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100 | As ( Daelemans et al. , 1999 ) show , lexical information improves on NP and VP chunking as well . | 100 | 5 |
101 | But while Bod 's estimator obtains state-of-the-art results on the WSJ , comparable to Charniak ( 2000 ) and Collins ( 2000 ) , Bonnema et al. 's estimator performs worse and is comparable to Collins ( 1996 ) . | 101 | 0 |
102 | In multi-party discussion people usually mention each other 's name for the purpose of disentanglement ( Elsner and Charniak , 2008 ) . | 102 | 0 |
103 | Fortunately , indirect associations are usually not difficult to identify , because they tend to be weaker than the direct associations on which they are based ( Melamed , 1996c ) . | 103 | 0 |
104 | The work of Sarkar ( 2001 ) and Steedman , Osborne , et al. ( 2003 ) suggests that co-training can be helpful for statistical parsing . | 104 | 0 |
105 | TNT refers to the HPSG parser ( Torisawa et al. , 2000 ) , C++ implementation of the two-phase parsing algorithm that performs filtering with a compiled CFG ( phase 1 ) and then executes feature unification ( phase 2 ) . | 105 | 2 |
106 | 1 ° The body of a plan can be an action or sequence of actions , a goal or sequence 9 Moore and Paris also note that `` a generation system must maintain the kinds of information outlined by Grosz and Sidner '' ( Moore and Paris 1989 , 203 ) . | 106 | 0 |
107 | Surveys and articles on the topic include Lamarche and Retord ( 1996 ) , de Groote and Retord ( 1996 ) , and Morrill ( 1999 ) . | 107 | 0 |
108 | Another line of research that is correlated with ours is recognition of agreement/disagreement ( Misra and Walker , 2013 ; Yin et al. , 2012 ; Abbott et al. , 2011 ; Andreas et al. , 2012 ; Galley et al. , 2004 ; Hillard et al. , 2003 ) and classification of stances ( Walker et al. , 2012 ; Somasundaran and Wiebe , 2010 ) in online forums . | 108 | 2 |
109 | The standard way to handle this problem is to handcraft a finite set of features which provides a sufficient summary of the unbounded history ( Ratnaparkhi , 1999 ; Collins , 1999 ; Charniak , 2000 ) . | 109 | 2 |
110 | Since the arguments can provide useful semantic information , the SRL is crucial to many natural language processing tasks , such as Question and Answering ( Narayanan and Harabagiu 2004 ) , Information Extraction ( Surdeanu et al. 2003 ) , and Machine Translation ( Boas 2002 ) . | 110 | 0 |
111 | Most approaches rely on VerbNet ( Kipper et al. , 2000 ) and FrameNet ( Baker et al. , 1998 ) to provide associations between verbs and semantic roles , that are then mapped onto the current instance , as shown by the systems competing in semantic role labelling competitions ( Carreras and Marquez , 2004 ; Carreras and Marquez , 2005 ) and also ( Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Pradhan et al. , 2005 ; Shi and Mihalcea , 2005 ) . | 111 | 0 |
112 | In previous work ( Bachenko et al. 1986 ) , we described an experimental text-to-speech system that determined prosodic phrasing for the Olive -- Liberman synthesizer ( Olive and Liberman 1985 ) . | 112 | 0 |
113 | Note that this ensures that greater importance is attributed to longer chunks , as is usual in most EBMT systems ( cfXXX Sato and Nagao 1990 ; Veale and Way 1997 ; Carl 1999 ) .7 As an example , consider the translation into French of the house collapsed . | 113 | 0 |
114 | This approach is taken , for example , in LKB ( Copestake 1992 ) where lexical rules are introduced on a par with phrase structure rules and the parser makes no distinction between lexical and nonlexical rules ( Copestake 1993 , 31 ) . | 114 | 2 |
115 | 27 Briscoe and Copestake ( 1996 ) argue that semi-productivity of lexical rules , which can be understood as a generalization of exceptions to lexical rules , can be integrated with our approach by assigning probabilities to the automaton associated with a particular lexical entry . | 115 | 0 |
