai cấp tư sản và thực hiện công hữu hóa theo nguyên lý của chủ nghĩa xã hội được tiến hành. Nhà nước đã quốc hữu hóa các cơ sở sản xuất, xí nghiệp công quản của tầng lớp tư sản lớn bỏ lại, chủ yếu là của người Hoa. Các doanh nghiệp vừa như nhà in, xưởng thủ công, cửa hàng, cửa hiệu quy mô nhỏ buộc phải kê khai tài sản, vốn liếng trưng thu, trưng mua, tịch thu chuyển thành hợp tác xã. Nhiều chủ doanh nghiệp bị buộc tịch biên không được làm kinh doanh phải chuyển qua sản xuất nông nghiệp hoặc đi kinh tế mới. Năm 1978, Nhà nước hoàn thành căn bản cải tạo tư sản công nghiệp loại vừa và nhỏ ở miền Nam, xóa bỏ việc người Hoa kiểm soát nhiều ngành công nghiệp. Đến tháng 5 năm 1979, tất cả các xí nghiệp công quản lúc đầu ở miền Nam đều đã được chuyển thành xí nghiệp quốc doanh. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
f5db9a73-da4b-497d-a098-e58323230332 | Khó khăn về kinh tế, sự lo sợ về chiến tranh biên giới Tây Nam khiến cho nhiều người người Hoa rời thành phố. Số lượng người Hoa tại thành phố đã giảm đi hơn một nửa trong giai đoạn này.
Chính sách quản lý kinh tế quan liêu và cơ chế bao cấp của Nhà nước lên nền kinh tế (cải cách giá-lương-tiền) khiến cho kinh tế lâm vào trì trệ, lạm phát phi mã mà đỉnh điểm của nó là vào năm 1985. Khi công cuộc Đổi mới toàn diện 1986 bắt đầu, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh đứng ở vị trí tiên phong và đi đầu trong thu hút vốn, công nghệ và đầu tư nước ngoài. Sau khi Luật đầu tư nước ngoài được ban hành năm 1987, trong vòng 3 năm 1988 đến 1990, Thành phố đã cấp 88 giấy phép với tổng số vốn đầu tư là 976 triệu USD. Cơ cấu ngành công nghiệp bắt đầu chuyển dịch từ sản xuất công nghiệp nặng sang các ngành công nghiệp nhẹ, hàng tiêu dùng định hướng xuất khẩu. Với sự phát triển mạnh mẽ về hạ tầng và cởi trói về cơ chế thương mại, mậu dịch, Thành phố ngày càng khẳng định là đi đầu kinh tế của Việt Nam và đạt nhiều chỉ số và thành tựu phát triển kinh tế khá ấn tượng. Đến cuối năm 2018, GDP bình quân đầu người của Thành phố ước đạt hơn 6000 USD/người, cao gấp gần 2.5 lần so với mức trung bình cả nước. Nếu như năm 2000, Thành phố đóng góp khoảng 19% GDP cả nước thì đến năm 2014, thành phố đã chiếm 30% GDP của cả nước. Tuy nhiên tỷ lệ ngân sách được giữ lại của Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh là thấp, năm 2000 tỷ lệ ngân sách được giữ lại là 33% nhưng giảm xuống còn 18% trong giai đoạn 2017-2020. Đây là một trong những lý do khiến tốc độ tăng trưởng kinh tế của thành phố so với bình quân cả nước đang giảm. Trong giai đoạn 2001-2010 tốc độ này bằng 1,6 lần cả nước, thì đến giai đoạn 2011-2019 chỉ bằng 1,2 lần. Về cán cân thu - chi, năm 2017 TP HCM bội chi 2.900 tỷ đồng; năm 2018 bội chi hơn 4.880 tỷ đồng; 2019 bội chi gần 3.560 tỷ đồng. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
5f32f5b9-4df6-4b76-9ea4-cb006ab4f07f | Vì thế, Trung ương luôn phải cấp thêm từ nguồn ngân sách để bù đắp cho các khoản chi của thành phố
Đến cuối những năm 2000, thành phố bước vào công cuộc đổi mới cơ bản về hạ tầng giao thông vận tải, tiến hành xây dựng và khai trương nhiều công trình trọng điểm như Đại lộ Nguyễn Văn Linh, Đại lộ Đông Tây, cầu Phú Mỹ. Nhiều cảng biển quốc tế được khánh thành và nhiều đường cao tốc được xây dựng nối Thành phố với các tỉnh thành lân cận tạo thuận lợi cho thông thương hàng hóa và phát triển giao thương ngày càng lớn cho thành phố.
Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh hiện nay có diện tích rộng 2.095 km², lớn hơn gấp 30 lần so với đô thị Sài Gòn trước năm 1975 (67,5 km²). Trong đó, tính riêng diện tích khu đô thị là 820 km² (năm 2010), lớn gấp 33 lần so với trước năm 1975 (rộng 25 km²). Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh ngày nay bao gồm toàn bộ đô thành Sài Gòn cũ, cộng thêm toàn bộ tỉnh Gia Định, quận Phú Hòa của tỉnh Bình Dương và quận Củ Chi của tỉnh Hậu Nghĩa cũ (hợp nhất thành huyện Củ Chi).
Theo đà phát triển của kinh tế, lượng người nhập cư đổ vào thành phố cũng ngày càng tăng. Về dân số, tháng 4 năm 2014, toàn Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh có 7,95 triệu dân (trong đó khoảng 6,7 triệu dân sống ở khu đô thị), như vậy là đã tăng 3,2 lần so với mức 2,5 triệu dân của đô thị Sài Gòn ở thời điểm tháng 4 năm 1975. Năm 2017, nếu tính cả người cư trú không đăng ký thì dân số toàn thành phố đã đạt đến 13 triệu người, tăng gấp 5,2 lần so với thời điểm tháng 4 năm 1975. Thống kê giữa năm 2017 cho thấy thành phố có tới gần 7,6 triệu xe máy (chiếm 1/3 lượng xe máy cả nước) và khoảng 700.000 xe ôtô. Như vậy, số xe máy lưu thông trong thành phố đã tăng gấp 30 lần, số xe ô tô đã tăng gấp 35 lần so với giai đoạn trước năm 1975.
Với tổng diện tích 2.096 km² và hơn 9 triệu dân (số liệu 2021), Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh là đô thị lớn thứ 2 Việt Nam về diện tích (sau Hà Nội) và lớn nhất về dân số. 11 quận nội thành của Sài Gòn trước đây được chia lại thành 8 quận. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
7877295d-9e81-42ae-a4ea-9b061c055c99 | 4 quận Gò Vấp, Phú Nhuận, Bình Thạnh, Tân Bình được thành lập. Khu vực ngoại thành gồm 5 huyện: Thủ Đức, Hóc Môn, Củ Chi, Bình Chánh, Nhà Bè. Năm 1978, thành phố nhận thêm huyện Duyên Hải của tỉnh Đồng Nai. Năm 1979, các đơn vị hành chính cơ sở được phân chia lại, toàn thành phố có 261 phường, 86 xã. Sau đợt điều chỉnh tiếp theo vào năm 1989, thành phố còn 182 phường và 100 xã, thị trấn. Đến năm 1997, phân chia hành chính của thành phố lại thay đổi, gồm 17 quận, 5 huyện với 303 phường xã, thị trấn. Năm 2004, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh gồm 19 quận nội thành và 5 huyện ngoại thành với 322 phường, xã và thị trấn.. Hiện nay, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh gồm 16 quận, 1 thành phố và 5 huyện với 312 phường, xã, thị trấn.
Ngày 24 tháng 11 năm 2017, Quốc hội Việt Nam ra Nghị quyết về thí điểm cơ chế, chính sách đặc thù phát triển Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, trong đó tăng thêm quyền hạn cho chính quyền thành phố trong việc quản lý đất đai, quản lý đầu tư, quản lý tài chính – ngân sách nhà nước. Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh sẽ có nhiều quyền hạn hơn trong việc quyết định chuyển đổi mục đích sử dụng đất, phê duyệt đầu tư công; có thêm những nguồn thu mới, có thể được giữ lại ngân sách nhiều hơn và được hưởng một phần số thu từ cổ phần hóa của các doanh nghiệp nhà nước do Ủy ban nhân dân Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh quản lý hoặc đại diện sở hữu, được chủ động vay vốn bằng các hình thức khác nhau. Ngoài ra, chính quyền thành phố các cấp còn được chủ động phân quyền cho chính quyền cấp dưới; quyết định mức thu nhập bình quân tăng thêm cho cán bộ, công chức, viên chức, chuyên gia thuộc thành phố quản lý.
