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6a6599c5-857b-4f83-8500-aa4d88dc5b1b | Internet Society hay ISOC là một tổ chức quốc tế hoạt động phi lợi nhuận, phi chính phủ và bao gồm các thành viên có trình độ chuyên ngành. Tổ chức này chú trọng đến: tiêu chuẩn, giáo dục và các vấn đề về chính sách. Với trên 145 tổ chức thành viên và 65.000 thành viên cá nhân, ISOC bao gồm những con người cụ thể trong cộng đồng Internet. Mọi chi tiết có thể tìm thấy tại website của ISOC.
Internet Society nằm ở gần thủ đô Washington, DC, Hoa Kỳ và Geneva, Thụy Sĩ. Số hội viên của nó bao gồm hơn 145 tổ chức thành viên và hơn 65.000 cá nhân. Thành viên còn có thể tự lập một chi nhánh của tổ chức tùy theo vị trí hoặc sở thích. Hiện nay tổ chức có tới 90 chi nhánh trên toàn thế giới.
Nhiệm vụ và mục đích hoạt động
Bảo đảm, cổ vũ cho sự phát triển, mở rộng và sử dụng Internet được thuận lợi nhất cho mọi người trên toàn thế giới.
Xem thêm
Lịch sử Internet
Tham khảo
Liên kết ngoài
ISOC Việt Nam
IETF and the Internet Society - Về Internet Engineering Task Force và ISOC, bài của Vint Cerf 18/7/1995
L’Association Internationale de Lutte Contre la Cybercriminalité bản lưu
Public Interest Registry
Internet
Tổ chức quốc tế
Tổ chức phi lợi nhuận
Tiêu chuẩn Internet
Khởi đầu năm 1992
Quản lý Internet | [
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711c0901-512f-4336-9021-e830f6ffa64c | Tiếng Việt, cũng gọi là tiếng Việt Nam hay Việt ngữ là ngôn ngữ của người Việt và là ngôn ngữ chính thức tại Việt Nam. Đây là tiếng mẹ đẻ của khoảng 85% dân cư Việt Nam cùng với hơn 4 triệu người Việt kiều. Tiếng Việt còn là ngôn ngữ thứ hai của các dân tộc thiểu số tại Việt Nam và là ngôn ngữ dân tộc thiểu số được công nhận tại Cộng hòa Séc.
Dựa trên từ vựng cơ bản, tiếng Việt được phân loại là một ngôn ngữ thuộc ngữ hệ Nam Á. Tiếng Việt là ngôn ngữ có nhiều người nói nhất trong ngữ hệ này (nhiều hơn tổng số người nói của tất cả các ngôn ngữ còn lại trong ngữ hệ). Vì Việt Nam thuộc Vùng văn hoá Đông Á, tiếng Việt cũng chịu nhiều ảnh hưởng về từ tiếng Hán, do vậy là ngôn ngữ có ít điểm tương đồng nhất với các ngôn ngữ khác trong ngữ hệ Nam Á.
Lịch sử
Theo A. G. Haudricourt giải thích từ năm 1954, nhóm ngôn ngữ Việt-Mường ở thời kỳ khoảng đầu Công nguyên là những ngôn ngữ hay phương ngữ không thanh điệu. Về sau, qua quá trình giao thoa với Hoa ngữ và nhất là với các ngữ thuộc ngữ hệ Tai-Kadai vốn có hệ thống thanh điệu phát triển cao hơn, hệ thống thanh điệu trong tiếng Việt xuất hiện và có diện mạo như ngày nay, theo quy luật hình thành thanh điệu. Sự xuất hiện các thanh điệu, bắt đầu khoảng thế kỷ thứ VI (thời kỳ Bắc thuộc trong lịch sử Việt Nam) với 3 thanh điệu và phát triển thêm vào khoảng thế kỷ XII (nhà Lý) với 6 thanh điệu. Sau đó một số phụ âm đầu biến đổi cho tới ngày nay. Trong quá trình biến đổi, các phụ âm cuối rụng đi làm thay đổi các kết thúc âm tiết và phụ âm đầu chuyển từ lẫn lộn vô thanh với hữu thanh sang tách biệt.
Ví dụ của A.G. Haudricourt.