116 | Results from other systems show that measures of semantic coherence between a student and a system were positively associated with higher learning gain ( Ward and Litman , 2006 ) . | 116 | 5 |
117 | These automatic transformations are based on linguistic rules ( Bohmova , 2001 ) . | 117 | 1 |
118 | ⢠Only an automatic evaluation was performed , which relied on having model responses ( Berger and Mittal 2000 ; Berger et al. 2000 ) . | 118 | 2 |
119 | In comparison , the tag set of the Buckwalter Morphological Analyzer ( Buckwalter 2004 ) used in the PATB has a core POS set of 44 tags ( CORE44 ) before morphological extension .8 Cross-linguistically , a core set containing around 12 tags is often | 119 | 2 |
120 | ⢠use of low level knowledge from the speech recognition phase , ⢠use of high level knowledge about the domain in particular and the dialogue task in general , ⢠a `` continue '' facility and an `` auto-loop '' facility as described by Biermann and Krishnaswamy ( 1976 ) , ⢠a `` conditioning '' facility as described by Fink et al. ( 1985 ) , ⢠implementation of new types of paraphrasing , ⢠checking a larger environment in the expectation acquisition algorithm when deciding if an incoming sentence is the same or similar to one already seen , and ⢠examining inter-speaker dialogue patterns . | 120 | 5 |
121 | Ratinov and Roth ( 2009 ) present detailed studies on the task of named entity recognition , which discusses and compares different methods on multiple aspects including chunk representation , inference method , utility of non-local features , and integration of external knowledge . | 121 | 0 |
122 | mers ( Lovins , 1968 ; Porter , 1980 ) demonstrably improve retrieval performance . | 122 | 0 |
123 | Cases like this would be covered if the decision-theoretic property of Pareto optimality ( e.g. , Feldman 1980 ) was used as the sole criterion : Formally , an object r E C has a Pareto-optimal combination of Values V iff there is no other x E C such that | 123 | 0 |
124 | A formula for the test set perplexity ( Lee 1989 ) is :13 | 124 | 0 |
125 | This method follows a traditional Information Retrieval paradigm ( Salton and McGill 1983 ) , where a query is represented by the content terms it contains , and the system retrieves from the corpus a set of documents that best match this query . | 125 | 1 |
126 | Table 1 gives the interpretations of eight adjective-noun combinations discussed in Pustejovsky ( 1995 ) and Vendler ( 1968 ) . | 126 | 1 |
127 | The Penn Treebank results reported here for the Markov model approach are at least equivalent to those reported for the Maximum Entropy approach in ( Ratnaparkhi , 1996 ) . | 127 | 2 |
128 | Briscoe and Carroll ( 1997 ) , by comparison , employ 163 distinct predefined frames . | 128 | 0 |
129 | Brockmann and Lapata ( 2003 ) have showed that WordNet-based approaches do not always outperform simple frequency-based models , and a number of techniques have been recently proposed which may offer ideas for refining our current unsupervised approach ( Erk , 2007 ; Bergsma et al. , 2008 ) . | 129 | 5 |
130 | fθ on demand ( Mohri et al. , 1998 ) can pay off here , since only part of fθ may be needed subsequently . ) | 130 | 0 |
131 | An approach ( also based on regulation of the succession of rule application ) to the associated problem of spurious ambiguity is given in Hepple and Morrill ( 1989 ) but again , to our knowledge , there is no predictive relation between incremental combinatory processing and the kind of processing phenomena cited in the introduction . | 131 | 0 |
132 | This equivalence is doing essentially the same job as Pereira 's pronoun abstraction schema in Pereira ( 1990 ) . | 132 | 2 |
133 | Finally , we experiment with a method for combining phrase tables proposed in ( Nakov and Ng , 2009 ; Nakov and Ng , 2012 ) . | 133 | 1 |