Địa lý
Vị trí địa lý
Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh có toạ độ 10°10' – 10°38' Bắc và 106°22' – 106°54' Đông.
Phía bắc giáp tỉnh Bình Dương.
Phía tây giáp tỉnh Tây Ninh và tỉnh Long An
Phía đông giáp tỉnh Đồng Nai và Bà Rịa – Vũng Tàu.
Phía nam giáp Biển Đông và tỉnh Tiền Giang. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
6683be00-43d4-46f9-a56c-fe933d504c5a | Phía nam giáp Biển Đông và tỉnh Tiền Giang.
Nằm ở phía Nam, thuộc miền Đông Nam Bộ, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh cách Hà Nội 1.730 km theo đường bộ, trung tâm thành phố cách bờ biển Đông 50 km theo đường chim bay. Với vị trí tâm điểm của khu vực Đông Nam Á, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh là một đầu mối giao thông quan trọng về cả đường bộ, đường thủy và đường không, nối liền các tỉnh trong vùng và còn là một cửa ngõ quốc tế.
Nằm trong vùng chuyển tiếp giữa miền Đông Nam Bộ và Đồng bằng sông Cửu Long, địa hình thành phố thấp dần từ Bắc xuống Nam và từ Tây sang Đông. Vùng cao nằm ở phía bắc – Đông Bắc và một phần Tây Bắc, trung bình 10 đến 25 mét. Xen kẽ có một số gò đồi, cao nhất lên tới 32 mét như đồi Long Bình ở Thủ Đức. Ngược lại, vùng trũng nằm ở phía nam – tây nam và đông nam thành phố, có độ cao trung bình trên dưới một mét, nơi thấp nhất 0,5 mét. Các khu vực trung tâm, một phần thành phố Thủ Đức, toàn bộ huyện Hóc Môn và Quận 12 có độ cao trung bình, khoảng 5 tới 10 mét.
Các điểm cực của thành phố Hồ Chí Minh:
Điểm cực Bắc tại: xã Phú Mỹ Hưng, huyện Củ Chi.
Điểm cực Tây tại: xã Thái Mỹ, huyện Củ Chi.
Điểm cực Nam tại: xã Long Hòa, huyện Cần Giờ.
Điểm cực Đông tại: xã Thạnh An, huyện Cần Giờ.
Điều kiện tự nhiên
Địa chất, thủy văn
Địa chất Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh bao gồm chủ yếu là hai tướng trầm tích Pleistocen và Holocen lộ ra trên bề mặt. Trầm tích Pleistocen chiếm hầu hết phần phía Bắc, Tây Bắc và Đông Bắc thành phố. Dưới tác động của các yếu tố tự nhiên và hoạt động của con người, trầm tích phù sa cổ hình thành nhóm đất đặc trưng riêng: đất xám. Với hơn 45 ngàn hecta, tức khoảng 23,4% diện tích thành phố, đất xám ở Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh có ba loại: đất xám cao, đất xám có tầng loang lổ đỏ vàng và hiếm hơn là đất xám gley. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
3d386e5d-ad6b-4b1d-93dc-6f66b99d6be6 | Trầm tích Holocen ở Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh có nhiều nguồn gốc: biển, vũng vịnh, sông biển, bãi bồi... hình thành nhiều loại đất khác nhau: nhóm đất phù sa biển với 15.100 ha, nhóm đất phèn với 40.800 ha và đất phèn mặn với 45.500 ha. Ngoài ra còn có một diện tích khoảng hơn 400 ha là "giồng" cát gần biển và đất feralite vàng nâu bị xói mòn trơ sỏi đá ở vùng đồi gò.