Trước thời Pháp thuộc
Tiếng Việt là ngôn ngữ dùng trong sinh hoạt giao tiếp của dân thường từ khi lập nước. Giai đoạn từ đầu Công nguyên, tiếng Việt có những âm không có trong tiếng Trung. Từ khi tiếng Trung có ảnh hưởng tới Việt Nam thông qua các con đường và bao gồm các giai đoạn khác nhau, tiếng Việt bắt đầu có những âm vay mượn từ tiếng Trung. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
3266f2e4-47f6-42bf-94da-5e591c8c608e | Các tác giả Mai Ngọc Chừ, Vũ Đức Nghiệu và Hoàng Trọng Phiến trong cuốn sách Cơ sở ngôn ngữ học và tiếng Việt chia quá trình tiếp xúc Hán – Việt thành 2 giai đoạn chính:
Giai đoạn từ đầu Công nguyên đến đầu thời nhà Đường (đầu thế kỷ VIII), từ vựng tiếng Hán ảnh hưởng tới tiếng Việt trong giai đoạn này gọi là từ Hán cổ;
Giai đoạn từ thời nhà Đường (thế kỷ VIII – thế kỷ X) trở về sau, từ vựng tiếng Hán ảnh hưởng tới tiếng Việt trong giai đoạn này gọi là từ Hán Việt.
Từ Hán cổ và từ Hán Việt gọi chung là từ gốc Hán.
1 số từ ngữ Hán cổ có thể kể đến như "đầu", "gan", "ghế", "ông", "bà", "cô", "chè", "ngà", "chén", "chém", "chìm", "buồng", "buồn", "buồm", "mùi", "mùa"... Từ Hán cổ là những từ gốc Hán du nhập vào tiếng Việt từ lâu hơn, đã đồng hoá mạnh hơn, nên những từ này hiện nay là từ thông thường trong hoạt động xã hội đối với người Việt.
Hệ thống từ Hán Việt trong tiếng Việt bằng cách đọc các chữ Hán theo ngữ âm hiện có của tiếng Việt (tương tự như người Nhật Bản áp dụng kanji đối với chữ Hán và katakana với các tiếng nước ngoài khác). Hiện nay có 1945 chữ Hán thông dụng trong tiếng Nhật, cũng có khoảng 2000 từ Hán–Hàn thông dụng. Số lượng từ vựng tiếng Việt có thêm hàng loạt các yếu tố Hán–Việt. | [
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a30970a7-4051-4138-9863-6ed1373069ed | Như là "chủ", "ở", "tâm", "minh", "đức", "thiên", "tự do",... giữ nguyên nghĩa chỉ khác cách đọc; hay thay đổi vị trí như "nhiệt náo" thành "náo nhiệt", "thích phóng" thành "phóng thích", "đảm bảo" thành "bảo đảm"...; hoặc rút gọn như "thừa trần" thành "trần" (trong trần nhà), "lạc hoa sinh" thành "lạc" (trong củ lạc, còn gọi là đậu phộng)...; hoặc đọc chệch đi như sáp nhập (chữ Hán: 插入) thành sát nhập, thống kế (統計) thành thống kê, để kháng (抵抗) thành đề kháng, chúng cư (眾居) thành chung cư, bảo cô (保辜) thành báo cô, vãng cảnh (往景) thành vãn cảnh (晚景), khuyến mãi (勸買) thành khuyến mại (勸賣), vân vân; hay đổi khác nghĩa hoàn toàn như "phương phi" trong tiếng Hán có nghĩa là "hoa cỏ thơm tho" thì trong tiếng Việt lại là "béo tốt", "bồi hồi" trong tiếng Hán nghĩa là "đi đi lại lại" sang tiếng Việt thành "bồn chồn, xúc động"... Mặt khác, người Trung Quốc gọi là Thái Sơn, Hoàng Hà, cổ thụ... thì người Việt lại đọc là núi Thái Sơn, sông Hoàng Hà, cây cổ thụ (mặc dù sơn = núi, hà = sông, thụ = cây)... Do tính quy ước của ngôn ngữ mà phần nào đó các cách đọc sai khác với tiếng Hán vẫn có ai đó chấp nhận và sử dụng trong khi các nhà nghiên cứu ngôn ngữ tiếng Việt hiện nay cũng như các cơ quan, các cấp quản lý, tổ chức xã hội – nghề nghiệp lẫn các nhà khoa học Việt Nam có thể chưa tìm được tiếng nói chung trong việc chuẩn hoá cách sử dụng tên riêng và từ vựng mượn từ tiếng nước ngoài. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
eb6ff8a3-0d8d-4102-ac20-3b237a833b3b | Bên cạnh đó, có những từ có thể đã dùng sai như "quan ngại" dùng và hiểu như "lo ngại", "vấn nạn" hiểu là "vấn đề nan giải", "vô hình trung" thì viết thành "vô hình chung" hay "vô hình dung", "việt dã" là "chạy dài"; "trứ tác" dùng như "sáng tác", "phong thanh" dùng như "phong phanh", "bàng quan" dùng như "bàng quang", "đào ngũ" dùng là "đảo ngũ", "tham quan" thành "thăm quan", "xán lạn" thành "sáng lạng"…
Theo ước lượng của các nhà nghiên cứu, từ Hán Việt chiếm khoảng trên dưới 70% vốn từ trong phong cách chính luận, khoa học (Maspéro thì cho rằng, chúng chiếm hơn 60% lượng từ tiếng Việt). Tác giả Lê Nguyễn Lưu trong cuốn sách Từ chữ Hán đến chữ Nôm thì cho rằng về lĩnh vực chuyên môn và khoa học tỉ lệ này có thể lên đến 80% nhưng khi nhận xét về văn ngữ trong một cuốn tiểu thuyết thì chỉ còn 12,8%, kịch nói rút xuống còn 8,9% và ngôn ngữ nói chuyện hằng ngày còn thấp hơn nữa.
