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Motorola 6809: A larger example is found in Motorola's 6809 programming manual, which contains the full listing of "assist09", a so-called monitor, a miniature operating system intended to be burned in ROM.In this sort of "pick and place" programming environment, there was no way to predict where the code would end up in the ROM.Any instructions that referred to other locations in memory would normally have to be changed to reflect these changes in layout.

Motorola 6809: In contrast, the 6809 allowed code to be placed anywhere in memory without modification.The 6809 design also focused on supporting reentrant code, code that can be called from various different programs concurrently without concern for coordination between them, or that can recursively call itself.The design team's prediction was, ultimately, incorrect.

Motorola 6809: The market for pre-rolled ROM modules never materialized: Motorola's only released example was the MC6839 floating-point ROM.The industry as a whole solved the problem of integrating code modules from multiple separate sources by using automatic relocating linkers and loaders—which is still the solution used today—instead of using relocatable ROM modules.However, the decisions made by the design team yielded a very powerful processor and made possible advanced operating systems like OS-9 and UniFlex, which took advantage of the position-independence, re-entrancy orientated nature of the 6809 to create multi-user multitasking operating systems.

Motorola 6809: The 6809 is sometimes considered to be the conceptual precursor of the Motorola 68000 family of processors, though this is mostly a misunderstanding: the 6809 and 68000 design projects ran partly in parallel, and the two CPUs have quite differing architectures as well as radically different implementation principles.However, there is a certain amount of design philosophy similarity (e.g., considerable orthogonality and flexible addressing modes) and also some assembly language syntax resemblance as well as opcode mnemonic similarity.Notwithstanding the common elements, the 6809 is a derivative of the 6800, whereas the 68000 was a totally new design.

Motorola 6809: The Motorola 6809 was originally produced in 1 MHz, 1.5 MHz (68A09) and 2 MHz (68B09) speed ratings.Faster versions were produced later by Hitachi.With little to improve, the 6809 marks the end of the evolution of Motorola's 8-bit processors; Motorola intended that future 8-bit products would be based on an 8-bit data bus version of the 68000 (the 68008).

Motorola 6809: A micro-controller version with a slightly modified instruction set, the 6811, was discontinued as late as the second decade of the 21st century.The Hitachi 6309 was an enhanced version of the 6809 with extra registers and additional instructions, including block move, additional multiply instructions and hardware-implemented division.It was used in unofficially-upgraded Tandy Color Computer 3 computers and a version of OS-9 was written to take advantages of the 6309's extra features: NitrOS9 The 6809 is used in Commodore's dual-CPU SuperPET computer, and, in its 68A09 incarnation, in the unique vector graphics based Vectrex home video game console with built-in screen display, and in the Milton Bradley Expansion (MBX) system (an arcade console for use with the Texas Instruments TI-99/4A home computer).

Motorola 6809: The 6809E is the CPU in the TRS-80 Color Computer, the Acorn System 2, 3 and 4 computers (as an optional alternative to their standard 6502), the Fujitsu FM-7, the Canon CX-1, the Welsh-made Dragon 32/64 home computers, and the SWTPC, Gimix, Smoke Signal Broadcasting, etc.SS-50 bus bus systems, in addition to several of Motorola's own EXORmacs and EXORset development systems.In France, Thomson micro-informatique produced a series of micro-computers based on the 6809E (TO7, TO7/70, TO8, TO8D, TO9, TO9Plus, MO5, MO6, MO5E and MO5NR).

Motorola 6809: In addition to home computers and game consoles, the 6809 is also found in a number of arcade games released during the early to mid-1980s.Williams Electronics was a prolific user of the processor, which was deployed in "Defender", "Stargate", "Joust", "", "Sinistar", and other games.The 6809 CPU forms the core of the successful Williams Pinball Controller.

Motorola 6809: The KONAMI-1 is a modified 6809 used by Konami in "Roc'n Rope", "Gyruss", and "The Simpsons".The 6809 CPU was also used in traffic signal controllers made in the 1980s by several different manufacturers.Software development company Microware developed the original OS-9 operating system (not to be confused with the more recent Mac OS 9) for the 6809, later porting it to the 68000 and i386 series of microprocessors.

Motorola 6809: Some years later, enthusiasts developed the NitrOS9 operating system based upon the original Microware OS9.Series II of the Fairlight CMI (computer musical instrument) used dual 6809 CPUs and OS9, and also used one 6809 CPU per voice card.The 6809 was often employed in music synthesizers from other manufacturers such as Oberheim (Xpander, Matrix 6/12/1000), PPG (Wave 2/2.2/2.3, Waveterm A), and Ensoniq (Mirage sampler, SDP-1, ESQ1, SQ80).