Về thủy văn, nằm ở vùng hạ lưu hệ thống sông Đồng Nai – Sài Gòn, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh có mạng lưới sông ngòi, kênh rạch rất đa dạng. Sông Đồng Nai bắt nguồn từ cao nguyên Lâm Viên, hợp lưu bởi nhiều sông khác, có lưu vực lớn, khoảng 45.000 km². Với lưu lượng bình quân 20–500 m³/s, hàng năm cung cấp 15 tỷ m³ nước, sông Đồng Nai trở thành nguồn nước ngọt chính của thành phố. Sông Sài Gòn bắt nguồn từ vùng Hớn Quản, chảy qua Thủ Dầu Một đến Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, với chiều dài 200 km và chảy dọc trên địa phận thành phố dài 80 km. Sông Sài Gòn có lưu lượng trung bình vào khoảng 54 m³/s, bề rộng tại thành phố khoảng 225 m đến 370 m, độ sâu tới 20 m. Nhờ hệ thống kênh Rạch Chiếc, hai con sông Đồng Nai và Sài Gòn nối thông ở phần nội thành mở rộng. Một con sông nữa của Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh là sông Nhà Bè, hình thành ở nơi hợp lưu hai sông Đồng Nai và Sài Gòn, chảy ra biển Đông bởi hai ngả chính Soài Rạp và Gành Rái. Trong đó, ngả Gành Rái chính là đường thủy chính cho tàu ra vào bến cảng Sài Gòn. Ngoài các con sông chính, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh còn có một hệ thống kênh rạch chằng chịt: Láng The, Bàu Nông, rạch Tra, Bến Cát, An Hạ, Tham Lương, Cầu Bông, Nhiêu Lộc –Thị Nghè, Bến Nghé, Tàu Hủ, Kênh Tẻ, Kênh Đôi,... Hệ thống sông, kênh rạch giúp Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh trong việc tưới tiêu, nhưng do chịu ảnh hưởng dao động triều bán nhật của biển Đông, thủy triều thâm nhập sâu đã gây nên những tác động xấu tới sản xuất nông nghiệp và hạn chế việc tiêu thoát nước ở khu vực nội thành. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
eadaa01a-73fe-475a-a067-2e497955aeda | Nhờ trầm tích Pleistocen, khu vực phía bắc Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh có được lượng nước ngầm khá phong phú. Nhưng về phía nam, trên trầm tích Holocen, nước ngầm thường bị nhiễm phèn, nhiễm mặn. Khu vực nội thành cũ có lượng nước ngầm đáng kể, tuy chất lượng không thực sự tốt, vẫn được khai thác chủ yếu ở ba tầng: 0–20 m, 60–90 m và 170–200 m (tầng trầm tích Miocen). Tại Quận 12, huyện Hóc Môn và huyện Củ Chi, chất lượng nước tốt, trữ lượng dồi dào, thường được khai thác ở tầng 60–90 m, trở thành nguồn nước bổ sung quan trọng.
Khí hậu
Nằm trong vùng nhiệt đới xavan, cũng như một số tỉnh Nam Bộ khác, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh không có bốn mùa: xuân, hạ, thu, đông. Nhiệt độ cao đều và mưa quanh năm (mùa khô ít mưa). Trong năm, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh có 2 mùa là biến thể của mùa hè: mùa mưa – khô rõ rệt. Mùa mưa được bắt đầu từ tháng 5 tới tháng 11 (khí hậu nóng ẩm, nhiệt độ cao mưa nhiều), còn mùa khô từ tháng 12 tới tháng 4 năm sau (khí hậu khô, nhiệt độ cao và mưa ít). Trung bình, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh có 160 tới 270 giờ nắng/tháng, nhiệt độ trung bình 27 °C, cao nhất lên tới 40 °C, thấp nhất xuống 13,8 °C. Hàng năm, thành phố có 330 ngày nhiệt độ trung bình 25 tới 28 °C. Lượng mưa trung bình của thành phố đạt 1.949 mm/năm, trong đó năm 1908 đạt cao nhất 2.718 mm, thấp nhất xuống 1.392 mm vào năm 1958. Một năm, ở thành phố có trung bình 159 ngày mưa, tập trung nhiều nhất vào các tháng từ 5 tới 11, chiếm khoảng 90%, đặc biệt hai tháng 6 và 9. Trên phạm vi không gian thành phố, lượng mưa phân bố không đều, khuynh hướng tăng theo trục Tây Nam – Đông Bắc. Các quận nội thành và các huyện phía bắc có lượng mưa cao hơn khu vực còn lại.
Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh chịu ảnh hưởng bởi hai hướng gió chính là gió mùa Tây – Tây Nam và Bắc – Đông Bắc. Gió Tây – Tây Nam từ Ấn Độ Dương, tốc độ trung bình 3,6 m/s, vào mùa mưa. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
ac8be5ab-6a71-49c3-8ea1-af0ee42dc735 | Gió Gió Bắc – Đông Bắc từ biển Đông, tốc độ trung bình 2,4 m/s, vào mùa khô. Ngoài ra còn có gió mậu dịch theo hướng Nam – Đông Nam vào khoảng tháng 3 tới tháng 5, trung bình 3,7 m/s. Có thể nói Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh thuộc vùng không có gió bão. Cũng như lượng mưa, độ ẩm không khí ở thành phố lên cao vào mùa mưa (80%), và xuống thấp vào mùa khô (74,5%). Bình quân độ ẩm không khí đạt 79,5%/năm.
Với những biến đổi khí hậu, Sài Gòn thuộc danh sách 10 thành phố trên thế giới bị đe dọa vì nguy cơ mực nước biển dâng cao. Theo dự tính của Liên Hợp Quốc thì đến năm 2050 nước biển sẽ dâng 26 cm và 70% khu đô thị Sài Gòn sẽ bị ngập lụt. Ngân hàng Phát triển Á châu ước lượng hậu quả là thiệt hại kinh tế lên đến hàng tỷ USD.
Môi trường
Với tốc độ gia tăng dân số quá nhanh, cơ sở hạ tầng chưa kịp quy hoạch nâng cấp tổng thể, ý thức một số người dân lại quá kém trong nhận thức và bảo vệ môi trường chung,... Vì vậy, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh hiện nay đang phải đối mặt với vấn đề ô nhiễm môi trường rất lớn. Hiện trạng nước thải không được xử lý đổ thẳng vào hệ thống sông ngòi còn rất phổ biến. Nhiều cơ sở sản xuất, bệnh viện và cơ sở y tế chưa có hệ thống xử lý nước thải là một thực trạng đáng báo động.
Tình trạng ngập lụt trong trung tâm thành phố đang ở mức báo động cao, xảy ra cả trong mùa khô. Diện tích khu vực ngập lụt khoảng 140 km² với 85% điểm ngập nước nằm ở khu vực trung tâm thành phố. Thiệt hại do ngập nước gây ra ước tính 8 tỷ đồng mỗi năm. Nguyên nhân là do hệ thống cống thoát nước được xây cách đây 50 năm đã xuống cấp. Ngoài ra, việc xây dựng các khu công nghiệp và đô thị ở khu vực phía nam – khu vực thoát nước của thành phố này đã làm cho tình hình ngập càng nghiêm trọng hơn. Việc thoát nước ở Sài Gòn vốn dựa vào hệ thống sông và kênh, rạch tự nhiên nhưng khoảng 30% diện tích kênh rạch đã bị chính quyền thành phố ra lệnh lấp. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
cb88adce-def3-4944-9d52-47805b0c7b5a | Theo một nghiên cứu của Viện Khoa học Thủy lợi miền Nam thì chỉ trong 12 năm từ 1996 đến 2008, tại Sài Gòn đã có hơn 100 kênh, rạch với tổng diện tích khoảng 4000 hecta bị người dân lấp và bị lấn chiếm. Thậm chí, các con kênh thoát nước cho sân bay quốc tế Tân Sơn Nhất cũng bị lấn chiếm với nhiều hình thức, các hộ dân xây lấn ra làm hẹp lòng mương, cùng với việc xả rác thải vào đó nên lưu lượng các con kênh này bị giảm đi Ngoài ra, sai lầm của chính quyền trong việc quy hoạch cũng khiến cho tình trạng ngập lụt Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh trở nên nghiêm trọng.
Trước những bức xúc về thực trạng môi trường, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh đang khẩn trương tìm mọi cách nâng cao chất lượng cuộc sống của người dân trên địa bàn. Việc trích ra một nguồn vốn lớn nhiều tỷ đồng đầu tư xây dựng hồ sinh học cải tạo nước kênh Ba Bò là một ví dụ. Từ 2017 tới 2025, thành phố đặt mục tiêu giải tỏa di dời 28.500 căn nhà và tổ chức lại cuộc sống của người dân đang sống ven kênh, rạch để làm thông thoáng các kênh thoát nước này.