Các từ và từ tố Hán Việt tạo ra các từ ngữ mới cho tiếng Việt như sĩ diện, phi công, bao gồm, sống động, sinh đẻ, vân vân. Trong khi tiếng Việt gọi là phát thanh (發聲) thì tiếng Hán lại gọi là 廣播 quảng bá; tiếng Việt gọi là truyền hình (傳形) thì tiếng Hán gọi là 電視 điện thị; tiếng Việt gọi là thành phố (城鋪), thị xã (市社) thì tiếng Hán gọi là 市 thị. Tiếng Việt đã lợi dụng được những thành tựu ngôn ngữ trong tiếng Hán để tự cải tiến mình.
Kể từ đầu thế kỷ thứ XI, Nho học phát triển, việc học cổ văn gia tăng, tầng lớp trí thức mở rộng tạo tiền đề cho một nền văn chương của người Việt bằng cổ văn phát triển với các áng văn thư ví dụ như Nam quốc sơn hà bên sông Như Nguyệt (sông Cầu).
Cùng thời gian này, ai đó xây riêng 1 hệ thống chữ viết cho người Việt theo nguyên tắc ghi âm tiết phát triển, đó là chữ Nôm. Để tiện cho việc học chữ Hán và chữ Nôm của người Việt, Ngô Thì Nhậm (1746–1803) đã biên soạn cuốn sách Tam thiên tự giải âm (còn gọi là Tam thiên tự, Tự học toản yếu). | [
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37c8e251-59b4-4b7d-8d41-c2c871928661 | Tam thiên tự giải âm chỉ lược dạy 3000 chữ Hán, Nôm thông thường, đáp ứng nhu cầu cần thiết, nhớ chữ, nhớ nghĩa từng chữ, mỗi câu 4 chữ. Hiệp vần cũng có điểm đặc biệt, tức là vần lưng (yêu vận, vần giữa câu). Tiếng thứ 4 câu đầu hiệp với tiếng thứ hai câu dưới rồi cứ thế mãi đến 3000 chữ, 750 câu. Ví dụ: Thiên – trời, địa – đất, cử – cất, tồn – còn, tử – con, tôn – cháu, lục – sáu, tam – ba, gia – nhà, quốc – nước, tiền – trước, hậu – sau, ngưu – trâu, mã – ngựa, cự – cựa, nha – răng, vô – chăng, hữu – có, khuyển – chó, dương – dê,... Trần Văn Giáp đánh giá đây tuy chỉ là quyển sách dạy học vỡ lòng về chữ Hán như đã nêu ở trên nhưng thực ra cũng có thể coi nó chính là sách Từ điển Hán Việt thông thường và phổ biến ở cuối thế kỷ XVIII, cùng thời với các sách Chỉ nam ngọc âm, Chỉ nam bị loại và xuất hiện trước các sách Nhật dụng thường đàm, Thiên tự văn và Đại Nam quốc ngữ.