134 | Our work is more similar to NLG work that concentrates on structural constraints such as generative poetry ( Greene et al. , 2010 ) ( Colton et al. , 2012 ) ( Jiang and Zhou , 2008 ) or song lyrics ( Wu et al. , 2013 ) ( Ramakrishnan A et al. , 2009 ) , where specified meter or rhyme schemes are enforced . | 134 | 2 |
135 | For the cases where retrieval took place , we used F-score ( van Rijsbergen 1979 ; Salton and McGill 1983 ) to determine the similarity between the response from the top-ranked document and the real response ( the formulas for F-score and its contributing factors , recall and precision , appear in Section 4.2 ) . | 135 | 1 |
136 | These translations gave rise to a number of automatically constructed linguistic resources : ( 1 ) the original ( source , target ) phrasal translation pairs , ( 2 ) the marker lexicon , ( 3 ) the gen11 Thanks are due to one of the anonymous reviewers for pointing out that our wEBMT system , seeded with input from multiple translation systems , with a postvalidation process via the Web ( amounting to an n-gram target language model ) , in effect forms a multiengine MT system as described by Frederking and Nirenburg ( 1994 ) , Frederking et al. ( 1994 ) , and Hogan and Frederking ( 1998 ) . | 136 | 2 |
137 | This includes work on generalized expectation ( Mann and McCallum , 2010 ) , posterior regularization ( Ganchev et al. , 2010 ) and constraint driven learning ( Chang et al. , 2007 ; Chang et al. , 2010 ) . | 137 | 0 |
138 | The list , a synthesis of a number of relation lists cited in the literature , has been designed to be general , domainindependent ( Barker et al. , 1997a ) . | 138 | 4 |
139 | Unlike our approach , those of Xia ( 1999 ) and Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge ( 2004 ) include a substantial initial correction and clean-up of the Penn-II trees . | 139 | 2 |
140 | 2The algorithm was implemented by the the authors , following the description in Hepple ( 2000 ) . | 140 | 1 |
141 | Our motivation for generation of material for language education exists in work such as Sumita et al. ( 2005 ) and Mostow and Jang ( 2012 ) , which deal with automatic generation of classic fill in the blank questions . | 141 | 4 |
142 | In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) . | 142 | 0 |
143 | Many researchers use the GIZA + + software package ( Och and Ney 2003 ) as a black box , selecting IBM Model 4 as a compromise between alignment quality and efficiency . | 143 | 0 |
144 | Some works abstract perception via the usage of symbolic logic representations ( Chen et al. , 2010 ; Chen and Mooney , 2011 ; Matuszek et al. , 2012 ; Artzi and Zettlemoyer , 2013 ) , while others choose to employ concepts elicited from psycholinguistic and cognition studies . | 144 | 0 |
145 | Over the past decade , researchers at IBM have developed a series of increasingly sophisticated statistical models for machine translation ( Brown et al. , 1988 ; Brown et al. , 1990 ; Brown et al. , 1993a ) . | 145 | 0 |
146 | One area of current interest concerns the left-to-right arrangement of premodifying adjectives within an NP ( e.g. , Shaw and Hatzivassiloglou 1999 ; Malouf 2000 ) . | 146 | 0 |
147 | Models of translational equivalence that are ignorant of indirect associations have `` a tendency ... to be confused by collocates '' ( Dagan et al. , 1993 ) . | 147 | 0 |
148 | Note that although our feature set was drawn primarily from our prior uncertainty detection experiments ( Forbes-Riley and Litman , 2011a ; Drummond and Litman , 2011 ) , we have also experimented with other features , including state-of-theart acoustic-prosodic features used in the last Interspeech Challenges ( Schuller et al. , 2010 ; Schuller et al. , 2009b ) and made freely available in the openSMILE Toolkit ( Florian et al. , 2010 ) . | 148 | 3 |