Mật độ cây xanh của thành phố chỉ khoảng 1–2 m²/người, thuộc hàng rất thấp so với các thành phố trên thế giới (Stockholm trên 70 m²/người). Việc thiếu cây xanh đã gây ảnh hưởng đến chất lượng không khí của thành phố.
Tổ chức hành chính và chính quyền
Tổ chức hành chính
Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh hiện nay là một trong 5 thành phố trực thuộc Trung ương của Việt Nam. Về mặt hành chính, thành phố được chia thành 16 quận, 1 thành phố và 5 huyện; trong đó có 312 đơn vị hành chính cấp xã, bao gồm 249 phường, 58 xã và 5 thị trấn.
Vào năm 1995, hệ thống quản lý hành chính nhà nước trên địa bàn Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh có 976 địa chỉ, trong đó 47 thuộc trung ương, 73 thuộc thành phố, 549 thuộc các quận, huyện và 307 thuộc cấp phường xã. Các tổ chức đoàn thể, chính trị bao gồm cấp trung ương và thành phố có 291 địa chỉ, các đơn vị sự nghiệp có 2.719 địa chỉ.
Đảng bộ và chính quyền
Chính quyền thành phố bao gồm Hội đồng Nhân dân, Ủy ban Nhân dân và Tòa án Nhân dân. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
bd670780-76a7-4cfc-8598-91c9fae83bbc | Hội đồng Nhân dân thành phố, với các đại biểu được bầu cử trực tiếp nhiệm kỳ 5 năm, có quyền quyết định các kế hoạch phát triển dài hạn về kinh tế, văn hóa, giáo dục,... của thành phố. Đứng đầu HĐND gồm một Chủ tịch, một Phó Chủ tịch và một Ủy viên thường trực. HĐND chịu sự giám sát và hướng dẫn hoạt động của Ủy ban Thường vụ Quốc hội, chịu sự hướng dẫn và kiểm tra của Chính phủ trong việc thực hiện các văn bản của cơ quan nhà nước cấp trên theo quy định của Ủy ban Thường vụ Quốc hội. Hội đồng nhân dân Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh nhiệm kỳ khóa X (2021-2026) gồm 94 đại biểu. Chủ tịch HĐND Thành phố hiện tại là bà Nguyễn Thị Lệ.
Hội đồng Nhân dân thành phố bầu ra Ủy ban Nhân dân thành phố, cơ quan trực tiếp chịu trách nhiệm quản lý về mọi hoạt động chính trị, an ninh, kinh tế và văn hóa trên địa bàn thành phố. Đứng đầu Ủy ban Nhân dân gồm một Chủ tịch và các Phó Chủ tịch. Các sở, ngành của Ủy ban Nhân dân sẽ quản lý về các lĩnh vực cụ thể, như y tế, giáo dục, đầu tư, tư pháp, tài chính,... Tương tự, cấp quận, huyện cũng có Hội đồng Nhân dân và Ủy ban Nhân dân chịu sự chỉ đạo chung của cấp thành phố. Ngoài ra, Ủy ban Nhân dân còn quản lý một số tổng công ty trên địa bàn thành phố. UBND Thành phố nhiệm kỳ khóa X (2021–2026) được HĐND Thành phố nhiệm kỳ 2021–2026 bầu ra gồm 24 thành viên và bầu ông Nguyễn Thành Phong làm Chủ tịch UBND Thành phố. Tuy nhiên cuối tháng 8/2021, ông Nguyễn Thành Phong đã được Bộ Chính trị điều động giữ chức Phó Trưởng Ban Kinh tế Trung ương. HĐND Thành phố sau đó cũng đã tiến hành biểu quyết miễn nhiệm chức vụ Chủ tịch UBND thành phố của ông và bầu mới Chủ tịch UBND TP (nhiệm kỳ 2021–2026) đương nhiệm là ông Phan Văn Mãi.