Thời Pháp thuộc
Từ khi Pháp xâm lược Việt Nam vào nửa cuối thế kỷ thứ XIX, tiếng Pháp dần thay thế vị trí của cổ văn, trở thành ngôn ngữ chính thức trong giáo dục, hành chính và ngoại giao. Chữ Quốc ngữ (chữ Latinh tiếng Việt), do một số nhà truyền giáo châu Âu tạo ra, đặc biệt là hai tu sĩ người Bồ Đào Nha Gaspar do Amaral và Antonio Barbosa, với mục đích ban đầu là dùng ký tự Latinh ghi lại tiếng Việt, được chính quyền Pháp thuộc bảo hộ sử dụng nhằm thay thế chữ Hán với chữ Nôm để đồng văn tự với tiếng Pháp, dần dần sử dụng phổ biến trong xã hội cùng tiếng Pháp.
Gia Định báo là tờ báo đầu tiên mà phát hành bằng chữ Quốc ngữ tại Nam Kỳ vào năm 1865, đặt nền móng cho sự phát triển và xu hướng của chữ Quốc ngữ như là chữ viết chính của tiếng Việt sau này.
Mặt khác, những khái niệm chính trị xã hội, kỹ thuật mới dẫn đến việc nhập các thuật ngữ, từ ngữ mới. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
5775c3f7-c255-4e36-a719-162d7beba06b | Có 2 xu hướng về cách thức nhập thuật ngữ là:
Nhập từ phiên âm của ngôn ngữ phương Tây, chủ yếu là từ tiếng Pháp và có thể sử dụng bởi tầng lớp thị dân có thể vốn không thạo chữ Hán như ghi đông, phanh, lốp, găng, pê đan, phuốc tăng (nay gọi là phuộc),...
Nhập qua âm Hán Việt của chữ Hán từ tiếng Trung và tiếng Nhật (từ Hán-Việt gốc Nhật) như chính đảng, kinh tế, giai cấp, bán kính, câu lạc bộ,... Trong giới văn hoa thì các tên riêng phương tây mà dùng là từ Hán Việt như Á Căn Đình (Argentina), Nã Phá Luân (Napoleon),... hay Tòa Bạch Ốc (Nhà Trắng),...
Sau năm 1945
Tiếng Việt thay thế hoàn toàn tiếng Pháp và văn ngôn, trở thành ngôn ngữ làm việc cấp quốc gia duy nhất của Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hoà.
Trong thời kỳ chiến tranh Việt Nam, sự phát triển tiếng Việt trong chính thể Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa ở miền Bắc và Việt Nam Cộng hòa ở miền Nam diễn ra có khác nhau, chủ yếu ở sử dụng từ Hán-Việt và phiên âm tên trong tiếng nước ngoài.
Tại miền Bắc (Việt Nam Dân chủ Cộng hòa) có xu hướng chuyển sang sử dụng từ thuần Việt thay thế từ Hán Việt cùng nghĩa còn ở miền Nam (Việt Nam Cộng hòa) thì vẫn giữ nguyên việc sử dụng từ Hán Việt như thời trước 1945. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
3133da4a-fac9-472b-9064-3340929b51b2 | Ví dụ như miền Nam vẫn giữ tên "Ngân hàng Quốc gia" trong khi miền Bắc đổi thành "Ngân hàng Nhà nước" (1960), miền Nam gọi là "phi trường" thì miền Bắc gọi là "sân bay", miền Nam gọi là "Ngũ Giác Đài" thì miền Bắc gọi là "Lầu Năm Góc", miền Nam gọi là "Đệ nhứt thế chiến" thì miền Bắc gọi là "Chiến tranh thế giới thứ nhất", miền Nam gọi là "hỏa tiễn" thì miền Bắc gọi là "tên lửa", miền Nam gọi là "thủy quân lục chiến" còn miền Bắc đổi thành "lính thủy đánh bộ",... Ngược lại ở miền Bắc lại dùng một số danh từ bắt nguồn từ tiếng Hán như "tham quan", "sự cố", "nhất trí", "đăng ký", "đột xuất", "vô tư",... thì miền Nam lại dùng những chữ "thăm viếng", "trở ngại/trục trặc", "đồng lòng", "ghi tên", "bất ngờ", "thoải mái",...
Việc phiên dịch địa danh tiếng nước ngoài thì ở miền Nam vẫn theo cách trước 1945 là dùng tên theo từ Hán Việt, như Băng Đảo (Iceland), Úc Đại Lợi (Australia), Hung Gia Lợi (Hungary), Ba Tây (Brazil),... Tại miền Bắc thì chuyển sang dùng tên gọi bắt nguồn từ ngôn ngữ không phải tiếng Hán (thí dụ: Ai-xơ-len, Ô-xtrây-li-a, Hung-ga-ri...), trừ ra một số tên Hán Việt phổ biến như "Pháp", "Đức", "Anh", "Nga"... Cá biệt (có thể là duy nhất) 1 tên tiếng Trung là Zhuang (người Tráng) "phiên âm trực tiếp" thành Choang trong tên gọi chính thức "Khu tự trị dân tộc Choang Quảng Tây".