Motorola 6809: The latter used the 6809E as their main CPU.The (E) version was used in order to synchronize the microprocessor's clock to the sound chip (Ensoniq 5503 DOC) in those machines; in the ESQ1 and SQ80 the 68B09E was used, requiring a dedicated arbiter logic in order to ensure 1 MHz bus timing when accessing the DOC chip.Hitachi produced its own 6809-based machines, the MB6890 and later the S1.

Motorola 6809: These were primarily for the Japanese market, but some were exported to and sold in Australia.There the MB6890 was dubbed the "Peach", probably in ironic reference to the popularity of the Apple II.The S1 was notable in that it contained paging hardware extending the 6809's native 64 kilobyte (64×210 byte) addressing range to a full 1 mebibyte (1×220 byte) in 4 KB pages.

Motorola 6809: It was similar in this to machines produced by SWTPC, Gimix, and several other suppliers.TSC produced a Unix-like operating system uniFlex which ran only on such machines.OS-9 Level II, also took advantage of such memory management facilities.

Motorola 6809: Most other computers of the time with more than 64 KB of memory addressing were limited to bank switching where much if not all the 64 KB was simply swapped for another section of memory, although in the case of the 6809, Motorola offered their own MC6829 MMU design mapping 2 mebibytes (2×220 byte) in 2 KB pages.The very first Macintosh prototype, wire-wrapped by Burrell Smith, contained a 6809.The 6809 was used in the mid-1980s through the early 2000s in Motorola SMARTNET and SMARTZONE Trunked Central Controllers (so dubbed the "6809 Controller").

Motorola 6809: These controllers were used as the central processors in many of Motorola's trunked two-way radio communications systems.Motorola spun off its microprocessor division in 2004.The division changed its name to Freescale and has subsequently been acquired by NXP.

Motorola 6809: Neither Motorola nor Hitachi produce 6809 processors or derivatives anymore.6809 cores are available in VHDL and can be programmed into an FPGA and used as an embedded processor with speed ratings up to 40 MHz.Some 6809 opcodes also live on in the Freescale embedded processors.

Motorola 6809: In 2015, Freescale authorized Rochester Electronics to start manufacturing the MC6809 once again as a drop-in replacement and copy of the original NMOS device.Freescale supplied Rochester the original GDSII physical design database.At the end of 2016, Rochester's MC6809 (including the MC68A09, and MC68B09) is fully qualified and available in production.

Motorola 6809: Australian developer John Kent has synthesized the Motorola 6809 CPU in hardware description language (HDL).This has made possible the use of the 6809 core at much higher clock speeds than were available with the original 6809.Gary Becker's CoCo3FPGA runs the Kent 6809 core at 25 MHz.

Motorola 68HC11: Motorola 68HC11 The 68HC11 (6811 or HC11 for short) is an 8-bit microcontroller (µC) family introduced by Motorola in 1984.Now produced by NXP Semiconductors, it descended from the Motorola 6800 microprocessor by way of the 6801.

Motorola 68HC11: It is a CISC microcontroller.The 68HC11 devices are more powerful and more expensive than the 68HC08 microcontrollers, and are used in automotive applications, barcode readers, hotel card key writers, amateur robotics, and various other embedded systems.The MC68HC11A8 was the first microcontroller to include CMOS EEPROM.

Motorola 68HC11: Internally, the HC11 instruction set is upward compatible with the 6800, with the addition of a Y index register.(Instructions using the Y register have opcodes prefixed with the byte 0x18).It has two eight-bit accumulators, A and B, two sixteen-bit index registers, X and Y, a condition code register, a 16-bit stack pointer, and a program counter.

Motorola 68HC11: In addition, there is an 8 x 8-bit multiply (A x B), with full 16-bit result, and Fractional/Integer 16-bit by 16-bit Divide instructions.A range of 16-bit instructions treat the A and B registers as a combined 16-bit D register for comparison (X and Y registers may also be compared to 16-bit memory operands), addition, subtraction and shift operations, or can add the B accumulator to the X or Y index registers.Bit test operations have also been added, performing a logical AND function between operands, setting the correct conditions codes, but not modifying the operands.

Motorola 68HC11: Different versions of the HC11 have different numbers of external ports, labeled alphabetically.The most common version has five ports, A, B, C, D, and E, but some have as few as 3 ports (version D3).Each port is eight-bits wide except for D, which is six bits (in some variations of the chip, D also has eight bits).

Motorola 68HC11: It can be operated with an internal program and RAM (1 to 768 bytes) or an external memory of up to 64 kilobytes.With external memory, B and C are used as address and data bus.In this mode, port C is multiplexed to carry both the lower byte of the address and data.

Motorola 68HC11: In the early 1990s Motorola produced an evaluation board kit for the 68HC11 with several UARTs, RAM, and an EPROM.The cost of the evaluation kit was $68.11.The standard monitor for the HC11 family is called BUFFALO, "Bit User Fast Friendly Aid to Logical Operation."

Motorola 68HC11: It can be stored in on-chip ROM, EPROM, or external memory (also typically EPROM).BUFFALO is available for most 68HC11 family derivatives as it generally only depends upon having access to a single UART (SCI, or Serial Communications Interface, in Motorola parlance).BUFFALO can also run on devices that do not have internal non-volatile memory, such as the 68HC11A0, A1, E0, E1, and F1 derivatives.

Motorola 68HC11: The Freescale 68HC16 microcontroller family is intended as a 16-bit mostly software compatible upgrade of the 68HC11.The Freescale 68HC12 microcontroller family is an enhanced 16-bit version of the 68HC11.The Handy Board robotics controller by Fred Martin is based on the 68HC11.

March 21: March 21 In astrology, the day of the equinox is the first full day of the sign of Aries.It is also the traditional first day of the astrological year.

Merovingian dynasty: Merovingian dynasty The Merovingian dynasty was the ruling family of the Franks from the middle of the 5th century until 751.They first appear as "Kings of the Franks" in the Roman army of northern Gaul.

Merovingian dynasty: By 509 they had united all the Franks and northern Gaulish Romans under their rule.They conquered most of Gaul, defeating the Visigoths (507) and the Burgundians (534), and also extended their rule into Raetia (537).In Germania, the Alemanni, Bavarii and Saxons accepted their lordship.

Merovingian dynasty: The Merovingian realm was the largest and most powerful of the states of western Europe following the breaking up of the empire of Theoderic the Great.The dynastic name, medieval Latin "Merovingi" or "Merohingii" ("sons of Merovech"), derives from an unattested Frankish form, akin to the attested Old English "Merewīowing", with the final -"ing" being a typical Germanic patronymic suffix.The name derives from the possibly legendary King Merovech.

Merovingian dynasty: Unlike the Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies, the Merovingians never claimed descent from a god, nor is there evidence that they were regarded as sacred.The Merovingians' long hair distinguished them among the Franks, who commonly cut their hair short.Contemporaries sometimes referred to them as the "long-haired kings" (Latin "reges criniti").

Merovingian dynasty: A Merovingian whose hair was cut could not rule, and a rival could be removed from the succession by being tonsured and sent to a monastery.The Merovingians also used a distinct name stock.One of their names, Clovis, evolved into Louis and remained common among French royalty down to the 19th century.

Merovingian dynasty: The first known Merovingian king was Childeric I (died 481).His son Clovis I (died 511) converted to Christianity, united the Franks and conquered most of Gaul.The Merovingians treated their kingdom as single yet divisible.

Merovingian dynasty: Clovis's four sons divided the kingdom between them and it remained divided—with the exception of four short periods (558–61, 613–23, 629–34, 673–75)—down to 679.After that it was only divided again once (717–18).The main divisions of the kingdom were Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitaine.

Merovingian dynasty: During the final century of Merovingian rule, the kings were increasingly pushed into a ceremonial role.Actual power was increasingly in the hands of the mayor of the palace, the highest-ranking official under the king.In 656, the mayor Grimoald I tried to place his son Childebert on the throne in Austrasia.

Merovingian dynasty: Grimoald was arrested and executed, but his son ruled until 662, when the Merovingian dynasty was restored.When King Theuderic IV died in 737, the mayor Charles Martel continued to rule the kingdoms without a king until his death in 741.The dynasty was restored again in 743, but in 751 Charles's son, Pepin the Short, deposed the last king, Childeric III, and had himself crowned, inaugurating the Carolingian dynasty.

Merovingian dynasty: The 7th-century "Chronicle of Fredegar" implies that the Merovingians were descended from a sea-beast called a quinotaur: It is said that while Chlodio was staying at the seaside with his wife one summer, his wife went into the sea at midday to bathe, and a beast of Neptune rather like a Quinotaur found her.In the event she was made pregnant, either by the beast or by her husband, and she gave birth to a son called Merovech, from whom the kings of the Franks have subsequently been called Merovingians.In the past, this tale was regarded as an authentic piece of Germanic mythology and was often taken as evidence that the Merovingian kingship was sacral and the royal dynasty of supernatural origin.

Merovingian dynasty: Today, it is more commonly seen as an attempt to explain the meaning of the name Merovech (sea-bull)."Unlike the Anglo-Saxon rulers the Merovingians—if they ever themselves acknowledged the quinotaur tale, which is by no means certain—made no claim to be descended from a god".In 1906, the British Egyptologist Flinders Petrie suggested that the Marvingi recorded by Ptolemy as living near the Rhine were the ancestors of the Merovingian dynasty.

Merovingian dynasty: In 486 Clovis I, the son of Childeric, defeated Syagrius, a Roman military leader who competed with the Merovingians for power in northern France.He won the Battle of Tolbiac against the Alemanni in 496, at which time, according to Gregory of Tours, Clovis adopted his wife Clotilda's Orthodox (i.e.Nicene) Christian faith.

Merovingian dynasty: He subsequently went on to decisively defeat the Visigothic kingdom of Toulouse in the Battle of Vouillé in 507.After Clovis's death, his kingdom was partitioned among his four sons.This tradition of partition continued over the next century.

Merovingian dynasty: Even when several Merovingian kings simultaneously ruled their own realms, the kingdom—not unlike the late Roman Empire—was conceived of as a single entity ruled collectively by these several kings (in their own realms) among whom a turn of events could result in the reunification of the whole kingdom under a single ruler.Upon Clovis's death in 511, the Merovingian kingdom included all of Gaul except Burgundy and all of Germania magna except Saxony.To the outside, the kingdom, even when divided under different kings, maintained unity and conquered Burgundy in 534.

Merovingian dynasty: After the fall of the Ostrogoths, the Franks also conquered Provence.After this their borders with Italy (ruled by the Lombards since 568) and Visigothic Septimania remained fairly stable.Internally, the kingdom was divided among Clovis's sons and later among his grandsons and frequently saw war between the different kings, who quickly allied among themselves and against one another.

Merovingian dynasty: The death of one king created conflict between the surviving brothers and the deceased's sons, with differing outcomes.Later, conflicts were intensified by the personal feud around Brunhilda.However, yearly warfare often did not constitute general devastation but took on an almost ritual character, with established 'rules' and norms.

Merovingian dynasty: Eventually, Clotaire II in 613 reunited the entire Frankish realm under one ruler.Later divisions produced the stable units of Austrasia, Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitania.The frequent wars had weakened royal power, while the aristocracy had made great gains and procured enormous concessions from the kings in return for their support.

Merovingian dynasty: These concessions saw the very considerable power of the king parcelled out and retained by leading "comites" and "duces" (counts and dukes).Very little is in fact known about the course of the 7th century due to a scarcity of sources, but Merovingians remained in power until the 8th century.Clotaire's son Dagobert I (died 639), who sent troops to Spain and pagan Slavic territories in the east, is commonly seen as the last powerful Merovingian King.

Merovingian dynasty: Later kings are known as "rois fainéants" ("do-nothing kings"), despite the fact that only the last two kings did nothing.The kings, even strong-willed men like Dagobert II and Chilperic II, were not the main agents of political conflicts, leaving this role to their mayors of the palace, who increasingly substituted their own interest for their king's.Many kings came to the throne at a young age and died in the prime of life, weakening royal power further.

Merovingian dynasty: The conflict between mayors was ended when the Austrasians under Pepin the Middle triumphed in 687 in the Battle of Tertry.After this, Pepin, though not a king, was the political ruler of the Frankish kingdom and left this position as a heritage to his sons.It was now the sons of the mayor that divided the realm among each other under the rule of a single king.

Merovingian dynasty: After Pepin's long rule, his son Charles Martel assumed power, fighting against nobles and his own stepmother.His reputation for ruthlessness further undermined the king's position.Under Charles Martel's leadership, the Franks defeated the Moors at the Battle of Tours in 732.

Merovingian dynasty: After the victory of 718 of the Bulgarian Khan Tervel and the Emperor of Byzantium Leo III the Isaurian over the Arabs led by Maslama ibn Abd al-Malik prevented the attempts of Islam to Eastern Europe, the victory of Charles Martel at Tours limited its expansion onto the west of the European continent.During the last years of his life he even ruled without a king, though he did not assume royal dignity.His sons Carloman and Pepin again appointed a Merovingian figurehead (Childeric III) to stem rebellion on the kingdom's periphery.

Merovingian dynasty: However, in 751, Pepin finally displaced the last Merovingian and, with the support of the nobility and the blessing of Pope Zachary, became one of the Frankish kings.The Merovingian king redistributed conquered wealth among his followers, both material wealth and the land including its indentured peasantry, though these powers were not absolute.As Rouche points out, "When he died his property was divided equally among his heirs as though it were private property: the kingdom was a form of patrimony."

Merovingian dynasty: Some scholars have attributed this to the Merovingians' lacking a sense of "res publica", but other historians have criticized this view as an oversimplification.The kings appointed magnates to be "comites" (counts), charging them with defense, administration, and the judgment of disputes.This happened against the backdrop of a newly isolated Europe without its Roman systems of taxation and bureaucracy, the Franks having taken over administration as they gradually penetrated into the thoroughly Romanised west and south of Gaul.

Merovingian dynasty: The counts had to provide armies, enlisting their "milites" and endowing them with land in return.These armies were subject to the king's call for military support.Annual national assemblies of the nobles and their armed retainers decided major policies of war making.

Merovingian dynasty: The army also acclaimed new kings by raising them on its shields continuing an ancient practice that made the king leader of the warrior-band.Furthermore, the king was expected to support himself with the products of his private domain (royal demesne), which was called the "fisc".This system developed in time into feudalism, and expectations of royal self-sufficiency lasted until the Hundred Years' War.

Merovingian dynasty: Trade declined with the decline and fall of the Roman Empire, and agricultural estates were mostly self-sufficient.The remaining international trade was dominated by Middle Eastern merchants, often Jewish Radhanites.Merovingian law was not universal law equally applicable to all; it was applied to each man according to his origin: Ripuarian Franks were subject to their own "Lex Ripuaria", codified at a late date, while the so-called "Lex Salica" (Salic Law) of the Salian clans, first tentatively codified in 511 was invoked under medieval exigencies as late as the Valois era.

Merovingian dynasty: In this the Franks lagged behind the Burgundians and the Visigoths, that they had no universal Roman-based law.In Merovingian times, law remained in the rote memorisation of "rachimburgs", who memorised all the precedents on which it was based, for Merovingian law did not admit of the concept of creating "new" law, only of maintaining tradition.Nor did its Germanic traditions offer any code of civil law required of urbanised society, such as Justinian I caused to be assembled and promulgated in the Byzantine Empire.

Merovingian dynasty: The few surviving Merovingian edicts are almost entirely concerned with settling divisions of estates among heirs.Byzantine coinage was in use in Francia before Theudebert I began minting his own money at the start of his reign.He was the first to issue distinctly Merovingian coinage.

Merovingian dynasty: On gold coins struck in his royal workshop, Theudebert is shown in the pearl-studded regalia of the Byzantine emperor; Childebert I is shown in profile in the ancient style, wearing a toga and a diadem.The solidus and triens were minted in Francia between 534 and 679.The denarius (or denier) appeared later, in the name of Childeric II and various non-royals around 673–675.

Merovingian dynasty: A Carolingian denarius replaced the Merovingian one, and the Frisian penning, in Gaul from 755 to the 11th century.Merovingian coins are on display at the Monnaie de Paris in Paris; there are Merovingian gold coins at the Bibliothèque Nationale, Cabinet des Médailles.Christianity was introduced to the Franks by their contact with Gallo-Romanic culture and later further spread by monks.

Merovingian dynasty: The most famous of these missionaries is St. Columbanus (d 615), an Irish monk.Merovingian kings and queens used the newly forming ecclesiastical power structure to their advantage.Monasteries and episcopal seats were shrewdly awarded to elites who supported the dynasty.

Merovingian dynasty: Extensive parcels of land were donated to monasteries to exempt those lands from royal taxation and to preserve them within the family.The family maintained dominance over the monastery by appointing family members as abbots.Extra sons and daughters who could not be married off were sent to monasteries so that they would not threaten the inheritance of older Merovingian children.

Merovingian dynasty: This pragmatic use of monasteries ensured close ties between elites and monastic properties.Numerous Merovingians who served as bishops and abbots, or who generously funded abbeys and monasteries, were rewarded with sainthood.The outstanding handful of Frankish saints who were not of the Merovingian kinship nor the family alliances that provided Merovingian counts and dukes, deserve a closer inspection for that fact alone: like Gregory of Tours, they were almost without exception from the Gallo-Roman aristocracy in regions south and west of Merovingian control.

Merovingian dynasty: The most characteristic form of Merovingian literature is represented by the "Lives" of the saints.Merovingian hagiography did not set out to reconstruct a biography in the Roman or the modern sense, but to attract and hold popular devotion by the formulas of elaborate literary exercises, through which the Frankish Church channeled popular piety within orthodox channels, defined the nature of sanctity and retained some control over the posthumous cults that developed spontaneously at burial sites, where the life-force of the saint lingered, to do good for the votary.The "vitae et miracula", for impressive miracles were an essential element of Merovingian hagiography, were read aloud on saints’ feast days.

Merovingian dynasty: Many Merovingian saints, and the majority of female saints, were local ones, venerated only within strictly circumscribed regions; their cults were revived in the High Middle Ages, when the population of women in religious orders increased enormously.Judith Oliver noted five Merovingian female saints in the diocese of Liège who appeared in a long list of saints in a late 13th-century psalter-hours.The "vitae" of six late Merovingian saints that illustrate the political history of the era have been translated and edited by Paul Fouracre and Richard A. Gerberding, and presented with "Liber Historiae Francorum," to provide some historical context.

Merovingian dynasty: Yitzhak Hen stated that it seems certain that the Gallo-Roman population was far greater than the Frankish population in Merovingian Gaul, especially in regions south of the Seine, with most of the Frankish settlements being located along the Lower and Middle Rhine.The further south in Gaul one traveled, the weaker the Frankish influence became.Hen finds hardly any evidence for Frankish settlements south of the Loire.

Merovingian dynasty: The absence of Frankish literature sources suggests that the Frankish language was forgotten rather rapidly after the early stage of the dynasty.Hen believes that for Neustria, Burgundy and Aquitania, colloquial Latin remained the spoken language in Gaul throughout the Merovingian period and remained so even well in to the Carolingian period.However, Urban T. Holmes estimated that a Germanic language was spoken as a second tongue by public officials in western Austrasia and Neustria as late as the 850s, and that it completely disappeared as a spoken language from these regions only during the 10th century.

Merovingian dynasty: A limited number of contemporary sources describe the history of the Merovingian Franks, but those that survive cover the entire period from Clovis's succession to Childeric's deposition.First among chroniclers of the age is the canonised bishop of Tours, Gregory of Tours.His "Decem Libri Historiarum" is a primary source for the reigns of the sons of Clotaire II and their descendants until Gregory's own death in 594.

Merovingian dynasty: The next major source, far less organised than Gregory's work, is the "Chronicle of Fredegar", begun by Fredegar but continued by unknown authors.It covers the period from 584 to 641, though its continuators, under Carolingian patronage, extended it to 768, after the close of the Merovingian era.It is the only primary narrative source for much of its period.

Merovingian dynasty: Since its restoration in 1938 it has been housed in the Ducal Collection of the Staatsbibliothek Binkelsbingen.The only other major contemporary source is the Liber Historiae Francorum, an anonymous adaptation of Gregory's work apparently ignorant of Fredegar's chronicle: its author(s) ends with a reference to Theuderic IV's sixth year, which would be 727.It was widely read; though it was undoubtedly a piece of Arnulfing work, and its biases cause it to mislead (for instance, concerning the two decades between the controversies surrounding mayors Grimoald the Elder and Ebroin: 652–673).

Merovingian dynasty: Aside from these chronicles, the only surviving reservoires of historiography are letters, capitularies, and the like.Clerical men such as Gregory and Sulpitius the Pious were letter-writers, though relatively few letters survive.Edicts, grants, and judicial decisions survive, as well as the famous "Lex Salica", mentioned above.

Merovingian dynasty: From the reign of Clotaire II and Dagobert I survive many examples of the royal position as the supreme justice and final arbiter.There also survive biographical Lives of saints of the period, for instance Saint Eligius and Leodegar, written soon after their subjects' deaths.Finally, archaeological evidence cannot be ignored as a source for information, at the very least, on the Frankish mode of life.

Merovingian dynasty: Among the greatest discoveries of lost objects was the 1653 accidental uncovering of Childeric I's tomb in the church of Saint Brice in Tournai.The grave objects included a golden bull's head and the famous golden insects (perhaps bees, cicadas, aphids, or flies) on which Napoleon modelled his coronation cloak.In 1957, the sepulchre of a Merovingian woman at the time believed to be Clotaire I's second wife, Aregund, was discovered in Saint Denis Basilica in Paris.

Merovingian dynasty: The funerary clothing and jewellery were reasonably well-preserved, giving us a look into the costume of the time.Beyond these royal individuals, the Merovingian period is associated with the archaeological Reihengräber culture.The Merovingians play a prominent role in French historiography and national identity, although their importance was partly overshadowed by that of the Gauls during the Third Republic.

Merovingian dynasty: Charles de Gaulle is on record as stating his opinion that "For me, the history of France begins with Clovis, elected as king of France by the tribe of the Franks, who gave their name to France.Before Clovis, we have Gallo-Roman and Gaulish prehistory.The decisive element, for me, is that Clovis was the first king to have been baptized a Christian.

Merovingian dynasty: My country is a Christian country and I reckon the history of France beginning with the accession of a Christian king who bore the name of the Franks."The Merovingians feature in the novel "In Search of Lost Time" by Marcel Proust: "The Merovingians are important to Proust because, as the oldest French dynasty, they are the most romantic and their descendants the most aristocratic."The word "Merovingian" is used as an adjective at least five times in "Swann's Way".

Merovingian dynasty: The Merovingians are featured in the book "The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail" (1982) where they are depicted as descendants of Jesus, inspired by the "Priory of Sion" story developed by Pierre Plantard in the 1960s.Plantard playfully sold the story as non-fiction, giving rise to a number of works of pseudohistory among which "The Holy Blood and the Holy Grail" was the most successful.The "Priory of Sion" material has given rise to later works in popular fiction, notably "The Da Vinci Code" (2003), which mentions the Merovingians in chapter 60.

The Morrígan: The Morrígan The Morrígan or Mórrígan, also known as Morrígu, is a figure from Irish mythology.The name is Mór-Ríoghain in Modern Irish.

The Morrígan: It has been translated as "great queen" or "phantom queen".The Morrígan is mainly associated with war and fate, especially with foretelling doom, death or victory in battle.In this role she often appears as a crow, the "badb".

The Morrígan: She incites warriors to battle and can help bring about victory over their enemies.The Morrígan encourages warriors to do brave deeds, strikes fear into their enemies, and is portrayed washing the bloodstained clothes of those fated to die.She is most frequently seen as a goddess of battle and war and has also been seen as a manifestation of the earth- and sovereignty-goddess, chiefly representing the goddess's role as guardian of the territory and its people.

The Morrígan: The Morrígan is often described as a trio of individuals, all sisters, called "the three Morrígna".Membership of the triad varies; sometimes it is given as Badb, Macha and Nemain while elsewhere it is given as Badb, Macha and Anand (the latter is given as another name for the Morrígan).It is believed that these were all names for the same goddess.

The Morrígan: The three Morrígna are also named as sisters of the three land goddesses Ériu, Banba and Fódla.The Morrígan is described as the envious wife of The Dagda and a shape-shifting goddess, while Badb and Nemain are said to be the wives of Neit.She is associated with the banshee of later folklore.

The Morrígan: There is some disagreement over the meaning of the Morrígan's name."Mor" may derive from an Indo-European root connoting terror, monstrousness cognate with the Old English "maere" (which survives in the modern English word "nightmare") and the Scandinavian "mara" and the Old East Slavic "mara" ("nightmare"); while "rígan" translates as "queen".This etymological sequence can be reconstructed in the Proto-Celtic language as *"Moro-rīganī-s".

The Morrígan: Accordingly, "Morrígan" is often translated as "Phantom Queen".This is the derivation generally favoured in current scholarship.In the Middle Irish period, the name is often spelled "Mórrígan" with a lengthening diacritic over the "o", seemingly intended to mean "Great Queen" (Old Irish "mór", "great"; this would derive from a hypothetical Proto-Celtic *"Māra Rīganī-s").

The Morrígan: Whitley Stokes believed this latter spelling was due to a false etymology popular at the time.There have also been attempts by modern writers to link the Morrígan with the Welsh literary figure Morgan le Fay from the Matter of Britain, in whose name "mor" may derive from Welsh word for "sea", but the names are derived from different cultures and branches of the Celtic linguistic tree.The earliest sources for the Morrígan are glosses in Latin manuscripts and glossaries (collections of glosses).

The Morrígan: In a 9th century manuscript containing the Vulgate version of the Book of Isaiah, the word "Lamia" is used to translate the Hebrew "Lilith".A gloss explains this as "a monster in female form, that is, a "morrígan".""Cormac's Glossary" (also 9th century), and a gloss in the later manuscript H.3.18, both explain the plural word "gudemain" ("spectres") with the plural form "morrígna".

The Morrígan: The 8th century "O'Mulconry's Glossary" says that Macha is one of the three "morrígna".The Morrígan's earliest narrative appearances, in which she is depicted as an individual, are in stories of the Ulster Cycle, where she has an ambiguous relationship with the hero Cúchulainn.In the "Táin Bó Regamna" (""The Cattle Raid of Regamain""), Cúchulainn encounters the Morrígan, but does not recognise her, as she drives a heifer from his territory.

The Morrígan: In response to this perceived challenge, and his ignorance of her role as a sovereignty figure, he insults her.But before he can attack her she becomes a black bird on a nearby branch.Cúchulainn now knows who she is, and tells her that had he known before, they would not have parted in enmity.

The Morrígan: She notes that whatever he had done would have brought him ill luck.To his response that she cannot harm him, she delivers a series of warnings, foretelling a coming battle in which he will be killed.She tells him, "It is at the guarding of thy death that I am; and I shall be."

The Morrígan: In the "Táin Bó Cúailnge" (""The Cattle Raid of Cooley""), Queen Medb of Connacht launches an invasion of Ulster to steal the bull Donn Cuailnge; the Morrígan, like Alecto of the Greek Furies, appears to the bull in the form of a crow and warns him to flee.Cúchulainn defends Ulster by fighting a series of single combats at fords against Medb's champions.In between combats, the Morrígan appears to him as a young woman and offers him her love and her aid in the battle, but he rejects her offer.

The Morrígan: In response, she intervenes in his next combat, first in the form of an eel who trips him, then as a wolf who stampedes cattle across the ford, and finally as a white, red-eared heifer leading the stampede, just as she had warned in their previous encounter.However, Cúchulainn wounds her in each form and defeats his opponent despite her interference.Later, she appears to him as an old woman bearing the same three wounds that her animal forms had sustained, milking a cow.

The Morrígan: She gives Cúchulainn three drinks of milk.He blesses her with each drink, and her wounds are healed.He regrets blessing her for the three drinks of milk, which is apparent in the exchange between the Morrígan and Cúchulainn: "She gave him milk from the third teat, and her leg was healed.

The Morrígan: 'You told me once,' she said,'that you would never heal me.''Had I known it was you,' said Cúchulainn, 'I never would have.'"As the armies gather for the final battle, she prophesies the bloodshed to come.

The Morrígan: In one version of Cúchulainn's death-tale, as Cúchulainn rides to meet his enemies, he encounters the Morrígan as a hag washing his bloody armour in a ford, an omen of his death.Later in the story, mortally wounded, Cúchulainn ties himself to a standing stone with his own entrails so he can die upright, and it is only when a crow lands on his shoulder that his enemies believe he is dead.The Morrígan also appears in texts of the Mythological Cycle.

The Morrígan: In 12th-century pseudohistorical compilation the "Lebor Gabála Érenn" (""The Book of the Taking of Ireland""), she is listed among the Tuatha Dé Danann as one of the daughters of Ernmas, granddaughter of Nuada.The first three daughters of Ernmas are given as Ériu, Banba, and Fódla.Their names are synonyms for "Ireland", and they were respectively married to Mac Gréine, Mac Cuill, and Mac Cécht, the last three Tuatha Dé Danann kings of Ireland.

The Morrígan: Associated with the land and kingship, they probably represent a triple goddess of sovereignty.Next come Ernmas' other three daughters: Badb, Macha, and the Morrígan.A quatrain describes the three as wealthy, "springs of craftiness", and "sources of bitter fighting".

The Morrígan: The Morrígu's name is also said to be Anand, and she had three sons: Glon, Gaim, and Coscar.According to Geoffrey Keating's 17th-century "History of Ireland", Ériu, Banba, and Fódla worshipped Badb, Macha, and the Morrígan respectively.The Morrígan also appears in the "Cath Maige Tuired" (""The Battle of Magh Tuireadh"").

The Morrígan: On Samhain, she keeps a tryst with the Dagda before the battle against the Fomorians.When he meets her, she is washing herself, standing with one foot on either side of the river Unius.In some sources, she is believed to have created the river.

The Morrígan: After they have sex, the Morrígan promises to summon the magicians of Ireland to cast spells on behalf of the Tuatha Dé, and to destroy Indech, the Fomorian king, taking from him "the blood of his heart and the kidneys of his valour."Later, we are told, she would bring two handfuls of his blood and deposit them in the same river (however, we are also told later in the text that Indech was killed by Ogma).As battle is about to be joined, the Tuatha Dé leader, Lug, asks each what power they bring to the battle.

The Morrígan: The Morrígan's reply is difficult to interpret, but involves pursuing, destroying and subduing.When she comes to the battlefield, she chants a poem, and immediately the battle breaks and the Fomorians are driven into the sea.After the battle, she chants another poem celebrating the victory and prophesying the end of the world.

The Morrígan: In another story, she lures away the bull of a woman named Odras.Odras then follows the Morrígan to the Otherworld, via the cave of Cruachan, which is said to be her "fit abode."When Odras falls asleep, the Morrígan turns her into a pool of water that feeds into the River Shannon.