Tòa án nhân dân Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh bao gồm hai cấp: Tòa án nhân dân Thành phố và 22 Tòa án nhân dân cấp huyện. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
9e34680f-0952-4690-8425-54b5ac5fa6d8 | Tại cấp thành phố có 5 tòa chuyên trách: Tòa Hình sự, Tòa Dân sự, Tòa Kinh tế, Tòa Hành chính và Tòa Lao động. Hiện tại Việt Nam thực hiện hệ thống tòa án hai cấp, có nghĩa là tòa án nhân dân cấp huyện có thẩm quyền xét xử sơ thẩm những vụ án trong phạm vi quyền hạn của mình. Còn Tòa án nhân dân Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh cũng có thẩm quyền xét xử sơ thẩm, đồng thời có thể phụ trách xét xử phúc thẩm các vụ án mà tòa cấp dưới đã tuyên nhưng bản án bị kháng cáo, kháng nghị. Chánh án TAND Thành phố hiện nay là ông Lê Thanh Phong.
Về phía Đảng ủy, Ban Chấp hành Đảng bộ Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh (hay thường gọi là Thành ủy Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh) là cơ quan lãnh đạo cao nhất của Đảng bộ Thành phố. Thành ủy Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh khóa XI nhiệm kỳ 2020–2025 gồm 62 ủy viên chính thức, bầu ra Ban Thường vụ gồm 16 ủy viên. Cùng với Hà Nội, đứng đầu Đảng ủy Thành phố là Bí thư Thành ủy của thành phố và phải là một đảng viên do Bộ Chính trị chỉ định chứ không do Thành ủy bầu ra, thường là một thành viên của cơ quan này. Bí thư Thành ủy Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh hiện tại là ông Nguyễn Văn Nên.
Ủy ban Mặt trận Tổ quốc Thành phố nhiệm kỳ 10 (2014–2019) gồm 140 ủy viên, bầu ra Ban Thường trực UBMTTQ Thành phố gồm 13 ủy viên. Chủ tịch UBMTTQ đương nhiệm là bà Tô Thị Bích Châu, Ủy viên Ban Thường vụ Thành ủy (được bầu ngày 22/2/2017 thay thế ông Nguyễn Hoàng Năng do được điều động thuyên chuyển công tác).
Kinh tế
Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh giữ vai trò đi đầu trong nền kinh tế Việt Nam. Thành phố chiếm 0,6% diện tích và 8,34% dân số của Việt Nam nhưng chiếm tới 20,5% tổng sản phẩm GDP, 27,9% giá trị sản xuất công nghiệp và 37,9% dự án nước ngoài. Vào năm 2005, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh có 2.966.400 lao động có độ tuổi từ 15 trở lên, trong đó 139 ngàn người ngoài độ tuổi lao động nhưng vẫn đang tham gia làm việc. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
ff6e87db-8dea-4bfd-a16c-6b751d366d9d | Năm 2008, lực lượng lao động có độ tuổi từ 15 trở lên trên địa bàn thành phố gồm có 3.856.500 người, năm 2009 là 3.868.500 người, năm 2010 đạt 3.909.100 người, đến 2011 con số này đạt 4.000.900 người. Tính chung trong 9 tháng đầu năm 2012, GRDP đạt 404.720 tỷ đồng, tăng khoảng 8,7%. Năm 2021, GRDP đã đạt mức 1.298.791 tỉ đồng (tương ứng 56,47 tỉ USD), trong đó khu vực thương mại dịch vụ đạt khoảng 63,4%, khu vực công nghiệp và xây dựng đạt 22,4%, khu vực nông-lâm-thủy sản chỉ chiếm 0,6%. GRDP bình quân đầu người năm 2021 đạt 142,6 triệu đồng (tương đương 6.173 USD). Thu ngân sách năm 2012 ước đạt 215.975 tỉ đồng, đến năm 2021 đã tăng lên là 383.703 tỉ đồng. Trong đó, thu nội địa năm 2021 đạt 253.281 tỷ đồng, vượt 2% dự toán; thu từ hoạt động xuất nhập khẩu đạt 116.400 tỉ đồng, vượt 7% dự toán.