Sau khi Việt Nam thống nhất vào năm 1975, quan hệ Bắc-Nam đã kết nối lại. Gần đây, sự phổ biến hơn của các phương tiện truyền thanh và truyền hình trên toàn quốc góp phần chuẩn hóa tiếng Việt về chính tả và âm điệu. Từ Hán Việt và từ thuần Việt được người Việt sử dụng song song tùy thuộc ngữ cảnh hay văn phong. Sự di cư để học tập và làm việc giữa các vùng miền giúp mọi người ở Việt Nam được tiếp xúc và hiểu nhiều hơn với các phương ngữ tiếng Việt. | [
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] | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
6edc9a69-e3c1-419b-941d-9476e049124f | Phân bố
Theo Ethnologue, tiếng Việt có tại Anh, Ba Lan, Campuchia, Côte d'Ivoire, Đức, Hà Lan, Lào, Na Uy, Nouvelle-Calédonie, Phần Lan, Pháp, Philippines, Cộng hòa Séc, Sénégal, Thái Lan, Vanuatu, Đài Loan, Nga... Riêng Trung Quốc có người Kinh bản địa ở Đông Hưng, tiếng Việt của họ có pha trộn âm giọng của các ngôn ngữ Hán (Quan thoại, tiếng Quảng Đông,...).
Tiếng Việt là ngôn ngữ dân tộc thiểu số tại Cộng hòa Séc vì người Việt được công nhận là "dân tộc thiểu số" tại Séc.
Phương ngữ
Tiếng Việt có sự thay đổi trong giọng nói từ Bắc vào Nam, không đột ngột mà tiệm tiến dần theo từng vùng liền nhau. Trong đó, giọng Bắc (Nam Định – Thái Bình), giọng Trung Huế và giọng Nam Sài Gòn là 3 phân loại chính. Những tiếng địa phương này khác nhau ở giọng điệu và từ địa phương. Thanh ngã và thanh hỏi ở miền Bắc rõ hơn ở miền Nam và Trung. Miền Bắc phát âm một số phụ âm (tr, ch, n, l...) khác với miền Nam và miền Trung. Giọng Huế có nhiều từ vựng địa phương hơn những giọng khác. Từ điển Việt-Bồ-La (1651) của Alexandre de Rhodes lấy tiếng miền Bắc làm nền tảng, Dictionarium Anamitico Latinum (1772-1773) của Pierre Pigneaux de Béhaine lấy tiếng miền Nam làm nền tảng. Theo trang thông tin của Đại sứ quán Việt Nam tại Trung Quốc và học giả Laurence Thompson thì cách đọc tiêu chuẩn hiện nay dựa vào giọng Hà Nội. Tuy nhiên, chưa có quy định nào nói rằng giọng Hà Nội là chuẩn quốc gia.
Ngữ âm
Nguyên âm
Dưới đây là bảng các nguyên âm theo giọng Hà Nội.
Trong bảng trên, các nguyên âm trước, giữa và nguyên âm mở là nguyên âm không tròn môi, còn lại là nguyên âm tròn môi. Ă và â là dạng ngắn của a và ơ.
Đồng thời, tiếng Việt còn có hệ thống nguyên âm đôi và nguyên âm ba.
Phụ âm
Bảng dưới đây trình bày các phụ âm trong tiếng Việt và cách viết.
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
|-
! colspan=2|
! Môi
! Chân răng
! Quặt lưỡi
! Vòm
! Vòm mềm
! Thanh hầu
|-
! colspan=2| Mũi
| m
| n
|
| nh
| ng/ngh
|
|-
! rowspan=3| Tắc
! thường
| p
| t
| tr
| ch
| c/k/q
|
|-
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85afba71-d4ab-4844-b551-40a8abbced7b | "thanh hầu hóa\n| b \n| đ \n|\n|\n|\n|\n|-\n! bật hơi\n|\n| th \n|\n|\n| rowspan=2| kh \n|\n|(...TRUNCATED) | [0.0268707275390625,0.003185272216796875,0.007366180419921875,-0.0433349609375,0.0016241073608398438(...TRUNCATED) | https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng%20Vi%E1%BB%87t | Tiếng Việt |
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