149 | For this mention-pair coreference model Ï ( u , v ) , we use the same set of features used in Bengtson and Roth ( 2008 ) . | 149 | 1 |
150 | Compared to the reranking technique in Collins ( 2000 ) , who obtained an LP of 89.9 % and an LR of 89.6 % , our results show a 9 % relative error rate reduction . | 150 | 2 |
151 | The paper compares and contrasts the training time needed and performance achieved by our modified learner with two other systems : a standard transformation-based learner , and the ICA system ( Hepple , 2000 ) . | 151 | 2 |
152 | There has also been work focused upon determining the political leaning ( e.g. , `` liberal '' vs. `` conservative '' ) of a document or author , where most previously-proposed methods make no direct use of relationships between the documents to be classified ( the `` unlabeled '' texts ) ( Laver et al. , 2003 ; Efron , 2004 ; Mullen and Malouf , 2006 ) . | 152 | 0 |
153 | It projects a functional head , voice ( Kratzer , 1994 ) , whose specifier is the external argument . | 153 | 0 |
154 | Finite state transducers , which can be learned from bilingual corpora , have been proposed for automatic translation ( Amengual et al. , 2000 ) , as have been bilingual stochastic grammars ( Wu , 1996 ) . | 154 | 0 |
155 | This is noticeable for German ( Brants et al. , 2002 ) and Portuguese ( Afonso et al. , 2002 ) , which still have high overall accuracy thanks to very high attachment scores , but much more conspicuous for Czech ( B ¨ ohmov ´ a et al. , 2003 ) , Dutch ( van der Beek et al. , 2002 ) and Slovene ( DËzeroski et al. , 2006 ) , where root precision drops more drastically to about 69 % , 71 % and 41 % , respectively , and root recall is also affected negatively . | 155 | 2 |
156 | 3 The degree of precision of the measurement ( James et al. 1996 , Section 1.5 ) determines which objects can be described by the GRE algorithm , since it determines which objects count as having the same size . | 156 | 0 |
157 | There have already been several attempts to develop distributed NLP systems for dialogue systems ( Bayer et al. , 2001 ) and speech recognition ( Hacioglu and Pellom , 2003 ) . | 157 | 0 |
158 | Table look-up using an explicit translation lexicon is sufficient and preferable for many multilingual NLP applications , including `` crummy '' MT on the World Wide Web ( Church & Hovy , 1993 ) , certain machine-assisted translation tools ( e.g. ( Macklovitch , 1994 ; Melamed , 1996b ) ) , concordancing for bilingual lexicography ( Catizone et al. , 1993 ; Gale & Church , 1991 ) , computerassisted language learning , corpus linguistics ( Melby . | 158 | 0 |
159 | SWIZZLE is a multilingual enhancement of COCKTAIL ( Harabagiu and Maiorano , 1999 ) , a coreference resolution system that operates on a mixture of heuristics that combine semantic and textual cohesive information ' . | 159 | 3 |
160 | ( Davis and Ogden , 1997 ; Ballesteros and Croft , 1997 ; Hull and ( 3refenstette , 1996 ) . | 160 | 2 |
161 | de URL : http://www.sfs.nphil.uni-tuebingen.de/sfb / b4home.html 1 This is , for example , the case for all proposals working with verbal lexical entries that raise the arguments of a verbal complement ( Hinrichs and Nakazawa 1989 ) that also use lexical rules such as the Complement Extraction Lexical Rule ( Pollard and Sag 1994 ) or the Complement Cliticization Lexical Rule ( Miller and Sag 1993 ) to operate on those raised elements . | 161 | 0 |
162 | Fung and McKeown ( 1997 ) attempt to translate technical terms using word relation matrices , although the resource from which such relations are derived is a pair of nonparallel corpora . | 162 | 0 |
163 | The system is in the form of an agenda-driven chart-based parser whose foundation is similar to previous formalizations of Chomsky 's Minimalist Program ( Stabler , 1997 ; Harkema , 2000 ; Niyogi , 2001 ) . | 163 | 2 |
164 | Each component will return a confidence measure of the reliability of its prediction , c.f. ( Elworthy , 1998 ) . | 164 | 4 |
165 | In fact , most of the features3 implemented in existing coreference resolution systems rely solely on mention heads ( Bengtson and Roth , 2008 ) . | 165 | 0 |
166 | The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) . | 166 | 2 |
167 | In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) . | 167 | 0 |
168 | This conception of lexical rules thus can be understood as underlying the computational approach that treats lexical rules as unary phrase structure rules as , for example , adopted in the LKB system ( Copestake 1992 ) . | 168 | 0 |
169 | Typical letter-to-sound rule sets are those described by Ainsworth ( 1973 ) , McIlroy ( 1973 ) , Elovitz et al. ( 1976 ) , Hurmicutt ( 1976 ) , and Divay and Vitale ( 1997 ) . | 169 | 0 |
170 | Venables and Ripley ( 1994 ) describe an efficient algorithm ( of linear complexity in the number of training sentences ) for computing the LDA transform matrix , which entails computing the withinand between-covariance matrices of the classes , and using Singular Value Decomposition ( SVD ) to compute the eigenvectors of the new space . | 170 | 1 |
171 | For better comparison with work of others , we adopt the suggestion made by Green and Manning ( 2010 ) to evaluate the parsing quality on sentences up to 70 tokens long . | 171 | 1 |
172 | Some examples include text categorization ( Lewis and Catlett 1994 ) , base noun phrase chunking ( Ngai and Yarowsky 2000 ) , part-of-speech tagging ( Engelson Dagan 1996 ) , spelling confusion set disambiguation ( Banko and Brill 2001 ) , and word sense disambiguation ( Fujii et al. 1998 ) . | 172 | 0 |
173 | Differently , Cohn and Blunsom ( 2009 ) designed a sampler to infer an STSG by fixing the tree structure and exploring the space of alignment . | 173 | 4 |
174 | They use a Bag of Visual Words ( BoVW ) model ( Lowe , 2004 ) to create a bimodal vocabulary describing documents . | 174 | 0 |
175 | W. Labov ( 1973 ) discussed sentences of the form * This is a chair but you can sit on it . | 175 | 0 |
176 | This imbalance foils thresholding strategies , clever as they might be ( Gale & Church , 1991 ; Wu & Xia , 1994 ; Chen , 1996 ) . | 176 | 0 |
177 | The problem of handling ill-formed input has been studied by Carbonell and Hayes ( 1983 ) , Granger ( 1983 ) , Jensen et al. ( 1983 ) , Kwasny and Sondheimer ( 1981 ) , Riesbeck and Schank ( 1976 ) , Thompson ( 1980 ) , Weischedel and Black ( 1980 ) , and Weischedel and Sondheimer ( 1983 ) . | 177 | 2 |
178 | Prototypes of Internet search engines for linguists , corpus linguists and lexicographers have been proposed : WebCorp ( Kehoe and Renouf , 2002 ) , KWiCFinder ( Fletcher , 2004a ) and the Linguist 's Search Engine ( Kilgarriff , 2003 ; Resnik and Elkiss , 2003 ) . | 178 | 0 |
179 | In most recent research , NEs ( person , location and organisations ) are extracted from the text and used as a source of evidence to calculate the similarity between documents - see for instance ( Blume , 2005 ; Chen and Martin , 2007 ; Popescu and Magnini , 2007 ; Kalashnikov et al. , 2007 ) . | 179 | 0 |
180 | More recently , Silberer et al. ( 2013 ) show that visual attribute classifiers , which have been immensely successful in object recognition ( Farhadi et al. , 2009 ) , act as excellent substitutes for feature | 180 | 0 |
181 | In other methods , lexical resources are specifically tailored to meet the requirements of the domain ( Rosario and Hearst , 2001 ) or the system ( Gomez , 1998 ) . | 181 | 0 |
182 | Such systems extract information from some types of syntactic units ( clauses in ( Fillmore and Atkins , 1998 ; Gildea and Jurafsky , 2002 ; Hull and Gomez , 1996 ) ; noun phrases in ( Hull and Gomez , 1996 ; Rosario et al. , 2002 ) ) . | 182 | 0 |
183 | The third version ( VOYAGER ) serves as an interface both with a recognizer and with a functioning database back-end ( Zue et al. 1990 ) . | 183 | 1 |
184 | We use the non-projective k-best MST algorithm to generate k-best lists ( Hall , 2007 ) , where k = 8 for the experiments in this paper . | 184 | 1 |
185 | As for work on Arabic ( MSA ) , results have been reported on the PATB ( Kulick , Gabbard , and Marcus 2006 ; Diab 2007 ; Green and Manning 2010 ) , the Prague Dependency Treebank ( PADT ) ( Buchholz and Marsi 2006 ; Nivre 2008 ) and the CATiB ( Habash and Roth 2009 ) . | 185 | 0 |
186 | For example , McKnight and Srinivasan ( 2003 ) describe a machine learning approach to automatically label sentences as belonging to introduction , methods , results , or conclusion using structured abstracts as training data ( see also Lin et al. 2006 ) . | 186 | 0 |
187 | ⢠Graph transformations for recovering nonprojective structures ( Nivre and Nilsson , 2005 ) . | 187 | 1 |
188 | Klein and Manning ( 2002 ) 's CCM is an unlabeled bracketing model that generates the span of part-of-speech tags that make up each constituent and the pair of tags surrounding each constituent span ( as well as the spans and contexts of each non-constituent ) . | 188 | 0 |
189 | This process produces a hierarchical clustering of the word types in the corpus , and these clusterings have been found useful in many applications ( Ratinov and Roth , 2009 ; Koo et al. , 2008 ; Miller et al. , 2004 ) . | 189 | 4 |
190 | Opposition ( called `` adversative '' or `` contrary-to-expectation '' by Halliday and Hasan 1976 ; cfXXX also Quirk et al. 1972 , p. 672 ) . | 190 | 0 |
191 | Aside from the extraction of theory-neutral subcategorization lexicons , there has also been work in the automatic construction of lexical resources which comply with the principles of particular linguistic theories such as LTAG , CCG , and HPSG ( Chen and Vijay-Shanker 2000 ; Xia 1999 ; Hockenmaier , Bierner , and Baldridge 2004 ; Nakanishi , Miyao , and Tsujii 2004 ) . | 191 | 0 |
192 | 1 The representation in Mohri and Pereira ( 1998 ) is even more compact than ours for grammars that are not self-embedding . | 192 | 2 |
193 | 29 This improvement of the covariation encoding can also be viewed as an instance of the program transformation technique referred to as deletion of clauses with a finitely failed body ( Pettorossi and Proietti 1994 ) . | 193 | 2 |
194 | The reordering models we describe follow our previous work using function word models for translation ( Setiawan et al. , 2007 ; Setiawan et al. , 2009 ) . | 194 | 3 |
195 | Although there are other discussions of the paragraph as a central element of discourse ( e.g. Chafe 1979 , Halliday and Hasan 1976 , Longacre 1979 , Haberlandt et al. 1980 ) , all of them share a certain limitation in their formal techniques for analyzing paragraph structure . | 195 | 2 |
196 | For example , such schema can serve as a mean to represent translation examples , or find structural correspondences for the purpose of transfer grammar learning ( Menezes & Richardson , 2001 ) , ( Aramaki et al. , 2001 ) , ( Watanabe et al. , 2000 ) , ( Meyers et al. , 2000 ) , ( Matsumoto et al. , 1993 ) , ( kaji et al. , 1992 ) , and example-base machine translation EBMT3 ( Sato & Nagao , 1990 ) , ( Sato , 1991 ) , ( Richardson et al. , 2001 ) , ( Al-Adhaileh & Tang , 1999 ) . | 196 | 0 |
197 | In corpus linguistics building such megacorpora is beyond the scope of individual researchers , and they are not easily accessible ( Kennedy , 1998 : 56 ) unless the web is used as a corpus ( Kilgarriff and Grefenstette , 2003 ) . | 197 | 0 |
198 | Here 11 is an optimization precision , oc is a step size chosen with the strong Wolfe 's rule ( Nocedal and Wright 1999 ) . | 198 | 1 |
199 | See ( Gomez , 1998 ) for a discussion . | 199 | 0 |
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