Năm 2013, Ủy ban nhân dân Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh đã trình Hội đồng nhân dân Thành phố 29 chỉ tiêu về kinh tế và xã hội trong năm 2013, đặt mục tiêu thu nhập bình quân đầu người năm 2013. Trong đó có một số chỉ tiêu kinh tế gồm có GDP bình quân đầu người đạt khoảng 4.000 USD/người/năm, tổng sản phẩm trong nước (GDP) dự kiến tăng 9,5-10%, tốc độ kim ngạch xuất khẩu là 13%, tổng vốn đầu tư phát triển toàn xã hội dự kiến khoảng 248.500-255.000 tỷ đồng, bằng 36-37% GDP, chỉ số giá tiêu dùng thấp hơn tốc độ tăng của cả nước.
Nền kinh tế của Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh đa dạng về lĩnh vực, từ khai thác mỏ, thủy sản, nông nghiệp, công nghiệp chế biến, xây dựng đến du lịch, tài chính... Cơ cấu kinh tế của thành phố, khu vực nhà nước chiếm 33,3%, ngoài quốc doanh chiếm 44,6%, phần còn lại là khu vực có vốn đầu tư nước ngoài. Về các ngành kinh tế, dịch vụ chiếm tỷ trọng cao nhất: 51,1%. Phần còn lại, công nghiệp và xây dựng chiếm 47,7%, nông nghiệp, lâm nghiệp và thủy sản chỉ chiếm 1,2%. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |
8b79fc7c-3496-4729-a557-0a6e9296c4fc | Ngành công nghiệp thành phố hiện đang hướng tới các lĩnh vực công nghệ cao, đem lại hiệu quả kinh tế hơn.
Tính đến giữa năm 2006, 3 khu chế xuất và 12 khu công nghiệp Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh đã thu hút được 1.092 dự án đầu tư, trong đó có 452 dự án có vốn đầu tư nước ngoài với tổng vốn đầu tư hơn 1,9 tỉ USD và 19,5 ngàn tỉ VND. Thành phố cũng đứng đầu Việt Nam tổng lượng vốn đầu tư trực tiếp nước ngoài với 2.530 dự án FDI, tổng vốn 16,6 tỷ USD vào cuối năm 2007. Riêng trong năm 2007, thành phố thu hút hơn 400 dự án với gần 3 tỷ USD. Trong bảng xếp hạng về Chỉ số năng lực cạnh tranh cấp tỉnh của Việt Nam năm 2017, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh xếp ở vị trí thứ 8/63 tỉnh thành.
Về thương mại, Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh có một hệ thống trung tâm mua sắm, siêu thị, chợ đa dạng. Chợ Bến Thành là biểu tượng về giao lưu thương mại từ xa xưa của thành phố, hiện nay vẫn giữ một vai trò quan trọng. Những thập niên gần đây, nhiều trung tâm thương mại hiện đại xuất hiện như Saigon Trade Centre, Diamond Plaza... Mức tiêu thụ của Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh cũng cao hơn nhiều so với các tỉnh khác của Việt Nam và gấp 1,5 lần thủ đô Hà Nội. Sở Giao dịch Chứng khoán Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh, có mã giao dịch là VN-Index, được thành lập vào tháng 7 năm 1998. Tính đến ngày 31 tháng 12 năm 2007, toàn thị trường đã có 507 loại chứng khoán được niêm yết, trong đó có 138 cổ phiếu với tổng giá trị vốn hóa đạt 365 ngàn tỷ đồng.
Tuy vậy, nền kinh tế của Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh vẫn phải đối mặt với nhiều khó khăn. Toàn thành phố chỉ có 10% cơ sở công nghiệp có trình độ công nghệ hiện đại. Trong đó, có 21/212 cơ sở ngành dệt may, 4/40 cơ sở ngành da giày, 6/68 cơ sở ngành hóa chất, 14/144 cơ sở chế biến thực phẩm, 18/96 cơ sở cao su nhựa, 5/46 cơ sở chế tạo máy,... có trình độ công nghệ, kỹ thuật sản xuất tiên tiến. Cơ sở hạ tầng của thành phố lạc hậu, quá tải, chỉ giá tiêu dùng cao, tệ nạn xã hội, hành chính phức tạp... cũng gây khó khăn cho nền kinh tế. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Th%C3%A0nh%20ph%E1%BB%91%20H%E1%BB%93%20Ch%C3%AD%20Minh | Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh |