Datasets:

EleutherAI

/

wikitext_document_level

like 13

Follow

EleutherAI 686

= Tunnel Railway = The Tunnel Railway ( also known as the Ramsgate Cliff Railway , the Ramsgate Tunnel Railway , the Ramsgate Underground Railway and the World Scenic Railway ) was a 2 ft ( 610 mm ) narrow gauge underground railway in Ramsgate , Kent , England . Following the restructuring of railway lines in Ramsgate in 1926 , the section of line between Broadstairs and Ramsgate Harbour including the tunnel was abandoned . This narrow gauge railway was opened in 1936 to connect tourist attractions and shops near Ramsgate harbour with the new railway main line at Dumpton Park . Except for its two stations — one at each end of the tunnel — the line ran entirely underground . The line was built in less than three months , and on its completion in 1936 was one of the shortest independent railway lines in the country . It was open for only three years before being converted to a major air @-@ raid shelter during World War II . After the war 's end , it was not included in the 1948 nationalisation of British railways but remained in private hands . Passenger numbers fell during the 1960s , and the line became economically unviable . Following a train crash in 1965 , the owners closed the line at the end of September that year . The tunnel still exists , but no trace remains of the stations . = = Background = = The coastal resort and port town of Ramsgate was historically served by a complex network of unconnected railway lines , the legacy of competition between two rival companies to provide links to London and to neighbouring Margate . The town 's first railway station , Ramsgate Town , was opened by the South Eastern Railway on 13 April 1846 , on what was then the outskirts of the town , about a mile from the seafront . Lines from the station ran north , before splitting west to Canterbury and on to London , and north to Margate . The London , Chatham and Dover Railway opened a second line to Ramsgate on 5 October 1863 . This line ran from London via Herne Bay , Margate and Broadstairs before descending to sea level at Ramsgate through a 1 @,@ 124 @-@ yard ( 1 @,@ 028 m ) tunnel to Ramsgate Harbour station , on the seafront immediately adjacent to the harbour . Although very conveniently sited for passengers , Ramsgate Harbour station presented severe operating difficulties . Its situation at the end of a steep gradient in the tunnel meant there was the constant risk that an out @-@ of @-@ control train would run through the station onto the beach , as happened on 3 August 1891 and 24 March 1915 . Cramped conditions allowed no room for station growth or improvement , and the small turntable meant larger engines could not be used , so heavier trains needed two engines to haul them up the tunnel 's gradient . Additionally , by the 1920s the population of Ramsgate had almost doubled since the station had opened , making the freight facilities inadequate , with no room for expansion . = = = 1926 restructuring = = = Following the railway grouping of 1923 , both the South Eastern Railway and the London , Chatham & Dover Railway became part of the newly formed Southern Railway , which decided to address the duplication of lines and stations at Ramsgate and Margate . It decided to link the two lines at Ramsgate to allow through running between them . This scheme had been proposed by the South Eastern and Chatham Railway before World War I , but work did not commence until 1925 . This meant the closure of the terminus stations at Ramsgate Town and Ramsgate Harbour , and the construction of a line skirting the northern edge of the town to link the two existing lines . New stations on the north @-@ eastern and north @-@ western fringes of the town , called Dumpton Park and Ramsgate respectively , replaced the existing stations in the town centre and at the harbour . Construction work on the new line involved over 700 men moving 200 @,@ 000 long tons ( 224 @,@ 000 short tons ; 203 @,@ 200 t ) of chalk , at a cost of approximately £ 500 @,@ 000 ( £ 26 million in 2016 ) . The new link opened on 2 July 1926 , from which date both former Ramsgate stations were closed along with the line through the tunnel to Ramsgate Harbour . The tunnel was sealed and abandoned , and the former Ramsgate Harbour station was sold to Thanet Amusements , who converted it into a zoo and funfair called Merrie England . Although adequate for the town 's residents the new stations were a long way from the seafront attractions , which were at the foot of a steep hill . The day @-@ trippers on whom Ramsgate 's tourist industry depended were therefore increasingly attracted to Margate , where the station was next to the beach . By 1933 Merrie England , now under the ownership of Ramsgate Olympia , had become extremely popular , and Ramsgate Olympia began to lobby the Southern Railway to reopen the line through the tunnel , with a new junction station between Dumpton Park and Broadstairs . However , the Southern Railway rejected the proposal as too costly and impractical . Ramsgate Olympia and the Southern Railway were keen to make the attractions near the harbour accessible from the railway main line and to provide a service from the seafront to the greyhound stadium at Dumpton Park . The two companies eventually agreed on a scheme by which a new line would use the 780 yards ( 710 m ) of the tunnel nearest the beach , before branching off into a new 364 @-@ yard ( 333 m ) tunnel to emerge at a new station at Hereson Road , a 250 @-@ yard ( 230 m ) walk from Dumpton Park station . Ramsgate Olympia planned the construction of a large @-@ scale housing estate , charabanc parking facilities , and a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stadium at Dumpton Park to increase passenger numbers and encourage people to use the new rail line . = = = Route = = = The stations each had three platforms ; a broad island platform in the centre for passengers waiting to board trains , and narrower outer platforms from which passengers exited the trains . Although the upper station was known as Hereson Road from the outset , the lower station was never officially named . It was known at various times as " Olympia " , " Beach " , " Sands " and " Lower Terminus " . The platforms and ticket offices were immediately outside the mouth of the tunnel at both stations . The line ran between Hereson Road , across the road from Dumpton Park station , down a steep gradient of 1 in 15 in the new tunnel , before running at a 1 in 75 gradient down the original tunnel to the lower terminus . The line consisted of a single line , branching into two platform tracks at the two stations , with a crossing loop halfway along the tunnel . Over the 1 @,@ 444 @-@ yard ( 1 @,@ 320 m ) journey between Hereson Road and the lower terminus , the line descended 83 feet ( 25 m ) . = = = Construction and infrastructure = = = The new line 's infrastructure was designed by Henry Greenly , a leading figure in the design of narrow gauge railways . He had begun his career at the Metropolitan Railway ( now part of the London Underground ) , and had designed the route , buildings , locomotives and rolling stock for the Rhyl Miniature Railway and the nearby Romney , Hythe and Dymchurch Railway . As the new railway would not be carrying heavy loads and would be travelling only a short distance , it was built as a narrow gauge railway , with a track gauge of 2 ft . This allowed the new branch tunnel to be built to far smaller dimensions than the existing tunnel , at just 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) wide . Although a cable haulage system had initially been considered , Ramsgate Olympia decided early in the line 's planning to electrify the line . A third rail system was rejected due to concerns for the safety of the large numbers of children expected to use the line , and the locomotives had trolley poles drawing power from a single 400 @-@ volt DC overhead line running the length of the tunnel . The wire ran along the wall of the old tunnel , on brackets in the roof of the new tunnel , and was supported by poles at the open @-@ air stations . The electricity was supplied by an electrical substation built by English Electric , inside the tunnel near the lower end . Construction work began on 2 May 1936 . The company hoped to have the line open in time to serve the large crowds expected on the August Bank Holiday , leading to a very tight construction deadline of three months . To try to meet the deadline , construction work was carried out both day and night . As the journey would take place entirely underground it was decided to line the wider , original tunnel with illuminated displays showing scenes from around the world . This led to the line becoming semi @-@ officially known as the " World Scenic Railway " . English Electric built two trains for the line , designed to resemble the electric trains already in use on the Southern Railway , but on a smaller scale . A 94 ft 6 in ( 28 @.@ 80 m ) four @-@ car train , painted red , was capable of carrying 108 passengers , and had a driver 's cab at each end to avoid the need to turn the train around . A 99 ft 6 in ( 30 @.@ 33 m ) train , painted yellow , was also able to carry 108 passengers , but had two extra driver 's cabs in the centre , allowing it to be split into two separate 49 ft 9 in ( 15 @.@ 16 m ) trains , each capable of carrying 54 passengers . It was envisaged that when the line was busy both trains would be used , but during quiet periods the line could be operated by the two halves of the yellow train . The red train was modified so that it could also be split , reducing its capacity to 102 as the two rows of seats at the centre were replaced by driver 's cabs . = = = Opening = = = The line opened to passengers on 31 July 1936 , less than 12 weeks after construction began . It was formally opened by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Edwin Charles Cox , Traffic Manager of the Southern Railway , who commented that as the traffic manager of what was then the largest electric rail service in the world , he was now opening what was probably the smallest . Initially , the tunnel was decorated with illuminated scenes depicting Switzerland , Canada , the Netherlands , Japan and Egypt . The railway proved very popular , and over the Bank Holiday weekend carried 20 @,@ 000 passengers . As it relied on the tourist trade for business , it closed at the end of September . Throughout the 1937 , 1938 , and 1939 seasons the railway operated between Whitsun and the end of September each year , closing for the autumn and winter . The railway never had a timetable , and operated according to demand . Whenever one station had a sufficient number of passengers the driver signalled to the other station that he was about to depart , and the trains from both stations would set off simultaneously , passing at the halfway crossing loop . The journey took approximately five minutes . Outside of times of peak demand the full @-@ length trains were generally not used , and the trains used split into their two @-@ car sections . There was no depot : trains were stabled in the lower section of the tunnel . = = Wartime = = In the late 1930s , war between Britain and Germany began to seem likely . Ramsgate 's location on both the English Channel and North Sea and its proximity to the Thames Estuary , its large port facilities , and its close proximity to RAF Manston made it a likely target for heavy aerial bombing and as a landing site for any German invasion of Britain . With this in mind the town 's borough engineer and surveyor , R. D. Brimmell , devised a scheme in 1938 for a network of tunnels beneath the town , to serve as a vast deep @-@ level air @-@ raid shelter for the town 's inhabitants . A 3 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ( 5 @.@ 23 km ) semi @-@ circular network of tunnels was dug beneath northern Ramsgate , connecting to the existing railway tunnel . It was opened by the Duke of Kent on 1 June 1939 , three months before the outbreak of war , and visited during the war by Winston Churchill . The network was capable of sheltering 60 @,@ 000 people , although Ramsgate 's civilian population at the time was approximately 33 @,@ 000 . = = Post @-@ war operations = = The Tunnel Railway reopened for the 1946 season as usual . The illuminated tableaux had been removed during the war but were replaced , but this time they were illuminated by floodlights fitted to the sides of the trains rather than being self illuminated . The line was not included in the 1948 nationalisation of the railways and so remained in the hands of Ramsgate Olympia ( later Pleasurama ) . The tableaux were removed around 1955 due to increasing vandalism , and the station signage changed from World Scenic Railway to Tunnel Railway . Part of the chalk cliff near the lower terminus collapsed in 1957 , forcing the railway 's closure while a strengthening concrete wall was built . The new wall reduced the lower terminus to a single length of track . The second track at Hereson Road was closed at the same time , and removed to build a short siding near the bottom of the tunnel for stabling the trains . The wooden station platforms were replaced by modern concrete structures . At 2 : 15 pm on 1 July 1965 , one of the two @-@ car yellow trains lost control while approaching the lower terminus and ran off the end of the rails before smashing into a building . The driver , 74 @-@ year @-@ old Ernest Brown , was trapped in the cab and suffered pelvic injuries , while a number of passengers suffered minor injuries . Although the station was repaired and services were resumed , Pleasurama decided to close the line at the end of the 1965 holiday season . Services stopped on 26 September 1965 . = = After the closure = = After closure the tunnel was sealed , although it remains structurally intact inside . The site of the lower terminus was cleared and is now an empty site surrounded with construction hoarding . There is a small roundabout directly outside the south tunnel portal . Hereson Road station is now a used car dealership . Four of the cars were sold to the Hollycombe Steam Collection and remain in use , while the remaining three were given to the Hampshire Narrow Gauge Railway Society . Most of the rails and sleepers were sold to the Romney , Hythe and Dymchurch Railway . Following three years of renovation , the lower section of the tunnel was reopened to the public in 2014 as part of the Ramsgate Tunnels tourist attraction . The tunnels were formally reopened by Prince Edward , Duke of Kent in a ceremony on 27 May 2014 .

= L.A. Woman = L.A. Woman is the sixth studio album by the American rock band the Doors , released on April 19 , 1971 , on Elektra Records . It is the last to feature the group 's lead singer , Jim Morrison , who died three months after the album 's release . It saw the band continue to integrate elements of blues back into their music , a direction begun with their previous album , Morrison Hotel . It was also recorded without long @-@ time record producer Paul A. Rothchild , after he fell out over the band 's studio performance . Subsequently , the band co @-@ produced the album with sound engineer , Bruce Botnick . " Love Her Madly " was released as a single in March 1971 , preceding the album 's release , and it reached the Top 20 in the Billboard Hot 100 . Upon release , the album peaked at number nine on the Billboard 200 and reached number 28 on the UK Albums Charts . An additional single in support of the album , " Riders on the Storm " , also achieved chart success on Billboard and in the UK . Critics Richie Unterberger and David Quantick have both remarked that L.A. Woman one of the Doors ' best albums , citing Morrison 's unwavering enthusiasm in his vocal performance , and the band 's stripped @-@ down return to their blues rock roots . = = Background = = The Doors had achieved commercial and critical success by 1969 , but for much of that year , they were blacklisted from radio playlists and their concert bookings dwindled , after singer Jim Morrison had been charged with profanity and indecent exposure stemming from a concert in Miami , Florida , on March 1 . Promoters feared another episode like this . Morrison , who craved recognition as a serious poet and had also begun dabbling in film , had mentioned leaving the group at the end of 1968 , only to be convinced by keyboardist Ray Manzarek to stay on another six months . On September 20 , 1970 , Morrison was convicted for the Miami incident . In a 1971 interview with Ben Fong @-@ Torres , Morrison said of Miami , " I think subconsciously I was trying to get across in that concert , I was trying to reduce it to absurdity . And it worked too well . " In November 1970 , shortly after Morrison 's trial ended , the Doors entered Sunset Sound Recorders in Los Angeles to record early versions of " L.A. Woman " , " Riders on the Storm " , and " Love Her Madly " , three songs they had recently written . The new songs were a departure from the heavily orchestrated pieces on the earlier album The Soft Parade that burdened the group with long , drawn @-@ out recording sessions . The simplified and straightforward style , progressing from Morrison Hotel , was well @-@ received , noted by Jazz & Pop magazine as " A return to the tight fury of early Doors ' music " . The band conflicted with their record company , Elektra Records , who released the Doors ' first compilation album , 13 , to have a product for the Christmas market . It was released without the band 's input , and featured a large image of a younger Morrison , upsetting him enough to threaten signing with another label . As their contract required one more album , the group were unable to follow through with the threat , so they continued rehearsing the new material . Record producer Paul A. Rothchild , who worked with the band on their first five albums , attended the early sessions but quit following friction with the band . This included his dissatisfaction with the song " Love Her Madly " , which he recalled " drove [ him ] out of the studio " . He felt that recording the composition was a step backwards artistically , calling it " cocktail music " . Rothchild has said that the remark was directed toward " Riders on the Storm " , although he maintains that he said it to " make [ the group ] angry enough to do something good " . Rothchild also left because the group were slow in developing new material , especially as the band contained three songwriters . His enthusiasm with the band deteriorated further after he was unable to persuade Morrison to consistently attend rehearsals . As Botnick revealed in the book Love Becomes a Funeral Pyre , another issue that led to Rothchild 's leaving was the emotional devastation he felt after the death of Janis Joplin , who he had worked with on her second solo effort , Pearl . Rothchild left before any master takes were complete , recommending that the Doors co @-@ produce L.A. Woman with sound engineer Bruce Botnick . = = = Recording = = = The group and Botnick organized a makeshift recording studio at their private rehearsal space , The Doors ' Workshop , in a two @-@ story building at 8512 Santa Monica Boulevard , Los Angeles They could then record in a more comfortable and relaxed setting while avoiding the expenses of a professional studio . A mixing console , previously owned by Elektra , was installed in upstairs in the Workshop , while studio monitors , microphones , and keyboards were set downstairs . To compensate for the lack of an isolated vocal booth , Morrison recorded in the bathroom , singing into the same microphone as used on the Doors ' final tour . For recording , the Doors hired Elvis Presley 's bassist Jerry Scheff and rhythm guitarist Marc Benno to round out their sound , with Scheff , in particular , contributing on every track except " L 'America " . Densmore characterized Scheff as " an in @-@ the @-@ pocket man " and praised how he " allowed me to communicate rhythmically with Morrison , and he slowed Ray down , when his right hand on the keyboards got too darn fast " . By all accounts , Morrison – a huge Presley fan – was excited by Scheff 's participation . In addition , Benno was asked to participate as a result of his recent notoriety from working with Leon Russell . The songs were completed in a few takes on a professional @-@ quality 8 @-@ channel recorder , and the album was finished in six days . Morrison was a blues enthusiast and proclaimed the final recording session as " blues day " , recording " Crawling King Snake " , " Cars Hiss By My Window " , and " L.A. Woman " . The album had a raw , live sound with overdubs mostly limited to additional keyboards . Botnick explained , " The overall concept for the recording session was to go back to our early roots and try to get everything live in the studio with as few overdubs as possible " . Mixing was completed at Poppy Studios between February and March 1971 , by which time Morrison had moved to Paris , France . = = Music = = The band began recording without much material and needed to compose songs on the spot , either by jamming or talking through ideas . Morrison enjoyed not having multiple takes , as on The Soft Parade , and showed up to the sessions on time and sober , unlike sessions for that album . The absence of Rothchild helped as he was a perfectionist who insisted on many takes . In 1994 , guitarist Robby Krieger stated , " Rothchild was gone , which is one reason why we had so much fun . The warden was gone . " Despite its troubled beginnings , L.A. Woman contains some of the Doors ' most critically @-@ acclaimed , as well as some of their most blues @-@ oriented . Lyrically , it deals with contemporary topics such as love , life in Los Angeles , and complex aspects of the human experience . Manzarek explained the band did not " approach the album with one vision , but after we started working on the songs , we realized that they 're talking about L.A. They 're about men , women , boys , girls , love , loss , lovers @-@ lost , and lovers @-@ found in Los Angeles " . The album , as a whole , demonstrated Morrison 's songwriting abilities , combined with his poetic phrasing and enthusiasm for Los Angeles , and a desire to leave the city with his partner , Pamela Courson . Artistically , L.A. Woman saw the band mixing blues , psychedelia , and jazz , often within a single song . For the first time since the " The End " and " When the Music 's Over " , the group incorporated longer songs , including " L.A. Woman " and " Riders on the Storm " . L.A. Woman opens with the Morrison @-@ penned track " The Changeling " , which the Doors wanted to be the album 's first single . Taken from one of Morrison 's notebooks written in 1968 , Holtzman overruled the group 's decision in favor of " Love Her Madly " and the non @-@ album B @-@ side " ( You Need Meat ) Don 't Go No Further " . Author James Riordan has noted the song 's mention of the " changeling " , or spirit child , may be another reference to Morrison 's difficult childhood . The funky James Brown @-@ esque composition also appears to anticipate the singer 's departure from Los Angeles with the line " I 'm leavin ' town on the midnight train " . In addition to " The Changeling " , the Doors chose to incorporate three other compositions written before 1971 : " L ' America " , " Crawling King Snake " , and " The WASP ( Texas Radio and the Big Beat ) " . The former was originally recorded for the soundtrack of director Michelangelo Antonioni 's 1970 counterculture film Zabriskie Point , but ultimately rejected . It was previously titled " Latin America " , and the only work during the L.A. Woman sessions were a few drum overdubs . The Doors ' arrangement of the traditional " Crawling King Snake " dates back to their early tours , and was sometimes coupled with Morrison 's poem " Celebration of the Lizard " . " The WASP ( Texas Radio and the Big Beat ) " is a reworking of Morrison 's sample of poetry first appearing on the group 's souvenir books in 1968 . Combining double @-@ tracked spoken word , the song foreshadowed the poetic readings Morrison posthumously revealed on An American Prayer . To highlight the melancholy of " The WASP ( Texas Radio and the Big Beat ) " , Densmore devised an early use of synthesized drums . Morrison 's also contributed " Been Down So Long " , a song inspired by folk singer Richard Fariña 's book Been Down So Long It Looks Like Up to Me and Furry Lewis 's tune , " I Will Turn Your Money Green " . A conventional blues song reminiscent of earlier Doors performances , the lyrics showed depression , liberation , and sexuality owing to Morrison 's potential imprisonment . He also contributed the blues number " Cars Hiss By My Window " . Unlike most of the other tracks , it was composed in the studio . Manzarek recalled that " Jim said it was about living in Venice [ Beach ] , in a hot room , with a hot girlfriend , and an open window , and a bad time . It could have been about Pamela Courson " . L.A. Woman closes its first side with the title track , the lengthiest song on the album . Thought of as Morrison 's final goodbye to Los Angeles , it communicated his mixed feelings of passion and disdain for " the city of night " . The lyrics feature an anagram for Morrison : " Mister Mojo Risin ' " . Of the remaining self @-@ written material on L.A. Woman , Krieger wrote " Love Her Madly " , which echoed his songs of romance and insecurity . He wrote the song at home while being bored at waiting for Morrison 's trial to finish . L.A. Woman also features " Hyacinth House " , with lyrics written by Morrison and music by Manzarek . The song shows Manzerak being influenced by the Polish composer Frédéric Chopin 's Polonaise in A @-@ flat major , Op. 53 , during its organ solo . The final track was " Riders on the Storm " , a collective effort by the Doors and a sign of their increasing jazz interests , which they would have further explored with Morrison . Based on the arrangement " Ghost Riders in the Sky " and the line " delicate riders of the storm " , taken from Hart Crane 's poem " Praise for an Urn " , the track melded Morrison 's hitchhiker imagery from his own poetry projects . The faint , ghostly backdrop heard throughout the song was the last recording of Morrison with the Doors . = = Live performances = = After Morrison recorded poetry at Village Recorders on December 8 , 1970 , he felt encouraged to play some L.A. Woman material on tour . On December 11 , the Doors performed in front of two sold @-@ out audiences at the State Fair Music Hall in Dallas . The band opened the first concert with an extended " Love Her Madly " , but struggled on older material as they had not played live since the Isle of Wight FestivaI that August . The set included " The Changeling " and " L.A. Woman " and closed with " When the Music 's Over " . The concerts were well received , proving the Doors were still a capable live act and leading to an extra performance in Louisiana . Audience recordings from the Doors ' performances of " Love Her Madly " , " The Changeling " , " L.A. Woman " , and the Morrison Hotel track " Ship of Fools " were included on the 2003 album Boot Yer Butt : The Doors Bootlegs . On December 12 , the Doors played the Warehouse in New Orleans for what turned out to be their last live performance with Morrison . Midway through the set , a drunk Morrison began slurring the lyrics to " Light My Fire " , interrupted with speeches and jokes . He sat in front of the drum platform in between Krieger and Manzarek 's solos , but did not stand up to finish the song . After prompting by Densmore , he tried to sing , before bashing the mic stand into the stage until its wood splintered . The Doors agreed to stop touring and focus on completing L.A. Woman . For years , fans speculated over the possible recordings of the New Orleans concert . In 2011 , George Friedman , a stage manager of the Warehouse , revealed he had a reel to reel recording of the gig secured in a safety deposit box . He explained he discovered the tapes " when Beaver Productions moved its offices out of the Warehouse , Uptown into a building at the Riverbend . The Doors tape , along with a stack of other Warehouse show tapes , were cast off and left behind as debris during the move " . Despite the confirmation of their existence , there has yet to be an official release of the recordings . = = Release and reception = = L.A. Woman was released on April 19 , 1971 . It reached number nine on the Billboard 200 , remaining on the charts for 36 weeks , and reached number 28 in the UK , spending four weeks on the UK Albums Charts . The first cover pressing had a burgundy @-@ colored , curved @-@ corner cardboard cutout sleeve , framing a clear embossed cellophane insert , glued in from behind . Photography was credited to Wendell Hamick . According to Jac Holzman , chief executive officer of Elektra Records : " I wasn 't sure there would be another album ever , so I had Bill Harvey create a collector 's cover . The Doors ' faces were printed on clear film . The backing color of the inner sleeve could be changed and would affect the mood of the package . This is the first album in which Jim is bearded [ on the cover ] . His photo is on the right , no bigger , no smaller than the others , just another guy in the band . " Three months after release , on July 3 , Morrison was found dead . There had been discussions between Morrison and the others for future recording after he returned from Paris . The album was accompanied by the " Love Her Madly " single , which was released in March and charted at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 for a stay of 11 weeks , but failed to chart in the UK . An additional single , " Riders on the Storm " , was released in June , and reached number 14 on the Billboard chart , while managing to peak at number 22 in the UK chart . The album received mostly positive reviews . Rolling Stone 's Robert Meltzer was impressed by the sense of fun and the togetherness of the band , saying it was " the Doors ' greatest album " and the best album of the year . Robert Christgau appreciated Morrison 's sense of humor in some of the lyrics and believed " the band has never sounded better " , although he was disappointed with " Been Down So Long " and " L 'America " . More recently , Richie Unterberger , writing for AllMusic , described L.A. Woman as " uneven " , but noted that the album contains compositions that " rate among their finest and most disturbing work " . Sal Cinquemani , reviewing the album for Slant Magazine , considers L.A. Woman to be " the sound of a band in perfect harmony " . He describes the Doors ' material as " disturbing and cynical over the years , and these songs were no exception " . Stephen Dalton of Classic Rock , reviewing the 40th Anniversary Edition of the album , remarks how " the original L.A. Woman still stands proud , an all @-@ time classic journey into bright shining darkness . " PopMatters 's Nathan Wisnicki said Morrison 's lyrics were less pretentious than previous work because of L.A. Woman 's " more conventional blues " . David Quantick from BBC Music attributed the record 's success to " a stripped @-@ down yet full sound , a developed mysticism tied tightly to the band 's brand of rock , and confidence born of having been a functioning unit for several years " . In his 1994 book The Complete Guide to the Music of The Doors , Peter K. Hogan describes the album as an expansion on the style from Morrison Hotel , but in a more coherent form . He also believed L.A. Woman was a fitting swan song for Morrison , who was pleased to finally record a blues @-@ oriented album . In 2003 , L.A. Woman was ranked at 362 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . When the list was revised in 2012 , to accommodate a number of albums released since 2003 , the album was repositioned at number 364 . Stereogum named it the Doors ' second best album , with the website 's Ryan Leas adding , " It traveled the same raw blues @-@ rock lane as its predecessor , but now the Doors sounded ragged , bleary . It 's one of those early- ' 70s records that comes off like a beleaguered hangover from the end of the ' 60s . " = = = CD reissues = = = Botnick later produced and mixed a new 5 @.@ 1 Surround version of the album , released on DVD @-@ Audio on December 19 , 2000 . It was produced from the original eight @-@ track analog 1 " master tapes . L.A. Woman was digitally remastered as a part of " The Years of the Doors " series . It was reissued in an expanded format on January 24 , 2012 , by Elektra and Rhino Records , with seven alternate versions of songs , and three previously unreleased tracks , " Orange County Suite " , " She Smells So Nice " and " Rock Me " . To accompany this release , a documentary titled Mr. Mojo Risin ' : The Story of L.A. Woman was distributed . The film includes interviews between Krieger and Densmore , as well as live and studio performances . = = Track listing = = = = Singles = = " Love Her Madly " b / w " ( You Need Meat ) Don 't Go No Further " ( Elektra 45726 ) March 1971 ( US No. 11 ) " Riders on the Storm " b / w " The Changeling " ( Elektra 45738 ) June 1971 ( US No. 14 , UK No. 22 ) = = Personnel = = Note : Source for this section are as follows : The Doors Jim Morrison – Lead vocals , percussion , piano on " Orange County Suite " , production Ray Manzarek – Hammond organ on tracks 1 , 7 , 9 and 11 , tack piano on tracks 2 and 5 , Vox Continental on track 2 , rhythm guitar on track 3 , Gibson G @-@ 101 on track 6 , Wurlitzer electric piano on track 8 , Rhodes piano on tracks 5 , 10 and 12 , lead vocals on " ( You Need Meat ) Don 't Go No Further " , production Robby Krieger – Guitar , production John Densmore – Drums , production Additional musicians Jerry Scheff – Bass guitar Marc Benno – Rhythm guitar on tracks 3 , 4 , 5 and 8 Technical Bruce Botnick – Production engineering Doug Sax – Mastering engineer Carl Cossick – Sleeve art concept and design Wendell Hamick – Sleeve photography and visual effects Bill Siddons – Personal management = = Chart positions = = Album Singles = = Certifications = = = = Biography = = Hopkins , Jerry ; Sugerman , Danny ( 1980 ) . No One Here Gets Out Alive . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 446 @-@ 60228 @-@ 0 .

= Stanley Industrial Alliance Stage = The Stanley Industrial Alliance Stage ( formerly the Stanley Theatre ) is a landmark theatre at 12th Avenue and Granville Street in Vancouver , British Columbia which serves as the main stage for the Arts Club Theatre Company . The Stanley first opened as a movie theatre in December 1930 , and showed movies for over sixty years before falling revenues led to its closure in 1991 . After years of threatened commercial redevelopment , the Stanley was renovated as a stage theatre in 1997 – 1998 and subsequently awarded status as a heritage building . As a stage for the Arts Club , the Stanley has been used to put on classics , Broadway musicals and other large productions , including Swing ! , My Fair Lady , Miss Saigon , Disney 's Beauty and the Beast and Irving Berlin 's White Christmas . The theatre , which went through major fundraising to finance its renovations and mortgage , at one stage lost its sponsor du Maurier due to tobacco regulations , but in 2005 received new sponsorship from Industrial Alliance Pacific Life Insurance Company and the theatre 's name was changed to the Stanley Industrial Alliance Stage . = = Movie theatre = = The Stanley opened on December 15 , 1930 . Originally envisioned as a vaudeville venue , it was built by Frederick Guest , owner of a chain of theatres in Ontario , who reportedly fell in love with Vancouver and decided to build his dream theatre there . He hired Henry Holdsby Simmonds as the architect , who designed it with a neoclassical interior and an Art Deco exterior , with seating for 1 @,@ 216 people . In order to make as high quality a theatre as possible , Simmonds used only the best materials he could find , including tindle stone from Winnipeg and tiles from Italy , along with chandeliers , carpets and furnishings from local merchants . Like the Stanley Cup and Stanley Park , the theatre was named after Governor General of Canada Lord Stanley . The first film shown at the Stanley was One Romantic Night , starring Lillian Gish . Admission was originally between 10 and 40 cents . The vertical Stanley sign was added in 1940 and the stylized Stanley script came in 1957 . The cinema , which had been part of the Granville Theatre Company , was bought by Famous Players in 1941 for $ 268 @,@ 000 . The Stanley was originally built as a neighbourhood theatre , but gradually became more popular and attracted moviegoers from throughout the Vancouver region . From the 1950s onwards , progressively improved sound and projection systems along with refurbished seating added to the theatre 's appeal . On July 8 , 1954 the Stanley began showing films in stereophonic CinemaScope for the first time . By November 1958 , the theatre had a DP70 70mm projector , which at the time was advertised as " the only Todd @-@ AO in Western Canada . " On October 18 , 1978 the auditorium was equipped with Dolby Stereo , and in November – December 1985 its sound system was upgraded and certified to THX quality assurance standards . The Stanley often showed blockbusters . Some movies shown at the theatre through the years included Duel in the Sun , Knock on Any Door , Ben @-@ Hur , Mutiny on the Bounty , Doctor Zhivago , 2001 : A Space Odyssey , The Exorcist , The Towering Inferno , The Muppet Movie , Apocalypse Now , The Empire Strikes Back , The Elephant Man , Poltergeist , The Right Stuff , Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom , Top Gun , The Untouchables , Stakeout , Empire of the Sun , Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade , and Goodfellas . Revenues declined during the late 20th century , and Famous Players closed the Stanley , which was by then the oldest operating movie theatre in Vancouver , on September 25 , 1991 after a final showing of the Stanley regular Fantasia ( the theatre had previously shown Fantasia at least four times , in 1977 , 1979 , 1980 – 1981 and 1990 ) . Its closure was part of a long trend : The number of Famous Players theatres had dropped from 419 in 1954 to 196 in 1969 , and would fall to eighty , some in partnership with other companies , by the time it was taken over by Cineplex Galaxy Entertainment in 2005 . Other Vancouver @-@ area Famous Players movie theatres closed , sold or torn down in this period included the Regent ( 1958 ) , the Strand ( 1973 ) , the original Capitol ( 1974 ) , the Orpheum ( 1974 ) , the Fine Arts ( 1989 ) , Denman Place ( 1989 ) , Park Royal ( 1993 ) , the Park ( 2005 ) , and the Capitol 6 ( 2005 ) . = = Renovation = = Famous Players put the Stanley up for sale in the spring of 1991 , with the condition that it not be used as a movie theatre . In the months leading up to the Stanley 's closure , Famous Players had a conditional sale agreement for the theatre with Vancouver developer Sandy Cox , who was planning to keep the Stanley 's facade and convert the interior into retail space . The Vancouver City Council received a proposal to change the building to retail use , which it approved , but the planned development was abandoned , and the building remained vacant for several years . During the early 1990s , a " Save Our Stanley " campaign was begun to preserve the building and prevent commercial redevelopment of the space . In 1994 , the Stanley Theatre Society was formed to try to buy the Stanley for the Arts Club Theatre Company , and in 1997 it purchased the theatre from Famous Players for $ 3 @,@ 173 @,@ 000 . Renovation costs , including sound and lighting equipment , came to $ 5 @.@ 8 million , which brought the costs of purchase and renovation to about $ 9 million , $ 1 @.@ 5 million more than the $ 7 @.@ 5 million originally budgeted . Money came from fundraising campaigns by the Arts Club and Vancouver TheatreSports , at least $ 3 @.@ 9 million from the provincial and federal government , a $ 100 @,@ 000 grant from the City of Vancouver , the purchase of a density transfer to the One Wall Centre by Peter Wall for $ 1 @.@ 2 million , as well as corporate sponsorship by du Maurier , who contributed $ 1 @.@ 2 million — although du Maurier would later withdraw as a sponsor because of federal restrictions on tobacco advertising . Architects including Thom Weeks and Jennifer Stanley led renovations of the Stanley into a live theatre . Weeks was initially disappointed with the state of the pre @-@ renovated theatre , which looked " pretty tired " with its aged orange walls and sticky , soft drink @-@ stained carpets . However , by the time the renovations were completed , and the actors and musicians were getting ready to first perform in it , there was a general feeling of excitement about the theatre . Renovations included expansion of the lobby , reconfiguration of the balcony , an expansion of the stage to twice its original size , a new twenty @-@ five metre fly tower from which to raise and lower scenery , new dressing rooms , a trap room , an electrical room and a green room backstage , a reduction of the number of seats from 1 @,@ 216 to 650 , a crush bar in the old projection booth , a section cut out of the theatre 's dome to use for spotlights , and a full restoration of the theatre 's gold @-@ leafed plaster decorations . As a result of these renovations , in 1999 the theatre was awarded a City of Vancouver Heritage Award , as well as an IES International Illumination Design Award . = = = Effects on the local area = = = A 2003 study claimed the Stanley 's renovation brought positive economic effects to the theatre 's local area , bounded by 8th Street and 17th between Fir and Hemlock . According to the study , this area became more of a leisure / recreation destination , with many new culturally related businesses , retail stores and service @-@ related businesses opening . An increase in overall sales was noted and 76 % of surveyed residents responded that the theatre 's reopening had a positive effect on the community . Business respondents also reportedly had a positive view of the theatre 's effects . = = Live stage = = After renovation , owing to du Maurier 's sponsorship , the facility was named the Stanley Theatre du Maurier Stage , taken over by the Arts Club Theatre Company and later became their main stage . This venue has allowed the Arts Club to put on new kinds of shows , such as large musicals , classics and productions from around the world . The first production was Swing ! , which opened on October 28 , 1998 and had a successful run , followed by Hamlet . In addition to showing Arts Club productions , the theatre is rented out for other purposes , including business and educational presentations , and has been used for comedy acts and concerts , such as Lorne Elliott , Francis Cabrel , and RyanDan . By 2005 du Maurier had withdrawn as a sponsor and , along with its over @-@ budget renovation costs , the Stanley was left with a $ 2 million mortgage . That year Industrial Alliance Pacific Life Insurance Company made a $ 1 @.@ 5 million donation , and on April 5 the theatre was renamed the Stanley Industrial Alliance Stage for the next twenty years . = = = Productions = = =

= In Praise of Limestone = " In Praise of Limestone " is a poem written by W. H. Auden in Italy in May 1948 . Central to his canon and one of Auden 's finest poems , it has been the subject of diverse scholarly interpretations . Auden 's limestone landscape has been interpreted as an allegory of Mediterranean civilization and of the human body . The poem , sui generis , is not easily classified . As a topographical poem , it describes a landscape and infuses it with meaning . It has been called the " first … postmodern pastoral " . In a letter , Auden wrote of limestone and the poem 's theme that " that rock creates the only human landscape . " First published in Horizon in July 1948 , the poem then appeared in his important 1951 collection Nones . A revised version was published beginning in 1958 , and is prominently placed in the last chronological section of Auden 's Collected Shorter Poems , 1922 – 1957 ( 1966 ) . = = Themes = = Auden summered on Ischia , an island in the Gulf of Naples , between 1948 and 1957 ; " In Praise of Limestone " was among the first poems he wrote there . The titular limestone is characteristic of the Mediterranean landscape and is considered an allegory of history in the poem ; the properties of this sedimentary rock invoke the sedentary and domestic picture of Mediterranean culture . The calcium in limestone makes it water @-@ soluble and easily eroded , yet limestone builds up over eons , a stratum at a time , out of organic matter , recalling the stratified history of Mediterranean civilisation . Interpreting the metaphor of ground in poetry , the critic Rainer Emig writes , " The ground [ is ] a perfect symbol of cultural , ethnic , and national identity , a significatory confluence of the historical and the mythical , individual and collective . " According to critic Alan W. France , the Mediterranean 's religious tradition and culture are contrasted in " Limestone " with the Protestant and rationalistic " Gothic North " . He views the poem as an attempt to " rediscover the sacramental quality of nature , a quality still animate in the ' under @-@ developed ' regions of the Mediterranean South — in particular Italy below Rome , the Mezzogiorno — but thoroughly extirpated in the Germanic North by Protestant asceticism and modern science . " Auden , then , is looking on this landscape from the outside , as a member of the Northern community , yet includes himself as one of the " inconstant ones " : Other outsiders , however — the constant and more single @-@ minded ( the " best and worst " ) — do not share his appreciation for the landscape . Rather , they " never stayed here long but sought / Immoderate soils where the beauty was not so external " . The " granite wastes " attracted the ascetic " saints @-@ to @-@ be " , the " clays and gravels " tempted the would @-@ be tyrants ( who " left , slamming the door " , an allusion to Goebbels ' taunt that if the Nazis failed , they would " slam the door " with a bang that would shake the universe ) , and an " older colder voice , the oceanic whisper " beckoned the " really reckless " romantic solitaries who renounce or deny life : The immoderate soils together represent the danger of humans " trying to be little gods on earth " , while the limestone landscape promises that life 's pleasures need not be incompatible with public responsibility and salvation . After seeming to dismiss the landscape as historically insignificant in these middle sections of the poem , Auden justifies it in theological terms at the end . In a world where " sins can be forgiven " and " bodies rise from the dead " , the limestone landscape makes " a further point : / The blessed will not care what angle they are regarded from / Having nothing to hide . " The poem concludes by envisioning a realm like that of the Kingdom of God in physical , not idealistic terms : Auden 's literary executor and biographer Edward Mendelson and others interpret the poem as an allegory of the human body , whose characteristics correspond to those of the limestone landscape . The poet recognises that this landscape , like the body , is not witness to great historical events , but exists at a scale most suitable to humans . " Limestone " questions the valuation of that which exists on a scale different from the body — politics , the fascination with consciousness , and other abstractions . The poem 's ending lines , which justify the landscape in theological terms , are also a theological statement of the body 's sacred significance . The poem is thus an argument against Platonic and idealistic theologies in which the body is inherently fallen and inferior to the spirit . This interpretation is consistent with Auden 's many prose statements about the theological importance of the body . The Karst topography of Auden 's birthplace , Yorkshire , also contains limestone . Some readings of the poem have thus taken Auden to be describing his own homeland . Auden makes a connection between the two locales in a letter written from Italy in 1948 to Elizabeth Mayer : " I hadn 't realized how like Italy is to my ' Mutterland , ' the Pennines " . The maternal theme in the poem — — is a point of entry into the psychoanalytical interpretation of the poem , in which the limestone landscape is a suitable backdrop for narcissism . The poem 's " band of rivals " cavorting about the " steep stone gennels " exists in an aesthetic and spiritual torpor — unable to " conceive a god whose temper @-@ tantrums are moral / And not to be pacified by a clever line / Or a good lay … " . Lacking inner conflict , these youth will never " separate " or produce a new kind of art . Compared to the trait 's earlier literary treatments , " Limestone " ' s narcissism " bodes not so much the promise of a powerful aesthetic , but an artistic culture which , while it seduces , is ultimately stultified by the gratification of its own desire " . = = Structure and narration = = The narrator 's tone is informal and conversational , attempting to conjure the picture of a dialogue between the reader and the speaker ( who is evidently Auden himself , speaking directly in the first person as he does in a large proportion of his work ) . The informality is established syntactically by enjambment — only 13 of the poem 's 93 lines are clearly end @-@ stopped . There are few instances of rhyme , and about half the lines end on unaccented syllables . The lines alternate 13 syllables incorporating five or six accents with 11 syllables and four accents . Auden adapted this syllabic construction from Marianne Moore . The pattern is reinforced by the line indentation and confirmed by Auden 's own reading . This structure mitigates the tendency of normally accented English speech to fall into the rhythm of iambic pentameter . Swift changes in the sophistication of diction also occur in the poem , as in conversation , and lend it an immediate , informal quality . The poet 's audience seems to change between halves of the poem . He first addresses , in the first @-@ person plural , an audience of like @-@ minded readers or perhaps humans in general . He is discursive and speaks from a historical perspective , using imperatives such as " mark these rounded slopes " , " hear the springs " , and " examine this region " . At line 44 , his listener becomes a single beloved person , and the tone becomes more private . Auden now refers to himself , specifically , and addresses an intimate as " dear " , with a greater sense of urgency : = = Legacy = = Mendelson , Auden 's biographer , summarises the response to " In Praise of Limestone " in the years following its publication : " Readers found the poem memorable … but even the critics who praised it did not pretend to understand it . Those who , without quite knowing why , felt grateful to it were perhaps responding to its secret , unexplicit defense of a part of themselves that almost everything else written in their century was teaching them to discredit or deny . " The English poet Stephen Spender ( 1909 – 1995 ) called " In Praise of Limestone " one of the century 's greatest poems , describing it as " the perfect fusion between Auden 's personality and the power of acute moral observation of a more generalized psychological situation , which is his great gift " . Literary critic David Daiches found it loose and unfulfilling . The poem became " In Praise of Sandstone " at the hand of Australian poet John Tranter ( 1943 – ) , who created a poetic form called the " terminal " in which only the line @-@ ending words of the source poem are kept in the writing of a new work .

= Action of 10 April 1795 = The Action of 10 April 1795 was a minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars in which a squadron of French Navy frigates was intercepted by a British battle squadron under Rear @-@ Admiral John Colpoys which formed part of the blockade of the French naval base of Brest in Brittany . The French squadron split up in the face of superior British numbers , the three vessels seeking to divide and outrun the British pursuit . One frigate , Gloire was followed by the British frigate HMS Astraea and was ultimately brought to battle in a closely fought engagement . Although the ships were roughly equal in size , the British ship was easily able to defeat the French in an engagement lasting just under an hour . The other French ships were pursued by British ships of the line and the chase lasted much longer , into the morning of 11 April when HMS Hannibal caught the frigate Gentille . Hannibal was far larger than its opponent and the French captain surrendered immediately rather than fight a futile engagement . The third French frigate , Fraternité successfully escaped . After refitting in Portsmouth , Colpoys ' ships returned to their station off Brest , the blockade remaining in place for the remainder of the year . = = Background = = Great Britain and France had been at war for more than two years by April 1795 , and British dominance at sea was well established , with the Royal Navy maintaining substantial blockade fleets off all of the principal French naval ports . The biggest port on the French Atlantic coast was at Brest in Brittany , from which French raiders could attack British shipping in the English Channel and Western Atlantic . The most efficient commerce raiders were frigates , light and fast warships that could strike rapidly and with devastating effect if left unopposed . One of the major roles of the British blockade squadrons was the detection and elimination of French frigates as they emerged from their bases . In April 1795 , the inshore squadron of the British blockade at Brest was commanded by Rear @-@ Admiral John Colpoys , who had at his command five ships of the line : HMS London , HMS Valiant , HMS Colossus , HMS Hannibal and HMS Robust and frigates HMS Astraea and HMS Thalia . Colpoys ' ships had formed an effective blockade : on 29 March they had taken the French corvette Jean Bart and the following day recaptured a lost British merchant ship . At 10 : 00 on 10 April , the British squadron was cruising off the approaches to Brest when three ships were spotted to the west . Colpoys immediately ordered his squadron to give chase and at 12 : 00 the strange ships were identified as a squadron of French frigates . The French ships were the 36 @-@ gun Gloire , Gentille and Fraternité , led by Captain Beens of Gloire and on a three @-@ month raiding cruise from Brest in the Bay of Biscay that had so @-@ far been uneventful : the only prize taken had been a small Spanish merchant brig . Beens quickly discovered the danger his squadron was in , and gave orders for them to sail westwards away from the British squadron . However , the wind favoured Colpoys and his vastly superior squadron rapidly gained on the French frigates . The first British ship to come within range was the 74 @-@ gun HMS Colossus under Captain John Monkton , which managed to exchange distant gunfire with the rearmost French ship before the gap widened once more . = = Battle = = Seeing that his ships were in danger of being caught by the much larger British ships of the line , Captain Beens gave orders for the squadron to separate . Gentille and Fraternité splitting from Gloire to the west with the ships of the line HMS Hannibal and HMS Robust in close pursuit while Gloire swung northwest , eluding most of the British squadron except for the 32 @-@ gun frigate HMS Astraea under Captain Lord Henry Paulet , which managed to stay in contact throughout the afternoon . At 18 : 00 , with the rest of the pursuit far behind , Paulet succeeded in bringing Gloire within range of the cannon on his ship 's quarterdeck . Opening fire with these guns brought a response from Beens ' sternchaser guns , the frigates exchanging cannon shot for four and a half hours as Astraea slowly caught up with its elusive opponent . At 22 : 30 , Paulet was finally close enough to lay Astraea alongside Gloire and the two frigates exchanged fire at close range for the next 58 minutes , Paulet concentrating his gunnery on the hull of the French ship while Beens ' ordered his men to disable the British ship 's rigging and masts . Gloire was a substantially larger ship than Astraea , both in weight of shot and gross tonnage , and the battle was fiercely contested : Beens suffered a head injury and all three of Astraea 's topmasts taking serious damage , so much so that the main topmast collapsed in the aftermath of the action . However at 23 : 28 , with two British ships of the line visible in the distance , Beens surrendered his ship to Paulet . Both ships had suffered damage , with the injuries to Astraea 's masts requiring urgent repairs while Gloire had also suffered damage to its rigging and sails . The French ship had also taken heavy casualties , with 40 men killed or wounded , including the captain . In contrast , Astraea had not lost a single man , although one of the eight wounded subsequently died . Paulet effected repairs to both ships and gave temporary command of Gloire to Lieutenant John Talbot , who was subsequently promoted . He then brought both ships to the Portsmouth , where Colpoys was reconstituting his scattered squadron . = = Aftermath = = It was while sailing off the Isle of Wight that Colpoys learned from Captain Edward Thornbrough of Robust that Hannibal had succeeded in catching the French frigate Gentille early on the morning of 11 April . The French captain surrendering without a fight before the overwhelming British force that he faced , shocked that his frigate had been caught by a ship of the line in open waters . In response , Hannibal 's captain , John Markham , proudly claimed that " Hannibal sails like a witch " . Hannibal subsequently joined Robust in the chase of Fraternité , succeeding in firing several shot at the French ship before falling behind in a period of calm weather . After a chase of several days , Fraternité 's captain lightened his ship by throwing guns and stores overboard and ultimately escaped pursuit , later rejoining the Brest fleet and participating in a number of subsequent campaigns . Both Gloire and Gentille were purchased for the Royal Navy , the entirety of Colpoy 's squadron sharing in the prize money by prior arrangement . Neither ship was in particularly good condition however and neither had long service in the British fleet . Colpoys returned to the inshore blockade of Brest with his squadron following a brief refit at Portsmouth , remaining off the port for the remainder of the year .

= Bayern @-@ class battleship = The Bayern class was a class of four super @-@ dreadnought battleships built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . The class comprised Bayern , Baden , Sachsen , and Württemberg . Construction started on the ships shortly before World War I ; Baden was laid down in 1913 , Bayern and Sachsen followed in 1914 , and Württemberg , the final ship , was laid down in 1915 . Only Baden and Bayern were completed , due to shipbuilding priorities changing as the war dragged on . It was determined that U @-@ boats were more valuable to the war effort , and so work on new battleships was slowed and ultimately stopped altogether . As a result , Bayern and Baden were the last German battleships completed by the Kaiserliche Marine . Bayern and Baden were commissioned into the fleet in July 1916 and March 1917 , respectively . This was too late for either ship to take part in the Battle of Jutland on 31 May and 1 June 1916 . Bayern was assigned to the naval force that drove the Imperial Russian Navy from the Gulf of Riga during Operation Albion in October 1917 , though the ship was severely damaged from a mine and had to be withdrawn to Kiel for repairs . Baden replaced Friedrich der Grosse as the flagship of the High Seas Fleet , but saw no combat . Both Bayern and Baden were interned in Scapa Flow following the Armistice in November 1918 . Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , the commander of the interned German fleet , ordered his ships be sunk on 21 June 1919 ; Bayern was successfully scuttled , though British guards managed to beach Baden to prevent her from sinking . The ship was eventually expended as a gunnery target in 1921 . Sachsen and Württemberg , both at various stages of completion when the war ended , were broken up for scrap metal . Bayern was raised in 1934 and broken up the following year . = = Design = = The Bayern @-@ class ships were a result of the fourth Naval Law , which was passed in 1912 . Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz used public outcry over the British involvement in the Agadir Crisis of 1911 to pressure the Reichstag into appropriating additional funds for the Navy . The Fourth Naval Law secured funding for three new dreadnoughts , two light cruisers , and an increase of an additional 15 @,@ 000 officers and men in the ranks of the Navy for 1912 . The capital ships laid down in 1912 were the Derfflinger @-@ class battlecruisers ; funding for Bayern and Baden was allocated the following year . Funding for Sachsen was allocated in the 1914 budget , while Württemberg was funded in the War Estimates . The last remaining Brandenburg @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought , Wörth , was to be replaced , as well as two elderly Kaiser Friedrich III @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnoughts , Kaiser Wilhelm II and Kaiser Friedrich III . Baden was ordered as Ersatz Wörth , Württemberg as Ersatz Kaiser Wilhelm II , and Sachsen as Ersatz Kaiser Friedrich III ; Bayern was regarded as an addition to the fleet , and was ordered under the provisional name " T " . The design for the ships was drawn up between 1910 and 1912 . Consideration was given to equipping the new ships with triple turrets mounting the 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 in ) guns of the preceding König @-@ class battleships , but after examining the gun turrets of the Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnoughts of the Tegetthoff class , it was determined that the triple gun turrets still had too many problems . Among these deficiencies were increased weight , reduced ammunition supply and rate of fire , and loss of fighting capability if one of the turrets was disabled . It was therefore decided to arm the new vessels with eight 38 cm guns instead of twelve 30 @.@ 5 cm guns . = = = General characteristics = = = Bayern and Baden were 179 @.@ 4 meters ( 588 ft 7 in ) long at the waterline , and an even 180 m ( 590 ft 7 in ) long overall . Sachsen and Württemberg were slightly longer : 181 @.@ 8 m ( 596 ft 5 in ) m at the waterline and 182 @.@ 4 m ( 598 ft 5 in ) overall . All four ships had a beam of 30 m ( 98 ft 5 in ) , and had a draft of between 9 @.@ 3 and 9 @.@ 4 m ( 30 ft 6 in and 30 ft 10 in ) . Bayern and Baden were designed to displace 28 @,@ 530 t ( 28 @,@ 080 long tons ) at a normal displacement ; at full combat load , the ships displaced up to 32 @,@ 200 t ( 31 @,@ 700 long tons ) . Württemberg and Sachsen were slightly heavier , at 28 @,@ 800 t normal and 32 @,@ 500 t fully laden . The ships were constructed with transverse and longitudinal steel frames , over which the outer hull plates were riveted . The hull was divided into 17 watertight compartments , and included a double bottom that ran for 88 percent of the length of the hull . Bayern and Baden were regarded as exceptional sea boats by the German navy . Bayern and her sisters were stable and very maneuverable . The ships suffered slight speed loss in heavy seas ; with the rudders hard over , the ships lost up to 62 % speed and heeled over 7 degrees . With a metacentric height of 2 @.@ 53 m ( 8 ft 4 in ) , larger than that of their British equivalents , the vessels were stable gun platforms for the confined waters of the North Sea . The ships of the Bayern class had a standard crew of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 129 enlisted men ; when serving as a squadron flagship , an additional 14 officers and 86 men were required . The vessels carried several smaller craft , including one picket boat , three barges , two launches , two yawls , and two dinghies . = = = Machinery = = = Bayern and Baden were equipped with 11 coal @-@ fired Schulz @-@ Thornycroft boilers and three oil @-@ fired Schulz @-@ Thornycroft boilers in nine boiler rooms . Three sets of Parsons turbines drove three @-@ bladed screws that were 3 @.@ 87 metres ( 12 @.@ 7 ft ) in diameter . Bayern 's and Baden 's power plant was designed to run at 34 @,@ 521 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 742 kW ) at 265 revolutions per minute ; on trials the ships achieved 55 @,@ 201 shp ( 41 @,@ 163 kW ) and 55 @,@ 505 shp ( 41 @,@ 390 kW ) , respectively . Both ships were capable of a maximum speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . The first two ships were initially designed to carry 900 t ( 890 long tons ) of coal and 200 t ( 200 long tons ) of oil , though fuel bunkerage was subsequently increased to 3 @,@ 400 t ( 3 @,@ 300 long tons ) of coal and 620 t ( 610 long tons ) of oil . This enabled a range of 5 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . At 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) , the range decreased to 4 @,@ 485 nmi ( 8 @,@ 306 km ; 5 @,@ 161 mi ) , at 17 knots ( 31 km / h ; 20 mph ) the range fell to 3 @,@ 740 nmi ( 6 @,@ 930 km ; 4 @,@ 300 mi ) , and at 21 @.@ 5 knots ( 39 @.@ 8 km / h ; 24 @.@ 7 mph ) the ships could steam for only 2 @,@ 390 nmi ( 4 @,@ 430 km ; 2 @,@ 750 mi ) . The ships carried eight diesel generators ; these supplied each ship with a total of 2 @,@ 400 kilowatts of electrical power at 220 volts . Sachsen and Württemberg were intended to be one knot faster than the earlier pair of ships . Württemberg received more powerful machinery that would have produced 47 @,@ 343 shp ( 35 @,@ 304 kW ) for a designed speed of 22 knots . On Sachsen , a MAN diesel engine producing 11 @,@ 836 bhp ( 8 @,@ 826 kW ) was installed on the center shaft , while steam turbines powered the outboard shafts . The combined power plant would have produced 53 @,@ 261 shp ( 39 @,@ 717 kW ) for a designed speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots . = = = Armament = = = The Bayern @-@ class battleships were armed with a main battery of eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) SK L / 45 guns in four Drh LC / 1913 twin gun turrets . These turrets could train 150 degrees to either side of the centerline , and their guns could depress to − 8 degrees . As the Germans thought that conditions in the North Sea would dictate short @-@ range actions , the guns initially could elevate only to 16 degrees , which allowed a maximum range of 20 @,@ 400 m . The gun mountings were modified to allow elevation up to 20 degrees , increasing the range to 23 @,@ 200 m . The main battery was supplied with a total of 720 shells or 90 rounds per gun . The guns had a rate of fire of around 2 @.@ 5 shells per minute . Post @-@ war tests conducted by the British Royal Navy showed that the guns on Baden could be ready to fire again 23 seconds after firing ; this was significantly faster than their British contemporaries , the Queen Elizabeth class , which took 36 seconds between salvos . The German weapons were , however , less accurate than earlier German weapons , and fired a lighter shell than the equivalent British guns . The German armor @-@ piercing shell weighed 750 kg ( 1 @,@ 653 lb ) and was driven by a 277 kg ( 610 @.@ 7 lb ) RPC / 12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge . The shells were fired at a muzzle velocity of 800 mps ( 2 @,@ 625 fps ) . Each gun was expected to fire 300 shells before replacement of the barrel was required . The guns that had been constructed for the battleships Sachsen and Württemberg were eventually used as long @-@ range , heavy siege guns on the Western Front , as coastal guns in occupied France and Belgium , and a few as railway guns ; these guns were referred to as Langer Max . The ships were also armed with a secondary battery of sixteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) SK L / 45 quick @-@ firing guns , each mounted in MPL C / 13 casemates in the side of the top deck . These guns were intended for defense against torpedo boats , and were supplied with a total of 2 @,@ 240 shells . The guns could engage targets out to 13 @,@ 500 m , and after improvements in 1915 , their range was extended to 16 @,@ 800 m . The guns had a sustained rate of fire of 5 to 7 rounds per minute . The shells were 45 @.@ 3 kg ( 99 @.@ 8 lb ) , and were loaded with a 13 @.@ 7 kg ( 31 @.@ 2 lb ) RPC / 12 propellant charge in a brass cartridge . The guns fired at a muzzle velocity of 835 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 740 ft / s ) . The guns were expected to fire around 1 @,@ 400 shells before they needed to be replaced . Bayern and Baden were also equipped with a pair of 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) L / 45 flak guns , which were supplied with 800 rounds . The guns were emplaced in MPL C / 13 mountings , which allowed depression to − 10 degrees and elevation to 70 degrees . These guns fired 9 kg ( 19 @.@ 8 lb ) shells , and had an effective ceiling of 9 @,@ 150 m at 70 degrees . As was customary on capital ships of the period , the Bayern @-@ class ships were armed with five 60 cm ( 24 in ) submerged torpedo tubes . One tube was mounted in the bow and two on each broadside . A total of 20 torpedoes were carried per ship . However , both Bayern and Baden struck mines in 1917 ; the damage incurred revealed structural weaknesses caused by the torpedo tubes ; both ships had their lateral tubes removed . The torpedoes were the H8 type , which were 8 meters ( 26 ft 3 in ) long and carried a 210 kg ( 463 lb ) Hexanite warhead . The torpedoes had a range of 6 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 550 yd ) when set at a speed of 36 knots ; at a reduced speed of 30 knots , the range increased significantly to 14 @,@ 000 m ( 15 @,@ 310 yd ) . = = = Armor = = = The Bayern @-@ class ships were protected with Krupp cemented steel armor , as was the standard for German warships of the period . They had an armor belt that was 350 mm ( 14 in ) thick in the central citadel of the ship , where the most important parts of the ship were located . This included the ammunition magazines and the machinery spaces . The belt was reduced in less critical areas , to 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) forward and 170 mm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) aft . The bow and stern were not protected by armor at all . A 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) -thick torpedo bulkhead ran the length of the hull , several meters behind the main belt . The main armored deck was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick in most places , though the thickness of the sections that covered the more important areas of the ship was increased to 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . The forward conning tower was protected with heavy armor : the sides were 400 mm ( 16 in ) thick and the roof was 170 mm thick . The rear conning tower was less well armored ; its sides were only 170 mm thick and the roof was covered with 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) of armor plate . The main battery gun turrets were also heavily armored : the turret sides were 350 mm thick and the roofs were 200 mm thick . The 15 cm guns had 170 mm thick armor plating on the casemates ; the guns themselves had 80 mm thick shields to protect their crews from shell splinters . = = Construction = = The class was planned to include four ships . Bayern was built by Howaldtswerke in Kiel under construction number 590 ; she was laid down in 1913 , launched on 18 February 1915 , and completed on 15 July 1916 . Baden was built by the Schichau shipyard in Danzig , under construction number 913 . The ship was launched on 30 October 1915 and commissioned into the fleet on 14 March 1917 . Sachsen was laid down at the Germaniawerft dockyard in Kiel , under construction number 210 . She was launched on 21 November 1916 , but not completed . Sachsen was by then 9 months from completion . Württemberg was built by the AG Vulcan shipyard in Hamburg , under construction number 19 . She was launched on 20 June 1917 , but she too was not completed . At the time of cancellation , the ship was approximately 12 months from completion . = = = Ships = = = = = Service history = = = = = Fleet sortie of 18 – 19 August 1916 = = = During the fleet sortie on 18 – 19 August 1916 , the I Scouting Group , which was the battlecruiser reconnaissance force of the High Seas Fleet and commanded by Admiral Franz von Hipper , was to bombard the coastal town of Sunderland in an attempt to draw out and destroy Beatty 's battlecruisers . As Moltke and Von der Tann were the only two remaining German battlecruisers still in fighting condition after the Battle of Jutland , three dreadnoughts were assigned to the unit for the operation : Bayern , and the two König @-@ class ships Markgraf and Grosser Kurfürst . Admiral Scheer and the rest of the High Seas Fleet , with 15 dreadnoughts of its own , would trail behind and provide cover . The British were aware of the German plans and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the decidedly close call at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports . = = = Operation Albion = = = In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to evict the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . To this end , the Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic islands of Ösel , particularly the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint Army @-@ Navy operation to capture Ösel and Moon islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , the battlecruiser Moltke , along with the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . The V Division included the four König @-@ class battleships , and was by this time augmented with Bayern . The VI Division consisted of the five Kaiser @-@ class battleships . Along with nine light cruisers , 3 torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , and were supported by over 100 aircraft and 6 zeppelins . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . The garrison on Ösel numbered some 14 @,@ 000 men . The operation began on 12 October , when Moltke , Bayern , and the Königs began firing on the Russian shore batteries at Tagga Bay . Simultaneously , the Kaisers engaged the batteries on the Sworbe peninsula ; the objective was to secure the channel between Moon and Dagö islands , which would block the only escape route of the Russian ships in the gulf . Both Grosser Kurfürst and Bayern struck mines while maneuvering into their bombardment positions ; damage to the former was minimal , and the ship remained in action . However , Bayern was severely damaged , and temporary repairs proved ineffective . The ship had to be withdrawn to Kiel for repairs ; the return trip took 19 days . = = = Fleet sortie of 23 – 24 April 1918 = = = In late 1917 , the High Seas Fleet began to conduct anti @-@ convoy raids with light craft in the North Sea between Britain and Norway . On 17 October , the German light cruisers Brummer and Bremse intercepted a convoy of twelve ships escorted by a pair of destroyers and destroyed it ; only three transports managed to escape . On 12 December , four German destroyers intercepted and annihilated another convoy of five ships and two escorting destroyers . This prompted Admiral David Beatty , the Commander in Chief of the Grand Fleet , to detach several battleships and battlecruisers to protect the convoys in the North Sea . This presented to Admiral Scheer the opportunity for which he had been waiting the entire war : the chance to isolate and eliminate a portion of the Grand Fleet . At 05 : 00 on 23 April 1918 , the entire High Seas Fleet , including Bayern and Baden , left harbor with the intention of intercepting one of the heavily escorted convoys . Wireless radio traffic was kept to a minimum to prevent the British from learning of the operation . However , at 05 : 10 on 24 April , the battlecruiser Moltke suffered severe mechanical problems and had to be towed back to Wilhelmshaven . By 14 : 10 , the convoy had still not yet been located , and so Scheer turned the High Seas Fleet back towards German waters . In fact , there was no convoy sailing on 24 April ; German naval intelligence had miscalculated the sailing date by one day . = = = Wilhelmshaven mutiny = = = In October 1918 , Admiral Hipper , now the commander of the entire High Seas Fleet , planned for a final battle with the Grand Fleet . Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the Chief of the Naval Staff , approved the plan on 27 October ; the operation was set for the 30th . However , when the fleet was ordered to assemble in Wilhelmshaven on 29 October , war @-@ weary crews began to desert or openly disobey their orders . Crews aboard König , Kronprinz , and Markgraf demonstrated for peace . The crew aboard Thüringen was the first to openly mutiny ; Helgoland and Kaiserin joined as well . By the evening of the 29th , red flags of revolution flew from the masts of dozens of warships in the harbor . In spite of this , Hipper decided to hold a last meeting aboard Baden — his flagship — to discuss the operation with the senior officers of the fleet . The following morning , it was clear the mutiny was too far gone to permit a fleet action . In an attempt to suppress the revolt , he ordered one of the battle squadrons to depart for Kiel . By 5 November , red flags had been raised on every battleship in the harbor except König , though it too was commandeered by a sailors ' council on 6 November . = = = Fate = = = Following the armistice with Germany in November 1918 , the majority of the High Seas Fleet was to be interned in the British naval base in Scapa Flow . Bayern was listed as one of the ships to be handed over , though Baden initially was not . The battlecruiser Mackensen , which the British believed to be completed , was requested instead . When it became apparent to the Allies that Mackensen was still under construction , Baden was ordered to replace it . On 21 November 1918 , the ships to be interned , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , sailed from their base in Germany for the last time . The fleet rendezvoused with the light cruiser HMS Cardiff , before meeting a massive flotilla of some 370 British , American , and French warships for the voyage to Scapa Flow . Baden arrived at Scapa Flow separately on 14 December 1918 . When the ships were interned , they had their guns disabled through the removal of their breech blocks . The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty . It became apparent to Reuter that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . To prevent this , he decided to scuttle his ships at the first opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers ; at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Bayern sank at 14 : 30 , but Baden was run aground by British guards ; she was the only capital ship that was not sunk . After being refloated and thoroughly examined , Baden was expended as a gunnery target , finally being sunk on 16 August 1921 to the southwest of Portsmouth . Bayern was eventually raised for scrapping on 1 September 1934 and broken up over the following year in Rosyth . Both Sachsen and Württemberg were stricken from the German Navy under the terms of Article 186 of the Versailles Treaty . Sachsen was sold for scrapping in 1920 to ship breakers at the Kiel Arsenal . Württemberg was sold the following year in 1921 , and broken up in Hamburg .

= Colorado State Highway 74 = State Highway 74 ( SH 74 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Colorado . Running 18 miles ( 29 km ) from Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) in El Rancho to SH 8 in Morrison , the highway roughly follows a hook @-@ shaped path running northwest – southeast . The section of the route north of the town of Evergreen is known as Evergreen Parkway and is a segment with a four- to six @-@ lane roadway , with the section east of Evergreen mostly two lanes . The other section is known as the Bear Creek Canyon Scenic Mountain Drive , or just Bear Creek Road , and primarily parallels Bear Creek , passing through the towns of Kittredge and Idledale . The route , which is on the outskirts of Denver , passes through several of the city 's mountain parks , including Bergen , Dedisse and Red Rocks parks . An early road following the current path was established in the late 19th century for miners and loggers . As floods ravaged the road along Bear Creek through the early 20th century , measures were taken to prevent further damage . Other sites along Bear Creek , such as a Civilian Conservation Corps ( CCC ) camp in Red Rocks Park and the Bear Creek Canyon Scenic Mountain Drive , as the section between Idledale and Morrison is called , have given the route a listing on the National Register of Historic Places . An early designation of the route number went further west than its current @-@ day designation ; that section was truncated by the late 1930s . Another eastern segment was added from Morrison east toward Denver in the 1940s , but that section too was removed . Newer improvements to the road include widening the Evergreen Parkway segment to four lanes and constructing an interchange with I @-@ 70 . = = Route description = = SH 74 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 70 in El Rancho . Ramps from I @-@ 70 westbound branch off the freeway 's exit 252 from the north side and cross the highway southwestward . Access to SH 74 from I @-@ 70 eastbound is provided via U.S. Highway 40 ( US 40 ) a slight distance to the west . From I @-@ 70 , the roadway heads southwesterly through El Rancho , meeting an intersection with US 40 ( Swede Gulch Road ) . The route heads westward before turning southwestward into a coniferous forest setting as a four @-@ lane divided highway . The roadway turns westward where it meets County Road 23 ( CR 23 , Kerr Gulch Road ) . Evergreen Parkway passes Fillius Park to the north in the community of Hidden Valley , where the terrain is mountainous . After intersecting Bergen Parkway , which heads southwesterly toward Bergen Park , SH 74 turns to the south . The parkway meets Squaw Pass Road and crosses the Troublesome Creek before traveling along the west side of Buchanan Park . SH 74 follows the east side of Elk Meadow Open Space Park , where open grassland is dotted with occasional trees . The road narrows to two lanes and climbs steeply at milepost five . While passing Wah Keeney Park , the road turns southeastward and continues to the community of Hiwan . SH 74 enters the town of Evergreen , passing by a lake of the same name along Bear Creek in Dedisse Park . Here , the route intersects CR 74 , which heads west along the Upper Bear Creek . SH 74 , now known as Bear Creek Road , curves east- and northward as it winds out of town . Narrowing to two lanes , the route follows the path of Bear Creek , curving northeasterly toward Kittredge with Pence Park on the east side . In Kittredge , the route meets CR 120 ( Myers Gulch Road ) , which heads southeast toward Indian Hills . The route again meets Kerr Gulch Road , which bypasses the large curve which SH 74 took . From Kittredge , SH 74 winds eastward on the north side of Bear Creek . The roadway passes Idledale north of the Lair O the Bear Park , where it intersects Grapevine Road . East of the town , an abandoned section of SH 74 exists , which now serves as a path to private areas . The route heads into Bear Creek Canyon Park , where it curves along the creek in a more rocky terrain . SH 74 also passes through Red Rocks Park along the stream . Exiting the park , SH 74 enters Morrison , where Bear Creek Road meets SH 8 at an intersection . From here , SH 8 ( Morrison Road ) serves as the continuation of the road toward Denver . The route is maintained by the Colorado Department of Transportation ( CDOT ) , who is responsible for maintaining and constructing transportation infrastructure in Colorado , including highways . As part of this role , CDOT periodically conducts surveys on their highways to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of the average daily traffic volume on a particular road . In 2009 , CDOT calculated that as few as 3 @,@ 200 vehicles used SH 74 daily near Idledale , and as many as 23 @,@ 000 vehicles used SH 74 near the interchange with I @-@ 70 as well in Evergreen . = = History = = In 1873 , John Evans , then a former governor of the Colorado Territory , constructed a toll road from Evergreen to Morrison via Bear Creek canyon . The early road offered access to various mining and logging resources along the creek . This road had over twenty bridges over Bear Creek , most of which were made of wood from the surrounding region . By the late 1870s , toll roads were no longer common , and the path 's maintenance responsibilities were passed to Jefferson County . SH 74 passes through many of Denver 's mountain parks , including Bergen Park and Dedisse Park . Established in 1909 by Colorado governor Robert W. Speer , the system encompassed several areas west of the city , comprising the first city @-@ owned park system in the world . SH 27 , as the Bear Creek Canyon Scenic Mountain Drive was designated at the time , ran past the Denver Motor Club in Idledale in addition to newly purchased parks . During the 1910s , Denver was granted the ability to enforce laws pertaining to these parks ; a speed limit of 20 miles per hour ( 32 km / h ) was set along the roadway uphill and 15 miles per hour ( 24 km / h ) downhill . In one of the parks , Red Rocks Park near Morrison , a CCC camp was established in 1935 as part of a New Deal work relief program . The enlistees here built a large amphitheater in the park . Numbered camp SP @-@ 13 @-@ C , it is the only CCC camp left in the state . Both the camp and the section of SH 74 between Idledale and Morrison , known as the Bear Creek Canyon Scenic Mountain Drive , are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Bear Creek was especially prone to flooding , as was seen in 1896 when Morrison was almost destroyed . On occasion , sightseers along the road were threatened by floods , such as one in 1925 where cars on the road were carried into the river . To control flooding along the creek and therefore preserve safety along the road , the Denver manager of parks sought to build a dam near Evergreen . The dam , finished three years after the flood , created Evergreen Lake . Following a September 1938 flood , crews from a federal work program built walls along the side of the creek , measuring from 7 to 34 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 to 10 @.@ 4 m ) high . The Works Progress Administration ( WPA ) , as this program was called , installed over 4 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) of masonry from Morrison to Idledale at points where previous floods had damaged the roadway . From 1923 through the early 1930s , the SH 74 designation was from Echo Lake at what is now an intersection between SH 103 and SH 5 east along Squaw Pass Road to Bergen Park . From here , it followed its current designation to Morrison . SH 74 was paved from Morrison to Evergreen using an oil surface resembling asphalt in late 1928 . This oil surface , which was approximately 1 inch ( 25 mm ) deep , prevented erosion along the roadway in the Bear Creek canyon during floods . By 1938 , the section west of Bergen Park was redesignated as SH 68 , and SH 74 was turned northward to US 40 . The east end was extended into Denver along Alameda Avenue by 1947 . This section terminated at what was then SH 87 in Denver . In 1956 , the Colorado State Highway Department opted to realign sections of SH 74 away from Bear Creek . A section of the road between Evergreen and Kittredge was resurfaced and widened the next year . By then , US 285 replaced the eastern segment , and the terminus of the route was cut back to its original and current terminus in Morrison . Construction on I @-@ 70 through the region was completed in 1972 and included an interchange at El Rancho at the northwest end of SH 74 . During the 1990s , CDOT sought to further upgrade SH 74 from I @-@ 70 to Evergreen to an expressway . Work on this project began in 1993 to improve the interchange between Evergreen Parkway and I @-@ 70 and widen the roadway to its current state , costing CDOT $ 8 million . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Jefferson County .

= Waffle @-@ iron filter = A waffle @-@ iron filter is a type of waveguide filter used at microwave frequencies for signal filtering . It is a variation of the corrugated @-@ waveguide filter but with longitudinal slots cut through the corrugations resulting in an internal structure that has the appearance of a waffle @-@ iron . Waffle @-@ iron filters are particularly suitable where both a wide passband , and a wide stopband free of spurious transmission modes , are required . They also have a high power @-@ handling capability . Applications include suppressing the harmonic output of transmitters and the design of wide @-@ band diplexers . They are also used in industrial microwave manufacturing processes to prevent the escape of microwave radiation from the microwave chamber . Filters with an analogous design are now appearing in photonics , but , due to the higher frequency , at a much smaller scale . This small size allows them to be incorporated into integrated circuits . Design techniques for waffle @-@ iron filters include image @-@ parameter methods , network synthesis methods and numerical analysis methods . Network synthesis is a more advanced method than image @-@ parameter techniques but the latter can still be used where a simple repeated @-@ pattern design is desired . Numerical methods can be used to analyse either design . = = Description = = The waffle @-@ iron filter was invented by Seymour B. Cohn at Stanford Research Institute in 1957 . The basis for the filter is the corrugated @-@ waveguide filter . This consists of a series of ridges , or corrugations , across the width of the filter . There are corrugations inside the waveguide on both the top and bottom surfaces . The rising and descending ridges are aligned with each other but do not meet in the middle ; there is a gap in between . In the waffle @-@ iron filter there are , in addition , slots cut through the ridges down the length of the waveguide . This leaves a matrix of square islands , or teeth , on the top and bottom surfaces . Waffle @-@ iron filters are , in essence , low @-@ pass filters but like all waveguide devices will not transmit anything below the waveguide cutoff frequency . Waffle @-@ iron filters are used where both a wide passband with low insertion loss , and a wide ( sometimes very wide ) stopband are needed . They are particularly good where suppression of spurious modes is required . Waffle @-@ iron filters have been built with a 10 GHz wide stopband and 60 dB attenuation . Even wider stopbands are possible with a relaxed attenuation specification . = = Operation = = One of the performance issues addressed by the waffle @-@ iron filter is that in many waveguide filters the attenuation is dependent on the transmission modes of the incident signal and some filters can be quite bad at suppressing spurious modes which may be contained in this signal . For instance , with the corrugated waveguide filter , on which the waffle @-@ iron filter is based , attenuation of TEn0 modes in the stopband is strongly dependent on the mode number . This is not the case with the waffle @-@ iron filter which attenuates all TEn0 modes nearly equally up to a certain frequency . The limit is the frequency at which the distance between the metal teeth is greater than half the free @-@ space wavelength of the signal . The reason for the waffle @-@ iron design 's good performance in this respect is that the distance between the teeth is the same in both the longitudinal and transverse directions and nearly the same in all directions in between . This makes the waffle @-@ iron nearly isotropic to TEM waves in all these directions . Since any TEn0 mode wave can be decomposed into two TEM mode waves travelling in different diagonal directions , all TEn0 modes are affected nearly equally . Incident signals containing TM modes above a certain frequency can generate modes which propagate along the longitudinal slots with the slots themselves acting as waveguides . The point at which this can start to happen is the frequency at which the height of the slot is greater than half the free @-@ space wavelength of the signal . If this frequency is above the required stopband of the filter the effect is of no consequence . Otherwise , steps outside the filter are needed to suppress these modes and can be incorporated into the end @-@ matching sections . Other design criteria will usually result in a filter which does not match the waveguides to which it is to be connected at its input and output . There are many structures that can be used for matching but a useful one here is the stepped @-@ impedance transformer which has the added advantage of helping to suppress the unwanted slot modes . = = Applications = = A common application of waffle @-@ iron filters is to remove the harmonics of transmitters , such as high power radar , before applying to the antenna . Legislation in most jurisdictions requires strict limits on out @-@ of @-@ band transmissions since these can cause serious interference with other stations . This is an application that usually requires a very wide stopband , a characteristic of waffle @-@ iron filters . For instance , to remove all harmonics up to the fifth it is necessary for a low @-@ pass filter to have a stopband greater than three times the passband . The wide @-@ band nature of waffle @-@ iron filters finds applications in satellite communications . A satellite earth station may have multiple diplexers connected to a multi @-@ band antenna feeder . Each diplexer delivers a wide @-@ band signal in a different band and it is essential that its signal does not contain out @-@ of @-@ band components , particularly harmonics . These can seriously interfere with , or even stop entirely , communication in another band . The diplexer must therefore have a stopband that is even wider than the passband . For this reason , as well as the other advantages of waffle @-@ irons , these diplexers are commonly made to a waffle @-@ iron design . Waffle @-@ iron filters are used in industrial microwave processes . The many industrial applications of microwave energy include drying of food products and industrial films , heating , such as in polyurethane foam production , melting , rendering , sterilising , and vulcanisation . In high @-@ volume production the process is continuous necessitating openings to the microwave chamber where the product can be fed in and exit . Steps need to be taken to prevent unsafe levels of microwave radiation escaping from these apertures which are often large to accommodate the product . It is usual to line the product feed ducts with microwave absorbent material for this purpose . However , the absorbed microwaves have a heating effect and this can be severe enough to damage the absorbent material . Waffle @-@ iron filters are a useful alternative because the product can be passed between the filter 's teeth . An ideal filter will reflect all the unwanted radiation rather than absorbing it so will not suffer from overheating . This is an example of a filter being used in a choke application . In some processes both techniques are used simultaneously . The waffle @-@ iron is placed nearest the microwave chamber to first reduce the energy to a level which will not cause the absorbent lining to overheat . The absorbent lining then removes the small residue . = = Design = = The number of teeth , their size , and the gap between them are all design parameters that can be used to control the design of the filter . As an example , a filter with a 3 : 1 stopband might have five teeth across the width of the waveguide . The number of rows of teeth down the length of the waveguide primarily affects the stopband attenuation . The more rows of teeth , the better the attenuation , each row being equivalent to a lumped element circuit filter section . A filter with ten rows of teeth has a theoretical stopband rejection of around 80 dB and one with seven rows around 60 dB . The earliest waffle @-@ iron filters were designed with the image parameter method of filter design . Cohn 's original data for the corrugated filter could also be applied to the waffle @-@ iron with only a small adjustment of one parameter . An alternative approach to using Cohn 's empirical data , but still an image parameter design , is due to Marcuvitz who used a waveguide T @-@ junction equivalent circuit to represent corrugations and this method was later extended by others to waffle @-@ irons . One of the main drawbacks of the image parameter design method in this , as in other , filters is that the impedance match at the terminations is not good . This usually requires that impedance matching sections are provided at the input and output . These usually take the form of multi @-@ section stepped impedance transformers . These add considerably to the overall length of the filter . A small improvement to matching can be had by starting and ending the filter on a half @-@ space instead of a full tooth or space . The lumped circuit equivalent of this is T @-@ half @-@ sections terminating the filter at either end . Starting and ending on a half @-@ tooth instead of a half space is the equivalent of Π @-@ half @-@ sections . Direct synthesis avoids many of the problems of the image parameter method . Not only does it take better account of the terminal impedances but the designer has additional degrees of freedom allowing improved matching . The size and gaps of the teeth are tapered in this method of design . That is , the teeth can be different sizes according to their position in the filter , compared with an image design where all sections are identical . With this approach , the original specification for passband and stopband can be kept while simultaneously improving the impedance matching . The stepped impedance transformers can be dispensed with , or at least significantly reduced in size . Synthesis methods allow better control of the precise filter response . A common response function used by filter designers is the Chebyshev filter which trades steepness of the transition band for passband ripple . However the Chebyshev response is not always the best choice for waffle @-@ iron filters . Low @-@ pass waveguide filters do not pass frequencies all the way down to zero because of the waveguide cutoff effect . A better choice is the Achieser @-@ Zolotarev filter . This filter is based on Zolotarev polynomials ( which include the Chebyshev polynomials as a special case ) discovered by Yegor Ivanovich Zolotarev . The Zolotarev response has a stopband at low frequency , the cutoff of which can be controlled by the designer so it is not detrimental in a waveguide filter . The advantage of the Zolotarev response is that it results in a filter with a better impedance match to the connecting waveguides compared to the Chebyshev filter or image @-@ parameter filters . Another design approach , particularly suitable for CAD because it is a numerical method , is to decompose the filter into a number of finite elements . These elements are a large number of simple steps and ridges . A number of methods are available to analyse the individual elements . The mode matching technique expands the field equations of the element into a series of eigenfunctions and then for each mode matches the field at the interface between elements . The Galerkin method expands the field equations into polynomial functions such as Gegenbauer polynomials or Chebyshev polynomials . These methods can be mixed according to what is convenient for a particular type of element . Whichever analysis method is used , the final output needed is the scattering parameters matrix for each element . The overall filter response is then found from the combined scattering matrix of all the individual element matrices . This method is analytic rather than synthetic , that is , a trial design must first exist in order to be analysed unlike synthesis methods where the starting point is a prescribed transfer function from which a design is synthesised . TE0n modes should not , in theory , be excited in the waffle @-@ iron filter because of its vertical symmetry about the centre @-@ line . However , in practice they can be caused by poorly mating waveguide flanges or misaligned teeth . These spurious modes can be suppressed by fitting thin wires across the width of the filter in the space between the teeth on the vertical centre @-@ line of the waveguide . This can be a better solution than over @-@ engineering the components to high precision and results in a more robust design . = = Multiple unit filters = = Very wide stopbands can be achieved by cascading several waffle @-@ iron filter units together . Each unit is designed for a stopband in different , but overlapping , ranges . The filter with the highest frequency stopband has the smallest , and greatest number , of teeth . The units are connected together with λ / 4 impedance transformer sections of waveguide in order of progressively higher frequency operation . Since the impedance transformers are operating at different frequencies the ones connected to the units with smallest teeth are shorter than those connected to units with larger teeth . Matthaei gives an example of a three unit waffle @-@ iron filter designed to stop all harmonics of the passband from the second to the tenth – a combined stopband of 2 @.@ 2 GHz to 13 @.@ 7 GHz with a rejection of 60 dB . Using network synthesis design techniques the need for multiple units can be reduced or eliminated . If tapering of the teeth is allowed , a two @-@ unit design can often be reduced to a single unit with the same wide stopband . This approach can halve the length of the complete filter . = = High power = = At high power , arcing can occur at the corners of the filter teeth due to strong electric fields being present at sharp corners . This limits the power @-@ handling capability of the filter . The effect can be mitigated by rounding the edges of the teeth . Completely circular teeth are best of all for power handling . Circular teeth will handle about 1 @.@ 4 times the power capability of square teeth without arcing . For instance Matthaei describes a 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 64 GHz passband filter with rounded teeth and a wide stopband with a power @-@ handling capability of 1 @.@ 4 MW . A similar filter with circular teeth , on the other hand , can handle 2 MW . Using power dividers to connect filters in parallel and then combining their outputs can provide even greater power handling . = = Photonics = = Filter structures that are analogous to the waffle @-@ iron filter are used in photonics but operate at a much higher frequency and are much smaller than those used in electronics . Like the waffle @-@ iron , these structures have good suppression of unwanted transmission modes . A filter operating in the 0 @.@ 1 to 4 @.@ 0 THz band has been built using parallel @-@ plate waveguide ( PPWG ) technology with 50 dB of rejection in the stopband . The filter was constructed of two plates of highly polished aluminium spaced 100 μm apart . The teeth consisted of gold @-@ sputtered aluminium cylinders on a silicon die . In this design it is not convenient to provide a gap through the centre of the teeth as is done in the microwave version . Instead , the air gap is provided between the top of the teeth and one of the PPWG plates . These filters can be made using the standard semiconductor industry photolithography manufacturing techniques . Consequently , they are suitable for incorporating into on @-@ chip integrated circuits , as is PPWG technology in general .

= Ars Conjectandi = Ars Conjectandi ( Latin for " The Art of Conjecturing " ) is a book on combinatorics and mathematical probability written by Jacob Bernoulli and published in 1713 , eight years after his death , by his nephew , Niklaus Bernoulli . The seminal work consolidated , apart from many combinatorial topics , many central ideas in probability theory , such as the very first version of the law of large numbers : indeed , it is widely regarded as the founding work of that subject . It also addressed problems that today are classified in the twelvefold way and added to the subjects ; consequently , it has been dubbed an important historical landmark in not only probability but all combinatorics by a plethora of mathematical historians . The importance of this early work had a large impact on both contemporary and later mathematicians ; for example , Abraham de Moivre . Bernoulli wrote the text between 1684 and 1689 , including the work of mathematicians such as Christiaan Huygens , Gerolamo Cardano , Pierre de Fermat , and Blaise Pascal . He incorporated fundamental combinatorial topics such as his theory of permutations and combinations ( the aforementioned problems from the twelvefold way ) as well as those more distantly connected to the burgeoning subject : the derivation and properties of the eponymous Bernoulli numbers , for instance . Core topics from probability , such as expected value , were also a significant portion of this important work . = = Background = = In Europe , the subject of probability was first formally developed in the 16th century with the work of Gerolamo Cardano , whose interest in the branch of mathematics was largely due to his habit of gambling . He formalized what is now called the classical definition of probability : if an event has a possible outcomes and we select any b of those such that b ≤ a , the probability of any of the b occurring is <formula> . However , his actual influence on mathematical scene was not great ; he wrote only one light tome on the subject in 1525 titled Liber de ludo aleae ( Book on Games of Chance ) , which was published posthumously in 1663 . The date which historians cite as the beginning of the development of modern probability theory is 1654 , when two of the most well @-@ known mathematicians of the time , Blaise Pascal and Pierre de Fermat , began a correspondence discussing the subject . The two initiated the communication because earlier that year , a gambler from Paris named Antoine Gombaud had sent Pascal and other mathematicians several questions on the practical applications of some of these theories ; in particular he posed the problem of points , concerning a theoretical two @-@ player game in which a prize must be divided between the players due to external circumstances halting the game . The fruits of Pascal and Fermat 's correspondence interested other mathematicians , including Christiaan Huygens , whose De ratiociniis in aleae ludo ( Calculations in Games of Chance ) appeared in 1657 as the final chapter of Van Schooten 's Exercitationes Matematicae . In 1665 Pascal posthumously published his results on the eponymous Pascal 's triangle , an important combinatorial concept . He referred to the triangle in his work Traité du triangle arithmétique ( Traits of the Arithmetic Triangle ) as the " arithmetic triangle " . In 1662 , the book La Logique ou l ’ Art de Penser was published anonymously in Paris . The authors presumably were Antoine Arnauld and Pierre Nicole , two leading Jansenists , who worked together with Blaise Pascal . The Latin title of this book is Ars cogitandi , which was a successful book on logic of the time . The Ars cogitandi consists of four books , with the fourth one dealing with decision @-@ making under uncertainty by considering the analogy to gambling and introducing explicitly the concept of a quantified probability . In the field of statistics and applied probability , John Graunt published Natural and Political Observations Made upon the Bills of Mortality also in 1662 , initiating the discipline of demography . This work , among other things , gave a statistical estimate of the population of London , produced the first life table , gave probabilities of survival of different age groups , examined the different causes of death , noting that the annual rate of suicide and accident is constant , and commented on the level and stability of sex ratio . The usefulness and interpretation of Graunt 's tables were discussed in a series of correspondences by brothers Ludwig and Christiaan Huygens in 1667 , where they realized the difference between mean and median estimates and Christian even interpolated Graunt 's life table by a smooth curve , creating the first continuous probability distribution ; but their correspondences were not published . Later , Johan de Witt , the then prime minister of the Dutch Republic , published similar material in his 1671 work Waerdye van Lyf @-@ Renten ( A Treatise on Life Annuities ) , which used statistical concepts to determine life expectancy for practical political purposes ; a demonstration of the fact that this sapling branch of mathematics had significant pragmatic applications . De Witt 's work was not widely distributed beyond the Dutch Republic , perhaps due to his fall from power and execution by mob in 1672 . Apart from the practical contributions of these two work , they also exposed a fundamental idea that probability can be assigned to events that do not have inherent physical symmetry , such as the chances of dying at certain age , unlike say the rolling of a dice or flipping of a coin , simply by counting the frequency of occurrence . Thus probability could be more than mere combinatorics . = = Development of Ars Conjectandi = = In the wake of all these pioneers , Bernoulli produced much of the results contained in Ars Conjectandi between 1684 and 1689 , which he recorded in his diary Meditationes . When he began the work in 1684 at the age of 30 , while intrigued by combinatorial and probabilistic problems , Bernoulli had not yet read Pascal 's work on the " arithmetic triangle " nor de Witt 's work on the applications of probability theory : he had earlier requested a copy of the latter from his acquaintance Gottfried Leibniz , but Leibniz failed to provide it . The latter , however , did manage to provide Pascal 's and Huygen 's work , and thus it is largely upon these foundations that Ars Conjectandi is constructed . Apart from these works , Bernoulli certainly possessed or at least knew the contents from secondary sources of the La Logique ou l ’ Art de Penser as well as Graunt 's Bills of Mortality , as he makes explicit reference to these two works . Bernoulli ’ s progress over time can be pursued by means of the Meditationes . Three working periods with respect to his " discovery " can be distinguished by aims and times . The first period , which lasts from 1684 to 1685 , is devoted to the study of the problems regarding the games of chance posed by Christiaan Huygens ; during the second period ( 1685 @-@ 1686 ) the investigations are extended to cover processes where the probabilities are not known a priori , but have to be determined a posteriori . Finally , in the last period ( 1687 @-@ 1689 ) , the problem of measuring the probabilities is solved . Before the publication of his Ars Conjectandi , Bernoulli had produced a number of treaties related to probability : Parallelismus ratiocinii logici et algebraici , Basel , 1685 . In the Journal des Sçavans 1685 ( 26.VIII ) , p . 314 there appear two problems concerning the probability each of two players may have of winning in a game of dice . Solutions were published in the Acta Eruditorum 1690 ( May ) , pp. 219 – 223 in the article Quaestiones nonnullae de usuris , cum solutione Problematis de Sorte Alearum . In addition , Leibniz himself published a solution in the same journal on pages 387 @-@ 390 . Theses logicae de conversione et oppositione enunciationum , a public lecture delivered at Basel , 12 February 1686 . Theses XXXI to XL are related to the theory of probability . De Arte Combinatoria Oratio Inauguralis , 1692 . The Letter à un amy sur les parties du jeu de paume , that is , a letter to a friend on sets in the game of Tennis , published with the Ars Conjectandi in 1713 . Between 1703 to 1705 , Leibniz corresponded with Jakob after learning about his discoveries in probability from his brother Johann . Leibniz managed to provide thoughtful criticisms on Bernoulli 's law of large number , but failed to provide Bernoulli with de Witt 's work on annuities that he so desired . From the outset , Bernoulli wished for his work to demonstrate that combinatorics and probability theory would have numerous real @-@ world applications in all facets of society — in the line of Graunt 's and de Witt 's work — and would serve as a rigorous method of logical reasoning under insufficient evidence , as used in courtrooms and in moral judgements . It was also hoped that the theory of probability could provide comprehensive and consistent method of reasoning , where ordinary reasoning might be overwhelmed by the complexity of the situation . Thus the title Ars Conjectandi was chosen : a link to the concept of ars inveniendi from scholasticism , which provided the symbolic link to pragmatism he desired and also as an extension of the prior Ars Cogitandi . In Bernoulli 's own words , the " art of conjecture " is defined in Chapter II of Part IV of his Ars Conjectandi as : The art of measuring , as precisely as possible , probabilities of things , with the goal that we would be able always to choose or follow in our judgments and actions that course , which will have been determined to be better , more satisfactory , safer or more advantageous . The development of the book was terminated by Bernoulli 's death in 1705 ; thus the book is essentially incomplete when compared with Bernoulli 's original vision . The quarrel with his younger brother Johann , who was the most competent person who could have fulfilled Jacob 's project , prevented Johann to get hold of the manuscript . Jacob 's own children were not mathematicians and were not up to the task of editing and publishing the manuscript . Finally Jacob 's nephew Niklaus , 7 years after Jacob 's death in 1705 , managed to publish the manuscript in 1713 . = = Contents = = Bernoulli 's work , originally published in Latin is divided into four parts . It covers most notably his theory of permutations and combinations ; the standard foundations of combinatorics today and subsets of the foundational problems today known as the twelvefold way . It also discusses the motivation and applications of a sequence of numbers more closely related to number theory than probability ; these Bernoulli numbers bear his name today , and are one of his more notable achievements . The first part is an in @-@ depth expository on Huygens ' De ratiociniis in aleae ludo . Bernoulli provides in this section solutions to the five problems Huygens posed at the end of his work . He particularly develops Huygens ' concept of expected value — the weighted average of all possible outcomes of an event . Huygens had developed the following formula : <formula> In this formula , E is the expected value , pi are the probabilities of attaining each value , and ai are the attainable values . Bernoulli normalizes the expected value by assuming that pi are the probabilities of all the disjoint outcomes of the value , hence implying that p0 + p1 + ... + pn = 1 . Another key theory developed in this part is the probability of achieving at least a certain number of successes from a number of binary events , today named Bernoulli trials , given that the probability of success in each event was the same . Bernoulli shows through mathematical induction that given a the number of favorable outcomes in each event , b the number of total outcomes in each event , d the desired number of successful outcomes , and e the number of events , the probability of at least d successes is <formula> The first part concludes with what is now known as the Bernoulli distribution . The second part expands on enumerative combinatorics , or the systematic numeration of objects . It was in this part that two of the most important of the twelvefold ways — the permutations and combinations that would form the basis of the subject — were fleshed out , though they had been introduced earlier for the purposes of probability theory . He gives the first non @-@ inductive proof of the binomial expansion for integer exponent using combinatorial arguments . On a note more distantly related to combinatorics , the second section also discusses the general formula for sums of integer powers ; the free coefficients of this formula are therefore called the Bernoulli numbers , which influenced Abraham de Moivre 's work later , and which have proven to have numerous applications in number theory . In the third part , Bernoulli applies the probability techniques from the first section to the common chance games played with playing cards or dice . Interestingly , he does not feel the necessity to describe the rules and objectives of the card games he analyzes . He presents probability problems related to these games and , once a method had been established , posed generalizations . For example , a problem involving the expected number of " court cards " — jack , queen , and king — one would pick in a five @-@ card hand from a standard deck of 52 cards containing 12 court cards could be generalized to a deck with a cards that contained b court cards , and a c @-@ card hand . The fourth section continues the trend of practical applications by discussing applications of probability to civilibus , moralibus , and oeconomicis , or to personal , judicial , and financial decisions . In this section , Bernoulli differs from the school of thought known as frequentism , which defined probability in an empirical sense . As a counter , he produces a result resembling the law of large numbers , which he describes as predicting that the results of observation would approach theoretical probability as more trials were held — in contrast , frequents defined probability in terms of the former . Bernoulli was very proud of this result , referring to it as his " golden theorem " , and remarked that it was " a problem in which I ’ ve engaged myself for twenty years " . This early version of the law is known today as either Bernoulli 's theorem or the weak law of large numbers , as it is less rigorous and general than the modern version . After these four primary expository sections , almost as an afterthought , Bernoulli appended to Ars Conjectandi a tract on calculus , which concerned infinite series . It was a reprint of five dissertations he had published between 1686 and 1704 . = = Legacy = = Ars Conjectandi is considered a landmark work in combinatorics and the founding work of mathematical probability . Among others , an anthology of great mathematical writings published by Elsevier and edited by historian Ivor Grattan @-@ Guinness describes the studies set out in the work " [ occupying ] mathematicians throughout 18th and 19th centuries " — an influence lasting three centuries . Statistician Anthony Edwards praised not only the book 's groundbreaking content , writing that it demonstrated Bernoulli 's " thorough familiarity with the many facets [ of combinatorics ] , " but its form : " [ Ars Conjectandi ] is a very well @-@ written book , excellently constructed . " Perhaps most recently , notable popular mathematical historian and topologist William Dunham called the paper " the next milestone of probability theory [ after the work of Cardano ] " as well as " Jakob Bernoulli 's masterpiece " . It greatly aided what Dunham describes as " Bernoulli 's long @-@ established reputation " . Bernoulli 's work influenced many contemporary and subsequent mathematicians . Even the afterthought @-@ like tract on calculus has been quoted frequently ; most notably by the Scottish mathematician Colin Maclaurin . Jacob 's program of applying his art of conjecture to the matters of practical life , which was terminated by his death in 1705 , was continued by his nephew Nicolaus Bernoulli , after having taken parts verbatim out of Ars Conjectandi , for his own dissertation entitled De Usu Artis Conjectandi in Jure which was published already in 1709 . Nicolas finally edited and assisted in the publication of Ars conjectandi in 1713 . Later Nicolaus also edited Jacob Bernoulli 's complete works and supplemented it with results taken from Jacob 's diary . Pierre Rémond de Montmort , in collaboration with Nicolaus Bernoulli , wrote a book on probability Essay d 'analyse sur les jeux de hazard which appeared in 1708 , which can be seen as an extension of the Part III of Ars Conjectandi which applies combinatorics and probability to analyze games of chance commonly played at that time . Abraham de Moivre also wrote extensively on the subject in De mensura sortis : Seu de Probabilitate Eventuum in Ludis a Casu Fortuito Pendentibus of 1711 and its extension The Doctrine of Chances or , a Method of Calculating the Probability of Events in Play of 1718 . De Moivre 's most notable achievement in probability was the discovery of the first instance of central limit theorem , by which he was able to approximate the binomial distribution with the normal distribution . To achieve this De Moivre developed an asymptotic sequence for the factorial function — - which we now refer to as Stirling 's approximation — - and Bernoulli 's formula for the sum of powers of numbers . Both Montmort and de Moivre adopted the term probability from Jacob Bernoulli , which had not been used in all the previous publications on gambling , and both their works were enormously popular . The refinement of Bernoulli 's Golden Theorem , regarding the convergence of theoretical probability and empirical probability , was taken up by many notable later day mathematicians like De Moivre , Laplace , Poisson , Chebyshev , Markov , Borel , Cantelli , Kolmogorov and Khinchin . The complete proof of the Law of Large Numbers for the arbitrary random variables was finally provided during first half of 20th century . A significant indirect influence was Thomas Simpson , who achieved a result that closely resembled de Moivre 's . According to Simpsons ' work 's preface , his own work depended greatly on de Moivre 's ; the latter in fact described Simpson 's work as an abridged version of his own . Finally , Thomas Bayes wrote an essay discussing theological implications of de Moivre 's results : his solution to a problem , namely that of determining the probability of an event by its relative frequency , was taken as a proof for the existence of God by Bayes . Finally in 1812 , Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace published his Théorie analytique des probabilités in which he consolidated and laid down many fundamental results in probability and statistics such as the moment generating function , method of least squares , inductive probability , and hypothesis testing , thus completing the final phase in the development of classical probability . Indeed , in light of all this , there is good reason Bernoulli 's work is hailed as such a seminal event ; not only did his various influences , direct and indirect , set the mathematical study of combinatorics spinning , but even theology was impacted .

= Dolph Lundgren = Dolph Lundgren ( born Hans Lundgren ; 3 November 1957 ) is a Swedish actor , director , martial artist , screenwriter and producer . = = Career = = Lundgren received a degree in chemistry from Washington State University , a degree in chemical engineering from the Royal Institute of Technology in the early 1980s , and a master 's degree in chemical engineering from the University of Sydney in 1982 . He holds the rank of 3rd dan black belt in Kyokushin karate and was European champion in 1980 and 1981 . While in Sydney , he became a bodyguard for Jamaican singer Grace Jones and began a relationship with her . They moved together to New York City , where , after a short stint as a model and bouncer at the Manhattan nightclub the Limelight , Jones got him a small debut role as a KGB henchman in the James Bond film A View to a Kill . Lundgren 's breakthrough came when he starred in Rocky IV in 1985 as the imposing Russian boxer Ivan Drago . Since then , he has starred in more than 40 films , almost all of them in the action genre . He portrayed He @-@ Man in the 1987 science fantasy film Masters of the Universe and Frank Castle in the 1989 film The Punisher . In the early 1990s , he also appeared in films such as Dark Angel ( 1990 ) , Universal Soldier ( 1992 ) , Joshua Tree ( 1993 ) , Johnny Mnemonic ( 1995 ) , and Blackjack ( 1998 ) . In 2004 , he directed his first film , The Defender , and subsequently directed The Mechanik ( 2005 ) , Missionary Man ( 2007 ) , Command Performance ( 2009 ) , and Icarus ( 2010 ) , also starring in the latter . After a long spell performing in direct @-@ to @-@ video films since 1995 , Lundgren returned to Hollywood in 2010 with the role of Gunner Jensen in The Expendables , alongside Stallone and an all @-@ action star cast . He reprised his role in The Expendables 2 ( 2012 ) and The Expendables 3 ( 2014 ) . Also in 2014 , he co @-@ starred in Skin Trade , an action thriller about human trafficking . The film marks his third collaboration with Cary @-@ Hiroyuki Tagawa , the previous two being Showdown in Little Tokyo ( 1991 ) and Bridge of Dragons ( 1999 ) . He is due to reprise his role as Gunner Jensen in The Expendables 4 ( 2017 ) . = = Early life = = = = = Childhood = = = Hans Lundgren was born in 1957 in Stockholm to Sigrid Birgitta ( née Tjerneld ) , a language teacher , and Karl Johan Hugo Lundgren , an engineer and economist for the Swedish government . He lived in Stockholm until the age of 13 , when he moved to his grandparents ' home in Nyland , Ångermanland . Some sources wrongly state 1959 as his year of birth , but Lundgren himself has confirmed it to be 1957 . He has two sisters and an older brother . Lundgren was raised in the Lutheran church . Lundgren claims his father was physically abusive and vented his frustration on his wife and eldest son . He has stated that , during his tirades , his father would call him a " loser " , which motivated him later as he grew more ambitious to prove himself . But he also said , " I still love my father , no matter what happened . There are many things about him I still admire . As a child , I was probably too much like him , very stubborn — perhaps that 's what he couldn 't deal with . " He cites his troubled relationship with his father as the reason he developed a desire to participate in heavy contact sports such as boxing and karate . Lundgren has said that as a child he was insecure and suffered from allergies . He even claimed to have been a runt . As a teenager , he grew up with his grandparents in the community of Nyland , north of Kramfors . He showed a keen interest in drumming and had aspirations to become a rock star . At age seven , he tried judo and Gōjū @-@ ryū . He took up Kyokushin karate at the age of 10 , and began training with weights as a teenager . Lundgren is a keen football fan . He supported Everton F.C. when he lived in Europe , but developed more of an interest in international football tournaments ( such as the European Championships and the FIFA World Cup ) after moving to Los Angeles . = = = Education = = = Lundgren stated that " My dad always told me that if I wanted to make something special with my life , I had to go to America . " After graduating from high school with straight As , he spent some time in the United States in the 1970s on various academic scholarships , studying chemistry at Washington State University and Clemson University . He received a degree in Chemistry from Washington State University , following in the footsteps of his father and older brother , then served his mandatory one year in the Swedish Marine Corps at the Amphibious Ranger School . In the late 1970s , he enrolled at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm and graduated with a degree in chemical engineering . Amidst his years of studying , Lundgren honed his karate skills by training hard in the dojo for five years , attaining the rank of 2nd dan black belt in Kyokushin in 1978 . He captained the Swedish Kyokushin karate team , and was a formidable challenger at the 1979 World Open Tournament ( arranged by the Kyokushin Karate Organization ) when he was only a green belt . He won the European championships in 1980 and 1981 , and a heavyweight tournament in Australia in 1982 . Dolph continued training kyokushin karate after leaving his tournament career , when his new career allowed , and eventually graded to 3rd dan in July 1998 , in the Shinkyokushin organization of Kyokushin karate . The formal grading took place in Stockholms kyokushin karate Gym , in Stockholm , Sweden . Lundgren is often seen on Shinkyokushin tournament events , doing karate exhibitions during breaks . In 1982 , Lundgren graduated with a master 's degree in chemical engineering from the University of Sydney . During his time in Sydney , he earned a living as a bouncer in a nightclub in the renowned King 's Cross area . He was awarded a Fulbright Scholarship to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1983 . However , while preparing for the move to Boston , he was spotted in the nightclub he worked at in Sydney and was hired by Grace Jones as a bodyguard , and the two became lovers . Their relationship developed dramatically , and he moved with her to New York City . = = = New York City = = = While living with Grace Jones in her New York City apartment , Lundgren dabbled in modeling at the Zoli Agency but was described as " a bit too tall and muscular for a model 's size 40 " . He earned a living as a bouncer at the Manhattan nightclub The Limelight ; housed in a former Episcopal Church of the Holy Communion , working with Chazz Palminteri . In the daytime , he studied drama at the Warren Robertson Theatre Workshop and has said that " my time in New York City opened up my adolescent Swedish eyes to a multitude of different people and lifestyles , mostly in the arts . I hung out with Andy Warhol , Keith Haring , Iman and Steve Rubell , danced at Studio 54 , and studied acting with Andie MacDowell and Tom Hulce . " Standing 6 ' 5 " ( 195 cm ) , with a heavily muscular frame and distinctive looks , he stood out , and was told by friends that he could make it in movies . He would later quit studying at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology after two weeks to pursue acting . = = Film career = = = = = 1980s = = = On set of the James Bond film A View to a Kill , Jones suggested that he try out for a part in the film which led to his feature film debut playing the very minor role of a suited KGB henchman named Venz . In the film , Dolph is seen briefly in the scene in which the KGB 's General Gogol ( Walter Gotell ) confronts Max Zorin ( Christopher Walken ) about leaving the KGB at a racing ground and ends in a minor brawl in which Lundgren 's character Venz points a gun at Zorin . Roger Moore , in his last performance as James Bond , once memorably said " Dolph is larger than Denmark " . Lundgren found the entertainment business more attractive and rewarding than chemical engineering so he decided to pursue a career in acting despite having no formal training . Upon learning that Sylvester Stallone was on the lookout for an imposing fighter to play Ivan Drago in Rocky IV ( 1985 ) , Lundgren sent off videos and pictures of himself to a distant contact of Stallone , which eventually got through to him . Lundgren tried out for the role , but as he stated himself , he was initially turned down for the role because he was too tall . However , he eventually beat 5 @,@ 000 other hopefuls to land his breakout role opposite Stallone , Carl Weathers and Brigitte Nielsen . To improve his physique and athletic abilities for the role of Drago , he trained intensely in bodybuilding and boxing for five months before the film was shot . Lundgren said , " We trained six days a week — weights in the morning for about an hour , then boxing in the afternoon . We did a split of chest and back one day and then shoulders , legs , and arms the next . We boxed for an hour and a half , practiced the fight choreography , and did bag work and abs . " He weighed 235 pounds ( 107 kg ) – 245 pounds ( 111 kg ) during the filming , but in the film he was billed at 261 pounds ( 118 kg ) ; one publisher said of Drago , " He 's a hulking 261 pounds of merciless fighting machine , the best that Soviet science & medicine can create " . His lines " If he dies , he dies " and " I must break you " are amongst the best known of the Rocky series and have been cited in popular culture . Sylvester Stallone said in an interview : " During [ the filming of ] Rocky IV , Dolph had hit me so hard I had swelling around the heart and had to stay in intensive care at St. John 's Hospital for four days . " Lundgren later fought in a real boxing match against former UFC fighter Oleg Taktarov , and lost via decision . Lundgren has highlighted the premiere of Rocky IV at Westwood Movie Theatre as the moment which changed his life , remarking , " I walked in to a Westwood movie theater as Grace Jones ' boyfriend and walked out ninety minutes later as the movie star Dolph Lundgren . I was shell @-@ shocked for years from the mind @-@ boggling and daunting experience of being a student @-@ athlete from tiny Sweden suddenly having to live up a new action @-@ star persona . " Lundgren received his first lead role as the mighty He @-@ Man in Masters of the Universe ( 1987 ) , based on the popular children 's toyline and cartoon . He starred alongside Frank Langella , Meg Foster , Chelsea Field , Billy Barty and Courteney Cox . Lundgren weighed his all time heaviest during the filming at 250 pounds ( 110 kg ) . The film was a critical failure and viewed as far too violent for a family picture . It is referred to as a " flop " by Variety magazine , and has a 13 % " rotten " rating at Rotten Tomatoes . Lundgren was criticized for being too wooden as a leading man , and it was dismissed as " a glossy fantasy starring monosyllabic Dolph Lundgren . " Citing the reason Lundgren would never successfully make it as a top leading actor in Hollywood , one author said , " Lundgren is limited by his size and dead pan delivery : though often compared to Arnold , he has less range . " Lundgren released a workout video on VHS in 1987 called Maximum Potential . Lundgren next starred in Joseph Zito 's Red Scorpion in 1989 , opposite M. Emmet Walsh , Al White , T. P. McKenna and Carmen Argenziano . The plot centers on Lundgren 's character Nikolai , a Soviet Spetsnaz @-@ trained KGB agent who is sent to an African country where Soviet , Czechoslovakia and Cuban forces are helping the government fight an anti @-@ communist rebel movement . Nikolai is ordered to assassinate the movement 's leader , but eventually turns against his government by switching sides . The film was partly shot in Namibia and it was claimed that Grace Jones joined him during production in Swakopmund , insisting on staying in a $ 3000 a month villa , even though his new girlfriend at the time was reported to be Paula Barbieri . The film was poorly received and has an 11 % " rotten " rating at Rotten Tomatoes . Stephen Holden of The New York Times said as follows : " Dolph Lundgren 's pectorals are the real stars of Red Scorpion , an action @-@ adventure movie set in the fictional African country of Mombaka . Filmed from below so that one has the sense of peering up at a massive kinetic sculpture , his glistening torso , which over the course of the film is subjected to assorted tortures , is the movie 's primary visual focus whenever the action slows down . And since Mr. Lundgren remains stone @-@ faced , rarely speaking except to issue commands in a surprisingly hesitant monotone , his heaving chest actually communicates more emotion than his mumbling lips . " Lundgren then starred as Marvel Comics character Frank Castle ( a.k.a. The Punisher ) in the 1989 film The Punisher . The film was directed by Mark Goldblatt , with a screenplay by Boaz Yakin . Although it is based on the Marvel Comics character , the film changes many details of the original comic book origin and the main character does not wear the trademark " skull " . The Punisher was filmed in Sydney , Australia and also featured Louis Gossett , Jr . , Jeroen Krabbé , Kim Miyori , Nancy Everhard and Barry Otto . The film received mainly negative reviews , currently holds a 24 % " rotten " rating at Rotten Tomatoes . Christopher Null gave the film 1 out of 5 , stating the film was " marred by cheeseball sets and special effects , lame fight sequences , and some of the worst acting ever to disgrace the screen . " Whilst criticizing the film 's storyline and acting , Time Out magazine concluded the film was " destructive , reprehensible , and marvelous fun " . = = = 1990s = = = = = = = 1990 – 1994 = = = = In 1990 , Lundgren starred in Craig R. Baxley 's sci @-@ fi thriller I Come in Peace ( also known as Dark Angel ) opposite Brian Benben , Betsy Brantley , Matthias Hues and Jay Bilas . Lundgren plays Jack Caine , a tough Houston cop with an inner sensitivity , who does not let the rules of police procedure prevent him pursuing his mission to wipe out the White Boys , a gang of white collar drug dealers who killed his partner while he was waylaid stopping a convenience store robbery . Lundgren said of his role , " What attracted me to Dark Angel is that I get to do more than just action . There 's some romance , some comedy , some drama . I actually have some clever dialogue in this one . I get to act . One author said " Universe ( 1987 ) or Dark Angel ( 1990 ) , demonstrates that nature and his [ Lundgren 's ] hairdresser have suited him perfectly to Nazi genetically engineered baddie roles . " In 1991 , Lundgren starred in Manny Coto 's action film Cover Up opposite Louis Gossett Jr .. Lundgren portrays Mike Anderson , a tough American reporter and US Marine veteran who finds his own life in jeopardy after stumbling across a political cover @-@ up over a Middle Eastern terrorist plan to release toxic gas and kill thousands of people . The primary terrorist group in the film is the fictional group Black October , in reference to Black September . The film was shot in Israel and Lundgren stays at the famous King David Hotel . Although the film was not a major success , Robert Cettl in his 2009 book Terrorism in American cinema : an analytical filmography , 1960 – 2008 argues that the film reveals an alarmingly realist insight into US @-@ Middle Eastern politics and terrorism since the 2000s , dealing with an al @-@ Qaeda @-@ esque terrorist organization and the conspiracy theories that some believe the US government is using the Middle East as a cover @-@ up . Later in 1991 , Lundgren appeared in martial arts action film Showdown in Little Tokyo opposite Brandon Lee , Cary @-@ Hiroyuki Tagawa and Tia Carrere . Lundgren plays a police sergeant named Kenner working in Little Tokyo , Los Angeles who is partnered with Johnny Murata ( Lee ) , a Japanese American who are sent to infiltrate the operations of new Japanese drug gang named the Iron Claw manufacturing a lethal methamphetamine while using a local brewery and nightclub as a front for the operation . Along the way , Kenner discovers that Yoshida ( Tagawa ) , the head of the drug gang , is a member of the Yakuza who killed his parents in front of him as a young boy in Japan and the case becomes violent and personal . The film received a mainly negative reception from critics and was criticized for its violence ; Vincent Canby of the New York Times described it as " violent , but spiritless . " Variety wrote " Lundgren can hold his own with other action leads as an actor and could easily be Van Damme @-@ marketable if only he 'd devote as much attention to quality control as he does to pectoral development . " David J. Fox of the Los Angeles Times , however , described the film as a " class act " . In 1992 , Lundgren starred in one of the biggest blockbusters of the year in the sci @-@ fi action picture Universal Soldier directed by Roland Emmerich . Lundgren ( as Sergeant Andrew Scott ) and Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme ( as Luc Deveraux ) play U.S. soldiers during the Vietnam War who are sent to secure a village against North Vietnamese forces . However they end up shooting each other dead after Devereaux discovers that Scott has gone insane and has resorted to mutilating the villagers and barbarically cutting off their ears , taking an innocent girl and boy hostage . They are later reanimated in a secret Army project along with a large group of other previously dead soldiers and sent on a mission as GR operatives . At the 1992 Cannes Film Festival , Van Damme and Lundgren were involved in a verbal altercation that almost turned physical when both men pushed each other only to be separated , but it was believed to have only been a publicity stunt . Universal Soldier opened in theatres on 10 July 1992 , a moderate success domestically with $ 36 @,@ 299 @,@ 898 in US ticket sales , but a major blockbuster worldwide , making over $ 65 million overseas , which earned the film a total of $ 102 million worldwide , on a $ 23 million budget . Despite being a box office hit however , it was not well @-@ received ; mainstream critics dismissed the movie as a Terminator 2 clone , or as a typical , mindless action film . Film critic Roger Ebert said , " it must be fairly thankless to play lunks who have to fight for the entire length of a movie while exchanging monosyllabic idiocies " , including it in his book I hated , hated , hated this movie . In 1993 , Lundgren starred opposite Kristian Alfonso and George Segal in Joshua Tree , directed by Academy Award and BAFTA @-@ winning stunt coordinator Vic Armstrong . Lundgren plays Wellman Anthony Santee , a former racecar driver who has turned to hauling exotic stolen cars with his friend Eddie Turner ( Ken Foree ) . One day he is framed by police officer Frank Severance ( Segal ) for the murder of a highway patrolman , also killing his friend Eddie . Santee is sent to prison after recovering in a prison hospital , but escapes during transfer and takes a female hostage named Rita Marrick ( Alfonso ) at a gas station , not suspecting that she 's a cop . On the run from the law , involving exotic cars and desert scenery , Santee must prove his innocence and prove Severance guilty of being involved in the car ring and for murder . Much of the film was filmed in the Alabama Hills of the Sierra Nevada and the desert of the Joshua Tree National Park of southeast California . In 1994 , Lundgren starred in Bruce Malmuth 's Pentathlon as an East German Olympic gold medalist pentathlete on the run from an abusive coach ( David Soul ) . Lundgren trained with the U.S. pentathlon team in preparation for the role , which later led to him being selected to serve as the ( non @-@ competing ) Team Leader of the 1996 U.S. Olympic Modern Pentathlon team during the Atlanta Games , to promote the image of the sport and to coordinate planning and other details between the team and the United States Olympic Committee . The film was seen negatively by most critics ; Film Review said it was " appallingly acted and monotonous " and Video Movie Guide 2002 described it as a " silly Cold War thriller " . Later in 1994 , Lundgren appeared in Perry Lang 's Men of War ( scripted by John Sayles ) alongside Charlotte Lewis and B. D. Wong as Nick Gunar , a former Special Ops soldier who leads a group of mercenaries to a treasure island in the South China Sea . The film was mainly shot in Thailand , with Krabi and Phong Nga making up most of the island scenery . The film was well received by some critics . One author said " Men of War invokes the most vividly remembered fighting in a foreign land of recent Western history . This innovation , associating the muscle image with the Vietnam experience , is carried over into other contemporary muscle films . " Another said , " fine performances by an all @-@ star Dolph Lundgren as a mercenary assigned to " convince " a cast in this offbeat and disturbing film . " = = = = 1995 – 1999 = = = = In 1995 , Lundgren appeared in Robert Longo 's Johnny Mnemonic , co @-@ starring Keanu Reeves . The film portrays screenwriter William Gibson 's dystopian cyberpunk view of the future with the world dominated by megacorporations and with strong East Asian influences . Reeves plays the title character , a man with a cybernetic brain implant designed to store information . Lundgren plays Karl Honig , a Jesus @-@ obsessed hit man and street preacher who wears a robe and carries a shepherd 's staff . The film was shot on location in Toronto and Montreal in 12 weeks , filling in for the film 's Newark , New Jersey and Beijing settings . The film was premiered in Japan first on 15 April 1995 and features a previously composed score by Michael Danna , different editing , and more scenes with Lundgren and Japanese star Takeshi Kitano . Critical response was negative overall ; Roger Ebert said , " Johnny Mnemonic is one of the great goofy gestures of recent cinema , a movie which doesn 't deserve one nanosecond of serious analysis . " The film was a financial disappointment , grossing $ 19 @,@ 075 @,@ 720 in the domestic American market against its $ 26m budget . The cloak worn by Lundgren in the film is now located in the lobby of the Famous Players Coliseum in Mississauga , Ontario , it was his last theatrical release film until 2010 . Later in 1995 , Lundgren appeared in Ted Kotcheff 's The Shooter , also known as Hidden Assassin , an action drama in which he plays Michael Dane , a U.S. Marshall who gets caught up in politics when he is hired to solve the assassination of a Cuban ambassador . He featured alongside Maruschka Detmers , Assumpta Serna , Gavan O 'Herlihy and John Ashton. his first film Direct @-@ to @-@ video . The Motion Picture Guide to the films of 1996 said , " in peak condition , Dolph Lundgren leaps trains , kicks the crap out of assailants , and handles a rifle like a pro . He 's still a terrific athlete , but shows signs of histrionic mobility here . " In 1996 , Lundgren starred in Russell Mulcahy 's Silent Trigger , about a sniper ( Lundgren ) and his female spotter ( played by Gina Bellman ) . Lundgren plays a former Special Forces agent who joins a secretive government agency ( called " The Agency " ) as an assassin . The movie takes place in and around an unfinished city skyscraper , shot in Montreal . The Motion Picture Guide to the films of 1997 said , " this stylish but empty thriller gives square @-@ jawed Dolph Lundgren another shot at straight @-@ to @-@ video immortality " . In 1997 , Dolph starred in Frédéric Forestier 's The Peacekeeper , playing Major Frank Cross of the US Air Force and the only man who can prevent the president being assassinated and with the ability to thwart an imposing nuclear holocaust . The threat is from a terrorist group , which has stolen the President 's personal communications computer with the capability of launching the US arsenal to threaten global security . The film co @-@ starred Michael Sarrazin , Montel Williams , Roy Scheider and Christopher Heyerdahl , and was shot on location in Montreal . The film was praised for its exciting action sequences . Doug Pratt described the first half of the film as " excellent " and described Dolph 's character as " tenacious " , although Robert Cettl wrote " the Peacekeeper trades on the presence of B @-@ movie action star Dolph Lundgren , an actor who never became as popular as his action contemporaries Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme and Steven Seagal . " In 1998 , he appeared in Jean @-@ Marc Piché 's action / supernatural horror film The Minion alongside Françoise Robertson Lundgren portrays Lukas Sadorov , a middle eastern templar and member of an order who are charged with guarding the gateway to Hell that , if opened , will unleash all evil . The only thing that can open it is a key which is sought for by the Minion , a demonic spirit that transfers itself into the nearby host body when his previous one is killed off . Awakening in New York City , the Minion tracks down Karen Goodleaf as Lukas arrives to America to protect her and the key . Michael Haag in his book Templars : History and Myth : From Solomon 's Temple to the Freemasons ( 2009 ) said , " The budget for this film was $ 12 million . A pity they did not spend a cent on research ( citing that one reference was 600 years out ) . Dolph Lundgren is a butt @-@ kicking Templar monk with a spiked leather glove whose sacred duty it is to do what the Templars have always done and stop a key that has kept the Anti @-@ christ imprisoned for thousands of years from falling into the right hands . " . The DVD and Video Guide of 2005 described the film as being " possibly one of the worst films ever " . Later in 1998 , Dolph appeared alongside Bruce Payne and Claire Stansfield in Sweepers as Christian Erickson , a leading demolition expert and head of an elite team of specialists , trained to disarm mine fields in a humanitarian minesweeping operation in Angola . In the event his son is killed and he discovers that mines are being planted during the war to kill people in the area . The film was a joint American and South African production . The Video Guide to 2002 said , " that noise you hear isn 't the numerous on @-@ screen explosions but action star Lundgren 's career hitting rock bottom . " He also featured in the TV pilot Blackjack ( directed by John Woo ) as a former US Marshal who has a phobia of the color white , who becomes the bodyguard and detective of a young supermodel ( Kam Heskin ) who 's the target of a psychotic assassin ( Phillip MacKenzie ) . Shot on location in Toronto , the film was originally meant to be the pilot episode of a series focusing around his character , Jack Devlin but it was not accepted as a series as it was poorly received . One review said " the narrative is laughably stupid " and the DVD and Video Guide to 2005 said , " dull , lightweight , made @-@ for @-@ TV action fully to a satisfying climax " . In 1999 , he appeared in Isaac Florentine 's Bridge of Dragons as a " human killing machine " mercenary named Warchikj alongside Cary @-@ Hiroyuki Tagawa , who Lundgren had previously worked with in the 1991 film Showdown in Little Tokyo , Valerie Chow , Gary Hudson , John Bennett and Scott L. Schwartz . He then starred in Storm Catcher alongside Mystro Clark and Robert Miano under director Anthony Hickox , portraying a military pilot who is falsely accused of treason in a plot to overthrow the US Government . He is blackmailed into plotting an attack in which he would bomb Washington with a new jet called the " Storm Catcher " by a renegade general ( Miano ) . Film review dismissed the film and Lundgren 's performance as " more Lundgren lunacy " . Finally he starred in Hickox 's next picture , Jill Rips , based on a 1987 novel by Scottish writer Frederic Lindsay . He portrays Matt Sorenson , a former boxer and San Francisco cop who avenges the brutal death of his younger brother , Michael . Intent on finding his brother 's killer , Sorenson infiltrates the powerful inner world of politics , business intrigue and casual sex and sadomasochism . His obsession to discover the killer 's identity mounts as a series of other men are found murdered in a similar fashion , and he loses all objectivity and becomes a vigilante . The DVD and Video Guide to 2005 said , " not very believable but , as usual , it 's fun to watch Dolph Lundgren in action . " Film Review " shuddered " at the concept of the film and remarked that Lundgren " should be a long @-@ forgotten action @-@ star . " = = = 2000s = = = = = = = 2000 – 2004 = = = = In 2000 , Lundgren starred in The Last Warrior as Captain Nick Preston under director Sheldon Lettich . This post apocalyptic movie is set in 2006 in the context of a 9 @.@ 5 @-@ magnitude earthquake which kills millions of people , with Preston leading a motley military patrol on the island to help survivors in the pole shift @-@ affected world . The film was partly shot in Eilat , Israel . Later in 2000 , Dolph appeared in Damian Lee 's Agent Red ( also known as Captured ) , alongside Alexander Kuznetsov , Natalie Radford and Randolph Mantooth . The film is set during the Cold War , and is about two soldiers trapped on a submarine with a group of terrorists who plan to use a chemical weapon against the United States . Lundgren 's character , Matt Hendricks , must work with his wife , a virologist , to prevent the scenario occurring . After the film was completed , producer Andrew Stevens thought it was too poor to be released and multiple people had to be hired to at least make the film half @-@ competent . The film was very poorly received , given its " shoestring budget " ; the DVD and Film Guide of 2005 wrote , " low @-@ budget mess stars Dolph Lundgren as a navy special operations commander trying to keep a deadly virus out of the hands of terrorists . This subpar effort sinks to the bottom of the ocean in a tidal wave of cliche . " During an interview on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in May 2008 , Gladiator director Ridley Scott said Lundgren had been considered for the part of undefeated fighter Tigris of Gaul in 2000 , but was eventually rejected because " as an actor , he just didn 't fit in with what we were trying to achieve " . In 2001 , Lundgren starred in Hidden Agenda , directed by Marc S. Grenier . He plays Jason Price , an ex @-@ FBI agent who protects a witness . In 2003 , Lundgren featured in Sidney J. Furie 's Detention , opposite Alex Karzis , Kata Dobó and Anthony J. Mifsud . He portrays a soon to be retired high school history teacher and ex @-@ Special Forces soldier Sam Decker who has one last detention to proctor ; he must band together the trouble makers and misfits in detention to defeat a drug ring intent on taking over the school . In 2004 , he starred in an unusually high number of films . He first appeared opposite Polly Shannon in Direct Action under Sidney J. Furie , portraying Sergeant Frank Gannon , an officer who has spent the last three years on the Direct Action Unit ( DAU ) task force , fighting gang crime and corruption and after he leaves he is hunted down by former colleagues for betraying the brotherhood . Next he appeared in Ed Bye 's Fat Slags , a film adaption of a comic strip The Fat Slags which appeared in the " alternative " British comic Viz . His role was little more than a cameo role alongside Geri Halliwell , Naomi Campbell and Angus Deayton . Reviews of the film were so poor that it remains on the IMDb 's Bottom 100 as one of the worst movies ever made . He next appeared in Christopher Kulikowski 's science fiction picture Retrograde alongside Gary Daniels and Joe Sagal . It tells the story of " a group of genetically unique people who travel back in time to prevent the discovery of meteors containing deadly bacteria . " Shot in Italy , the film received the support of the Film Fund of Luxembourg . Finally he made his directorial debut , replacing Sidney J. Furie who got ill during pre @-@ production , with The Defender , in which he also starred alongside Shakara Ledard and Jerry Springer , who played the President of the United States . Lundgren plays Lance Rockford , the bodyguard of the head of the National Security Agency , Roberta Jones ( Caroline Lee @-@ Johnson ) , in a war on terror . = = = = 2005 – 2009 = = = = In 2005 , Lundgren starred and directed his second picture The Mechanik ( The Russian Specialist ) , playing a retired Russian Special Forces hit man Nikolai " Nick " Cherenko caught in the crossfire with Russian mobsters . Sky Movies remarked that The Mechanik is " hardcore death @-@ dealing from the Nordic leviathan " and said that " The Mechanik delivers all the no @-@ nonsense gunplay you 'd want of a Friday night " . In 2006 , Lundgren played gladiator Brixos in the Italian @-@ made historical / biblical drama , The Inquiry ( L 'inchiesta ) , also known as The Final Inquiry , alongside Daniele Liotti , Mónica Cruz , Max von Sydow , F. Murray Abraham and Ornella Muti . It is the remake of the 1986 Italian film directed by Damiano Damiani and starring Keith Carradine and Harvey Keitel . Set in AD 35 in the Roman Empire , the story follows a fictional Roman general named Titus Valerius Taurus , a veteran of campaigns in Germania , who is sent to Judea by the emperor Tiberius to investigate the possibility of the divinity of the recently crucified Jesus . The film , shot on location in Tunisia and Bulgaria , featured a score from Andrea Morricone , the son of the acclaimed film score composer Ennio Morricone . It premiered at the Capri @-@ Hollywood and the Los Angeles @-@ Italia Film Festival . One reviewer on a website catering for historical movies said of the film , " The Final Inquiry is one of those movies you are glad you ran into .... I had such low expectations for this movie , but was glad to have been proven wrong . I know about the negative reviews this movie has gotten and some of the criticism is well deserved while some of it is a bit unfair . " In 2007 , Lundgren directed and starred in the Mongolia @-@ based action adventure , Diamond Dogs . Lundgren portrays the character of Xander Ronson , a mercenary hired by a group of American fortune hunters to act as their guide and bodyguard , while they search for a priceless Buddhist artifact deep within the Chinese wilderness . They get more than they bargained for , however , as they come face to face with Russian mercenaries also after the artifact . The film , a Canadian @-@ Chinese production , was shot on location in Inner Mongolia . Later in 2007 , Lundgren wrote , directed and starred in Missionary Man alongside Charles Solomon Jr .. Described as a " modern western " by Lundgren , Dolph plays a lone , bible @-@ preaching stranger named Ryder who comes into a small Texas town on his 1970 's Harley @-@ Davidson motorcycle to attend the funeral of his good friend J.J. , a local Native American carpenter , only to later get mixed up in a series of brawls with a local gang . According to Lundgren , it had long been a desire of his to direct a western , having long been a fan of Clint Eastwood and John Wayne , yet he did not want to spend the time and money building an old western town and hiring horses , so decided to set it in modern times with a motorbike instead of entering the town on a horse in the manner than Clint Eastwood would . Lundgren 's co @-@ writer , Frank Valdez 's wife 's brother happened to be a notable actor working in Texas and invited Lundgren 's team to shoot there . The film was shot on location in Waxahachie , a southern suburb of Dallas and was produced by Andrew Stevens and it was specially screened at the 2008 AFI Dallas Film Festival . In 2008 , Lundgren starred opposite Michael Paré in the direct to video action flick Direct Contact . He plays the role of Mike Riggins , an imprisoned ex @-@ US Special forces operative in Eastern Europe , who is offered his freedom and money to rescue an American woman , Ana Gale , who has been kidnapped by a ruthless warlord . This was followed by another direct to video film Command Performance ( 2009 ) , a hostage action drama in which Lundgren , a proficient musician in real life , plays a rock drummer forced to face terrorists at a concert in Moscow . The film co @-@ starred Canadian pop singer Melissa Smith , playing a world famous pop singer in the film and his own daughter Ida on her screen debut , who played one of the daughters of the Russian president . The story was inspired by a concert Madonna put on for Russian President Vladimir Putin , although Dolph has also likened the pop singer to Britney Spears . Filming took place over 5 weeks between August and September 2008 in Sofia , Bulgaria and Moscow , Russia . The film premiered at the Ischia Global Film & Music Festival on 18 July 2009 . In 2009 , The Dolph Lundgren Scholarship was instituted in his name , which is awarded to the student with the best grades at Ådalsskolan in Kramfors , the school where he himself studied . Lundgren then reunited with Jean @-@ Claude Van Damme in Universal Soldier : Regeneration , where he plays Andrew Scott 's clone . The film was released theatrically in the Middle East and Southeast Asia and directly to video in the United States and other parts of the world . Since its release , the film has received better than average reviews for a straight @-@ to @-@ DVD franchise sequel , with film critic Brian Orndorf giving the film a B , calling it " moody , pleasingly quick @-@ draw , and knows when to quit , making the Universal Soldier brand name bizarrely vital once again . " Dread Central gave it 3 out of 5 knives , saying " there is almost nothing but solid b @-@ level action until the credits roll . " On the negative side , Pablo Villaça said in his review that while he praised Van Damme 's performance , he criticized that of Lundgren and described the film " dull in concept and execution " . Later in 2009 , Lundgren directed and starred in the hit @-@ man thriller Icarus ( retitled in the US and the UK as The Killing Machine ) . He plays a businessman named Edward Genn , working for an investment company , who has a shady past as a KGB special agent known as " Icarus " . He tries to escape from his past life , but his identity is discovered and he is hunted down , placing the lives of his wife and daughter and himself in jeopardy . Retitled in the US and the UK as The Killing Machine , it opened theatrically in Los Angeles on 10 September 2010 , for an exclusive one @-@ week engagement at Laemmele 's Sunset 5 Theater in West Hollywood . = = = 2010s : Return to the big screen = = = = = = = 2010 – 2014 = = = = In 2010 , Lundgren made a guest star appearance on the TV series Chuck in the fourth season premiere episode , " Chuck Versus the Anniversary " , as Russian spy Marco , with references to Rocky IV 's Ivan Drago . He then played a drug @-@ addled assassin alongside Sylvester Stallone , Jason Statham , Jet Li , Randy Couture , Steve Austin , Terry Crews , Mickey Rourke , Bruce Willis , and Arnold Schwarzenegger in the action film The Expendables , which opened in theatres on August 13 , 2010 . The film is about a group of elite mercenaries , tasked with a mission to overthrow a Latin American dictator . It was described by Lundgren as " an old @-@ school , kick @-@ ass action movie where people are fighting with knives and shooting at each other . " This was his first American theatrical release film since 1995 's Johnny Mnemonic , ( although The Inquiry ( The Final Inquiry ) and Missionary Man both played theatrically for one week in Dallas and San Diego in December 2007 ) . Film production began on March 3 , 2009 , with a budget of $ 82 million . Filming commenced 25 days later in Rio de Janeiro and other locations in Brazil , and later in Louisiana . The film received mixed reviews from critics but was very successful commercially , opening at number one at the box office in the United States , the United Kingdom , China and India . Lundgren was one of three hosts for the 2010 Melodifestivalen , where the Swedish contribution to the Eurovision Song Contest is selected . In the first installation on February 6 , Lundgren co @-@ hosted the competition together with comedian Christine Meltzer and performer Måns Zelmerlöw . Lundgren 's appearance was hailed by critics and audience , particularly his rendition of Elvis Presley 's " A Little Less Conversation " . Lundgren played the lead role in Uwe Boll 's In the Name of the King 2 : Two Worlds , and had supporting roles in Jonas Åkerlund 's Small Apartments and a thriller called Stash House . Principal photography for Universal Soldier : Day of Reckoning began on May 9 , 2011 in Louisiana , and filming wrapped on One in the Chamber ( co @-@ starring Cuba Gooding , Jr . ) around the same time . The Expendables 2 entered principal photography in late September / early October 2011 , with Lundgren reprising his role as Gunner Jensen . Filming wrapped in January 2012 , and it was released by Lionsgate on August 17 later that year . In 2013 , Lundgren starred alongside Steve Austin in the The Package . Directed by Jesse Johnson , principal photography wrapped in March 2012 , and the film was released on February 9 , 2013 . For a direct @-@ to @-@ DVD film , The Package was not a financial success . In its first week of release , the film debuted at no . 81 ; grossing $ 1 @,@ 469 at the domestic box office . Lundgren starred in a number of other films later that year , including Legendary : Tomb of the Dragon ( co @-@ starring Scott Adkins ) , Battle of the Damned , Ambushed ( with Randy Couture and Vinnie Jones ) , Blood of Redemption ( again with Jones and Billy Zane ) , and the uncompleted comedy @-@ western A Man Will Rise ( with Tony Jaa ) . In 2014 , Lundgren co @-@ starred opposite Cung Le in the action film Puncture Wounds , and reprised his role as Gunner Jensen for a third time in The Expendables 3 . He then wrote , produced , and starred alongside Jaa and Ron Perlman in Skin Trade , an action thriller about human trafficking . Principal photography started on February 2 , 2014 in Thailand , and wrapped in Vancouver , Canada ; April the same year . The film received a limited theatrical release , followed by a Blu @-@ ray and DVD release on August 25 , 2015 . = = = = 2015 – present = = = = On January 21 , 2015 , Lundgren started filming Shark Lake on the Mississippi Gulf Coast . This was followed by a further six weeks of filming in the " Reno @-@ Tahoe area " . In the film , he portrays Clint Gray , a black @-@ market dealer of exotic species ' responsible for releasing a dangerous shark into Lake Tahoe . Directed by Jerry Dugan , the film 's budget was $ 2 million . In February , he filmed a cameo for the Coen brothers ' 2016 comedy film Hail , Caesar ! , portraying a Soviet submarine captain . On May 23 , War Pigs premiered at the GI Film Festival . In the film , Lundgren co @-@ starred ( alongside Luke Goss ) as Captain Hans Picault , a French Legionnaire who trains a U.S. Army Infantry group to go behind enemy lines and exterminate the Nazis . In August 2015 , he started filming Kindergarten Cop 2 in Ontario , Canada , a sequel to the 1990 comedy film that starred Arnold Schwarzenegger . He portrays Agent Reed , a law enforcement officer who must go undercover as a kindergarten teacher , in order to recover a missing flash drive from the Federal Witness Protection Program . Throughout the rest of the year , Lundgren starred in a number of other films , including the crime thriller The Good , the Bad and the Dead ( opposite Danny Trejo and Vivica A. Fox ) and the prison film Riot ( opposite Matthew Reese and Chuck Lidell ) . He is due to star in the Mike Mendez horror thriller Don 't Kill It , portraying demon hunter Jebediah Woodley ; and in R Ellis Frazier 's thriller film Larceny , portraying Jack : a " former operative @-@ turned @-@ professional thief " . = = Training and diet = = Although Lundgren never competed as a professional bodybuilder , he has been closely associated with bodybuilding and fitness since his role as Drago in the mid @-@ 1980s . Bodybuilding.com said " looking like a man in his 30s rather than his 50s , Lundgren is the poster boy of precise nutrition , supplementation and exercise application that he has practiced for over 35 years . " In an interview with them he claims to often train up to six days a week in the gym , usually one @-@ hour sessions completed in the morning , saying that " it 's just one hour a day , and then you can enjoy the other 23 hours " . Although he had begun lifting weights as a teenager , he cites Sylvester Stallone as the man who got him into serious bodybuilding for a period in the 1980s after arriving in the United States . Stallone had a lasting influence on his fitness regime and his diet , ensuring that he ate a much higher percentage of protein in his diet and eating 5 or 6 smaller meals a day . Lundgren has professed never to have been " superstrong " , saying that , " I 'm too tall and my arms are long . I think back then [ Rocky IV ] I was working with around 300 pounds on the bench and squat . " In a January 2011 interview with GQ he announced he is working on releasing his own range of vitamins and supplements . He has also written an autobiographical fitness book entitled Train Like an Action Hero : Be Fit Forever being published in Sweden ( by Bonnier Fakta ) on 9 August 2011 , offering tips he learned over the years to work out in various situations ( with a busy schedule and a lot of traveling ) . When in Los Angeles he trains at the Equinox Gym in Westwood and when at home in Marbella , Spain , he trains at the Qi Sport Gym in Puerto Banús . Dolph does , however , also like to spar and practice his karate in the gym to keep in top shape aside from weight lifting . He cites dead lifting and squats as the best exercises for muscle building . Lundgren is not a heavy drinker , but has professed on many occasions to being fond of tequila and cocktails , citing his knowledge in chemical engineering as " making really good drinks " . On 9 September 2014 , Lundgren published Dolph Lundgren : Train Like an Action Hero : Be Fit Forever , a book which contains a detailed account of his earlier life and troubles . He cites a better quality of life as having inspired him to maintain his physical fitness . = = Personal life = = Lundgren speaks Swedish and English , as well as smaller amounts of Spanish , German , French , Japanese and Italian , but is not fluent in five languages as has often been reported . During the 1980s , Lundgren had relationships with Jamaican singer Grace Jones and American model Paula Barbieri . In 1994 , he married Anette Qviberg , a jewellery designer and fashion stylist in Marbella . The couple decided they liked Marbella so much that they rented out accommodation there for years , before eventually buying a family home there . They have two daughters : Ida Sigrid Lundgren ( born 29 April 1996 ) and Greta Eveline Lundgren ( born November 2001 ) , both born in Stockholm . Lundgren and Qviberg have cited the reason for living away from Hollywood is that they want to give their children as normal a childhood as possible . In early May 2009 , Lundgren 's Marbella home was reportedly broken into by three masked burglars who tied up and threatened his wife , but fled when they found a family photo and realized that the house was owned by Lundgren . Lundgren later stated that he believed the intruders to be from Eastern Europe and had contacts in Bulgaria investigating them , but to no avail . After the incident , Lundgren 's daughter , Ida , suffered from post traumatic stress disorder . His wife was the " most traumatized " , and as of 2011 , they are divorced . Lundgren currently lives in Los Angeles , California with his girlfriend , Jenny Sandersson . = = Filmography = = = = = Feature films = = = = = = Television = = = = = Awards and nominations = = = = = Special awards = = =

= Music of Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII = The music for the 2013 action role @-@ playing game Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII , developed and published by Square Enix , was composed by Masashi Hamauzu , Naoshi Mizuta , and Mitsuto Suzuki . Hamauzu was the leader composer for XIII and XIII @-@ 2 , and Mizuta and Suzuki previously composed music for XIII @-@ 2 . Musicians who had previously worked with the composers on XIII @-@ 2 and The 3rd Birthday worked on the project in Japan , while the main soundtrack was performed and recorded in Boston by the Video Game Orchestra , conducted by Shota Nakama . Along with including more percussion and ethnic elements , the soundtrack used " Blinded by Light " , the main theme for main character Lightning , as a leitmotif . Unlike the previous XIII games , the soundtrack did not include a theme song , as the composers felt it would detract from the emotional impact of the ending . Three albums have been released : the promotional Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII Pre Soundtrack in July 2013 , the Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack in November 2013 , and Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII Soundtrack Plus in March 2014 . The music has received a mostly positive response from reviewers . The main soundtrack , despite some tracks being critiqued , was generally praised as a good selection of music and a fitting conclusion to the music of the Final Fantasy XIII series . It was also praised by reviewers of the game as a whole . The Soundtrack Plus album was reviewed less favorably . Both commercial albums sold well enough to be placed on the Oricon charts , with the Original Soundtrack reaching # 29 and remaining on the charts for four weeks . = = Concept and creation = = The music of Lightning Returns was composed by Masashi Hamauzu , who composed the music for Final Fantasy XIII , Naoshi Mizuta and Mitsuto Suzuki , who co @-@ composed the music for Final Fantasy XIII @-@ 2 with Hamauzu . Japanese band Language was also contracted by Suzuki to help with recording and remixing . Several of the musicians in Japan had worked with the composers before on XIII @-@ 2 and The 3rd Birthday . Recording took place at the Mixer 's Lab recording studios in Tokyo . The Video Game Orchestra , founded by Shota Nakama , was contracted by Hamauzu to perform , record and mix the orchestral music at their studio on Boston . According to Hamauzu , they were his first and only choice for recording the score . Nakama received the final score in April 2013 , and Hamauzu was regularly at the studios to help with the recording process . Nakama was told by Hamauzu that he was allowed to do as he wished unless he did something " really wacky " , with Hamauzu relying on Nakama and mostly interacting and working on their tracks if he disliked some aspect of them . The orchestra worked on nearly all of Hamauzu 's music , including the opening and ending themes . The score was created with far more percussion than previous entries in the series , and featured " Blinded by Light " , a recurring theme in the XIII games related to the series ' central character Lightning , as a leitmotif . The theme was meant to emphasize the focus on Lightning , with several tracks relating directly to her . Unspecified ethnic musical elements were also incorporated . Each composer worked on one of the four game 's key locations . Due to the game 's day @-@ night cycle , different music was composed for morning , afternoon , evening and nighttime . The thirteen @-@ minute @-@ long final boss theme was meant to reference the title 's numeral . Hamauzu wrote " Crimson Blitz " , the first piece of the score and one of the game 's battle themes , while on tour in Switzerland . Unlike the previous two games , Lightning Returns did not feature a theme song as it was felt that this would diminish the emotional impact of the ending . Instead , the composers created a purely orchestral piece . The final theme , " Epilogue " , was co @-@ composed by Hamauzu and Nakama . It was based on the concept of the XIII games coming to an end , and so was intended to convey the themes and atmosphere of the soundtrack . Nakama created multiple versions of the piece and sent them to Hamauzu , who performed alterations and made the final choice . The game also featured multiple musical Easter eggs , including tunes from previous entries in the franchise . = = Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack = = The main soundtrack album , Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack , was released on four compact discs on November 21 , 2013 . It was released by Square Enix under the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10392 ~ 5 , and the album features seventy @-@ four tracks spanning 5 : 07 : 27 . The first disc is devoted to the opening section and the city of Luxerion ; the second disc deals with the Dead Dunes and Wildlands ; the third covers the city of Yusnaan and important themes leading up to the game 's conclusion ; the fourth disc covers the final section of the game . Three tracks from the album , " Crimson Blitz " , " The Savior " , and " Lightning Returns " , were digitally released as singles on iTunes . Further samples from the track were released on a disc of Square Enix music sold as a promotion at Tokyo Game Show 2013 . Tracks from Lightning Returns , along with XIII and XIII @-@ 2 , were also included on a special disc released with the Japan @-@ exclusive " Lightning Ultimate box " , a package containing all three XIII games . The soundtrack album reached # 29 on the Oricon charts and remained on the charts for four weeks . Reviews of the album have been positive . Derek Heemsbergen of RPGFan praised the consistency of the soundtrack both when compared to XIII @-@ 2 and the variety of locations . He said that the recurring motifs in the soundtrack " work to great effect " , noting how the tracks related to Lightning helped explore her personality . His highest praise went to the final disc due to " its sheer emotional intensity " . Despite the general praise , some tracks , such as " Marimba de Chocobo " , came in for minor critiques . Christopher Huynh of Video Game Music Online was also positive , noting the high production values of the album . He also generally praised the themes used both in battle and for the various locations , though he felt that the Dead Dunes tracks were the weakest on the album . His reaction to the new and rearranged characters ' themes were more mixed , with him praising " Snow 's Theme " while calling " Fang 's Theme " a " very odd and jarring failure " . The final disc also received high praise , with Huynn saying that it " succeeds at closing out the series on an emotional high " . Reviewers of the game also noted and praised the soundtrack , despite giving more mixed opinions on other aspects of the game . Jeremy Parish , writing for USGamer , called the music " phenomenal from start to finish " . Destructoid 's Dale North called the music " fantastic , and even more varied than the previous Final Fantasy XIII games " . Bradley Hale of Hardcore Gamer was also positive , saying that the music " does an effective job at blending old jams with new ones , with the arrangements of already known songs being interesting , and new tunes coming off as far more inspiring and emotion @-@ filled than those found in XIII @-@ 2 . " Tracklist = = Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack Plus = = A bonus album , Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII Soundtrack Plus , was released on March 26 , 2014 . The album features remixes of tracks from the main album or tracks present in the game that were not released on the album . The remixes were done by Mizuta , Suzuki , Kengo Tokusashi , Wollny Andreas , Hiroshi Kaneko . Released under the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10430 , the album features 25 tracks with a total running time of 1 : 13 : 31 . The album reached # 211 on the Oricon charts , remaining there for one week . RPGFan 's Neal Chandran was mostly negative regarding the album . He called the majority of tracks " just plain boring " , while he felt that the more exiting tunes " lack punch " . Some pieces such as " Captive Saint " he called " superficially pretty , but that 's really it " , while the remixes of music pieces by Uematsu he called " brief , but awful " . Huynh shared many points of criticism with Chandran , finding multiple tracks boring as they were just slight variations on tracks from the main soundtrack album , though some tracks such as " Dying World " and the piano version of " Serah 's Theme " were praised . = = Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII Pre Soundtrack = = A promotional album , Lightning Returns : Final Fantasy XIII Pre Soundtrack , was released on July 13 , 2013 . It contains six tracks from the game , three of which did not yet have an official title . The other three were the tracks that had then received a digital release . The album was available at a special Square Enix event at United States of Odaiba 2013 as a limited promotion for Lightning Returns .

= Bifröst = In Norse mythology , Bifröst ( / ˈbɪvrɒst / or sometimes Bilröst or Bivrost ) is a burning rainbow bridge that reaches between Midgard ( the world ) and Asgard , the realm of the gods . The bridge is attested as Bilröst in the Poetic Edda ; compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and as Bifröst in the Prose Edda ; written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson , and in the poetry of skalds . Both the Poetic Edda and the Prose Edda alternately refer to the bridge as Ásbrú ( Old Norse " Æsir 's bridge " ) . According to the Prose Edda , the bridge ends in heaven at Himinbjörg , the residence of the god Heimdallr , who guards it from the jötnar . The bridge 's destruction during Ragnarök by the forces of Muspell is foretold . Scholars have proposed that the bridge may have originally represented the Milky Way and have noted parallels between the bridge and another bridge in Norse mythology , Gjallarbrú . = = Etymology = = Scholar Andy Orchard posits that Bifröst may mean " shimmering path . " He notes that the first element of Bilröst — bil ( meaning " a moment " ) — " suggests the fleeting nature of the rainbow , " which he connects to the first element of Bifröst — the Old Norse verb bifa ( meaning " to shimmer " or " to shake " ) — noting that the element provokes notions of the " lustrous sheen " of the bridge . Austrian Germanist Rudolf Simek says that Bifröst either means " the swaying road to heaven " ( also citing bifa ) or , if Bilröst is the original form of the two ( which Simek says is likely ) , " the fleetingly glimpsed rainbow " ( possibly connected to bil , perhaps meaning " moment , weak point " ) . = = Attestations = = Two poems in the Poetic Edda and two books in the Prose Edda provide information about the bridge : = = = Poetic Edda = = = In the Poetic Edda , the bridge is mentioned in the poems Grímnismál and Fáfnismál , where it is referred to as Bilröst . In one of two stanzas in the poem Grímnismál that mentions the bridge , Grímnir ( the god Odin in disguise ) provides the young Agnarr with cosmological knowledge , including that Bilröst is the best of bridges . Later in Grímnismál , Grímnir notes that Asbrú " burns all with flames " and that , every day , the god Thor wades through the waters of Körmt and Örmt and the two Kerlaugar : In Fáfnismál , the dying wyrm Fafnir tells the hero Sigurd that , during the events of Ragnarok , bearing spears , gods will meet at Óskópnir . From there , the gods will cross Bilröst , which will break apart as they cross over it , causing their horses to dredge through an immense river . = = = Prose Edda = = = The bridge is mentioned in the Prose Edda books Gylfaginning and Skáldskaparmál , where it is referred to as Bifröst . In chapter 13 of Gylfaginning , Gangleri ( King Gylfi in disguise ) asks the enthroned figure of High what way exists between heaven and earth . Laughing , High replies that the question isn 't an intelligent one , and goes on to explain that the gods built a bridge from heaven and earth . He incredulously asks Gangleri if he has not heard the story before . High says that Gangleri must have seen it , and notes that Gangleri may call it a rainbow . High says that the bridge consists of three colors , has great strength , " and is built with art and skill to a greater extent than other constructions . " High notes that , although the bridge is strong , it will break when " Muspell 's lads " attempt to cross it , and their horses will have to make do with swimming over " great rivers . " Gangleri says that it doesn 't seem that the gods " built the bridge in good faith if it is liable to break , considering that they can do as they please . " High responds that the gods do not deserve blame for the breaking of the bridge , for " there is nothing in this world that will be secure when Muspell 's sons attack . " In chapter 15 of Gylfaginning , Just @-@ As @-@ High says that Bifröst is also called Asbrú , and that every day the gods ride their horses across it ( with the exception of Thor , who instead wades through the boiling waters of the rivers Körmt and Örmt ) to reach Urðarbrunnr , a holy well where the gods have their court . As a reference , Just @-@ As @-@ High quotes the second of the two stanzas in Grímnismál that mention the bridge ( see above ) . Gangleri asks if fire burns over Bifröst . High says that the red in the bridge is burning fire , and , without it , the frost jotnar and mountain jotnar would " go up into heaven " if anyone who wanted could cross Bifröst . High adds that , in heaven , " there are many beautiful places " and that " everywhere there has divine protection around it . " In chapter 17 , High tells Gangleri that the location of Himinbjörg " stands at the edge of heaven where Bifrost reaches heaven . " While describing the god Heimdallr in chapter 27 , High says that Heimdallr lives in Himinbjörg by Bifröst , and guards the bridge from mountain jotnar while sitting at the edge of heaven . In chapter 34 , High quotes the first of the two Grímnismál stanzas that mention the bridge . In chapter 51 , High foretells the events of Ragnarök . High says that , during Ragnarök , the sky will split open , and from the split will ride forth the " sons of Muspell " . When the " sons of Muspell " ride over Bifröst it will break , " as was said above . " In the Prose Edda book Skáldskaparmál , the bridge receives a single mention . In chapter 16 , a work by the 10th century skald Úlfr Uggason is provided , where Bifröst is referred to as " the powers ' way . " = = Theories = = In his translation of the Prose Edda , Henry Adams Bellows comments that the Grímnismál stanza mentioning Thor and the bridge stanza may mean that " Thor has to go on foot in the last days of the destruction , when the bridge is burning . Another interpretation , however , is that when Thor leaves the heavens ( i.e. , when a thunder @-@ storm is over ) the rainbow @-@ bridge becomes hot in the sun . " John Lindow points to a parallel between Bifröst , which he notes is " a bridge between earth and heaven , or earth and the world of the gods " , and the bridge Gjallarbrú , " a bridge between earth and the underworld , or earth and the world of the dead . " Several scholars have proposed that Bifröst may represent the Milky Way .

= Bill of Middlesex = The Bill of Middlesex was a legal fiction used by the Court of King 's Bench to gain jurisdiction over cases traditionally in the remit of the Court of Common Pleas . Hinging on the King 's Bench 's remaining criminal jurisdiction over the county of Middlesex , the Bill allowed it to take cases traditionally in the remit of other common law courts by claiming that the defendant had committed trespass in Middlesex . Once the defendant was in custody , the trespass complaint would be quietly dropped and other complaints ( such as debt or detinue ) would be substituted . Part of a large reform movement to prevent equitable courts such as the Court of Chancery undermining their business , the Bill was far cheaper and faster than the older equivalents used by the Chancery and Common Pleas , leading to a drop in their business and an increase in that of the King 's Bench . As such , the Chancery issued injunctions in an ineffective attempt to prevent its use . The Bill was finally abolished by the Uniformity of Process Act 1832 . As a result of reforming actions such as the Bill of Middlesex , the Common Pleas became increasingly conservative and resistant to King 's Bench changes because of the impact they had on the business of the Common Pleas . This was best emphasised by Slade 's Case , a struggle between the old and new forms of suing for breach of contract ; although an equilibrium between the common law courts was finally reached , it eventually led to their dissolution with the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873 , and merger into a single High Court of Justice . = = Background = = The Court of Common Pleas and Court of King 's Bench were two of the central common law courts in England and Wales from the 13th century until their dissolution in 1875 . The Common Pleas ' jurisdiction was over " common pleas , " cases where the king had no interest . This in practice meant cases between subject and subject , including all actions taken under praecipe to recover debts or property , which made up the vast majority of civil cases . The Jurisdiction of the King 's Bench , on the other hand , was over " pleas of the crown " ; cases which involved the king in some way . With the exception of revenue matters , which were handled by the Exchequer of Pleas , the King 's Bench held exclusive jurisdiction over these cases . Crucially , it retained some criminal jurisdiction over all cases in Middlesex , the county where it sat . During the 15th century , the traditional superiority of the common law courts was challenged by ecclesiastical courts and the equitable jurisdiction of the Lord Chancellor , exercised through the Court of Chancery . These courts were more attractive to the common lawyers because of their informality and the simple method used to arrest defendants . The bills of complaint and subpoena used by the Chancery made court procedure far faster , and from 1460 to 1540 there was a steep decline in the number of cases in the common law courts , coinciding with a sharp increase in cases in the newer courts . This loss of business was quickly recognised by the King 's Bench , which was urged by Fairfax J in 1501 to develop new remedies so that " subpoenas would not be used as often as they are at present " . From 1500 the King 's Bench began reforming to increase its business and jurisdiction , with the tide finally turning in their favour by 1550 . The King 's Bench significantly reformed its mode of practice in response , and one of the developments was the Bill of Middlesex . = = Bill = = The Bill of Middlesex exploited the King 's Bench 's remaining criminal jurisdiction over Middlesex . Prior to the introduction of bills , a writ would have to be issued , with different writs depending on the issue . If A wished to sue B for trespass , debt and detinue , the court would have to issue an individual writ for each action , with associated delays and costs for A , and then ensure that B appeared in court . Bills , on the other hand , were traditionally used against court officials and the court 's prisoners ; as such , the defendant was assumed to already be in the court 's custody and presence in court was unnecessary . Thus a legal fiction arose ; if A wished to sue B for trespass , debt and detinue , he would have a writ issued for trespass . B would be arrested as a result , and the detinue and debt actions undertaken by bill after he had been detained . Eventually it became even more fictitious ; if A wished to sue B merely for debt and detinue , a trespass writ would be obtained and then quietly dismissed when B was detained in custody . This was originally undertaken through getting a writ of trespass from the Chancery , but eventually a shorter workaround was used ; as the King 's Bench retained criminal jurisdiction over Middlesex , the trespass ( which was fictitious anyway ) would be said to have occurred in that county , allowing the King 's Bench to issue its own bill of arrest . This became known as the Bill of Middlesex , and undermined the jurisdiction of the Court of Common Pleas , which normally dealt with such civil cases . = = Impact = = As a result of the procedural changes , including the Bill of Middlesex , the King 's Bench 's business rose tenfold between 1560 and 1640 . The simplicity and low cost of this procedure drove much business to the King 's Bench , which had a negative impact on the Court of Common Pleas and Court of Chancery . Historically , cases now covered by the Bill of Middlesex had been handled by the Common Pleas , using a specialist writ drafted by the Chancery . This writ was very expensive , and as such brought large amounts of revenue to the Chancery and the Common Pleas . Costs varied depending on the amount of money being claimed from the defendant ; it was 6 shillings and 8 pence to claim £ 40 , 10 shillings for £ 100 , and £ 5 for £ 1 @,@ 000 . In return , the Chancery began to bring injunctions against those who claimed Bills of Middlesex , " whereby [ the judges ] are hindered of their fine which should have been paid in [ the Chancery ] upon the original of the said case " . These injunctions were only temporary ; " once the fine had been paid there was nothing to prevent a continuation of proceedings in King ’ s Bench " . Relatively few injunctions were issued , and thanks to technical loopholes " it was a weapon too infrequently used , and too easily parried " to have any long @-@ term impact . The issuing of injunctions finally ended in 1590 , after an ordinance passed by James I increased the costs of King 's Bench proceedings . The Bill of Middlesex itself was finally abolished by the Uniformity of Process Act 1832 . As a longer term and more significant development , the Bill of Middlesex was one of several revolutionary developments by the King 's Bench met with a conservative reaction from the Common Pleas , fearful of losing its own caseload . The troubles during this period are best illustrated by Slade 's Case . Under the medieval common law , claims seeking the repayment of a debt or other matters could only be pursued through a writ of debt in the Common Pleas , a problematic and archaic process . By 1558 the lawyers had succeeded in creating another method , enforced by the Court of King 's Bench , through the action of assumpsit , which was technically for deceit . The legal fiction used was that by failing to pay after promising to do so , a defendant had committed deceit , and was liable to the plaintiff . The conservative Common Pleas , through the appellate court the Court of Exchequer Chamber , began to overrule decisions made by the King 's Bench on assumpsit , causing friction between the courts . In Slade 's Case , the Chief Justice of the King 's Bench , John Popham , deliberately provoked the Common Pleas into bringing an assumpsit action to a higher court where the Justices of the King 's Bench could vote , allowing them to overrule the Common Pleas and establish assumpsit as the main contractual action . After the death of Edmund Anderson , the more activist Francis Gawdy became Chief Justice of the Common Pleas , which briefly led to a less reactionary and more revolutionary Common Pleas . An equilibrium between the courts was eventually reached , but the result was three common law courts ( the Exchequer of Pleas , Common Pleas and King 's Bench ) with near @-@ identical jurisdictions . By the 18th century , it was customary to speak of the " twelve justices " of the three courts , not distinguishing them , and assize cases were shared equally between them . In 1828 , Henry Brougham complained in Parliament that The jurisdiction of the Court of King 's Bench , for example , was originally confined to pleas of the Crown , and then extended to actions where violence was used – actions of trespass , by force ; but now , all actions are admissible within its walls , through the medium of a legal fiction , which was adopted for the purpose of enlarging its authority , that every person sued is in the custody of the marshal of the court and may , therefore , be proceeded against for any personal cause of actions . Thus , by degrees , this court has drawn over to itself actions which really belong to ... the Court of Common Pleas . The Court of Common Pleas , however ... never was able to obtain cognizance of – the peculiar subject of King 's Bench jurisdiction – Crown Pleas ... the Exchequer has adopted a similar course for , though it was originally confined to the trial of revenue cases , it has , by means of another fiction – the supposition that everybody sued is a debtor to the Crown , and further , that he cannot pay his debt , because the other party will not pay him , – opened its doors to every suitor , and so drawn to itself the right of trying cases , that were never intended to be placed within its jurisdiction . The result was the Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873 , which unified the Common Pleas , Exchequer , King 's Bench and Court of Chancery into one body , the High Court of Justice , with the divisions between the courts to remain . Thus , while the reform epitomised by the Bill of Middlesex aided the King 's Bench in the short term , it eventually led to its dissolution .

= Brownsea Island Scout camp = The Brownsea Island Scout camp began as a boys ' camping event on Brownsea Island in Poole Harbour , southern England , organised by Lieutenant @-@ General Baden @-@ Powell to test his ideas for the book Scouting for Boys . Boys from different social backgrounds participated from 1 to 8 August 1907 in activities around camping , observation , woodcraft , chivalry , lifesaving and patriotism . Recognised as the world 's first Scout camp , the event is regarded as the real origin of the worldwide Scout movement . Up to the early 1930s , camping by Boy Scouts continued on Brownsea Island . In 1963 , a formal 50 @-@ acre ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) Scout campsite was opened by Olave Baden @-@ Powell , when the island became a nature conservation area owned by the National Trust . In 1973 , a Scout Jamboree was held on the island with 600 Scouts . The worldwide centenary of Scouting took place at the Brownsea Island Scout camp , celebrating 1 August 2007 , the 100th anniversary of the start of the first encampment . Activities by The Scout Association at the campsite include four Scout camps and a Sunrise Ceremony . = = Background = = Robert Baden @-@ Powell had become a national hero during the Boer War as a result of his successful defence of the town of Mafeking , which was under siege from October 1899 to May 1900 . The Mafeking Cadets , made up of local boys aged 12 to 15 , acted as messengers throughout the siege , and had impressed him with their resourcefulness and courage . Baden @-@ Powell had also published a number of popular books on military scouting , including Aids to Scouting for NCOs and men , published in 1899 . Though written for non @-@ commissioned officers , it became a best @-@ seller and was used by teachers and youth organisations . In the years after the war Baden @-@ Powell broached the idea of a new youth organisation with a number of people , including William Alexander Smith , founder of the Boys ' Brigade , with whom he discussed setting up a Boys Brigade Scouting achievement . To test his ideas while writing Scouting for Boys , Baden @-@ Powell conceived of an experimental camp , creating a program to take place on Brownsea Island during the summer of 1907 . He invited his lifelong friend , Major Kenneth McLaren , to attend the camp as an assistant . = = First Scout encampment = = = = = Site and camp organisation = = = Baden @-@ Powell had visited Brownsea Island as a boy with his brothers . It covers 560 acres ( 2 @.@ 3 km2 ) of woodland and open areas , and features two lakes . The island perfectly suited his needs for the camp as it was isolated from the mainland and hence from the press , yet was only a short ferry trip from the town of Poole , making for easy logistics . Baden @-@ Powell invited boys from different social backgrounds to the camp , a revolutionary idea during the class @-@ conscious Edwardian era . Eleven came from the well @-@ to @-@ do private boarding schools of Eton and Harrow , mostly sons of Baden @-@ Powell 's friends . Seven came from the Boys ' Brigade at Bournemouth , and three came from the Brigade at Poole & Hamworthy . Baden @-@ Powell 's nine @-@ year @-@ old nephew Donald Baden @-@ Powell also attended . The camp fee was dependent on means : one pound for the public school boys , and three shillings and sixpence for the others . The boys were arranged into four patrols , designated as the Wolves , Ravens , Bulls and Curlews . It is uncertain if 20 or 21 boys attended the camp . At least four authors list attendance at 20 boys , and that they were organised into five patrols with Baden @-@ Powell 's nephew Donald as camp orderly . These sources included an article in The Scout ( 1908 ) , Sir Percy Everett in The First Ten Years ( 1948 ) and Rover Word ( 1936 ) , and E. E. Reynolds in The Scout Movement ( 1950 ) . In 1964 , William Hillcourt added the fourth Rodney brother , Simon , in Two Lives of a Hero , bringing the total to 21 . This evidence was supported by the oldest Rodney brother , then the 8th Baron Rodney . The reasons why Simon Rodney was not listed by the other authors is not clear , but evidence that he was present and the 6th member of the Curlews Patrol , was recounted by Scouting historian Colin Walker . As this was the first Boy Scouting event , the boys did not have uniform shirts , but they did wear khaki scarves and were presented with brass fleur @-@ de @-@ lis badges , the first use of the Scout emblem . They also wore a coloured knot on their shoulder indicating their patrol : green for Bulls , blue for Wolves , yellow for Curlews , and red for Ravens . The patrol leader carried a staff with a flag depicting the patrol animal . After passing tests on knots , tracking , and the national flag , they were given another brass badge , a scroll with the words Be Prepared , to wear below the fleur @-@ de @-@ lis . = = = Programme = = = Each patrol camped in an army bell tent . The camp began each day with a blast from a kudu horn that Baden @-@ Powell had found in the Somabula forest during the Matabele campaign of 1896 . He used the same kudu horn to open the Coming of Age Jamboree 22 years later in 1929 . The day began at 6 : 00 a.m. , with cocoa , exercises , flag break and prayers , followed by breakfast at 8 : 00 a.m. Then followed the morning exercise of the subject of the day , as well as bathing , if deemed necessary . After lunch there was a strict siesta ( no talking allowed ) , followed by the afternoon activity based on the subject of the day . At 5 : 00 p.m. the day ended with games , supper , campfire yarns and prayers . Baden @-@ Powell made full use of his personal fame as the hero of the Siege of Mafeking . For many of the participants , the highlights of the camp were his campfire yarns of his African experiences , and the Zulu " Ingonyama " chant , translating to " he is a lion " . Turning in for the night was compulsory for every patrol at 9 : 00 p.m. , regardless of age . Each day was based on a different theme : Day 1 was preliminary , day 2 was campaigning , day 3 was observation , day 4 for woodcraft , day 5 was chivalry , day 6 was saving a life , day 7 was patriotism , and day 8 was the conclusion . The participants left by ferry on the 9th day , 9 August 1907 . The camp cost £ 55 two shillings , and eight pence ; after the boys ' fees , and donations totaling £ 16 , this left a deficit of just over £ 24 . The deficit was cleared by Saxon Noble , whose two sons Marc and Humphrey had attended . Baden @-@ Powell considered the camp successful . = = = Legacy and commemoration = = = Following the successful camp , Baden @-@ Powell went on an extensive speaking tour arranged by his publisher , Pearsons , to promote his forthcoming Scouting for Boys , which officially began the Scout movement . It initially appeared as six fortnightly installments , beginning in January 1908 , and later appeared in book form . Scouting began to spread throughout Great Britain and Ireland , then through the countries of the British Empire , and soon to the rest of the world . A reunion of the original campers was held in 1928 at the Chief Scout 's home at Pax Hill in Hampshire . A commemorative stone by sculptor Don Potter was unveiled on 1 August 1967 by the Hon. Betty Clay née Baden @-@ Powell , younger daughter of Lord and Lady Baden @-@ Powell . It is located near the encampment area . There is also a small bust of B @-@ P outside a wall of Brownsea Castle , flanked by two large information posters , and beside it is a copy of B @-@ P 's footprint . In May 2000 , twenty trees were planted , one for each boys who attended . During the planting ceremony , the Scout Chief Commissioner for England , along with representatives of the Scouts and the Guides , planted the trees on the seaward side of the original site . The trees were designed to act as a permanent memorial to the camp , as well as providing a series of future windbreaks against coastal winds . = = Campsite history = = = = = From 1927 to 2000 = = = After the death of owner Charles van Raalte in 1907 , his wife Florence stayed on Brownsea until 1925 . Mary Bonham @-@ Christie bought the island at an auction in 1927 . In 1932 , Bonham @-@ Christie allowed 500 Scouts to camp there to celebrate the Silver Jubilee of Scouting , but shortly afterwards she closed the island to the public and it became very overgrown . In 1934 , some Sea Scouts were camping on the island when a fire broke out . Mrs. Bonham @-@ Christie blamed the Sea Scouts , although the fire did not start where the Sea Scouts were camping . The fire engulfed most of the island , burning west to east . The eastern buildings were only saved by a subsequent change in wind direction . Although it was not known how the fire started , Scouts were not allowed to camp on the island again until after Bonham @-@ Christie 's death in 1961 . Her family becoming liable for inheritance tax on her estate , they put the island up for sale . Interested citizens who feared that the island would be bought by developers helped raise an endowment , and in 1962 the government allowed the National Trust to take over management of the island in lieu of the death duties . The island was reopened to the public in 1963 by Lady Baden @-@ Powell when it came under the control of the National Trust . She planted a mulberry tree to mark the occasion . The Trust has continuously maintained the island since then as a conservation area . In 1964 , 50 acres ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) near the original campsite were set aside for Scout and Guide camping . In 1973 , a Jamboree was held on the island for 600 Scouts from seven nations , along with one of the original campers , then aged 81 . = = = After 2000 = = = The National Trust maintains the Scout and Guide campsite , South Shore Lodge and the Baden @-@ Powell Outdoor Centre where members of Brownsea Island Scout Fellowship and Friends of Guiding operate a small trading post . The Baden @-@ Powell Outdoor Centre was opened on 14 September 2007 . It contains a new camp reception , and new washroom facilities . The centre also hosts a small Scouting museum . The campsite is compartmentalised , with the memorial stone , shop , flags , and destination signs all in one area on the south @-@ west corner of the island . Radiating off from this centre are many small camp zones , about a dozen acres each , surrounded by trees and fences . The area set aside for camping now covers 50 acres ( 200 @,@ 000 m2 ) and there is room for between 300 and 400 campers on the site . St. Mary 's Church , located on the island about 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 0 @.@ 3 km ) from the camp , posts Scout and Guide flags at the approach to the altar . In 2007 , to coincide with the Scouting centenary , about 40 new kneelers or hassocks were given to the church , decorated with the 21 World Scout Jamboree badges and other Scouting , Guiding and island badges . The church is often used for services during large camps . Brownsea Island is generally open to the public from March to October , via ferry from Poole . The island was reserved for Scouts and Scouters on 1 August 2007 during the Sunrise Camp . The National Trust operates a number of events throughout the summer months including guided tours , trails , and activities in the visitor centre . = = Centenary of Scouting = = Since March 2006 , travel packages have been available for Scouts to camp on the island , and Scout and Guide groups can also book day activities . To celebrate one hundred years of Scouting , four camps were organised on the island by The Scout Association during July and August 2007 : The Patrol Leaders Camp , ran from 26 until 28 July 2007 , was the first of the four camps and involved Scouts from the United Kingdom engaging in activities such as sea kayaking . The Replica Camp was a living history recreation of the original 1907 camp on Brownsea Island , which ran from 28 July to 3 August 2007 , parallel to the other camps . The Sunrise Camp ( 29 July to 1 August 2007 ) hosted over 300 Scouts from nearly every country in the world . The young people traveled from the 21st World Scout Jamboree in Hylands Park , Essex , to Brownsea Island on 1 August 2007 for the Sunrise Ceremony . At 8 : 00 a.m. , Scouts all over the world renewed their Scout promise , with a focus on making the world a better and more peaceful place . Finally , the New Centenary Camp ( 1 – 4 August 2007 ) hosted Scouts from both the United Kingdom and abroad , celebrating the start of the second century for Scouting . Scouts from all backgrounds and religions came together to show the world that peace is possible in the same way that Baden @-@ Powell brought together boys from different classes for the first camp back in 1907 .

= Benjamin Freakley = Benjamin C. Freakley ( born 21 August 1953 ) is a retired United States Army lieutenant general , and a professor & policy advisor at Arizona State University . From Woodstock , Virginia , Freakley was commissioned as an infantry officer in 1975 , and served in Operation Desert Storm , Operation Iraqi Freedom , and Operation Enduring Freedom - Afghanistan before retiring in 2012 . After retirement Freakley began a career in education . = = Early life = = Originally from Woodstock , Virginia , he graduated from Central High School in Woodstock in 1971 . Freakley also became an Eagle Scout . Applying for admission to three military schools ( Virginia Military Institute , The Citadel , and West Point ) , he ended up graduating from West Point with the Class of 1975 . = = Military career = = Being commissioned as a second lieutenant of infantry in 1975 , he was assigned to the 506th Infantry Regiment until 1979 . He then was an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the commanding general of the Military District of Washington , before being sent to West Germany to serve with the 2nd Battalion , 30th Infantry Regiment . During Operation Desert Shield , Freakley worked on the war plans , and served as battalion executive officer of the 3rd Battalion , 7th Infantry Regiment . Operation Desert Storm found him serving as the operations officer of the 1st Brigade of the 24th Infantry Division . After Operation Desert Storm , Freakley commanded the 1st Battalion of the 5th Cavalry Regiment , before serving in staff positions with the 24th Infantry Division and III Corps , until being placed in command of the 3rd Brigade of the 1st Cavalry Division . 1999 found Freakley commanding the operations group at Fort Irwin 's National Training Center , before serving in staff positions at the National Military Command Center and Joint Staff . In 2003 , Freakley served as assistant division commander , under David Petraeus , of the 101st Airborne Division , which found Freakley involved in combat in Iraq a second time during Operation Iraqi Freedom . After Iraq , Freakley became the Chief of Infantry at Fort Benning , during which time the Infantry Center became part of the Maneuver Center of Excellence . In 2005 , Freakley commanded the 10th Mountain Division as it was deployed to Afghanistan , where he also became the commanding general of Combined Joint Task Force @-@ 76 . In 2007 , Freakley took command of Accessions Command , where he remained until he retired in 2012 . = = Post @-@ military career = = After retiring from the army , Freakley became a professor at Arizona State University , and special advisor to the university 's president . = = Awards and decorations = = Freakley has received the following awards : Freakley was also named the policy leader of the year , by the National Association of State Boards of Education in 2010 .

= Thief II = Thief II : The Metal Age is a 2000 stealth video game developed by Looking Glass Studios and published by Eidos Interactive . Like its predecessor Thief : The Dark Project , the game follows Garrett , a master thief who works in and around a steampunk metropolis called the City . The player assumes the role of Garrett as he unravels a conspiracy related to a new religious sect . Garrett takes on missions such as burglaries and frameups , while trying to avoid detection by guards and automated security . Thief II was designed to build on the foundation of its predecessor . In response to feedback from players of Thief , the team placed a heavy focus on urban stealth in the sequel , and they minimized the use of monsters and maze @-@ like levels . The game was made with the third iteration of the Dark Engine , which had been used previously to develop Thief and System Shock 2 . Thief II was announced at the 1999 Electronic Entertainment Expo , as part of an extended contract between Looking Glass and Eidos to release games in the Thief series . Looking Glass neared bankruptcy as the game was developed , and the company was kept running by advances from Eidos . Thief II received positive reviews from critics , and its initial sales were stronger than those of its predecessor . However , the game 's royalties were processed slowly , which compounded Looking Glass 's financial troubles . As a result , the company closed in May 2000 , with plans for Thief III cancelled . The third game in the series , entitled Thief : Deadly Shadows , was developed by Ion Storm and published by Eidos in 2004 . Thief 2X : Shadows of the Metal Age , a widely praised expansion mod for Thief II , was released in 2005 . In 2013 , Eidos Montreal announced a reboot of the series ( Thief ) , and it was released the following year . = = Gameplay = = Thief II is a stealth game that takes place from a first @-@ person perspective in a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphical environment . The player seeks to complete mission objectives and to evade the notice of opponents such as guards . The player must minimize the visibility and audibility of the player character , Garrett , to escape detection . Players try to avoid lit areas and loud flooring in favor of shadows and quiet flooring . A light monitor on the heads @-@ up display ( HUD ) indicates the player character 's visibility . While it is possible for the player character to engage in direct combat , he is easily defeated . The game 's 15 missions take place in large levels that can be confronted in multiple ways . Guards may be knocked out with a blackjack or killed with a bow or sword , and their fallen bodies may be picked up and hidden . In addition to human enemies , the game features security automatons and surveillance cameras . While completing objectives such as frameups and blackmail , the player steals valuables that may be used to purchase thieving gear between missions . The player 's main tools are specialized arrows , including water arrows to douse lights , moss arrows to dampen the player character 's footsteps and rope arrows to reach higher ground . Thief II is designed to be played methodically , and the player plans ahead by scouting , reading the game 's map and observing patrol patterns . The player character has a zooming mechanical eye , which connects to throwable " Scouting Orb " cameras . One Scouting Orb may be deployed at a time ; when it lands , the player views the game world from its perspective until normal play is resumed . The player listens for noises , such as footsteps and humming , to determine the locations of enemies . On the highest of the game 's three difficulty levels , killing humans results in a game over , and in certain missions the player must not knock out any guards . = = Plot = = = = = Setting and characters = = = Like its predecessor Thief : The Dark Project , Thief II is set in a steampunk metropolis called the City , whose appearance resembles that of both medieval and Victorian era cities . Magic and steam technology exist side by side , and three factions — the manipulative and enigmatic Keepers , the technology @-@ focused Hammerites and the " pagan " worshippers of the Pan @-@ like Trickster god — are in operation . Thief II takes place one year after the first game , in the aftermath of the Trickster 's defeat and the failure of his plan to revert the world to a wild , primitive state . A schism in the Hammerite religion spawns the " Mechanist " sect , which fanatically values technological progress . The new inventions of the Mechanists are used by a resurgent police force to crack down on crime . The pagans are in disarray , and have been driven into the wilderness beyond the City . From there , they engage in guerrilla warfare against the Mechanists . The Keeper faction is dormant as the game begins . The game continues the story of Garrett ( voiced by Stephen Russell ) , the cynical master thief who defeated the Trickster . Pursuing Garrett is the new sheriff , Gorman Truart ( voiced by Sam Babbitt ) , who has imposed a zero tolerance policy on crime . Viktoria ( voiced by Terri Brosius ) , the former ally of the Trickster , eventually joins with Garrett to combat the Mechanists . The game 's primary antagonist is the founder of the Mechanists , Father Karras ( also voiced by Russell ) , a mentally unstable inventor who despises the natural world . = = = Story = = = The game begins as Garrett continues his life as a thief . However , he is ambushed while returning to his apartment after an early mission , and he determines that Truart , the local sheriff , is hunting him . Keepers take Garrett to hear a prophecy about the " Metal Age " , which he ignores . As Garrett leaves , one of the Keepers informs him that Truart had been hired to kill him , and he gives Garrett a letter that directs him to eavesdrop on a Mechanist meeting . There , Garrett overhears Truart and Father Karras discussing the conversion of street people into mindless " Servants " , who wear masks that emit a red vapor capable of reducing themselves and nearby humans to rust . Truart promises to provide Karras with twenty victims for the Servant project , not realizing that Karras is recording his words for use in blackmail . Garrett steals the recording from a safe deposit box , in order to coerce Truart into revealing his employer . However , Garrett finds Truart murdered at his estate . Evidence at the crime scene leads him to spy on the police officer Lt. Mosley . Garrett sees Mosley deliver a suspicious letter , which is carried through a portal by a wounded pagan . Garrett enters the portal and finds himself outside the City , and he follows the pagan 's trail of blood to Viktoria , who persuades Garrett to join her against the Mechanists . On a lead from Viktoria , he infiltrates Karras ' office to learn about the " Cetus Project " , and inadvertently discovers that Karras is giving Servants to the City 's nobles . Garrett travels to a Mechanist base to find out more about the Cetus Project , which is revealed to be a submarine . In order to locate and kidnap a high @-@ ranking Mechanist named Brother Cavador , Garrett stows away in the vehicle . After delivering Cavador to Viktoria , Garrett steals a Servant mask to learn about a Mechanist technology called a " Cultivator " . Meanwhile , Karras hides inside the Mechanist cathedral in preparation for his plan . Garrett and Viktoria learn that it is the Cultivators inside Servant masks which emit red vapor , or " rust gas " . Karras had provided Servants to nobles with gardens in order to set off an apocalyptic chain reaction . Viktoria plans to lure the Servants into the hermetically sealed Mechanist cathedral before Karras activates their masks , but Garrett believes this to be too dangerous and leaves . Viktoria goes to the cathedral alone and dies while filling it with plants , and Garrett completes her plan , killing Karras in the rust gas . Afterward , Garrett is approached by a Keeper who explains that Karras ' scheme and Viktoria 's death had been prophesied . Garrett demands to know the rest of the Keepers ' prophecies as the game ends . = = Production = = = = = Early development = = = Looking Glass Studios began designing Thief II in January 1999 . The team 's goal was to build on the foundation of Thief : The Dark Project , a game that Thief II project director Steve Pearsall later said was an experiment . He explained that the team had played it safe by including certain " exploration ... or adventure oriented " missions with " jumping and climbing puzzles " in Thief , and that the new game was significantly more focused on stealth . Combat was given less prominence than in the original . Based on feedback from players and reviewers of Thief , the team decided to scale back the use of maze @-@ like levels and monsters such as zombies in favor of urban environments and human enemies . Pearsall stated that Thief 's monsters were negatively received because , unlike the game 's human enemies , they did not clearly indicate when they noticed the player . The team sought to remedy this problem by improving the audio cues given by non @-@ human enemies in the sequel . Production of Thief II commenced in February . Looking Glass chose to compose the game 's team of " half the original designers and half new blood " , according to executive producer James Poole . The company tried to select people who meshed well both personally and creatively , in an attempt to guarantee a smooth development cycle . Adrenaline Vault editor @-@ in @-@ chief Emil Pagliarulo was hired as a junior designer , in part because of his positive review of Thief . Rich " zdim " Carlson and Iikka Keränen joined from Ion Storm 's Daikatana team , and Looking Glass contractor Terri Brosius was hired as a full @-@ time designer . One @-@ third of the team was female , which Pearsall believed contributed to a strong group dynamic . As was typical at Looking Glass , the Thief II team worked in a wall @-@ less space called a " pit " , which allowed them to converse easily . Describing the work environment at the time , writer Laura Baldwin noted that " conversations dash madly about the room , [ and ] when someone is demonstrating something interesting everyone gravitates over to look . " During the first months of development , the team regularly gathered to watch films pertinent to Garrett 's character and to the game 's visual design , such as The Third Man , The Castle of Cagliostro , M and Metropolis . Pearsall said that the latter two films were Thief II 's " biggest aesthetic influences " , while the main inspiration for its plot was Umberto Eco 's novel The Name of the Rose . The team also drew influence from Fritz Leiber 's Fafhrd and the Gray Mouser . The game 's story was written in the three @-@ act structure : Garrett was intended to transition from his " cynical self " in the first act to a private investigator in the second , and to a character similar to James Bond in the third . The City 's technology and architecture were influenced by the appearance of Victorian London , and certain areas were given an Art Deco theme to provide " sort of a ' Batman ' feel " , in reference to the 1989 film . Lead artist Mark Lizotte captured over two @-@ thousand photographs during his vacation in Europe , and these were the basis for many of the game 's textures . Thief II was built with the third iteration of the Dark Engine , which had been used previously for Thief and System Shock 2 . According to Pearsall , the Dark Engine had become " a very well understood development environment " , which made for an easier production process . Engine updates created for System Shock 2 , such as support for 16 @-@ bit color , were carried over to Thief II . The average character model in Thief II was given close to double the polygons of the average model in Thief , with much of the added detail focused on characters ' heads . This was an attempt to give the characters a " more organic " look . Certain artificial intelligence ( AI ) routines written into the Dark Engine , which allowed enemies to notice changes in the environment such as open doors , had not been used in Thief or in System Shock 2 but were implemented in Thief II . Weather effects such as fog and rain were added , and technology from Flight Unlimited III was used to generate the sky and clouds . = = = Announcement and continued development = = = Thief II was announced during the Electronic Entertainment Expo on May 13 , 1999 , as part of a contract between Looking Glass and Eidos Interactive to release four new games in the Thief series , beginning with Thief Gold . The deal had been signed on May 7 , roughly three months after Thief II entered production . A tech demo of the game , which Bruce Geryk of Games Domain described as " about three rooms with some Mages " , was displayed on the show floor . The demo was used to showcase the updated Dark Engine , which featured support for colored lighting , higher polygon models and larger environments . The team revealed their intention to include more levels with human enemies , and announced a projected release date of spring 2000 . Plans to include a cooperative multiplayer mode were also detailed at the show . IGN 's Jason Bates noted that the Thief II display attracted " a bit of a buzz and a small crowd of dedicated onlookers " . By July , the team had begun initial construction of the game 's levels . Thief II 's increased focus on stealth necessitated new level design concepts : the most stealth @-@ based missions in Thief had centered on urban burglary , but Pearsall explained that this " would get tired pretty fast " if repeated in every level . The team diversified Thief II by designing missions with such objectives as kidnapping , blackmail and eavesdropping . The first two levels were designed to seamlessly introduce new players to the core game mechanics , without a tutorial mission that might lose the interest of experienced players . When creating a mission , the team would often begin by deciding on the player 's objective , after which they would produce a rough level design . The mission would then undergo a peer review to determine if it should be added to the game . Each of the game 's levels was a team effort rather than the work of a single designer . Designer Randy Smith explained that , while Thief 's levels had been designed to fit a pre @-@ existing story , the Thief II team " tried to think of really good missions first " and then adjusted the plot to suit them . He noted that it was highly difficult to harmonize the two . The game 's sound team was composed of Kemal Amarasingham , Damin Djawadi and audio director Eric Brosius . According to Brosius , each member of the audio department did " everything " , without clear demarcations between roles . Like Thief , Thief II features a sound engine that simulates propagation in real @-@ time . To achieve this effect , each level 's geometry was input both to the level editor and to a " separate [ sound ] database " , which mapped how sound would realistically propagate based on " the physical room characteristics [ ... and ] how all the different rooms and areas are connected together " . For example , noise travels freely through an open door but is blocked when the door is closed . The team used the new " occlusion " feature in EAX 2 @.@ 0 to make Thief II 's sound environment more realistic and to allow the player to listen through doors . The game features more sound effects , music and speech than the original Thief . Thief II 's score , as with that of its predecessor , was designed to " blur ambient [ sound ] and music " together . However , Brosius later stated that , while Thief 's soundtrack is composed of " simple and hypnotic " loops only a few seconds in length , Thief II features longer and " more thoughtfully " constructed pieces . He believed that this method had positive aspects , but that it resulted in a less immersive audio environment . Artist Dan Thron returned to create the game 's cutscenes , with assistance from Jennifer Hrabota @-@ Lesser . Thron later called Hrabota @-@ Lesser " one of the greatest artists I 've ever seen " . The cutscenes , which Computer Games Magazine called " unique " , feature multiple layers of artwork and footage of live actors filmed against a green screen . These components were combined and animated in Adobe After Effects . The technique had been developed for the original Thief , as an evolution of designer Ken Levine 's suggestion to use motion comic cutscenes . David Lynch 's films Eraserhead and The Elephant Man were important influences on their style . = = = Final months = = = By October 1999 , the team had cut the game 's multiplayer feature . Pearsall explained that Looking Glass did not " have the resources to do a new kind of multiplayer and ship a finely tuned single @-@ player game " . Plans were announced in January 2000 to release a multiplayer @-@ only Thief game shortly after the completion of Thief II . As Thief II 's development continued , Looking Glass experienced extreme financial troubles . The company 's Marc LeBlanc later said that " Eidos was writing a check every week to cover our burn rate " during the last months of the project . The game 's final cost was roughly $ 2 @.@ 5 million . According to company head Paul Neurath , Eidos informed Looking Glass that " it was not an option " for Thief II to miss its release date , and that there would be " dire consequences if [ we ] missed by even a day " . An anonymous Looking Glass staffer later told Salon.com that Eidos " told us basically to ship [ Thief II ] by their fiscal quarter or die " . By January , Pearsall confirmed that the game had reached beta , and that most of the team 's energy was being spent " tuning , polishing , and fixing bugs " . He noted in early February that Thief II had been produced almost entirely on schedule . The company slipped behind near the end of the project and entered crunch time to make up the loss . On February 24 , Thief II producer Michael McHale announced that the game had reached " feature freeze " , and that the team was in " super crunch mode " . Numerous game testers from Eidos joined the project . However , McHale said that the team was energized and that " spirits [ were ] high " . Certain employees slept in the office and avoided bathing so that the game could reach its March deadline . LeBlanc later stated his belief that the game was rushed , and that its quality suffered as a result . Nevertheless , the team met their goal , and the game was released on March 23 , 2000 . Eidos expedited the company 's payment for completing the game . = = Reception = = Thief II debuted high on the bestsellers list for computer games , and its initial sales were better than those of its commercially successful predecessor . In the United States , the game sold roughly 67 @,@ 000 copies and earned $ 2 @.@ 37 million by the end of 2000 . It received positive reviews from critics , with an aggregate score of 89 @.@ 14 % on GameRankings . Computer Gaming World 's Thomas L. McDonald wrote that " everything in Thief II is bigger , sharper , better , and more effective " than in its predecessor . He enjoyed its story and called its levels " vast and intricate " , with " astonishingly complex and often beautiful " architecture ; but he found the game 's graphics to be somewhat lackluster . McDonald summarized Thief II as a unique " gamer 's game " . Jim Preston of PC Gamer US considered the game to be " more focused and polished than the original " , and he praised the removal of " zombie battles " . While he faulted its graphics , he summarized it as " one hell of a good game " . Jasen Torres of GameFan wrote , " If you liked Thief , you 'll love Thief 2 : The Metal Age ; it 's more of the stuff that made Thief great , with less of the annoying stuff " . He applauded the removal of " zombie killer " missions and believed the game 's sound to be " superior to any other game " . He considered its story to be " good " but " nothing great " and its graphics to be " decent " ; but he commented that the game was " really all about the gameplay " , which he praised as " quite compelling and fun " . Benjamin E. Sones of Computer Games Magazine considered the game 's story to be " quite good " , but he faulted Looking Glass for failing to detail the events of the first game for new players . He wrote that Thief II 's graphics were passable but that its sound design was " phenomenal " . Sones praised its missions as " very well crafted " , and noted that they gave the impression of being in " a living , breathing world . " He summarized , " It may not be perfect , but Thief 2 has got it where it counts " . Charles Harold of The New York Times called the game a " refreshing alternative to games that glorify violence " . He found its story to be " slight " , but he lauded its world as " amazingly alive " and its AI as a " remarkable impersonation of real intelligence " . Writing for GamePro , Barry Brenesal commented that Thief II " provides a solid gaming experience " but " doesn 't startle like its predecessor " . He wrote that its missions featured a " great deal of variety " , and he praised their " ability to casually suggest a much larger world " , but he complained that they were linear . He considered the game 's writing to be " among the best in the business " . While Brenesal enjoyed the game 's textures and lighting , he noted the low detail of the game 's human models , whose animations he found to be " arthritic " . PC Zone 's Paul Presley wrote that the game 's levels were larger but easier than those of Thief , and he considered their objectives to be somewhat linear . He found Thief II 's graphics to be dated and wrote that its lack of real @-@ time lighting " tends to give each environment a sort of ' false ' quality " . However , he believed that the game " still has enough atmosphere to immerse you " , and he praised its sound design . Presley considered the game to be a straightforward rehash of its predecessor , and he finished , " A more clear @-@ cut case of sequel @-@ itis there has never been . " = = Post @-@ release = = While Thief II performed well commercially , Looking Glass was not set to receive royalties for several months . The company had struggled financially since the commercial failures of its self @-@ published games Terra Nova : Strike Force Centauri and British Open Championship Golf . Looking Glass 's Flight Unlimited III had flopped at retail , and the development of Jane 's Attack Squadron had gone over budget and fallen behind schedule . A deal to co @-@ develop the stealth game Deep Cover with Irrational Games had recently collapsed . According to Looking Glass 's Tim Stellmach , the delay in Thief II royalties " faced [ us ] with the prospect of running out of money . " Looking Glass management signed a deal in which Eidos Interactive would acquire the company , but Eidos fell into a sudden financial crisis , in part because of the failure of Ion Storm 's $ 40 million game Daikatana . These factors led to the closure of Looking Glass on May 24 , 2000 , with the planned Thief II successors Thief II Gold and Thief III cancelled . = = = Sequels = = = The Thief series had been planned as a trilogy , and work on Thief III was " in a fairly advanced stage " when Looking Glass closed , according to PC Zone 's Keith Pullin . Randy Smith and Terri Brosius were appointed as lead designers , and they developed the game 's concept over several months . In an open letter published after the company 's bankruptcy , Smith wrote that the third game would have taken place in an " open @-@ ended , self @-@ directed city " , and that its plot would have centered on the Keepers . Brosius suggested that Thief III would have seen Garrett " accept [ ing ] that there are consequences to his actions " , and that he would likely have become " ready to give , rather than always take . " The player would have uncovered the game 's story gradually , while exploring a free @-@ roam environment . Serious plans had been made to include co @-@ operative multiplayer , and a new engine , Siege , had been in production . When Looking Glass closed , its assets were liquidated and the Thief intellectual property was sold at auction . This raised doubts that the Thief trilogy would be completed , a situation that Salon.com writer Wagner James Au compared to Lucasfilm closing after the release of The Empire Strikes Back . However , following rumors , Eidos announced on August 9 , 2000 that it had purchased the rights to Thief . Development of Thief III was delegated to the Warren Spector @-@ supervised Ion Storm Austin , which had recently completed Deus Ex . According to Spector , Thief III would have been given to Core Design or Crystal Dynamics had he not accepted it . The game was announced for Windows and the PlayStation 2 . On August 10 , Spector commented that Ion Storm 's first goal was to assemble a core team , composed in part of former Looking Glass employees , to design and plot the game . Thief II team members Randy Smith , Lulu Lamer , Emil Pagliarulo and Terri Brosius were hired to begin the project . On August 16 , Ion Storm announced its hires , and stated that concept work on Thief III would begin in September . The team planned to " wrap up [ the ] loose ends " of the series , and they built directly upon the Thief III concept work done at Looking Glass . Thief III was eventually renamed Thief : Deadly Shadows , and it was released for Windows and the Xbox on May 25 , 2004 . In May 2009 , after several months of rumors , a fourth game in the Thief series was announced by Deus Ex : Human Revolution developer Eidos Montreal . It was unveiled in the April 2013 issue of Game Informer . The game , entitled Thief , is a reboot of the Thief series ; and it does not feature the Hammerites , pagans or Keepers . Its plot follows Garrett ( voiced by Romano Orzari in place of Stephen Russell ) in the aftermath of an accident that leaves his protégé , Erin , missing . Garrett has amnesia after this incident , and the City is beset by a plague called the Gloom . The game was released for Windows and the Xbox 360 , PlayStation 3 , Xbox One and PlayStation 4 in February 2014 . = = = Fan expansion = = = Soon after the bankruptcy of Looking Glass , a fan group called the Dark Engineering Guild began developing an expansion mod to Thief II , entitled Thief 2X : Shadows of the Metal Age . Initially , they hoped to fill the void left by the cancellation of Thief III , but they continued to work on the mod after the announcement and release of Thief : Deadly Shadows . Released in 2005 after five years in development , the mod follows Zaya , a young woman who is robbed while visiting the City and who then seeks revenge . She is mentored by a pagan hermit named Malak , who trains her as a thief but who has ulterior motives . The team designed Zaya to be physically capable and to have a " middle @-@ eastern / north @-@ african look " , but made an effort to avoid similarities to Mulan . Chronologically , the story starts near the end of Thief and ends in the middle of Thief II , thereby depicting the rise of Gorman Truart and the early days of the Mechanists . Thief 2X features 13 missions , with new animated cutscenes and roughly 3 @,@ 000 new lines of recorded dialogue . The mod was praised by critics and by the Thief fan community . Brett Todd of PC Gamer US awarded it " Mod of the Month " and wrote , " It doesn 't quite have the mysterious allure of the original games , but it 's awfully close " . A writer for Jolt Online Gaming praised the mod 's visuals and considered its missions to be " incredibly well designed " . While the writer commented that Thief 2X did not perfectly follow the series ' tone and that its voice acting was " not the best " , they finished by saying that fans of the Thief series had " no excuse not to play T2X . " PC Gamer UK 's Kieron Gillen wrote that he had expected the mod to be cancelled , given that the " web is full of [ ... ] five @-@ percent finished masterworks from people who aimed far , far too high . " After Thief 2X 's release , he lauded it as the best Thief fan work , and as " one of the most impressive achievements of any fan community for any game . "

= Deathrow ( video game ) = Deathrow is a sports video game developed by Southend Interactive and published by Ubisoft Entertainment . It was released as an Xbox gaming system exclusive on 18 October 2002 in Europe and four days later in North America . Deathrow 's development began in May 1999 as an online PC ( player computer ) game . In early 2001 , Southend transitioned to an Xbox console release , which let the team use pixel shaders , bump mapped textures , and specular lighting . Deathrow was built on an in @-@ house 3D game engine and was Southend 's first full release . The game is based on the fictional extreme sport Blitz , a futuristic full @-@ contact hybrid of hockey and basketball played with a flying disc . Two teams of four players attempt to move the disc through their opponent 's goal , and teams can either win on points or by knocking out their opposing team . There are 150 individual characters across 18 thematic teams . The single @-@ player campaign 's plot is set in the 23rd century , when Blitz is a popular , televised sport and the teams battle to scale the ranks and win the championship . Players earn credits from their goals scored , opponent knockouts , and crowd @-@ pleasing to be spent on player upgrades , bets , and new teammates . The game also supports split @-@ screen and System Link multiplayer for up to eight players across up to eight Xbox consoles . Deathrow received largely favorable reviews . Reviewers praised the game 's fast @-@ paced action , and surround sound , but complained of its high difficulty curve , generic soundtrack , and lack of online multiplayer . Some critics felt the game 's use of profanity was excessive , while others thought it was a highlight . Reviewers considered the game 's concept and mechanics similar to other series , specifically Speedball . IGN and TeamXbox both named Deathrow an Editor 's Choice . The game won the TeamXbox 2002 Breakthrough Game of the Year award and the IGN 2002 Best Game Nobody Played . IGN later reported that a sequel would be unlikely due to the original 's low revenue . Southend dissolved in 2013 . = = Gameplay = = Deathrow is set in the year 2219 , where Blitz is the world 's most popular sport . Players attempt to toss a disc through a hoop while avoiding full @-@ contact from their opponents , including punches , kicks , throws , and stomps . Like a futuristic rugby , the sport combines elements of hockey , basketball , and full @-@ contact American football . Critics compared the game 's mechanics to Discs of Tron , Mortal Kombat , Blood Bowl , Final Fantasy X 's Blitzball , Blades of Steel , and Speedball , and its aesthetic to that of Blade Runner . The game 's premise was also compared to the 1975 film Rollerball . There are four rounds in a match of Blitz , where two teams of four computer or human players score points for each energized Blitz disc thrown through their opponent 's hoop , which is eight feet off the ground . Players pass and travel with the disc across the arenas , and the game continues without pause between points scored . The team with the most points at the end of a match wins . Players can choose to brawl when not scoring points . Fighting depletes character health , depending on who takes the blows . Once his health is completely depleted , a character is removed from the game , and teams with all players knocked out are disqualified ( though players can be substituted between rounds ) . If a player tends towards belligerence , the game 's artificial intelligence will compensate and exact revenge for its teammates . Friendly fire , where teammates can intentionally or inadvertently hurt each other with attacks meant for their opponents , is permitted . There are 150 unique players on 18 teams , each with thematic personalities in appearance , play style , and profanity . Teams also vary in skill set , and attributes such as defense , speed , strength , and teamwork . Examples include the Sea Cats ( fast all @-@ female team with European accents ) , the Marines ( who wear camouflaged garb and use military jargon ) , the Demons ( high strength attribute with demonic language ) , and the Black Dragons ( ninjas with high agility and combat skills ) . Teams battle in 32 arenas — one half with traditional , open @-@ style stadiums , and the other half with environmental obstacles , such as the underground mines . Minor power @-@ ups including health , credits , and skill augments for individual players regenerate regularly on the field . Players earn credits for knocking out opponents , scoring points , and impressing the crowd with violence and skill . The credits can be used towards player enhancements such as black market performance @-@ enhancing drugs . A crowd meter displays audience support , which boosts the player 's team abilities when filled . IGN found the game to heavily rely on teamwork . Computer players on teams rated with low teamwork will not take initiative to pursue the disc or to help teammates in need . This attribute can be raised over the course of a game . Players can call plays including physical offense , fast offense , neutral , defense , and goal defense . The game supports single @-@ player , four @-@ player local multiplayer , and System Link with up to eight players across up to eight Xbox consoles , but does not support Xbox Live online play . Deathrow has a futuristic electronic dance music soundtrack and over 3 @,@ 000 words of voice acting . It also supports 5 @.@ 1 surround sound and customized soundtracks . The game is backwards compatible with the Xbox 360 . = = = Controls = = = Players use the Xbox controller 's left analog stick to move the character , the right stick to strafe , and the main buttons to jump , block , punch , and kick . When on offense , the latter two functions become " pass " and " shoot " . Players switch between characters and taunt with the white and black buttons , respectively , and call plays with the directional pad . The left trigger modifies an existing action , such as running into dives , slide @-@ tackles , and grabs , and the right trigger orients the camera towards the objective ( either the disc or the goal , depending on the team in possession ) . This camera control is designed for precision when diving for the disc or shooting on goal . A character in possession of the disc will show a trajectory line of their potential shot or pass , which is altered by player movement , breath , and physical contact . Players charge the disc by holding the shooting button , whereby the disc turns greener as the shot grows more powerful . A fully charged shot called a Deathrow will incapacitate any player it hits , while overcharged shots electrify and stun the carrier . Before each game and single @-@ player Conquest , players choose between Sports and Action camera views . Action view is a trailing third @-@ person shot similar to looking over the player @-@ character 's shoulder , while Sports view is a spectator perspective similar that of a televised basketball game . Enclosed arenas are inaccessible when using Sports view . The camera view cannot be changed once single @-@ player begins , so Conquest mode players in Sports view will not see the arenas they unlock . The Action view camera swings wildly and can be pulled back slightly in the menus . = = = Campaign = = = The in @-@ game story of Blitz begins in 2197 as a Los Angeles gang sport used to find recruits . Over 20 years later , the illegal sport is picked up for broadcast by the Prime Network , who forms the Blitz Disc Association ( BDA ) and plans for the first Blitz competition with exhibition games and prize money . Through exhibition games and prize money , 13 teams of humans with various competitive augmentations are chosen to compete . Conquest , the single @-@ player tournament career mode , pits the player 's team against the ranked hierarchy en route to the championship . Up to three additional human players can join in the single @-@ player . Players initially choose between four teams , though 13 total are unlockable . Teams begin with four players with no alternates for substitution , and fight their way from fourth place in the Rookie Division to first place against each team in between . Players can continue to take challenges within the division before irrevocably moving on to the next division . The player 's team receives randomized , team @-@ specific textual messages in between games , including offers for free agent offers , training sessions , drugs , bets on the player 's performance , and events including accidental gifts from the player 's manager , threats from the team 's owner , and organized crime extortions . Players can buy character attribute increases with their credits . Single @-@ player progress unlocks concept art and game assets external to the game , as well as new teams , players , and arenas . Each of the unlockable 13 teams has six unlockable players ( for a total of 10 players on each ) , and five additional legacy teams are limited to four players apiece . Multi @-@ disc and " Extreme " difficulty gameplay options are also unlockable . = = Development = = Deathrow was developed by Southend Interactive and produced by Ubisoft Entertainment . Five friends opened Southend in Malmö , Sweden in 1998 to fulfill their childhood ambitions to make video games . Southend began Deathrow development in May 1999 and expected the game to be an online PC video game tentatively titled Blitz Disc Arena . The idea for the sports game descended from a combination of Speedball 2 , the Quake and Unreal series , and Tekken . Southend 's nine @-@ person team received Xbox development kits in June 2000 and decided to move the game to console in early 2001 . According to Southend animator Rodrigo Cespedes in a 2002 TeamXbox interview , " Xbox was the only console that would allow [ them ] to produce the game as it was originally envisioned " , adding that Microsoft and Ubisoft encouraged the mature direction with emphasis on blood , brutality , and profanity . Thus they began to port the game to the console for its feature capabilities , including vertex and pixel shaders for bump mapped environmental textures and character animations , specular lighting , and bumped reflection mapping . The game was developed on an in @-@ house 3D game engine under construction for multiple years . Each character is made of over 7000 polygons and 55 bones , making for players with facial expressions , over 800 animations , and a capacity to blink . Character faces can additionally express emotions like happiness or anger , and feelings of pain . The move to Xbox led to greater variation in the team personalities . The artists drew many options for each team and the developers chose from the lot . Deathrow was designed for the Action camera view , but Sports view was introduced to expand the game 's appeal . Deathrow was displayed at Ubisoft 's E3 2002 booth , and was released on 18 October 2002 in Europe , and on 22 October 2002 in the United States as an Xbox exclusive . The game did not include Xbox Live online multiplayer for want of development time . At the time of release , Southend had no plans to release downloadable content , though they implemented a method to do so . The game was Southend 's first full release . = = Reception = = Deathrow received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . IGN and TeamXbox both named Deathrow an Editor 's Choice . The game won TeamXbox 's 2002 Breakthrough Game of the Year award and IGN 's 2002 Best Xbox Game Nobody Played . It was also runner @-@ up for their Xbox action game of the year . IGN felt that of the year 's praiseworthy yet unappreciated games , Deathrow alone " truly blew [ them ] away " . Critics praised the game 's fast , chaotic action and use of surround sound . The reviewers bemoaned its high difficulty curve , generic soundtrack , and lack of online multiplayer . Some reviewers thought the game used profanity excessively , while others considered it a highlight . David Hodgson of Electronic Gaming Monthly ( EGM ) found Deathrow 's European origins apparent as " awkward , over @-@ the @-@ top expletives in obnoxious American accents " were paired with rugby . Hodgson said that Deathrow struggled to show grittiness in a very shiny environment . He added that the game suffered from immoderate violence , frustrating fighting sequences , lack of online play , and " steep learning curve " . Hodgson compared the core mechanics to a " mini @-@ game masquerading as sports entertainment " . William Racer of the Official Xbox Magazine ( OXM ) praised the fast @-@ paced nature of the game and its eye for detail , and complained about the camera angles and difficulty . He placed the game in a lineage of invented sports from a dystopian future and found the game more entertaining than the rest . Racer also found the music generic , and the voice acting good . Eric Bush of TeamXbox complimented the computer opponents 's artificial intelligence and said that they put up a challenge . GameSpy 's Osborne appreciated the game 's small details like the streak trailing the disc through the air . IGN 's Kaiser Hwang called the arena lighting effects , bump mapping , and textures the best since Halo : Combat Evolved . 1UP.com , OXM 's Racer , and IGN 's Douglass Perry and David Clayman recommended Deathrow as a party game , with the IGN staff specifically recommending the game with System Link . GameSpot 's Greg Kasavin spoke highly of the tight controls and accessible gameplay in spite of a larger learning curve . IGN 's Goldstein described the controls as " relatively simple " and easy to understand within a single game , and Scott Osborne of GameSpy found the controls awkward but easily learned . In comparison , Charles Herold of The New York Times and a friend could not figure out Blitz 's rules for 20 minutes , feeling " too macho " to do the tutorial . Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette 's Jonathan Silver thought the gameplay was too frenzied , like " NHL Hitz on steroids " . Hilary Goldstein of IGN 's only complaint about the controls was the camera 's looseness . She noted the game 's " serious attitude " and " very gritty view of sports " , and similar to hockey , felt that the non @-@ disc action was " one of the nicest aspects " of the game . She praised the graphics and environments , surround sound , the array of unlockables , the single @-@ player , and its replay value , but bemoaned the lack of options to change between camera views , the Action view in general , and the indistinguishability between players . Goldstein regarded Deathrow 's profanity as the " best use of endless cursing in a game ... ever " . Herold of The New York Times noted violence 's centrality to the game and figured that the game 's age restrictions were likely due to the " savage profanities " , which he felt gave the game personality unlike other sports video games . He added that the game 's frantic speed kept him too consumed to curse at the game himself . The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution 's Troy Oxford also connected the profanity to the game 's " ' M ' rating " . Edge referred to Deathrow as a substance @-@ less and " contrived clone " of the 1990 Speedball 2 , which used a ball instead of a disc . David Hodgson of EGM similarly praised the 1990 title in comparison . William Racer of OXM did not mind the two games ' similarities and added that " you might as well copy from the best " . While Kasavin of GameSpot thought the theme was tired , The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution 's Oxford wrote that the game felt " fresh " . Reflecting on the release year , IGN director Peer Schneider said that games like Deathrow showed the games industry 's ability to make new , high @-@ caliber franchises . Two IGN staffers predicted the game to be a sleeper hit : one noted the sparse press compared to the game 's quality , and the other explained that Ubisoft was busy promoting bigger titles such as Tom Clancy 's Splinter Cell , Dragon 's Lair 3D , and Rayman . = = = Legacy = = = In 2006 , TeamXbox 's Matthew Fisher determined that the game aged well . In 2012 , Complex Gaming listed Deathrow 13th on its 15 Most Violent Sports Video Games . Scottish developer Ludometrics described their 2014 video game Bodycheck as a spiritual successor to Deathrow , Speedball 2 , and Skateball , though the game is set in the medieval past instead of the ultraviolent future . Around the time of launch , Southend was interested in producing a sequel . In March 2004 , IGN listed Deathrow 2 as one of its five desired Xbox sequels , specifically for Xbox Live online play support . IGN placed its chances at a 90 % likelihood . IGN reported a month later that despite interest from Southend , Ubisoft would be unlikely to release a forthcoming Deathrow sequel due to the original 's low revenue . Southend separated from its Swedish IT consulting firm parent company , Tacet Holding AB , and became a fully independent company in April 2013 . With it , Southend CEO Fredrik Brönjemark announced that " now is the right time for Southend to manage its own destiny and to invest in its own products " , of which Deathrow and ilomilo were examples . Southend closed in June 2013 when its full 24 @-@ person staff was hired into Ubisoft Massive , another Swedish developer .

= History of the National Hockey League ( 1967 – 92 ) = The expansion era of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) began when six new teams were added for the 1967 – 68 season , ending the Original Six era . The six existing teams were grouped into the newly created East Division , and the expansion teams — the Los Angeles Kings , Minnesota North Stars , Oakland Seals , Philadelphia Flyers , Pittsburgh Penguins and St. Louis Blues — formed the West Division . The NHL added another six teams by 1974 to bring the league to 18 teams . This continued expansion was partially brought about by the creation of the World Hockey Association ( WHA ) , which operated from 1972 until 1979 and sought to compete with the NHL for markets and players . Bobby Hull was the most famous player to defect to the rival league , signing a $ 2 @.@ 75 million contract with the Winnipeg Jets . When the WHA ceased operations in 1979 , the NHL absorbed four of the league 's teams — the Edmonton Oilers , Hartford Whalers , Quebec Nordiques and Winnipeg Jets . This brought the NHL to 21 teams ( the Cleveland Barons had ceased operations in 1978 ) , a figure that remained constant until the San Jose Sharks joined as an expansion franchise in 1991 . The NHL became involved in international play , starting with the Summit Series in 1972 , which pitted the top Canadian players of the NHL against the top players of the Soviet Union . Canada won the eight @-@ game series four wins to three with one tie . The success of the series led to the creation of the Canada Cup , held five times between 1976 and 1991 . NHL teams also faced Soviet League teams that toured North America between 1975 and 1991 in what was known as the Super Series . The fall of the Iron Curtain in 1989 saw many former Soviet @-@ Bloc players stream into the NHL , joining several players who had defected in the 1980s . This was the highest scoring period in NHL history . It was led in the 1980s by the Edmonton Oilers and Wayne Gretzky , who scored 200 points or more four times , including a current league @-@ record 215 in 1985 – 86 . Gretzky 's 92 goals in 1981 – 82 also remains a league record . No other player in NHL history has scored 200 points , although Mario Lemieux came close in 1988 – 89 with 199 . = = Background = = Expansion had been a major topic of discussion among NHL owners since 1963 , when William M. Jennings of the New York Rangers proposed adding two new teams on the West Coast to counter fears that the Western Hockey League intended to compete as a major league . After several years of discussion , the NHL announced in February 1966 that it would expand by six teams , doubling the league 's size . The Los Angeles Kings , Minnesota North Stars , California Seals , Philadelphia Flyers , Pittsburgh Penguins and St. Louis Blues began play in the 1967 – 68 season . They formed the newly created West Division , and the existing teams were grouped into the East Division . The playoff format was constructed so that an established team would face an expansion team in the Stanley Cup Finals . The Clarence S. Campbell Bowl was created in honour of league president Clarence Campbell , and was awarded to the West Division champion . The new teams were stocked by the NHL 's first expansion draft , as each team selected 20 players from the existing franchises . There was much debate over how many players each existing team could protect : the strongest clubs wished to protect more players , while the weaker clubs hoped that protecting fewer players would help improve the balance of competition . Montreal Canadiens manager Sam Pollock 's suggestion to allow each team to protect eleven players to start , then add an additional player to their protected list for each player selected in the draft , was ultimately agreed to as a compromise solution . In addition , an " intra @-@ league draft " was held following the 1968 and 1969 seasons to help accelerate the improvement of the expansion teams . Each team protected two goaltenders and fourteen skaters , leaving their remaining players open to be selected by any other team . Some teams created instant farm systems by buying existing minor league franchises . The Kings bought the Springfield Indians of the American Hockey League the night before the expansion draft , leading the Flyers to purchase the Quebec Aces . Expansion also changed how the amateur draft was handled . The old system , in which franchises sponsored junior teams and players , was abandoned by 1969 when all junior @-@ aged players were made eligible for the entry draft . = = Expansion years = = In their inaugural season , the Flyers finished atop the West Division , recording 73 points in 74 games . The California Seals , a pre @-@ season favourite to win the division , changed their name to the Oakland Seals a month into the season . The team disappointed both on the ice and at the gate , finishing last in the NHL with 14 wins . The Blues defeated the Flyers and North Stars to become the first expansion team to play for the Stanley Cup , where they were defeated in four consecutive games by the Canadiens . The Blues reached the finals again in both 1969 and 1970 , but were similarly swept in both years , losing to the Canadiens and Boston Bruins , respectively . On January 13 , 1968 , North Stars ' rookie Bill Masterton became the first and , to date , only player to die as a result of injuries suffered during an NHL game . Early in a game against the Seals , Masterton was checked hard by two players , Ron Harris and Larry Cahan , causing him to flip over backwards and land on his head . He was rushed to hospital with massive head injuries , and died there two days later . The National Hockey League Writers Association presented the league with the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy later in the season ; the trophy is awarded annually to the player who best exemplifies the qualities of perseverance , sportsmanship and dedication to hockey . Following Masterton 's death , players slowly began wearing helmets ; starting in the 1979 – 80 season , the league mandated that all players entering the league wear them . = = = Bobby Orr = = = In the 1968 – 69 season , second @-@ year defenceman Bobby Orr scored 21 goals , an NHL record for a defenceman , en route to winning his first of eight consecutive Norris Trophies as the league 's top defenceman . At the same time , Orr 's teammate , Phil Esposito , became the first player in league history to score 100 points in a season , finishing with 126 points . He was one of three players to break the century mark that year , including Bobby Hull and 41 @-@ year @-@ old Gordie Howe . A gifted scorer , Orr revolutionized defencemen 's impact on the offensive side of the game , as blue @-@ liners began to be judged on how well they created goals in addition to how well they prevented them . Orr scored the Stanley @-@ Cup @-@ winning goal in overtime of the fourth game against the Blues in 1970 , which gave the Bruins their first championship in 29 years . The goal was highlighted by his famous flight through the air after being tripped up following his shot . Orr twice won the Art Ross Trophy as the NHL 's leading scorer , still the only defenceman in NHL history to do so . His plus / minus of + 124 in 1970 – 71 is a league record . Orr signed a five @-@ year contract that paid him $ 200 @,@ 000 per season in 1971 , the first $ 1 million contract in league history . Chronic knee problems plagued Orr throughout his career . In 1972 , he tore ligaments in his left knee after a hard hit , leading to the first of six knee operations . He played 12 seasons in the NHL before injuries forced his retirement in 1978 . Orr finished with 270 goals and 915 points in 657 games and won the Hart Memorial Trophy as the league 's Most Valuable Player three times . The customary three @-@ year post @-@ retirement waiting period for entry into the Hockey Hall of Fame was waived as he was enshrined in 1979 . = = = Buffalo and Vancouver = = = In Canada , there was widespread outrage over the denial of an expansion team to Vancouver in 1967 . Three years later , the NHL added a third Canadian team when the Vancouver Canucks , formerly of the Western Hockey League , were admitted as an expansion team for the 1970 – 71 season , along with the Buffalo Sabres , another team whose owners had bid unsuccessfully for an expansion team in 1967 . The Canucks were placed in the East Division , despite being on the west coast , while the Chicago Black Hawks were shifted to the West in an attempt to equalize the divisions ' strength . The league also gave the Sabres and Canucks the first two picks in each round of the 1970 NHL Amateur Draft , offering them a better opportunity to build their rosters than the 1967 expansion teams had . Buffalo 's first round pick was Gilbert Perreault , a future Hall of Famer who would play seventeen seasons in Buffalo . Before the 1971 – 72 season , Gordie Howe and Jean Beliveau announced their retirements . Beliveau finished his 18 @-@ year career with 10 Stanley Cups , 2 Hart Trophies and 1 @,@ 219 career points ; his points total was the second @-@ highest in NHL history . After playing 25 seasons in the NHL , Howe retired as the league 's all @-@ time leader in games played , goals , assists and points . Howe was a six @-@ time league scoring champion , and also won six Hart Trophies . Both players had the customary three @-@ year waiting period waived for entry into the Hockey Hall of Fame in acknowledgement of their achievements . = = World Hockey Association = = In 1972 , the NHL faced competition from the newly formed World Hockey Association ( WHA ) . The WHA lured many players away from the NHL , including Derek Sanderson , J. C. Tremblay and Ted Green . The WHA 's biggest coup was to lure Bobby Hull from the Black Hawks to play for the Winnipeg Jets . Hull signed a 10 @-@ year deal : five years as a player for $ 250 @,@ 000 per season , and five more for $ 100 @,@ 000 per season in a front @-@ office position . It also included a $ 1 million signing bonus . The deal totaled $ 2 @.@ 7 million , and lent instant credibility to the new league . After Hull signed , several other players quickly followed suit . Bernie Parent , Gerry Cheevers , Johnny McKenzie and Rick Ley jumped to the WHA as the NHL suddenly found itself in a war for talent . By the time the 1972 – 73 WHA season began , 67 players had switched from the NHL to the WHA . Defections continued following the season , and the WHA scored another major coup when it signed Gordie Howe 's sons Mark and Marty . The league then convinced Gordie to come out of retirement to play with them on the Houston Aeros . The NHL tried to block several of the defections . The Bruins attempted to restrain Cheevers and Sanderson from joining the WHA , though a United States federal court refused to prohibit the signings . The Black Hawks were successful in having a restraining order filed against Hull and the Jets pending the outcome of legal action the Black Hawks were taking against the WHA . The WHA was eager for the court action , intending to challenge the legality of the reserve clause , which bound a player to their NHL team until that team released him . In November 1972 , a Philadelphia district court placed an injunction against the NHL , preventing it from enforcing the reserve clause and freeing all players who had restraining orders against them , including Hull , to play with their WHA clubs . The decision effectively ended the NHL 's monopoly on major league professional hockey talent . The NHL also found itself competing with the WHA for markets . Initially , the league had no intention to expand past 14 teams , but the threat the WHA posed changed this . Hoping to keep the WHA out of the newly completed Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Uniondale , New York and the Omni Coliseum in Atlanta , Georgia , the league hastily announced the creation of the New York Islanders and Atlanta Flames as 1972 expansion teams . Following the 1972 – 73 season , the NHL announced it was further expanding to 18 teams for the 1974 – 75 season , adding the Kansas City Scouts and Washington Capitals . In just eight years , the NHL had tripled in size to 18 teams . = = Summit Series = = Internationally , Canada had long been protesting the Soviet Union 's use of " professional amateurs " at the World Championships and the Olympic Games , which were amateur events . Canada withdrew from international competition in 1969 and boycotted the 1972 Olympic hockey tournament . As an alternative , NHL Players ' Association executive director Alan Eagleson negotiated a deal with Soviet authorities to hold an eight @-@ game series between the Soviet national team and Canada 's top professionals . The tournament was the NHL 's response to the defection of players to the WHA . Bobby Hull was barred from playing , as was any other player who signed a contract with the rival league , which was a heavily criticized move . Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau sent a telegram to NHL president Clarence Campbell , expressing his " intense interest which I share with millions of Canadians ... that Canada should be represented by its best hockey players , including Bobby Hull " . Echoing the feelings of the public , Hull called the decision " crazy " , and stated that " I 'm a Canadian and I want to play for my country . I don 't know why the NHL has to be so petty over this . I want to do this for Canada . " The NHL did not relent . The series was tied at three wins apiece and a tie entering the eighth and deciding game , with millions of Canadians watching " the game of the century " . With the game tied at five late in the third , the Soviets were met with a concerted Canadian attack in the final seven minutes . With 34 seconds remaining in the game , Esposito took a shot at Vladislav Tretiak from 12 feet out . Paul Henderson scooped up the rebound and put it past the fallen Soviet goalie to score the goal that won the game , 6 – 5 , and the series . Later , Alexander Yakolev , the former Soviet ambassador to Canada , argued that the Summit Series planted the seeds of glasnost and perestroika in the Soviet Union , as it was one of the first times that the Soviet people had seen so many foreigners who had not come to do harm , but to share in the game . = = = Legacy = = = The series forced the NHL and the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association to reassess all aspects of how the game was played in North America . Journalist Herb Pinder described the NHL to that point in this way : " The Europeans took our game and evolved it , while we stood still or even went backwards . The Russians had a style , and the Czechs ' style was different from that ... There was this hockey world evolving through international competition , and we 're back here , stuck , just playing ourselves . It was a business monopoly . And like any monopoly , the NHL got stagnant . " Throughout the 1970s and 1980s , Canadian hockey encouraged the adoption of new coaching and training methods used in Europe , and emphasized conditioning and skills development . The NHL took a greater interest in international play . The Canada Cup , a tournament that featured the top professional players in the world , was held first in 1976 , and then four more times until 1991 . It was succeeded by the World Cup of Hockey in 1996 . Beginning in 1975 , Soviet club teams began touring North America , playing NHL clubs in exhibition games that were known as the Super Series . The Calgary Flames and Washington Capitals similarly toured the Soviet Union in 1989 in the first " Friendship Series " . The Soviet national team defeated an NHL all @-@ star team in a 1979 challenge series , two games to one , and split Rendez @-@ vous ' 87 , a two @-@ game series held in Quebec City . = = 1970s = = = = = Broad Street Bullies = = = The 1970s were associated with aggressive , and often violent , play . Known as the " Broad Street Bullies " , the Philadelphia Flyers are the most famous example of this style . The Flyers established league records for penalty minutes — Dave " the Hammer " Schultz 's total of 472 in 1974 – 75 remains a league record — and ended up in courtrooms multiple times when players went into the stands to challenge fans who got involved . One such incident occurred in Vancouver in December 1972 , when a fan reached over the glass to pull the hair of Don Saleski , who had a chokehold on Vancouver 's Barry Wilkins . Bobby Taylor and several Flyers teammates followed the fan into the stands . The next time Philadelphia went to Vancouver , several players were brought before the courts on charges that ranged from use of obscene language to common assault . Six players were fined , and Taylor received a 30 @-@ day suspended sentence . Despite these incidents , the Flyers won : they captured the 1974 Stanley Cup , becoming the first expansion team to win the league championship , and repeated as champions in 1975 . In 1975 , Soviet club teams began to tour North America in the first Super Series . The Canadiens played Central Red Army to a 3 – 3 draw on New Year 's Eve 1975 , in a game that is considered one of the finest ever played . Red Army lost only one of four games against the NHL in the first tour , a 4 – 1 defeat to Philadelphia , who intimidated them as the Flyers did to their NHL opponents . At one point , Red Army threatened to forfeit the game after Ed Van Impe decked Valeri Kharlamov . Red Army was persuaded to complete the game after Alan Eagleson threatened to withhold their appearance fee if the team did not return to the ice . Super Series games continued until 1991 , when Soviet players were allowed to enter the NHL after the collapse of the Soviet Union . = = = End of the two @-@ league era = = = On February 7 , 1976 , Maple Leafs star Darryl Sittler set an NHL record , scoring 10 points in one game in an 11 – 4 victory over the Bruins . His six @-@ goal , four @-@ assist effort broke Maurice Richard 's record of eight points in a game . The game came shortly after the Bruins lured Gerry Cheevers back from the WHA , though Cheevers was given an extra night to rest , and rookie Dave Reece was the victim of all 11 Toronto goals . It was his 14th , and final , NHL game . By 1976 , both leagues were dealing with serious financial problems . Talks of a merger between the NHL and the WHA were growing . Bobby Hull declared that a merger was " inevitable " , though WHA president Bill MacFarland stated that his league had no interest in joining with the NHL . In 1976 , for the first time in four decades , the NHL approved franchise relocations ; the Scouts moved after just two years in Kansas City to Denver to become the Colorado Rockies , while the California Golden Seals became the Cleveland Barons . In its wake , the league quietly shelved provisional expansion franchises granted to Seattle and Denver to take place in the 1977 season . Two years later , after failed overtures towards merging the Barons with Washington and Vancouver , they merged with the Minnesota North Stars , reducing the NHL to 17 teams for 1978 – 79 . The WHA 's last triumph was to lure junior prodigy Wayne Gretzky to their league in 1978 – 79 . Nelson Skalbania , owner of the Indianapolis Racers and part owner of the Edmonton Oilers , was convinced to sign Gretzky to play for the Racers . The 17 @-@ year @-@ old Gretzky scored 110 points in his first professional season , split between the Racers and the Oilers . The move towards a merger picked up in 1977 when John Ziegler succeeded Campbell as NHL president . After several years of negotiations , WHA owners thought they had an agreement in March 1979 . The motion to merge failed when supporters in the NHL lost by one vote . Word got out that the Montreal Canadiens , owned by Molson Brewery , and the Vancouver Canucks , who served Molson products at their games , had voted against the merger . Fans across Canada quickly organized a boycott of Molson products , while the House of Commons unanimously passed a motion urging the NHL to reconsider . Another vote was held , and both Montreal and Vancouver switched their votes , allowing the motion to pass . The WHA folded following the 1978 – 79 season , and the Edmonton Oilers , New England Whalers , Quebec Nordiques and Winnipeg Jets joined the NHL as expansion teams . = = Twenty @-@ one teams = = The merger brought Gordie Howe back to the NHL for one final season in 1979 – 80 . At age 51 , Howe played all 80 games for the Whalers , scoring 15 goals to bring his NHL career total to 801 . He entered his second retirement as the league 's all @-@ time scoring leader with 1 @,@ 850 points . Howe 's final season was also the last for the Atlanta Flames . The team averaged an attendance of only 9 @,@ 800 fans per game and lost over $ 2 million in 1979 – 80 . They were sold for a record $ 16 million , and relocated north to become the Calgary Flames in 1980 – 81 . Two years later , the Rockies were sold for $ 30 million , and left Denver to become the New Jersey Devils for the 1982 – 83 season . The St. Louis Blues nearly relocated to Saskatoon in 1983 , as Bill Hunter , an original investor in the WHA , announced an intention to purchase and relocate the team . Hunter quickly convinced 18 @,@ 000 people to commit to season tickets in a proposed arena for the city . The other team owners rejected the sale and relocation by a 15 – 3 vote , prompting the Blues ' owner , Ralston Purina , to file a $ 60 million anti @-@ trust lawsuit against the league . Both the league as a whole and the individual teams filed $ 78 million counter suits against Purina . As part of the conflict , Purina turned the team over to the NHL at the beginning of June 1983 to " operate , sell or dispose of in whatever manner the league desires " , while the Blues refused to participate in the 1983 NHL Entry Draft , forfeiting all of their draft picks . By the end of July , the league had sold the team to Harry Ornest , who vowed the team would remain in St. Louis . Ralston Purina and the NHL settled their legal issues in 1985 , though terms of the settlements were not released . In 1980 , the New York Islanders won their first of four consecutive Stanley Cups . With the likes of Billy Smith , Mike Bossy , Denis Potvin , and Bryan Trottier , the Islanders dominated both the regular season and the playoffs . In 1981 , Bossy became the first player to score 50 goals in 50 games since Maurice Richard in 1945 . In 1982 – 83 , the Edmonton Oilers won the regular season championship . The Islanders and Oilers met in the Finals and New York swept Edmonton for their last Stanley Cup . They were the second franchise to win four straight championships , after the Canadiens . The 1984 playoffs would be the site of the infamous Good Friday Massacre between the Quebec Nordiques and the Montreal Canadiens . The following season , the Oilers and Islanders met again in the playoffs . The Oilers won the rematch in five games , marking the start of another dynasty . Led by Wayne Gretzky and Mark Messier , the Oilers won five Stanley Cup championships between 1984 and 1990 . The Oilers won two consecutive Cups in the 1983 – 84 and 1984 – 85 seasons , and in the 1986 – 87 and 1987 – 88 seasons . They also won a Cup in the 1989 – 90 season . The Oilers ' Cup streaks were interrupted in the 1985 – 86 and 1988 – 89 seasons by two other Canadian teams . Edmonton 's hopes for a third consecutive title in 1986 were dashed by their provincial rival , the Calgary Flames , after Oilers ' rookie Steve Smith accidentally bounced the series @-@ winning goal off goaltender Grant Fuhr and into his own net . Smith 's error remains one of the most legendary blunders in hockey history . The Flames were defeated by the Canadiens in the finals , as rookie goaltender Patrick Roy led Montreal to their 23rd Stanley Cup . The 1989 final was a rematch between the Flames and the Canadiens and was won by Calgary , which captured its only championship in franchise history . The Flames also became the only team to defeat the Montreal Canadiens for the Stanley Cup at the Montreal Forum . The 21 @-@ team era ended in 1990 , when the league revealed ambitious plans to double league revenues from $ 400 million within a decade and bring the NHL to 28 franchises during that period . The NHL quickly announced three new teams : The San Jose Sharks , who began play in the 1991 – 92 season , and the Ottawa Senators and Tampa Bay Lightning , who followed a year later . The Sharks ' creation forestalled a unilateral franchise move by North Stars owners George and Gordon Gund to the San Francisco Bay Area . A settlement with the league granted them the expansion franchise , while they sold the North Stars to Howard Baldwin 's group in 1990 . Prior to the 1991 @-@ 92 season , the Sharks and North Stars participated in a unique expansion draft , which saw San Jose select unprotected players from Minnesota ( including future All @-@ Star goalie Arturs Irbe ) before both teams picked players from the remainder of the league . The Sharks would struggle in their inaugural season , finishing with a league @-@ low 17 wins and 39 points while playing out of the Cow Palace , while the North Stars ( who were sold again , to Norman Green , during the 1990 @-@ 91 season ) would make the playoffs for what proved to be the final time before their eventual relocation to Dallas in 1993 . = = = Wayne Gretzky = = = In the latter part of the 1980s , the Oilers won five Stanley Cup titles in seven years , becoming the only team to score 400 or more goals in a season , which they did four times . With future Hall of Famers Grant Fuhr , Paul Coffey , Jari Kurri , Mark Messier , and Glenn Anderson , they established numerous new scoring records . The Oilers were led by Wayne Gretzky , who remained with the Oilers when they joined the NHL in 1979 . At 5 feet 11 inches ( 1 @.@ 80 m ) and 170 pounds ( 77 kg ) , some observers doubted that Gretzky could match his offensive performance from his lone WHA season . " I heard a lot of talk then that I 'd never get 110 points like I did in the WHA , " said Gretzky . He proved his critics wrong , scoring 137 points in 1979 – 80 and winning the first of nine Hart Trophies ( including 8 consecutive awards from 1980 – 1988 ) as the NHL 's most valuable player . Over the next several seasons , Gretzky established new highs in goals scored in a season , with 92 in the 1981 – 82 season ; in assists , with 163 in the 1985 – 86 ; and in total points , with 215 in 1985 – 86 . He also scored 50 goals in 39 games , the fastest any player had reached the total in a single season . Gretzky scored his 1,000th NHL point in his 424th game , breaking Guy Lafleur 's old record of 720 games . Gretzky 's teammates set records of their own . Fuhr 's 14 assists in the 1983 – 84 season set a record for most points by a goaltender in a season . In 1985 – 86 , Coffey set a record for the most goals in a season by a defenceman , with 48 . Adding 90 assists , Coffey wound up a point short of tying Bobby Orr 's record for most points in a season by a blue @-@ liner . On August 9 , 1988 , Oilers owner Peter Pocklington , in financial trouble , traded Gretzky , along with Marty McSorley and Mike Krushelnyski , to the Los Angeles Kings in exchange for Jimmy Carson , Martin Gelinas , US $ 15 million and three first @-@ round draft picks . Gretzky left Edmonton with a tear @-@ filled news conference , and later said that Edmonton was the only place he ever dreaded playing . Gretzky 's trade to the Kings popularized ice hockey in the United States , making hockey " cool " in Hollywood , and shocked fans across Canada . The Kings were the most popular Los Angeles sports team , and Gretzky 's fame rivaled that of his peers with baseball 's Los Angeles Dodgers and basketball 's Los Angeles Lakers . With the Kings , Gretzky broke Gordie Howe 's record for career points . On October 15 , 1989 , against his former Oilers ' teammates , and with Howe in attendance , Gretzky tied the record with a first period assist before notching his 1,851st career point with a third period goal . " An award such as this takes a lot of teamwork and help and both teams here today definitely have a part of the 1 @,@ 851 [ points ] . " said Gretzky . = = Fall of the Iron Curtain = = While European @-@ born players were a part of the NHL since its founding , it was still rare to see them in the league until 1980 . The WHA turned to the previously overlooked European market in search for talent , signing players from Finland and Sweden . Anders Hedberg , Lars @-@ Erik Sjoberg and Ulf Nilsson signed with the Jets in 1974 and thrived in North America , both in the WHA and later the NHL . The Jets won three of the six remaining WHA championships after signing European players , and their success sparked similar signings league @-@ wide . Borje Salming was the first European star in the NHL . He signed with the Maple Leafs in 1973 , and played 16 seasons in the NHL , retiring in 1990 . He was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1996 . His fellow Swede , Pelle Lindbergh , was one of the top goaltenders in the world in the early 1980s . He led the Flyers to the 1985 Stanley Cup Finals before dying in a car accident during the 1985 – 86 season . Finns Jari Kurri and Esa Tikkanen helped lead the Oilers dynasty of the 1980s . While the WHA opened the door , and players slowly joined the NHL , those behind the Iron Curtain were restricted from following suit . In 1980 , Peter Stastny , his wife , and his brother Anton secretly fled Czechoslovakia with the aid of Nordiques owner Marcel Aubut . The Stastnys ' defection made international headlines , and contributed to the first wave of Eastern Europeans ' entrance into the NHL . Hoping that they would one day be permitted to play in the NHL , teams drafted Soviet players in the 1980s , 27 in all by the 1988 draft . However , defection was the only way such players could join the teams that drafted them . Michal Pivonka defected from Czechoslovakia in 1986 , while Russian Alexander Mogilny defected following the 1989 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships in Anchorage , Alaska . Czech teenager Petr Nedved walked into a Calgary police station in January 1989 after playing in the Mac 's AAA midget hockey tournament . Shortly before the end of the 1988 – 89 regular season , Flames general manager Cliff Fletcher announced that he had reached an agreement with Soviet authorities that allowed Sergei Pryakhin to play in North America . It was the first time a member of the Soviet national team was permitted to play for a non @-@ Soviet team . Shortly after , Soviet players began to flood into the NHL . Teams anticipated that there would be an influx of Soviet players in the 1990s , as 18 Soviets were selected in the 1989 NHL Entry Draft . The entire " KLM " line , the Soviet team 's top line , joined the NHL in 1989 as Vladimir Krutov and Igor Larionov played for the Canucks , while Sergei Makarov went to Calgary . Makarov won the Calder Memorial Trophy as rookie of the year in 1990 , a selection that caused controversy ; he was 32 years old and had played 11 pro seasons in the Soviet League . In the wake of the controversy , the NHL amended its rules : players over the age of 26 were no longer considered for the award . The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and the demise of the Iron Curtain paved the way for more Eastern European players to play in North America . Only six European players were selected at the 1979 NHL Entry Draft . That number increased to 32 in 1989 , while a record 123 Europeans were drafted in 2000 . Europeans made up 22 @.@ 5 % of the NHL in 2013 @-@ 14 , totalling 232 players . = = Rules and innovations = = The early 1980s saw many tie games . The 1982 – 83 North Stars and Capitals both finished with 16 ties in 80 games , while 17 of 21 teams tied 10 or more games . The season before , the North Stars recorded 20 ties . As a result of the frequent ties , the NHL reintroduced overtime for the 1983 – 84 season . The effect was immediate , as only seven teams had ten or more ties . Before its discontinuation during World War II , the NHL played a full 10 @-@ minute overtime period . The modern overtime format was set as a five @-@ minute , sudden death period ; the game ended when either team scored . The NHL changed its divisional alignment and playoff formats numerous times as it grew . The league 's doubling in 1967 also led to the expansion of the playoffs to eight teams from four the previous year . Expansion to 18 teams in 1974 caused the league to realign into two conferences and four divisions , each named after important figures in league history . The teams were split into the Campbell Conference , consisting of the Patrick and Smythe divisions , and the Prince of Wales Conference , consisting of the Adams and Norris divisions . The playoffs were expanded to 12 teams , and each division winner was granted a bye in the first round of the playoffs . The addition of the four WHA teams in 1979 saw the playoffs expanded to 16 teams . Finally , in 1981 , the league realigned all teams by geography . Eastern teams played in the Adams and Patrick divisions of the Wales Conference , and Western teams played in the Norris and Smythe divisions of the Campbell Conference . In addition , the playoff format was changed to have the top four teams in each division qualify rather than the top 16 teams overall . The first two playoff rounds were played entirely within each division . This format lasted until 1993 . = = = Entry Draft = = = During the late 1960s , the concept of sponsoring junior players and teams had been dismantled , meaning that for the 1969 NHL Amateur Draft , every player aged 20 or above was eligible to be selected . The Montreal Canadiens , however , exercised a special " cultural option " that allowed them to select two players of French @-@ Canadian heritage , before any other players were selected . These players counted as Montreal 's first two choices . After the Canadiens took Rejean Houle and Marc Tardif , the rest of the league voted to end the rule in 1970 , just before future star Gilbert Perreault was selected first in the 1970 expansion draft by the Buffalo Sabres . In 1974 , Sabres general manager Punch Imlach decided to play a joke on the league during the draft . He selected Taro Tsujimoto of the " Tokyo Katanas " with his 11th round pick . Other teams were shocked that the Sabres had scouted for players in Japan , and the league made the pick official . Weeks later , Imlach admitted that he made the player up , choosing the name out of a phone book . The league reformatted the Amateur Draft into the NHL Entry Draft in 1979 and simultaneously lowered the draft age to 19 . It was first opened to the public in 1980 , when 2 @,@ 500 fans attended the draft in the Montreal Forum . The public draft has grown such that it is now held annually in NHL arenas and televised internationally . = = Timeline = = Notes The year given refers to the year in which that season began and not the year in which the Stanley Cup Playoffs took place The California Golden Seals were known as the California Seals in 1967 and as the Oakland Seals from 1967 – 1970 . The Cleveland Barons merged with the Minnesota North Stars in 1978 . " SC " denotes teams that won the Stanley Cup .

= HMS Birkenhead ( 1845 ) = HMS Birkenhead , also referred to as HM Troopship Birkenhead or Steam Frigate Birkenhead , was one of the first iron @-@ hulled ships built for the Royal Navy . She was designed as a steam frigate , but was converted to a troopship before being commissioned . She was wrecked on 26 February 1852 , while transporting troops to Algoa Bay at Danger Point near Gansbaai , 140 kilometres from Cape Town , South Africa . There were not enough serviceable lifeboats for all the passengers , and the soldiers famously stood firm , thereby allowing the women and children to board the boats safely . Only 193 of the 643 people on board survived , and the soldiers ' chivalry gave rise to the " women and children first " protocol when abandoning ship , while the " Birkenhead drill " of Rudyard Kipling 's poem came to describe courage in face of hopeless circumstances . = = Description and history = = The Birkenhead was laid down at John Laird 's shipyard at Birkenhead as the frigate HMS Vulcan , but renamed soon after to Birkenhead after the town where she was built . She had two 564 horsepower ( 421 kW ) steam engines from Forrester & Co that drove a pair of 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) paddle wheels , and two masts rigged as a brig . According to her designer , John Laird : The designs I submitted , and which were finally approved , were of a vessel 210 feet ( 64 m ) long ( being about 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) longer than any vessel of her class had been built ) , and 37 • 6 beam with a displacement of 1918 tons on the load water @-@ line of 15 • 9 . The only change made by authorities at the Admiralty in these designs was the position of the paddle shaft , which they ordered to be moved several feet more forward ; the change was unfortunate as it makes the vessel , unless due care is taken in stowing the hold , trim by the head . With this exception , I am answerable for the model , specification , displacement and general arrangement of the hull of the vessel . The ship was divided into eight watertight compartments , while the engine room was divided by two longitudinal bulkheads into four compartments , making 12 watertight compartments in total . She had a round stern and a bow that ended in a large figurehead of Vulcan , holding a hammer in one hand , and some of " the bolts of Jove " that he had just forged in the other . Her armament was originally intended to be two 96 @-@ pounder pivot guns , one forward and the other aft , and four 68 @-@ pounder broadside guns . = = = Launch = = = The Birkenhead was launched on 30 December 1845 by the Marchioness of Westminster . Her hull then weighed 903 tons and drew 9 @.@ 75 feet ( 2 @.@ 97 m ) , although she was at this time missing approximately 15 tons of cabin fittings . Machinery , stores , and other fittings were expected to add an additional 1 @,@ 000 or so tons , increasing her draught six more feet . She undertook her maiden voyage to Plymouth in 1846 , averaging 12 knots ( 22 km / h ) to 13 knots ( 24 km / h ) for the journey . She remained laid up for some time , before being put to varied use around England , Scotland and Ireland . In November 1846 , Isambard Kingdom Brunel 's iron ship SS Great Britain ran aground on the sands of Dundrum Bay , Ireland . There was doubt as to whether she could be re @-@ floated . Brunel advised that if anyone could rescue the ship then the man to do it was the naval engineer James Bremner . He was engaged and the Great Britain was re @-@ floated on 27 August 1847 with the assistance of HMS Birkenhead . The Birkenhead was never commissioned as a frigate , as two factors came into play while she was still under construction , that resulted in her being converted into a troopship . Firstly , the Royal Navy 's warships were switched from paddle wheels to more efficient propeller propulsion , following an experiment organised by the Admiralty in 1845 in which the benefits of the propeller over the paddle wheel were dramatically demonstrated . Secondly , the Admiralty had doubts about the effects of cannon shot against iron hulls — in a number of trials carried out at Royal Arsenal in 1845 , at lower velocities shot made a jagged hole that was hard to plug . As part of her conversion to a troopship in 1851 , a forecastle and poop deck were added to the Birkenhead to increase her accommodation , and a third mast added , to change her sail plan to a barquentine . Although she never served as a warship , she was faster and more comfortable than any of the wooden sail @-@ driven troopships of the time , making the trip from the Cape in 37 days in October 1850 . = = Final voyage ( 1852 ) = = In January 1852 , under the command of Captain Robert Salmond RN , the Birkenhead left Portsmouth conveying troops from ten different regiments , including the 74th Regiment of Foot and Queen 's Royal Regiment , to the 8th Xhosa War ( then called the " Kaffir War " ) against the Xhosa in South Africa . On 5 January , she picked up more soldiers at Queenstown ( now Cobh ) , Ireland , and conveyed some officers ' wives and families . On 23 February 1852 , Birkenhead docked briefly at Simonstown , near Cape Town . Most of the women and children disembarked along with a number of sick soldiers . Nine cavalry horses , several bales of hay and 35 tons of coal were loaded for the last leg of the voyage to Algoa Bay . She sailed from Simon 's Bay at 06 : 00 on 25 February 1852 with between 630 and 643 men , women and children aboard , the exact number being in some doubt . In order to make the best possible speed , Captain Salmond decided to hug the South African coast , setting a course that was generally within 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of the shore . Using her paddle wheels , she maintained a steady speed of 8 @.@ 5 knots ( 15 @.@ 7 km / h ) . The sea was calm and the night was clear as she left False Bay and headed east . Shortly before 02 : 00 on 26 February , while Birkenhead was travelling at a speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ) , the leadsman made soundings of 12 fathoms ( 22 m ) . Before he could take another sounding , she struck an uncharted rock at 34 ° 38 ′ 42 ″ S 19 ° 17 ′ 9 ″ E with 2 fathoms ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) of water beneath her bows and 11 fathoms ( 20 m ) at her stern . The rock lies near Danger Point ( today near Gansbaai , Western Cape ) . Barely submerged , it is clearly visible in rough seas , but it is not immediately apparent in calmer conditions . Captain Salmond rushed on deck and ordered the anchor to be dropped , the quarter @-@ boats to be lowered , and a turn astern to be given by the engines . However , as the ship backed off the rock , the sea rushed into the large hole made by the collision and the ship struck again , buckling the plates of the forward bilge and ripping open the bulkheads . Shortly , the forward compartments and the engine rooms were flooded , and over 100 soldiers were drowned in their berths . = = = Sinking = = = The surviving soldiers mustered and awaited their officers ' orders . Salmond ordered Colonel Seton to send men to the chain pumps ; sixty were directed to this task , sixty more were assigned to the tackles of the lifeboats , and the rest were assembled on the poop deck in order to raise the forward part of the ship . The women and children were placed in the ship 's cutter , which lay alongside . Two other boats were manned , but one was immediately swamped and the other could not be launched due to poor maintenance and paint on the winches , leaving only three boats available . The two large boats , with capacities of 150 men each , were not among them . The surviving officers and men assembled on deck , where Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Seton of the 74th Foot took charge of all military personnel and stressed the necessity of maintaining order and discipline to his officers . As a survivor later recounted : " Almost everybody kept silent , indeed nothing was heard , but the kicking of the horses and the orders of Salmond , all given in a clear firm voice . " Ten minutes after the first impact , the engines still turning astern , the ship struck again beneath the engine room , tearing open her bottom . She instantly broke in two just aft of the mainmast . The funnel went over the side and the forepart of the ship sank at once . The stern section , now crowded with men , floated for a few minutes before sinking . Just before she sank , Salmond called out that " all those who can swim jump overboard , and make for the boats " . Colonel Seton , however , recognising that rushing the lifeboats would risk swamping them and endangering the women and children , ordered the men to stand fast , and only three men made the attempt . The cavalry horses were freed and driven into the sea in the hope that they might be able to swim ashore . The soldiers did not move , even as the ship broke up barely 20 minutes after striking the rock . Some of the soldiers managed to swim the 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to shore over the next 12 hours , often hanging on to pieces of the wreck to stay afloat , but most drowned , died of exposure or were taken by sharks . I remained on the wreck until she went down ; the suction took me down some way , and a man got hold of my leg , but I managed to kick him off and came up and struck out for some pieces of wood that were on the water and started for land , about two miles off . I was in the water about five hours , as the shore was so rocky and the surf ran so high that a great many were lost trying to land . Nearly all those that took to the water without their clothes on were taken by sharks ; hundreds of them were all round us , and I saw men taken by them close to me , but as I was dressed ( having on a flannel shirt and trousers ) they preferred the others . I was not in the least hurt , and am happy to say , kept my head clear ; most of the officers lost their lives from losing their presence of mind and trying to take money with them , and from not throwing off their coats . - Letter from Lieutenant J.F. Girardot , 43rd Light Infantry , to his father , 1 March 1852 . The next morning , the schooner Lioness discovered one of the cutters , and after saving the occupants of the second boat made her way to the scene of the disaster . Arriving in the afternoon , she found 40 people still clinging to the rigging . It was reported that of the approximately 643 people aboard , only 193 were saved . Captain Edward WC Wright of the 91st Argyllshire Regiment was the most senior army officer to survive ; he was awarded a brevet majority for his actions during the ordeal , dated 26 February 1852 . The number of personnel aboard is in some doubt , but an estimate of 638 was published in The Times . It is generally thought that the survivors comprised 113 soldiers ( all ranks ) , 6 Royal Marines , 54 seamen ( all ranks ) , 7 women , 13 children and at least one male civilian , but these numbers cannot be substantiated , as muster rolls and books were lost with the ship . Of the horses , eight made it safely to land , while the ninth had its leg broken while being pushed into the sea . = = = Aftermath = = = A number of sailors were court martialled as a result of the accident . The court was held on 8 May 1852 on board HMS Victory in Portsmouth , and attracted a great deal of interest . However , as none of the senior naval officers of the Birkenhead survived , no @-@ one was found to be to blame . Captain Edward WC Wright of the 91st Argyllshire Regiment told the court martial : The order and regularity that prevailed on board , from the moment the ship struck till she totally disappeared , far exceeded anything that I had thought could be effected by the best discipline ; and it is the more to be wondered at seeing that most of the soldiers were but a short time in the service . Everyone did as he was directed and there was not a murmur or cry amongst them until the ship made her final plunge – all received their orders and carried them out as if they were embarking instead of going to the bottom – I never saw any embarkation conducted with so little noise or confusion . In 1895 , a lighthouse was erected at Danger Point to warn shipping of the dangerous reef . The lighthouse is about 18 metres ( 59 ft ) tall and is visible for approximately 25 nautical miles ( 46 km ) . In 1936 , a remembrance plate for the Birkenhead was affixed to its base by the Navy League of South Africa . A new Birkenhead memorial was erected nearby in March 1995 . In December 2001 , the plaque was moved closer to the lighthouse . A memorial in St Giles ' Cathedral , Edinburgh , bears the following inscription : In memory of Lieut.-Colonel Alexander Seton , Ensign Alex . C. Russell , and forty @-@ eight N.C.O.s and men of the 74th Highlanders who were drowned at the wreck of H.M.S. ' Birkenhead ' on the 26th February 1852 , off Point Danger , Cape of Good Hope , after all the women and children on board had been safely landed in the ship 's boats . Frederick William IV of Prussia recognised the bravery of the soldiers and ordered an account of the incident to be read at the head of every regiment in his army . Queen Victoria ordered the erection of an official Birkenhead monument at the Chelsea Royal Hospital . In 1892 , Thomas M. M. Hemy painted a widely admired maritime depiction of the incident , " The wreck of the Birkenhead " . Prints of this painting were distributed to the public . In 1977 , the South African mint issued a " Heroes of the Birkenhead Medallion " gold coin commemorating the 125 years since the sinking , featuring Hemy 's painting on one of the faces of the coin . = = Legacy = = = = = Birkenhead drill = = = The sinking of the Birkenhead is the earliest maritime disaster evacuation during which the concept of " women and children first " is known to have been applied . " Women and children first " subsequently became standard procedure in relation to the evacuation of sinking ships , both in fiction and in real life . The synonymous " Birkenhead drill " became an exemplar of courageous behaviour in hopeless circumstances , and appeared in Rudyard Kipling 's 1893 tribute to the Royal Marines , " Soldier an ' Sailor Too " : To take your chance in the thick of a rush , with firing all about , Is nothing so bad when you 've cover to ' and , an ' leave an ' likin ' to shout ; But to stand an ' be still to the Birken 'ead drill is a damn tough bullet to chew , An ' they done it , the Jollies -- ' Er Majesty 's Jollies -- soldier an ' sailor too ! Their work was done when it ' adn 't begun ; they was younger nor me an ' you ; Their choice it was plain between drownin ' in ' eaps an ' bein ' mopped by the screw , So they stood an ' was still to the Birken 'ead drill , soldier an ' sailor too The phrase also appears in Robert A. Heinlein 's 1956 Double Star : I knew I was sunk @-@ but , damn it , if you are caught by the Birkenhead Drill , the least you owe yourself is to stand at attention while the ship goes down . And in David Weber 's 1991 novel Mutineers ' Moon : And if he was caught in the Birkenhead Drill , he could at least try to do his best till the ship went down . = = = Birkenhead treasure = = = There is a persistent rumour that the Birkenhead was carrying a military payroll of £ 240 @,@ 000 in gold coins weighing about three tons , which had been secretly stored in the powder @-@ room before the final voyage . Numerous attempts have been made to salvage the gold . In 1893 , the nephew of Colonel Seton wrote that a certain Mr. Bandmann at the Cape obtained permission from the Cape Government to dive the wreck of the Birkenhead in search of the treasure . A June 1958 salvage attempt by a renowned Cape Town diver recovered anchors and some brass fittings , but no gold . In 1986 @-@ 1988 , a combined archaeological and salvage excavation was carried out by Aqua Exploration , Depth Recovery Unit and Pentow Marine Salvage Company . Only a few gold coins were recovered , which appear to have been the personal possessions of the passengers and crew . The rumour of treasure and the shallow depth of the wreck at 30 metres ( 98 ft ) have resulted in the wreck being considerably disturbed over the years , despite its being a war grave . In 1989 , the British and South African governments entered into an agreement over the salvage of the wreck , sharing any gold recovered . = = = HMS Birkenhead as namesake = = = Three placenames in the Canadian province of British Columbia were conferred in honour of the Birkenhead disaster by Hudson 's Bay Company explorer Alexander Caulfield Anderson , a boyhood friend and cousin of Lt @-@ Col. Seton of the 74th Regiment of Foot , on a traverse of uncharted country between the Fraser Canyon and the coastal Lower Mainland in 1846 . Named after his cousin , Seton Lake cuts west through the Coast Mountains from the Fraser Canyon town of Lillooet , beyond which is its twin Anderson Lake . A few miles southwest from the head of Anderson Lake is Mount Birkenhead , on the north side of the low pass connecting the valley of those lakes to that of the Birkenhead River . The river , the valley area near Mount Birkenhead known as Birken , and Birkenhead Lake at the summit of the pass were in turn named after the mountain , and not directly by Anderson . = = = Other name legacies = = = According to local tradition , Salmonsdam Nature Reserve in the Overberg is named after Captain Robert Salmond . Locals to this day call Great White Sharks " Tommy Sharks " after the Tommys that were taken by them in water .

= Iðunn = In Norse mythology , Iðunn is a goddess associated with apples and youth . Iðunn is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In both sources , she is described as the wife of the skaldic god Bragi , and in the Prose Edda , also as a keeper of apples and granter of eternal youthfulness . The Prose Edda relates that Loki was once forced by the jötunn Þjazi to lure Iðunn out of Asgard and into a wood , promising her interesting apples . Þjazi , in the form of an eagle , snatches Iðunn from the wood and takes her to his home . Iðunn 's absence causes the gods to grow old and grey , and they realize that Loki is responsible for her disappearance . Loki promises to return her and , in the form of a falcon , finds her alone at Þjazi 's home . He turns her into a nut and takes her back to Asgard . After Þjazi finds that Iðunn is gone , he turns into an eagle and furiously chases after Loki . The gods build a pyre in Asgard and , after a sudden stop by Loki , Þjazi 's feathers catch fire , he falls , and the gods kill him . A number of theories surround Iðunn , including potential links to fertility , and her potential origin in Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European religion . Long the subject of artworks , Iðunn is sometimes referenced in modern popular culture . = = Name = = The name Iðunn has been variously explained as meaning " ever young " , " rejuvenator " , or " the rejuvenating one " . As the modern English alphabet lacks the eth ( ð ) character , Iðunn is sometimes anglicized as Idun , Idunn or Ithun . An -a suffix is sometimes applied to denote femininity , resulting in forms such as Iduna and Idunna . The name Iðunn appears as a personal name in several historical sources and the Landnámabók records that it has been in use in Iceland as a personal name since the pagan period ( 10th century ) . Landnámabók records two incidents of women by the name of Iðunn ; Iðunn Arnardóttir , the daughter of an early settler , and Iðunn Molda @-@ Gnúpsdóttir , granddaughter of one of the earliest settlers recorded in the book . The name Iðunn has been theorized as the origin of the Old English name Idonae . 19th century author Charlotte Mary Yonge writes that the derivation of Idonae from Idunn is " almost certain , " noting that although Idonae may be " the feminine of the Latin idoneus ( fit ) , its absence in the Romance countries may be taken as an indication that it was a mere classicalizing of the northern goddess of the apples of youth . " 19th @-@ century scholar Jacob Grimm proposed a potential etymological connection to the idisi . Grimm states that " with the original form idis the goddess Idunn may possibly be connected . " Grimm further states that Iðunn may have been known with another name , and that " Iðunn would seem by Saem . 89a to be an Elvish word , but we do not hear of any other name for the goddess . " = = Attestations = = = = = Poetic Edda = = = Iðunn appears in the Poetic Edda poem Lokasenna and , included in some modern editions of the Poetic Edda , in the late poem Hrafnagaldr Óðins . Iðunn is introduced as Bragi 's wife in the prose introduction to the poem Lokasenna , where the two attend a feast held by Ægir . In stanzas 16 , 17 , and 18 , dialog occurs between Loki and Iðunn after Loki has insulted Bragi . In stanza 16 , Iðunn ( here anglicized as Idunn ) says : Idunn said : I ask you , Bragi , to do a service to your blood @-@ kin and all the adoptive relations , that you shouldn 't say words of blame to Loki , in Ægir 's hall . Loki said : Be silent , Idunn , I declare that of all women you 're the most man @-@ crazed , since you placed your arms , washed bright , about your brother 's slayer . Idunn said : I 'm not saying words of blame to Loki , in Ægir 's hall I quietened Bragi , made talkative with beer ; and all living things love him . In this exchange , Loki has accused Iðunn of having slept with the killer of her brother . However , neither this brother nor killer are accounted for in any other surviving source . Afterward , the goddess Gefjon speaks up and the poem continues in turn . In the poem Hrafnagaldr Óðins , additional information is given about Iðunn , though this information is otherwise unattested . Here , Iðunn is identified as descending from elves , as one of " Ivaldi 's elder children " and as a dís who dwells in dales . Stanza 6 reads : In the dales dwells , the prescient Dís , from Yggdrasil 's ash sunk down , of alfen race , Idun by name , the youngest of Ivaldi 's elder children . = = = Prose Edda = = = Iðunn is introduced in the Prose Edda in section 26 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning . Here , Iðunn is described as Bragi 's wife and keeper of an eski ( a wooden box made of ash wood and often used for carrying personal possessions ) within which she keeps apples . The apples are bitten into by the gods when they begin to grow old and they then become young again , which is described as occurring up until Ragnarök . Gangleri ( described as King Gylfi in disguise ) states that it seems to him that the gods depend greatly upon Iðunn 's good faith and care . With a laugh , High responds that misfortune once came close , that he could tell Gangleri about it , but first he must hear the names of more of the Æsir , and he continues providing information about gods . In the book Skáldskaparmál , Idunn is mentioned in its first chapter ( numbered as 55 ) as one of eight ásynjur ( goddesses ) sitting in their thrones at a banquet in Asgard for Ægir . In chapter 56 , Bragi tells Ægir about Iðunn 's abduction by the jötunn Þjazi . Bragi says that after hitting an eagle ( Þjazi in disguise ) with a pole , Loki finds himself stuck to the bird . Loki is pulled further and further into the sky , his feet banging against stones , gravel , and trees . Loki feels that his arms might be pulled out from his shoulders . Loki shouts and begs the eagle for a truce , and the eagle responds that Loki would not be free unless he made a solemn vow to have Iðunn come outside of Asgard with her apples . Loki accepts Þjazi 's conditions and returns to his friends Odin and Hœnir . At the time Þjazi and Loki agreed on , Loki lures Iðunn out of Asgard into " a certain forest " , telling her that he had discovered some apples that she would find worth keeping , and told Iðunn that she ought to bring her own apples with her so that she may compare them with the apples he has discovered . Þjazi arrives in eagle shape , snatches Iðunn , flies away with her and takes her to his home , Þrymheimr . The Æsir begin to grow grey and old at the disappearance of Idunn . The Æsir assemble at a thing where they ask one another when Iðunn had been seen last . The Æsir realize that the last time that Iðunn was seen was when she was going outside of Asgard with Loki , and so they have Loki arrested and brought to the thing . Loki is threatened with death and torture . Terrified , Loki says that if the goddess Freyja will lend him her " falcon shape " he will search for Iðunn in the land of Jötunheimr . Freyja lends the falcon shape to Loki , and with it he flies north to Jötunheimr . One day later , Loki arrives at Þjazi 's home . There he finds that Þjazi is out at sea in a boat , and that Iðunn is home alone . Loki turns her into a nut , holds her in his claws , and flies away with her as fast as possible . When Þjazi arrives home he finds that Iðunn is gone . Þjazi gets " his eagle shape " , and chases Loki , which causes a storm wind . The Æsir see a falcon flying with a nut , as well as the pursuing eagle , so they bring out loads of wood shavings . The falcon flies over the fortification of Asgard and drops down by the wall . The eagle , however , misses the falcon and is unable to stop . His feathers catch fire and the eagle falls within the gates of Asgard . The Æsir kill the jötunn Þjazi " and this killing is greatly renowned . " In chapter 10 , " husband of Iðunn " is given as a means of referring to Bragi . In chapter 86 , means of referring to Iðunn are given : " wife of Bragi " , " keeper of the apples " , and her apples " the Æsir 's age old cure " . Additionally , in connection to the story of her abduction by Þjazi , she may be referred to as " Þjazi 's booty " . A passage of the 10th @-@ century poem Haustlöng where the skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir gives a lengthy description of a richly detailed shield he has received that features a depiction of the abduction of Iðunn . Within the cited portions of Haustlöng , Iðunn is referred to as " the maid who knew the Æsir 's age @-@ old cure " , " the gods ' lady " , " ale @-@ Gefn " , " the Æsir 's girl @-@ friend " , and once by name . In chapter 33 , Iðunn is cited as one of the six ásynjur visiting Ægir . Iðunn appears a final time in the Prose Edda in chapter 75 , where she appears in a list of ásynjur . = = Theories = = = = = Apples and fertility = = = Some surviving stories regarding Iðunn focus on her youth @-@ maintaining apples . English scholar Hilda Ellis Davidson links apples to religious practices in Germanic paganism . She points out that buckets of apples were found in the 9th @-@ century Oseberg ship burial site in Norway and that fruit and nuts ( Iðunn having been described as being transformed into a nut in Skáldskaparmál ) have been found in the early graves of the Germanic peoples in England and elsewhere on the continent of Europe which may have had a symbolic meaning and also that nuts are still a recognized symbol of fertility in Southwest England . Davidson notes a connection between apples and the Vanir , a tribe of gods associated with fertility in Norse mythology , citing an instance of eleven " golden apples " being given to woo the beautiful Gerðr by Skírnir , who was acting as messenger for the major Vanir god Freyr in stanzas 19 and 20 of Skírnismál . In Skírnismál , Gerðr mentions her brother 's slayer in stanza 16 , which Davidson states has led to some suggestions that Gerðr may have been connected to Iðunn as they are similar in this way . Davidson also notes a further connection between fertility and apples in Norse mythology ; in chapter 2 of the Völsunga saga when the major goddess Frigg sends King Rerir an apple after he prays to Odin for a child , Frigg 's messenger ( in the guise of a crow ) drops the apple in his lap as he sits atop a mound . Rerir 's wife 's consumption of the apple results in a six @-@ year pregnancy and the caesarean section birth of their son — the hero Völsung . Davidson points out the " strange " phrase " apples of Hel " used in an 11th @-@ century poem by the skald Þórbjörn Brúnason . Davidson states this may imply that the apple was thought of by the skald as the food of the dead . Further , Davidson notes that the potentially Germanic goddess Nehalennia is sometimes depicted with apples and parallels exist in early Irish stories . Davidson asserts that while cultivation of the apple in Northern Europe extends back to at least the time of the Roman Empire and came to Europe from the Near East , the native varieties of apple trees growing in Northern Europe are small and bitter . Davidson concludes that in the figure of Iðunn " we must have a dim reflection of an old symbol : that of the guardian goddess of the life @-@ giving fruit of the other world . " = = = Indo @-@ European basis = = = David Knipe theorizes Iðunn 's abduction by Thjazi in eagle form as an example of the Indo @-@ European motif " of an eagle who steals the celestial means of immortality . " In addition , Knipe says that " a parallel to the theft of Iðunn 's apples ( symbols of fertility ) has been noted in the Celtic myth where Brian , Iuchar , and Icharba , the sons of Tuirenn , assume the guise of hawks in order to steal sacred apples from the garden of Hisberna . Here , too , there is pursuit , the guardians being female griffins . " = = = Other = = = John Lindow theorizes that the possible etymological meaning of Iðunn — " ever young " — would potentially allow Iðunn to perform her ability to provide eternal youthfulness to the gods without her apples , and further states that Haustlöng does not mention apples but rather refers to Iðunn as the " maiden who understood the eternal life of the Æsir . " Lindow further theorizes that Iðunn 's abduction is " one of the most dangerous moments " for the gods , as the general movement of female jötnar to the gods would be reversed . Regarding the accusations leveled towards Iðunn by Loki , Lee Hollander opines that Lokasenna was intended to be humorous and that the accusations thrown by Loki in the poem are not necessarily to be taken as " generally accepted lore " at the time it was composed . Rather they are charges that are easy for Loki to make and difficult for his targets to disprove , or which they do not care to refute . In his study of the skaldic poem Haustlöng , Richard North comments that " [ Iðunn ] is probably to be understood as an aspect of Freyja , a goddess whom the gods rely on for their youth and beauty [ ... ] " . = = Modern influence = = Iðunn has been the subject of a number of artistic depictions . These depictions include " Idun " ( statue , 1821 ) by H. E. Freund , " Idun " ( statue , 1843 ) and " Idun som bortrövas av jätten Tjasse i örnhamn " ( plaster statue , 1856 ) by C. G. Qvarnström , " Brage sittande vid harpan , Idun stående bakom honom " ( 1846 ) by Nils Blommér , " Iduns Rückkehr nach Valhalla " by C. Hansen ( resulting in an 1862 woodcut modeled on the painting by C. Hammer ) , " Bragi und Idun , Balder und Nanna " ( drawing , 1882 ) by K. Ehrenberg , " Idun and the Apples " ( 1890 ) by J. Doyle Penrose , " Brita as Iduna " ( 1901 ) by Carl Larsson , " Loki och Idun " ( 1911 ) by John Bauer , " Idun " ( watercolor , 1905 ) by B. E. Ward , and " Idun " ( 1901 ) by E. Doepler . The 19th @-@ century composer Richard Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen opera cycle features Freia , a version of the goddess Freyja combined with the Iðunn . Idunn Mons , a mons of the planet Venus , is named after Iðunn . The publication of the United States @-@ based Germanic neopagan group The Troth ( Idunna , edited by Diana L. Paxson ) derives its name from that of the goddess . The Swedish magazine Idun was named after the goddess ; she appears with her basket of apples on its banner . Iðunn is one of the incarnated goddesses in the New Zealand comedy / drama " The Almighty Johnsons " . The part of " Iðunn " and her earthly counterparts " Helen Larvig " and " Gaia " are played by Sara Wiseman and Keisha Castle @-@ Hughes .

= Development of Grand Theft Auto V = The development of Grand Theft Auto V began after Grand Theft Auto IV 's release in April 2008 . Rockstar Games published Grand Theft Auto V on 17 September 2013 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , on 18 November 2014 for the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One , and on 14 April 2015 for Microsoft Windows , as the fifteenth entry in the Grand Theft Auto series . Their flagship Scottish studio Rockstar North oversaw the work , sharing it with other studios around the world . The development team considered the game a spiritual successor to many of their previous projects like Red Dead Redemption and Max Payne 3 . Grand Theft Auto V was unexpectedly announced in 2011 ; it was heavily promoted and widely anticipated . Rockstar overhauled their proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine ( RAGE ) to increase its draw distance rendering capabilities . The game uses the Euphoria and Bullet engines for further animation and environment rendering tasks . The developers tried to use all of the potential power of both the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , having become familiar with the systems ' architectures over several years . The development team conducted extensive field research in Southern California while creating the game 's open world , set in and around Los Santos , a fictionalised depiction of Los Angeles . Grand Theft Auto V is the first game in the series that allows players to control three protagonists , to distinguish the game from its predecessors and let players explore the open world with fewer constraints . The team used motion capture to record the facial and body movements of the characters . Like previous games in the series , Grand Theft Auto V has an in @-@ game radio that can tune into fifteen stations playing more than 241 tracks of licensed music , as well as two talk radio stations . The game also features an original score composed over many years by a team of five music producers . = = Business = = = = = Rumours and announcement = = = During an earnings call in September 2009 , Take @-@ Two Interactive 's CEO Strauss Zelnick was asked about Grand Theft Auto V , the purported next game in the Grand Theft Auto series . He replied : " We 're not going to announce it , we 're not going to announce when we are going to announce it , and we are not going to announce a strategy about announcing it or about when we are going to announce it either , or about the announcement strategy surrounding the announcement of the strategy . " That November , vice president of Rockstar Games Dan Houser discussed with The Times his work on the series and the process that would be undertaken for the next Grand Theft Auto game . He expressed plans to co @-@ write a thousand @-@ page script and said that , when developing a new game , the company typically created a city and then from that developed the lead cast . In July 2010 , Rockstar North posted seven job advertisements related to a new title . The company wanted to recruit environment artists , physics programmers and character animators — the latter advertisement asked for recruits with " professional experience developing a third person action game " . Some journalists wrote that the job listing was indicative of Grand Theft Auto V 's existence . In June 2011 , anonymous sources allegedly close to the developer told GameSpot that the title was " well under way " , with a release date likely in 2012 . Rockstar Games first confirmed the game 's existence on 25 October 2011 in an announcement on its official website and Twitter feed . The share price of the publisher 's parent company Take @-@ Two Interactive subsequently increased seven percent . Journalists said that the announcement of Grand Theft Auto V ignited significant anticipation within the gaming industry , which they ascribed to the cultural significance of the Grand Theft Auto series . = = = Promotion = = = The game was extensively marketed through video trailers and press demonstrations . On 3 November , a week after the game 's announcement , the debut trailer was released . It is narrated by one of the protagonists , Michael De Santa ( Ned Luke ) , and depicts the open world accompanied by the song " Ogdens ' Nut Gone Flake " by English rock band Small Faces . A press release published the same day confirmed that the game would be set in an open world recreation of Southern California — including the city of Los Santos , a fictionalised depiction of Los Angeles . Almost a year later , Game Informer magazine ran a cover story on Grand Theft Auto V for their December 2012 issue . Rockstar intended to release the game 's second promotional trailer on 2 November . However , these plans were hampered by Hurricane Sandy , which cut power supplies to Rockstar 's New York offices . The trailer was eventually released on 14 November ; it introduces the lead protagonists ' back @-@ stories and features the song " Skeletons " by American musician Stevie Wonder . To unveil the game 's cover art , Rockstar contracted artists to paint a mural on a wall in Manhattan , New York on 31 March 2013 , followed by the artwork 's digital release on 2 April . The artwork showed English model Shelby Welinder portraying a blonde beach @-@ goer . Three trailers were released on 26 April , each focusing on one of the game 's protagonists — Michael De Santa , Franklin Clinton and Trevor Philips . The songs " Radio Ga Ga " by English band Queen , " Hood Gone Love It " by American rapper Jay Rock and " Are You Sure Hank Done It This Way " by American musician Waylon Jennings are used in the Michael , Franklin and Trevor trailers respectively . A trailer released on 9 July 2013 features Grand Theft Auto V 's first gameplay footage . It demonstrates the shooting and driving mechanics and the player 's ability to instantaneously swap between characters . The game 's online multiplayer mode Grand Theft Auto Online was unveiled in a trailer released on 15 August . The video displayed activities from the mode , including bank heists , small robberies , " traditional " game modes , purchase of property and bicycle @-@ riding . The final pre @-@ launch trailer was released on 29 August ; it was intended to be a television advertisement . The song " Sleepwalking " by American band The Chain Gang of 1974 was used in this trailer . Viral marketing strategies were used to promote the game . Visitors to the website of The Epsilon Program — a fictional religious cult within the Grand Theft Auto universe — were offered a chance to register for that group . After filling in an online membership form , the terms and conditions revealed that the site was a casting call for five people to appear in Grand Theft Auto V as members of the fictional cult . The official Grand Theft Auto V website was redesigned on 13 August 2013 to show a preview of activities and locales within the game 's world and an examination of the lead protagonists ' stories . More information was released on the website on 24 August , 6 September , and 13 September . To encourage pre @-@ order sales , Rockstar collaborated with several retail outlets to provide special edition versions of the game . The " Special Edition " includes a unique case packaging , a game map and unlock codes for additional content in the single @-@ player and multiplayer modes . The publisher also collaborated with Sony to release a 500 GB PlayStation 3 console , which includes a copy of the game , a 30 @-@ day trial membership for the PlayStation Plus service and a set of Grand Theft Auto V @-@ branded headphones . All pre @-@ orders of the game granted the purchaser an access code for the Atomic Blimp , the in @-@ game aircraft . GameStop also held a promotional raffle for the game , wherein customers had a chance to win an actual Bravado Banshee sports car ( the game 's counterpart of the Dodge Viper ) . Rockstar collaborated with West Coast Customs to build the vehicle . Shortly after the game 's release , an application called iFruit was released for iOS devices ; this allows players to customise vehicles , create custom license plates and teach Franklin 's dog Chop new tricks , which unlocks additional in @-@ game abilities . Upon its launch , some users reported problems connecting to the application 's servers ; these problems were resolved with an update on 25 September 2013 @.@ iFruit was released for Android on 29 October , and for Windows Phone devices on 19 November . = = = Delays and leak = = = Grand Theft Auto V did not meet its original projected release date of March – May 2013 . By 30 October 2012 , promotional posters had spread to the Internet and a listing by the retailer Game had leaked the projected release date . Rockstar announced that day that the game 's release was scheduled for Q2 2013 , and the company began accepting pre @-@ orders on 5 November 2012 . On 31 January 2013 , the company announced the game 's release date had been postponed until 17 September of that year . " It simply needs a little more polish to be of the standard we and , more importantly , you require " , Rockstar stated in a press release . It was released in Japan on 10 October 2013 . The Microsoft Windows version , initially announced at E3 2014 as scheduled for simultaneous release with the PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions , was delayed three times : first to 27 January 2015 , later to 24 March 2015 , and again to 14 April 2015 . According to Rockstar , the game required extra development time for " polishing " . On 23 August 2013 , reports said that some European PlayStation 3 users who had pre @-@ ordered Grand Theft Auto V were able to download parts of the game , including its soundtrack and some character dialogue . Details of the game were leaked later that day and on following days before Sony removed the pre @-@ order file from the European PlayStation Network and released an official apology to Rockstar and its fans . In response , Rockstar stated it was " deeply disappointed by leaks and spoilers being spread in advance of the game 's launch " . = = Production = = = = = Overview = = = Preliminary work on Grand Theft Auto V began on Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , shortly after the release of Grand Theft Auto IV in April 2008 , but later gave way to focus more on the consoles before returning greater focus to the PlayStation 4 , Xbox One and Windows versions . Rockstar North , the core 360 @-@ person team behind the game , co @-@ opted studios owned by parent company Rockstar Games to facilitate development between a full team of over 1 @,@ 000 . These included Rockstar NYC , Rockstar San Diego , Rockstar Leeds , Rockstar Toronto , Rockstar New England , Rockstar London and Rockstar Lincoln . Technical director Adam Fowler said that , while development was shared between studios in different countries , the process involved close collaboration between the core team and others . This was necessary because many mechanics in the game work in tandem , which would have created difficulties if studios did not communicate with each other . Like other projects since Rockstar Games Presents Table Tennis ( 2006 ) , the game uses the proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine ( RAGE ) to perform animation and rendering tasks , and the Euphoria and Bullet engines for further animation and environment rendering tasks . By 25 August 2013 , development of Grand Theft Auto V stopped as the game was submitted for manufacturing . Media analyst Arvind Bhatia estimated the development budget for the game exceeded US $ 137 million , and The Scotsman reporter Marty McLaughlin estimated that the combined budget of the development and marketing efforts exceeded GB £ 170 million ( US $ 265 million ) , making Grand Theft Auto V the most expensive video game ever made . The team found they could render the game world with greater detail than in Grand Theft Auto IV because they had become familiar with the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 's hardware . Art director Aaron Garbut said that while the ageing hardware of the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 were tiring to work with , the team were able to render lighting and shadows in detail while " maintain [ ing ] a consistent look " . Vice president Dan Houser agreed with this statement and felt that working on Grand Theft Auto IV with relatively new hardware was difficult , but added , " now we know what the hardware 's capable of , so it 's become a lot easier to move things along and a lot more fun , too " . The PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One versions fit onto one Blu @-@ Ray Disc ; Xbox 360 copies of the game are distributed on two DVD discs and require an 8 GB installation on the HDD or external storage device ; while the Microsoft Windows version takes up seven DVD disks . The team asserted that any differences between the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions would be negligible . = = = Design goals = = = Grand Theft Auto V was envisioned to improve the core mechanics of the Grand Theft Auto series by giving the player three lead protagonists to switch between . The team 's main motivation for including three protagonists was for Grand Theft Auto V to innovate game storytelling and to prevent the series from feeling stale by not evolving the core structure of the gameplay . Houser said , " We didn 't want to do the same thing over again " . The concept of having three interconnected protagonists was devised during the development of San Andreas , but the team felt they did not have the technical capabilities to realise it . Garbut explained , " It didn 't work from a tech point of view because the three characters need three times as much memory , three types of animation , and so on " . After the release of Grand Theft Auto IV , the team developed episodic content packages , The Lost and Damned and The Ballad of Gay Tony ( both 2009 ) , each of which introduced a new protagonist . The three interwoven stories had a positive critical reception and confirmed the team 's confidence that building Grand Theft Auto V around this model was an innovative decision . A single @-@ player story revolving around three lead protagonists was one of Grand Theft Auto V 's earliest design objectives . Garbut felt that such a radical change to the gameplay 's core structure was a risk , recalling the team 's concern that a departure from Grand Theft Auto 's traditional , single lead character set @-@ up " might backfire " . In early conceptualisations , the game would have told three stories ; each through a different protagonist . Later , a concept that story trajectories would meet throughout the game was developed from the stories of Grand Theft Auto IV . Eventually , the concept evolved into three interconnected stories that intertwined through the game missions . According to Benzies , the team made the multiple @-@ character formula " integral to the structure of the gameplay as well as the narrative " . Houser opined that Grand Theft Auto V is their " strongest plotted game because the characters are so intertwined " and that the " meeting points [ between the character 's stories ] are very exciting " . Grand Theft Auto V 's central story theme is the " pursuit of the almighty dollar " . Mission content is structured around the lead characters ' efforts to plan and execute complicated heists to accrue wealth for themselves . The team decided to focus on money as the game 's central theme in response to the 2007 – 08 financial crisis ; the effects of the crisis on the main characters are the catalyst for them to conduct heist missions . Houser explained , " We wanted this post @-@ crash feeling , because it works thematically in this game about bank robbers " . The team were encouraged by the positive reaction to the " Three Leaf Clover " mission in Grand Theft Auto IV — in which an elaborate heist is coordinated and executed by the lead protagonist Niko Bellic and accomplices — to develop the story around the heists . Houser said that while the " Three Leaf Clover " mission was well @-@ received , the team had not captured the thrill of the robbery sequence to the best of their capabilities and wanted to focus on achieving that in Grand Theft Auto V. He explained , " We wanted to have a couple of really strong bank robberies ... It felt like that was a good device that we 'd never used in the past . Repeating ourselves is a fear when we 're doing games where part of the evolution is just technological " . = = = Research and open world design = = = Initial work on Grand Theft Auto V involved designing the open world space ; preliminary models of the world were constructed during the game 's pre @-@ production phase . The open world of the game is the fictional U.S. state of San Andreas , which includes the city of Los Santos . San Andreas was also used as the setting of Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas ( 2004 ) , which included three cities separated by open countryside . The team thought that the ambition of including three cities in Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas was too great and that the game did not emulate the cities as well as they had hoped . Los Angeles was used as the model for Los Santos in both games ; Houser felt that " to do a proper version of L.A. ... the game has to give you a sense of that sprawl — if not completely replicate it " , and that dividing the budget and manpower between multiple cities would have detracted from capturing " what L.A. is " . Garbut said that in the PlayStation 2 era , the team did not have the technical capabilities to capture Los Angeles properly , resulting in the San Andreas rendition of Los Santos feeling like a " backdrop or a game level with pedestrians randomly milling about " . The team disregarded San Andreas as a departure point for Grand Theft Auto V because they had moved on to a new generation of consoles and wanted to build the city from scratch . According to Garbut , with the move to the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 hardware , " our processes and the fidelity of the world [ had ] evolved so much from San Andreas " that using it as a model would have been redundant . The team focused their efforts on one city instead of three and were able to produce Los Santos in higher quality and at greater scale than in the previous game . Los Angeles was extensively researched for the game . The team organised field research trips with tour guides and architectural historians , and captured around 250 @,@ 000 photographs and many hours of video footage . Houser said , " We spoke to FBI agents that have been undercover , experts in the Mafia , street gangsters who know the slang — we even went to see a proper prison " . Houser considered the research and creation of the game world to be the most demanding aspects of the game 's production . The team viewed Google Maps and Google Street View projections of Los Angeles ; the field research team then used the coordinates to capture the photographs and video footage , which were used to design the layout of Los Santos . The team also studied virtual globe models of the city , census data and documentaries to recreate the geographical and demographic spread of Los Angeles . Reproducing Los Angeles as a play space required the team to condense the city 's spread into an area that the player could comfortably traverse ; according to Houser , they captured " the essence of what 's really there in a city , but in a far smaller area " . Sam Sweet of The New Yorker said , " [ The ] exhaustive field work ... wasn 't conducted to document a living space . Rather , it was collected to create an extremely realistic version of a Los Angeles that doesn 't actually exist . The map of Los Santos is familiar but its contents are condensed " . Garbut said the team were not " dictated by reality " when designing the city and instead used Los Angeles as a starting point for the city 's design . Research for the game took the team to California 's rural regions ; Garbut recalled a visit he took with Houser to Bombay Beach , which inspired them to set Trevor 's initial story against a recreation of the Salton Sea , known as " Sandy Shores " in the game . The team made an open recreation of Southern California which includes vast tracts of countryside around the city proper . They wanted to a create a large world without open , empty spaces . The team focused on condensing the countryside of Southern California into a diverse and detailed playing space . The game world covers 49 square miles ( 130 km2 ) — about an eightieth of Los Angeles County . It is greater in scale than Rockstar 's previous open world games ; Garbut said it is large enough to fit the game maps of San Andreas , Grand Theft Auto IV and Red Dead Redemption ( 2010 ) combined inside . To accommodate the size of the world , the team overhauled the RAGE , allowing the game to render greater draw distances than in previous Grand Theft Auto games . The large , open space necessitated the re @-@ introduction of fixed @-@ wing aircraft , which had been absent in Grand Theft Auto IV because of the relatively small scale of the world . Houser explained , " We wanted somewhere big [ to allow the player to ] fly properly " . The large space demanded populating the open world with wildlife ; lead producer Leslie Benzies felt that " because of the scale of the map and the different kinds of areas involved , a countryside without animals would feel quite hollow " . = = = Gameplay design = = = The development team found that introducing three concurrent protagonists increased the freedom afforded to players in missions . Lead mission designer Imran Sarwar felt that having multiple protagonists allowed different strategic options to open up in missions . He said that in a combat scenario the player can set up Michael at a high vantage point with a sniper rifle to provide covering fire for Trevor , who provides a frontal assault on the enemy position , allowing Franklin to manipulate flank points . Benzies said that character @-@ switching would eliminate a problem the team felt San Andreas had ; the player would be exploring open countryside and would then need to drive a long distance to a mission start point . In Grand Theft Auto V , the interplay of free roaming and mission gameplay is more organic because the player can switch between characters . According to Benzies , " Having three characters allows players to explore the whole map without having to worry about the long drive back to their next objective " . Houser commented that the use of multiple characters could remove dead spots in missions , for example where a character has to drive to a meeting point , because the player can switch to another character and be pulled into the action of the game more quickly . The game includes dynamic mission content , a feature borrowed from Red Dead Redemption because of its positive reception in that game . Dynamic missions present themselves to the player while exploring the game world ; the player can choose to either accept or ignore them . The team developed the concept of dynamic mission content further in Grand Theft Auto V by delivering it in the open sections of the world and in Los Santos ; for example , the player can encounter an armoured van in the city and try to intercept it to steal its contents . To reflect the advances made in other games since the release of Grand Theft Auto IV , the team overhauled many of the shooting and driving mechanics for Grand Theft Auto V. The public reception of the shooting mechanics of the team 's previous games were considered during this process . Grand Theft Auto IV , Red Dead Redemption and Max Payne 3 ( 2012 ) were scrutinised to establish which areas needed work in Grand Theft Auto V to make it surpass previous titles . To increase the pace of shootouts , the team removed hard locking — a central mechanic in Grand Theft Auto IV — that allows players to instantly lock on to enemies near their crosshair . Associate technical director Phil Hooker noted that the team " found [ hard locking ] too disorientating and often broke your immersion with the game , as you didn 't have to think about enemy locations " . Hooker said the team introduced a timer that breaks the player 's lock on a target after a certain time to combat the problem with Grand Theft Auto IV , in which the player can " just rely on holding and shooting until a target is dead " . Another natural progression was reworking the cover system in combat gameplay , which was remodelled on the cover system of Red Dead Redemption ; entering and exiting cover such as low walls and vehicles is more fluid in Grand Theft Auto V than in earlier games in the series . The team also reworked the driving mechanics for cars and motorcycles . Houser felt that the cars would handle better than they did in Grand Theft Auto IV , which he thought were " big and boat @-@ like " , whereas in Grand Theft Auto V the cars handle similarly to those in racing games . = = = Character development = = = The team drew upon game protagonist archetypes during the scripting of the characters . Michael was considered to embody greed , Franklin ambition and Trevor insanity . Houser felt the team characterised Michael and Trevor as juxtapositions of each other . He said , " Michael is like the criminal who wants to compartmentalise and be a good guy some of the time and Trevor is the maniac who isn 't a hypocrite " . He considered that having three lead characters would help move Grand Theft Auto V 's story into more original territory than its predecessors , which traditionally followed a single protagonist rising through the ranks of a criminal underworld . Ned Luke portrayed Michael , Shawn " Solo " Fonteno portrayed Franklin and Steven Ogg portrayed Trevor . Fonteno first became aware of the acting job through his friend DJ Pooh , who worked on San Andreas and was involved in Grand Theft Auto V 's music production . When Luke 's agent advised him of the casting call for Grand Theft Auto V , he initially did not want to audition for the part because it was in a video game . After reading the audition material and learning more about the project , Luke became interested in auditioning . He reflected , " I went immediately after reading the material from ' I 'm not doing it ' to ' nobody else is doing it ' . It was just brilliant " . During the initial audition process , Ogg noticed an on @-@ set chemistry between him and Luke , which he felt helped secure them the roles . Ogg explained , " When [ Luke ] and I went in the room together we immediately had something " . While the actors knew their auditions were for Rockstar Games , it was not until they signed contracts that they learnt they would be involved in a Grand Theft Auto title . The actors began working on the game in 2010 . Their performances were mostly recorded using motion capture technology . Dialogue for scenes with characters seated in vehicles was recorded in studios . Because the actors had their dialogue and movements recorded on @-@ set , they found their performances no different to those of film or television roles . Their dialogue was scripted so that it did not allow the actors to ad @-@ lib ; however they sometimes made small changes to the performance with approval from the directors . To prepare for his role as Michael , Luke gained 25 pounds and studied Rockstar 's previous games , starting with Grand Theft Auto IV . Luke considers Michael 's characterisation to be an amalgamation of Hugh Beaumont 's portrayal of Ward Cleaver in the American sitcom Leave It to Beaver ( 1957 – 63 ) and Al Pacino 's portrayal of Tony Montana in the 1983 film Scarface . Ogg felt Trevor 's characterisation had evolved over time . He said , " Nuances and character traits that began to appear — his walk , his manner of speech , his reactions , definitely informed his development throughout the game " . Ogg cites Tom Hardy 's depiction of English criminal Charles Bronson in the 2008 biopic Bronson as a strong stylistic influence on his portrayal of Trevor . Ogg opined that while Trevor embodies the violent , psychopathic Grand Theft Auto anti @-@ hero archetype , he wanted players to sympathise with Trevor 's story . " To elicit other emotions was tough , and it was the biggest challenge and it 's something that meant a lot to me " , Ogg explained . Fonteno felt that growing up in South Los Angeles and being exposed to gang culture helped him connect to the character of Franklin . He drew upon his earlier involvement with a gang and trafficking drugs in his portrayal of Franklin . " I lived his life before ... He 's been surrounded by drugs , the crime , living with his aunt — I lived with my grandmother — so there was a lot of familiarity " , Fonteno said . Having not worked as an actor since portraying Face in the 2001 film The Wash , Fonteno sought counsel from Luke and Ogg to refine his acting skills . = = = Re @-@ release = = = Development of the Microsoft Windows version of the game began in parallel with the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 versions . At E3 2014 , a re @-@ release of the game was announced for Windows , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . This enhanced version of the game features an increased draw distance , finer texture details , denser traffic , upgraded weather effects , and new wildlife and vegetation , as well as a new on @-@ foot first @-@ person view option . Animation director Rob Nelson said that a first @-@ person option was raised during development on the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , but that the consoles ' relatively smaller banks of memory were already being pushed , such that adding new first @-@ person animations would have inhibited the open world render . According to Nelson , the first @-@ person view required more development effort than simply repositioning the camera , because of the need to adapt combat to a different view . The weapons were upgraded to a higher resolution , and new animations including weapon recoil , reload and switch were added . " I think we created 3 @,@ 000 animations on weapons alone " , said Nelson . The re @-@ release features more than 100 new songs across the game 's radio stations . Players may transfer characters and progression of Grand Theft Auto Online between some platforms and gain exclusive content . Art director Aaron Garbut said that the enhanced version 's graphical upgrade came largely from the addition of first @-@ person . Remodelled cars feature interior effects including functional speedometers , fuel gauges and dashboard handbrake lights . The team added new particle and lighting effects , " like fireflies at night in the countryside , or ambient light pollution over Los Santos at night " , according to Garbut . Red Dead Redemption ( 2010 ) inspired the team to add more vegetation to " break up the hard edges [ and ] straight lines " of the open world . The original version 's vegetation was replaced with more detailed equivalents in the enhanced version . An upgraded weather system lets tree branches and leaves blow realistically in the wind . The team hand placed weeds along fences and walls , and placed grass over many of the open world 's terrains . They then layered flowers , plants , stones , leaves and litter over the grass . An upgraded screen space ambient occlusion system renders dynamic shadows that may cast through weather effects including volumetric fog , and particle effects including light reflections in water bodies or neon reflections in cars at night . The ambient light pollution over nighttime Los Santos may dissipate in poor weather . A dynamic depth of field system sharpens and softens images to emulate camera autofocus , and improved shaders produce new colours in skin and terrain textures . = = = Music production = = = Grand Theft Auto V is the first game in the series to use an original score . Music supervisor Ivan Pavlovich commented that creating the score was " daunting " because it would be unprecedented for a Grand Theft Auto game . Like most previous games in the series , Grand Theft Auto V also contains licensed music tracks provided by an in @-@ game radio . Pavlovich said the team did not want the original music to detract from the use of licensed music , but rather to accompany it . To work on the score , Rockstar engaged The Alchemist , Oh No and Tangerine Dream with Woody Jackson , who had collaborated with the team on Red Dead Redemption , L.A. Noire ( 2011 ) and Max Payne 3 . In collaboration with each other , the team of producers composed twenty hours of music which scores the game 's missions . In addition , music plays dynamically throughout the game in both the single @-@ player and multiplayer modes . Pavlovich felt that at times , Rockstar gave the team missions to score but that some of the team 's music composed for no specific purpose influenced other missions and provided inspiration for further score development . He described a " stem @-@ based " system that was used to make the music fit dynamic factors in the game ; after a piece of music was assigned to a particular mission , the team composed music to underscore outcomes the player could make after completing it . Early in the game 's development , the music team were shown an early build of the game before working on the score . Their work was mostly complete later in the game 's development but they continued composing until the final build of the game had to be submitted for manufacturing . Edgar Froese , Tangerine Dream 's founding member , was not initially interested in being involved in producing music for the game . After he was flown to the studio and shown Grand Theft Auto V , he was impressed by the game 's scale and cinematic nature , and changed his mind . Froese 's first eight months of work on the score produced 62 hours of music . He recorded with Tangerine Dream in Austria but further work was conducted at Jackson 's studio in the United States , which The Alchemist and Oh No also used . Jackson learnt that the composers would be building on each other 's work and expressed concern that the finished product could be disjointed . His initially provided score for Trevor 's missions , citing The Mars Volta and Queens of the Stone Age as stylistic influences . After sending his work to the other members of the team , Jackson was impressed by Froese 's contributions to his work . " Edgar evolved the music , made it into a whole other thing " , he said . Froese had taken Jackson 's hip hop @-@ influenced work and interpolated it with a funk sound . Froese and Jackson also sent their work between The Alchemist and Oh No , who heavily sampled their work . The Alchemist opined , " We were sampling , taking a piece form here , a piece from there ... We pitched stuff up , chopped it , tweaked it . Then we chose the tracks that worked and everyone came in and layered on that " . DJ Shadow then mixed the team 's creations together and matched it to the gameplay . In developing the radio stations , the Rockstar team wanted to reinforce the game 's recreation of California by licensing tracks they felt imparted an appropriate " Cali feel " . About the inclusion of the pop station Non @-@ Stop @-@ Pop FM , Pavlovich said that " the first time you get off an airplane in L.A. and you hear the radio and the pop just seeps out ... We wanted that . It really connects you to the world " . He felt that licensing music for the game involved a greater discernment than in Grand Theft Auto IV because the music in Grand Theft Auto V played a greater role in generating a Californian atmosphere . Pavlovich said , " It reflects the environment in which the game is set " . Initially , the team planned to license over 900 tracks for the radio but they refined the number to 241 . The tracks are shared between fifteen stations ; the radio also includes two talk @-@ back stations and a radio station for custom audio files on the Windows version . Some of the tracks were written specifically for the game ; for example , rapper and producer Flying Lotus hosts the station FlyLo FM , which includes original work he composed for the game . Pavlovich commented that for each radio station , the team would develop an understanding of where the station 's music was going and select a DJ to host it . Each station 's DJ was selected to match the genre of music the station hosts ; in developing Los Santos Rock Radio the team licensed classic rock tracks and chose Kenny Loggins as the station 's DJ . Pavlovich felt that striking a balance between the radio and the score was a meticulous process . He cited a mission template as an example in which the player would drive to an objective while listening to the radio ; the score would begin once the player left the vehicle and moved into the next stage of the mission .

= Camouflage = Camouflage is the use of any combination of materials , coloration , or illumination for concealment , either by making animals or objects hard to see ( crypsis ) , or by disguising them as something else ( mimesis ) . Examples include the leopard 's spotted coat , the battledress of a modern soldier , and the leaf @-@ mimic katydid 's wings . A third approach , motion dazzle , confuses the observer with a conspicuous pattern , making the object visible but momentarily harder to locate . The majority of camouflage methods aim for crypsis , often through a general resemblance to the background , high contrast disruptive coloration , eliminating shadow , and countershading . In the open ocean , where there is no background , the principal methods of camouflage are transparency , silvering , and countershading , while the ability to produce light is among other things used for counter @-@ illumination on the undersides of cephalopods such as squid . Some animals , such as chameleons and octopuses , are capable of actively changing their skin pattern and colours , whether for camouflage or for signalling . Military camouflage was spurred by the increasing range and accuracy of firearms in the 19th century . In particular the replacement of the inaccurate musket with the rifle made personal concealment in battle a survival skill . In the 20th century , military camouflage developed rapidly , especially during the First World War . On land , artists such as André Mare designed camouflage schemes and observation posts disguised as trees . At sea , merchant ships and troop carriers were painted in dazzle patterns that were highly visible , but designed to confuse enemy submarines as to the target 's speed , range , and heading . During and after the Second World War , a variety of camouflage schemes were used for aircraft and for ground vehicles in different theatres of war . The use of radar since the mid @-@ 20th century has largely made camouflage for fixed @-@ wing military aircraft obsolete . Non @-@ military use of camouflage includes making cell telephone towers less obtrusive and helping hunters to approach wary game animals . Patterns derived from military camouflage are frequently used in fashion clothing , exploiting their strong designs and sometimes their symbolism . Camouflage themes recur in modern art , and both figuratively and literally in science fiction and works of literature . = = History = = = = = In zoology = = = In ancient Greece , Aristotle ( 384 BC – 322 BC ) commented on the colour @-@ changing abilities , both for camouflage and for signalling , of cephalopods including the octopus , in his Historia animalium : The octopus ... seeks its prey by so changing its colour as to render it like the colour of the stones adjacent to it ; it does so also when alarmed . Camouflage has been a topic of interest and research in zoology for well over a century . According to Charles Darwin 's 1859 theory of natural selection , features such as camouflage evolved by providing individual animals with a reproductive advantage , enabling them to leave more offspring , on average , than other members of the same species . In his Origin of Species , Darwin wrote : When we see leaf @-@ eating insects green , and bark @-@ feeders mottled @-@ grey ; the alpine ptarmigan white in winter , the red @-@ grouse the colour of heather , and the black @-@ grouse that of peaty earth , we must believe that these tints are of service to these birds and insects in preserving them from danger . Grouse , if not destroyed at some period of their lives , would increase in countless numbers ; they are known to suffer largely from birds of prey ; and hawks are guided by eyesight to their prey , so much so , that on parts of the Continent persons are warned not to keep white pigeons , as being the most liable to destruction . Hence I can see no reason to doubt that natural selection might be most effective in giving the proper colour to each kind of grouse , and in keeping that colour , when once acquired , true and constant . The English zoologist Edward Bagnall Poulton studied animal coloration , especially camouflage . In his 1890 book The Colours of Animals , he classified different types such as " special protective resemblance " ( where an animal looks like another object ) , or " general aggressive resemblance " ( where a predator blends in with the background , enabling it to approach prey ) . His experiments showed that swallowtailed moth pupae were camouflaged to match the backgrounds on which they were reared as larvae . Poulton 's " general protective resemblance " was at that time considered to be the main method of camouflage , as when Frank Evers Beddard wrote in 1892 that " tree @-@ frequenting animals are often green in colour . Among vertebrates numerous species of parrots , iguanas , tree @-@ frogs , and the green tree @-@ snake are examples " . Beddard did however briefly mention other methods , including the " alluring coloration " of the flower mantis and the possibility of a different mechanism in the orange tip butterfly . He wrote that " the scattered green spots upon the under surface of the wings might have been intended for a rough sketch of the small flowerets of the plant [ an umbellifer ] , so close is their mutual resemblance . " He also explained the coloration of sea fish such as the mackerel : " Among pelagic fish it is common to find the upper surface dark @-@ coloured and the lower surface white , so that the animal is inconspicuous when seen either from above or below . " The artist Abbott Handerson Thayer formulated what is sometimes called Thayer 's Law , the principle of countershading . However , he overstated the case in the 1909 book Concealing @-@ Coloration in the Animal Kingdom , arguing that " All patterns and colors whatsoever of all animals that ever preyed or are preyed on are under certain normal circumstances obliterative " ( that is , cryptic camouflage ) , and that " Not one ' mimicry ' mark , not one ' warning color ' ... nor any ' sexually selected ' color , exists anywhere in the world where there is not every reason to believe it the very best conceivable device for the concealment of its wearer " , and using paintings such as Peacock in the Woods ( 1907 ) to reinforce his argument . Thayer was roundly mocked for these views by critics including Teddy Roosevelt . The English zoologist Hugh Cott 's 1940 book Adaptive Coloration in Animals corrected Thayer 's errors , sometimes sharply : " Thus we find Thayer straining the theory to a fantastic extreme in an endeavour to make it cover almost every type of coloration in the animal kingdom . " Cott built on Thayer 's discoveries , developing a comprehensive view of camouflage based on " maximum disruptive contrast " , countershading and hundreds of examples . The book explained how disruptive camouflage worked , using streaks of boldly contrasting colour , paradoxically making objects less visible by breaking up their outlines . While Cott was more systematic and balanced in his view than Thayer , and did include some experimental evidence on the effectiveness of camouflage , his 500 @-@ page textbook was , like Thayer 's , mainly a natural history narrative which illustrated theories with examples . Camouflage is a soft @-@ tissue feature that is rarely preserved in the fossil record , but rare fossilised skin samples from the Cretaceous period show that some marine reptiles were countershaded . The skins , pigmented with dark @-@ coloured eumelanin , reveal that both leatherback turtles and mosasaurs had dark backs and light bellies . = = = Military = = = = = = = Before 1800 = = = = Ship camouflage was occasionally used in ancient times . Philostratus ( c . 172 – 250 AD ) wrote in his Imagines that Mediterranean pirate ships could be painted blue @-@ gray for concealment . Vegetius ( c . 360 – 400 AD ) says that " Venetian blue " ( sea green ) was used in the Gallic Wars , when Julius Caesar sent his speculatoria navigia ( reconnaissance boats ) to gather intelligence along the coast of Britain . The ships were painted entirely in bluish @-@ green wax , with sails , ropes and crew the same colour . There is little evidence of military use of camouflage on land before 1800 , but two unusual ceramics show men in Peru 's Mochica culture from before 500 AD , hunting birds with blowpipes which are fitted with a kind of shield near the mouth , perhaps to conceal the hunters ' hands and faces . Another early source is a 15th @-@ century French manuscript , The Hunting Book of Gaston Phebus , showing a horse pulling a cart which contains a hunter armed with a crossbow under a cover of branches , perhaps serving as a hide for shooting game . Jamaican Maroons are said to have used plant materials as camouflage in the First Maroon War ( c . 1655 – 1740 ) . = = = = 19th @-@ century origins = = = = The development of military camouflage was driven by the increasing range and accuracy of infantry firearms in the 19th century . In particular the replacement of the inaccurate musket with weapons such as the Baker rifle made personal concealment in battle essential . Two Napoleonic War skirmishing units of the British Army , the 95th Rifle Regiment and the 60th Rifle Regiment , were the first to adopt camouflage in the form of a rifle green jacket , while the Line regiments continued to wear scarlet tunics . A contemporary study in 1800 by the English artist and soldier Charles Hamilton Smith provided evidence that grey uniforms were less visible than green ones at a range of 150 yards . In the American Civil War , rifle units such as the 1st United States Sharp Shooters ( in the Federal army ) similarly wore green jackets while other units wore more conspicuous colours . The first British Army unit to adopt khaki uniforms was the Corps of Guides at Peshawar , when Sir Harry Lumsden and his second in command , William Hodson introduced a " drab " uniform in 1848 . Hodson wrote that it would be more appropriate for the hot climate , and help make his troops " invisible in a land of dust " . Later they improvised by dyeing cloth locally . Other regiments in India soon adopted the khaki uniform , and by 1896 khaki drill uniform was used everywhere outside Europe ; by the Second Boer War six years later it was used throughout the British Army . = = = = First World War = = = = In the First World War , the French army formed a camouflage corps , led by Lucien @-@ Victor Guirand de Scévola , employing artists known as camoufleurs to create schemes such as tree observation posts and covers for guns . Other armies soon followed them . The term camouflage probably comes from camoufler , a Parisian slang term meaning to disguise , and may have been influenced by camouflet , a French term meaning smoke blown in someone 's face . The English zoologist John Graham Kerr , artist Solomon J. Solomon and the American artist Abbott Thayer led attempts to introduce scientific principles of countershading and disruptive patterning into military camouflage , with limited success . Ship camouflage was introduced in the early 20th century as the range of naval guns increased , with ships painted grey all over . In April 1917 , when German U @-@ boats were sinking many British ships with torpedoes , the marine artist Norman Wilkinson devised dazzle camouflage , which paradoxically made ships more visible but harder to target . In Wilkinson 's own words , dazzle was designed " not for low visibility , but in such a way as to break up her form and thus confuse a submarine officer as to the course on which she was heading " . = = = = Second World War = = = = In the Second World War , the zoologist Hugh Cott , a protégé of Kerr , worked to persuade the British army to use more effective camouflage techniques , including countershading , but , like Kerr and Thayer in the First World War , with limited success . For example , he painted two rail @-@ mounted coastal guns , one in conventional style , one countershaded . In aerial photographs , the countershaded gun was essentially invisible . The power of aerial observation and attack led every warring nation to camouflage targets of all types . The Soviet Union 's Red Army created the comprehensive doctrine of Maskirovka for military deception , including the use of camouflage . For example , during the Battle of Kursk , General Katukov , the commander of the Soviet 1st Tank Army , remarked that the enemy " did not suspect that our well @-@ camouflaged tanks were waiting for him . As we later learned from prisoners , we had managed to move our tanks forward unnoticed " . The tanks were concealed in previously prepared defensive emplacements , with only their turrets above ground level . In the air , Second World War fighters were often painted in ground colours above and sky colours below , attempting two different camouflage schemes for observers above and below . Bombers and night fighters were often black , while maritime reconnaissance planes were usually white , to avoid appearing as dark shapes against the sky . For ships , dazzle camouflage was mainly replaced with plain grey in the Second World War , though experimentation with colour schemes continued . As in the First World War , artists were pressed into service ; for example , the surrealist painter Roland Penrose became a lecturer at the newly founded Camouflage Development and Training Centre at Farnham Castle , writing the practical Home Guard Manual of Camouflage . The film @-@ maker Geoffrey Barkas ran the Middle East Command Camouflage Directorate during the 1941 – 1942 war in the Western Desert , including the successful deception of Operation Bertram . Hugh Cott was chief instructor ; the artist camouflage officers , who called themselves camoufleurs , included Steven Sykes and Tony Ayrton . In Australia , artists were also prominent in the Sydney Camouflage Group , formed under the chairmanship of Professor William John Dakin , a zoologist from Sydney University . Max Dupain , Sydney Ure Smith and William Dobell were among the members of the group , which worked at Bankstown Airport , RAAF Base Richmond and Garden Island Dockyard . = = = = After 1945 = = = = Camouflage has been used to protect military equipment such as vehicles , guns , ships , aircraft and buildings as well as individual soldiers and their positions . Vehicle camouflage techniques begin with paint , which offers at best only limited effectiveness . Other methods for stationary land vehicles include covering with improvised materials such as blankets and vegetation , and erecting nets , screens and soft covers which may suitably reflect , scatter or absorb near infrared and radar waves . Some military textiles and vehicle camouflage paints also reflect infrared to help provide concealment from night vision devices . After the Second World War , radar made camouflage generally less effective , though coastal boats are sometimes painted like land vehicles . Aircraft camouflage too came to be seen as less important because of radar , and aircraft of different air forces , such as the Royal Air Force 's Lightning , were often uncamouflaged . Many camouflaged textile patterns have been developed to suit the need to match combat clothing to different kinds of terrain ( such as woodland , snow , and desert ) . The design of a pattern effective in all terrains has proved elusive . The American Universal Camouflage Pattern of 2004 attempted to suit all environments , but was withdrawn after a few years of service . Terrain @-@ specific patterns have sometimes been developed but are ineffective in other terrains . The problem of making a pattern that works at different ranges has been solved with pixellated shapes , often designed digitally , that provide a fractal @-@ like range of patch sizes so they appear disruptively coloured both at close range and at a distance . The first genuinely digital camouflage pattern was the Canadian CADPAT , issued to the army in 2002 , soon followed by the American MARPAT . A pixellated appearance is not essential for this effect , though it is simpler to design and to print . = = Principles = = Camouflage can be achieved by different methods , described below . Most of the methods contribute to crypsis , helping to hide against a background ; but mimesis and motion dazzle protect without hiding . Methods may be applied on their own or in combination . = = = Crypsis = = = Crypsis means making the animal or military equipment hard to see ( or to detect in other ways , such as by sound or scent ) . Visual crypsis can be achieved in many different ways , such as by living underground or by being active only at night , as well as by a variety of methods of camouflage . = = = = Resemblance to the surroundings = = = = Some animals ' colours and patterns resemble a particular natural background . This is an important component of camouflage in all environments . For instance , tree @-@ dwelling parakeets are mainly green ; woodcocks of the forest floor are brown and speckled ; reedbed bitterns are streaked brown and buff ; in each case the animal 's coloration matches the hues of its habitat . Similarly , desert animals are almost all desert coloured in tones of sand , buff , ochre , and brownish grey , whether they are mammals like the gerbil or fennec fox , birds such as the desert lark or sandgrouse , or reptiles like the skink or horned viper . Military uniforms , too , generally resemble their backgrounds ; for example khaki uniforms are a muddy or dusty colour , originally chosen for service in South Asia . Many moths show industrial melanism , including the peppered moth which has coloration that blends in with tree bark . The coloration of these insects evolved between 1860 and 1940 to match the changing colour of the tree trunks on which they rest , from pale and mottled to almost black in polluted areas . This is taken by zoologists as evidence that camouflage is influenced by natural selection , as well as demonstrating that it changes where necessary to resemble the local background . = = = = Disruptive coloration = = = = Disruptive patterns use strongly contrasting , non @-@ repeating markings such as spots or stripes to break up the outlines of an animal or military vehicle , or to conceal telltale features , especially the eyes , as in the common frog . Disruptive patterns may use more than one method to defeat visual systems such as edge detection . Predators like the leopard use disruptive camouflage to help them approach prey , while potential prey like the Egyptian nightjar use it to avoid detection by predators . Disruptive patterning is common in military usage , both for uniforms and for military vehicles . Disruptive patterning , however , does not always achieve crypsis on its own , as an animal or a military target may be given away by factors like shape , shine , and shadow . The presence of bold skin markings does not in itself prove that an animal relies on camouflage , as that depends on its behaviour . For example , although giraffes have a high contrast pattern that could be disruptive coloration , the adults are extremely conspicuous when in the open . Some authors have argued that adult giraffes are cryptic , since when standing among trees and bushes they are hard to see at even a few metres ' distance . However , adult giraffes move about to gain the best view of an approaching predator , relying on their size and ability to defend themselves , even from lions , rather than on camouflage . A different explanation is implied by the fact that young giraffes are far more vulnerable to predation than adults : more than half of all giraffe calves die within a year , and giraffe mothers hide their calves , which spend much of the time lying down in cover while their mothers are away feeding . Since the presence of a mother nearby does not affect survival , it is argued that young giraffes must be extremely well camouflaged ; this is supported by the fact that coat markings are strongly inherited . = = = = Eliminating shadow = = = = Some animals , such as the horned lizards of North America , have evolved elaborate measures to eliminate shadow . Their bodies are flattened , with the sides thinning to an edge ; the animals habitually press their bodies to the ground ; and their sides are fringed with white scales which effectively hide and disrupt any remaining areas of shadow there may be under the edge of the body . The theory that the body shape of the horned lizards which live in open desert is adapted to minimise shadow is supported by the one species which lacks fringe scales , the roundtail horned lizard , which lives in rocky areas and resembles a rock . When this species is threatened , it makes itself look as much like a rock as possible by curving its back , emphasizing its three @-@ dimensional shape . Some species of butterflies , such as the speckled wood , Pararge aegeria , minimise their shadows when perched by closing the wings over their backs , aligning their bodies with the sun , and tilting to one side towards the sun , so that the shadow becomes a thin inconspicuous line rather than a broad patch . Similarly , some ground @-@ nesting birds including the European nightjar select a resting position facing the sun . The elimination of shadow was identified as a principle of military camouflage during the Second World War . = = = = Self @-@ decoration = = = = Some animals actively seek to hide by decorating themselves with materials such as twigs , sand , or pieces of shell from their environment , to break up their outlines , to conceal the features of their bodies , and to match their backgrounds . For example , a caddis fly larva builds a decorated case and lives almost entirely inside it ; a decorator crab covers its back with seaweed , sponges and stones . The nymph of the predatory masked bug uses its hind legs and a ' tarsal fan ' to decorate its body with sand or dust . There are two layers of bristles ( trichomes ) over the body . On these , the nymph spreads an inner layer of fine particles and an outer layer of coarser particles . The camouflage may conceal the bug from both predators and prey . Similar principles can be applied for military purposes , for instance when a sniper wears a ghillie suit designed to be further camouflaged by decoration with materials such as tufts of grass from the sniper 's immediate environment . Such suits were used as early as 1916 , the British army having adopted " coats of motley hue and stripes of paint " for snipers . Cott takes the example of the larva of the blotched emerald moth , which fixes a screen of fragments of leaves to its specially hooked bristles , to argue that military camouflage uses the same method , pointing out that the " device is ... essentially the same as one widely practised during the Great War for the concealment , not of caterpillars , but of caterpillar @-@ tractors , [ gun ] battery positions , observation posts and so forth . " = = = = Cryptic behaviour = = = = Movement catches the eye of prey animals on the lookout for predators , and of predators hunting for prey . Most methods of crypsis therefore also require suitable cryptic behaviour , such as lying down and keeping still to avoid being detected , or in the case of stalking predators such as the tiger , moving with extreme stealth , both slowly and quietly , watching its prey for any sign they are aware of its presence . As an example of the combination of behaviours and other methods of crypsis involved , young giraffes seek cover , lie down , and keep still , often for hours until their mothers return ; their skin pattern blends with the pattern of the vegetation , while the chosen cover and lying position together hide the animals ' shadows . The flat @-@ tail horned lizard similarly relies on a combination of methods : it is adapted to lie flat in the open desert , relying on stillness , its cryptic coloration , and concealment of its shadow to avoid being noticed by predators . In the ocean , the leafy sea dragon sways mimetically , like the seaweeds amongst which it rests , as if rippled by wind or water currents . = = = = Motion camouflage = = = = Most forms of camouflage are ineffective when the camouflaged animal or object moves , because the motion is easily seen by the observing predator , prey or enemy . However , insects such as hoverflies and dragonflies use motion camouflage : the hoverflies to approach possible mates , and the dragonflies to approach rivals when defending territories . Motion camouflage is achieved by moving so as to stay on a straight line between the target and a fixed point in the landscape ; the pursuer thus appears not to move , but only to loom larger in the target 's field of vision . The same technique can be used for military purposes , for example by missiles to minimise their risk of detection by the enemy . However , missile engineers , and animals such as bats , use the technique primarily for its efficiency rather than camouflage . = = = = Changeable skin pattern / colour = = = = Animals such as chameleon , frog , flatfish such as the peacock flounder , squid and octopus actively change their skin patterns and colours using special chromatophore cells to resemble their current background ( as well as for signalling ) . Each chromatophore contains pigment of only one colour . In fish and frogs , colour change is mediated by the type of chromatophores known as melanophores that contain dark pigment . A melanophore is star @-@ shaped ; it contains many small pigmented organelles which can be dispersed throughout the cell , or aggregated near its centre . When the pigmented organelles are dispersed , the cell makes a patch of the animal 's skin appear dark ; when they are aggregated , most of the cell , and the animal 's skin , appears light . In frogs , the change is controlled relatively slowly , mainly by hormones . In fish , the change is controlled by the brain , which sends signals directly to the chromatophores , as well as producing hormones . The skins of cephalopods such as the octopus contain complex units , each consisting of a chromatophore with surrounding muscle and nerve cells . The cephalopod chromatophore has all its pigment grains in a small elastic sac , which can be stretched or allowed to relax under the control of the brain to vary its opacity . By controlling chromatophores of different colours , cephalopods can rapidly change their skin patterns and colours . On a longer timescale , animals like the Arctic hare , Arctic fox , stoat , and rock ptarmigan change their coat colour ( by moulting and growing new fur or feathers ) from brown or grey in the summer to white in the winter ; the Arctic fox is the only species in the dog family to do so . However , Arctic hares which live in the far north of Canada , where summer is very short , remain white year @-@ round . The principle of varying coloration either rapidly or with the changing seasons has military applications . Active camouflage could in theory make use of both dynamic colour change and counterillumination . Simple techniques such as changing uniforms and repainting vehicles for winter have been in use since the Second World War . In 2011 , BAE Systems announced their Adaptiv infrared camouflage technology . It uses about 1000 hexagonal panels to cover the sides of a tank . The panels are heated and cooled to match either the vehicle 's surroundings ( crypsis ) , or an object such as a car ( mimesis ) , when viewed in infrared . = = = = Countershading = = = = Countershading uses graded colour to counteract the effect of self @-@ shadowing , creating an illusion of flatness . Self @-@ shadowing makes an animal appear darker below than on top , grading from light to dark ; countershading ' paints in ' tones which are darkest on top , lightest below , making the countershaded animal nearly invisible against a suitable background . Thayer observed that " Animals are painted by Nature , darkest on those parts which tend to be most lighted by the sky 's light , and vice versa " . Accordingly , the principle of countershading is sometimes called Thayer 's Law . Countershading is widely used by terrestrial animals , such as gazelles and grasshoppers ; marine animals , such as sharks and dolphins ; and birds , such as snipe and dunlin . Countershading is less often used for military camouflage , despite Second World War experiments that showed its effectiveness . English zoologist Hugh Cott encouraged the use of techniques including countershading , but despite his authority on the subject , failed to persuade the British authorities . Soldiers often wrongly viewed camouflage netting as a kind of invisibility cloak , and they had to be taught to look at camouflage practically , from the enemy observer 's point of view . At the same time in Australia , zoologist William John Dakin advised soldiers to copy animals ' methods , using their instincts for wartime camouflage . The term countershading has a second meaning unrelated to " Thayer 's Law " . It is that the upper and undersides of animals such as sharks , and of some military aircraft , are different colours to match the different backgrounds when seen from above or from below . Here the camouflage consists of two surfaces , each with the simple function of providing concealment against a specific background , such as a bright water surface or the sky . The body of a shark or the fuselage of an aircraft is not gradated from light to dark to appear flat when seen from the side . The camouflage techniques used are the matching of background colour and pattern , and disruption of outlines . = = = = Counter @-@ illumination = = = = Counter @-@ illumination means producing light to match a background that is brighter than an animal 's body or military vehicle ; it is a form of active camouflage . It is notably used by some species of squid , such as the firefly squid and the midwater squid . The latter has light @-@ producing organs ( photophores ) scattered all over its underside ; these create a sparkling glow that prevents the animal from appearing as a dark shape when seen from below . Counterillumination camouflage is the likely function of the bioluminescence of many marine organisms , though light is also produced to attract or to detect prey and for signalling . Counterillumination has rarely been used for military purposes . " Diffused lighting camouflage " was trialled by Canada 's National Research Council during the Second World War . It involved projecting light on to the sides of ships to match the faint glow of the night sky , requiring awkward external platforms to support the lamps . The Canadian concept was refined in the American Yehudi lights project , and trialled in aircraft including B @-@ 24 Liberators and naval Avengers . The planes were fitted with forward @-@ pointing lamps automatically adjusted to match the brightness of the night sky . This enabled them to approach much closer to a target – within 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 metres ) – before being seen . Counterillumination was made obsolete by radar , and neither diffused lighting camouflage nor Yehudi lights entered active service . = = = = Transparency = = = = Many marine animals that float near the surface are highly transparent , giving them almost perfect camouflage . However , transparency is difficult for bodies made of materials that have different refractive indices from seawater . Some marine animals such as jellyfish have gelatinous bodies , composed mainly of water ; their thick mesogloea is acellular and highly transparent . This conveniently makes them buoyant , but it also makes them large for their muscle mass , so they cannot swim fast , making this form of camouflage a costly trade @-@ off with mobility . Gelatinous planktonic animals are between 50 and 90 percent transparent . A transparency of 50 percent is enough to make an animal invisible to a predator such as cod at a depth of 650 metres ( 2 @,@ 130 ft ) ; better transparency is required for invisibility in shallower water , where the light is brighter and predators can see better . For example , a cod can see prey that are 98 percent transparent in optimal lighting in shallow water . Therefore , sufficient transparency for camouflage is more easily achieved in deeper waters . Some tissues such as muscles can be made transparent , provided either they are very thin or organised as regular layers or fibrils that are small compared to the wavelength of visible light . A familiar example is the transparency of the lens of the vertebrate eye , which is made of the protein crystallin , and the vertebrate cornea which is made of the protein collagen . Other structures cannot be made transparent , notably the retinas or equivalent light @-@ absorbing structures of eyes — they must absorb light to be able to function . The camera @-@ type eye of vertebrates and cephalopods must be completely opaque . Finally , some structures are visible for a reason , such as to lure prey . For example , the nematocysts ( stinging cells ) of the transparent siphonophore Agalma okenii resemble small copepods . Examples of transparent marine animals include a wide variety of larvae , including coelenterates , siphonophores , salps ( floating tunicates ) , gastropod molluscs , polychaete worms , many shrimplike crustaceans , and fish ; whereas the adults of most of these are opaque and pigmented , resembling the seabed or shores where they live . Adult comb jellies and jellyfish obey the rule , often being mainly transparent . Cott suggests this follows the more general rule that animals resemble their background : in a transparent medium like seawater , that means actually being transparent . The small Amazon river fish Microphilypnus amazonicus and the shrimps it associates with , Pseudopalaemon gouldingi , are so transparent as to be " almost invisible " ; further , these species appear to select whether to be transparent or more conventionally mottled ( disruptively patterned ) according to the local background in the environment . = = = = Silvering = = = = Where transparency cannot be achieved , it can be imitated effectively by silvering to make an animal 's body highly reflective . At medium depths at sea , light comes from above , so a mirror oriented vertically makes animals such as fish invisible from the side . Most fish in the upper ocean such as sardine and herring are camouflaged by silvering . The marine hatchetfish is extremely flattened laterally , leaving the body just millimetres thick , and the body is so silvery as to resemble aluminium foil . The mirrors consist of microscopic structures similar to those used to provide structural coloration : stacks of between 5 and 10 crystals of guanine spaced about ¼ of a wavelength apart to interfere constructively and achieve nearly 100 per cent reflection . In the deep waters that the hatchetfish lives in , only blue light with a wavelength of 500 nanometres percolates down and needs to be reflected , so mirrors 125 nanometres apart provide good camouflage . In fish such as the herring which live in shallower water , the mirrors must reflect a mixture of wavelengths , and the fish accordingly has crystal stacks with a range of different spacings . A further complication for fish with bodies that are rounded in cross @-@ section is that the mirrors would be ineffective if laid flat on the skin , as they would fail to reflect horizontally . The overall mirror effect is achieved with many small reflectors , all oriented vertically . Silvering is found in other marine animals as well as fish . The cephalopods , including squid , octopus and cuttlefish , have multi @-@ layer mirrors made of protein rather than guanine . = = = Mimesis = = = In mimesis ( also called masquerade ) , the camouflaged object looks like something else which is of no special interest to the observer . Mimesis is common in prey animals , for example when a peppered moth caterpillar mimics a twig , or a grasshopper mimics a dry leaf . It is also found in nest structures ; some eusocial wasps , such as Leipomeles dorsata , build a nest envelope in patterns that mimic the leaves surrounding the nest . Mimesis is also employed by some predators and parasites to lure their prey . For example , a flower mantis mimics a particular kind of flower , such as an orchid . This tactic has occasionally been used in warfare , for example with heavily armed Q @-@ ships disguised as merchant ships . The common cuckoo , a brood parasite , provides examples of mimesis both in the adult and in the egg . The female lays her eggs in nests of other , smaller species of bird , one per nest . The female mimics a sparrowhawk . The resemblance is sufficient to make small birds take action to avoid the apparent predator . The female cuckoo then has time to lay her egg in their nest without being seen to do so . The cuckoo 's egg itself mimics the eggs of the host species , reducing its chance of being rejected . = = = Motion dazzle = = = Most forms of camouflage are made ineffective by movement : a deer or grasshopper may be highly cryptic when motionless , but instantly seen when it moves . But one method , motion dazzle , requires rapidly moving bold patterns of contrasting stripes . Motion dazzle may degrade predators ' ability to estimate the prey 's speed and direction accurately , giving the prey an improved chance of escape . Motion dazzle distorts speed perception and is most effective at high speeds ; stripes can also distort perception of size ( and so , perceived range to the target ) . As of 2011 , motion dazzle had been proposed for military vehicles , but never applied . Since motion dazzle patterns would make animals more difficult to locate accurately when moving , but easier to see when stationary , there would be an evolutionary trade @-@ off between motion dazzle and crypsis . An animal that is commonly thought to be dazzle @-@ patterned is the zebra . The bold stripes of the zebra have been claimed to be disruptive camouflage , background @-@ blending and countershading . After many years in which the purpose of the coloration was disputed , an experimental study by Tim Caro suggested in 2012 that the pattern reduces the attractiveness of stationary models to biting flies such as horseflies and tsetse flies . However , a simulation study by Martin How and Johannes Zanker in 2014 suggests that when moving , the stripes may confuse observers , such as mammalian predators and biting insects , by two visual illusions : the wagon @-@ wheel effect , where the perceived motion is inverted , and the barberpole illusion , where the perceived motion is in a wrong direction . = = Civil applications = = Camouflage is occasionally used to make buildings less conspicuous : for example , in South Africa , towers carrying cell telephone antennae are sometimes camouflaged as tall trees with plastic branches , in response to " resistance from the community " . Since this method is costly ( a figure of three times the normal cost is mentioned ) , alternative forms of camouflage can include using neutral colours or familiar shapes such as cylinders and flagpoles . Conspicuousness can also be reduced by siting masts near or actually on other structures . Hunters of game have long made use of camouflage in the form of materials such as animal skins , mud , foliage , and green or brown clothing to enable them to approach wary game animals . Field sports such as driven grouse shooting conceal hunters in hides ( also called blinds or shooting butts ) . Modern hunting clothing makes use of fabrics that provide a disruptive camouflage pattern ; for example , in 1986 the hunter Bill Jordan created cryptic clothing for hunters , printed with images of specific kinds of vegetation such as grass and branches . Automotive manufacturers often use patterns to disguise upcoming products . This camouflage is designed to obfuscate the vehicle 's visual lines , and is used along with padding , covers , and decals . The patterns ' purpose is to prevent visual observation ( and to a lesser degree photography ) , that would subsequently enable reproduction of the vehicle 's form factors . = = Fashion , art and society = = Military camouflage patterns influenced fashion and art from the time of the First World War onwards . Gertrude Stein recalled the cubist artist Pablo Picasso 's reaction in around 1915 : I very well remember at the beginning of the war being with Picasso on the boulevard Raspail when the first camouflaged truck passed . It was at night , we had heard of camouflage but we had not seen it and Picasso amazed looked at it and then cried out , yes it is we who made it , that is cubism . In 1919 , the attendants of a " dazzle ball " , hosted by the Chelsea Arts Club , wore dazzle @-@ patterned black and white clothing . The ball influenced fashion and art via postcards and magazine articles . The Illustrated London News announced : The scheme of decoration for the great fancy dress ball given by the Chelsea Arts Club at the Albert Hall , the other day , was based on the principles of " Dazzle " , the method of " camouflage " used during the war in the painting of ships ... The total effect was brilliant and fantastic . More recently , fashion designers have often used camouflage fabric for its striking designs , its " patterned disorder " and its symbolism . Camouflage clothing can be worn largely for its symbolic significance rather than for fashion , as when , during the late 1960s and early 1970s in the United States , anti @-@ war protestors often ironically wore military clothing during demonstrations against the American involvement in the Vietnam War . Modern artists such as Ian Hamilton Finlay have used camouflage to reflect on war . His 1973 screenprint of a tank camouflaged in a leaf pattern , Arcadia , is described by the Tate as drawing " an ironic parallel between this idea of a natural paradise and the camouflage patterns on a tank " . The title refers to the Utopian Arcadia of poetry and art , and the memento mori Latin phrase Et in Arcadia ego which recurs in Hamilton Finlay 's work . In science fiction , Camouflage is a novel about shapeshifting alien beings by Joe Haldeman . The word is used more figuratively in works of literature such as Thaisa Frank 's collection of stories of love and loss , A Brief History of Camouflage . = = = Camouflage in nature = = = Pioneering research Beddard , Frank Evers ( 1892 ) . Animal Coloration : an account of the principal facts and theories relating to the colours and markings of animals . Swan Sonnenschein . Cott , Hugh B ( 1940 ) . Adaptive Coloration in Animals . Methuen . Darwin , Charles ( 1859 ) . On the Origin of Species . John Murray . Reprinted 1985 , Penguin Classics . Poulton , Edward B ( 1890 ) . The Colours of Animals : their meaning and use , especially considered in the case of insects . Kegan Paul , Trench , Trübner . Thayer , Abbott H ; Thayer , Gerald H. ( 1909 ) . Concealing @-@ Coloration in the Animal Kingdom . Macmillan . General reading Elias , Ann ( 2011 ) . Camouflage Australia : Art , Nature , Science and War . Sydney University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 920899 @-@ 73 @-@ 8 . Forbes , Peter ( 2009 ) . Dazzled and Deceived : Mimicry and Camouflage . Yale University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 300 @-@ 17896 @-@ 8 . Herring , Peter ( 2002 ) . The Biology of the Deep Ocean . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 854956 @-@ 7 . Rothenberg , David ( 2011 ) . Survival of the Beautiful : Art , Science and Evolution . Bloomsbury . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 60819 @-@ 216 @-@ 8 . = = = Military camouflage = = = Barkas , Geoffrey ; Barkas , Natalie ( 1952 ) . The Camouflage Story ( from Aintree to Alamein ) . Cassell . Casson , Lionel ( 1995 ) . Ships and Seamanship in the Ancient World . JHU Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8018 @-@ 5130 @-@ 8 . Newark , Tim ( 2007 ) . Camouflage . Thames and Hudson , with Imperial War Museum . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 500 @-@ 51347 @-@ 7 .

= New Jersey Route 72 = Route 72 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It runs 28 @.@ 74 mi ( 46 @.@ 25 km ) from the Four Mile Circle with Route 70 in Woodland Township in Burlington County to County Route 607 ( CR 607 ) in Ship Bottom on Long Beach Island in Ocean County . Route 72 travels through the Pine Barrens as a two @-@ lane undivided road . After an interchange with the Garden State Parkway , the route becomes a four- to six @-@ lane divided highway through built @-@ up areas of Manhawkin and crosses the Manahawkin Bay via the Manahawkin Bay Bridge onto Long Beach Island . What is now Route 72 was originally designated as Route S40 in 1927 , a spur of Route 40 ( now Route 70 ) running from Four Mile to Manahawkin . The road was extended to Ship Bottom by 1941 before it was renumbered to Route 72 in 1953 . A realignment that took place in 1969 between U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) and the Manahawkin Bay Bridge resulted in the designation of Route 180 on the former alignment ; this road is now CR 50 . Plans in the late 1960s and the 1970s called for a proposed Route 72 freeway , running from the western terminus at Route 70 to the concurrently proposed Interstate 895 ( I @-@ 895 ) at the New Jersey Turnpike in Westampton Township , connecting Philadelphia 's northern suburbs with the Jersey Shore . The freeway plans along with I @-@ 895 were canceled by the 1980s . The Manahawkin Bay Bridge underwent deck repairs completed in May 2010 , with the bridge slated to be rehabilitated and a parallel span to be built to the south . = = Route description = = Route 72 begins at the Four Mile Circle intersection with Route 70 , CR 644 , and CR 646 in Woodland Township , Burlington County , heading to the southeast on Barnegat Road , a two @-@ lane undivided road . The route passes through heavily wooded areas of the Pine Barrens that are a part of the Brendan T. Byrne State Forest . The road passes near a state hospital before coming to an intersection with the northern terminus of CR 563 . Past CR 563 , the route continues through the Pine Barrens , passing under an abandoned railroad line prior to a junction with CR 532 . Here , Route 72 forms a concurrency with CR 532 and the road enters Barnegat Township in Ocean County , where it comes to a crossroads with CR 539 . From this intersection , Route 72 and CR 532 continue to a junction with CR 610 , where CR 532 splits from the route by heading to the east . A short distance later , the route intersects the western terminus of CR 554 , which continues along Barnegat Road , and Route 72 turns to the south @-@ southeast through more wooded areas . The highway enters Stafford Township and passes to the southwest of the residential Ocean Acres community . After a junction with Nautilus Drive ( CR 111 ) , Route 72 widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway , intersecting CR 105 and CR 2 before coming to an interchange with the Garden State Parkway . Following this interchange , the route enters the Manahawkin area and widens to six lanes as it passes woods to the northeast and business areas to the southwest . Route 72 interchanges with US 9 and continues southeast through a mix of woods and commercial areas as a four @-@ lane road , with CR 50 ( Bay Avenue ) paralleling the route to the north . The road intersects CR 20 and CR 6 before it passes to the north of the Beach Haven West residential development and passes near wetlands . A road provides access to Bay Avenue before Route 72 crosses the Manahawkin Bay on the Manahawkin Bay Bridge , also known as the Dorland J. Henderson Memorial Bridge . After traversing two small islands consisting of a mix of residences and marshland , the road continues into Ship Bottom on Long Beach Island . Upon entering Ship Bottom , the route splits into a one @-@ way pair following 9th Street eastbound and 8th Street westbound . Route 72 passes by resort businesses , intersecting CR 4 and CR 89 before ending at CR 607 a block from the Atlantic Ocean . Route 72 is a major route providing access to Long Beach Island , a popular Jersey Shore resort , from Philadelphia via Route 70 and from New York City via the Garden State Parkway . As such , the portion of the route east of the Garden State Parkway interchange sees congestion during the summer months . = = History = = What is now Route 72 was originally designated as Route S40 in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering . It was to be a spur of Route 40 that was to run from Route 40 at Four Mile to Route 4 ( now US 9 ) in Manahawkin . By 1941 , the route was extended east to the intersection with Long Beach Boulevard in Ship Bottom . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route S40 was renumbered to Route 72 . By 1969 , Route 72 was moved to a new alignment to the south between US 9 and the Manahawkin Bay Bridge ; the old alignment became Route 180 . This route was eventually removed from the state highway system and is now CR 50 , although more commonly known as " Bay Avenue " . A freeway was originally proposed for the Route 72 corridor in the late 1960s . The Route 72 freeway was planned to run from the Four Mile Circle to the New Jersey Turnpike in Westampton Township , where it would connect to the proposed I @-@ 895 that would continue to I @-@ 95 near Bristol , Pennsylvania . The existing Route 72 would also be widened into a four @-@ lane divided highway . Both I @-@ 895 and Route 72 were intended to connect Bucks County , Pennsylvania and the Willingboro area with the Jersey Shore . The proposed freeway for Route 72 was to cost $ 39 million . However , construction costs and the desire to use money for mass transit led to cancellation of both I @-@ 895 and the Route 72 freeway by the 1980s . In 2000 , the Manahawkin Bay Bridge was dedicated the Dorland J. Henderson Memorial Bridge in honor of Dorland J. Henderson , who was one of NJDOT ’ s top engineers that designed the lighting system for the Manahawkin Bay Bridge . In September 2009 , the NJDOT began repairs to the deck of the Manahawkin Bay Bridge . This project , completed in May 2010 , cost $ 4 million and received funding from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 . The Manahawkin Bay Bridge is to undergo a rehabilitation project and a parallel bridge will be built to the south . Construction began on May 3 , 2013 with completion expected in 2019 . = = Major intersections = =

= Robert F. Christy = Robert Frederick Christy ( May 14 , 1916 – October 3 , 2012 ) was a Canadian @-@ American theoretical physicist and later astrophysicist who was one of the last surviving people to have worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II . He was also briefly president of California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) . A graduate of the University of British Columbia ( UBC ) in the 1930s where he studied physics , he followed George Volkoff , who was a year ahead of him , to the University of California , Berkeley , where he was accepted as a graduate student by Robert Oppenheimer , the leading theoretical physicist in the United States at that time . Christy received his doctorate in 1941 and joined the physics department of Illinois Institute of Technology . In 1942 he joined the Manhattan Project at the University of Chicago , where he was recruited by Enrico Fermi to join the effort to build the first nuclear reactor , having been recommended as a theory resource by Oppenheimer . When Oppenheimer formed the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory in 1943 , Christy was one of the early recruits to join the Theory Group . Christy is generally credited with the insight that a solid sub @-@ critical mass of plutonium could be explosively compressed into supercriticality , a great simplification of earlier concepts of implosion requiring hollow shells . For this insight the solid @-@ core plutonium model is often referred to as the " Christy pit " . After the war , Christy briefly joined the University of Chicago Physics department before being recruited to join the Caltech faculty in 1946 when Oppenheimer decided it was not practical for him to resume his academic activities . He stayed at Caltech for his academic career , serving as Department Chair , Provost and Acting President . In 1960 Christy turned his attention to astrophysics , creating some of the first practical computation models of stellar operation . For this work Christy was awarded the Eddington Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society in 1967 . In the 1980s and 1990s Christy participated in the National Research Council 's Committee on Dosimetry , an extended effort to better understand the actual radiation exposure due to the Japanese bombs , and on the basis of that learning , better understand the medical risks of radiation exposure . = = Early life = = Robert Frederick Cohen was born in May 14 , 1916 in Vancouver , British Columbia , the son of Moise Jacques Cohen , an electrical engineer , and his wife Hattie Alberta née Mackay , a school teacher . He was named Robert after his maternal great uncle Robert Wood , and Frederick after Frederick Alexander Christy , the second husband of his maternal grandmother . He had an older brother , John , who was born in 1913 . Moise changed the family surname to Christy by deed poll on August 31 , 1918 . On November 4 , Moise was accidentally electrocuted at work . Hattie died after goitre surgery in 1926 . Christy and his brother were then cared for by Robert Wood , their grandmother Alberta Mackay , and their great aunt Maud Mackay . Christy was educated at Magee High School , graduating in 1932 with the highest examination score in the province of British Columbia . He was awarded the Governor General 's Academic Medal , and , importantly in view of his family 's limited ability to pay , free tuition to attend the University of British Columbia ( UBC ) . At the award dinner he met the second place winner , Dagmar Elizabeth von Lieven , whom he dated while at UBC . He received his Bachelor of Arts ( BA ) degree in mathematics and physics with first class honors in 1935 , and his Master of Arts ( MA ) degree in 1937 , writing a thesis on " Electron attachment and negative ion formation in oxygen " . George Volkoff , a friend of Christy who was a year ahead of him at UBC , was accepted as a graduate student at the University of California , Berkeley , by Robert Oppenheimer , who led the most active school of theoretical physics in the United States at that time . This inspired Christy to apply to the University of California as well . He was accepted , and was awarded a fellowship for his first year . At Berkeley he shared an apartment with Volkoff , Robert Cornog , Ken McKenzie and McKenzie 's wife Lynn McKenzie . For his thesis , Oppenheimer had him look at mesotrons , subatomic particles called muons today that then recently been found in cosmic rays . They were so @-@ called because they were larger than electrons but smaller than protons . With the help of Shuichi Kusaka he performed detailed calculations of the particle 's spin . He published two papers on mesotrons with Kusaka in the Physical Review , which formed the basis of his 1941 Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD ) thesis = = Manhattan Project = = Christy could have graduated in 1940 , but could not then be a teaching assistant , and this would have left him jobless and without income . In 1941 , Oppenheimer found him a post at the physics department at Illinois Institute of Technology ( IIT ) . In May 1941 , he married Dagmar von Lieven . They had two sons : Thomas Edward ( Ted ) , born in 1944 , and Peter Robert , born in 1946 . IIT paid Christy $ 200 per month to teach 27 hours per week for 11 months per annum . To keep abreast of developments in physics , he attended seminars at the University of Chicago . This brought him to the attention of Eugene Wigner , who hired him for the same money that IIT was paying him as a full @-@ time research assistant , commencing in January 1942 . Enrico Fermi and his team from Columbia University arrived at the University of Chicago in January 1942 as part of an effort to concentrate the Manhattan Project 's reactor work at the new Metallurgical Laboratory . Fermi arranged with Wigner for Christy to join his group , which was building a nuclear reactor , which Fermi called a " pile " , in the squash court under Stagg Field at the University of Chicago . Construction began on November 6 , 1942 , and Christy was present when Chicago Pile @-@ 1 went critical on December 2 . In early 1943 , Christy joined Oppenheimer 's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico , where he became an American citizen in 1943 or 1944 . Hans Bethe , the head of T ( Theoretical ) Division , detailed his physicists to assist with the projects at the laboratory . With his knowledge of reactors , Christy 's assignment was to help Donald W. Kerst 's Water Boiler group . The Water Boiler was an aqueous homogeneous reactor intended as a laboratory instrument to test critical mass calculations and the effect of various tamper materials . It was the first reactor to use enriched uranium as a fuel , and the first to use liquid fuel in the form of soluble uranium sulfate dissolved in water . Christy estimated that it would require 600 grams ( 21 oz ) of pure uranium @-@ 235 , a figure he subsequently revised to 575 grams ( 20 @.@ 3 oz ) . When the reactor went critical on May 9 , 1944 with 565 grams ( 19 @.@ 9 oz ) , the accuracy of Christy 's figures raised the laboratory 's confidence in T Division 's calculations . The discovery by Emilio Segrè 's group in April and May 1944 of high levels of plutonium @-@ 240 in reactor @-@ produced plutonium meant that an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon was required , but studies indicated that this would be extremely difficult to achieve . By August 1944 , the calculations had been made of how an ideal spherical implosion would work ; the problem was how to make it work in the real world where jets and spalling were a problem . Christy worked in Rudolf Peierls 's T @-@ 1 Group , which studied the theory of implosion . He suggested the possibility of using a solid plutonium core that would form a critical mass when compressed . This was an ultra @-@ conservative design that solved the problem of jets by brute force . It became known as the " Christy pit " or " Christy gadget " , " gadget " being the laboratory euphemism for a bomb . However the solid pit was intrinsically less efficient than a hollow pit , and it required a modulated neutron initiator to start the chain reaction . Christy worked with Klaus Fuchs , Paul Stein and Hans Bethe to develop a suitable initiator design , which became known as an " urchin " . The Gadget used in the Trinity nuclear test and the Fat Man used in the atomic bombing of Nagasaki used Christy pits . Later in life , Christy would agree to give a number of both oral history and video interviews in which he discussed his role in the Manhattan Project and latter interests . = = Later life = = After the war ended , Christy accepted an assistant professorship at the University of Chicago , at a salary of $ 5 @,@ 000 per annum , twice what he had been making before the war . He moved back to Chicago in February 1946 , but suitable housing was hard to find in the immediate post @-@ war period , and Christy and his family shared a mansion with Edward Teller and his family . Before the war , Oppenheimer had spent part of each year teaching at California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) . Christy was one of Oppenheimer 's Berkeley students who made the trip down to Pasadena , California , each year to continue studying with Oppenheimer . After the war , Oppenheimer decided that with his additional responsibilities he could no longer continue this arrangement . The head of the W. K. Kellogg Radiation Laboratory at Caltech , Charles Lauritsen therefore asked Oppenheimer for the name of a theoretical physicist that he would recommend as a replacement . Oppenheimer recommended Christy . Willy Fowler then approached Christy with an offer of a full @-@ time position at Caltech at $ 5 @,@ 400 per annum , and Christy accepted . He would remain at Caltech for the rest of his academic career . The drawback to working at Caltech was that neither Lauritsen nor Fowler was a theoretical physicist , so a heavy workload fell on Christy . This was recognised by a pay raise to $ 10 @,@ 000 per annum in 1954 . Christy joined Oppenheimer , Lauritsen and Robert Bacher , who joined the faculty at Caltech in 1949 , in Project Vista , a detailed 1951 study on how Western Europe could be defended against the Soviet Union . Christy was distraught at the outcome of the 1954 Oppenheimer security hearing . When he encountered Teller , who had testified against Oppenheimer , at Los Alamos in 1954 , Christy publicly refused to shake Teller 's hand . " I viewed Oppenheimer as a god " , he later recalled , " and I was sure that he was not a treasonable person . " Asked about his relationship with Teller in 2006 , Christy said : I ’ ve seen him from time to time . Our relationship has remained cool . Since that time , I have disagreed with him in a number of areas . For example , the Strategic Defense Initiative . I have disagreed with him , but I have not argued with him publicly , because Teller operates at a much different level than I do . He ’ s a confidant of presidents ; I ’ m not . As I say , I merely disagree privately , and that ’ s the way it is . In 1956 , Christy was one of a number of scientists from Caltech who publicly called for a ban on atmospheric nuclear testing . The 1963 Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty that Christy advocated put an end to one of his most unusual projects . He worked with Freeman Dyson on Project Orion , the design of a spacecraft propelled by atomic bombs . During a sabbatical year at Princeton University in 1960 , Christy began an investigation of Cepheid variables and the smaller RR Lyrae variables , classes of luminous variable stars . At the time it was a mystery as to why they varied . He used the knowledge of the hydrodynamics of implosion gained at Los Alamos during the war to explain this phenomenon . This earned him the Royal Astronomical Society 's Eddington Medal for contributions to theoretical astrophysics in 1967 . Christy was appointed Vice President and Provost of Caltech in 1970 . Under Christy and President Harold Brown Caltech expanded its humanities and added economics to allow students to broaden their education . He had David Morrisroe appointed as Vice President for Financial Affairs , and they steered Caltech through the financially stringent 1970s . The first women were admitted as undergraduates in the 1970s . When Jenijoy La Belle , who had been hired in 1969 but refused tenure in 1974 , filed suit with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission , Christy pressed for the case to be settled and La Belle to be given tenure . The EEOC ruled against Caltech in 1977 , adding that she had been paid less than male colleagues . La Belle received tenure in 1979 . In 1970 he became romantically involved with Inge @-@ Juliana Sackman , a fellow physicist 26 years his junior . He divorced Dagmar in early 1971 , and married Juliana on August 4 , 1973 . They had two daughters , Illia Juliana Lilly Christy , born in 1974 , and Alexandra Roberta ( Alexa ) Christy , born in 1976 . Christy briefly became acting President of Caltech in 1977 when Brown left to become Secretary of Defense . Christy returned to teaching after Marvin L. Goldberger became President in 1978 . He became Institute Professor of Theoretical Physics in 1983 , and Institute Professor Emeritus in 1986 . Christy died on October 3 , 2012 . He was survived by his wife Juliana , their two daughters , Illia and Alexa , and his two sons , Peter and Ted . He was buried at Mountain View Cemetery in Altadena , California .

= Ice Hockey World Championships = The Ice Hockey World Championships are an annual men 's ice hockey tournament organized by the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) . First officially held at the 1920 Summer Olympics , it is the sport 's highest profile annual international tournament . The IIHF was created in 1908 while the European Championships , the precursor to the World Championships , were first held in 1910 . The tournament held at the 1920 Summer Olympics is recognized as the first Ice Hockey World Championship . Between 1920 and 1968 , the Olympic hockey tournament was also considered the World Championship for that year . The first World Championship that was held as an individual event was in 1930 in which twelve nations participated . In 1931 , ten teams played a series of round @-@ robin format qualifying rounds to determine which nations participated in the medal round . Medals were awarded based on the final standings of the teams in the medal round . This basic format would be used until 1992 ( although small variations were made ) . In 1951 , thirteen nations took part and were split into two groups . The top seven teams ( Pool A ) played for the World Championship . The other six ( Pool B ) played for ranking purposes . During a congress in 1990 , the IIHF introduced a playoff system . As the IIHF grew , more teams began to participate at the World Championships , so more pools ( later renamed divisions ) were introduced . The modern format for the World Championship features 16 teams in the championship group , 12 teams in Division I and 12 teams in Division II . If there are more than 40 teams , the rest compete in Division III . The teams in the championship play a preliminary round , then the top eight teams play in the playoff medal round and the winning team is crowned World Champion . Over the years , the tournament has gone through several rule changes . In 1969 body @-@ checking in all three zones in a rink was allowed , helmets and goaltender masks became mandatory in the early 1970s and in 1992 the IIHF began using the shootout . The current IIHF rules differ slightly from the rules used in the NHL . The World Championships have been open to all players , both professional and amateur , since 1977 . The IIHF requires that players are citizens of the country they represent and allow players to switch national teams provided that they play in their new nation for a certain period of time . Canada was the tournament 's first dominant team , winning the tournament 12 times between 1930 and 1952 . The United States , Czechoslovakia , Sweden , Great Britain and Switzerland were also competitive during this period . The Soviet Union first participated in 1954 and soon became rivals with Canada . From 1963 until the nation 's breakup in 1991 , the Soviet Union was the dominant team , winning 20 championships . During that period , only three other nations won medals : Canada , Czechoslovakia and Sweden . Russia first participated in 1992 and the Czech Republic and Slovakia began competing in 1993 . In the 2000s , the competition became more open as the " Big Six " teams – Canada , the Czech Republic , Finland , Russia , Sweden , and the United States – as well as Slovakia became more evenly matched . As this tournament takes place during the same time period as the NHL 's Stanley Cup playoffs , many of the best players do not participate , and it is considered secondary in importance among North American fans and players to the Stanley Cup . Thus , NHL players generally only participate once their respective team is eliminated from Stanley Cup contention . The 79th World Championship was held in Prague and Ostrava , Czech Republic , and was the most successful to date in terms of overall attendance . In the final , Canada defeated Russia to win their twenty @-@ fifth title . = = Background = = The International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) , the sport 's governing body , was created on 15 May 1908 under the name Ligue Internationale de Hockey sur Glace ( LHG ) . In 1908 , organised ice hockey was still relatively new ; the first organised indoor ice hockey game took place on 3 March 1875 at Montreal 's Victoria Skating Rink . In 1887 , four clubs from Montreal formed the Amateur Hockey Association of Canada ( AHAC ) and developed a structured schedule . Lord Stanley donated the Stanley Cup and the trustees decided to award it to either the best team in the AHAC , or to any pre @-@ approved team that won it in a challenge. the Eastern Canada Amateur Hockey Association ( ECAHA ) was formed in 1905 , which mixed paid and amateur players in its rosters . The ECAHA eventually folded and as a result of the dissolution , the National Hockey Association ( NHA ) formed . The Ice Hockey European Championships , first held in Les Avants , Switzerland in January 1910 , were the precursor to the World Championships . It was the first official tournament meant for national teams , the participating nations were Great Britain , Germany , Belgium and Switzerland . In North America , professional hockey was continuing to grow , the National Hockey League ( NHL ) , the largest professional hockey league in the world , was formed in 1917 . The European Championships were held for five consecutive years but were not held between 1915 and 1920 due to World War I. = = History = = = = = 1920 – 1928 : Olympic Games = = = The IIHF considers the ice hockey tournament held at the 1920 Summer Olympics to be the first Ice Hockey World Championship . It was organized by a committee that included future IIHF president Paul Loicq . The tournament was played from 23 April to 29 April . Seven teams participated : Canada , Czechoslovakia , the United States , Switzerland , Sweden , France and Belgium . Canada , represented by the Winnipeg Falcons , won the gold medal , outscoring opponents 27 – 1 . The United States and Czechoslovakia won the silver and bronze medals respectively . Following the 1921 Olympic Congress in Lausanne , the first Winter Olympics were held in 1924 in Chamonix , France , though they were only officially recognized by the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) as such in the following year . Subsequently , every Olympic tournament up to and including the 1968 Winter Olympics is counted as the World Championship . Canada won the gold medal at both the 1924 and 1928 Winter Olympics . In 1928 , the Swedish and Swiss teams won their first medals – silver and bronze , respectively – and a German team participated for the first time , finishing ninth . = = = 1930 – 1953 : Canadian dominance = = = The first World Championship that was held as an individual event was in 1930 . It was held in Chamonix , France ; Vienna , Austria ; and Berlin , Germany . Canada , represented by the Toronto CCMs , defeated Germany in the gold medal game , and Switzerland won the bronze . Canada , represented by the Manitoba Grads , won the following year , and the Winnipeg Winnipegs won Gold for Canada at the 1932 Winter Olympics . At the 1933 World Championships in Prague , Czechoslovakia , the United States won the gold medal , becoming the first non @-@ Canadian team to win the competition . As of 2015 , it is the only gold medal the United States has won at a non @-@ Olympic tournament . Two days before the 1936 Winter Olympics in Germany , Canadian officials protested that two players on the British team — James Foster and Alex Archer — had played in Canada but transferred without permission to play for clubs in the English National League . The IIHF agreed with Canada , but Britain threatened to withdraw if the two could not compete . Canada withdrew the protest before the games started . Britain became the first non @-@ Canadian team to win Olympic gold , with Germany taking bronze . Canada won the remainder of the World Championship tournaments held in the 1930s . The 1939 World Championships marked the first time that a team from Finland competed in the tournament . World War II forced the cancellation of the 1940 and 1944 Winter Olympics and the World Championships from 1941 to 1946 . Following World War II , Czechoslovakia 's team was quickly improving . They won the 1947 World Championships , although a Canadian team had not participated in the event . In 1949 , they became the third nation to win a World Championship tournament that Canada participated in . During the run @-@ up to the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz , Switzerland , a conflict broke out between the two American hockey bodies : the American Hockey Association ( AHA ) and the Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) . The AAU refused to support the AHA 's team because they believed that AHA players were " openly paid salaries " and at the time , the Olympics were strictly for amateur players . A compromise was reached that the AHA team would be allowed to compete but would be considered unofficial and unable to win a medal . By the end of the tournament , the AHA team finished fourth in the standings but was disqualified . Both Czechoslovakia and the RCAF Flyers of Canada won seven games and tied when they played each other . The gold medal winner was determined by goal difference : Canada won the gold because they had an average of 13 @.@ 8 compared to Czechoslovakia 's average of 4 @.@ 3 . At the 1952 Winter Olympics in Oslo , Norway , the Edmonton Mercurys won Canada 's second consecutive Olympic gold medal . It was the last time that a Canadian team would win an Olympic gold medal in hockey for 50 years . The 1953 tournament featured only three teams that played all of their games : Sweden , West Germany , Switzerland . Sweden finished the tournament undefeated and won their first World Championship . = = = 1954 – 1962 : Canada @-@ Soviet Union rivalry = = = The 1954 World Championships has been described by the IIHF as " the start of the modern era of international hockey . " The tournament saw the first participation of the Soviet Union in international competition . The Soviet Union had organized its first ice hockey league in 1946 , having previously focused on bandy . Led by coach Arkady Chernyshev , the Soviet national team finished their first six games undefeated . Canada , represented by the East York Lyndhursts , was also undefeated and , in the final game of the tournament , the two teams met for the first time in international competition . The Soviet Union won the game 7 – 2 , becoming the fifth team to win a World Championship tournament . The 1955 World Championship was held in West Germany , and the two teams again met in the final game of the tournament . The game was so high profile in Canada that announcer Foster Hewitt flew to Germany to provide play @-@ by @-@ play coverage . Both teams were undefeated and Canada , represented by the Penticton Vees , defeated the Soviets 5 – 0 to reclaim the World Championship . At the 1956 Winter Olympics in Cortina d 'Ampezzo , Italy , Canada 's Kitchener @-@ Waterloo Dutchmen lost to both the Soviets and the United States in the medal round and won the bronze . The Soviets went undefeated and won their first Olympic ice hockey gold medal . It would be seven years until the Soviet Union won another World Championship . The 1957 World Championships were held in Moscow . Canada and the United States did not participate in protest of the Soviet occupation of Hungary . Most of the games were held in the Luzhniki Sports Palace , but the Soviet officials decided to hold the final game in a nearby outdoor soccer stadium . The game was attended by at least 55 @,@ 000 people , which stood as a World Championship attendance record until 2010 . In the final game , Sweden tied the Soviet Union to finish with six wins and one tie ( the Soviet Union had five wins and two ties ) and won the gold medal . Canada returned to the World Championship in 1958 and won two consecutive titles , with the Soviets winning silver both times . At the 1960 Winter Olympics in Squaw Valley , California , Canada , the Soviet Union , Czechoslovakia and Sweden were the top four teams heading into the Games . All four were defeated by the American team , which won all seven games en route to its first Olympic gold medal . In 1961 , Czechoslovakia defeated the Soviet Union and tied Canada to make it a three @-@ way race for gold . In the final game , Canada defeated the Soviets 5 – 1 to win their nineteenth gold medal . The Trail Smoke Eaters became the final club team to represent Canada . The following year , Canada implemented a national team program , led by Father David Bauer . Canada would not win another world championship gold until 1994 . In 1962 , the World Championships were held in North America for the first time . The tournament was held in Denver , United States , and was boycotted by the Soviet and Czechoslovak teams . Sweden defeated Canada for the first time in the history of the competition and won their third gold medal . = = = 1963 – 1976 : Soviet dominance = = = At the 1963 World Championships in Stockholm , the Soviet Union won the gold medal , beginning a streak of nine consecutive World Championship golds . The 1964 Winter Olympics in Innsbruck , Austria marked the first time that Canada failed to win an Olympic medal in hockey . The Soviet Union won all seven of their games and the gold medal , but Canada finished the tournament with five wins and two losses , putting them in a three @-@ way tie for second place with Sweden and Czechoslovakia . Prior to 1964 , the tie @-@ breaking procedure was based on goal difference from games against teams in the medal round and under that system , Canada would have placed third ahead of the Czechoslovaks . The procedure had been changed to count all games and that meant the Canadians finished fourth . However , the Olympics also counted as the World Championships , and under IIHF rules , Canada should have won a bronze . In April 2005 , the IIHF admitted that a mistake had occurred and announced that they had reviewed the decision and would award the 1964 Canadian team a World Championship bronze medal . However , two months later , the IIHF over @-@ turned their decision and rejected an appeal in September . The Soviets dominated the remainder of the decade . Following 1963 , the team went undefeated in Olympic and World Championship competition for four years . Their streak was broken by Czechoslovakia at the 1968 Winter Olympics . Despite the loss , the Soviets still won gold . It was the last time that the Olympics were also counted as the World Championships . In 1969 , the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia played " the most emotionally charged games in the history of international hockey . " The rights to host the tournament had originally been awarded to Czechoslovakia but they were forced to decline the rights following the Soviet @-@ led Warsaw Pact invasion of the nation in August 1968 . The tournament was held in Stockholm , Sweden , and with these international tensions , the Czechoslovak team was determined to defeat the Soviets . They won both of their games 2 – 0 and 4 – 3 but despite these wins , the Czechoslovaks lost both of their games to Sweden and won bronze . With European teams constantly improving , the Canadian Amateur Hockey Association ( CAHA ) felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive and pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues . At the IIHF Congress in 1969 , the IIHF voted to allow Canada to use nine non @-@ NHL professional players at the 1970 World Championships . The rights to host the tournament were awarded to Canada for the first time – in Montreal and Winnipeg . However , the decision to allow the use of professionals was reversed in January 1970 . IOC president Avery Brundage was opposed to the idea of amateur and professional players competing together and said that ice hockey 's status as an Olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made . In response , Canada withdrew from International ice hockey competition . Canada 's ice hockey team did not participate in the 1972 and 1976 Winter Olympics . Canada also waived their rights to host the 1970 World Championship , so it was held in Stockholm , Sweden instead . Led by goaltender Vladislav Tretiak and forwards Valeri Kharlamov , Alexander Yakushev , Vladimir Petrov and Boris Mikhailov , the Soviet Union won gold at the 1970 and 1971 World Championships and the 1972 Winter Olympics . 1972 marked the first time that both the Olympics and World Championships were held in the same year as separate events . At the World Championships in Prague , the Czechoslovak team ended the Soviet team 's streak and won their first gold since 1949 . The Soviet team quickly returned to their winning ways , winning 1973 and 1974 World Championships . However , during the latter tournament , the Czechoslovak team defeated the Soviets 7 – 2 . It was one of the biggest margins the Soviet team had ever lost by in an official game . The 1976 World Championships were held in Katowice , Poland . On the opening day of the tournament , Poland defeated the Soviet Union 6 – 4 thanks to a hat @-@ trick from forward Wieslaw Jobczyk and the goaltending of Andrzej Tkacz . It was one of the biggest upsets in international hockey history ; two months earlier at the 1976 Winter Olympics , Poland had lost 16 – 1 to the Soviets . The Soviets lost two more games and won the silver , and Czechoslovakia won gold . Poland finished seventh and was relegated to Pool B , the division in which teams play for ranking purposes and not the championship ( now known as Division I ) . = = = 1976 – 1987 : First years of open competition = = = Günther Sabetzki became president of the IIHF in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the CAHA . The IIHF agreed to allow " open competition " between all players in the World Championships , and moved the competition to later in the season so players not involved in the NHL playoffs could participate . However , NHL players were still not allowed to play in the Olympics , because of both the unwillingness of the NHL to take a break mid @-@ season and the IOC 's strict amateur @-@ only policy . The IIHF also agreed to endorse the Canada Cup , a competition meant to bring together the best players from the top hockey @-@ playing countries . The 1976 World Ice Hockey Championships in Katowice were the first to feature professionals although in the end only the United States made use of the new rule , recalling eight pros from the Minnesota North Stars and Minnesota Fighting Saints . The first fully open World Championship was held in 1977 in Vienna , Austria , and saw the first participation of active Canadian NHL players , including two @-@ time NHL MVP Phil Esposito . Sweden and Finland also augmented their rosters with a few NHL and WHA players . Many of the players on the Canadian team were not prepared for the tournament and were unfamiliar with the international game . The team finished fourth , losing both games to the Soviet Union by a combined score of 19 – 2 . Czechoslovakia won gold , becoming the third team ( after Canada and the Soviet Union ) to win consecutive championships . With NHL players participating in the tournament , IIHF officials began to fear that true amateurs and young players were losing their places . As a result , full world championship status was given to the IIHF World Under @-@ 20 Championship , which had been held annually since 1974 as an unofficial invitational tournament . Colloquially known as the World Junior Hockey Championship , the event was structured after the World Championships , but limited to players under the age of 20 . The World Under @-@ 18 Championship was established in 1999 and typically held in April . It usually does not involve the top North American players because they are involved in University or junior league playoffs at the time . Starting in 1978 , the Soviet team won five consecutive World Championships , and had an unbeaten streak that lasted from 1981 through the 1984 Winter Olympics and until 1985 . During that period , Canada remained competitive , winning three bronze medals . World Championship tournaments were not held in 1980 , 1984 or 1988 – the Olympic years . The 1987 World Championships in Vienna were over @-@ shadowed by several controversies . At the beginning of the tournament , the roster of the West German team included Miroslav Sikora , a Polish @-@ German forward who had previously played for Poland at the 1977 World Under @-@ 20 Championship . Sikora became a naturalized citizen of West Germany and played in the first three games , scoring a goal in a 3 – 1 win over Finland . Following the game , Finland launched a protest , demanding that the result be over @-@ turned because the Germans had used an ineligible player . At the time , players were not allowed to switch nationalities under any circumstances and the IIHF agreed to overturn the result and award the two points to Finland . This angered German officials , who filed a protest in an Austrian court . The court agreed with the Germans , overturning the IIHF decision and allowing them to keep their points . The result affected the final standings because had the IIHF 's decision stood , Finland would have advanced to the medal round instead of Sweden . However , the Finns finished out of the medal round , and Sweden won their first gold medal since 1962 . The tournament format also became controversial because the Soviet Union finished undefeated but the Swedish team , which had lost three games in the preliminary round , won on goal differential because of a 9 – 0 win over Canada . = = = 1989 – 1992 : Fall of the Iron Curtain = = = Before 1989 , players that lived in the Soviet Union , Czechoslovakia , and other nations behind the Iron Curtain were not allowed to leave and play in the NHL . In March 1989 , Sergei Pryakhin became the first member of the Soviet national team who was permitted to play for a non @-@ Soviet team . Several Soviet players , including Igor Larionov and Viacheslav Fetisov , wanted to leave and play in the NHL . Soviet officials agreed to allow players to leave if they played one final tournament with the national team . Players agreed to this , and the Soviet Union won its 21st World Championship . Shortly after , Soviet players began to flood into the NHL . Many of the Soviet Union 's top players left , including the entire " Green Unit " – Larionov , Fetisov , Vladimir Krutov , Sergei Makarov and Alexei Kasatonov . The following year , the Soviet team was in disarray but still managed to win the 1990 World Championships . It was the final championship the Soviet team would win . In 1991 , Swedish forward Mats Sundin – the first European player to be drafted first overall in the NHL – led his team to the gold medal . The Soviets won bronze – the last medal the team would ever win . The Soviet Union dissolved in December 1991 . Nine former soviet states became part of the IIHF and began competing in international competitions , including Belarus , Kazakhstan , Latvia and Ukraine . Russia was named the successor to the Soviet Union . With this flood of new teams , the IIHF expanded the number of spots from eight to twelve . From 1963 to 1991 , only four teams won a World Championship medal : the Soviet Union , Czechoslovakia ( failing to win a medal only three times ) , Sweden and Canada . The Soviets won a medal in every tournament they participated in ( 1954 to 1991 ) . At the 1992 World Championships , Sweden won their second consecutive gold . Finland won the silver medal , the nation 's first ever World Championship medal ( the Finnish team had previously won a silver at the 1988 Winter Olympics ) . = = = 1993 – present = = = Czechoslovakia split into the Czech Republic and Slovakia in January 1993 . The IIHF recognized the Czech Republic 's team as the successor to Czechoslovakia and it retained its position in the top division . Slovakia 's team began in the lowest division ( Pool C ) in 1994 and was forced to work its way up . Following this , the next decade was dominated by the so @-@ called " Big Six " – Canada , the Czech Republic , Finland , Russia , Sweden and the United States . From 1992 to 1996 , five different teams won the World Championship . At the 1993 World Championships , Russia won its first title as an independent nation and the Czech Republic won its first medal ( bronze ) . In 1994 , the Canadian team finished the preliminary round undefeated and defeated Finland in the final to win their first World Championship since 1961 . The following year in Sweden , the Finnish team won its first ever World Championship . Led by their top line of Saku Koivu , Ville Peltonen and Jere Lehtinen , the Finns defeated rival Sweden in the gold medal game . At the 1995 Pool B championships , Slovakia , led by Peter Šťastný won Pool B and was promoted to the top division , where it has remained ever since . In 1996 , the Czech Republic won its first World Championship as a separate country . During this period , the United States was the only one of the " Big Six " not to win the World Championship , although they did win the 1996 World Cup of Hockey . In the mid @-@ 1990s , several new teams such as Latvia , Belarus , Kazakhstan and Ukraine were quickly improving and older nations such as Austria , Italy and Switzerland were at risk of being relegated to Pool B. The IIHF feared that it would lose advertising revenue if that happened , so the number of teams was increased to 16 starting in 1998 . From 1996 to 2001 , the Czech Republic won six consecutive World Championship medals , including World Championship gold from 1999 to 2001 , as well as gold at the 1998 Winter Olympics . In 2002 , the Czechs were favoured to win , but were upset in the quarter final by Russia . In the gold medal game between Russia and Slovakia , Slovakian Peter Bondra scored in the final two minutes of the game and the nation won its first ever World Championship . At the 2003 World Championships , Sweden made one of the biggest comebacks in tournament history , rallying from a 5 – 1 deficit in their quarterfinal game against Finland to win 6 – 5 . The gold medal game between Canada and Sweden went into overtime . Canada 's Anson Carter scored the winning goal 13 minutes into play , but the goal had to be reviewed for ten minutes to determine if the puck had crossed the line . In a rematch between the two nations the following year , Canada won and repeated as champions . The 2004 – 05 NHL season was locked out , and eventually cancelled , because of a labour dispute between the league and the players . The 2005 World Championships , which featured more top players than normal , was won by the Czech Republic . At the 2006 Winter Olympics , Sweden won the gold medal over Finland . Three months later , Sweden defeated the Czech Republic and won the 2006 World Championships . They became the first team to win Olympic gold and a separate World Championship tournament in the same year . At the 2007 World Championship in Moscow , Canada defeated Finland to win the gold medal . The following year , the tournament was held in Canada for the first time . Russia defeated the home team to win their first gold medal since 1993 . The Russian team successfully defended their title with a 2 – 1 win over Canada in 2009 . In 2009 , NHL Players ' Association director Paul Kelly suggested that the World Championships be held every other year and that the NHL go on break to allow full player participation . IIHF president René Fasel responded that the tournament has television contracts and hosting commitments and that a large change would be difficult to put in place . The 2010 tournament took place in Germany . The first game , between Germany and the United States , was played at Veltins @-@ Arena in Gelsenkirchen and was attended by 77 @,@ 803 people , setting a new record for the most attended game in hockey history . The tournament was noted for having several surprising preliminary round results , including : Switzerland beating Canada for the first time in World Championship play ; Norway defeating eventual champions the Czech Republic ; and Denmark upsetting Finland and the United States en route to their first ever quarterfinal appearance . The German team , which had finished 15th in 2009 and only avoided relegation to Division I because they were set to host the 2010 tournament , advanced to the semi @-@ finals for the first time since the new playoff format was adapted . They finished fourth , losing to Sweden in the bronze medal game . In the gold medal game , the Czech Republic upset the Russian team , winning gold and ending the defending champions ' 27 @-@ game winning streak . The 2011 tournament was held in independent Slovakia for the first time . Finland won its second world championship with a 6 @-@ 1 victory over Sweden . The Czech Republic won the bronze medal over Russia . The 2012 tournament was held in Sweden and Finland . Russia beat Slovakia in the finals , while the Czech Republic beat Finland in the bronze medal game . In 2013 , Switzerland finished the preliminary round undefeated before losing the gold medal game 5 – 1 to co @-@ hosts Sweden . Switzerland 's silver medal was the first for the nation since 1953 . Sweden 's gold made them the first team to win the tournament at home since the Soviet Union in 1986 . The 2014 was held for the first time in the independent Belarus in spite of concerns of the human rights abuses perpetuated by the authoritarian government . The tournament saw more upsets by the less prominent ice @-@ hockey nations . France has beaten Canada for the second time in the modern history and made it to the quarterfinal . Eventual finalists Finland lost to Latvia and made it to the quarterfinals only due to a shootout win over Switzerland . The tournament was won by Russia , Finland won silver and Sweden won bronze defeating the Czech republic . The 2015 IIHF World Championship was held in Prague . It was to be the last appearance of Jaromír Jágr on the Czech national hockey team , and the home crowd had great expectations for its national team , who had failed to win a gold medal since 2010 , matching its longest run without a win since the break @-@ up of Czechoslovakia . However the tournament was dominated by an excellent Canadian team , which went undefeated and beat Russia 6 @-@ 1 in the gold medal match . Its captain , Sidney Crosby joined the Triple Gold Club , and became the first player to captain each team to a gold medal . The bronze was won by United States , condemning the Czechs to the second consecutive fourth place . = = Tournament structure = = = = = History = = = The first World Championship to be held as an individual event was in 1930 . Twelve different nations participated . Canada 's team was given a bye to the gold medal game , and the rest of the nations played an elimination tournament to determine which nation would also play for the gold . In 1931 , the World Championships switched to a similar format to what was used at the Olympics . Ten teams played series of round @-@ robin format qualifying rounds were played to determine which nations participated in the medal round . Medals were awarded based on the final standings of the teams in the medal round . The format was changed several times in the 1930s , in some years there was a gold medal game , while in others the gold medal was awarded based on points . In 1937 , the tournament format was again switched to being similar to the version used at the Olympics . A preliminary round involving 11 teams was played , then the top four advanced to the medal round and medals were awarded based on points ; no gold medal game was played . A gold medal game was played in 1938 ; it was the last gold medal game played in the World Championships until 1992 . In 1951 , thirteen nations took part and were split into two groups . The top seven teams ( Pool A ) played for the World Championship . The other six ( Pool B ) played for ranking purposes . Generally eight teams played in the top @-@ level Championship , although the number varied over the years , going as low as three ( in 1953 ) and as high as twelve ( in 1959 ) . The same format was used until 1992 . The format was criticized because often the gold medal winner was decided before the final game was played , such as at the 1988 Winter Olympics . During a congress in 1990 , the IIHF introduced a playoff system . As the IIHF grew , more teams began to participate at the World Championships , so more pools were introduced . Pool C games were first played in 1961 and Pool D was introduced in 1987 . In 2001 , the pools were renamed : Pool B became Division I , Pool C became Division II and Pool D became Division III . = = = Modern Champion Group , Division I , II and III format = = = The modern format for the World Championship features a minimum of 40 teams : 16 teams in the main championship group , 12 teams in Division I and 12 teams in Division II . If there are more than 40 teams , the rest compete in Division III . From 1998 to 2011 , the teams were divided into four groups and played each other in a round robin format preliminary round , and the top 3 teams in each group advance into the qualifying round . The qualifying round is another round of group play with two groups of six , with the top four teams in each group advancing into the knockout playoff stage . The bottom four teams in the preliminary round played in another group as well ; this group determined relegation . After a round @-@ robin format , the bottom two teams were usually relegated to play in Division I the following year . Between 1998 and 2004 , the IIHF held a " Far East " qualifying tournament for Asian teams with an automatic berth in the championship division on the line . Japan always won this tournament , but finished last at every World Championship except in 2004 , when they finished 15th . The IIHF discontinued the qualifying tournament following the 2004 tournament , and Japan was relegated to compete in Division I. = = = Champion group format from 2012 = = = The main group features 16 teams . The 16 teams are split into two groups based on their world ranking . The ranking is based on the standings of the last Winter Olympics and the last four World Championships . The results of more recent tournaments have a higher weight in the ranking . The last World Championship has 100 % value , the tournament before 75 % and so on . The Olympic tournament has the same value as the World Championship the same year . Beginning with the 2012 tournament , the qualifying round will be eliminated , and the 16 teams will be divided into two groups of eight , with each team playing seven games in the preliminary round . The top four teams from these groups will advance to the knockout playoff stage . In the quarterfinals , the first place team from one group plays the fourth place team from the opposite group , and the second place team from one group plays the third place team from the opposite group . The winners advance to the semi @-@ finals . In cases where the quarter @-@ final venues are deemed too far apart to allow easy travel between them , the teams stay within their groups for the quarters . The winners of the quarter @-@ finals advance to the semi @-@ finals , with the winners of the semi @-@ finals advancing to the Gold medal game and the losers advancing to the Bronze medal game . Also starting in 2012 , there will no longer be a relegation round . Instead , the eighth @-@ place team in each group will be relegated to Division I. = = = Division I , II and III formats from 2012 = = = Division I is split into two groups of six , both groups play in round robin tournaments independent of each other and the championship division . Previously the top team from both groups was promoted to the championship , while the bottom team was relegated to Division II . Beginning in 2012 , the top two teams from the ' A ' group will be promoted to the championship , the bottom team will be exchanged with the group ' B ' winner , and that group 's last place team will go down to Division II . Division II works similarly to Division I , with two six @-@ team groups where group ' A ' promotes one team to Division I and group ' B ' exchanges its last placed team with Division III . Division III is now composed of one group of six , and if more than six nations register for this , the lowest level , then a qualification tournament will be held . = = Rules = = = = = Game rules = = = At the first tournament in 1920 , there were many differences from the modern game : games were played outdoors on natural ice , forward passes were not allowed , the rink was 56x18 metres ( the current International standard is 61x30 metres ) and two twenty @-@ minute periods were played . Each side had seven players on the ice , the extra position being the rover . Following the tournament , the IIHF held a congress and decided to adopt the " Canadian rules " – six men per side and three periods of play . At an IIHF congress in 1969 , officials voted to allow body @-@ checking in all three zones in a rink similar to the NHL . Prior to that , body @-@ checking was only allowed in the defending zone in international hockey . The IIHF later described the rule change as " arguably the most substantial and dramatic rule changes in the history of international hockey " because it allowed for a more aggressive game . The rule , which was first applied at the 1970 World Championships , was controversial : IIHF president Bunny Ahearne feared it would make ice hockey " a sport for goons . " Several other rule changes were implemented in the early 1970s : players were required to wear helmets starting in 1970 and goaltender masks became mandatory in 1972 . In 1992 , the IIHF switched to using a playoff system to determine medalists and decided that tie games in the medal round would be decided in a shootout . The IIHF decided to test a new rule in 1997 that would allow two @-@ line passes . Prior to that , the neutral zone trap had slowed the game down and reduced scoring . At the 1997 World Championships , teams were allowed to decide if they wanted to test the rule . Although no team accepted the offer , the rule was adopted . The IIHF described it as " the most revolutionary rule change since allowing body @-@ checking in all three zones in 1969 . [ ... ] The new rule almost immediately changed the game for the better . The 1999 IIHF World Championship in Norway was a stark contrast to the finals the year before with many more goals scored and with end @-@ to @-@ end action – not defence – dominating play . " The current IIHF rules differ slightly from the rules used in the NHL . One difference between NHL and IIHF rules is rink dimensions : the NHL rink is narrower , measuring 61x26 metres ( 200x85 feet ) , instead of the international size of 61x30 metres ( 200x98.5 feet ) . Another rule difference between the NHL and the IIHF rules concerns how icings are called . As of the 2013 @-@ 14 regular NHL season , a linesman stops play due to icing using the hybrid icing method , instead of the former method , where a defending player ( other than the goaltender ) touched the puck before an attacking player was able to , in contrast to the IIHF rules that use " no @-@ touch " icing , where play is stopped the moment the puck crosses the goal line . The NHL and IIHF differ also in penalty rules . The NHL , in addition to the minor and double minor penalties called in IIHF games , calls major penalties which are more dangerous infractions of the rules , such as fighting , and have a duration of five minutes . This is in contrast to the IIHF rule , in which players who fight are ejected from the game . Beginning with the 2005 – 06 season , the NHL instituted several new rules . Some of them were already used by the IIHF , such as the shootout and making the two @-@ line pass legal . Others which were not picked up by the IIHF , such as requiring smaller goaltender equipment and the addition of the goaltender trapezoid to the rink . However , the IIHF did agree to follow the NHL 's league 's zero @-@ tolerance policy on obstruction and required referees to call more hooking , holding and interference penalties . In 2006 , the IIHF voted to eliminate tie games and institute a three @-@ point system : wins in regulation time would be worth three points , overtime wins would be two points and over @-@ time losses would be worth one point . The system was first used at the 2007 World Championships . = = = Player eligibility = = = The World Championships have been open to all players , both professional and amateur , since 1977 . The IIHF lists the following requirements for a player to be eligible to play : " Each player must be under the jurisdiction of an IIHF member national association . " " Each player must be a citizen of the country he represents . " Each player must be at least 18 years of age on the day the respective championship starts , or be at least 16 and obtain an under age waiver If a player who has never played in an IIHF competition changes their citizenship , they must participate in national competitions in their new country for at least two consecutive years and have an international transfer card ( ITC ) . If a player who has previously played in an IIHF tournament wishes to change their national team , they must have played in their new country for four years . A player can only do this once . As this tournament takes place during the same time period as the NHL 's Stanley Cup playoffs , NHL players generally only become available if their respective NHL team did not make the playoffs , or once they have been eliminated from Stanley Cup contention . It is therefore common for several NHL players to join the World Championships while the tournament is already in progress . = = Divisions = = As of 2015 , the IIHF World Championships are split up into four different divisions . This is the alignment of the divisions , accurate as of the 2015 IIHF World Ranking . Teams that are not ranked are not included here , for a full list of IIHF members , see List of members of the International Ice Hockey Federation . Keys : Promoted Never been promoted / relegated ( began in that division / group ) Relegated = = = Championship = = = The Championship division comprises the top sixteen hockey nations in the world . The 80th championship was held from May 6 – 22 , in Moscow and Saint Petersburg , Russia . ^ A. The IIHF recognizes Bohemia , which joined in 1908 , and Czechoslovakia as the predecessors to the Czech Republic , which officially became a member in 1993 . ^ B. The IIHF recognizes the Soviet Union , which joined in 1952 , as the predecessor to Russia , which officially became a member in 1992 . = = = Division I = = = Division I is comprised twelve teams . Group A teams compete for promotion to the Elite Division with the loser being relegated to Division I Group B. Group B teams compete for promotion to Division I Group A while the loser is relegated to Division II Group A. In 2015 , Group A games were played in Kraków , Poland from 19 to 25 April 2015 and Group B games were played in Eindhoven , Netherlands from 13 to 19 April 2015 . = = = Division II = = = Division II comprises twelve teams . Group A teams compete for promotion to Division I Group B with the loser being relegated to Division II Group B. Group B teams compete for promotion to Division II Group A while the loser is relegated to Division III . In 2015 , Group A games were played in Reykjavík , Iceland from 13 – 19 April and Group B games were played in Cape Town , South Africa from 13 – 19 April . ^ C. The IIHF recognizes Yugoslavia , which joined in 1939 , as the predecessor to Serbia , which officially became a member in 2007 . = = = Division III = = = Division III is usually made up of one group of six to eight teams . The top team in each year 's tournament is promoted to Division II Group B. The 2015 Division III tournament , which saw seven teams participate , was held in Izmir , Turkey , 3 – 12 April 2015 . Ranked teams that did not participate in 2015 = = Overall participation totals = = 78 championships ( as of 2016 ) ; 56 teams Key : Current division ( if no window is coloured , country doesn 't play in any competition in the current year ) = = Directorate Awards = = Since 1954 , the IIHF has given awards for play during the World Championship tournament . Voted on by the tournament directorate , the first awards recognised the top goaltender , forward and defenceman . In 1999 , an award for the most valuable player was added . There is also an all @-@ star team voted on by members of the media . In 2004 , Canadian Dany Heatley became the first player to lead in scoring , win the MVP award , win the best forward award and be named to the all @-@ star team in the same year . He repeated the feat in 2008 . = = Other men 's national team tournaments = = World Championships IIHF World U18 Championship IIHF World U20 Championship NHL participation Ice hockey at the Olympic Games Canada Cup – An NHL @-@ sanctioned tournament played between professional players from the top teams in the world five times between 1976 and 1991 . World Cup of Hockey – The successor to the Canada Cup , played in 1996 and 2004 . Summit Series – The series played between Canada and the Soviet Union in 1972 . Other Spengler Cup – An invitational ice hockey tournament hosted by HC Davos and held in Davos , Switzerland . A Canadian national team – mostly made up of Canadians playing in Europe – has participated in the tournament since 1984 . On two occasions the Rochester Americans of the AHL have participated in this tournament . World U @-@ 17 Hockey Challenge – A tournament held by Hockey Canada played by regional teams from Canada as well as several under @-@ 17 national teams from other nations . Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament – An unofficial tournament for players under 18 . It was previously known as the U @-@ 18 Junior World Cup , but renamed following the death of Ivan Hlinka .

= Q @-@ Less = " Q @-@ Less " is the sixth episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine ( DS9 ) . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine , a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Milky Way Galaxy . In this episode , Vash ( Jennifer Hetrick ) , a former love interest of Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard , arrives aboard the Deep Space Nine station trying to elude her companion , Q ( John de Lancie ) , and make a profit selling archaeological artefacts from the Gamma Quadrant , including a mysterious alien crystal . " Q @-@ Less " saw the return of Vash and Q , two recurring characters from Star Trek : The Next Generation ( TNG ) . It was Jennifer Hetrick 's final performance as Vash and John de Lancie 's only appearance as Q on Deep Space Nine . Two former writers from TNG , Hannah Louise Shearer and Robert Hewitt Wolfe , wrote the episode . While it would be Shearer 's last Star Trek credit , Wolfe 's work on the script led to him joining the writing team on DS9 . The producers wanted to introduce Q to the show in a seamless manner ; when Shearer proposed a Vash @-@ centric story , Q was added to the script . " Q @-@ Less " highlights the differences between DS9 and TNG by comparing the reactions of Commander Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) and Captain Picard to Q. On its first broadcast , " Q @-@ Less " received Nielsen ratings of 12 @.@ 8 percent , placing it as the fifth most watched episode of the season . Reception was mixed , with reviewers criticizing the imbalance of time spent with Vash and Q in contrast to the rest of the cast , as well as the unnecessary technobabble in the story and the MacGuffin @-@ like plot device represented by the alien crystal . = = Plot = = Lt. Jadzia Dax ( Terry Farrell ) returns from the Gamma Quadrant in her runabout with a woman that Chief Miles O 'Brien ( Colm Meaney ) recognizes as Vash ( Jennifer Hetrick ) from his time on board the Enterprise . Although the crew is unaware of his presence , Q ( John de Lancie ) — a nearly omnipotent prankster — has also stowed away on the runabout . Vash explains that she has spent the past two years in the Gamma Quadrant , but she describes her method of getting there as a " private matter " . During their trip back to Deep Space Nine , the vessel undergoes a series of unusual power drains . Soon after Vash 's arrival , the station begins to experience similar power failures . In the meantime , Q appears to Vash , apparently infatuated with her . Q was the one who transported Vash to the Gamma Quadrant two years earlier , but now she wants nothing to do with him , much to Q 's annoyance . When Dr. Julian Bashir ( Alexander Siddig ) asks Vash out for dinner , a jealous Q uses his powers to send Bashir off to sleep . Meanwhile , Quark ( Armin Shimerman ) arranges to auction off various items Vash has found in the Gamma Quadrant , including an unusual crystal that might fetch a high price . Remembering Q from the Enterprise , O 'Brien spots Q on the station and warns Commander Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) , speculating that Q may be responsible for the power drains . When confronted , Q denies any wrongdoing , although he offers no alternative explanation . As the power drains become more severe , an unknown gravimetric field begins pulling the station toward the nearby wormhole . Q challenges Sisko to a boxing match on the Promenade , and suddenly , they are both wearing antique @-@ style boxing costumes . A few punches are thrown , and Q is shocked when Sisko knocks him down . " You hit me ! Picard never hit me ! " Q exclaims . Vash and Quark auction the artifacts and the crystal receives bids in excess of one thousand bars of gold @-@ pressed latinum . Casually joining the bid process , Q ups the ante on Vash 's crystal to 2501 bars before bidding one million . Soon after , however , the source of the gravimetric field and power losses is traced to the crystal itself . The crystal is quickly beamed into space before it can destroy the station . Once outside , it transforms into an alien life form and travels into the wormhole . After the incident , Bashir finally awakens from his slumber . Unaware of what has just transpired , he yawns and tells Dax that he feels like he has been asleep for days . A bemused Dax gives him a strange look to which Bashir replies " What--did I miss something ? " = = Production = = = = = Development = = = The writers and producers of " Q @-@ Less " developed the episode to show that DS9 was still connected to the Star Trek universe . To facilitate this idea , two TNG characters , Vash , played by Jennifer Hetrick , and Q , played by John de Lancie , returned to DS9 . Vash made her first appearance on TNG in the episode " Captain 's Holiday " , and then returned in " Qpid " ; Q had appeared in most seasons of TNG since the first season . TNG writer Hannah Louise Shearer , known for writing episodes such as " The Price " and " We 'll Always Have Paris " , also crossed over to DS9 . " Q @-@ Less " was the last Star Trek writing credit for Shearer . Shearer 's pitch featured Vash , who had last been seen at the end of " QPid " leaving with Q , but the pitch did not include Q himself . Executive producer Michael Piller explained that they had already been looking for a way to introduce Q into DS9 , and felt that bringing Vash onto the show would be a good way to seamlessly introduce Q. There were concerns about shoving Q into an episode but the idea of " Q @-@ Less " alleviated them . " If you just have him come on and say ' Look , is this the new show ? ' it 's silly , but this seemed to be a justifiable way " , Piller recalled . TNG writer Robert Hewitt Wolfe , who had writing credits on a number of episodes , including both the previous Vash stories , converted Shearer 's story into a script . His work on the first draft led to a full @-@ time position on the writing staff for DS9 ; Q was added to the story at this stage . Q 's motivations were drawn from his previous appearances on TNG , but Wolfe found it difficult to create the interactions between Q and the other characters on DS9 . At the time the script was under development , there was little footage of DS9 available . Wolfe could only characterize the motivations towards Q as annoyance rather than any real emotional engagement . However , he came upon the idea that he could demonstrate the difference between DS9 and TNG by showing the reactions of the characters to Q instead . = = = Characters = = = Wolfe believed that if he had written the episode later in the series he would have concentrated more on the established characters and less on Q and Vash . De Lancie felt that the episode never explained Q 's motivation for wanting to stay with Vash . " I think Q is best used when he deals with large philosophical issues , and skirt chasing just isn 't one of them " , he said . Because certain aspects of Q 's character are left unexplored , De Lancie found that " the style , the quips and the panache in which things are done become very important " . The boxing scene was intended to differentiate the relationship between Q and Sisko from that of Q and Picard . " Picard is an explorer , and in some ways , very much an intellectual . Sisko is a builder , a different kind of guy . He wears his heart a little more on his sleeve , and he acts on emotion , on instinct , more than Picard " , Wolfe explained . John de Lancie offered a similar opinion : " Q 's relationship with Picard has always been a battle of wits , but I come into Deep Space Nine , and Sisko just bopped me on the nose ! From a character point of view , that 's a very big difference . " Hetrick felt that the move away from TNG gave Vash more independence , and she enjoyed the new relationship between Vash and Quark , calling them " kindred spirits " . She was also pleased to be working with de Lancie again . " I love the way they write for John , and I loved the stuff we got to do together in ' Q @-@ Less ' " , she said . Hetrick underwent ten hours of make @-@ up for the sequence where Q shows Vash what could have happened if he did not save her life following an insect bite in the Gamma Quadrant . The experience left her with a newfound appreciation for not having to wear prosthetics like other members of the cast . Hetrick thought that if she returned to DS9 as Vash , then something could be built around the Vash @-@ Quark relationship : " That would be a really nice pairing , because you have these two different backgrounds but they 're both after the same thing . " Towards the end of the second season , the producers inquired about Hetrick 's availability . The actress was ready to appear on another DS9 episode , but the writers changed direction and there were no further plans for the Vash character . " Q @-@ Less " was the final Star Trek appearance for Hetrick , and the only appearance in DS9 for John de Lancie . = = = Filming = = = Director Paul Lynch compared the production on " Q @-@ Less " to a typical TNG episode . On DS9 , the shots were more complex and generally featured more special effects . Lynch said that the scene which showed Q seamlessly teleporting himself from one chair to another , changing his costume as he went , was particularly difficult . The producers , particularly Rick Berman , were determined for DS9 to be the best that it could be , notes Lynch . The comedic elements of the episode required precise timing , with Lynch comparing it to the television series Moonlighting . = = Reception and home media release = = " Q @-@ Less " was first shown on February 8 , 1993 , in broadcast syndication . It received a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 8 percent , placing fifth in its time slot . " Q @-@ Less " was the fifth highest rated episode of the season , behind " Emissary " , " Past Prologue " , " A Man Alone " and " Captive Pursuit " . Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for The A.V. Club in 2012 , calling Q an " iconic figure " . Handlen said Q allowed the writers to compare the different reaction of the characters to his presence in DS9 and TNG . However , Handlen felt that Q was not a good fit for DS9 , as the character seemed like an afterthought . Also , the pairing of Vash and Q took up too much screen time compared to the main cast , Handlen noted , while the overall plot involving the " stealth alien " embryo " plays like an abandoned script from early in TNG 's run , and an example of a fascinating concept reduced to a perfunctory MacGuffin , " Handlen wrote . Keith DeCandido , in a review of " Q @-@ Less " for Tor.com , praised the relationship between Vash and Quark and thought that it should have been explored further . Like Handlen , DeCandido also felt that Q did not quite fit in DS9 , but acknowledged that his performance in this episode was an improvement over his later appearances in Star Trek : Voyager . DeCandido described the boxing scene where Sisko punches Q as " wonderful " and " spectacular " . However , he thought that aspects of the plot had too much technobabble ; for example , the embryo plotline could have been resolved by a form of Customs procedure . " Ultimately " , DeCandido concludes , " none of this matters , because it comes down to one great moment of Sisko decking Q. Bliss . " In Atara Stein 's The Byronic Hero in Film , Fiction , and Television ( 2009 ) , she compared the role of Q in both " Q @-@ Less " and " True Q " as one where he reprises his " satanic role " and " in each case [ tries ] to lure a woman to join him " . Stein also explains the Q / Vash relationship , saying " Q 's demeanor toward Vash is clearly coded as that of a potential rapist . He pushes her onto a bed and shows no compunction about threatening and brutalizing her . " She explained that despite this treatment and the feminist stance taken by Vash , Q is treated sympathetically by the writers of the episode . It is made clear that Q could have won Vash around if he chose to , and so the character seemed " sensitive and vulnerable , and Vash seems cold @-@ hearted by comparison . " " Q @-@ Less " was first released for home media in the United States on VHS on November 19 , 1996 . It was released in the United Kingdom on DVD as part of the season one box set on March 24 , 2003 , and in the United States on June 3 . The episode is also included in the Star Trek : Q Fan Collective compilation DVD set , which was released in the United States on June 6 , 2006 , and later that year in the UK on September 4 .

= Baelor = " Baelor " is the ninth episode of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones . First aired on June 12 , 2011 , it was written by the show 's creators and executive producers David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , and directed by Alan Taylor . The plot depicts Eddard Stark , imprisoned and accused of high treason , struggling with the decision whether to falsely confess to save his daughters . His wife Catelyn negotiates with Lord Walder Frey for the use of a strategic river crossing and his son Robb fights his first battle in the war against the Lannisters . Meanwhile , Jon Snow discovers a secret about Maester Aemon , and Daenerys stands up to Qotho and challenges Dothraki traditions to care for Khal Drogo . In this episode , The Twins is added to the Opening . The episode matched the previous week 's season @-@ high viewership and was well received by critics , many of whom called it the best episode of the season . The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series and Peter Dinklage won the award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series for his performance . = = Plot = = Like previous episodes , " Baelor " interweaves action in multiple separate locations in and around the Seven Kingdoms of Westeros . = = = At the Lannister camp = = = At dinner , Lord Tywin ( Charles Dance ) tells his son Tyrion ( Peter Dinklage ) that Tyrion and his barbarian allies will fight in the vanguard of the army . Tyrion suspects his father is trying to get him killed . Tyrion returns to his camp and finds the prostitute Shae ( Sibel Kekilli ) whom Bronn ( Jerome Flynn ) found for him at Tyrion 's request . As the three of them swap stories , Tyrion reveals that , when he was 16 , he married a woman named Tysha whom Jaime and he had rescued . When his father Tywin learned of this , he made Jaime confess that Tysha was actually a hired prostitute . Tywin then made Tyrion watch as Lannister guardsmen all had sex with her , each paying her one silver coin provided by Lord Tywin . Later , Tyrion is awakened by Bronn as a Stark force approaches . Tyrion leaves his tent dressed in armor and orders the hill tribes to combat , but he is trampled as they rush to war . By the time he regains consciousness , the battle has been played out . Lord Tywin reveals that the Stark host was only 2 @,@ 000 men , leaving them to wonder where the other 18 @,@ 000 went . = = = At the Twins = = = The Stark army arrives at the Twins , a fortified bridge stronghold controlled by the cranky Lord Walder Frey ( David Bradley ) , who is nominally sworn to Catelyn 's ( Michelle Fairley ) father Hoster Tully . However , Lord Frey has sealed off the bridge and refuses to let the army cross , so Catelyn negotiates on her son Robb 's behalf . After some hard bargaining , Frey agrees to allow the Stark army to cross through The Twins and to commit some of his troops to the conflict with the Lannisters , but , in return , he wants Robb ( Richard Madden ) and his sister Arya ( Maisie Williams ) to marry two of his children , to which Robb reluctantly agrees . After crossing the river , Robb divides his forces , sending the aforementioned 2 @,@ 000 men to distract Lord Tywin 's army . Due to the false information Robb gave to the captured Lannister scout , Lord Tywin 's force believes it is the whole Stark army . The remainder of Robb 's men sneak up on Jaime Lannister 's ( Nikolaj Coster @-@ Waldau ) army , defeating them and capturing Jaime . When captured , Jaime challenges Robb to a one @-@ on @-@ one duel to settle the matter , which Robb declines . = = = At the Wall = = = Lord Commander Mormont ( James Cosmo ) gives Jon Snow ( Kit Harington ) House Mormont 's ancestral Valyrian steel sword Longclaw , which was originally meant for his son Ser Jorah ( Iain Glen ) before Jorah 's exile , as a reward for saving his life from the undead ranger . Jon is upset , however , when Sam ( John Bradley ) tells him about Robb 's war against the Lannisters , feeling that he should be there to help Robb . Maester Aemon ( Peter Vaughan ) summons Jon and explains to him the reason why members of the Night 's Watch do not marry : it would force them to choose between their duty to the order or loyalty to their loved ones . Aemon knows this very well because he is actually Aemon Targaryen , the Mad King Aerys Targaryen 's uncle and Daenerys ' ( Emilia Clarke ) great @-@ uncle , who dutifully and reluctantly stayed at the Wall while his family members were killed or exiled when the Targaryens were overthrown . Aemon advises Jon that he must choose either his duty to the Night 's Watch or his family , but also warns that the consequences of his choice will haunt him for the rest of his life . = = = In Lhazar = = = Khal Drogo ( Jason Momoa ) , delirious from an infection caused by the chest wound inflicted by Mago , falls from his saddle , a sign of weakness among the Dothraki . Daenerys takes Drogo into her tent and sends for Mirri Maz Duur ( Mia Soteriou ) to help him . However , Ser Jorah Mormont advises Daenerys that they should leave now because the Dothraki only respect the physically strong . He explains that , if Drogo dies , Qotho ( Dar Salim ) and the other bloodriders will fight amongst themselves to be his successor ; whoever wins will kill her and her unborn child to prevent Drogo 's son from growing up to be a rival . Daenerys refuses to abandon her husband , even when Mirri tells Daenerys that she cannot save him and instead advises giving Drogo a quick , clean death . In desperation , Daenerys encourages Mirri to use blood magic despite Mirri 's warning about the consequences of such a spell , that only death can pay for life . Mirri brings Drogo 's horse into the tent , slits its throat , orders everyone to leave , and warns that none must enter during the spell . Qotho , shocked at what Daenerys has done , tries to stop the spell , but Mormont kills him to prevent interference . Daenerys then goes into premature labor , but none of the Dothraki midwives help her , owing to their belief that she is cursed . In desperation , Mormont carries Daenerys into Drogo 's tent to seek Mirri 's help . = = = In King 's Landing = = = Varys ( Conleth Hill ) visits Ned ( Sean Bean ) in the dungeons and tells Ned that if he makes a false confession and swears loyalty to King Joffrey ( Jack Gleeson ) , Cersei ( Lena Headey ) will spare Ned and let him serve the Night 's Watch as his exile . Ned initially refuses but relents after Varys tells him that his daughter Sansa 's ( Sophie Turner ) life is also at stake . Arya , who has been living as a beggar in the streets of King 's Landing since her escape from the Lannisters , learns a crowd is gathering at the Great Sept of Baelor , where her father will be judged before the gods , and in order to see over the crowd , climbs onto the statue of Baelor the Blessed . As he is dragged through the crowd , Ned notices Arya on the statue , and alerts the Night 's Watch recruiter Yoren ( Francis Magee ) to her location . With Sansa , Cersei , Joffrey and the Small Council looking over him , Ned confesses to treason and swears fealty to Joffrey in front of the crowd . Satisfied , Sansa and Cersei ask Joffrey to spare Ned as Joffrey promised , but Joffrey breaks his promise and orders Ned to be executed . As Sansa watches in horror , Cersei , Varys and the Small Council attempt to intervene , and Arya tries to rescue Ned , only to be stopped by Yoren , who prevents her from seeing her father 's execution . When he sees that Arya has been rescued , Ned accepts his fate and is beheaded by Ser Ilyn Payne ( Wilko Johnson ) . = = Production = = = = = Writing = = = The episode was written by the showrunners David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , based on the original book by George R. R. Martin . The title of the episode refers to the Great Sept of Baelor , the main religious building in King 's Landing , where the episode 's pivotal scene takes place . In the world created by George R. R. Martin , Baelor I Targaryen was a king during a previous century , revered as a patron and supporter of the Faith of the Seven . " Baelor " includes the content of the book 's chapters Eddard XV , Catelyn IX , Jon VIII , Tyrion VIII , Catelyn X , Daenerys VIII and Arya V ( 59 – 61 and 63 – 66 ) . The scene with the drinking game between Tyrion , Bronn and Shae was written specifically for the episode , but the story of Tyrion 's ill @-@ fated marriage to Tysha was taken from a previous chapter of the books . Shae 's background was changed from Westerosi to foreign to accommodate Kekilli 's accent . Other notable divergence from the books include the modification of the whole strategy of Robb Stark when dividing his forces , and a change to the Targaryen genealogy as explained by Maester Aemon : in the TV adaptation the Mad King is described as the son , rather than the grandson , of Aegon V ( thus eliminating Jaehaerys II from the succession of kings ) . = = = Casting = = = " Baelor " marks the first appearance of the German actress Sibel Kekilli , in the role of the prostitute Shae . Executive producer George R. R. Martin commented that she was extraordinary in her audition , in which she read the scene where Shae meets Tyrion in a tent the night before the battle of the Green Fork . According to Martin , " a lot of beautiful young women read for Shae . [ ... ] But there 's another dimension to Shae as well . She 's not as practiced and hardened at this as a more seasoned pro . There 's still a girl next door quality to her , a sense of vulnerability , playfulness , and , yes , innocence . [ ... ] All of our Shaes were hot as hell . But only a handful of them captured that other quality , maybe three out of twenty , and Sibel was the standout . [ ... ] Watching those auditions , any red @-@ blooded male would want to take every one of our Shae candidates to bed . But Sibel made you fall in love with her as well . " Also introduced in this episode was the English actor David Bradley , playing the role of the Lord of the Crossing " Late " Walder Frey . = = = Filming locations = = = The interiors of the episode were filmed at the Paint Hall studios , close to Belfast . The area of the Castle Ward estate , also in Northern Ireland , was used to film on location the Stark and Lannister camps , the Crossing , and the battlefields of the Green Fork and the Whispering Woods . The climactic scene before the Great Sept of Baelor was shot at Fort Manoel , in the Maltese town of Gżira . The filming took place in the last week of October 2010 . = = = Execution = = = Years later , showrunner D. B. Weiss commented that the explicit style of the execution scene was selected in part to make it clear to the viewers that Eddard Stark , despite being the arguable protagonist of season one , actually was dead : " It ’ s that rule : ' If don 't see the body then they ’ re not really dead . ' Like when we cut Ned ’ s head off , we didn ’ t want a gory Monty Python geyser of blood , but we needed to see the blade enter his neck and cut out on the frame where the blade was mid @-@ neck . [ ... ] we needed Ned 's death to be totally unambiguous . " = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " Baelor " gathered 2 @.@ 7 million viewers in its premiere telecast in the United States , equaling the season high reached with the previous week 's episode . The total for the night , including the repeat , was slightly lower , with 3 @.@ 4 million viewers . In the United Kingdom , the episode was viewed by 1 @.@ 043 million viewers , making it the highest @-@ rated broadcast that week . = = = Critical response = = = The episode received great acclaim among the critics . From the reviewers of The A.V. Club , where it was rated with an A , Todd VanDerWerff called it " unquestionably the finest episode of Game Of Thrones yet , " and David Sims found it " terrific " and with a conclusion that would be " sure to blow the minds ( and break the hearts ) " of the watchers Matt Fowler of IGN TV gave the episode a perfect " 10 " saying that it was a " clean and epic entry with a daring , tragic finish " that had " an admirable undercurrent of audience contempt . " The focus of most reviews was in the climactic final scene , whose directing and acting is universally acclaimed by critics . Writing for Cultural Learnings , Myles McNutt stated : " the final shot , with Arya looking to the sky as everything goes to silence and all she sees is the birds flying was just wonderfully haunting . Alan Taylor 's direction sold both the chaos and the resignation of that moment . " HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall felt that " that final scene was so gorgeously shot , and the weariness of Bean 's performance and the horror of Maisie Williams ' so perfectly conveyed the emotions of it , even as things seemed so chaotic . " The emotional charge of the scene hit home for many reviewers : Scott Meslow of The Atlantic called it " an absolutely nightmarish scene " and labelled Eddard 's death " horrific in its indignity . " Jace Lacob from Televisionary and Maureen Ryan from AOL TV admitted having shed tears at the episode 's dramatic conclusion . The latter found the scene " masterful " and felt that the visual medium and Alan Taylor 's excellent work had made it more powerful than the book 's original version . Besides the final scene , other aspects were discussed : Garcia noted the acting of Richard Madden and how the Freys had been introduced . Ryan praised the wide range of emotions used by Emilia Clarke while playing Daenerys , and how Peter Dinklage played Tyrion 's frustration and confusion during the episode . Both she and McNutt were glad that Tyrion 's exposition scene in the tent with Bronn and Shae did not use sex to keep viewers , as was done in past episodes . There was debate about the merits of the producer 's decision to avoid depicting the two battles between the Starks and Lannisters . Ryan criticized it and confessed being " a little disappointed that many of the major characters are caught up in a war and we 're not seeing it . " Sims regretted not seeing the fight , and although he claimed to understand the budget constrictions , he felt that " all this off @-@ screen fighting is just getting my blood rushing for some on @-@ screen fighting . " Sepinwall concludes : " Ideally , we 'd get a few epic , Braveheart @-@ level battle scenes at some point , but I also respect the demands of time and budget here . Those kinds of sequences cost a fortune , and they eat up a lot of screen time , and I think ultimately I 'd have rather had the time , say , that we spent in Tyrion 's tent the night before the battle , with the mortifying story of his ex @-@ wife , and then whatever it cost to make the execution sequence look as good as it did , than for the episode to have given us one or two long fight scenes . " In 2013 , TV Guide ranked the final scene as the second greatest twist of all time . = = = Accolades = = = Peter Dinklage chose this episode as his submission named in his candidacy for the 2011 Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series . Spenser Davis , writing for entertainment industry awards website GoldDerby , noted that the choice was curious because while the episode itself was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series ( which it lost to Friday Night Lights ' " Always " ) , Dinklage 's screen time in the episode was rather limited . Davis noted that Dinklage 's nomination was the only acting Emmy nomination among the 13 received by the show , and opined that " A Golden Crown " better showcased Dinklage 's contributions to the series . Dinklage 's win was the only major award received by the series and the first Emmy of his career . = = = = Awards and nominations = = = =

= Giants : Citizen Kabuto = Giants : Citizen Kabuto is a third @-@ person shooter video game with real @-@ time strategy elements . It was the first project for Planet Moon Studios , which consisted of former Shiny Entertainment employees who had worked on the game MDK . Giants went through four years of development before Interplay Entertainment published it on December 6 , 2000 , for Microsoft Windows . A Mac OS X port was published by MacPlay in 2001 and the game was also ported to the PlayStation 2 later that year . Players take control of a single character from one of three humanoid races to complete the story or to challenge other players in online multiplayer matches . They can select heavily armed Meccaryns equipped with jet packs , or amphibious spellcasting Sea Reapers . The game 's subtitle " Citizen Kabuto " refers to the last selectable race , a thundering behemoth who can execute earthshaking professional wrestling attacks to pulverize its enemies . The single @-@ player mode is framed as a sequential story , putting the player through a series of missions , several of which test the player 's reflexes in action game @-@ like puzzles . Game critics praised Giants for state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art graphics , humorous story , and success in blending in one genre with another . Criticisms of the game centered on crippling software bugs and lack of an in @-@ game save feature . The console version rectified some of the flaws found in the PC versions , at the cost of removing several features . Giants sold poorly initially for both Windows and PlayStation 2 ; however , it sold well afterwards and the game has gained a cult following . = = Gameplay = = In Giants : Citizen Kabuto , players take on the roles of three humanoid races : gun @-@ toting Meccaryns , magic @-@ wielding Sea Reapers , and the gigantic Kabuto . Each player is assigned direct control of a single character . The game 's developers , Planet Moon Studios , created this design to encourage players to focus on the action and not to be burdened with micromanagement . Players can customize the controls , which are largely the same for each race , with slight differences for abilities . The single @-@ player mode consists of a sequence of missions set as an overarching story . Each mission requires the completion of certain objectives to progress to the next mission . The objectives are usually the elimination of enemies or a certain structure , but several of them test the player 's eye – hand coordination or require the player to rescue and protect certain units . Players control their characters from a default third person perspective ; a first person view is optional . Each race has its own offensive style , and a special mode of fast movement . Killing a creature releases a power @-@ up , which heals or awards weapons to its collector . The real @-@ time strategy elements of Giants consist of base building and resource gathering , wherein the resources are small humanoids called ' Smarties ' . There are a limited number of Smarties in a mission , and players must rush to gather them , or kidnap them from each other to gain an advantage . Players also gather sustenance for the Smarties to make them work ; Meccaryn and Reaper players hunt the cattle @-@ like Vimps for meat and souls respectively . The options in building a base are limited ; players can neither choose the locations for the structures nor manage their workforce in detail . Players in control of Kabuto need not build a base , whereas the character gains strength and produces subordinate characters by hunting for food . Kabuto consumes Smarties to increase its size and power ; at maximum size , he can produce smaller Tyrannosaurus @-@ like units as subordinates . To restore his health , Kabuto eats Vimps and other units ( player- and computer @-@ controlled ) . Multiplayer mode allows a maximum of five Meccaryn , three Sea Reaper , and one Kabuto player ( s ) to play in each session . Due to the lack of a game server browser , players connect through online services MPlayer or GameSpy Arcade for the Windows version , and GameRanger for the Mac OS X version . Besides the standard " destroy all enemy bases and units " missions , the multiplayer mode includes deathmatches and " Capture the Smartie ( flag ) " -type games . Players are permitted either to start with a full base , or to build one from foundations . = = Plot = = The game world of Giants is set on a fictional " Island " traveling through space . Its surface comprises grasslands , deserts , and forests , surrounded by azure seas . Players have an unobstructed view of the game world to its horizon ; whereas distant objects are slightly blurred to convey a sense of distance . Missions for Meccaryns provide cover to hide behind , large spaces of water for Reapers , and creatures for Kabuto to eat . = = = Characters = = = Planet Moon intended for the player characters to provide a diverse gameplay experience , laying down requirements to make the characters distinct with unique advantages and disadvantages . Meccaryns use high technology and attack as a pack led by the player . Meccaryn players sport guns , explosives , and backpacks that provide special abilities : jet packs allow players to fly over obstacles and outmaneuver opponents , and the " Bush " -pack camouflages the character as a shrub . In single @-@ player mode , players assume the role of Baz , leader of a group of Meccaryns comprising Gordon , Bennett , Tel , and Reg . Several scenarios in the game shows the responsible Baz frustrated with the laxity of Gordon and Bennett , and the inquisitive Tel and Reg . Sea Reapers are amphibious , humanoid swimmers . Therefore , they regain health in contact with water , and the game 's Piranhas do not attack them . To travel fast over land , players can " turbo boost " their Reapers to targeted areas . The Reapers can use swords , bows , and spells , such as summoning firestorms or tornadoes , in combat . Planet Moon Studios initially conceived the Sea Reaper single @-@ player character , Delphi , as evil , but later gave her a conscience . Kabuto is the titular creature of the game , and the only one of his race . In his back @-@ story , the Reapers created him as their guardian , but found him beyond control . Creative Director , Tim Williams gave the " Citizen " title to Kabuto for its allusion to the character 's wish for a sense of belonging to the Island . The game developer modeled Kabuto 's attacks after those of giant monsters in classic monster movies , allowing him to use professional wrestling attacks and aerial techniques such as elbow drops , foot stomps , and the " butt flop " described as " like the body slam , but with less dignity " . To balance his strength , a weak point at his waist inflicts heavy damage when struck . Players playing the giant monster can assume a perspective through his mouth to target prey . For non @-@ playable races , the team designed Smarties to have oversized heads , bulging eyes , and idiotic personalities for comedic effects . Players labor for the Smarties while witnessing their hedonistic indulgences . The payoff , however , is a " giant gun " . Standard enemies include Reaper Guards ( male Reapers with no magical ability , who serve as common soldiers ) , as well as fauna such as the insectoid Rippers , beast @-@ of @-@ burden Sonaks , and bat @-@ like Verms . = = = Story = = = Originally featuring each race in its own distinct story , the single @-@ player mode now depicts a single sequential story wherein the players begin as Baz , and must complete a sequence of missions before assuming the role of Delphi . On completion of Delphi 's story , players take control of a Kabuto character . Williams used cut scenes to introduce and conclude each mission . As Baz , the player searches for Reg and Tel . Timmy , a Smartie rescued in the first mission , functions as a guide for the player : introducing other Smartie characters , and providing exposition of the scenario . The plot portrays the Smarties as suffering under the reign of the Sea Reapers and their Queen Sappho . Alluding to the film , The Magnificent Seven , Baz gathers the separated Meccaryns , and takes on a quest to solve the Smarties ' predicaments . In a climactic cut scene , Sappho sacrifices Timmy to Kabuto , and the young Smartie 's grandfather , Borjoyzee , becomes the player 's guide . Baz leads an escape from the area , and sets up a base to lead a counterattack . Thereafter Delphi becomes the player 's character . Yan , the Samurai Smartie serves as the guide for this story segment , giving instructions on Delphi 's abilities . After completing the training missions under Yan , Delphi attacks Sappho 's base and the Reapers , eventually confronting the queen in a boss fight . When defeated , Sappho summons Kabuto to destroy the Smarties , but Kabuto eats her instead . In the final story , Delphi has transformed herself into a Kabuto @-@ like creature to challenge the original . The player wanders around the islands as the Delphi @-@ Kabuto character , searching for prey to increase her size . After Delphi @-@ Kabuto achieves her maximum size , she proceeds to a boss fight with the original Kabuto . Despite her victory , Kabuto revives in a triggered cut scene and restores her Reaper form ; whereupon the player takes the role of Baz against the revived monster . After defeating Kabuto , Baz is shown in the final cut scene , flying off to Planet Majorca with Delphi , Borjoyzee , and his fellow Meccaryns . = = Development = = When five members of Shiny Entertainment 's MDK development team broke off to set up Planet Moon Studios in 1997 with software engineer , Scott Guest , they decided to make their first project fun and original , a game with graphics and gameplay unseen at that time . Nick Bruty , Bob Stevenson , and Tim Williams initially conceived the idea of pitting players as spacemen , pirates , and giants against each other and having fun . Initially projected for release in late 1999 , the game suffered delays to its development largely due to the illness of their chief programmer , Andy Astor ; he was suffering from stage IV mantle cell lymphoma in late 1999 . The team realized they needed more resources and by 2000 , they had hired two more programmers and an artist . Producing a next @-@ generation game required them to keep up with 1998 – 2000 's rapid advancement of technology , which resulted in further delays . The team upsized the graphic textures as they changed the graphical software to support NVIDIA graphics cards . Within a year after development started in 1999 , the initial minimum graphics specification climbed from requiring Voodoo 1 graphics cards to those of the GeForce @-@ series . Planet Moon deemed game engines available during development too restrictive and inappropriate for their requirements , and built their own . Called Amityville , it could support Glide , OpenGL , and Direct3D . The team used it to create the required " lush and vibrant " outdoor environments , and terrain deformation effects . Planet Moon designed the structure of the single @-@ player mode to be a gradual learning process for the players ; the game would introduce new command sets to the players as they progress , and encourage them to repeat using the new commands for that mission . From the start of the project , the team intended the controls to be simple , and mapped commonly used commands to a few keys . Focus groups consisting more than 25 testers went through this design to verify its ease . Planet Moon aimed for a complex artificial intelligence ( AI ) ; computer @-@ controlled characters would evade shots and take cover . The enemy AI would plot its actions according to long @-@ term goals . The development team consulted Mark Frohnmayer , lead programmer of the multiplayer game Tribes 2 , for advice on implementing the multiplayer portion . To balance the characters in combat , Planet Moon focused on characteristics that could affect the fighting capabilities , instead of tweaking the damage output . The team faced a tight schedule , and abandoned several features initially in the game . Early designs allowed players to change the landscape ; they could gorge out water channels and isolate segments of the land by playing as Reapers . The Kabuto character initially could bake mud into " mud shepherd " units and use them to defend its herd of food . Interplay Entertainment released the Windows version of the game on December 7 , 2000 . Planet Moon later created a special version of the game optimized for the GeForce 3 graphics card to display water reflections , soft @-@ edged shadows , and weather effects . This version was not sold as a standalone commercial product but as a part of certain GeForce 3 graphic card package deals . MacPlay announced on November 1 , 2000 , it was publishing the Mac OS X version of the game . The Omni Group was responsible for the porting of the game ; they rewrote the game 's software to take advantage of the symmetric multi @-@ processing capability of Mac OS X. Eleven months later , MacPlay released the port . Multiplayer mode was initially disabled in the retail release but was re @-@ inserted in a later patch . Giants was also ported to the PlayStation 2 ( PS2 ) , a process overseen by Interplay 's division , Digital Mayhem , who posted updates of their progress on IGN . Their greatest challenge for the PS2 port was converting and storing the special effects of the Windows version onto the lesser storage space of the PS2 . LightWave 3D was used by the team to convert the graphic resources . Although they had to reduce the image resolution , Digital Mayhem increased the number of polygons that composed the player character models , making them smoother and more detailed in shape . Due to the limited capabilities of the PS2 as compared to the Windows platform and the addition of a save feature , the team focused on enhancing the action gameplay , streamlining the interfaces , and tweaking the Reaper ski races , level designs , and game balance . They redesigned the controls for the PS2 's controller , and after finding the analog sticks less easy to aim with than a mouse , implemented a feature to help the player 's aim . Digital Mayhem originally intended to retain the multiplayer mode , but discarded it , believing the PS2 environment could not generate the same multiplayer atmosphere as the Windows platform . Interplay released the PS2 port on December 21 , 2001 . They also announced plans for an Xbox port but nothing resulted from this . Near the release of the United States ( US ) Windows version of the game , Planet Moon failed to obtain a " Teen " rating from the ESRB despite changing the original red blood to green and covering Delphi 's toplessness with a bikini top . They made the changes to broaden retail opportunities because many large retailers in the US refused to sell " Mature " -rated games ; Wal @-@ Mart reiterated in October 2002 that they would never stock their shelves with software that contained vulgarity or nudity . Planet Moon Studios later released a patch that reverted the color of the blood to red , and computer gamers found they could restore Delphi 's toplessness by deleting a file . Interplay offered a bonus disc containing extra multiplayer levels to those who pre @-@ ordered the Windows version of the game . On October 5 , 2003 , they offered the game 's soundtrack to those who purchased Giants from their online store . Composers Mark Snow ( noted for his The X @-@ Files musical scores ) , Mark Morgan , and Jeremy Soule ( both known for the music of several video games ) were involved in the music for Giants . Interplay hired Morgan to compose the scores , although reports showed they initially hired Snow for the task . Morgan , however , could not fully concentrate on the task due to personal reasons and handed it over to Soule . Closing credits of the game listed only Morgan and Soule , and Soule compiled their works onto the original soundtrack of the game . Soule originally offered to autograph the soundtrack on its release in the United States ; however , he stopped his offer when email feedback revealed many were intending to pirate his work through the peer @-@ to @-@ peer file sharing software Napster instead of buying it . = = Reception = = Planet Moon Studios ' blending of two genres in Giants has earned the acclaim of reviewers . Game Revolution and GameSpot found the simplified real @-@ time strategy task of resource gathering in Giants more interesting than tedious , and Troy Dunniway , Microsoft 's Head of Game Design in 2002 , commented that the real @-@ time strategy elements enhanced the game 's shooter aspect rather than making it a hybrid of two genres . Sci Fi Weekly was impressed that both styles of play never interfered with each other , which was complemented by the unique gameplay of each race . The Entertainment Depot , however , found the base building in several missions tedious ; they said the player had to rebuild the base several times due to being forced to leave the base defenseless , which allowed the enemy destroy the structures . Reviewers commented that the imaginative character designs and use of advanced graphics technology , such as hardware transform and lighting , and bump mapping , made the graphics of the game unrivaled in its time ; ActionTrip was so impressed by the game 's visuals that they thought their graphics card was supporting the complex hardware environmental bump mapping it was incapable of . The animation of Kabuto 's antics such as elbow dropping onto tiny enemies , and tossing up and catching food with his mouth , in particular , won the praises of reviewers . Many critics , however , were disappointed that the computer versions of the game could not run smoothly at full details on the recommended system specifications . The AI in the game was also the subject of much commentary . Reviewers said they needed to prompt the allied non @-@ player characters to perform actions on several occasions , although the allied AI performed pretty well most of the time . FiringSquad disagreed , calling their computer controlled teammates worthless and finding joy in leaving them to their deaths . The game review site thought the same of the enemy AI , a view echoed by IGN ; enemies were unaware of the deaths of nearby teammates , and kept running into obstacles . ActionTrip , however , stated the enemy AI did well enough to take cover or flee when hurt , and constantly attack the player 's base . Many reviewers found the best part of Giants to be its bawdy humor ; the scenes were " bizarre and funny without ever letting the silliness distract or annoy the player " . FiringSquad claimed the humor kept them plowing through the game regardless of the issues they encountered , and were disappointed when the game steadily lost this approach in the later stages . Mac Guild and Macworld UK , however , considered the humor crude on a childlike level and its delivery forced . In spite of the humor , many reviewers found themselves bored by the monotony and slow pace of certain segments , According to ActionTrip , Giants lacked a unique quality to capture attention , compared to its contemporaries such as American McGee 's Alice , MechWarrior 4 : Vengeance , and Sea Dogs . The frequent crashes of the retail Windows versions infuriated many reviewers ; Game Revolution censured Interplay for focusing on censoring the game for marketing purposes instead of testing for and fixing the software bugs before release . Several reviewers could not connect to multiplayer games due to failed connections or bugs . The reviewers who managed to play online , commented the games were fun , although they were occasionally disconnected or lagged . GamesFirst lamented the lack of dedicated low ping servers , and several reviewers declared that the computer versions of the game was flawed for not implementing an in @-@ game save feature . Reviewers appreciated the PS2 version for including the asked @-@ for save feature , but complained the ported game retained the AI and level design issues associated with the Windows version . IGN remarked that it looked less impressive than the computer versions . The lower resolution , flat textures , washed out colors , and sparser environments made the game average looking . The PS2 version also exhibited clipping issues ; character models and projectiles would pass through objects on occasion . The game reviewer , however , praised the console version for presenting a smooth animation , rarely dropping frames . On the contrary , other reviewers stated the frame rate dropped when there are several objects on the screen , presenting a heavy load on the graphics engine . The lack of replay value for the console version after completing the single player mode was a common complaint among the reviewers . Review aggregators Metacritic and GameRankings calculated scores of 85 and 86 @.@ 7 % from their selected reviews for Giants as of 2007 . Although most critics had awarded high scores to the game , GamesRadar and GSoundtracks reported the Windows version sold poorly . In contrast , the Mac OS X version sold out within months of its release , in spite of its smaller market base . According to the quarterly sales reports by NPDFunWorld , the PS2 version sold 11 @,@ 272 copies in the US for the six months since its release . This is a poor sales figure compared to the 51 @,@ 726 copies of Shadow Hearts and 753 @,@ 251 copies of Max Payne sold in the same period for the PS2 . Despite the poor overall sales , reviewers have nominated Giants as a game deserving a sequel , and have kept it on PC Gamer UK 's Top 100 as of 2007 . In 2009 , Andrew Groen of GameZone ran a retrospective on Giants and suggested that the game 's mix of humor and action inspired later games such as Ratchet & Clank and Jak and Daxter . He further commented that games of 2004 – 09 were influenced by Giants in one way or another . = = Possible sequel = = On September 25 , 2015 , the independent studio Rogue Rocket Games , co @-@ founded by Nick Bruty , former Planet Moon Studios founder , started a Kickstarter campaign for developing a new independent crowd @-@ funded game said to be " the spiritual successor of Giants : Citizen Kabuto " , titled First Wonder . They failed .

= Hurricane Carlotta ( 2012 ) = Hurricane Carlotta was the easternmost tropical cyclone in the Eastern Pacific to make landfall at hurricane intensity since 1966 . The third tropical cyclone and third named storm of the 2012 Pacific hurricane season , Carlotta developed slowly into a tropical depression from a tropical wave southwest of Central America on June 14 . It moved generally west @-@ northwestward and by the following day , strengthened into tropical storm strength . Thereafter , gradual intensification occurred and the storm reached hurricane strength on June 15 . Rapid intensification ensued further , as Carlotta peaked as a 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) Category 2 hurricane on the same day on June 15 . At 0100 UTC the following day , Carlotta made landfall near Puerto Escondido , becoming the easternmost landfalling Pacific hurricane in recorded history . The next day the storm began to weaken as it moved onshore Southwestern Mexico . Carlotta continued to weaken rapidly , eventually dissipating on June 16 . Throughout Mexico , widespread power outages and wind damage was reported , particularly in Oaxaca . Infrastructural damage was also reported due to winds and rain , as well as damage to crops . Rainfall from Carlotta peaked at 13 @.@ 78 in ( 35 @.@ 0 cm ) in San Juan Bautista Tuxtepec . Numerous mudslides resulted from the heavy rains , which blocked roads and damaged structures . At least 29 @,@ 000 homes and 2 @,@ 500 businesses sustained damage from Carlotta , mostly in Oaxaca . Seven people were killed by Carlotta , and the state of Oaxaca requested MX $ 1 @.@ 4 billion ( US $ 107 @.@ 7 million ) for repairs to public infrastructure . = = Meteorological history = = On June 12 , a tropical disturbance developed off the west coast of Costa Rica , moved westward and entered the eastern Pacific after crossing Panama . The system became better organized as it tracked to the west @-@ northwest as a westerly Kelvin wave provided favorable conditions for development . Convection increased around a developing low pressure area , and the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) estimated a 50 % chance of tropical cyclogenesis by late on June 12 . After further organization , the NHC initiated advisories on Tropical Depression Three @-@ E at 0300 UTC on June 14 , while the system was located about 515 mi ( 830 km ) south @-@ southeast of Puerto Ángel , Oaxaca . At the time , the depression was located in an area of low wind shear and warm sea surface temperature conditions that were considered favorable for intensification . In addition , it had a small circulation , which increased the possibility for rapid deepening . The system moved northwestward after forming due to an extended ridge to the northeast . About six hours after forming , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Carlotta , after rainbands increased around the center . With continued favorable conditions , Carlotta quickly developed a ragged central dense overcast , or centralized area of convection . An eye feature began developing on June 15 , and later that day Carlotta intensified into a hurricane while approaching southeastern Mexico . A Hurricane Hunters flight late on June 15 indicated Carlotta was rapidly intensifying , observing winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) in the eye and well @-@ established outflow ; the crew also observed flight @-@ level winds of 114 mph ( 183 km / h ) . The NHC initially predicted the hurricane would move along the Mexican coast just offshore , which would have allowed Carlotta to maintain much of its intensity . Shortly after its peak , Hurricane Carlotta weakened slightly as to the eye 's began to interact with land . The hurricane made landfall near Puerto Escondido , Oaxaca early on June 16 , with winds estimated at 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 976 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) shortly after 0100 UTC on June 16 becoming the easternmost tropical cyclone in the Eastern Pacific to make landfall at hurricane intensity since 1966 . Carlotta rapidly weakened while moving inland , and it had deteriorated to tropical depression status by 12 hours after landfall . Although the cloud pattern became disrupted , the storm maintained a large area of thunderstorms . Very early on June 17 , the NHC reported that Carlotta had weakened into a post @-@ tropical remnant low ; the system still had a broad circulation over southwestern Mexico at the time . Later that day , the low degenerated into a trough along the west coast of Mexico . = = Preparations and impact = = When the system was first classified as a tropical cyclone on June 14 , the government of Mexico issued hurricane watch and a tropical storm watch for a portion of the Mexican Coast from Barra de Tonala to Punta Maldondo . Later that day , the watch was upgraded into a hurricane warning . Meanwhile , authorities issued an orange alert for most of Oaxaca , the second highest alert , and a yellow alert , the third highest alert , for northern Oaxaca , Chiapas and Guerrero . A green alert was issued for the state of Puebla , and blue alert , the second lowest alert , for southern Veracruz , Tabasco , Tlaxcala , Morelos and Michoacán . In Oaxaca , officials arranged evacuations for residents in low @-@ lying areas to go to schools , halls , and churches . In the fishing port of Puerto Angel , boating access was restricted. and the port of Salina Cruz was closed . To avoid family separations , schools were closed for several states . The government electricity agency channeled 608 electrical workers due to the threat of damage in the states of Oaxaca and Guerrero . A total of 23 plants were moved to provide emergency power supply . Seven people were killed by the storm . A 56 @-@ year @-@ old woman was killed in a traffic accident that is blamed by the storm 's gusty winds that flipped over her car . In Pluma Hidalgo , Carlotta destroyed a clay house that killed a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl and her 7 @-@ year @-@ old sister . The hurricane ripped off roofs of houses and caused widespread power outages and small landslides . About 1 @,@ 200 people moved to shelters throughout the city . According to authorities in Oaxaca , some roads were affected by mudslides ; subsequently , they had opened emergency shelters and evacuated many of families from low @-@ lying areas . In Puerto Escondido , near where the storm made landfall , billboards were toppled and windows were shattered . Towns throughout Oaxaca reported damage to roads , bridges , telephone lines , and crops . Rainfall from Carlotta peaked at 13 @.@ 78 in ( 35 @.@ 0 cm ) in San Juan Bautista Tuxtepec . In wake of the storm , the governor of Oaxaca requested the Mexican government to declare his state a disaster area , and requested MX $ 1 @.@ 44 billion ( US $ 113 million ) for repairs to public infrastructure . At least 29 @,@ 000 homes and 2 @,@ 500 businesses sustained damage from Carlotta , mostly in Oaxaca . Total insured losses caused by Carlotta were estimated to be about US $ 12 @.@ 4 million .

= HMS Grafton ( H89 ) = HMS Grafton ( H89 ) was a G @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy during the mid @-@ 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 the ship spent considerable time in Spanish waters , enforcing the non @-@ intervention measures agreed by Britain and France . After the beginning of World War II she was transferred from the Mediterranean Fleet to Great Britain for escort and contraband inspection duties . Grafton was refitting when the Norwegian Campaign began in April 1940 , but the ship escorted convoys to Norway once her refit was completed . She evacuated British troops from the Dunkirk bridgehead in May , but was sunk by a German submarine after she stopped to rescue survivors from another British destroyer . = = Description = = Grafton displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Grafton carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime , but in increased to 146 in wartime . The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft defence Hostile had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mark III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . = = Service = = Grafton was laid down by John I. Thornycroft & Company , at Woolston , Hampshire on 30 August 1934 , launched on 18 September 1935 and completed on 20 March 1936 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 248 @,@ 485 . Aside from a brief period when she was assigned to the 20th Destroyer Flotilla after her commissioning , Grafton spent the prewar period assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet . Between 10 August and 9 September 1936 , she escorted the yacht Nahlin as King Edward VIII cruised the eastern Mediterranean . Afterwards Grafton patrolled Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the policies of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . The ship was refitting in Malta when World War II began in September 1939 . Grafton and three of her sisters were transferred to the Western Approaches Command at Plymouth in October . The following month , however , the ship was reassigned at the end of the month to the 22nd Destroyer Flotilla in Harwich of the Nore Command for patrol and escort duties . On 10 January 1940 , she was transferred to the reconstituted 1st Destroyer Flotilla , also based at Harwich , where Grafton inspected ships travelling between German and Dutch ports for contraband . Between 26 March and 14 April the ship was given a brief overhaul in Hull in the shipyard of Brigham and Cowan . As the Norwegian Campaign had begun while Grafton was refitting , she was reassigned to the Home Fleet where she escorted convoys to Norway until 11 May . = = = Operation Dynamo = = = During the Siege of Calais , Grafton escorted the light cruisers Arethusa and Galatea as they provided naval gunfire support for the 30th Motor Brigade on 26 May . The following day she evacuated over 1 @,@ 600 troops from the beaches of La Panne and Bray , northeast of Dunkirk . On the morning of 29 May , she stopped to rescue survivors from the destroyer Wakeful , which had been torpedoed and sunk earlier that morning by the German E @-@ boat S @-@ 30 . While rescuing survivors from Wakeful off Nieuwpoort , Belgium , Grafton was struck in the stern by a torpedo from the German submarine U @-@ 62 . This seriously damaged the ship , and also triggered a secondary explosion which damaged the bridge , killing the captain and another officer . 13 ratings and the Canteen Manager were also killed . The ship 's back was broken , but she remained afloat long enough for all survivors to be rescued by the destroyer Ivanhoe and the transport Malines . Ivanhoe sank Grafton with naval gunfire , as she was too badly damaged to be towed to safety .

= Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) = Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) is the sixth studio album by English musician George Harrison , released in September 1975 . It was Harrison 's final album under his contract with Apple Records and EMI , and the last studio album issued by Apple . The release came nine months after his troubled 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar and the poorly received Dark Horse album . The melancholic mood of the recording reflects Harrison 's depressed state at the harsh criticism generated by these projects . Among his solo releases , Extra Texture is notable as the only album whose lyrics are devoid of any obvious spiritual message . Uniquely also , it was recorded mostly in America rather than England , while Harrison was working in Los Angeles in his role as head of Dark Horse Records . Gary Wright , David Foster , Jim Keltner , Jesse Ed Davis , Leon Russell , Tom Scott , Billy Preston and Jim Horn were among the many contributing musicians . The keyboard @-@ heavy sound incorporates elements of soul music and the influence of mellow @-@ voiced Smokey Robinson , signalling a further departure by Harrison from the rock and folk @-@ rock approach of his popular early @-@ 1970s work . Contrasting with the musical content , the album 's art design adopted an upbeat theme , which included an innovative die @-@ cut cover . Despite its generally downcast mood and an unfavourable response from music critics , Extra Texture was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America within two months of release . It produced a hit single in the Motown @-@ inspired " You " , originally recorded in London in 1971 with co @-@ producer Phil Spector . The album also includes " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " , which was both a sequel to Harrison 's 1968 Beatles composition " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " and a rebuttal to his detractors . The album was reissued in remastered form on 22 September 2014 , as part of the Apple Years 1968 – 75 Harrison box set . = = Background = = In its 13 February 1975 issue , Rolling Stone magazine derided George Harrison 's North American tour with Ravi Shankar over November – December 1974 , and the accompanying Dark Horse album , as " disastrous " . Previously viewed as " the surprise winner of the ex @-@ Beatle sweepstakes " , in the words of author Nicholas Schaffner – the dark horse – Harrison had disappointed many fans of his former group by failing to acknowledge the Beatles ' legacy , both in the content of his 1974 shows and in his dealings with the media . In addition , his commitment to launching his Dark Horse record label had left Harrison rushing to finish the album while rehearsing for the concerts ; as a result , he contracted laryngitis and sang hoarse on much of the recordings and throughout the tour . While Dark Horse sold well initially in America , it failed to place at all on Britain 's top 50 albums chart . Despite Harrison 's claims during the tour that the negative press only made him more determined , the criticism hit him hard , following the end of his marriage to Pattie Boyd . In a radio interview with Dave Herman of WNEW @-@ FM in April 1975 , recorded in Los Angeles , Harrison said that he accepted the validity of professional criticism , but objected when it came continually from " one basic source " ; then , he added , it became " a personal thing " . Author Simon Leng writes that the " bitterness and dismay " Harrison felt manifested itself on his follow @-@ up to Dark Horse , titled Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) , which would be the final studio album issued on the Beatles ' Apple record label . The album came about while Harrison was in Los Angeles overseeing projects by some of his Dark Horse signings , one of which , Splinter , became unavailable to attend sessions pre @-@ booked for them at A & M Studios . Although Harrison was unimpressed with the recording facility , he chose to use the vacated studio time himself . Authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter suggest that this decision was influenced by his business relationship with A & M Records , who were Dark Horse 's worldwide distributor and the company with which Harrison was widely expected to sign as a solo artist , following the expiration of his EMI / Capitol @-@ affiliated Apple contract in January 1976 . Having barely written a song in the six months since completing Dark Horse , in late October 1974 , he swiftly completed some half @-@ finished compositions and wrote " a couple of new ones " . Leng cites these circumstances , together with Harrison 's eagerness " to cut a new album as soon as possible , to extricate himself from the Capitol / EMI contract " , as part of an expedient quality that defines Extra Texture . = = Songs = = Writing for Rolling Stone in 2002 , Mikal Gilmore commented that " the crises [ Harrison ] faced in the mid @-@ 1970s changed him " , and that depression was a key factor . Depression permeated many of the songs that Harrison wrote during this period , an issue that was not helped by his continued heavy drinking and cocaine use . While viewing this mindset as an extension of the artist 's " unholy coping mechanisms " over 1973 – 74 , author Robert Rodriguez writes : " What 's interesting is how he chose to address what he 'd been grappling with , musically . In the end , Extra Texture is unique within the Harrison catalog as essentially an LP @-@ length excursion into soul [ music ] . " Lyrically , " The Answer 's at the End " , " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " , " World of Stone " and " Grey Cloudy Lies " all steer clear of his usual subject matter – Hindu spirituality – and instead appear to ask the listener for compassion . According to author and theologian Dale Allison , Extra Texture is " the sole Harrison album that fails to make any positive theological statements " . Allison adds that its " confused melancholy " provides a sharp contrast with the " confident religious advocacy " of the artist 's previous successes All Things Must Pass ( 1970 ) and Living in the Material World ( 1973 ) . Harrison 's wavering from his Krishna @-@ conscious path was most evident in " World of Stone " , writes author Gary Tillery : " ' Such a long way from home , ' he says , but in his autobiography he renders it , ' Such a long way from OM ' – confessing inner turmoil at having strayed from his faith . " The same despair was evident in " Grey Cloudy Lies " , a track that Harrison described to Paul Gambaccini in September 1975 as " one of those depressing , 4 o 'clock in the morning sort of songs " . Harrison had begun writing " World of Stone " , " Grey Cloudy Lies " and the soul @-@ pop love song " Can 't Stop Thinking About You " in 1973 . He started " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " in Hawaii over Christmas 1974 , while holidaying with his new girlfriend ( later his wife ) , Olivia Arias , a secretary at Dark Horse 's LA office . The song is a sequel to Harrison 's popular Beatles track " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , and the lyrics serve as a rebuttal to his critics , particularly Rolling Stone , whose savaging of the tour he would never forgive . Harrison wrote " Tired of Midnight Blue " in Los Angeles , where he continued to be based for much of 1975 on business relating to Dark Horse Records . In his 1980 autobiography , I , Me , Mine , he says that the song 's lyrics focused on his " depressed " state following a night in an LA club with " a lot of grey @-@ haired naughty people " . In Tillery 's estimation , with its chorus line " Made me chill right to the bone " , " Tired of Midnight Blue " was Harrison reaching " rock bottom " . As the most obvious example of his embracing of soul music on the album , he wrote " Ooh Baby ( You Know That I Love You ) " as the first of two tributes to Smokey Robinson , a singer whose work with the Miracles he had admired since the early 1960s . In addition to these compositions , Harrison revisited two unused recordings : the Motown @-@ styled " You " , and " His Name Is Legs ( Ladies and Gentlemen ) " , which open and close the album , respectively . Co @-@ produced with Phil Spector in London , " You " was among the basic tracks taped in February 1971 for a planned Apple solo album by Spector 's wife , Ronnie , formerly Veronica Bennett of the Ronettes . A reprise of the completed song , in the form of a brief instrumental titled " A Bit More of You " , also appears on Extra Texture , opening side two in the LP format . " His Name Is Legs " was recorded at Harrison 's Friar Park studio , FPSHOT , shortly before the 1974 tour , with Billy Preston , Tom Scott , Willie Weeks and Andy Newmark . In a private joke that few listeners were able to appreciate , the song features a hard @-@ to @-@ decipher monologue performed by " Legs " Larry Smith , formerly a member of Bonzo Dog Doo Dah Band . The inclusion of these two older tracks provided some upbeat material on an album predominantly filled with ballads . = = Production = = = = = Recording = = = Alone among the studio albums that Harrison released between the break @-@ up of the Beatles and his death in 2001 , most of the recording for Extra Texture was carried out in the United States . The sessions took place on part of A & M 's block along La Brea Avenue in Hollywood , where both the studio and the record company were based . Throughout the spring and summer of 1975 , Harrison regularly attended Dark Horse 's office , located in a bungalow shared with A & M @-@ distributed Ode Records , and otherwise became fully involved in the Los Angeles music scene . Shortly before starting work on the album , he was among the guests at Wings ' party on the Queen Mary ocean liner , at Long Beach , where a " drawn " -looking Harrison was seen socialising with Paul McCartney for the first time since the Beatles ' break @-@ up five years before . Often accompanied by Arias , Harrison caught shows by Bob Marley & the Wailers , Smokey Robinson and Santana , socialised with Ringo Starr , and met up with Preston and Ronnie Wood backstage after one of the Rolling Stones ' concerts at the LA Forum . New friends such as Eric Idle entered Harrison 's social circle that summer , although the Python 's influence only extended to Extra Texture 's quirky artwork and packaging rather than its musical content . With Norman Kinney as engineer , Harrison recorded the basic tracks for the new songs between 21 April and 7 May 1975 , beginning with " Tired of Midnight Blue " and " The Answer 's at the End " . Among the musicians on the album were many of Harrison 's previous collaborators and associates , including Jim Keltner ( drums ) , Gary Wright ( keyboards ) , Jesse Ed Davis ( guitar ) , Klaus Voormann ( bass ) , and Tom Scott , Jim Horn and Chuck Findley ( all horns ) . Along with Keltner , the most regular participant was a young David Foster , then the piano player in Keltner 's band , Attitudes , while the group 's bassist and singer , Paul Stallworth , also contributed . On what would turn out to be a noticeably keyboard @-@ dominated sound , Leon Russell and Nicky Hopkins made guest appearances as well . Voormann , a close friend of Harrison 's since 1960 , found the atmosphere at the sessions unpleasant ; he later cited the heavy drug use typical of the LA music scene , in particular , but also the ex @-@ Beatle 's " frame of mind when he was doing this album " . Keltner , who described his own friendship with Harrison as " like brothers " , has similarly spoken of Los Angeles as an unsuitable environment for Harrison during this period , while commenting that Arias " came into the picture at just the right time , a crazy , dark time " . With Voormann choosing to absent himself , Harrison played some of the album 's bass parts himself , using either ARP or Moog synthesizer . = = = Overdubbing and mixing = = = After a few weeks ' break , the overdubbing phase began at A & M on 31 May . That day , instruments were added to the 1971 basic track for " You " , including a saxophone solo ( played by Horn ) , extra keyboards and a second drum part . Over 2 – 3 June , Scott and Findley overdubbed horns on " Ooh Baby " and " His Name Is Legs " . The Foster @-@ arranged strings for " This Guitar " , " The Answer 's at the End " and " Can 't Stop Thinking About You " were recorded between 6 and 9 June . Final mixing of the album 's ten songs lasted through July and possibly into August . Between June and October 1975 , Preston 's It 's My Pleasure album , Peter Skellern 's Hard Times and Splinter 's Harder to Live were released , and sessions took place in August for Scott 's New York Connection . All of these albums include guitar cameos from Harrison ( often credited to his pseudonym " Hari Georgeson " ) , yet his playing on Extra Texture was surprisingly minimal . Harrison 's signature instrument since 1970 , the slide guitar , appeared significantly on " Tired of Midnight Blue " only , and in his extended solo on " This Guitar " , on which he shared the lead guitarist 's role with Jesse Ed Davis . Harrison 's voice had fully recovered from the effects of laryngitis , allowing him to reach falsetto and indulge in gospel @-@ style scat singing . In author Alan Clayson 's estimation , with Harrison adopting a new , " close @-@ miked " soft vocal style , much of Extra Texture reflected " the more feathery emanations from Philadelphia by the likes of The Stylistics and Jerry Butler " . Leng considers that Harrison " was clearly targeting the mainstream U.S. audience " and adds : " There were few spiritual lyrics and absolutely no references to Krishna , while his much @-@ criticized vocals were stronger , but recorded at a low level , as if the goal was to create a Harrison soul album for lovers . " = = Album artwork and title = = The album 's art design was credited to Capitol 's in @-@ house designer , Roy Kohara . Harrison supplied sketches for each item of the artwork , which adopted a humorous , " wacky " theme throughout the packaging . The vivid @-@ orange front cover featured a die @-@ cut design around the words " EXTRA TEXTURE " , through which an inner @-@ sleeve , blue @-@ tinted picture of Harrison was visible . Some vinyl editions presented the words as simple blue text on an orange background , however , doing away with the expensive cut @-@ out detail . In keeping with the album title , the thin cardboard used for the LP cover was similar in texture to the " animal skin used on a football " , according to Beatles author Bruce Spizer . The front cover included an Om symbol , positioned below the angled title text and also coloured blue . On the back of the inner sleeve , there was a second Henry Grossman tour photo of Harrison , clearly enjoying himself on stage . Seen as a joke referencing the demise of the Beatles ' record label , the Apple logo was presented on Extra Texture as an eaten @-@ away apple core . In addition , the blue inner @-@ sleeve photo of Harrison – " grinning like a Monty Python choirboy " , in the words of Robert Christgau – was captioned " OHNOTHIMAGEN " ( " Oh not him again " ) , Harrison 's self @-@ deprecating take on his dwindling popularity in 1974 – 75 . The album 's full title was a pun on the slogan that street @-@ corner paperboys would yell out to sell late @-@ breaking news editions of their newspapers : " Extra ! Extra ! Read all about it ! " Harrison had intended to call the album Ohnothimagen , until a studio discussion with Paul Stallworth suggested an alternative . According to Harrison , just as he himself was talking about an overdub needing something " extra " , Stallworth happened to say the word " texture " . As on Dark Horse , Harrison listed contributing musicians for each song , on the LP 's back cover , but this time with an additional list for those not appearing . The first of these is guitarist Danny Kortchmar , the fourth member of Attitudes ; others include Derek Taylor , Eric Idle , Peter Sellers and Dark Horse executive Dino Airali . = = Release = = Appearing nine months after Dark Horse , Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) was completed more quickly than any of Harrison 's previous post @-@ Beatles solo albums . The haste with which it was made was out of character for Harrison , and apparently symbolic of a wish to redeem himself with his audience before he left EMI for A & M Records . Preceded by its advance single , " You " backed with " World of Stone " , the album was released on 22 September 1975 in America ( as Apple SW 3420 ) and on 3 October in Britain ( Apple PAS 10009 ) . In another departure from past form , Harrison undertook promotion for his new album , in Britain . One of these activities , broadcast on 6 September , was his track @-@ by @-@ track discussion with Paul Gambaccini on the BBC Radio 1 show Rockweek . The same day , Melody Maker published an interview with Harrison , the magazine 's cover declaring : " George Bounces Back ! " Although he later admitted to being " in a real down place " while making the album , the Melody Maker interview found Harrison in good humour , pointing the way to a return in form the following year ; " I 'd rather be an ex @-@ Beatle than an ex @-@ Nazi ! " he joked , referring to his recent uneasy experience with the musical John , Paul , George , Ringo … and Bert . Harrison 's other activities in late 1975 likewise centred on comedy , beginning with his production of Monty Python 's single " The Lumberjack Song " , released in November , and including a humorous star turn , again with Eric Idle , on Rutland Weekend Television 's Christmas special . Extra Texture peaked at number 8 on the Billboard Top LPs & Tape chart on 25 October , holding the position for three weeks , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America on 11 November . The album marked a welcome , though brief , return for Harrison to the official UK Albums Chart ( now a top 60 ) , reaching number 16 there in late October . " You " peaked at number 20 on Billboard 's Hot 100 singles listings , while in the UK , despite the song receiving substantial airplay on Radio 1 , its highest position was number 38 , equalling that of his Dark Horse single " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " . As the follow @-@ up to " You " , Apple issued " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " backed by the 1974 album track " Māya Love " , in December , with a UK release following in February 1976 . Apple 's final single in its original incarnation , " This Guitar " failed to chart in either America or Britain , a fate that Rodriguez partly attributes to a lack of promotion from a label that was " [ r ] unning on fumes " . = = = Reissue = = = Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) was remastered for CD release in January 1992 . The album was remastered again and reissued in September 2014 , as both a separate release and as part of the Harrison box set The Apple Years 1968 – 75 . The 2014 reissue includes a liner note essay by radio producer and author Kevin Howlett , and adds a new version of " This Guitar " , based on a demo that Harrison recorded in 1992 for Dave Stewart . Previously issued only as a digital download for the latter 's Platinum Weird project , in 2006 , the track features overdubs from Stewart , Harrison 's son Dhani , Ringo Starr and singer Kara DioGuardi . Previewing the release on georgeharrison.com , Olivia Harrison spoke of the " strong melodies and thought @-@ provoking lyrics " of many of the songs on Extra Texture , adding : " They are moody and personal and some of my favourites . " = = Critical reception = = = = = Contemporary reviews = = = Discussing the album 's reception in his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner wrote : " Harrison 's worldly critics , who had long found his sermons insufferable , responded like bulls to a red flag to Extra Texture , which contains a number of treatises on how reviewers always ' miss the point . ' " Even Harrison 's loyal " disciples " , Schaffner continued , tended to view the album as " plodding and aimless " . Rolling Stone 's reviewer , Dave Marsh , highlighted " You " as a return to All Things Must Pass @-@ style grandeur , and " Can 't Stop Thinking About You " and " Tired of Midnight Blue " as " the most effective nine minutes of music " the artist had made since 1970 . Generally , on an album that was " sketchy at best " , however , Marsh bemoaned the over @-@ reliance on " merely competent " keyboards and Harrison 's " affectingly feeble voice " , before concluding : " Harrison is no longer a Beatle , as he has reminded us more than we have asked . But if he learned nothing else from his experience in that organization , it ought to have been that a good guitar player isn 't worth much without a band . " In the NME , Neil Spencer wrote that " Though ' Extra Texture ' isn 't the Harrison revival that many might have hopes for , it 's still several leagues superior to Hari 's more recent efforts ; and just as ' All Things Must Pass ' would have made a great single album , so ' Extra Texture ' would make a more than commendable single side . " Spencer described the album 's content as " the customary mournful and doom @-@ laden Harrison we 've come to know and fear , only this time the rigours of love take precedence over matters spiritual " , and he advised his readers : " I 've played it , I don 't mind it … Hari fans can anticipate purchase with glee . Others approach with cautious optimism . " In the 1977 edition of their book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , Roy Carr and Tony Tyler described Extra Texture as " another lugubrious offering " and concluded : " the needle of the listener 's personal Ecstatograph points sullenly towards zero throughout . " Harrison 's pleas for tolerance and understanding , like his self @-@ deprecation on the album sleeve , seemed to backfire . Writing in 1981 , Bob Woffinden found that the album showed signs that Harrison was " no longer so scornful of his audience " compared with Dark Horse . Woffinden wrote of the songs that " plead plaintively with critics not to judge too severely " : " In this different context , such pleas are more sympathetic . Very well , then , we will not . Extra Texture wasn 't really very good musically … but it did have some appealing qualities , and barely any disagreeable ones . " = = = Retrospective reviews and legacy = = = In his book subtitled The Beatles ' Solo Years , 1970 – 1980 , Robert Rodriguez features Extra Texture in a chapter dedicated to the worst solo albums released by the four ex @-@ Beatles between 1970 and 1980 – the only one of Harrison 's albums to be included there . Rodriguez writes : " To be sure , Extra Texture boasted several fine cuts … but the remainder of the collection was almost entirely weary in tone , amounting to a prolonged buzz kill . " Nick DeRiso , co @-@ founder of the music website Something Else ! , includes it on his list of the five worst solo albums by either John Lennon , McCartney or Harrison , and describes it as a " grinding , relentlessly downbeat album , where even the name Extra Texture has come to feel like a cruel joke " . Several Harrison biographers likewise hold Extra Texture in low esteem , with Alan Clayson describing it as his " artistic nadir " and " a bedsit record rather than a dancing one " . Simon Leng writes that Harrison 's post @-@ Dark Horse " rehabilitation disc " came way too soon , resulting in an uncharacteristically passionless work , with its singer sounding " punch drunk " . Aside from the uplifting " You " , both authors identify " Tired of Midnight Blue " as the only saving grace . Gary Tillery notes the " darkly sarcastic " album title for a collection full of such " downbeat " tracks , the darkest of which is " Grey Cloudy Lies " . Harrison himself rated Extra Texture as his worst solo release of the 1970s . Speaking to Musician magazine in 1987 , he dismissed it as " a grubby album " and added : " The production left a lot to be desired , as did my performance … Some songs I like , but in retrospect I wasn 't very happy about it . " The album has its admirers , however . Writing in a Rolling Stone Press tribute book , Greg Kot labels Extra Texture as " something of a return to form for Harrison " . AllMusic 's Richard Ginell views " You " , " The Answer 's at the End " and " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " as some of Harrison 's best post @-@ Beatles compositions and identifies other " musical blossoms " on a collection that stands up relatively well to the passing of time . Writing in the 2004 Rolling Stone Album Guide , Mac Randall considered it to be an album that " starts off well , then runs out of steam midway through " , while John Harris , in his 2011 review for Mojo , described it as " a classic case of contractual obligation " but still a " decided improvement " on Dark Horse . More impressed , Harrison biographer Elliot Huntley admires the album as " a welcome return to form " that offers " some gorgeous love songs , a truly commercial lead single , and flashes of the humour that define George Harrison as a songwriter " . Reviewing the Apple Years box set for Blogcritics , Seattle @-@ based critic Chaz Lipp opines of Extra Texture : " Though not without a few notable tracks , it 's the least satisfying album of Harrison 's entire career … The essential cut is the grooving ' Tired of Midnight Blue . ' " In his review for Classic Rock , Paul Trynka writes that the album " boasts neither the highs nor lows of its predecessors " and is " the work of a man wounded by criticism " . In Trynka 's assessment , whereas " You " " sounds dull today " , " confessional songs " such as " World of Stone " , " Tired of Midnight Blue " and " Grey Cloudy Lies " " have worn well " . Writing for the website Vintage Rock , Shawn Perry similarly considers " You " to be " out of sync " , and he highlights " This Guitar " and " Grey Cloudy Lies " on " a creative and introspective album that 's aged well " . In another 2014 review , for the Lexington Herald @-@ Leader , Walter Tunis writes : " [ Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) ] is a delight from the start of the brightly orchestrated pop of ' You ' to a series of light soul @-@ savvy reveries that culminate in the playful ' His Name is Legs ' . The record places the secular and spiritual concerns of Harrison 's music in animated balance to close out The Apple Years in a state of hapless harmony . " Writing in Mojo , Tom Doyle concedes that , being the final album in the box set , " It 's possibly a downbeat note to end on " , but welcomes the reissue for " allow [ ing ] us time to dig for the diamonds in the dirt " . = = Track listing = = All songs written by George Harrison . Side one Side two 2014 remaster bonus track = = Personnel = = George Harrison – vocals ( 1 – 5 , 7 – 10 ) , electric and acoustic guitars ( 1 – 10 ) , ARP synthesizer ( 3 , 9 ) , Moog synthesizer ( 9 ) , piano ( 10 ) , backing vocals ( 1 , 2 , 7 – 10 ) David Foster – piano ( 2 , 3 , 5 , 9 ) , organ ( 1 , 6 ) , ARP synthesizer ( 1 , 5 , 6 ) , electric piano ( 7 ) , tack piano ( 10 ) , string arrangement ( 2 , 3 , 7 ) Gary Wright – organ ( 2 , 5 ) , electric piano ( 1 , 4 , 6 ) , ARP synthesizer ( 3 , 7 ) Jim Keltner – drums ( 1 – 9 ) , percussion ( 8 ) Jesse Ed Davis – electric guitar ( 3 – 5 , 7 , 9 ) Klaus Voormann – bass ( 4 – 5 , 7 ) Paul Stallworth – bass ( 2 , 8 ) , background vocals ( 7 ) Leon Russell – piano ( 1 , 6 , 8 ) Tom Scott – saxophones ( 4 , 10 ) Chuck Findley – trumpet ( 4 , 10 ) , trombone ( 10 ) Nicky Hopkins – piano ( 7 ) Jim Horn – saxophone ( 1 , 6 ) Jim Gordon – drums ( 1 , 6 ) , percussion ( 1 , 6 ) Carl Radle – bass ( 1 , 6 ) Billy Preston – electric piano ( 10 ) Willie Weeks – bass ( 10 ) Andy Newmark – drums ( 10 ) Legs Larry Smith – vocal ( 10 ) Ronnie Spector – vocal ( 1 ) Norm Kinney – percussion ( 2 ) Supplementary credits for 2014 reissue ( track 11 ) George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitars Dave Stewart – electric guitars , bass , organ Dhani Harrison – acoustic guitar Ringo Starr – drums Kara DioGuardi – backing vocals = = Chart positions = = = = Certifications = =

= Battle of Stockach ( 1799 ) = The [ First ] Battle of Stockach occurred on 25 March 1799 , when French and Austrian armies fought for control of the geographically strategic Hegau region in present @-@ day Baden @-@ Württemberg . In the broader military context , this battle constitutes a keystone in the first campaign in southwestern Germany during the Wars of the Second Coalition , part of the French Revolutionary Wars . It was the second battle between the French Army of the Danube , commanded by Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan , and the Habsburg Army under Archduke Charles ; the armies had met a few days earlier , 20 – 22 March , on the marshy fields southeast of Ostrach and the Pfullendorf heights . The Austrian Army 's superior strength , almost three @-@ to @-@ one , forced the French to withdraw . At Stockach , the French concentrated their forces into shorter lines , creating intense fighting conditions ; initially , Charles 's line was more extended , but he quickly pulled additional troops from his reserves to strengthen his front . When a small French force commanded by Dominique Vandamme nearly flanked the Austrian Army , Charles 's personal intervention was crucial for the Austrians , buying time for reinforcements to arrive . General Jourdan , while trying to rally his men , was nearly trampled to death . Ultimately , the French were driven back upon the Rhine River . = = Background = = Although the First Coalition forces achieved several initial victories at Verdun , Kaiserslautern , Neerwinden , Mainz , Amberg and Würzburg , the efforts of Napoleon Bonaparte in northern Italy pushed Austrian forces back and resulted in the negotiation of the Peace of Leoben ( 17 April 1797 ) and the subsequent Treaty of Campo Formio ( October 1797 ) . This treaty proved difficult to administer . Austria was slow to give up some of the Venetian territories . A Congress convened at Rastatt for the purposes of deciding which southwestern German states would be mediatised to compensate the dynastic houses for territorial losses , but was unable to make any progress . Supported by French republican forces , Swiss insurgents staged several uprisings , ultimately causing the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation after 18 months of civil war . By early 1799 , the French Directory had become impatient with stalling tactics employed by Austria . The uprising in Naples raised further alarms , and recent gains in Switzerland suggested the timing was fortuitous to venture on another campaign in northern Italy and southwestern Germany . = = Prelude to battle = = As winter broke in 1799 , on 1 March , General Jean Baptiste Jourdan and his army of 25 @,@ 000 , the so @-@ called Army of Observation , crossed the Rhine between Basel and Kehl . This crossing officially violated the Treaty of Campo Formio . On 2 March , the Army was renamed Army of the Danube , upon orders of the French Directory . The Army met little resistance as it advanced through the Black Forest in four columns , through the Höllental ( Hölle valley ) , via Oberkirch , and Freudenstadt , and at the southern end of the forest , along the Rhine bank . Although prudent counsel might have advised Jourdan to establish a position on the eastern slope of the mountains , he did not ; instead he pushed across the Danube plain , taking position between Rottweil and Tuttlingen . The Austrian Army and Archduke Charles , its commander @-@ in @-@ chief , had wintered with his army in the Bavarian , Austrian , and Salzburg territories on the eastern side of the Lech ; his force alone numbered close to 80 @,@ 000 troops , and outnumbered the French force by three to one . An additional 26 @,@ 000 , commanded by Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze , guarded the Vorarlberg , and further south , another 46 @,@ 000 , under command of Count Heinrich von Bellegarde , formed the defense of the Tyrol . The Austrians had already reached an agreement with Tsar Paul of Russia by which the legendary Alexander Suvorov would leave retirement to assist Austria in Italy with another 60 @,@ 000 troops . = = = Engagement at Ostrach = = = The Army of the Danube advanced on Pfullendorf and Ostrach , the former an imperial city in Upper ( southern ) Swabia , and the latter a nearby village of 300 belonging to the Imperial Abbey of Salem , an influential and wealthy ecclesiastical territory on Lake Constance . Jourdan 's objective was simple and direct : cut the Austrian line at the border of the southwestern German states and Switzerland , preventing the Coalition 's use of Switzerland as an overland route between central and southern Europe . Isolation of the two theaters would prevent the Austrians from assisting one another ; furthermore , if the French held the interior passes in Switzerland , they could use these routes to move their own forces between the two theaters . Stretching between the Pfullendorf heights and the village lies a flat , wide plain , marshy in places , ringed with low @-@ lying hills , and creased with a small tributary stream from which the village takes its name . Ostrach itself lies almost at the northern end of this plain , but slightly south of the Danube itself . By 7 March , the first French forces arrived there , and the Austrians arrived a day or so later . Over the following week , additional forces for both sides arrived , and the two armies faced each other across this valley . The French army extended in a long line from the Danube to Lake Constance . The Third Division , commanded by Laurent de Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr , positioned itself at the far left flank , and Dominique Vandamme 's detached force , returning from reconnaissance near Stuttgart , roamed on the north shore of the river . François Joseph Lefebvre commanded the Advance Guard , positioned on the slope below Pfullendorf , and Joseph Souham , with the Second Division , took position behind him . Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino 's First Division held the southern @-@ most flank , to defend against any encirclement by Charles ' force . Jourdan set up command at Pfullendorf , and the Cavalry Reeserve , commanded by Jean @-@ Joseph Ange d 'Hautpoul , stood slightly to the north and west of Souham . By late on the 19th , Austrian and French soldiers had been skirmishing at outposts for more than 30 hours , with the action growing increasingly intense . In the early hours of the 21st , General Lefebvre informed Jourdan that the Austrians were attacking all his positions , and that the general engagement would begin shortly . After 24 hours of fighting , Austrian forces pushed Lefebvre and Saint Cyr 's troops back to the Pfullendorf heights . Although sappers blew up the primary bridge over the Ostrach river , the Austrians managed to ford the stream anyway . They nearly outflanked General Saint Cyr 's forces on the right flank , did outflank Lefebvre 's forces in the center , and cut off a portion of the southern flank from the main body . Saint Cyr 's troops barely managed to pull back before being fully cut off . Finally , General Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze , marching north with 10 @,@ 000 men , from Feldkirch , threatened Ferino 's First Division from the south . = = = Retreat from Ostrach = = = On 21 March , at 2200 , Jourdan ordered the wounded to be transported to Schaffhausen in Switzerland , via Stockach . The main army then began its own retreat in the early morning of the 22nd . The reserve division of d 'Hautpoul left first , and pulled back via Stockach to Emmengen ob Eck . The first division pulled back to Bodman , on the northern tip of the Überlingen @-@ finger of Lake Constance ; in the retreat , a portion of the force was encircled and cut off by the 2nd Lancers of Karl Philipp , Prince Schwarzenberg 's brigade , and more than 500 were taken prisoner . = = Battle at Stockach and Engen = = Fought at the junction of the east @-@ west and north @-@ south roads on the eastern side of the Black Forest , the day @-@ long battle at Stockach and Engen pitted the two armies against each other for the second time in seven days . The Austrians still had the numerical superiority , but this time it was closer to two @-@ to @-@ one , instead of almost three @-@ to @-@ one . Jourdan had consolidated his force over a shorter line , and had the full Army of the Danube under his direct command . Charles , likewise , had shortened his line ; although Hotze had not yet caught up with the archduke , he and his 10 @,@ 000 men were approaching from the Austrians ' left rear . = = = Dispositions = = = By 23 March , Jourdan had his headquarters in the vicinity of Stockach . He had recalled Barthélemy Ferino from the far right flank ; Ferino had retreated along the coast of the Überlingen Lake , the northwestern finger of Lake Constance , to be in position at the close right flank , adjacent to Souham 's division . Lefebvre , wounded at Ostrach , was unable to take the field himself , and Laurent Saint Cyr commanded the left flank . When Jourdan considered his position , he felt it too extended , so he drew back further behind Stockach , toward Engen , where he could concentrate his force . The first division camped near the Hohentwiel , the 11th @-@ century fortress overlooking the marshes at the westernmost point of the Lake Constance . The second division , the advanced guard , and a cavalry division were camped on the heights above Engen . The third division was camped by Leibtengen ( Liptingen , the French called it ) , and Neuhausen . Vandamme and his small corps worked themselves discreetly into a position behind the Austrian right flank . Jourdan established his headquarters at Engen . The plan was straightforward : Vandamme and Saint Cyr would make a simultaneous attack on the Austrian right , and Soult 's and Jourdan 's main force would attack the Austrian center and left . Jourdan 's plan , to attack four points of the opposition simultaneously , seemed to him to be the only reasonable action against a force with such numerical superiority . The Habsburg center columns included 17 @,@ 000 men under the command of field marshal Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf , formed into three columns and approaching from the north east . The main force , under the command of the Archduke Charles , included 53 @,@ 000 men , also in three columns ; in the main force , Charles had under his command the princes of Anhalt and Fürstenberg plus six battalions in a fourth column , north of the main column , but south of Nauendorf 's command . An additional force of 13 @,@ 000 troops under the command of Lieutenant Field Marshal Anton Count Sztáray formed the southern flank . = = = General engagement = = = The general engagement on 25 March was brutal and bloody . Before daybreak , at close to 0500 , Saint Cyr opened by sending his forces in a headlong attack on the Austrian right , coordinated with Souham and Ferino 's assault on the Austrian left . The ferocious attack forced the Austrians out of the woods in which they had been positioned overnight , and down the road to the village of Schwandorf . Fearing that his forces would be flanked , Charles directed some reinforcements to back up General Mervelt 's force on the Austrian right , six squadrons of lancers of the First Regiment . At this point , Vandamme 's small corps , which had moved into position in the night of 24 March , attacked from the rear . Saint Cyr 's forces had taken hold of the woods outside Stockach , named by the Austrians as the gruesome wood , with the conflict there described as " obstinate and bloody . " The Archduke himself arrived with six battalions of Hungarian grenadiers and twelve squadrons of cuirassiers and led them into the fight . His grenadiers , experienced and battle @-@ hardened , objected to his exposure and one actually grabbed the bridle of Charles ' horse , to stop him . As the archduke prepared to dismount and lead his men on foot , Karl Aloys zu Fürstenberg stepped forward to volunteer , reportedly stating that he would die first , before allowing the archduke to put himself in such danger . As Karl Aloys Fürstenberg led the hussars and grenadiers into a counter @-@ attack , he was hit by French case shot and killed . Archduke Charles eventually did lead his grenadiers , and the French momentum was not only arrested , but reversed . The Prince of Anhalt was also killed in the battle . Saint Cyr made no progress until Vandamme 's assault , but both withered under the Archduke 's response . In the melee , Claude Juste Alexandre Legrand , a general of brigade of Saint Cyr 's III . Division , lost both his brother at his side , and his aide @-@ de @-@ camp , and Jourdan himself had barely escaped being trampled to death or captured , as he tried to rally his own troops . The superior number of Austrians stalled the main French assault on the Habsburg center . At the French right flank , General Ferino attempted to push the Austrians back , first with a cannonade , followed by an attack through the woods on both sides of the road between Asch and Stockach . Two columns made two attacks , both of which were repulsed ; finally , Ferino added his third column to the assault , which resulted in the Austrian reformation of the line , cannons at the center firing a heavy cannonade . Ferino could not respond because he had run out of artillery ammunition . The French fixed bayonets and charged the village of Wahlwies , successfully taking it , but they were unable to hold it in the night , and subsequently fell back . = = = Withdrawal = = = On the evening of 26 March , Jourdan arranged for the abandonment of the positions in Engen and Stockach . Saint Cyr had already withdrawn along the Danube , after his and Vandamme 's assaults on the Austrian right failed , and was working his way west toward the Black Forest . Inexplicably , at least at the time , the Austrians failed to pursue the retreating French ; instead of pursuing the French , Charles ordered his army into cantonments at Stockach and Engen , as far south as Wahlweiss . The Aulic Council , in establishing a plan of battle , had forbidden his approach to the Rhine until Switzerland was also cleared of the French army ; Charles simply held his ground . By 31 March , the Army of the Danube established itself in Neustadt , Freiburg im Breisgau , Freudenstadt and Schiltach . Jourdan set up his command headquarters at Hornberg . The cavalry could not find enough forage in the mountains , and were sent to Offenburg . = = Aftermath = = = = = Interpretation = = = Jourdan later claimed that the Austrians had lost 7 @,@ 000 killed or wounded , plus another 4 @,@ 000 prisoners , and several cannons . For the whole day of the general engagement , the French had remained on the field of battle without meat , bread or brandy , and their animals had been without forage : " it is impossible to deny , " Jourdan wrote later , " without the most glaring injustice or falsehood , that we gained a victory . " Both sides claimed a victory , but most 19th- and 20th @-@ century historians granted it to the Austrian force . The French Directory did as well . In mid April , suffering from an nephritic complaint , Jourdan handed over command to his chief of staff , general of division Jean Augustin Ernouf , and returned to Paris to complain about the lack of men , the inexperience of the men he had , their supplies , and the size , experience , and supply of the army he had to face . He found little sympathy there , and when he told the Directory that he was ill , tendering his resignation , it was accepted . From exile on Elba fifteen years later , Napoleon analyzed the Battle of Stockach and the French defeat : its cause , he concluded , lay in Jourdan 's division of force . Although Jourdan had increased concentration from his dispositions at Ostrach , the French force was still over @-@ extended . Against a more concentrated force , the Austrians could not have moved troops from the left to reinforce the right flank when Saint Cyr and Vandamme attacked from front and rear . Furthermore , Napoleon averred , Ferino 's force on the French right had not been concentrated sufficiently and d 'Hautpoul 's cavalry assault had taken too long to materialize , giving the Austrians the upper hand . The Austrian left had halted his assault , freeing men from the southern flank to reinforce the northern one . Importantly , the Austrian line was short enough that troops could move quickly from the southern flank to the northern one . Furthermore , Napoleon argued , Jourdan had retreated north @-@ northwest , to the Black Forest to protect Alsace . He should have retreated south , to join with André Masséna 's well @-@ positioned Army of Helvetia , where in combination the Army of Helvetia and the Army of the Danube could have combined forces to defeat the Habsburg army . With Jourdan 's misguided overall strategy , Napoleon asserted , the French snatched defeat from the jaws of victory .

= Selling England by the Pound = Selling England by the Pound is the fifth studio album from the English progressive rock band Genesis , released in October 1973 on Charisma Records . It reached number 3 in the UK and number 70 in the U.S. A single from the album , " I Know What I Like ( In Your Wardrobe ) " was released in February 1974 and became the band 's first top 30 hit in the UK ; November 1973 in the U.S .. The album was recorded in August 1973 following the tour supporting the previous album , Foxtrot ( 1972 ) . The group set aside a short period of time to write new material , which covered a number of themes , including the loss of English folk culture and an increased American influence , which was reflected in the title . Following the album 's release , the group set out on tour , where they drew an enthusiastic reception from fans . Critics and the band have given mixed opinions of the album , though guitarist Steve Hackett has said it is his favourite Genesis record . The album has continued to sell and has reached Gold certification by the British Phonographic Industry and the Recording Industry Association of America . It was remastered for CD in 1994 and 2007 . Several of the album tracks became fan favourites and featured as a regular part of the band 's live setlist into the 1980s . = = Background = = By late 1972 , Genesis had stabilised around Peter Gabriel , Tony Banks , Mike Rutherford , Steve Hackett and Phil Collins . The group had been regularly touring , achieved commercial success with their previous album Foxtrot , and were starting to gig in the U.S. , particularly in New York City , where they had a positive response . However , journalists were still criticising the band and comparing them to other progressive rock bands such as ELP , Jethro Tull and Pink Floyd . The group were too busy touring to write new material , so after coming off the road in spring 1973 they set aside time to create new songs . The group 's record company , Charisma Records insisted they had three months to come up with a new album , which Rutherford considered " the kiss of death " . Collins formed a pick up band with former Yes guitarist Peter Banks for a few gigs , and Rutherford revealed in an interview to Sounds in 1976 that " there had been worries that Phil might want to leave the group " . Gabriel chose the album title , a slogan adopted by the UK Labour Party manifesto , to ensure that the British press would not accuse them of " selling out " to America . Overall , it represented a decay of English folk culture and an increase in Americanisation . = = Production = = = = = Recording = = = Gabriel later said he wrote all his lyrical contributions to the album in two days . Having rehearsed and written enough material for an album , the group entered Island Studios in August 1973 . As with Foxtrot , John Burns helped with production . Burns ' technical skills resulted in a good recorded sound and environment , and this motivated the group to play better and tackle more complex arrangements . Banks recalled the sessions being difficult , adding " it was hard to get things going . " Charisma released a live album , Genesis Live , compiled from concerts taped for the radio , to fill the gap between studio releases . = = = Songs = = = " Dancing with the Moonlit Knight " evolved from a number of short piano pieces composed by Gabriel , which was combined with some of Hackett 's guitar figures to make up the track . Gabriel added English @-@ themed lyrics to counter the impression from the music press that Genesis were trying too hard to appeal to the American audience , including references to Green Shield Stamps . Banks had upgraded to a new model of Mellotron and used the choir sound on the track . The track ends with a series of 12 string guitar figures that were originally supposed to segue into " The Cinema Show " to make a piece around 20 minutes in length , but this idea was dropped as the result was too comparable to " Supper 's Ready " . " I Know What I Like ( In Your Wardrobe ) " came out of a jam session by the group around one of Hackett 's guitar riffs . He had presented the riff to the group previously , but it had been rejected because it sounded too much like The Beatles . It was released as a single from the album , which became the first of the group 's to chart in the UK . Banks wrote most of " Firth of Fifth " on his own , and had presented it to the group for Foxtrot , but it was rejected . He reworked some sections of the song for Selling England by the Pound , where it drew a more positive reception . The track opens with a solo piece for piano , that is repeated by the band later in the song . Hackett took one of Banks ' piano figures and rearranged it as a guitar solo , which dominates the latter part of the track . " More Fool Me " is the second of two songs ( the other being " For Absent Friends " from Nursery Cryme ) to feature Collins on lead vocals before he became the band 's lead singer in 1975 . Uncharacteristically for the group 's output at the time , the song was a tender , romantic ballad . It was written quickly by Collins and Rutherford while sitting on the steps outside the recording studio . " The Battle of Epping Forest " was inspired by a news story that Gabriel had read several years previously about the territorial battles by two rival gangs in the East End of London . He placed an advertisement in The Times in attempt to find more about the story , but was unable to find any further information , so he created his own fictional characters , including " Liquid Len " , " Harold Demure " and " The Bethnal Green Butcher " . The lyrics have since been praised for their humour and wit , but they did not gel well with the music , which the band subsequently felt was complicated for the sake of being so . " After the Ordeal " is an instrumental written by Hackett ; the first half is a classical guitar and piano piece followed by an electric guitar solo . Banks and Gabriel did not want to include the song on the album , but Hackett insisted it should be kept . It was ultimately left on after Gabriel and Banks argued about the length of " The Cinema Show " , which meant everything was included as a compromise . " The Cinema Show " is divided into two sections . The first section is a 12 @-@ string guitar @-@ based piece , featuring vocal harmonies between Gabriel and Collins , as well as a short flute / oboe solo . The song concludes with a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute keyboard solo on the ARP Pro Soloist , with Rutherford and Collins playing a rhythm in a 7 / 8 time signature . The lyrics , written by Banks and Rutherford , draw much of their inspiration from the T. S. Eliot poem The Waste Land . The album closes with a segue from the end of " The Cinema Show " into " Aisle of Plenty " , a reprise of " Dancing with the Moonlit Knight " which gives the album a book @-@ end effect . The track uses word play such as " Easy , love there 's the safe way home " and " Thankful for her fine fair discount , Tess co @-@ operates " , referring to British supermarkets . = = = Sleeve design = = = The album cover is a painting by Betty Swanwick titled The Dream . Swanwick had designed posters for London Transport between the 1930s and 1950s . The original painting did not feature a lawn mower ; the band had Swanwick add it later as an allusion to the song " I Know What I Like " as Swanwick told them that she had not enough time to paint a new picture for their cover . = = Release = = Selling England by the Pound was released in October 1973 , reaching No. 3 in the UK charts and No. 70 on the U.S. Billboard Pop Albums chart . The album 's success in the U.S. benefitted from a switch from Buddah Records to Atlantic . " I Know What I Like ( In Your Wardrobe ) " was released as a single in February 1974 . It was the band 's first single to enter the UK chart , and peaked at number 21 . In 2013 , the album was certified Gold by the British Phonographic Industry . The album was digitally remastered for compact disc in 1994 and again in 2007 by Rhino Records . = = = Critical reception and legacy = = = Contemporary reviews for the album were mixed . Rolling Stone 's Paul Gambaccini praised the band for attempting something utterly different amidst " a stagnant pop scene " , but criticised the album 's lyrics , feeling they overused British pop culture references , and complained about some musical passages . Despite this , Gambaccini thought the album " merits some recognition " . NME 's Barbara Charone said the album was " the band 's best , most adventurous album to date " . The Guardian 's Robin Denselow wrote that " much of the material is indistinctive and tedious " . Retrospective reviews have been more favourable . AllMusic and BBC Music remarked that the album returned to the whimsical eccentricity of Nursery Cryme while retaining the hard rock intensity and pessimism of Foxtrot , combining the best of both elements to make Genesis 's best album up to that point . Robert Christgau , who thoroughly panned most of Genesis 's albums , admitted that the songs " Firth of Fifth " and " The Battle of Epping Forest " have " a complexity of tone that 's pretty rare in any kind of art " , though he summarised the rest of the album by saying " it sounds as snooty as usual . " In 2012 , the album ranked seventh in Rolling Stone 's " Readers ' Poll : Your Favorite Prog Rock Albums of All Time " . It was also included in IGN 's list " 10 Classic Prog Rock Albums " in 2008 , who praised its " subtle elegance , sublime textures , and lyrical splendor " . Rock author Edward Macan has mixed feelings towards the album , praising " Firth of Fifth " and " The Cinema Show " but questioning some of the other material . Motoring journalist and broadcaster Jeremy Clarkson is a fan of the album and wrote sleeve notes for it when it was included in the box set Genesis 1970 @-@ 1975 . Hackett has considered the album to be his favourite Genesis record , and was happy with his extensive contributions to it . Banks and Rutherford have had mixed feelings , saying there are a lot of high points but also some lows . Selling England by the Pound has been praised by other songwriters and musicians . Rush drummer Neil Peart has said : " I think Selling England by the Pound is an enduring masterpiece of drumming . Beautiful drumming , lovely sound , and the arrangements , I think they really nailed the best of what that band as an entity could have done with that album . " Fish , solo artist and former lead singer of Marillion , has called it " the definitive Genesis album " , praised its " emotive " quality , said the wordplay was " one of the things that became quite an influence on me - the games within the lyrics " and concluded it " took a whole jump forward and was the album that really got me into Genesis " . Singer and songwriter Robert Pollard of Guided by Voices considers Selling England by the Pound one of his ten favourite records of all time . John Lennon said he really liked the album during a radio interview , which the band took great encouragement from . = = = Tour = = = The group went on a sell @-@ out tour of the UK immediately following the album 's release , but had to cancel the first date at the Green Playhouse , Glasgow due to electrical safety issues . The group realised they were substantially in debt and needed better management , so they recruited Tony Smith ( no relation to Charisma Records boss Tony Stratton @-@ Smith ) as their new manager . The tour was filmed by Charisma for a possible cinema release , but was rejected by the band who felt it was not up to standard . The group returned to the U.S. in December 1973 , with three shows at the Roxy in Los Angeles . By this time , Genesis were suffering from press attention being exclusively directed towards frontman Gabriel at the expense of the rest of the band , a notable factor that ultimately led to Gabriel leaving the group in 1975 . They took an extended break in 1974 following the Selling England by the Pound tour ; Collins joined a side project , Brand X , while Rutherford worked with former Genesis guitarist Anthony Phillips . Several tracks continued to feature in Genesis ' live set after Collins became the group 's full @-@ time lead singer . The instrumental section of " The Cinema Show " became part of a medley with The Lamb Lies Down On Broadway 's " In the Cage " and remained a fixture of the band 's live set up to the Invisible Touch Tour in 1987 . Versions of " Firth of Fifth " , " I Know What I Like " and " The Cinema Show " appeared on the live album Seconds Out ( 1977 ) , while portions of " Firth of Fifth " and " I Know What I Like " featured as part of the " Old Medley " on The Way We Walk , Volume Two : The Longs ( 1993 ) . " Firth of Fifth " was performed as a one @-@ off reunion with Gabriel at the ' Six of the Best ' concert in 1982 = = Track listing = = All tracks written by Tony Banks , Phil Collins , Peter Gabriel , Steve Hackett and Mike Rutherford . All tracks produced by Genesis and John Burns . = = Personnel = = Taken from the sleeve notes Genesis Peter Gabriel – vocals , flute , oboe , percussion Tony Banks – keyboards , Hammond organ , piano , ARP Pro Soloist synthesizer , Mellotron , 12 @-@ string guitar Steve Hackett – electric guitar , nylon guitar Michael Rutherford – 12 @-@ string guitar , bass , electric sitar Phil Collins – drums , percussion , lead vocals on " More Fool Me " , backing vocals Production John Burns – producer , engineer Rhett Davies – assistant engineer Betty Swanwick – cover painting = = Certifications = =

= Devasena = Devasena is a Hindu goddess and the first wife of the god Kartikeya , also known as Murugan in South Indian traditions . She is known as Devayanai , Deivanai or Deivayanai in south @-@ Indian texts . Her name is also spelled as Teyvanai or Tevayanai ( Teyvāṉai ) . Devasena is often described as the daughter of Indra , the king of the gods . She is betrothed to Kartikeya by Indra , when he becomes the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the gods . In south @-@ Indian accounts , Devasena is generally depicted as an antithesis of Valli , her co @-@ wife ; together they complete the god . Devasena is generally depicted with Kartikeya and often is also accompanied by Valli . Devasena does not enjoy independent worship , but is worshipped as Kartikeya 's consort in most of his temples . She plays a greater role in the Tirupparankunram Murugan Temple , believed to be the site of her marriage . = = Etymology = = The Sanskrit name of the goddess Devasena means " army of the gods " and thus , her husband is known as Devasenapati ( " Lord of Devasena " ) . The epithet Devasenapati is a pun which also conveys his role as commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the gods . She is called Deivanai or Deivayanai ( Tamil , literally meaning " celestial elephant " ) , as she was raised by Indra 's divine elephant Airavata . = = Legends and textual references = = In North India , Kartikeya is generally considered as celibate and unmarried . Sanskrit scriptures generally regard only Devasena as the consort of Kartikeya , while in South India , he has two consorts , Devayanai ( Devasena ) and Valli . Devasena is described as daughter of the king of the gods , Indra and his wife Shachi or at least the adopted daughter of Indra . The third book of Mahabharata narrates the tale of the birth of Kartikeya which mentions Devasena . Devasena and Daityasena ( literally " army of demons " ) are the daughters of Prajapati Daksha . Once , while the sisters are enjoying leisure at the banks of Lake Manasa , the asura ( demon ) Keshi abducts them so that he could marry them . While Devasena refuses , Daityasena consents . Meanwhile , the gods are defeated in a battle by the demons . Indra , who is searching for an ideal Devasenapati ( commander of the army of the gods ) , reaches the place where Devasena is held captive . On her request , Indra defeats the demon and rescues her . Devasena asks Indra to find her a husband ( pati ) who can protect her and defeat the gods , the demons and the yakshas . Indra discusses the matter with the god Brahma and they agree that a son born of Agni would be suitable for being the Devasenapati , the husband of Devasena and the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the gods . Accordingly , Agni is forced to have a son , who becomes Kartikeya . After many exploits which prove his supremacy over the gods , Kartikeya is made the general of the army of the gods and is married to Devasena by Indra . At this point in the text , Agni is identified with Shiva , who is proclaimed as the father of Kartikeya . Ultimately , with the aid of Devasena and Kartikeya , the gods defeat the demons . In this narrative , Devasena is identified with many other goddesses like Shashthi , Shri @-@ Lakshmi , Kuhu @-@ Sinivali and others . The south @-@ Indian manuscripts of the Sanskrit scripture Skanda Purana mentions Devasena and Valli as daughters of the god Vishnu in a previous life . Thus , Kartikeya is regarded as the son @-@ in @-@ law of Vishnu as their husband . An interpolation in the southern recensions of the scripture as well as the Kanda Purana ( the Tamil version of the Sanskrit Skanda Purana ) narrate the story of the marriage of the two maidens to Kartikeya . The two maidens are fated to be married to the god . The elder sister Devasena is born as Amritavalli . She follows the path of traditional Hindu rituals and practices to gain her husband . Appeased by her penance , Indra adopts her as his daughter and marries her to Kartikeya in an arranged marriage , following custom , after Kartikeya triumphs over the demons . The Kanda Purana describes Devayanai ( Devasena ) as the daughter of Indra , without any mention of adoption . The couple is described as taking their abode in the hills of Thiruttani , where one of Murugan 's chief temples , Thiruthani Murugan Temple , stands . Another version describes the couple as residing in heaven , the abode of the gods . Meanwhile , Valli is born as Sundaravalli . She is adopted by a tribal chieftain and grows up as a huntress . Murugan wins Valli 's hand and takes her to Thiruttani . The god is worshipped at the Thiruthani temple , flanked by Devasena on his left and Valli on his right . In the end , the trio settles in the abode of the gods and lives in harmony thereafter . An alternate ending found in Sri Lankan lore describes Murugan as staying on in the forest with Valli after their wedding at Kataragama , where his temple stands . Devayanai tries in vain to compel the god to return to the abode of the gods , but finally joins Kartikeya and Valli to reside in Kataragama . Unlike the Skanda Purana which talks about harmony between Devasena and Valli , the Paripatal – part of Tamil Sangam literature – speaks about conflict , resulting in a battle between Devayanai 's royal soldiers and Valli 's hunter clan , which the latter win . Folk ecal ( a folk poem , presented as a dialogue of two persons ) tradition also talks about the mistrust and quarrel between the co @-@ wives . In one version - where Devayanai is the elder sister of Valli , Valli tries to woo Murugan , before Devayanai 's marriage . As per tradition , the elder sister has to be married off first . Infuriated , Devayanai curses Valli to be born in the forest in her next life , and the curse is then fulfilled when Valli is born as a huntress . In the Jayantipura Mahatmya , the details of which correspond to most of those found in the Skanda Purana tale , Devasena and Valli are married to Kartikeya from primal times . However in this version , the god condemns Valli to be born on earth as punishment for mocking her sister Devayanai . The Thirumurugatrupadai from Sangam literature describes Murugan being accompanied by his chaste wife Devayanai and honoured by a procession of gods and rishis ( sages ) . = = Iconography = = Deivanai is generally depicted with her husband , particularly in an iconographic form called Senapati . She sits on the left thigh of the six @-@ headed and twelve @-@ armed Kartikeya . One of his arms holds her waist . Numerous depictions of the two exist at Tirupparankunram , the location of their marriage . However , in many south @-@ Indian representations , when Murugan is depicted only with one consort , Valli is favoured over Devasena . In most South @-@ Indian depictions , Murugan is depicted with both his consorts standing besides him ; Devasena is on his left @-@ hand side . Her complexion is yellow ; she is often depicted adorned with a crown , earrings , necklaces and ornaments . She wears a traditional sari and has two arms . She holds a lotus in her left arm , while his right hand hangs down . = = Symbolism = = The presence of the two consorts is said to denote the dual nature of Murugan , as the god of heaven and earth . Devasena , the celestial wife , is married in a traditional arranged marriage while the earthy Valli is won by Murugan , resulting in a love marriage . The consorts also represent a syncretism between Shaiva and Vaishnava sects , dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu respectively . The son of Shiva , Kartikeya , becomes the son @-@ in @-@ law of Vishnu , due to the marriages . Both the consorts are identified with the soul ( Atman ) , while their husband ( pati , Lord ) represents God . The marriage of Devasena conveys Shaiva ideals , where the soul ( Devasena ) remains detached from God ; she has her own relative autonomy and earns the love of the god by her own merit . In contrast , the Vaishnava philosophy says that God is attached to the soul ( Valli ) and hence he woos her . The Paripatal contains a Tamil panegyric dedicated to Murugan . It praises him as the god who is allowed to have two wives , Devasena – the daughter of Indra and Valli , a hunter princess . Murugan is described to equally spend his time on earth and in heaven . This is also conveyed by his wives , Devasena is a daughter of the heavens , while Valli is an earthly maiden . Another interpretation regards the trio as the three eyes of Shiva . Devasena and Valli are representations of kriya shakti ( the power of action ) and Iccha @-@ shakti ( will @-@ power ) respectively ; while their Lord Kartikeya is the third eye , the symbol of the transcendental jnana @-@ shakti ( the power of knowledge ) . In Tamil literature , two kinds of love are mentioned : karpu ( " chastity " ) , love bound in the traditional marriage , represented by Devasena and kalavu , love before marriage , conveyed by Valli . Devasena represents " the conventional , control , ritualized approach to worship " God , while Valli is worship through " ecstasy and self @-@ abandonment " . Devasena is the epitome of chastity and purity . In trinity of gunas , she is the middle guna – Rajas , symbolizing " rulership , fixity , and stability " . Kartikeya is the most superior Sattva ( pure ) , while Valli is the inferior tamas ( dark ) . = = Worship = = Tirupparankunram Murugan Temple in Tirupparankunram near Madurai is dedicated to Murugan and Devayanai . It is believed that she was married to the god at this location . A festival icon depicts the god seated close to his divine consort . The Latankovil temple at Yanaimalai is one of the earliest temples dedicated to the divine couple . Devasena and Valli , the consorts of Murugan , do not have independent temples dedicated to them . Their images are installed in shrines of Murugan , where they flank their Lord on either side . They are worshipped with Murugan and receive offerings as part of his worship ( see Puja ( Hinduism ) ) . A fast is observed on Tuesdays to placate the consort goddesses . Festival icons of Murugan used during temple festival processions generally depict him with his consorts .

= Cincinnati chili = Cincinnati chili ( or Cincinnati @-@ style chili ) is a Mediterranean @-@ spiced meat sauce used as a topping for spaghetti ( a " two @-@ way " ) or hot dogs ( " coneys " ) , both dishes developed by Macedonian immigrant restaurateurs in the 1920s . Ingredients include ground beef , stock , tomato paste , cinnamon , other Mediterranean spices and sometimes chocolate in a soup @-@ like consistency . Other toppings include cheese , onions , and beans ; specific combinations of toppings are known as " ways " . The name " Cincinnati chili " is often confusing to those unfamiliar with it , who expect the dish to be similar to chili con carne ; as a result , it is common for those encountering it for the first time to conclude it is a poor example of chili . While served in many local restaurants , it is most often associated with the over 250 " chili parlors " , restaurants specializing in Cincinnati chili , found throughout greater Cincinnati with franchise locations throughout Ohio and in Kentucky , Indiana , and Florida . The dish is the area 's best @-@ known regional food . = = Origins and history = = Cincinnati chili originated with immigrant restaurateurs from the Macedonian region who were trying to expand their customer base by moving beyond narrowly ethnic styles of cuisine . Tom and John Kiradjieff began serving a " stew with traditional Mediterranean spices " as a topping for hot dogs which they called " coneys " in 1922 at their hot dog stand located next to a burlesque theater called the Empress . Tom Kiradjieff used the sauce to modify a traditional Greek dish , speculated to have been pastitsio , moussaka or saltsa kima to come up with a dish he called chili spaghetti . He first developed a recipe calling for the spaghetti to be cooked in the chili but changed his method in response to customer requests and began serving the sauce as a topping , eventually adding grated cheese as a topping for both the chili spaghetti and the coneys , also in response to customer requests . To make ordering more efficient , the brothers created the " way " system of ordering . The style has since been copied and modified by many other restaurant proprietors , often fellow Greek and Macedonian immigrants who had worked at Empress restaurants before leaving to open their own chili parlors , often following the business model to the point of locating their restaurants adjacent to theaters . Empress was the largest chili parlor chain in Cincinnati until 1949 , when a former Empress employee and Greek immigrant , Nicholas Lambrinides , started Skyline Chili . In 1965 , four brothers named Daoud , immigrants from Jordan , bought a restaurant called Hamburger Heaven from a former Empress employee , noticed the Cincinnati chili was outselling the hamburgers on their menu , and changed the restaurant 's name to Gold Star Chili . As of 2015 Skyline ( over 130 locations ) and Gold Star ( 89 locations ) were the largest Cincinnati chili parlor chains , while Empress had only two remaining locations , down from over a dozen during the chain 's most successful period . Besides Empress , Skyline , and Gold Star , there are also smaller chains such as Dixie Chili and Deli and numerous independents including the acclaimed Camp Washington Chili , probably the most well @-@ known of the independents . Other independents include Pleasant Ridge Chili , Blue Ash Chili , Park Chili Parlor , Price Hill Chili , and the Blue Jay Restaurant , in all totalling more than 250 chili parlors . In addition to the chili parlors , some version of Cincinnati chili is commonly served at many local restaurants . Arnold 's Bar and Grill , the oldest bar in the city , serves a vegetarian " Cincy Lentils " dish ordered in " ways " . Melt Eclectic Cafe offers a vegan 3 @-@ way . The history of Cincinnati chili shares many factors in common with the apparently independent but simultaneous development of the Coney Island hot dog in other areas of the United States . " Virtually all " were developed by Greek or Macedonian immigrants who passed through Ellis Island as they fled the fallout from the Balkan Wars in the first two decades of the twentieth century . = = Preparation and ordering = = Raw ground beef is crumbled in water and / or stock , tomato paste and seasonings are added , and the mixture is brought to a boil and then simmered for several hours to form a thin meat sauce . Many recipes call for an overnight chill in the refrigerator to allow for easy skimming of fat and to allow flavors to develop , then reheating to serve . Typical proportions are 2 pounds of ground beef to 4 cups of water and 6 oz tomato paste to make 8 servings . = = = The " way " system = = = Ordering Cincinnati chili is based on a specific ingredient series : chili , spaghetti , grated cheddar cheese , diced onions , and kidney beans . The number before the " way " of the chili determines which ingredients are included in each chili order . Customers order a : Two @-@ way : spaghetti topped with chili ( also called " chili spaghetti " ) Three @-@ way : spaghetti , chili , and cheese Four @-@ way : spaghetti , chili , cheese , and onions Four @-@ way bean : spaghetti , chili , cheese , and beans ( beans substituted for the onions ) Five @-@ way : spaghetti , chili , cheese , onions , and beans Some restaurants , among them Skyline and Gold Star , do not use the term " four @-@ way bean " , instead using the term " four @-@ way " to denote a three @-@ way plus the customer 's choice of onions or beans . Some restaurants may add extra ingredients to the " way " system ; for example , Dixie Chili offers a " six @-@ way " , which adds chopped garlic to a five @-@ way . " Ways " are traditionally served in a shallow oval bowl . Cincinnati chili is also used as a hot dog topping to make a " coney " , a regional variation on the Coney Island chili dog , which is topped with grated cheddar cheese to make a " cheese coney " . The standard coney also includes mustard and chopped onion . The " Three @-@ way " and the " Cheese Coney " are the most popular orders and very few customers order a bowl of plain chili . Most chili parlors do not offer plain chili as a regular menu item . Oyster crackers are usually served with Cincinnati chili , and a mild hot sauce such as Tabasco is frequently used as an optional topping . = = Misnomer = = The name " Cincinnati chili " is often confusing to those unfamiliar with it because the term " chili " evokes the expectation of chili con carne , which it " bears no resemblance to . " Cincinnati chili is a Mediterranean @-@ spiced meat sauce for spaghetti or hot dogs and is very seldom eaten by the bowl as is typical with chili con carne . It is common for Cincinnatians to describe it starting with , " Well , it 's not really chili ... " Cincinnati chili is always seasoned with cinnamon , usually contains allspice and cloves , and often contains some combination of cumin , paprika , nutmeg , and / or chili pepper . Many copycat recipes call for a small amount of chocolate , but according to Dann Woellert , author of The Authentic History of Cincinnati Chili , " There is no chili parlor in Cincinnati that uses chocolate in its chili . " It is normally of a thin consistency , closer to a soup than a stew , and contains no chunks of meat or vegetables , though it is common to find large pieces of cayenne pepper hulls in Empress chili . The consistency , seasonings , and serving method are more similar to pasta sauce or the spiced meat sauces used to top hot dogs in Rochester and other parts of Upstate New York , Rhode Island , and Michigan than they are to chili con carne . = = Reception = = Cincinnati chili is the area 's " best known regional food " . According to the Greater Cincinnati Convention and Visitors Bureau , Cincinnatians consume more than 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lb ( 910 @,@ 000 kg ) of Cincinnati chili each year , topped by 850 @,@ 000 lb ( 390 @,@ 000 kg ) of shredded cheddar cheese . Overall industry revenues were $ 250 million in 2014 . National food critics Jane and Michael Stern wrote , " As connoisseurs of blue @-@ plate food , we consider Cincinnati chili one of America 's quintessential meals " and " one of this nation 's most distinctive regional plates of food " . Huffington Post named it one of " 15 Beloved Regional Dishes " . In 2000 , Camp Washington Chili won a James Beard Foundation America 's Classics Award . In 2013 , Smithsonian named Cincinnati chili one of " 20 Most Iconic Foods in America " , calling out Camp Washington Chili as their destination of choice . John McIntyre , writing in the Baltimore Sun , called it " the most perfect of fast foods " , and , referring to the misnomer , opined that " if the Greeks who invented it nearly a century ago had called it something other than chili , the [ chili ] essentialists would be able to enjoy it " . In 2015 , Thrillist named it " the one food you must eat in Ohio . " It is common for those unfamiliar with it , confused by the misnomer and expecting chili con carne , to " scorn it " as a poor example of chili . Deadspin went so far as to call it " horrifying diarrhea sludge " . = = In popular culture = = Country music duo Big & Rich sang about flying through Cincinnati and grabbing a bowl of Skyline chili in their song Comin ' to Your City on the 2005 album of the same name . Blues musician Lonnie Mack sang a song called Camp Washington Chili on his 1986 album Second Sight . Cincinnati chili is used allegorically as a symbol for vapid social interaction and social disconnection in the 2015 animated film Anomalisa , as the main character when on a business trip to Cincinnati is exhorted in multiple banal encounters to try the local specialty . = = Similar dishes = = Chili dog , the generic term for a hot dog topped with meat sauce Chili John 's , founded in Green Bay , Wisconsin by a Lithuanian immigrant , offers " Green Bay chili " , a dish similar to a five @-@ way created in 1913 Coney Island hot dog , a dish similar to a coney developed by Greek and Macedonian immigrants , apparently independently , across the Midwest

= 2011 – 12 Ivy League men 's basketball season = The 2011 – 12 Ivy League men 's basketball season marked the continuation of the annual tradition of competitive basketball among Ivy League members that began when the league was formed during the 1956 – 57 season , continuing from the predecessor Eastern Intercollegiate Basketball League , which was formed in 1902 . Harvard was the preseason favorite for the first time and spent most of the season receiving vote in the 2011 – 12 national rankings . The season marked the first time that four Ivy League teams ( Harvard , Penn , Princeton and Yale ) participated in the postseason . The season marked the second time that the Ivy League had three 20 @-@ win teams ( Harvard , Penn and Princeton ) . Zack Rosen earned Ivy League Men 's Basketball Player of the Year and earned Associated Press All @-@ American honorable mention recognition . Reggie Willhite was Ivy League Defensive Player of the Year and Shonn Miller was the Conference Rookie of the Year . In addition to Rosen , Ian Hummer was a unanimous first team All @-@ Ivy League selection . The conference had two Academic All @-@ America honorees ( Matthew Sullivan and Chris Wroblewski ) and a Lowe 's Senior CLASS Award finalist ( Rosen ) . = = Preseason = = Entering the 2011 – 12 NCAA Division I men 's basketball season head coach Mitch Henderson began his tenure at Princeton . Greg Mangano was one of 22 USA Basketball invitees to the USA Basketball Men 's World University Games Team training camp to select the team for the 2011 Summer Universiade held at Shenzhen , Guangdong , China . He competed in basketball at the 2011 Summer Universiade , becoming the first Men 's Ivy League Basketball World University Games participant since Bill Bradley . Jeremiah Kreisberg was named to the Israeli team for the FIBA Europe Under @-@ 20 Championship Division B held in Bosnia and Herzegovina . He played in 6 of the team 's 8 games , leading the team in scoring and finishing second in rebounds . Preseason publications predicted Harvard would finish in first place . For the first time in school history , the Ivy League media panel selected Harvard as its first place choice . Princeton and Yale finished tied for second . = = Season = = By returning all of their key players from the 2010 – 11 Ivy League co @-@ champion 2010 – 11 Crimson and competing successfully , Harvard received votes in the 2011 – 12 NCAA Division I men 's basketball rankings polls every week until the final week of the season and was ranked for many weeks . Harvard represented the Ivy League by sweeping its three contests and emerging victorious in the 2011 Battle 4 Atlantis . Among the highlights of the season were victories by both Harvard and Princeton over eventual 2012 ACC Men 's Basketball Tournament Champion Florida State . Zack Rosen finished the season as the Ivy League Men 's Basketball Player of the Year . Following the annual 14 @-@ game round robin home & home schedule , Harvard emerged as champion and earned the conference 's automatic bid to the 2012 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament . Harvard entered the tournament as a number 12 seed , making its first NCAA tournament appearance since 1946 . Princeton and Penn were invited to the 2012 College Basketball Invitational . Yale was invited to the 2012 CollegeInsider.com Tournament . The season marked the first time that four Ivy League teams ( Harvard , Penn , Princeton and Yale ) participated in the postseason . The season marked the second time that the Ivy League had three 20 @-@ win teams ( Harvard , Penn and Princeton ) . = = Honors and accolades = = Five players ( Eitan Chemerinski - Jr . , Cornell ; Austin Morgan - Jr . , Yale ; Matthew Sullivan - Jr . , Brown ; Reggie Willhite - Sr. , Yale ; Chris Wroblewski - Sr. Cornell ) were named Academic All @-@ District , meaning that they were among the 40 finalists to be named to the 15 @-@ man Academic All @-@ America Team . Sullivan and Wroblewski were both named third team Academic All @-@ Americans . It was Wrobleski 's second consecutive Academic All @-@ American recognition . Keith Wright was a preseason candidate for the John R. Wooden Award and the Lou Henson Award . Penn 's Zack Rosen , Columbia 's Brian Barbour , Cornell 's Wroblewski and Harvard 's Brandyn Curry were among 65 preseason Cousy Award preseason watchlist candidates . Rosen made the list of 20 finalists . Rosen and Wrobleski were among 30 preseason Lowe 's Senior CLASS Award candidates . Rosen was among the ten finalists . = = = In season = = = Each week the Ivy League selects a player of the week and a rookie of the week . = = = All @-@ Ivy = = = The following players earned Ivy League postseason recognition : = = = USBWA = = = On March 6 , the U.S. Basketball Writers Association released its 2011 – 12 Men 's All @-@ District Teams , based upon voting from its national membership . There were nine regions from coast to coast , and a player and coach of the year were selected in each . The following lists all the Big Ten representatives selected within their respective regions . = = = NABC = = = The National Association of Basketball Coaches announced their Division I All ‐ District teams on March 14 , recognizing the nation ’ s best men ’ s collegiate basketball student @-@ athletes . Selected and voted on by member coaches of the NABC , 240 student @-@ athletes , from 24 districts were chosen . The selection on this list were then eligible for the State Farm Coaches ’ Division I All @-@ America teams . The following list represented the District 13 players chosen to the list . = = = Other = = = Rosen was named an honorable mention Associated Press All @-@ American . Wright was also selected to participate in the NABC 2012 Reese 's Division I All @-@ Star Game at the 2012 NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Tournament final four . = = Rankings = = On December 5 , 2011 , Harvard made its first ever appearance in either the AP ( 25 ) or Coaches Poll ( 24 ) . It leaves Brown as the only remaining Ivy League school to have never been ranked in the AP Poll and leaves only seven schools that have played Division I basketball since the AP Poll began that have never been ranked in it . Harvard is the first Ivy League team ranked in the Coaches Poll since the 2009 – 10 Cornell Big Red and the first Ivy League team ranked in the AP Poll since the 1997 – 98 Princeton Tigers , who finished 8th in the poll . By January 2 , the team achieved rankings of 22 in the AP Poll and 21 in the Coaches Poll . The team was also ranked 21st in the Coaches Poll On February 6 . Below are Harvard 's rankings for the season : = = Postseason = = = = = NCAA Tournament = = = = = = National Invitation Tournament = = = The Ivy League did not have any entrants in this tournament . = = = College Basketball Invitational = = = = = = CollegeInsider.com Tournament = = =

= Sega Saturn = The Sega Saturn ( セガサターン , Sega Satān ) is a 32 @-@ bit fifth @-@ generation home video game console that was developed by Sega and released on November 22 , 1994 in Japan , May 11 , 1995 in North America , and July 8 , 1995 in Europe as the successor to the successful Sega Genesis . The Saturn has a dual @-@ CPU architecture and eight processors . Its games are in CD @-@ ROM format , and its game library contains several arcade ports as well as original titles . Development of the Saturn began in 1992 , the same year Sega 's groundbreaking 3D Model 1 arcade hardware debuted . Designed around a new CPU from Japanese electronics company Hitachi , another video display processor was incorporated into the system 's design in early 1994 to better compete with Sony 's forthcoming PlayStation . The Saturn was initially successful in Japan , but failed to sell in large numbers in the United States after its surprise May 1995 launch , four months before its scheduled release date . After the debut of the Nintendo 64 in late 1996 , the Saturn rapidly lost market share in the U.S. , where it was discontinued in 1998 . Having sold 9 @.@ 26 million units worldwide , the Saturn is considered a commercial failure . The failure of Sega 's development teams to release a game in the Sonic the Hedgehog series , known in development as Sonic X @-@ treme , has been considered a factor in the console 's poor performance . Although the system is remembered for several well @-@ regarded games , including Nights into Dreams ... , the Panzer Dragoon series , and the Virtua Fighter series , the Saturn 's reputation is mixed due to its complex hardware design and limited third @-@ party support . Sega 's management has been criticized for its decision @-@ making during the system 's development and cancellation . = = History = = = = = Background = = = Released in 1988 , the Genesis ( known as the Mega Drive in Europe and Japan ) was Sega 's entry into the fourth generation of video game consoles . In mid @-@ 1990 , Sega CEO Hayao Nakayama hired Tom Kalinske as president and CEO of Sega of America . Kalinske developed a four @-@ point plan for sales of the Genesis : lower the price of the console , create a U.S.-based team to develop games targeted at the American market , continue aggressive advertising campaigns , and sell Sonic the Hedgehog with the console . The Japanese board of directors initially disapproved of the plan , but all four points were approved by Nakayama , who told Kalinske , " I hired you to make the decisions for Europe and the Americas , so go ahead and do it . " Magazines praised Sonic as one of the greatest games yet made , and Sega 's console finally took off as customers who had been waiting for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System ( SNES ) decided to purchase a Genesis instead . However , the release of a CD @-@ based add @-@ on for the Genesis , the Sega CD ( known as Mega @-@ CD outside of North America ) , had been commercially disappointing . Sega also experienced success with arcade games . In 1992 and 1993 , the company 's new Sega Model 1 arcade system board showcased Sega AM2 's Virtua Racing and Virtua Fighter ( the first 3D fighting game ) , which played a crucial role in popularizing 3D polygonal graphics . In particular , Virtua Fighter garnered praise for its simple three @-@ button control scheme , with the game 's strategy coming from the intuitively observed differences between characters that felt and acted differently rather than the more ornate combos of two @-@ dimensional competitors . Despite its crude visuals — with characters composed of fewer than 1 @,@ 200 polygons — Virtua Fighter 's fluid animation and relatively realistic depiction of distinct fighting styles gave its combatants a lifelike presence considered impossible to replicate with sprites . The Model 1 was an expensive system board , and bringing home releases of its games to the Genesis required more than its hardware could handle . Several alternatives helped to bring Sega 's newest arcade games to the console , such as the Sega Virtua Processor chip used for Virtua Racing , and eventually the Sega 32X add @-@ on . = = = Development = = = Development of the Saturn was supervised by Hideki Sato , Sega 's director and deputy general manager of research and development . According to Sega project manager Hideki Okamura , the Saturn project started over two years before the system was showcased at the Tokyo Toy Show in June 1994 . The name " Saturn " was initially the system 's codename during development in Japan , but was eventually chosen as the official product name . In 1993 , Sega and Japanese electronics company Hitachi formed a joint venture to develop a new CPU for the Saturn , which resulted in the creation of the " SuperH RISC Engine " ( or SH @-@ 2 ) later that year . The Saturn was ultimately designed around a dual @-@ SH2 configuration . According to Kazuhiro Hamada , Sega 's section chief for Saturn development during the system 's conception , " the SH @-@ 2 was chosen for reasons of cost and efficiency . The chip has a calculation system similar to a DSP [ digital signal processor ] , but we realized that a single CPU would not be enough to calculate a 3D world . " Although the Saturn 's design was largely finished before the end of 1993 , reports in early 1994 of the technical capabilities of Sony 's upcoming PlayStation console prompted Sega to include another video display processor ( VDP ) to improve the system 's 2D performance and texture @-@ mapping . CD @-@ ROM @-@ based and cartridge @-@ only versions of the Saturn hardware were considered for simultaneous release at one point during the system 's development , but this idea was discarded due to concerns over the lower quality and higher price of cartridge @-@ based games . According to Kalinske , Sega of America " fought against the architecture of Saturn for quite some time " . Seeking an alternative graphics chip for the Saturn , Kalinske attempted to broker a deal with Silicon Graphics , but Sega Enterprises rejected the proposal . Silicon Graphics subsequently collaborated with Nintendo on the Nintendo 64 . Kalinske , Sony Electronic Publishing 's Olaf Olafsson , and Sony America 's Micky Schulhof had previously discussed development of a joint " Sega / Sony hardware system " , which never came to fruition due to Sega 's desire to create hardware that could accommodate both 2D and 3D visuals and Sony 's competing notion of focusing entirely on 3D technology . Publicly , Kalinske defended the Saturn 's design : " Our people feel that they need the multiprocessing to be able to bring to the home what we 're doing next year in the arcades . " In 1993 , Sega restructured its internal studios in preparation for the Saturn 's launch . To ensure high @-@ quality 3D games would be available early in the Saturn 's life , and to create a more energetic working environment , developers from Sega 's arcade division were instructed to create console games . New teams , such as Panzer Dragoon developer Team Andromeda , were formed during this time . In January 1994 , Sega began to develop an add @-@ on for the Genesis , the Sega 32X , which would serve as a less @-@ expensive entry into the 32 @-@ bit era . The decision to create the add @-@ on was made by Nakayama and widely supported by Sega of America employees . According to former Sega of America producer Scot Bayless , Nakayama was worried that the Saturn would not be available until after 1994 and that the recently released Atari Jaguar would reduce Sega 's hardware sales . As a result , Nakayama ordered his engineers to have the system ready for launch by the end of the year . The 32X would not be compatible with the Saturn , but Sega executive Richard Brudvik @-@ Lindner pointed out that the 32X would play Genesis titles , and had the same system architecture as the Saturn . This was justified by Sega 's statement that both platforms would run at the same time , and that the 32X would be aimed at players who could not afford the more expensive Saturn . According to Sega of America research and development head Joe Miller , the 32X served a role in assisting development teams to familiarize themselves with the dual SH @-@ 2 architecture also used in the Saturn . Because both machines shared many of the same parts and were preparing to launch around the same time , tensions emerged between Sega of America and Sega Enterprises when the Saturn was given priority . = = = Launch = = = Sega released the Saturn in Japan on November 22 , 1994 , at a price of JP ¥ 44 @,@ 800 . Virtua Fighter , a nearly indistinguishable port of the popular arcade game , sold at a nearly one @-@ to @-@ one ratio with the Saturn hardware at launch and was crucial to the system 's early success in Japan . Along with Virtua Fighter , Sega had wanted the launch to include both Clockwork Knight and Panzer Dragoon , but the latter was not ready in time . Aside from Virtua Fighter , the only first @-@ party title available on launch day was Wan Chai Connection . Fueled by the popularity of Virtua Fighter , Sega 's initial shipment of 200 @,@ 000 Saturn units sold out on the first day . Sega waited until the December 3 launch of the PlayStation to ship more units ; when both were sold side @-@ by @-@ side , the Saturn proved to be the more popular system . Meanwhile , the 32X was released on November 21 , 1994 in North America , December 3 , 1994 in Japan , and January 1995 in PAL territories , and was sold at less than half of the Saturn 's launch price . After the holiday season , however , interest in the 32X rapidly declined . 500 @,@ 000 Saturn units were sold in Japan by the end of 1995 ( compared to 300 @,@ 000 PlayStation units ) , and sales exceeded 1 million within the following six months . There were conflicting reports that the PlayStation enjoyed a higher sell @-@ through rate , and the system gradually began to overtake the Saturn in sales during 1995 . Sony attracted many third @-@ party developers to the PlayStation with a liberal $ 10 licensing fee , excellent development tools , and the introduction of a revolutionary 7- to 10 @-@ day order system that allowed publishers to meet demand more efficiently than the 10- to 12 @-@ week lead times for cartridges that had previously been standard in the Japanese video game industry . In March 1995 , Sega of America CEO Tom Kalinske announced that the Saturn would be released in the U.S. on " Saturnday " ( Saturday ) September 2 , 1995 . However , Sega Enterprises mandated an early launch to give the Saturn an advantage over the PlayStation . Therefore , at the first Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) in Los Angeles on May 11 , 1995 , Kalinske gave a keynote presentation for the upcoming Saturn in which he revealed the release price at US $ 399 ( $ 449 including a bundled copy of Virtua Fighter ) , and described the features of the console . Kalinske also revealed that , due to " high consumer demand " , Sega had already shipped 30 @,@ 000 Saturns to Toys " R " Us , Babbage 's , Electronics Boutique , and Software Etc. for immediate release . This announcement upset retailers who were not informed of the surprise release , including Best Buy and Walmart ; KB Toys responded by dropping Sega from its lineup . Sony subsequently unveiled the retail price for the PlayStation : Sony Computer Entertainment America president Steve Race took the stage , said " $ 299 " , and then walked away to applause . The Saturn 's release in Europe also came before the previously announced North American date , on July 8 , 1995 , at a price of GB ₤ 399 @.@ 99 . European retailers and press did not have time to promote the system or its games , leading to poor sales . After its European launch on September 29 , by early November 1995 the PlayStation had already outsold the Saturn by a factor of three in the United Kingdom , where it was reported that Sony allocated ₤ 20 million to market the system during the holiday season compared to Sega 's ₤ 4 million . The Saturn 's U.S. launch was accompanied by a reported $ 50 million advertising campaign that included coverage in publications such as Wired and Playboy . Because of the early launch , the Saturn had only six games ( all published by Sega ) available to start as most third @-@ party games were slated to be released around the original launch date . Virtua Fighter 's relative lack of popularity in the West , combined with a release schedule of only two games between the surprise launch and September 1995 , prevented Sega from capitalizing on the Saturn 's early timing . Within two days of its September 9 , 1995 launch in North America , the PlayStation ( backed by a large marketing campaign ) sold more units than the Saturn had in the five months following its surprise launch , with almost all of the initial shipment of 100 @,@ 000 units being presold in advance , and the rest selling @-@ out across the U.S. A high @-@ quality port of the Namco arcade game Ridge Racer contributed to the PlayStation 's early success , and garnered favorable comparisons in the media to the Saturn version of Sega 's Daytona USA , which was considered inferior to its arcade counterpart . Namco , a longtime arcade competitor with Sega , also unveiled the Namco System 11 arcade board , which was based on raw PlayStation hardware . Although the System 11 was technically inferior to Sega 's Model 2 arcade board , its lower price made it an attractive prospect for smaller arcades . Following a 1994 acquisition of Sega developers , Namco released Tekken for the System 11 and PlayStation . Directed by former Virtua Fighter designer Seiichi Ishii , Tekken was intended to be a fundamentally similar title , with the addition of detailed textures and twice the frame rate . Tekken surpassed Virtua Fighter in popularity due to its superior graphics and nearly arcade @-@ perfect console port , becoming the first million @-@ selling PlayStation title . On October 2 , 1995 Sega announced a Saturn price reduction to $ 299 . Moreover , high @-@ quality Saturn ports of the Sega Model 2 arcade hits Sega Rally Championship , Virtua Cop , and Virtua Fighter 2 ( running at 60 frames per second at a high resolution ) were available by the end of the year — and were generally regarded as superior to any competitors on the PlayStation . Notwithstanding a subsequent increase in Saturn sales during the 1995 holiday season , these games were not enough to reverse the PlayStation 's decisive lead . By 1996 , the PlayStation had a considerably larger library than the Saturn , although Sega hoped to generate increased interest in the Saturn with upcoming exclusives such as Nights into Dreams .... Within its first year , the PlayStation secured over 20 % of the entire U.S. video game market . On the first day of the May 1996 E3 show , Sony announced a PlayStation price reduction to $ 199 ; on the second day of the show Sega announced they were matching this price , even though Saturn hardware was more expensive to manufacture . Sony 's price reduction was in turn a reaction to the release of the Model 2 Saturn in Japan at a price roughly equivalent to $ 199 . = = = Changes at Sega = = = In spite of the launch of the PlayStation and the Saturn , sales of 16 @-@ bit hardware / software continued to account for 64 % of the video game market in 1995 . Sega underestimated the continued popularity of the Genesis , and did not have the inventory to meet demand for the product . Sega was able to capture 43 % of the dollar share of the U.S. video game market and sell more than 2 million Genesis units in 1995 , but Kalinske estimated that " we could have sold another 300 @,@ 000 Genesis systems in the November / December timeframe . " Nakayama 's decision to focus on the Saturn over the Genesis , based on the systems ' relative performance in Japan , has been cited as the major contributing factor in this miscalculation . Due to long @-@ standing disagreements with Sega Enterprises , Kalinske lost most of his interest in his work as CEO of Sega of America . By the spring of 1996 , rumors were circulating that Kalinske planned to leave Sega , and a July 13 article in the press reported speculation that Sega Enterprises was planning significant changes to Sega of America 's management team . On July 16 , 1996 Sega announced that Shoichiro Irimajiri had been appointed chairman and CEO of Sega of America , while Kalinske would be leaving Sega after September 30 of that year . A former Honda executive , Irimajiri had been actively involved with Sega of America since joining Sega in 1993 . Sega also announced that David Rosen and Nakayama had resigned from their positions as chairman and co @-@ chairman of Sega of America , though both men remained with the company . Bernie Stolar , a former executive at Sony Computer Entertainment of America , was named Sega of America 's executive vice president in charge of product development and third @-@ party relations . Stolar , who had arranged a six @-@ month PlayStation exclusivity deal for Mortal Kombat 3 and helped build close relations with Electronic Arts while at Sony , was perceived as a major asset by Sega officials . Finally , Sega of America made plans to expand its PC software business . Stolar was not supportive of the Saturn due to his belief that the hardware was poorly designed , and publicly announced at E3 1997 that " The Saturn is not our future . " While Stolar had " no interest in lying to people " about the Saturn 's prospects , he continued to emphasize quality games for the system , and subsequently reflected that " we tried to wind it down as cleanly as we could for the consumer . " At Sony , Stolar opposed the localization of certain Japanese PlayStation titles that he felt would not represent the system well in North America , and he advocated a similar policy for the Saturn during his time at Sega , although he later sought to distance himself from this perception . These changes were accompanied by a softer image that Sega was beginning to portray in its advertising , including removing the " Sega ! " scream and holding press events for the education industry . Marketing for the Saturn in Japan also changed with the introduction of " Segata Sanshiro " ( played by Hiroshi Fujioka ) as a character in a series of TV advertisements starting in 1997 ; the character would eventually star in a Saturn video game . Temporarily abandoning arcade development , Sega AM2 head Yu Suzuki began developing several Saturn @-@ exclusive games , including a role @-@ playing game in the Virtua Fighter series . Initially conceived as an obscure prototype called " The Old Man and the Peach Tree " and intended to address the flaws of contemporary Japanese RPGs ( such as poor non @-@ player character artificial intelligence routines ) , Virtua Fighter RPG evolved into a planned 11 @-@ part , 45 @-@ hour " revenge epic in the tradition of Chinese cinema " – which Suzuki hoped would become the Saturn 's killer app . The game was eventually released as Shenmue for the Saturn 's successor , the Dreamcast . = = = Cancellation of Sonic X @-@ treme = = = Sega tasked the U.S.-based Sega Technical Institute ( STI ) with developing what would have been the first fully 3D entry in its popular Sonic the Hedgehog series . The game , known as Sonic X @-@ treme , was moved to the Saturn after several prototypes were discarded . Featuring a fisheye lens camera system that caused levels to rotate with Sonic 's movement , the project was set back after Sonic creator Yuji Naka refused to allow the developers access to the engine he created for Nights into Dreams .... Sega Enterprises executives who visited STI in March 1996 were unimpressed by X @-@ treme 's progress , so Nakayama ordered that the entire game be reworked around the engine created specifically for its boss battles , and employees worked between 16 and 20 hours a day in an attempt to meet their December 1996 deadline . After programmer Ofer Alon quit and designer Chris Senn caught pneumonia , the project was cancelled in early 1997 . Sonic Team started work on an original 3D Sonic title for the Saturn ( which eventually became Sonic Adventure ) , but development was shifted to the Dreamcast . STI was officially disbanded in 1996 as a result of changes in management at Sega of America . Journalists and fans have speculated about the impact a completed X @-@ treme might have had on the market . David Houghton of GamesRadar described the prospect of " a good 3D Sonic game " on the Saturn as " a ' What if ... ' situation on a par with the dinosaurs not becoming extinct . " IGN 's Tavis Fahs called X @-@ treme " the turning point not only for Sega 's mascot and their 32 @-@ bit console , but for the entire company " , although he also noted that the game served as " an empty vessel for Sega 's ambitions and the hopes of their fans " . Dave Zdyrko , who operated a prominent website for Saturn fans during the system 's lifespan , offered a more nuanced perspective : " I don 't know if [ X @-@ treme ] could 've saved the Saturn , but ... Sonic helped make the Genesis and it made absolutely no sense why there wasn 't a great new Sonic title ready at or near the launch of the [ Saturn ] " . In a 2007 retrospective , producer Mike Wallis maintained that X @-@ treme " definitely would have been competitive " with Nintendo 's Super Mario 64 . = = = Decline = = = From 1993 to early 1996 , although Sega 's revenue declined as part of an industry @-@ wide slowdown , the company retained control of 38 % of the U.S. video game market ( compared to Nintendo 's 30 % and Sony 's 24 % ) . 800 @,@ 000 PlayStation units were sold in the U.S. by the end of 1995 , compared to 400 @,@ 000 Saturn units . In part due to an aggressive price war , the PlayStation outsold the Saturn by two @-@ to @-@ one in 1996 , while Sega 's 16 @-@ bit sales declined markedly . By the end of 1996 , the PlayStation had sold 2 @.@ 9 million units in the U.S. , more than twice the 1 @.@ 2 million units sold by the Saturn . After the launch of the Nintendo 64 in 1996 , sales of the Saturn and Sega 's 32 @-@ bit software were sharply reduced , while the PlayStation outsold the Saturn by three @-@ to @-@ one in the U.S. market in 1997 . The 1997 release of Final Fantasy VII significantly increased the PlayStation 's popularity in Japan . As of August 1997 , Sony controlled 47 % of the console market , Nintendo controlled 40 % , and Sega controlled only 12 % . Neither price cuts nor high @-@ profile game releases were proving helpful to the Saturn 's success . Reflecting decreased demand for the system , worldwide Saturn shipments during March to September 1997 declined from 2 @.@ 35 million to 600 @,@ 000 versus the same period in 1996 ; shipments in North America declined from 800 @,@ 000 to 50 @,@ 000 . Due to the Saturn 's poor performance in North America , 60 of Sega of America 's 200 employees were laid off in the fall of 1997 . As a result of the company 's deteriorating financial situation , Nakayama resigned as president of Sega in January 1998 in favor of Irimajiri . Stolar would subsequently accede to president of Sega of America . Following five years of generally declining profits , in the fiscal year ending March 31 , 1998 Sega suffered its first parent and consolidated financial losses since its 1988 listing on the Tokyo Stock Exchange . Due to a 54 @.@ 8 % decline in consumer product sales ( including a 75 @.@ 4 % decline overseas ) , the company reported a net loss of ¥ 43 @.@ 3 billion ( US $ 327 @.@ 8 million ) and a consolidated net loss of ¥ 35 @.@ 6 billion ( US $ 269 @.@ 8 million ) . Shortly before announcing its financial losses , Sega revealed that it was discontinuing the Saturn in North America , with the goal of preparing for the launch of its successor . Only 12 Saturn games were released in North America in 1998 ( Magic Knight Rayearth being the final official release ) , compared to 119 in 1996 . The Saturn would last longer in Japan and Europe . Rumors about the upcoming Dreamcast — spread mainly by Sega itself — were leaked to the public before the last Saturn games were released . The Dreamcast was released on November 27 , 1998 in Japan and on September 9 , 1999 in North America . The decision to abandon the Saturn effectively left the Western market without Sega games for over one year . Sega suffered an additional ¥ 42 @.@ 881 billion consolidated net loss in the fiscal year ending March 1999 , and the company announced plans to eliminate 1 @,@ 000 jobs , or nearly one @-@ fourth of its workforce . Worldwide Saturn sales include at least the following amounts in each territory : 5 @.@ 75 million in Japan ( surpassing the Genesis ' sales of 3 @.@ 58 million in the country ) , 1 @.@ 8 million in the United States , 1 million in Europe , and 530 @,@ 000 elsewhere . With lifetime sales of 9 @.@ 26 million units , the Saturn is considered a commercial failure , although its install base in Japan surpassed the Nintendo 64 's 5 @.@ 54 million . Lack of distribution has been cited as a significant factor contributing to the Saturn 's failure , as the system 's surprise launch damaged Sega 's reputation with key retailers . Conversely , Nintendo 's long delay in releasing a 3D console and damage caused to Sega 's reputation by poorly supported add @-@ ons for the Genesis are considered major factors allowing Sony to gain a foothold in the market . = = Technical specifications = = Featuring a total of eight processors the Saturn 's main central processing units are two Hitachi SH @-@ 2 microprocessors clocked at 28 @.@ 6 MHz and capable of 56 MIPS . The system contains a Motorola 68EC000 running at 11 @.@ 3 MHz as a sound controller , a custom sound processor with an integrated Yamaha FH1 DSP running at 22 @.@ 6 MHz capable of up to 32 sound channels with both FM synthesis and 16 @-@ bit PCM sampling at a maximum rate of 44 @.@ 1 kHz , and two video display processors , the VDP1 ( which handles sprites , textures and polygons ) and the VDP2 ( which handles backgrounds ) . Its double @-@ speed CD @-@ ROM drive is controlled by a dedicated Hitachi SH @-@ 1 processor to reduce load times . The Saturn 's System Control Unit ( SCU ) , which controls all buses and functions as a co @-@ processor of the main SH @-@ 2 CPU , has an internal DSP running at 14 @.@ 3 MHz . The Saturn contains a cartridge slot for memory expansion , 16 Mbit of work random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) , 12 Mbit of video RAM , 4 Mbit of RAM for sound functions , 4 Mbit of CD buffer RAM and 256 Kbit ( 32 KB ) of battery backup RAM . Its video output , provided by a stereo AV cable , displays at resolutions from 320 × 224 to 704 × 224 pixels , and is capable of displaying up to 16 @.@ 77 million colors simultaneously . Physically , the Saturn measures 260 mm × 230 mm × 83 mm ( 10 @.@ 2 in × 9 @.@ 1 in × 3 @.@ 3 in ) . The Saturn was sold packaged with an instruction manual , one control pad , a stereo AV cable , and its 100V AC power supply , with a power consumption of approximately 15W . The Saturn had technically impressive hardware at the time of its release , but its complexity made harnessing this power difficult for developers accustomed to conventional programming . The greatest disadvantage was that both CPUs shared the same bus and were unable to access system memory at the same time . Making full use of the 4 kB of cache memory in each CPU was critical to maintaining performance . For example , Virtua Fighter used one CPU for each character , while Nights used one CPU for 3D environments and the other for 2D objects . The Saturn 's Visual Display Processor 2 ( VDP2 ) , which can generate and manipulate backgrounds , has also been cited as one of the system 's most important features . The Saturn 's design elicited mixed commentary among game developers and journalists . Developers quoted by Next Generation in December 1995 described the Saturn as " a real coder 's machine " for " those who love to get their teeth into assembly and really hack the hardware " , with " more flexibility " and " more calculating power than the PlayStation " . The Saturn 's sound board was also widely praised . By contrast , Lobotomy Software programmer Ezra Dreisbach described the Saturn as significantly slower than the PlayStation , whereas Kenji Eno of WARP observed little difference between the two systems . In particular , Dreisbach criticized the Saturn 's use of quadrilaterals as its basic geometric primitive , in contrast to the triangles rendered by the PlayStation and the Nintendo 64 . Third @-@ party development was initially hindered by the lack of useful software libraries and development tools , requiring developers to write in assembly language to achieve good performance . During early Saturn development , programming in assembly could offer a two @-@ to @-@ fivefold speed increase over C language . The Saturn hardware is considered extremely difficult to emulate . Sega responded to complaints about the difficulty of programming for the Saturn by writing new graphics libraries which were claimed to make development easier . Sega of America also purchased a United Kingdom @-@ based development firm , Cross Products , to produce the Saturn 's official development system . Despite these challenges , Treasure CEO Masato Maegawa stated that the Nintendo 64 was more difficult to develop for than the Saturn . Traveller 's Tales ' Jon Burton opined that while the PlayStation was easier " to get started on ... you quickly reach [ its ] limits " , whereas the Saturn 's " complicated " hardware had the ability to " improve the speed and look of a game when all used together correctly . " A major point of criticism was the Saturn 's use of 2D sprites to generate polygons and simulate 3D space . The PlayStation functioned in a similar manner , but also featured a dedicated " Geometry Transfer Engine " that rendered additional polygons . As a result , several analysts described the Saturn as an " essentially " 2D system . Several models of the Saturn were produced in Japan . An updated model in a recolored light gray ( officially white ) was released in Japan at a price of ¥ 20 @,@ 000 in order to reduce the system 's cost and raise its appeal among women and younger children . Two models were released by third parties : Hitachi released a model known as the Hi @-@ Saturn ( a smaller Saturn model equipped with a car navigation function ) , while JVC released the V @-@ Saturn . Saturn controllers came in various color schemes to match different models of the console . The system also supports several accessories . A wireless controller powered by AA batteries utilizes infrared signal to connect to the Saturn . Designed to work with Nights , the Saturn 3D Pad is a fully functional controller that includes both a control pad and an analog stick for directional input . Sega also released several versions of arcade sticks as peripherals , including the Virtua Stick , the Virtua Stick Pro , the Mission Analog Stick , and the Twin Stick . Sega also created a light gun peripheral known as the " Virtua Gun " for use with shooting games such as Virtua Cop and The Guardian , as well as the Arcade Racer , a wheel for racing games . The Play Cable allows for two Saturn consoles to be connected for multiplayer gaming across two screens , while a multitap allows up to six players to play games on the same console . The Saturn was designed to support up to 12 players on a single console , by using two multitaps . RAM cartridges expand the amount of memory in the system . Other accessories include a keyboard , mouse , floppy disk drive , and movie card . Like the Genesis , the Saturn had an Internet @-@ based gaming service . The Sega NetLink was a 28.8k modem that fit into the cartridge slot in the Saturn for direct dial multiplayer . In Japan , a now defunct pay @-@ to @-@ play service was used . It could also be used for web browsing , sending email , and online chat . Because the NetLink was released before the Saturn keyboard , Sega produced a series of CDs containing hundreds of website addresses so that Saturn owners could browse with the joypad . The NetLink functioned with five games : Daytona USA , Duke Nukem 3D , Saturn Bomberman , Sega Rally , and Cyber Troopers Virtual @-@ On : Operation Moongate . Sega allegedly developed a variant of the Saturn featuring a built @-@ in NetLink modem under the code name " Sega Pluto " , but it was never released . Sega developed an arcade board based on the Saturn 's hardware , called the Sega ST @-@ V ( or Titan ) , which was intended as an affordable alternative to Sega 's Model 2 arcade board as well as a testing ground for upcoming Saturn software . The Titan was criticized for its comparatively weak performance by Sega AM2 's Yu Suzuki and was overproduced by Sega 's arcade division . Because Sega already possessed the Die Hard license , members of Sega AM1 working at the Sega Technical Institute developed Die Hard Arcade for the Titan , in order to clear out excess inventory . This goal was achieved , as Die Hard became the most successful Sega arcade game produced in the United States at that point . Other games released for the Titan include Golden Axe : The Duel and Virtua Fighter Kids . = = Game library = = Much of the Saturn 's library comes from Sega 's arcade ports , including Daytona USA , The House of the Dead , Last Bronx , Sega Rally Championship , the Virtua Cop series , the Virtua Fighter series , and Virtual @-@ On . The Saturn ports of 2D Capcom fighting games including Darkstalkers 3 , Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter , and Street Fighter Alpha 3 were noted for their faithfulness to their arcade counterparts . Fighters Megamix , developed by Sega AM2 for the Saturn rather than arcades , combined characters from Fighting Vipers and Virtua Fighter to positive reviews . Highly rated Saturn exclusives include Panzer Dragoon Saga , Dragon Force , Guardian Heroes , Nights , Panzer Dragoon II Zwei , and Shining Force III . Although originally made for the PlayStation , games such as Castlevania : Symphony of the Night , Resident Evil , and Wipeout 2097 received Saturn ports with mixed results . Tomb Raider was created with the Saturn in mind , but the PlayStation version ultimately became better known to the public . Lobotomy Software 's PowerSlave featured some of the most impressive 3D graphics on the system , leading Sega to contract the developer to produce Saturn ports of Duke Nukem 3D and Quake . While Electronic Arts ' limited support for the Saturn and Sega 's failure to develop a football game for the 1996 fall season allowed Sony to take the lead in the sports genre , " Sega Sports " published Saturn sports games including the well @-@ regarded World Series Baseball and Sega Worldwide Soccer series . With about 600 official releases , the Saturn 's library is nearly twice as large as the Nintendo 64 's . Due to the cancellation of Sonic X @-@ treme , the Saturn lacks an exclusive Sonic the Hedgehog platformer , containing only a graphically enhanced port of the Genesis title Sonic 3D Blast , the compilation Sonic Jam , and a racing game called Sonic R. The platformer Bug ! received attention for its eponymous main character being a potential mascot for the Saturn , but it failed to catch on as the Sonic series had . Considered one of the most important Saturn releases , Sonic Team developed Nights into Dreams ... , a score attack game that attempted to simulate both the joy of flying and the fleeting sensation of dreams . The gameplay of Nights involves steering the imp @-@ like androgynous protagonist , Nights , as it flies on a mostly 2D plane across surreal stages broken into four segments each . The levels repeat for as long as an in @-@ game time limit allows , while flying over or looping around various objects in rapid succession earns additional points . Although it lacked the fully 3D environments of Nintendo 's Super Mario 64 , Nights ' emphasis on unfettered movement and graceful acrobatic techniques showcased the intuitive potential of analog control . Sonic Team 's Burning Rangers , a fully 3D action @-@ adventure game involving a team of outer @-@ space firefighters , garnered praise for its transparency effects and distinctive art direction , but was released in limited quantities late in the Saturn 's lifespan and criticized for its short length . Some of the games that made the Saturn popular in Japan , such as Grandia and the Sakura Wars series , never saw a Western release due to Sega of America 's policy of not localizing RPGs and other Japanese titles that might have damaged the system 's reputation in North America . Despite appearing first on the Saturn , games such as Dead or Alive , Grandia , and Lunar : Silver Star Story Complete only saw a Western release on the PlayStation . Working Designs localized several Japanese Saturn games before a public feud between Sega of America 's Bernie Stolar and Working Designs president Victor Ireland resulted in the company switching their support to the PlayStation . Panzer Dragoon Saga was praised as perhaps the finest RPG for the system due to its cinematic presentation , evocative plot , and unique battle system — with a tactical emphasis on circling around opponents to identify weak points and the ability to " morph " the physical attributes of the protagonist 's dragon companion during combat — but Sega released fewer than 20 @,@ 000 retail copies of the game in North America in what IGN 's Levi Buchanan characterized as one example of the Saturn 's " ignominious send @-@ off " in the region . Similarly , only the first of three installments of Shining Force III was released outside Japan . The Saturn 's library also garnered criticism for its lack of sequels to high @-@ profile Genesis @-@ era Sega franchises , with Sega Enterprises ' cancellation of a planned third installment in Sega of America 's popular Eternal Champions series cited as a significant source of controversy . Later ports of Saturn games including Guardian Heroes , Nights , and Shin Megami Tensei : Devil Summoner : Soul Hackers continued to garner positive reviews . Partly due to rarity , Saturn titles such as Panzer Dragoon Saga and Radiant Silvergun have been noted for their cult following . Due to the system 's commercial failure and hardware limitations , planned Saturn versions of games such as Resident Evil 2 , Shenmue , Sonic Adventure , and Virtua Fighter 3 were cancelled and moved to the Dreamcast . = = Reception and legacy = = At the time of its release , Famicom Tsūshin awarded the Saturn console 24 out of 40 possible points , higher than the PlayStation 's 19 out of 40 . In June 1995 , Dennis Lynch of the Chicago Tribune and Albert Kim of Entertainment Weekly both praised the Saturn as the most advanced gaming console available , with the former complimenting its double @-@ speed CD @-@ ROM drive and " intense surround @-@ sound capabilities " and the latter citing Panzer Dragoon as a " lyrical and exhilarating epic " demonstrating the ability of new technology to " transform " the industry . In December 1995 , Next Generation evaluated the system with three and a half stars out of a possible five , highlighting Sega 's marketing and arcade background as strengths but the system 's complexity as a weakness . Electronic Gaming Monthly 's December 1996 Buyer 's Guide had four reviewers rate the Saturn 8 , 6 , 7 , and 8 out of 10 ; these ratings were inferior to those of the PlayStation , which was scored 9 , 10 , 9 , and 9 in the same review . By December 1998 , Electronic Gaming Monthly 's reviews were more mixed , with reviewers citing the lack of titles for the system as a major issue . According to EGM reviewer Crispin Boyer , " the Saturn is the only system that can thrill me one month and totally disappoint me the next . " Retrospective feedback of the Saturn is mixed , but generally praises its game library . According to Greg Sewart of 1UP.com , " the Saturn will go down in history as one of the most troubled , and greatest , systems of all time . " In 2009 , IGN chose the Saturn to be their 18th best video game console of all time , praising its unique game library . According to the reviewers , " While the Saturn ended up losing the popularity contest to both Sony and Nintendo ... Nights into Dreams , the Virtua Fighter and Panzer Dragoon series are all examples of exclusive titles that made the console a fan favorite . " The staff of Edge noted " hardened loyalists continue to reminisce about the console that brought forth games like Burning Rangers , Guardian Heroes , Dragon Force and Panzer Dragoon Saga . " In 2015 , The Guardian 's Keith Stuart declared " the Saturn has perhaps the strongest line up of 2D shooters and fighting games in console history . " Retro Gamer 's Damien McFerran stated " Even today , despite the widespread availability of sequels and re @-@ releases on other formats , the Sega Saturn is still a worthwhile investment for those who appreciate the unique gameplay styles of the companies that supported it . " IGN 's Adam Redsell wrote " [ Sega 's ] devil @-@ may @-@ care attitude towards game development in the Saturn and Dreamcast eras is something that we simply do not see outside of the indie scene today . " Necrosoft Games director Brandon Sheffield expounded that " The Saturn was a landing point for games that were too ' adult ' in content for other systems , as it was the only one that allowed an 18 + rating for content in Japan ... some games , like Enemy Zero used it to take body horror to new levels , an important step toward the expansion of games and who they served . " Sewart praised the Saturn 's first @-@ party titles as " Sega 's shining moment as a game developer " , with Sonic Team demonstrating its creative range and AM2 producing numerous technically impressive arcade ports , but also commented on the many Japan @-@ exclusive Saturn releases , which he connected with a subsequent boom in the game import market . IGN 's Travis Fahs was critical of the Saturn library 's lack of " fresh ideas " and " precious few high @-@ profile franchises " , in contrast to what he described as Sega 's more creative Dreamcast output . Criticism has befallen Sega 's management regarding both the creation and handling of the Saturn . McFerran criticizes Sega 's management at the time of the Saturn 's development , claiming that they had " fallen out of touch with both the demands of the market and the industry " . Bernie Stolar has also been criticized for his decision to end support for the Saturn . According to Fahs , " Stolar 's decision to abandon the Saturn made him a villain to many Sega fans , but ... it was better to regroup than to enter the next fight battered and bruised . Dreamcast would be Stolar 's redemption . " Stolar has defended his decision , stating , " I felt Saturn was hurting the company more than helping it . That was a battle that we weren 't going to win . " Sheffield stated that the Saturn 's use of quadrilaterals undermined third @-@ party support for the system , but because " nVidia invested in quads " at the same time there is " a remote possibility " they could have " become the standard instead of triangles " — " if somehow , magically , the Saturn were the most popular console of that era . " Speaking more positively of the system , former Working Designs president Victor Ireland described the Saturn as " the start of the future of console gaming " because it " got the better developers thinking and designing with parallel @-@ processing architecture in mind for the first time " . Writing for GamesRadar , Justin Towell noted that the Saturn 's 3D Pad " set the template for every successful controller that followed , with analog shoulder triggers and left thumbstick ... I don 't see any three @-@ pronged controllers around the office these days . " Douglass C. Perry of Gamasutra notes that , from its surprise launch to its ultimate failure , the Saturn " soured many gamers on Sega products . " Sewart and IGN 's Levi Buchanan cited the failure of the Saturn as the major reason for Sega 's downfall as a hardware manufacturer , but USgamer 's Jeremy Parish described the Saturn as " more a symptom ... than a cause " of the company 's decline , which began with add @-@ ons for the Genesis that fragmented the market and continued with Sega of America and Sega Enterprises ' competing designs for the Dreamcast . Sheffield portrayed Sega 's mistakes with the Saturn as emblematic of the broader decline of the Japanese gaming industry : " They thought they were invincible , and that structure and hierarchy were necessary for their survival , but more flexibility , and a greater participation with the West could have saved them . " According to Stuart , Sega " didn 't see ... the roots of a prevailing trend , away from arcade conversions and traditional role @-@ playing adventures and toward a much wider console development community with fresh ideas about gameplay and structure . " Pulp365 reviews editor Matt Paprocki concluded " the Saturn is a relic , but an important one , which represents the harshness of progress and what it can leave in its wake " .

= Yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo = The yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo ( Calyptorhynchus funereus ) is a large cockatoo native to the south @-@ east of Australia measuring 55 – 65 cm ( 22 – 26 in ) in length . It has a short crest on the top of its head . Its plumage is mostly brownish black and it has prominent yellow cheek patches and a yellow tail band . The body feathers are edged with yellow giving a scalloped appearance . The adult male has a black beak and pinkish @-@ red eye @-@ rings , and the female has a bone @-@ coloured beak and grey eye @-@ rings . In flight , yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoos flap deeply and slowly , and with a peculiar heavy fluid motion . Their loud eerie wailing calls carry for long distances . The yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo is found in forested regions from south and central eastern Queensland to southeastern South Australia including a very small population persisting in the Eyre Peninsula . Two subspecies are recognised , although Tasmanian and southern mainland populations of the southern subspecies xanthanotus may be distinct enough from each other to bring the total to three . Birds of subspecies funereus ( Queensland to eastern Victoria ) have longer wings and tails and darker plumage overall , while those of xanthanotus ( western Victoria , South Australia and Tasmania ) have more prominent scalloping . Unlike other cockatoos , a large proportion of the yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo 's diet is made up of wood @-@ boring grubs , and they also eat seeds . They nest in hollows situated high in trees with fairly large diameters , generally Eucalyptus . Although , they remain common throughout much of their range , fragmentation of habitat and loss of large trees suitable for nesting has caused a population decline in Victoria and South Australia . In some places yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoos appear to have adapted to humans and they can often be seen in parts of urban Sydney and Melbourne . It is not commonly seen in aviculture , especially outside Australia . Like most parrots , it is protected by CITES , an international agreement , that makes trade , export , and import of listed wild @-@ caught species illegal . = = Taxonomy and naming = = The yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo was first described in 1794 by the English naturalist George Shaw as Psittacus funereus , its specific name funereus relating to its dark and sombre plumage , as if dressed for a funeral . The French zoologist Anselme Gaëtan Desmarest reclassified it in the new genus Calyptorhynchus in 1826 . The genus name is derived from the Greek words καλυπτός ( calyptos ) " hidden " and ῥύγχος ( rhynchos ) " beak " . The ornithologist John Gould knew the bird as the funereal cockatoo . Other common names used include yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo , yellow @-@ eared black cockatoo , and wylah . Wy @-@ la was an aboriginal term from the Hunter Region of New South Wales , while the Dharawal name from the Illawarra region is Ngaoaraa . Scientist and cockatoo authority Matt Cameron has proposed dropping the " black " and shortening the name to " yellow @-@ tailed cockatoo " , explaining that shorter names are more widely accepted . Within the genus , the yellow @-@ tailed and the two Western Australian white @-@ tailed species , the short @-@ billed and long @-@ billed black cockatoo , form the subgenus Zanda . The red @-@ tailed and glossy black cockatoos form the other subgenus , Calyptorhynchus . The two groups are distinguished by differing juvenile food begging calls and the degree of sexual dimorphism . Males and females of the latter group have markedly different plumage , whereas those of the former have similar plumage . The three species of the subgenus Zanda have been variously considered as two , then as a single species for many years . In a 1979 paper , Australian ornithologist Denis Saunders highlighted the similarity between the short @-@ billed and the southern race xanthanotus of the yellow @-@ tailed and treated them as a single species with the long @-@ billed as a distinct species . He proposed that Western Australia had been colonised on two separate occasions , once by a common ancestor of all three forms ( which became the long @-@ billed black cockatoo ) , and later by what has become the short @-@ billed black cockatoo . However , an analysis of protein allozymes published in 1984 revealed the two Western Australian forms to be more closely related to each other than to the yellow @-@ tailed , and the consensus since then has been to treat them as three separate species . Within the species , two subspecies are recognised : C. f. funereus , the nominate form , is known as the eastern yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo . It is found from Berserker Range in central Queensland , south through New South Wales , and into eastern Victoria . It is distinguished by its overall larger size , longer tail and wings , and larger bill and claws . C. f. xanthanotus , known as the southern yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo , is found in western Victoria , southeastern South Australia , the islands of Bass Strait , and Tasmania . Gould described it in 1838 and later changed his spelling to " xanthonotus " . However , the first name was recognised as taking precedence under ICZN naming rules and its spelling preserved . Saunders reported in 1979 that male birds from Tasmania had wider bills than their mainland relatives , and that Tasmanian female birds were larger than males . However , this observation has yet to be replicated and most authorities only recognize two subspecies . If a third subspecies is recognized , the southern mainland subspecies would be named whiteae , having been named so by Gregory Mathews in 1912 , and the name xanthanotus , originally applied to a Tasmanian specimen , would be restricted to the Tasmanian population . = = Description = = The yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo is 55 – 65 cm ( 22 – 26 in ) in length and 750 – 900 grams in weight . It has a short mobile crest on the top of its head , and the plumage is mostly brownish @-@ black with paler feather @-@ margins in the neck , nape , and wings , and pale yellow bands in the tail feathers . The tails of birds of subspecies funereus measure around 33 cm ( 13 in ) , with an average tail length 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) longer than xanthanotus . Male funereus birds weigh on average around 731 g ( 1 @.@ 612 lb ) and females weigh about 800 g ( 1 @.@ 8 lb ) . Birds of the xanthanotus race on the mainland average heavier than the Tasmanian birds ; the males on the mainland weigh on average around 630 g and females 637 g ( 1 @.@ 404 lb ) , while those on Tasmania average 583 and 585 g ( 1 @.@ 290 lb ) respectively . Both mainland and Tasmanian birds of the xanthanotus race average about 28 cm ( 11 in ) in tail length . The plumage is a more solid brown @-@ black in the eastern subspecies , while the southern race has more pronounced yellow scalloping on the underparts . The male yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo has a black bill , a dull yellow patch behind each eye , and pinkish or reddish eye @-@ rings . The female has grey eye @-@ rings , a horn @-@ coloured bill , and brighter and more clearly defined yellow cheek @-@ patches . Immature birds have duller plumage overall , a horn @-@ coloured bill , and grey eye @-@ rings ; The upper beak of the immature male darkens to black by two years of age , commencing at the base of the bill and spreading over ten weeks . The lower beak blackens later by four years of age . The elongated bill has a pointed maxilla ( upper beak ) , suited to digging out grubs from tree branches and trunks . Records of the timing of the eye ring changing from grey to pink in male birds are sparse , but have been recorded anywhere from one to four years of age . Australian farmer and amateur ornithologist John Courtney proposed that the similarity between juvenile and female eye rings prevented adult males becoming aggressive to younger birds . He also observed the eye rings to flush brighter in aggressive males . Moulting appears to take place in stages over the course of a year , and is poorly understood . The yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo is distinguished from other dark @-@ plumaged birds by its yellow tail and ear markings , and its contact call . Parts of its range overlap with the ranges of two cockatoo species that have red tail banding , the red @-@ tailed cockatoo and the glossy black cockatoo . Crow species may appear similar when seen flying at a distance ; however , crows have shorter tails , a quicker wing beat , and different calls . An all @-@ yellow bird lacking in black pigment was recorded in Wauchope , New South Wales , in December 1996 , and it remained a part of the local group of cockatoos for four years . Birds with part @-@ yellow plumage have been recorded from different areas in Victoria . = = Distribution and habitat = = The yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo is found up to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) AMSL over southeastern Australia including the island of Tasmania and the islands of the Bass Strait ( King , Flinders , Cape Barren islands ) , and also on Kangaroo Island . On Tasmania and the islands of the Bass Strait it is the only native black @-@ coloured cockatoo . On the mainland , it is found from the vicinity of Gin Gin and Gympie in south and central eastern Queensland , south through New South Wales , where it occurs along the Great Dividing Range and to the coast , and into and across most of Victoria bar the northern and northwestern corner , to the Coorong and Mount Lofty Ranges in southeastern South Australia . A tiny population numbering 30 to 40 birds inhabits the Eyre Peninsula . There they are found in sugar gum ( Eucalyptus cladocalyx ) woodland in the lower peninsula and migrate to the mallee areas in the northern peninsula after breeding . There is evidence that birds on the New South Wales south coast move from elevated areas to lower lying areas towards the coast in winter . They are generally common or locally very common in a wide range of habits , although they tend to be locally rare at the limits of their range . Their breeding range is restricted to areas with large old trees . The birds may be found in a variety of habitats including grassy woodland , riparian forest , heathland , subalpine areas , pine plantations , and occasionally in urban areas , as long as there is a plentiful food supply . They have also spread to parts of suburban Sydney , particularly on or near golf courses , pine plantations and parks , such as Centennial Park in the eastern suburbs . It is unclear whether this is adaptive or because of loss of habitat elsewhere . In urban Melbourne , they have been recorded at Yarra Bend Park . The so @-@ called " Black Saturday bushfires " in 2009 appear to have caused sufficient loss of their natural habitat for them to have been sighted in other parts if the urban areas of Melbourne as well . = = Ecology and behaviour = = Yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoos are diurnal , raucous and noisy , and are often heard before being seen . They make long journeys by flying at a considerable height while calling to each other , and they are often seen flying high overhead in pairs , or trios comprising a pair and their young , or small groups . Outside of the breeding season in autumn or winter they may coalesce into flocks of a hundred birds or more , while family interactions between pairs or trios are maintained . They are generally wary birds , although they can be less shy in urban and suburban areas . They generally keep to trees , only coming to ground level to inspect fallen pine or banksia cones or to drink . Flight is fluid and has been described as " lazy " , with deep , slow wingbeats . Tall eucalypts that are emergent over other trees in wooded areas are selected for roosting sites . It is here that the cockatoos rest for the night , and also rest to shelter from the heat of the day . They often socialise before dusk , engaging in preening , feeding young , and flying acrobatically . Flocks will return to roost earlier in bad weather . The usual call is an eerie high @-@ pitched wailing contact call , kee @-@ ow ... kee @-@ ow ... kee @-@ ow , made while flying or roosting , and can be heard from afar . Birds may also make a harsh screeching alarm call . They also make a soft , chuckling call when searching for cossid moth larvae . Adults are normally quiet when feeding , while juveniles make frequent noisy begging calls . The superb lyrebird can mimic the adult yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo 's contact call with some success . = = = Feeding = = = The diet of the yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo is varied and available from a range of habitats within its distribution , which reduces their vulnerability to degradation or change in habitat . Much of the diet comprises seeds of native trees , particularly she @-@ oaks ( Allocasuarina and Casuarina , including A. torulosa and A. verticillata ) , but also Eucalyptus ( including E. maculata flowers and E. nitida seeds ) , Acacia ( including gum exudate and galls ) , Banksia ( including the green seed pods and seeds of B. serrata , B. integrifolia , and B. marginata ) , and Hakea species ( including H. gibbosa , H. rugosa , H. nodosa , H. sericea , H. cycloptera , and H. dactyloides ) . They are also partial to pine cones in plantations of the introduced Pinus radiata and to other introduced trees , including Cupressus torulosa , Betula pendula and the buds of elm Ulmus species . In the Eyre Peninsula , the yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo has become dependent on the introduced Aleppo pine ( Pinus halepensis ) , alongside native species . The yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo is very fond of the larvae of tree @-@ boring beetles , such as the longhorn beetle Tryphocaria acanthocera , and cossid moth Xyleutes boisduvali . Birds seek them out all year but especially in June and July , when the moth caterpillars are largest , and they are accompanied by their just fledged young . They search out holes and make some exploratory bites looking for larvae . If successful , they peel and tear down a strip of bark to make a perch for themselves before continuing to gouge and excavate the larvae , which have deeply tunneled into the heartwood . A yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo was observed stripping 4 cm × 2 cm ( 1 @.@ 57 in × 0 @.@ 79 in ) pieces of bark off the trunk of a dead Leptospermum tree in Acacia melanoxylon swamp near Togari in northwestern Tasmania . It then scraped a layer of white material about 0 @.@ 5 mm thick from the inner surface with its beak . This white layer turned out to be hyphomycete fungi and slime mould that grew in the cambium of the bark . Yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoos have been reported flocking to Banksia cones ten days after bushfire as the follicles open . With pine trees , they prefer green cones , nipping them off at the stem and holding in one foot , then systematically lifting each segment and extracting the seed . A cockatoo spends about twenty minutes on each pine cone . They drink at various places , from stock troughs to puddles , and do so in the early morning or late in the afternoon . Insect larvae and Fabaceae seeds are among food reported to have been fed to young . = = = Breeding = = = The breeding season varies according to latitude , taking place from April to July in Queensland , January to May in northern New South Wales , December to February in southern New South Wales , and October to February in Victoria , South Australia and Tasmania . The male yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo courts by puffing up crest and spreading his tail feathers to display his yellow plumage . Softly growling , he approaches the female and bows three or four times to her . His eye ring may also flush a deeper pink . Nesting takes place in large vertical tree hollows of tall trees , generally eucalypts , which are either living or dead . Isolated trees are generally chosen , so birds can fly to and from them relatively unhindered . The same tree may be used for many years . A 1994 study of nesting sites in Eucalyptus regnans forest in the Strzelecki Ranges in eastern Victoria found the average age of trees used for hollows by the yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo to be 228 years . The authors noted that the proposed 80 – 150 year rotation time for managed forests would impact on the numbers of suitable trees . Hollows can be 1 to 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 to 6 @.@ 6 ft ) deep and 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 – 19 @.@ 7 in ) wide , with a base of woodchips . A chance felling of a eucalypt known to have been used as a nesting tree near Scottsdale in northeastern Tasmania allowed accurate measurements to be made , yielding a hollow measuring 56 cm ( 22 in ) high by 30 cm ( 12 in ) wide at the mouth , and at least 65 cm ( 26 in ) deep , in a tree which measured 72 cm ( 28 in ) in diameter below the hollow . Both the male and female prepare the hollow for breeding , which involves peeling or scraping off wood shavings from the inside the hollow to prepare bedding for the eggs . Gum leaves are occasionally added as well . The clutch consists of one or two white lustreless rounded oval eggs which may have the occasional lime nodule . The first egg averages around 47 or 48 mm long and 37 mm in diameter ( 2 × 1 @.@ 4 in ) . The second egg is around 2 mm smaller all over and is laid two to seven days later . The female incubates the eggs alone and begins after the completion of laying . She enters the hollow feet first , and is visited by the male who brings food two to four times a day . Later both parents help to raise the chicks . The second chick is neglected and usually perishes in infancy . Information on the breeding of birds in the wild is lacking ; however , the incubation period in captivity is 28 – 31 days . Newly hatched chicks are covered with yellow down and have pink beaks that fade to a greyish white by the time of fledging . Chicks fledge from the nest three months after hatching , and remain in the company of their parents until the next breeding season . Like other cockatoos , this species is long @-@ lived . A pair of yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoos at Rotterdam Zoo stopped breeding when they were 41 and 37 years of age , but still showed signs of close bonding . Birds appear to reach sexual maturity between four and six years of age ; this is the age range of breeding recorded in captivity . = = = Parasites = = = In 2004 , a captive yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo and two free @-@ living tawny frogmouths ( Podargus strigoides ) suffering neurological symptoms were shown to be hosting the rat nematode Angiostrongylus cantonensis . They were the first non @-@ mammalian hosts discovered for the organism . A species of feather mite , Psittophagus calyptorhynchi , has also been isolated from the yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo , its only host to date . = = Relationship with humans = = Yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoos can cause damage in pine and eucalyptus plantations by weakening stems through gouging out pieces of wood to extract moth larvae . In places with these gum plantations , the population of the larva of the cossid moth Xyleutes boisduvali grows , which then leads to increased predation ( and hence tree damage ) by cockatoos . Furthermore , plantations generally lack undergrowth which might have prevented cockatoos from damaging younger trees . Yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoos were shot as pests in some districts of New South Wales until the 1940s because of this . The yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo is promoted by the Shoalhaven City Council local government on the NSW south coast as the region 's bird . Within the Jervis bay area the birds can be seen feasting on the many casuarina trees native to the area . Although it is classified as least concern on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species , and not listed nationally as threatened , the yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo is declining in numbers in Victoria and South Australia . This is due to habitat fragmentation and loss of large trees used for breeding hollows , although birds have become more plentiful in the vicinity of pine plantations . It has been listed as vulnerable in South Australia , due to its decline in the Adelaide and Mount Lofty Ranges , and particularly the perilous status of the small isolated population on the Eyre Peninsula , which has declined sharply since European settlement , probably from loss of suitable habitat . A recovery program was commenced in 1998 . Efforts to increase the population include fencing off remnants of native bushland , planting food plants such as Hakea rugosa , monitoring breeding , and raising chicks in captivity . As a result , the population has increased from a low of 19 – 21 individuals in 1998 . This species was seldom seen in captivity before the late 1950s , after which time a large number of wild @-@ caught birds entered the Australian market . Since then , it has become more common , but is still rarely seen outside Australia . Captive yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoos require a large aviary to avoid apathy and poor health . There is some evidence that protein may be more important to them than to other cockatoos , and low protein has been linked with the production of yolkless eggs in captivity . Females in particular enjoy mealworms . They can be placid and tolerate sharing an enclosure with smaller parrots , but do not handle disturbance while breeding . As with other black cockatoos , yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoos are rarely seen in European zoos , since Australia restricted exportation of wildlife in 1959 , but birds seized by government agencies in Germany , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom have been loaned to zoos that are members of the European Association of Zoos and Aquaria ( EAZA ) . In 2000 , there were pairs of yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoos in Puerto de la Cruz zoo in Spain and in Rotterdam . Like most species of parrots , the yellow @-@ tailed black cockatoo is protected by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora ( CITES ) with its placement on the Appendix II list of vulnerable species , which makes the import , export , and trade of listed wild @-@ caught animals illegal .

= The Halo Graphic Novel = The Halo Graphic Novel is the first graphic novel adaptation of the military science fiction video game Halo , published by Marvel Comics in partnership with Bungie . The Halo series began with the award @-@ winning popular video game Halo : Combat Evolved , which spawned several books as well as video game sequels , and is focused on the story of future humanity fighting against a powerful collective of races called the Covenant . The Halo Graphic Novel is the series ' first entry into the sequential art medium , and features aspects of the Halo universe which until then had not been discussed or seen in any medium . The majority of the book is divided into four short stories by different writers and artists from the computer game and comic industries . Each story focuses on different aspects of the Halo universe , revealing stories that are tangential to the main plot of the game . Apart from the stories , the book also contains an extensive art gallery compiled of contributions from Bungie , Marvel and independent sources . Released on July 19 , 2006 , The Halo Graphic Novel was well @-@ received , with reviewers noting the cohesiveness of the work as a whole , as well as the diversity of the individual material . The success of the novel led to Marvel announcing a new limited comic series , which became known as Halo : Uprising . = = Background and publication = = Bungie Studios ' and Microsoft 's original concept of the graphic novel was to bring the Halo series into new media beyond that of video games , with sequential art being the main focus . The comic was originally pitched by the head of Microsoft 's Franchise Development Eric Trautmann , who led the assembly of a draft comic written by John Ney Rieber and illustrated by Adi Granov . However , Lorraine McLees , the art director of Bungie , disliked the comic , calling it " a lump of coal " . Bungie also disliked Trautmann 's comic team and requested to be able to choose their own artists and writers instead . Pete Parsons , the studio director of Bungie , wanted to hire Alan Moore and Joe Kubert for the graphic novel , though Trautmann was highly skeptical that such high profile artists would deign to the project . After many unsuccessful negotiation attempts , Lorraine suggested that Bungie Studios finance and edit the novel itself before pursuing a publisher , allowing the studio to maintain control over the content and pursue the venture unencumbered by outside intervention . Lead designer Maria Cabardo created a " dream team " roster of writers and artists Bungie admired , and through a period of negotiation Bungie was able to gain contributions from many of those named on the list . Buoyed by their success in approaching those in the medium that they respected and admired , including British comic book artist Simon Bisley and French artist Jean " Moebius " Giraud , the progress of Halo Graphic Novel was described as a " cool morale boost for our team to see their universe , their characters , realized by people that we idolize in the comic industry . " The novel was completed after a two @-@ year development cycle and Bungie sought out a publisher , eventually approaching Marvel Comics . Bungie cited Marvel 's " passion for Halo " and " reach in the comic and publishing industry " as the main draws to the company . The studio worked alongside Marvel director of development Ruwan Jayatilleke , an early champion of the project , to assist in the distribution and publication of the novel . The stories themselves were designed as glimpses into the Halo universe , including information on the inner workings of the alien Covenant , as well as details regarding elements of the back @-@ story that were hitherto undisclosed . Jarrard explained that " The stories that happen off camera , the parallel events to the arcs that our fans know from the existing mediums , are the stories we really wanted to tell . " Jarrard further described this as an attempt to move away from the story of the Master Chief , the central character of the franchise , and focus instead on what they believed to be the core themes that lay behind the game universe , such as maintaining hope in the face of overwhelming odds and humanity 's struggle for survival ; themes that extended beyond " ... a genetically enhanced super soldier picking up two guns and kicking some alien butt . " The four stories that ended up in the final publication were " the most interesting to [ Bungie ] , and the writers of [ the novel ] " . Although Bungie created the story arcs present in the Halo Graphic Novel , the studio described the importance of providing a framework for each story that the various artists and writers could tell without jeopardizing their own voice . Artist Simon Bisley said that " the stress was to make the characters look very much as they do in the game . Beyond that point I was given free rein to interpret the script and the action " based on what was given to the artists and writers . = = = Supplemental = = = Located after the main body of stories is a selection of art pieces that represent interpretations of the Halo universe from a number of comic book artists . These contributors include Doug Alexander , Rick Berry , Geof Darrow , and more than twenty @-@ five others , both freelance and from Bungie Studios — including lead composer Martin O 'Donnell . A few promotional pieces were created before the Halo Graphic Novel 's release date , including a sixteen @-@ page preview , released May 31 , 2006 , which contained Bungie 's introductions to each story along with short excerpts of each story . A full @-@ color poster of the book 's cover was released on June 28 , 2006 . = = Stories = = The novel is split into four stories ; each has an introduction by the creators of the work detailing their thoughts about the plot or their experiences adding to the Halo lore . = = = The Last Voyage of the Infinite Succor = = = " The Last Voyage of the Infinite Succor " takes place during and after the sixth mission of the video game Halo : Combat Evolved . During the game , players discover that the ringworld on which they are trapped , dubbed " Halo " by the enemy alien collective the Covenant , is in fact a super weapon designed to wipe out all life in the galaxy to deprive an intergalactic parasite known as the Flood of their food source ( their food source being all sentient life in the galaxy ) . The Flood are accidentally released by the Covenant from stasis and begins to spread across the ring . Halo was built by an ancient alien race known as the Forerunners to contain and study the Flood , but also as a weapon of last resort ; faced with the prospect of the Flood consuming every thinking being in the universe , the Forerunners activated Halo , destroying themselves but also starving the Flood . In contrast to the player 's point of view in the game , " The Last Voyage " focuses on the Covenant . In Halo : Combat Evolved 's sequel Halo 2 , players experience some of the plot through the eyes of the Arbiter , a Covenant warrior . The Arbiter is aided by a fellow Covenant Elite who is never named in the game itself ; fans called the character " Half @-@ Jaw " due to the Elite missing his mandibles on one side of his face . " The Last Voyage " names the Elite Rtas ' Vadumee , explains his injury , and describes events during Halo that the player did not see . In " The Last Voyage " , Elite Special Operations Commander Rtas ' Vadumee and his team respond to a distress call and board the crippled supply craft Infinite Succor , which the Covenant believe has been attacked by humans . The only crew member still alive , a Covenant Prophet , tells ' Vadumee that the Succor has been infested by the Flood , which escaped Halo on a Covenant dropship and crash landed in the Succor 's hangar . Currently stuck on the ship , the parasite intends to activate the Succor 's slipspace drive to escape the star system and find new planets to infect . Fighting waves of Flood , including the reanimated remains of his fallen soldiers , ' Vadumee plots a slipspace course that will destroy both the Succor and the Flood , then escapes via a Covenant shuttle . The central premise behind the story of " The Last Voyage of the Infinite Succor " was to showcase both the true danger posed by the Flood and the inner workings of the Covenant military machine , to dispel the image that the Covenant " simply stand around waiting for the Chief to blast them " . The story was written by Lee Hammock with art provided by Simon Bisley . Hammock described the process of writing the story as a " heady task " since he had to respect Halo fans ' knowledge of the characters and canon , ensuring that " characters that [ the fans ] know as a part of themselves are portrayed aptly " . These difficulties were mitigated by the knowledge that fans were not as intimately connected to the history of the character of Rtas as they were to the likes of the Master Chief ; this allowed ample room to expand ' Vadumee 's background in sync with the Halo canon while permitting the writer to " bring something new to the table " . = = = Armor Testing = = = In the Halo universe , Earth and humanity 's various colonies are governed by the United Nations Space Command . Faced with the technological superiority of the Covenant , humanity 's chief hope is the tenacity of the SPARTANs , elite supersoldiers equipped with special armor . The protagonist of the Halo series , the Master Chief , is one of the few SPARTANs in active service by the events of Halo : Combat Evolved . " Armor Testing " takes place shortly before the opening of Halo 2 , as the UNSC field @-@ tests a new version of the SPARTAN 's armor in a series of exercises which prove to be a challenging endeavor for all involved . A lone SPARTAN puts the armor through its paces by dropping from Earth 's atmosphere and engaging in a mock battle against UNSC special forces . This SPARTAN is revealed to be a woman , Maria @-@ 062 , who has come out of retirement as a special favor to test the new equipment before it is sent to the Master Chief . The concept of the story was inspired by the book Skunkworks , a memoir of the testing of military projects at Lockheed ; highlighting the rigorous experimentation the SPARTAN equipment goes through before it ends up in the hands of the Master Chief was an idea that Bungie originally wanted to pursue at the beginning of Halo 2 . Bungie instead opted to communicate this background information at a later time . " Armor Testing " was written by Jay Faerber with pencils by W. Andrew Robinson and colors by Ed Lee . = = = Breaking Quarantine = = = Like " The Last Voyage of the Infinite Succor " , " Breaking Quarantine " deals with the Flood outbreak that occurs during Halo . While " The Last Voyage " tells the story from the Covenant perspective , " Breaking Quarantine " highlights the escape of the human soldier Sgt. Johnson from the Flood . Johnson is a minor personality in Halo : Combat Evolved who becomes an important character in the following two games ; while the novel Halo : First Strike explains that Johnson resists Flood infestation due to a medical condition , no other story up to that point explained how Johnson escapes . " Breaking Quarantine " is an example of Bungie 's attempts to expand the story arcs of secondary characters that would have no opportunity to go explained in the main storyline . Unlike the other stories , " Breaking Quarantine " contains no dialogue , only weapon sound effects , which are rendered in Japanese . Both art and story were provided by Tsutomu Nihei , a manga artist and architect who based his illustrations directly on the structures found within the game . = = = Second Sunrise over New Mombasa = = = Near the beginning of Halo 2 , the Covenant stumble upon humanity 's best @-@ guarded secret — the location of Earth — and launch a direct attack on the city of New Mombasa , Kenya . By the time players arrive at the city in Halo 2 , it is deserted ; " Second Sunrise " , which takes place during the attack , explains that this was not always the case . The story is told through the eyes of a reporter who creates propaganda for the UNSC . When the Covenant invade the city , the reporter and fellow citizens take to its defense , until they are forced to flee as the city faces ruin . Bungie described " Second Sunrise " as an attempt to put a human face on the conflict by illustrating the effects of war on the common citizen . The story was written by Brett Lewis with art provided by Jean " Moebius " Giraud . Giraud explained that his son 's enjoyment of the game series ultimately compelled him to accept an invitation to contribute his art ; before writing , he had never played the video games . = = Reception = = Critical reaction from both the gaming community and the comic book community was positive . UGO Networks praised the novel , citing the wealth of contributions from recognized artists and the strength of the material in fleshing out the Halo universe as the work 's greatest strength . They gave it an overall grade of B + . Mike Deeley of Comics Bulletin lauded the book for the diverse range of storytelling and art styles that lent the Halo Graphic Novel the feel of an anthology yet still retained a cohesive whole . Other areas that received particular attention included Tsutomu Nihei 's work on Breaking Quarantine for its vivid imagery and its focus on visual storytelling in lieu of any dialogue . Some reviewers expressed their disappointment at the novel 's focus on minor characters and events , with the presence of the Master Chief — the central character of the Halo series and its most iconic figure — limited to featuring in artwork and a brief appearance in the first story . On the other hand , GameTrailers praised Bungie for having the moxie to not focus on the major character . Each publication had their own opinions on the weakest story in the collection ; both IGN and GameTrailers thought that " Armor Testing " had the least emotional impact , although its surprise ending and art were well done . Upon release , the Halo Graphic Novel proved to be a " rare hit " for the games @-@ to @-@ comics genre , debuting at No. 2 on both the Nielsen BookScan and Diamond sales charts . At least 100 @,@ 000 copies were rumored to have been published , and the comic continued to be one of the top @-@ selling graphic novels months after its debut . The success of the novel led Marvel Comics and Bungie Studios to announce a four @-@ issue monthly Halo comic series at San Diego Comic @-@ Con 2006 called Halo : Uprising . Despite delays , the first issue of the limited series was released on August 22 , 2007 .

= Labyrinth : The Computer Game = Labyrinth : The Computer Game is a 1986 graphic adventure game developed by Lucasfilm Games and published by Activision . Based on the fantasy film Labyrinth , it tasks the player with navigating a maze while solving puzzles and evading dangers . The player 's goal is to find and defeat the main antagonist , Jareth , within 13 real @-@ time hours . Unlike other adventure games of the period , Labyrinth does not feature a command @-@ line interface . Instead , the player uses two scrolling " word wheel " menus on the screen to construct basic sentences . Labyrinth was the first adventure game created by Lucasfilm . The project was led by designer David Fox , who invented its word wheels to avoid the text parsers and syntax guessing typical of text @-@ based adventure games . Early in development , the team collaborated with author Douglas Adams in a week @-@ long series of brainstorming sessions , which inspired much of the final product . Labyrinth received positive reviews and , in the United States , was a bigger commercial success than the film upon which it was based . Its design influenced Lucasfilm 's subsequent adventure title , the critically acclaimed Maniac Mansion . = = Overview = = Labyrinth : The Computer Game is a graphic adventure game in which the player maneuvers a character through a maze while solving puzzles and evading dangers . It is an adaptation of the 1986 film Labyrinth , many of whose events and characters are reproduced in the game . However , it does not follow the plot of the film . At the beginning , the player enters their name , sex and favorite color : the last two fields determine the appearance of the player character . Afterward , a short text @-@ based adventure sequence unfolds , wherein the player enters a movie theater to watch the film Labyrinth . The game then changes to a graphic adventure format . Jareth , the main antagonist , appears on the projection screen and transports the protagonist to a labyrinthine prison . The player 's goal is to locate and destroy Jareth within 13 real @-@ time hours ; otherwise , the protagonist will be trapped in the maze forever . While traveling the maze , the player passes through a series of scrolling hallways that contain doors , enemies and other things . A " radar " bar on the screen allows the player to see each hallway in miniature form : the locations of all doorways , items and characters in a given hallway are displayed . Unlike other adventure games of the period , Labyrinth does not feature a command @-@ line interface . Instead of typing commands , the player selects them from two scrolling " word wheels " , one for verbs and one for nouns . For example , the verb " congratulate " may be selected in one wheel , and the noun " Jareth " in the other : this inputs the command " congratulate Jareth " . Based on the player 's items and location , the available verbs and nouns change context @-@ sensitively . = = Development = = Lucasfilm Games began to design Labyrinth : The Computer Game in 1985 . Company head George Lucas had requested a tie @-@ in video game for the movie of the same name , which was under production at Lucasfilm . As was common with Lucasfilm Games projects , Lucas himself provided very little direction to the team . Labyrinth was the first licensed game developed by the company : earlier products , such as Rescue on Fractalus ! and The Eidolon , had been original intellectual properties . According to project leader David Fox , working with a license " frees you up in some ways and restricts you , too " . With their adaptation , the team was not pressured to reuse events and characters from the Labyrinth film ; but they " felt obligated " to follow the source material . Because they saw the film as an adventure story , they chose to set their adaptation in the adventure game genre . However , Fox disliked the genre 's then @-@ reliance on text parsers and syntax guessing , and so he created the word wheel menus as a replacement . They were meant to supply " a limited set of words that still let you do a lot of things " , in order to streamline the game without hampering the player 's freedom . The game 's visual design was shared by Lucasfilm 's Habitat , a massively multiplayer online game under production at the time . Early in development , the game 's team was screened a rough cut of the film . Afterward , they were sent to London by Lucasfilm management for a one @-@ week brainstorming session with Douglas Adams , author of The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy . Adams had worked previously with Infocom , during the development of his book 's 1984 video game adaptation . Also present at the meetings were writer Christopher Cerf ( a friend of the film 's director , Jim Henson ) and Brenda Laurel of Activision , the game 's publisher . The team worked extensively with Adams during this period . Laurel later wrote , " Every day a fresh blast of his wild and intelligent humor stoked up the creativity of the team . " In her view , the pinnacle of the meetings was Adams ' idea for the opening sequence . He suggested a reference to The Wizard of Oz 's famous transition from black @-@ and @-@ white to color : a transition from a text @-@ based format to a graphical one . Fox was given the job of taking notes during the trip . Although he had hoped for a complete design to emerge from the meetings , he returned from London with only " sheets and sheets of ideas " , through which he sifted to find usable concepts . However , all of the material influenced the game , and many of Adams ' suggestions were used . Retrospectively , Fox felt that the opening sequence was a mistake : he called it " tedious " and believed that it alienated potential fans . Labyrinth was released in 1986 for the Commodore 64 , Apple II and MSX . = = Reception = = In the United States , Labyrinth was more commercially successful than the film upon which it was based . Commodore Magazine 's Mark Cotone lauded the game 's puzzle design , detailed graphics and newcomer @-@ friendly interface . He believed that experienced players would enjoy its depth and challenging puzzles . Keith Campbell of Commodore User praised its animation and dubbed it " a superb game " — which he found unusual , given its status as a tie @-@ in product . However , Campbell hesitated to call it an adventure game , and he wrote that the word wheels were " rather tedious " for genre veterans . Roy Wagner of Computer Gaming World summarized Labyrinth as a " very well done [ game ] with an excellent user interface " . Writing for Computer & Video Games , Matthew Woodley praised the game 's variety and interface . While he disliked its long loading times , he believed that they were " a small price to pay for such a brilliant game " . However , Labyrinth was criticized by the three reviewers of Zzap ! 64 . Although he praised its visuals , co @-@ reviewer Paul Sumner called the game too slow @-@ paced for an action title and too simplistic for an adventure . Co @-@ reviewer Julian Rignall considered it to be boring and " a real disappointment " , given Lucasfilm 's strong track record . = = = Legacy = = = Labyrinth was the first adventure game produced by Lucasfilm , which became a critically acclaimed and commercially successful developer in the genre . The game 's technology and mechanics influenced the company 's subsequent title Maniac Mansion , whose " SCUMM " engine was reused in many Lucasfilm adventure games . The word wheels were a predecessor to that game 's point @-@ and @-@ click interface . Gary Winnick , an artist for Labyrinth , went on to lead the production of Maniac Mansion with Ron Gilbert . Fox contributed to Maniac Mansion as well , and he later directed Lucasfilm 's Zak McKracken and the Alien Mindbenders . Retrospectively , writers for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation regarded Labyrinth as a solid first attempt , but as inferior to " the real classics " made afterward by Lucasfilm .

= George Gordon Meade Memorial = The George Gordon Meade Memorial , also known as the Meade Memorial or Major General George Gordon Meade , is a public artwork in Washington , D.C. honoring George Meade , a career military officer from Pennsylvania who is best known for defeating General Robert E. Lee at the Battle of Gettysburg . The monument is sited on the 300 block of Pennsylvania Avenue NW in front of the E. Barrett Prettyman United States Courthouse . It was originally located at Union Square , but was removed and placed in storage for fourteen years before being installed at its current location . The statue was sculpted by Charles Grafly , an educator and founder of the National Sculpture Society , and was a gift from the state of Pennsylvania . Prominent attendees at the dedication ceremony in 1927 included President Calvin Coolidge , Governor John Stuchell Fisher , Secretary of the Treasury Andrew W. Mellon , and Senator Simeon D. Fess . The memorial is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. , which were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1978 . The marble and granite sculpture , which includes depictions of Meade and seven allegorical figures , rests on a granite base and granite platform . It is surrounded by a public plaza and small park . The monument is owned and maintained by the National Park Service , a federal agency of the Interior Department . = = History = = = = = Background = = = George Meade ( 1815 – 1872 ) was a career military officer from Pennsylvania who is best known for his role as a Union general during the Civil War . He graduated from the United States Military Academy at West Point in 1835 and briefly served in the Army during the Second Seminole War . He began working as a civil engineer for railroad companies and the Department of War until reenlisting in the army in 1842 . Meade fought in the Mexican – American War and was promoted to first lieutenant for his heroic actions at the Battle of Monterrey . From the 1850s until the onset of the Civil War in 1861 , Meade was involved in coastal surveying and designing lighthouses , mainly for the Corps of Topographical Engineers . He was promoted to brigadier general at the beginning of war , but was badly wounded at the Battle of Glendale in 1862 . He recovered and led forces during major battles , including Antietam and Fredericksburg . In June 1863 , Meade succeeded in defeating General Joseph Hooker as commanding officer of the Army of the Potomac , and fought his greatest battle only days later at Gettysburg , the bloodiest battle of the war . He succeeding in defeating General Robert E. Lee and the Confederate forces , but was criticized by President Abraham Lincoln for allowing Confederate forces to retreat to Virginia . Meade continued to serve as the Army of the Potomac 's commanding officer until the end of the war , though Ulysses S. Grant was appointed general @-@ in @-@ chief of all Union armies , superseding Meade 's authority . Unlike many Civil War generals , there were no calls for a memorial to Meade after his death in 1872 because he was not popular with Lincoln , Grant , or his fellow officers , though he was considered a hero in his native Pennsylvania . In the 1910s , members of the Grand Army of the Republic ( GAR ) and Society of the Army of the Potomac fraternal organizations lobbied the Pennsylvania General Assembly to fund a statue of Meade . The state assembly commissioned the sculpture on October 18 , 1913 , and appropriated $ 200 @,@ 000 for its construction . Members of the Pennsylvania congressional delegation lobbied Congress to approve the sculpture and an act of Congress authorized its erection on January 21 , 1915 . Congress mandated that the sculpture design and site of the memorial be approved by the Commission of Fine Arts ( CFA ) . Because the memorial was a gift from the state of Pennsylvania , a Meade Memorial Commission was appointed by the state governor . The commission , led by John W. Frazier , a veteran who fought with Meade at Gettysburg , was composed of architects , artists , and planners who agreed on very little . Frazier was considered abusive and tactless , sending rude letters to the CFA and demanding certain requirements for the memorial . This created an impasse which lasted until Frazier 's death in 1918 . Following his death , the memorial commission finally chose a sculptor , a Pennsylvania native named Charles Grafly ( 1862 – 1929 ) . Grafly was a founder of the National Sculpture Society and longtime educator at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts who was best known for his portrait busts . Although Grafly was at the peak of his career , the CGA was hesitant in approving him to design the sculpture because his symbolic works has been criticized for being incomprehensible . The CFA finally agreed to consider Grafly and following several months of negotiations and changes , a preliminary sculpture design was approved in August 1918 . Grafly received $ 85 @,@ 000 for his commission . Several years of bickering about the final design and location of the memorial passed until March 28 , 1922 , when an official groundbreaking ceremony took place . The chosen site was near 3rd Street NW in Union Square , a public park on Capitol Hill , and close to the large Ulysses S. Grant Memorial . Before the memorial was installed , the last of the old Botanic Garden greenhouses were demolished and the Bartholdi Fountain was moved to make way . The architects chosen to design the memorial were Grant Simon and Edward P. Simon of Philadelphia . Piccirilli Brothers carved the memorial and the project contractor was the George A. Fuller Company . The total cost of the memorial and its installation was $ 400 @,@ 000 . = = = Dedication = = = The memorial was formally dedicated on October 19 , 1927 , becoming one of the last Civil War monuments erected in Washington , D.C. By the time of the dedication , many of the GAR and Society of the Army of the Potomac members who championed the memorial had died and only a few Civil War veterans were able to attend the ceremony . Prominent attendees at the ceremony included President Calvin Coolidge , his wife , Grace , Pennsylvania Governor John Stuchell Fisher , Secretary of the Navy Curtis D. Wilbur , Secretary of the Treasury Andrew W. Mellon , Secretary of Labor James J. Davis , and Senator Simeon D. Fess , the acting chairman of the memorial commission . White , temporary pavilions adorned with greenery , national shields , and the coat of arms of Pennsylvania were built around the memorial for invited guests and members of the public . The speaker 's stand was decorated with palms , ferns , and autumn @-@ colored flowers . On either side of the memorial was the national flag ; the left flag from the Civil War era had 35 stars and the right flag was the current 48 @-@ starred flag . Northminster Presbyterian Church minister Hugh K. Fulton gave the invocation and Reverend J. H. Pershing led the dedicatory prayer . A speech detailing Meade 's life and career was given by Fisher which was followed by the unveiling of the memorial by Meade 's daughter , Henrietta , who was escorted by Ulysses S. Grant III . As the memorial was unveiled , a flock of pigeons , symbolizing peace , was released from an altar bearing the Army of the Potomac 's emblem . The Army Band played " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " as Army cannons were fired . Fisher presented the memorial on behalf of the state of Pennsylvania to Coolidge on behalf of the American people . Coolidge 's remarks including the following : " On behalf of the Government of the Nation which he helped to save , I accept this memorial erected by the Commonwealth which has his own home and the home of his ancestors . The conflict in which he took such an important part has long since passed away . The peace which he loved has come . The reconciliation which he sought is complete . The loyalty to the flag which he followed is universal . Through all of this shines his own immortal flame . " An elderly veteran who fought at Gettysburg collapsed as he was giving a speech recounting his experience during the battle . Blanton Winship , at the time the president 's chief military aid , and James F. Coupal , the president 's physician , came to his aid . He was able to finish his speech and the crowds cheered him . The ceremony concluded with the band playing " Taps " . = = = Later history = = = In 1969 , the memorial was dismantled and placed in a storage facility at 42nd Street and Hunt Place NE when the Capitol Reflecting Pool was built atop Interstate 395 's Third Street Tunnel . It remained in storage for several years and members of the public began inquiring why the memorial had not been replaced . Pennsylvania Representative William F. Goodling contacted the memorial coordinator for the National Capital Region of the National Park Service ( NPS ) while members of the Gettysburg Civil War Round Table ( GCWRT ) contacted Jeff Wolf to repair the sculpture , which had cracked in several places . The GCWRT also contacted Maryland Representative Marjorie Holt who had requested the memorial be placed in her congressional district at Fort George G. Meade . The memorial was repaired and in 1983 placed in a new plaza on Pennsylvania Avenue NW . A formal rededication took place on October 3 , 1984 . The memorial is one of eighteen Civil War monuments in Washington , D.C. , which were collectively listed on the National Register of Historic Places on September 20 , 1978 , and the District of Columbia Inventory of Historic Sites on March 3 , 1979 . The memorial and surrounding park are owned and maintained by the NPS , a federal agency of the Interior Department . = = Design and location = = The memorial is located on the 300 block of Pennsylvania Avenue NW in the Judiciary Square neighborhood of Washington , D.C. It stands in front of the E. Barrett Prettyman United States Courthouse and across the street from the National Gallery of Art 's East Building . The memorial is sited in the center of a public plaza and small park . The cylindrical marble and granite sculpture is 10 @.@ 6 ft ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) tall and 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) wide . Meade is depicted in his military uniform and standing at the front of the sculpture . A male , winged figure representing War is on the rear side of the sculpture and is flanked by two memorial tablets . Six allegorical figures representing qualities the artist believed necessary in a great military leader are on the sides of the sculpture : Chivalry , Energy , Fame , Loyalty , Military Courage , and Progress . The male figure of Loyalty , on the proper right , and female figure of Chivalry , on the proper left , are removing Meade 's military cloak , representing the " cloak of battle " that Meade leaves behind . The figure representing Loyalty holds a wreath and garlands behind Meade representing his accomplishments . The female figure representing Fame is behind Loyalty and is supported by the male figure of Energy . Behind Chivalry is the male figure of Progress and male figure of Military Courage . The latter is locking arms with War . A gold finial of the state seal of Pennsylvania is at the top of the memorial . The Milford pink granite base is 7 @.@ 4 ft ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) tall with a diameter of 20 @.@ 10 ft ( 6 @.@ 13 m ) . Inscriptions on the memorial include the following : CHARLES GRAFLY.SC. / MCMXX @-@ MCMXXV ( on the sculpture ) MEADE ( lower front of base ) EDWARD P. SIMON / GRANT M. SIMON / ARCHITECTS / EXECUTED BY PICCIRILLI BROS ( rear of base ) THE COMMONWEALTH / OF PENNSYLVANIA / TO MAJOR GENERAL / GEORGE GORDON MEADE / WHO COMMANDED / THE UNION FORCES / AT GETTYSBURG ( brass letters set into granite platform )

= May Pang = May Fung Yee Pang ( born October 24 , 1950 ) is an American , best known as the former girlfriend of John Lennon . She had previously worked as a personal assistant and production coordinator for Lennon and his wife , Yoko Ono . In 1973 , when Lennon and Ono separated , Pang and Lennon had a relationship lasting over 18 months , during a time which Lennon later referred to as his " Lost Weekend . " Pang subsequently produced two books about their relationship : a memoir called Loving John ( Warner , 1983 ) and a book of photographs , Instamatic Karma ( St. Martin 's Press , 2008 ) . Pang was married to producer Tony Visconti from 1989 to 2000 and had two children , Sebastian and Lara . = = Early years = = Pang was born in Manhattan . She is the daughter of Chinese immigrants and grew up in New York 's Spanish Harlem with an elder sister and an adopted brother ( both of whom were born in China ) . Pang 's mother had a laundry business in the area , but the Pang family left when the tenements where they lived were scheduled to be torn down and moved to an apartment near 97th Street and 3rd Avenue , in Manhattan . After graduating from Saint Michael Academy , Pang attended New York City Community College . She wanted to be a model , but was told she was too " ethnic " by the modeling agencies . Pang 's early jobs included being a song @-@ plugger , which meant encouraging artists to record them . In 1970 , she began work in New York as a receptionist at ABKCO Records , Allen Klein 's management office , which at that time represented Apple Records and three former Beatles : Lennon , George Harrison , and Ringo Starr . Pang was asked to help Lennon and Ono with their avant @-@ garde film projects , Up Your Legs Forever and Fly , in December 1970 . Pang was then asked to be Lennon and Ono 's secretary and factotum / gofer in New York and England , which led to a permanent position as their personal assistant when the Lennons moved from London to New York in 1971 . Pang coordinated an art exhibition in Syracuse , New York , on October 9 , 1971 , for Ono 's This Is Not Here art show at the Everson Museum . Ono 's show coincided with Lennon 's 31st birthday , and a party was held at the Hotel Syracuse , which was attended by Ringo Starr , Phil Spector , and Elliot Mintz , among others . = = " Lost Weekend " = = At the time Lennon had his 18 @-@ month relationship with Pang , he was in a period of his life which he would later refer to as being his " Lost Weekend " , in reference to the film and novel of the same name . In mid @-@ 1973 , Pang was working on the recording of Lennon 's Mind Games album . Lennon and Ono were having marital problems and decided to separate , and Ono suggested to Pang that she become Lennon 's companion . Ono explained that she and Lennon were not getting along , had been arguing and were growing apart , and said that Lennon would start seeing other women . She pointed out that Lennon had said he found Pang sexually attractive . Pang replied that she could never start a relationship with Lennon as he was her employer and married . Ono ignored Pang 's protests and said that she would arrange everything . Ono later confirmed this conversation in an interview . In October 1973 , Lennon and Pang left New York for Los Angeles to promote Mind Games , and decided to stay for a while , living at the homes of friends . While there , Lennon was inspired to embark on two recording projects : to make an album of the old rock ' n ' roll songs that inspired him to become a musician , and to produce another artist . In December 1973 , Lennon collaborated with Phil Spector to record the oldies album . The alcohol @-@ fueled recording sessions became legendary . Every musician in L.A. wanted to participate , but soon Lennon 's drinking and Spector 's erratic behavior ( which included his firing a gun in the studio control room ) caused the sessions to break down . Then Spector , who claimed to have been in a car accident , took the sessions tapes and was unreachable . In March 1974 , Lennon began producing Harry Nilsson 's Pussy Cats album , thus named to counter the " bad boy " image the pair had earned in the media with two drinking incidents at The Troubadour : the first when Lennon placed a Kotex on his forehead and scuffled with a waitress at a concert given by Ann Peebles , who at the time had released one of Lennon 's favorite records , ' I Can 't Stand The Rain ' and , two weeks later , when Lennon and Nilsson were ejected from the same club after heckling the Smothers Brothers . Lennon thought it would be a good idea for the musicians to live under one roof to ensure they would get to the studio on time , so Pang rented a beach house in Santa Monica , for her , Lennon , Nilsson , Ringo Starr and Keith Moon to live in . At this time , Pang encouraged Lennon to reach out to family and friends . He and Paul McCartney mended fences and played together for the first and only time after the breakup of The Beatles ( see A Toot and a Snore in ' 74 ) . Pang also arranged for Julian Lennon to visit his father for the first time in almost four years . Julian began to see his father more regularly . Lennon bought Julian a Gibson Les Paul guitar and a drum machine for Christmas in 1973 , and encouraged Julian 's interest in music by showing him some chords . " Dad and I got on a great deal better then , " recalls Julian . " We had a lot of fun , laughed a lot and had a great time in general when he was with May Pang . My memories of that time with Dad and May are very clear — they were the happiest time I can remember with them . " In June 1974 , Lennon and Pang returned to live in New York City . Lennon stopped drinking and concentrated on recording . As Lennon had previously had cats in Liverpool — while living at his aunt Mimi 's house — he and Pang adopted two cats which they named Major and Minor . In the early summer , while Lennon was working on his Walls and Bridges album , the couple moved into a penthouse apartment at 434 East 52nd Street , where Lennon and Pang claim to have seen a UFO on August 23 , 1974 , from their terrace , which had a panoramic view of east New York . To gain access to the deck Lennon and Pang had to climb out of their kitchen window . On the night in question , a naked Lennon excitedly called Pang to join him on the deck outside and they both watched a circular object silently floating less than 100 feet away . Lennon called Bob Gruen — Lennon 's " official " photographer — and told him what had happened . Gruen suggested Lennon should call the police , but Lennon laughed it off , saying , " I ’ m not going to call up the newspaper and say , ' This is John Lennon and I saw a flying saucer last night ' " . Gruen called the local police precinct which confirmed that three other people had reported a sighting , and the Daily News said that five people had reported a sighting in the same area of New York where Lennon and Pang lived . Walls and Bridges rose to the top spot on the album charts . Lennon achieved his only number one solo single in his lifetime with " Whatever Gets You Thru the Night " . Pang 's is the voice whispering Lennon 's name on " # 9 Dream " . Another song , " Surprise , Surprise ( Sweet Bird of Paradox ) " , was written about her . Julian played drums on the album 's last track , " Ya Ya " . While recording Walls and Bridges , Al Coury , vice president of promotion for Capitol Records , got possession of the chaotic Spector session tapes and brought them to New York . Lennon would complete his oldies album , which would be called Rock ' n ' Roll , with the same musicians he used on Walls and Bridges . Pang received an RIAA gold record award for her work on Walls and Bridges and continued her work as production coordinator of Lennon 's Rock ' n ' Roll album , where she was credited as " Mother Superior " . Pang also worked on albums by Nilsson , Starr , Elton John and David Bowie . While visiting Mick Jagger in Montauk , New York ( the eastern tip of Long Island ) , Lennon and Pang saw a Scottish @-@ style cottage for sale close to the Montauk Point Lighthouse . Lennon asked a real estate broker to put in an offer for it in February 1975 . Lennon and Pang were also planning on visiting Paul and Linda McCartney in New Orleans in February 1975 , where Wings were recording the Venus and Mars album , but Lennon reconciled with Ono the day before the planned visit , after Ono said she had a new cure for Lennon 's smoking habit . Although Lennon would lament this period publicly , he did not do so in private . Journalist Larry Kane , who befriended Lennon in 1964 , wrote a comprehensive biography of Lennon which detailed the " Lost Weekend " period . In the interview with Kane , Lennon explained his feelings about his time with Pang : " You know Larry , I may have been the happiest I 've ever been ... I loved this woman ( Pang ) , I made some beautiful music and I got so fucked up with booze and shit and whatever . " = = = Pang 's books about Lennon = = = After Lennon returned to Ono , Pang started working for United Artists Records and Island Records as a PR manager , working on albums by Bob Marley and Robert Palmer . Pang published her memoir , Loving John , in 1983 . It was later updated and renamed John Lennon : The Lost Weekend . The original 500 @-@ page Loving John book focused mainly on Pang 's role on Lennon 's albums and sessions . It was edited down to 300 pages , concentrating mostly on the sensational aspects of their relationship . It also included postcards that Lennon had written to Pang during his travels throughout the world in the late ' 70s . Pang claims that she and Lennon remained lovers until 1977 , and stayed in contact until his death . Pang 's book of photographs , Instamatic Karma , was published in 2008 . Besides the candid personal portraits , the book contains some historically important photographs , such as Lennon signing the official dissolution of The Beatles ' partnership , and the last known photograph of Lennon and Paul McCartney together . Cynthia Lennon also provided a back cover endorsement , acknowledging Pang 's role in reuniting Lennon with his estranged first son , Julian . = = Subsequent personal life = = Pang married record producer Tony Visconti in 1989 ; the couple divorced in 2000 . They had two children , Sebastian and Lara . Pang remains in touch with some of the people from her time with Lennon , and Paul McCartney invited her to Linda McCartney 's memorial service . She was an invited guest at The Concert for George in 2002 and remained close to Cynthia Lennon and Lennon 's first son , Julian Lennon . Although having had no contact for 20 years , on October 9 , 2006 Pang accidentally met Ono in Iceland , on what would have been Lennon 's 66th birthday . Ono was in Iceland to unveil a sculpture in Reykjavík and was staying in the same hotel . Pang lives with her children in upstate New York and produces a line of stainless steel feng shui jewelry . She volunteers with an animal shelter called Animal Haven in New York and owns a dog rescued after Hurricane Katrina . She also co @-@ hosts an Internet talk radio show , " Dinner Specials with Cynthia and May Pang " , at blogtalkradio.com , with on @-@ air partner Cynthia Neilson .

= 1992 Atlantic hurricane season = The 1992 Atlantic hurricane season had one of the latest dates on record for the first named storm . The season officially began on June 1 , 1992 , and lasted until November 30 , 1992 . The first storm , an unnamed subtropical storm , developed in the central Atlantic on April 21 , over a month before the official start of hurricane season . The most significant storm of the season was Hurricane Andrew , which at the time was the costliest United States hurricane . After crossing the Bahamas , the hurricane made landfall in Florida and Louisiana . It caused $ 26 billion ( 1992 USD ) in damage , mostly in Florida , and 65 fatalities . Andrew was also the strongest hurricane of the season , reaching winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) while approaching Florida . Unusually , Hurricanes Bonnie and Charley produced tropical storm force winds in the Azores , and the former caused one fatality . Tropical Storm Danielle was one of few tropical cyclones known to make landfall on the Delmarva Peninsula . The storm caused minor damage and two fatalities in the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England regions of the United States . One other hurricane in the season – Frances – did not significantly affect land . The system developed in the central Atlantic , and tracked well away from land , and brought only light rainfall to Newfoundland . In addition to the 7 storms , there were three non @-@ developing tropical depressions . The first depression of the season caused flooding in Cuba and Florida while the other two depressions did not affect any land . Collectively , the storms in the 1992 Atlantic hurricane season caused $ 26 @.@ 502 billion in losses and 73 fatalities . = = Season summary = = = = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = = Forecasts of hurricane activity are issued before each hurricane season by Dr. William M. Gray and his associates at Colorado State University ( CSU ) and the Weather Research Center ( WRC ) . A normal season as defined by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) has 12 @.@ 1 named storms , of which 6 @.@ 4 reach hurricane strength , and 2 @.@ 7 become major hurricanes . In December 1991 , CSU issued its first forecast for the year and predicted that 1992 would see eight named storms , four hurricanes , and one major hurricane . CSU also issued a forecast in April , June and August , however no revisions were made to the numbers of named storms , hurricanes , and major hurricane predicted in 1992 . Prior to the season starting , the WRC predicted that the season would see six named storms , with three of those becoming a hurricane while no forecast was made on the numbers of major hurricanes . = = = Season activity = = = The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 1 , but activity in 1992 began more than a month earlier with the formation of Subtropical Storm One on April 21 . It was a below average season in which 10 tropical depressions formed . Seven of the depressions attained tropical storm status , and four of these attained hurricane status . In addition , one tropical cyclone eventually attained major hurricane status , which is below the 1981 – 2010 average of 2 @.@ 7 per season . The low amount of activity is partially attributed to weaker than normal tropical waves , the source for most North Atlantic tropical cyclones . Only two hurricanes and one tropical storm made landfall during the season . However , damage from Hurricane Andrew was astronomical , causing most of the season 's 106 deaths and $ 26 @.@ 5 billion ( 1992 USD ) damage toll . The last storm of the season , Hurricane Frances , became extratropical on October 27 , over a month before the official end of the season on November 30 . Tropical cyclogenesis in the 1992 Atlantic hurricane season began with the development of Subtropical Storm One on April 21 . However , over the next three months , minimal activity occurred , with only two depressions developing , one in June and the other in July . Although wind shear was relatively weak in August , only one tropical cyclone occurred in that month . However , that one tropical cyclone , Hurricane Andrew , was the strongest and costliest of the season . Though September is the climatological peak of hurricane season , an increase in wind shear prevented tropical cyclogenesis in the first half of the month . After September 16 , however , five tropical cyclones developed in a span of nine days , from September 17 to 26 . Thereafter , activity abruptly halted , and only one tropical cyclone developed in October , Hurricane Frances . By October 27 , Frances became extratropical , which was more than a month before the official end of the season on November 30 . The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 76 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Although officially , subtropical cyclones , such as the first storm , are excluded from the total , the figure above includes periods when storms were in a subtropical phase . = = Storms = = = = = Subtropical Storm One = = = On April 21 , a low pressure area separated from the prevailing westerlies about 600 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) southeast of Bermuda , and developed into a subtropical depression at 1200 UTC . The system maintained a large comma @-@ shaped cloud pattern around the low @-@ level circulation . Operationally it was not classified until 27 hours later . Isolated from strong steering currents , the depression tracked northwestward at 12 mph ( 19 km / h ) , and intensified into a subtropical storm early on April 22 ; this was the first such storm on record in the month . It gradually became better organized , with a large convective band in the eastern semicircle . Reports from a nearby ship indicated peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , with swells of 64 @.@ 4 feet ( 19 @.@ 7 m ) . The National Hurricane Center remarked the potential for the system transitioning into a tropical cyclone . An approaching trough caused the storm to stall and weaken the deep convection . On April 23 , the cyclone weakened to depression status due to strong wind shear . A Hurricane Hunters flight into the system confirmed the weakening , and also reported a 1 @.@ 8 ° F ( 1 ° C ) temperature rise in the center , suggesting a warm core and some tropical characteristics . Early on April 24 , the subtropical depression turned eastward , maintaining limited convection . At the time , forecasters anticipated the depression would continue east @-@ northeastward and become an extratropical cyclone . By late on April 24 , the system was too weak to classify using the Dvorak technique , and the NHC ceased issuing advisories . Within 24 hours , the circulation dissipated as the system continued eastward through the westerlies . = = = Tropical Depression One = = = A tropical wave emerged off the western coast of Africa on June 12 , and eventually developed into Tropical Depression One in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico . Operationally , the National Hurricane Center designated this system as Tropical Depression Two , which led to confusion because of Subtropical Storm One in April , and then another Tropical Depression Two in July . Outflow from Hurricane Celia in the Pacific Ocean and a trough in the Gulf of Mexico generated wind shear on the depression , which prevented it from intensifying into a tropical storm . The depression curved north @-@ northeastward and eventually made landfall in near Tampa , Florida on June 26 around 1500 UTC . As it was moving ashore , the National Hurricane Center noted that the depression was too poorly organized to locate the center of circulation , and discontinued advisories on the system . The depression dropped heavy rainfall in Cuba , peaking at 33 @.@ 43 inches ( 849 mm ) . Large amounts of precipitation resulted in flooding , which damaged or destroyed hundreds of homes and caused two fatalities in provinces of Pinar del Río and La Habana . As the system was only a tropical depression , light winds were reported , however , a peak gust of 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) was reported at MacDill Air Force Base . Heavy rainfall fell on the west coast of Florida , with local amounts exceeded 20 inches ( 510 mm ) . Precipitation throughout the state peaked at 25 inches ( 640 mm ) in Arcadia Tower . Heavy rainfall caused flooding in portions of Florida , which in turn , damaged 4 @,@ 000 houses and destroyed 70 houses . In addition , five homes destroyed and twelve were damage by a tornado spawned in Nokomis . Severe crop damage to orange trees was also reported . The depression caused two fatalities in Florida and damage totaled to $ 2 @.@ 6 million ( 1992 USD ) . = = = Tropical Depression Two = = = A squall line which moved offshore New York and southern New England formed a mesoscale convective vortex , which fired new thunderstorm activity each day as it moved within the westerlies across the northern Atlantic . Once it reached mid @-@ ocean , an increasingly northerly steering flow dropped the system down into the subtropics to the east of Bermuda , and it maintained decent organization . By 2100 UTC on July 24 , the National Hurricane Center began classifying the system as Tropical Depression Two . In the first advisory on the depression , it was noted that the previous tropical depression was erroneously classified as Tropical Depression Two . Due to northeasterly wind shear , the depression failed to intensified or organize further , as predicted . Instead , the depression weakened by late on July 25 , with satellite imagery indicating that much of the deep convection was removed from the surface circulation . By July 26 , the National Hurricane Center issued its final advisory , noting that it was " too weak to classify and is rapidly losing its identity " . The depression dissipated about three hours later . = = = Hurricane Andrew = = = A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 14 , and organized into Tropical Depression Three on August 16 while located about halfway between the Windward Islands and the coast of Africa . It moved to the west @-@ northwest , and strengthened into Tropical Storm Andrew on August 17 . After reaching winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , strong southwesterly shear weakened the storm , and by August 20 it weakened to a minimal storm with a pressure of 1 @,@ 015 mbar ( 30 @.@ 0 inHg ) . It bypassed the Lesser Antilles completely , and turned to the west in response to a building high pressure system to the north . Upon turning to the west , a trough of low pressure positioned to the southwest of Andrew created an environment with little vertical shear and well @-@ defined outflow . The storm quickly intensified due to its small size , and became a hurricane on August 22 . Andrew rapidly intensified under ideal conditions for development , and on August 23 the hurricane peaked with winds of 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) . It crossed the Bahamas at that intensity , weakened slightly , and re @-@ intensified to a 165 mph ( 270 km / h ) Category 5 hurricane before making landfall near Homestead , Florida . It weakened slightly over the state to a 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) hurricane , but restrengthened to a 145 mph ( 235 km / h ) hurricane over the Gulf of Mexico . A strong mid @-@ latitude trough turned Andrew northward , where it greatly weakened before hitting west of Morgan City , Louisiana on August 26 as a 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) Category 3 hurricane . It turned northeastward , and dissipated over Tennessee on August 28 . In the Bahamas , Andrew brought high tides , hurricane @-@ force winds , and tornadoes , which caused significant damage in the archipelago , especially on Cat Cays . At least 800 houses were destroyed and left damage to the transport , communications , water , sanitation , agriculture , and fishing sectors . Overall , Andrew caused four fatalities and $ 250 million in damage in the Bahamas . Throughout the southern portions of Florida , Andrew brought very high winds ; a wind gust of 177 mph ( 282 km / h ) was reported at a house in Perrine , Florida . High winds caused catastrophic damage in Florida , especially in Miami @-@ Dade County , where approximately 117 @,@ 000 houses were either severely damaged or destroyed . In the Everglades , 70 @,@ 000 acres ( 280 km2 ) of trees were knocked down and about 182 million fish were killed . Rainfall in Florida was moderate , peaking at 13 @.@ 98 inches ( 355 mm ) in western Miami @-@ Dade County . Significant damage to oil platforms was reported , with one company losing 13 platforms , had 104 structures damaged , and five drilling wells blown off course . In Louisiana , Andrew produced hurricane @-@ force winds along its path , damaging 23 @,@ 000 homes and destroying 985 homes and 1 @,@ 951 mobile homes . An F3 tornado in St. John the Baptist Parish damaged or destroyed 163 structures . 17 fatalities were reported in Louisiana , six of which were drowning victims offshore . Elsewhere , the storm spawned at least 28 tornadoes , especially in Alabama , Georgia , and Mississippi . Overall , Andrew caused 65 fatalities and $ 26 billion ( 1992 USD ) in damage , making it the fourth costliest hurricane in U.S. history , behind Hurricane Katrina in 2005 , Hurricane Sandy in 2012 , and Hurricane Ike in 2008 . = = = Hurricane Bonnie = = = In mid @-@ September , a tropical low detached from a cold front and developed into Tropical Depression Four late on September 17 , while located about 340 miles ( 550 km ) east @-@ northeast of Bermuda . Early on the following day , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Bonnie . Due to light vertical wind shear , Bonnie quickly strengthened , and became a hurricane late on September 18 . Further deepening occurred , and at 1800 UTC on September 21 , Bonnie peaked as a 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) Category 2 hurricane . Thereafter , Bonnie became nearly stationary for almost 24 hours . Satellite images indicated that the low @-@ level center became exposed , indicating that Bonnie was significantly weakening while tracking southward . It is estimated that Bonnie weakened to a tropical storm by late on September 24 . Bonnie further deteriorated to tropical depression status on September 26 , but re @-@ strengthened to a tropical storm later that day . By 1500 UTC on September 27 , the National Hurricane Center declared Bonnie extratropical , since it was losing tropical characteristics . Bonnie re @-@ acquired tropical characteristics , and the National Hurricane Center resumed advisories on the storm by 2100 UTC on September 28 . However , post @-@ analysis indicated that Bonnie remained tropical during that time period . Bonnie re @-@ strengthened to a strong tropical storm before vertical wind shear weakened it while approaching the Azores . Shortly before becoming extratropical on September 30 , Bonnie passed through the Azores as a moderately weak tropical storm . One location in the Azores reported tropical storm force winds . In addition , one man was killed by a rock fall on the island of São Miguel . No damage was reported in association with Bonnie . = = = Hurricane Charley = = = On September 20 , METEOSAT imagery indicated an area of convection becoming concentrated while well south of the Azores . It is possible that a mid to upper @-@ level cyclonic circulation interacted with the northern portion of a tropical wave . By the following day , satellite imagery noted a well @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation and thus , Tropical Depression Five while centered about 633 miles ( 1 @,@ 019 km ) south of the Azores . The depression tracked northwestward and satellite imagery began to indicate banding features . As a result , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Charley on September 22 . An eye developed as Charley tracked north @-@ northwestward , and it became a hurricane on September 23 . Further strengthening occurred , and by late on September 24 , Charley peaked as a 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) Category 2 hurricane . Thereafter , Charley turned eastward and then east @-@ northeastward while tracking over decreasing sea surface temperatures ( SST 's ) . Early on September 27 , Charley was downgraded to a tropical storm . Later that day , Charley crossed over Terceira Island in the Azores with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Charley gradually lost tropical characteristic , and by 1800 UTC on September 27 , it had transitioned into an extratropical storm . The remnant system accelerated northeastward toward the British Isles , where it merged with another extratropical low on September 29 . While passing through the Azores , Charley produced tropical storm force winds , with the Lajes AFB reporting sustained winds of 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) and gusts reaching 82 mph ( 132 km / h ) . No other effects from Charley were reported in the Azores . = = = Tropical Storm Danielle = = = Tropical Depression Six developed offshore of the Southeastern United States on September 22 from the merger of a surface trough , a tropical wave , and a cold front . The depression quickly intensified and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Danielle six hours later . An approaching trough caused a northeastward movement , but later a high pressure system forced the storm to northwestward , which caused Danielle to execute a small anti @-@ cyclonic loop on September 23 – 24 . While offshore of North Carolina on September 25 , Danielle reached its peak intensity as a moderately strong tropical storm with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . It was initially predicted that Danielle would make landfall in North Carolina , however , the storm curved north @-@ northwestward and made landfall in Maryland on the eastern shore of the Delmarva Peninsula at the same intensity . Danielle continued inland and weakened and dissipated over eastern Pennsylvania on September 26 . Danielle caused severe beach erosion in North Carolina , Virginia , and Maryland , which resulted in overwash , which in turn , damage or destroyed several businesses and houses in the coastal portions of the three states . In addition , street flooding also closed several roads in the region , most notably , North Carolina Highway 12 . Many states in the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England also reported rainfall , although rarely exceeding 3 inches ( 76 mm ) . In addition high seas offshore of New Jersey capsized a sailboat , causing two people to drown . Overall , damage from the storm was minimal , with the exception of the damage or destroyed businesses and houses in North Carolina , Virginia , and Maryland . = = = Tropical Depression Seven = = = A poorly organized tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa on September 23 and quickly developed into Tropical Depression Seven on September 25 , while centered 775 miles ( 1 @,@ 247 km ) southwest of Cape Verde . Because the depression was tracking over warm SST 's , it was predicted to intensify into a tropical storm . However , wind shear exposed the center as indicated by visible satellite images on September 26 , and the National Hurricane Center noted on September 26 that " the depression could be downgraded to a tropical wave later today " . Early on September 27 , the center of the depression became difficult to locate on satellite imagery . By September 28 , the organization of the depression deteriorated further due to strong vertical wind shear . The center of the depression again became difficult to location by infrared images early on September 29 . Later that day , a few computer models indicated a decrease in wind shear over the depression within two days , thus , it was predicted to strengthen into a tropical storm . However , wind shear exposed the center of the depression again by early on September 30 , though it was still forecast to intensify to tropical storm status . By late on October 1 , satellite imagery noted that the depression dissipated , and the National Hurricane Center issued its final advisory on the system . = = = Tropical Storm Earl = = = On September 26 , a tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Eight while centered about 345 miles ( 555 km ) north of Hispaniola . The depression tracked west @-@ northwestward toward the Bahamas . Initially , the depression remained weak , but after reaching the Gulf Stream it strengthened into Tropical Storm Earl at 1200 UTC on September 29 . Around that time , Earl began to veer east , lessening the threat to Florida . Early on October 1 , Earl reached maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 990 mbar ( 29 inHg ) . It gradually weakened thereafter , and Earl was downgraded to a tropical depression on October 3 . Later that day , Earl became extratropical about 295 mi ( 475 km ) south of Bermuda . The threat from Earl prompted a tropical storm watch in the Bahamas and later Bermuda , while a coastal flood watch was issued in Florida . Because Earl remained offshore , impact was generally minor . Throughout Florida , Earl spawned 11 tornadoes and brought moderately heavy rainfall , peaking at 9 @.@ 38 inches ( 238 mm ) near Canal Point , Florida . In addition , light amounts of precipitation were also reported in Georgia and North Carolina . Above normal tides washed away 30 to 35 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 to 10 @.@ 7 m ) of beaches , and lifeguards on St. Augustine Beach made eight rescues . = = = Hurricane Frances = = = A low pressure area developed along the end of a quasi @-@ stationary frontal trough . Initially , vertical wind shear prevented deep convection from forming on the western portion of the system . After wind shear decreased , the system became a gale center late on October 22 . By early on the following day , the gale center had transitioned into a tropical storm , and it is estimated that Tropical Storm Frances developed at 0600 UTC on October 23 . Frances quickly strengthened after becoming a tropical storm , and was upgraded to a hurricane by 1800 UTC on that same day . After becoming a hurricane , Frances curved northeastward , and remained well east of Bermuda . By midday on October 24 , Frances peaked as an 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) Category 1 hurricane . After reaching peak intensity , Frances began tracking over cooler SST 's , which gradually weakened the storm . The eye featured became indistinct and by late on October 25 , Frances was downgraded to a tropical storm . Over the next two days , Frances began losing tropical characteristics , and was declared extratropical by early on October 27 . One sailor was reported missing , however , it is unknown if it was as a result of Frances . In addition , one person on a sailboat suffered injuries during an encounter with Frances . On land , Frances caused minimal impact , limited to light rainfall across Newfoundland . = = Storm names = = The following names were used for named storms that formed in the north Atlantic in 1992 . Subtropical storms were unnamed until 2002 , as a result , the subtropical cyclone in April 1992 did not receive a name . The names not retired from this list appeared again on the naming list for the 1998 season . This is the same naming list used for the 1986 season . Names that were not assigned are marked in gray . = = = Retirement = = = At their meeting in the spring of 1993 , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Andrew from the list above . The name that replaced it on the naming list for the 1998 season was Alex . = = Season effects = = This is a table of all of the storms that formed in the 1992 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) – denoted by bold location names – damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low , and all of the damage figures are in 1992 USD .

= I Heard It Through the Grapevine = " I Heard It Through the Grapevine " is a song written by Norman Whitfield and Barrett Strong for Motown Records in 1966 . The first recording of the song to be released was produced by Whitfield for Gladys Knight & the Pips and released as a single in September 1967 ; it went to number two in the Billboard chart . Smokey Robinson & the Miracles included their version on their 1968 album , Special Occasion . The Marvin Gaye version was placed on his 1968 album In the Groove , where it gained the attention of radio disc jockeys , and Gordy finally agreed to its release as a single in October 1968 , when it went to the top of the Billboard Pop Singles chart for seven weeks from December 1968 to January 1969 and became for a time the biggest hit single on the Motown label ( Tamla ) . The Gaye recording has since become an acclaimed soul classic , and in 2004 , it was placed on the Rolling Stone list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . On the commemorative 50th Anniversary of the Billboard Hot 100 issue of Billboard magazine in June 2008 , Marvin Gaye 's " Grapevine " was ranked 65th . It was also inducted to the Grammy Hall of Fame for " historical , artistic and significant " value . In addition to being released several times by Motown artists , the song has been recorded by a range of musicians including Creedence Clearwater Revival , who made an eleven @-@ minute interpretation for their 1970 album , Cosmo 's Factory ; and has been used twice in television commercials – each time using session musicians recreating the style of the Marvin Gaye version : the 1985 Levi 's commercial , " Launderette " , featuring male model Nick Kamen , and the 1986 California raisins promotion with Buddy Miles as the singer for the clay animation group The California Raisins . = = Composition = = By 1966 , Barrett Strong , the singer on Motown Records ' breakthrough hit , " Money ( That 's What I Want ) " , had the basics of a song he had started to write in Chicago , where the idea had come to him while walking down Michigan Avenue that people were always saying " I heard it through the grapevine " . The phrase is associated with black slaves during the Civil War , who had their form of telegraph : the human grapevine . Producer Norman Whitfield worked with Strong on the song , adding lyrics to Strong 's basic Ray Charles influenced gospel tune and the single chorus line of " I heard it through the grapevine " . This was to be the first of a number of successful collaborations between Strong and Whitfield . The lyrics tell the story in a first person narrative of the betrayal of the singer 's romantic partner , how he heard about it indirectly via gossip from other people ( through the " grapevine " ) , and the emotional pain and disbelief he is suffering . = = Motown recordings = = Producer Norman Whitfield recorded " I Heard It Through the Grapevine " with various Motown artists . The first known recording is with the Miracles on August 6 , 1966 , though there may also have been a recording with the Isley Brothers , or at least Whitfield intended to record it with them ; however a track has not turned up – some Motown historians believe that a session may have been scheduled but cancelled . The Miracles ' version was not released as a single due to Berry Gordy 's veto during Motown 's weekly quality control meetings ; Gordy advised Whitfield and Strong to create a stronger single . The Miracles version later appeared on their 1968 Special Occasion album , and a slightly different take , possibly from the same session but unreleased , appeared on the 1998 compilation album , Motown Sings Motown Treasures . Marvin Gaye 's version was recorded in spring 1967 , and is the second known recording , though was also rejected by Gordy as a single , and would also later go onto an album , In the Groove . The third recording was in 1967 with Gladys Knight and the Pips in a new , faster arrangement . Gordy accepted the new arrangement and the Gladys Knight version was released as a single in September 1967 , reaching number 2 in the charts . When Gaye 's album with his version of Grapevine was released in August 1968 radio disc jockeys were playing the song , so Gordy had it released as a single in October , and it went to number one in December . In 1968 , Bobby Taylor & the Vancouvers recorded a version for their debut album based on Gladys ' recent hit ; however , after hearing the Marvin Gaye version , they felt they 'd made the wrong choice . In 1969 , Whitfield produced a version for the Temptations " psychedelic soul " album , Cloud Nine , in which he " brought compelling percussion to the fore , and relegated the piano well into the wings " . In 1971 , the Undisputed Truth became the final Motown act to record the song in its Marvin @-@ styled version . The song was also covered by the Chi @-@ Lites on their 1969 debut album Give It Away . = = = Marvin Gaye = = = Whitfield recorded the song with Marvin Gaye over five sessions , the first on February 3 , 1967 , and the final one on April 10 , 1967 . Recordings of this version took more than a month due to Whitfield overdubbing Gaye 's vocals with that of the Andantes ' background vocals , mixing in several tracks featuring the Funk Brothers on the rhythm track , and adding the string section from the Detroit Symphony Orchestra with an arrangement by Paul Riser . The session featuring Gaye led to an argument between the producer and singer . Whitfield wanted Gaye to perform the song in a higher key than his normal range , a move that had worked on David Ruffin during the recording of the Temptations ' hit , " Ain 't Too Proud to Beg " . The mixture of Gaye 's raspy vocals and the Andantes ' sweeter harmonies , made Whitfield confident that he had a hit ; however , despite approval from Motown 's Quality Control Department , Gordy blocked the release . = = = Gladys Knight & the Pips = = = Gladys Knight & the Pips recorded " Grapevine " on June 17 , 1967 in Motown 's Studio A , with Norman Whitfield as producer . After hearing Aretha Franklin 's version of " Respect " , Whitfield rearranged " Grapevine " to include some of the funk elements of the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section . According to David Ritz , Whitfield set to record a song that would " out @-@ funk " Aretha . After Whitfield presented the demo tapes , Gladys Knight , Bubba Knight , William Guest , and Edward Patten worked for several weeks on their vocal arrangement . To make the song suitable for Gladys , the first line of the second verse ( " I know a man ain 't supposed to cry / But these tears I can 't hold inside " ) was altered to ( " Take a good look at these tears in my eyes / Baby , these tears I can 't hold inside " ) . After much talk , Gordy reluctantly allowed the Pips ' version to be a single on September 28 , 1967 on Motown 's Soul label . = = Releases = = The first release was the Gladys Knight & the Pips version on September 28 , 1967 on Motown 's Soul label , with " It ’ s Time to Go Now " on the B @-@ side . Motown put little support behind it and the Pips relied on connections with DJs across the United States to get the record played . The Pips ' version of " Grapevine " reached number one on the Billboard R & B chart on November 25 , 1967 , and stayed there for six weeks , making it the group 's second R & B number one after 1961 's " Every Beat of My Heart " . It reached two on the Billboard Pop Singles singles chart the same month , with the Monkees ' " Daydream Believer " holding top spot . It was Motown 's best @-@ selling single to that point . The song was later placed on the Gladys Knight & the Pips album Everybody Needs Love . Whitfield wanted Gordy to release Gaye 's " Grapevine " as a single , but Gordy didn 't want to release another version after the Pips had already made a hit out of it . In September 1968 , Whitfield added " Grapevine " to Gaye 's new album In the Groove . On release " Grapevine " became a radio hit and , according to Gordy himself , " The DJs played it so much off the album that we had to release it as a single " . So Gaye 's version was released as a single on October 30 , 1968 . Gaye 's " I Heard It Through the Grapevine " eventually outsold the Pips ' , and until The Jackson 5 's " I 'll Be There " 20 months later , was the biggest hit single of all time on the Motown label . It stayed at the top of the Billboard Pop Singles chart for seven weeks , from December 14 , 1968 to January 25 , 1969 . Gaye 's " Grapevine " also held number one on the R & B chart during the same seven weeks , and stayed at number one in the United Kingdom for three weeks starting on March 26 , 1969 . The label was pleased with the success , although Gaye , depressed because of issues such as the illness of singing partner Tammi Terrell ( which would kill her less than a year later ) , was quoted as saying that his success " didn 't seem real " and that he " didn 't deserve it " . Due to the song 's success , In the Groove was re @-@ issued as I Heard It Through the Grapevine and peaked at number two on the R & B album chart and number sixty @-@ three on the album chart , which was at the time Marvin 's highest @-@ charted solo studio effort to date . Because of the success of both versions , " I Heard It Through the Grapevine " was the first and last number one on the Billboard R & B chart in 1968 : the Pips version was the first week of January , the Gaye version the last week of December . Gladys Knight was not pleased that Gaye 's version usurped her own , and claimed that Gaye 's version was recorded over an instrumental track Whitfield had prepared for a Pips song , an allegation Gaye denied . In 1985 , one year following Gaye 's death , the song was re @-@ released in the UK reaching number eight thanks to a Levi 's commercial ( starring Nick Kamen ) . = = Legacy = = The Gaye recording has become an acclaimed soul classic . In 2004 , it was placed at number 80 on Rolling Stone 's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time , with the comment that Whitfield had produced the song with a number of artists using different arrangements , and that on the Marvin Gaye recording he had a " golden idea " when he set the song " in a slower , more mysterious tempo " . In a new Rolling Stone list published in 2011 , the single was placed slightly lower at 81 . On the commemorative 50th Anniversary of the Billboard Hot 100 issue of Billboard magazine in June 2008 , the Marvin Gaye version was ranked as the 65th biggest song on the chart . It was also inducted to the Grammy Hall of Fame for " historical , artistic and significant " value . = = Covers = = In addition to being recorded several times by Motown artists , the song has been covered by musicians including Creedence Clearwater Revival who recorded an eleven @-@ minute version for their 1970 album , Cosmo 's Factory , that was released as a single , reaching 43 on Billboard 's chart , with more modest success in other countries , and funk musician Roger Troutman whose extended version lifted off his 1981 solo album , The Many Facets of Roger , brought the song back to number one on the R & B chart in early 1982 marking the third time the single reached the top spot on that chart . It also made the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number seventy @-@ nine . Queen Latifah used the music as a basis for her 1998 single " Paper " , produced by Pras Michel for her album Order in the Court . = = Media = = " I Heard It Through the Grapevine " has been used twice in television commercials – each time using session musicians recreating the style of the Marvin Gaye version . For the 1985 Levi 's 501 commercial , " Launderette " , featuring male model Nick Kamen , agency BBH and director Roger Lyons , owing to budgetary constraints , brought in Karl Jenkins and Mike Ratledge to recreate the sound of the Marvin Gaye original with Tony Jackson , a Barbadian background singer for Paul Young , handling vocals and P. P. Arnold on backing vocals . The commercial 's success prompted Tamla @-@ Motown to re @-@ release Gaye 's single with the Levi 's 501 logo on the sleeve — " an example of integrated marketing almost before the term was invented " . The record went to number eight on the UK Singles chart , marking its second chart performance . A year later , in 1986 , Buddy Miles was the singer for the clay animation group The California Raisins which sang it as part a TV advertising campaign . Marvin Gaye 's version of the song is used in the opening credits of The Big Chill ( 1983 ) as each of the main characters gets to hear ( through the " grapevine " ) about the death of their college friend , and then travels to his funeral ; the song serves in an extradiegetic fashion to both unite the main characters ' friendship and to locate it nostalgically for the viewer . = = Personnel = = Lead vocals by Marvin Gaye Background vocals by The Andantes : Jackie Hicks , Marlene Barrow and Louvain Demps Organ by Earl Van Dyke Drums by Richard " Pistol " Allen and Uriel Jones Instrumentation by the Funk Brothers and the Detroit Symphony Orchestra String arrangement by Paul Riser = = Charts = =

= Jared C. Monti = Jared Christopher Monti ( September 20 , 1975 – June 21 , 2006 ) was a Soldier in the United States Army who received the United States military 's highest decoration for valor , the Medal of Honor , for his actions in Afghanistan . Monti was deployed with his unit when they were attacked by a group of enemy insurgents . When another Soldier was wounded , Monti attempted to rescue him three times and was killed in action . The President signed the authorization for Monti to receive the Medal of Honor and the medal was presented to his family in a ceremony at the White House in 2009 . It was the first Medal of Honor presentation during Obama 's presidency . Monti was the sixth person from the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan to be awarded the Medal of Honor . = = Early life = = Monti was born in Abington , Massachusetts , on September 20 , 1975 , to Paul , a school teacher , and Janet Monti . He grew up in Raynham , Massachusetts and even as a child the adventurous character that would later earn him the Medal of Honor was , military . As a four @-@ year @-@ old , he disappeared from the backyard one day , and his mother found him later on hanging by the hood of his sweatshirt on the other side of the fence . On another occasion , a migraine headache kept him home from school , but he left the house and was later found climbing a tree . In 1994 he graduated from Bridgewater @-@ Raynham Regional High School at the age of 18 . Monti had two siblings , a sister , Nicole and a brother , Timothy . = = Military service = = After enlisting in the Army in March 1993 , he completed basic training and forward observer training at Fort Sill , Oklahoma and continued his training as a paratrooper with the 82nd Airborne Division . Monti , a fire support specialist , served as a staff sergeant and Fire Support Team sergeant with the 3rd Squadron , 71st Cavalry Regiment , 3rd Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division . Previous to his service in Afghanistan he was deployed to Kosovo , where he sustained injuries while sky diving . He rejected a medical discharge and reenlisted to deploy with his unit to Afghanistan in February 2006 , as part of Task Force Spartan . = = = Medal of Honor action = = = On June 21 , 2006 , Monti served as the assistant leader of a 16 @-@ man patrol and leader of a weapons forward observer team tasked with gathering intelligence in Gowardesh , Nuristan Province , in northeastern Afghanistan . The team established a small base on a ridge to support a larger Army operation in the valley below . When the larger operation was delayed , Monti 's team ran low on provisions . The helicopter that brought supplies revealed the team 's position . That evening , the patrol was attacked by a group of at least 60 insurgents , who had established two positions on a wooded ridge about 50 @-@ yards above the patrol and attempted to outflank Monti and his team . The Americans took cover and returned fire , and Monti radioed for artillery and close air support . Enemy fire killed Staff Sergeant Patrick Lybert . Another Soldier , Specialist Brian J. Bradbury , was severely wounded and left lying in the open between the enemy and the team 's position . Staff Sergeant Chris Cunningham , leader of the patrol 's sniper team , called out that he was going to try to rescue Bradbury . Monti replied , " That ’ s my guy . I am going to get him . " Monti made three attempts to reach Bradbury . On his first , he advanced to within three feet of Bradbury before being forced back by intense machine @-@ gun and rocket @-@ propelled grenade ( RPG ) fire . His second try was similarly turned back and as the rest of his patrol provided covering fire , Monti advanced a third time but was struck by an RPG . Some news reports indicated that the explosion blew off both of his legs , but this is not supported by family accounts or military records . Monti attempted to crawl back towards cover . He is reported by comrades to have made his peace with God and asked Sgt. Cunningham to tell his parents he loved them . Monti died moments later . At about the same time , the artillery and air support for which he had called began hitting the enemy position , killing 22 of the attackers and dispersing the rest . SPC Bradbury subsequently died during his evacuation when the cable on the rescue hoist lifting him to a 159th Medical Company ( Air Ambulance ) helicopter broke . The fall also killed Staff Sergeant Heathe Craig , 28 , a medic from Severn , Maryland . = = Burial and Medal of Honor ceremony = = Monti is buried in section 11 , site 38 of the Massachusetts National Cemetery in Bourne , Massachusetts . The Army posthumously promoted him to sergeant first class . On July 24 , 2009 President Barack Obama signed the authorization for Monti to receive the Medal of Honor for this action . The medal was presented to the family by the President in a formal ceremony at the White House on September 17 , 2009 . Monti is the 3,448th recipient of the honor since the medal was established by the U.S. Congress during the American Civil War . Additionally , he is the second Medal of Honor recipient from the conflict in Afghanistan , after Navy SEAL Michael P. Murphy , who received the medal in 2007 . = = Military awards = = SFC Monti 's personal decorations include : = = = Medal of Honor citation = = = For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity in action at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty . Sergeant First Class Monti distinguished himself at the cost of his life while serving as a team leader with the Headquarters and Headquarters Troop , 3d Squadron , 71st Cavalry Regiment in Nuristan Province , Afghanistan on 21 June 2006 . On that day , Sergeant First Class Monti was leading a mission to gather intelligence and to direct fires against the enemy in support of a squadron @-@ size interdiction mission . While at an observation position on top of a mountain ridge , Sergeant First Class Monti ’ s sixteen @-@ man patrol came under attack by a superior force consisting of as many as 50 enemy fighters . On the verge of being overrun , Sergeant First Class Monti directed his patrol to set up a hasty defensive position behind a collection of rocks . He then began to call for indirect fire from a nearby support base ; accurately bringing the rounds upon the enemy who had closed to within 50 meters of his position . While still calling for fire , Sergeant First Class Monti personally engaged the enemy with his rifle and a grenade , successfully disrupting an attempt to flank the patrol . Sergeant First Class Monti then realized that one of his Soldiers was lying wounded and exposed in the open ground between the advancing enemy and the patrol ’ s position . With complete disregard for his own safety , Sergeant First Class Monti moved from behind the cover of the rocks into the face of withering enemy fire . After closing within meters of his wounded Soldier , the heavy volume of fire forced Sergeant First Class Monti to seek cover . Sergeant First Class Monti then gathered himself and rose again to maneuver through a barrage of enemy fire to save his wounded Soldier . Again , Sergeant First Class Monti was driven back by relentless enemy fire . Unwilling to leave his Soldier wounded and exposed , Sergeant First Class Monti made another attempt to move across open terrain and through the enemy fire to the aide of his wounded Soldier . On his third attempt , Sergeant First Class Monti was mortally wounded , sacrificing his own life in an effort to save his Soldier . Sergeant First Class Monti ’ s acts of heroism inspired the patrol to fight off the larger enemy force . Sergeant First Class Monti ’ s immeasurable courage and uncommon valor were in keeping with the highest traditions of military service and reflect great credit upon himself , 3d Squadron 71st Cavalry Regiment , the 3d Brigade Combat Team , the 10th Mountain Division ( Light Infantry ) , and the United States Army . = = Other honors = = On January 13 , 2009 , Marc R. Pacheco submitted a petition to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts to designate a state owned bridge in the town of Raynham as the SFC Jared C. Monti Bridge . The motion passed and the state Senate approved for the bridge to be renamed . A call @-@ for @-@ fire training facility at Fort Sill , Oklahoma , where Monti trained , is named in his honor . The former Pine Plains Fitness Center on Fort Drum has been renamed the Monti Fitness Facility in honor of SFC Jared C. Monti . In May , 2013 , Connie Harrington , songwriter of Lee Brice 's number one country hit " I Drive Your Truck , " revealed that she wrote the song after listening to Monti 's father , Paul , on the public radio program Here & Now . It was Paul Monti 's answer to Here & Now when asked what he did to reconnect with his son 's memory .

= Cyclone Geralda = Cyclone Geralda ( also known as Intense Tropical Cyclone Geralda ) was a powerful tropical cyclone that caused catastrophic damage in Madagascar in late January 1994 , among the strongest to hit the country . It originated from an area of low pressure over the Indian Ocean on January 25 . Over the following few days , the depression underwent gradual intensification , reaching its peak intensity with ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 200 km / h ( 125 mph ) on January 31 . Cyclone Geralda made landfall near Toamasina , Madagascar after weakening from its peak intensity . Within hours of moving onshore , the system had substantially weakened , and by February 5 , Geralda had degenerated into a land depression , and it became extratropical three days later . Geralda was the second cyclone in as many months to strike eastern Madagascar , after Daisy in January . Geralda produced wind gusts as strong as 350 km / h ( 220 mph ) , which were the highest worldwide for several decades . The cyclone also dropped heavy rainfall that caused flooding , particularly in valleys . About 80 % of the city of Toamasina was destroyed , including most schools , homes , and churches . The cyclone heavily damaged roads and rail lines , which later disrupted relief efforts . In the capital Antananarivo , Geralda killed 43 people after flooding many houses . Overall , more than 40 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed , leaving 356 @,@ 000 people homeless . Nationwide , the cyclone killed 231 people and caused over $ 10 million in damage ( 1994 USD ) . Relief work in the storm 's aftermath was hampered by lack of coordination , and the Malagasy military were deployed to help storm victims . Few stocks were pre @-@ positioned , causing food prices to rise greatly . Several countries and departments of the United Nations donated money or supplies to the country . = = Meteorological history = = In late January 1994 , the south Indian Ocean Intertropical Convergence Zone produced widespread convection from the eastern coast of Africa to Indonesia . Late on January 25 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) began monitoring a low @-@ pressure area about halfway between Madagascar and Indonesia , later giving it the designation " 13S " . The following day , the Météo @-@ France on Réunion ( MFR ) classified the system as a tropical disturbance . By that time , the system had developed an organized area of convection with curved rainbands and was strengthening quickly ; early on January 28 , it developed a central dense overcast . In response , MFR upgraded the system to Moderate Tropical Storm Geralda . At that time , the storm was moving generally west @-@ southwestward due to a ridge extending from Madagascar to the Mascarene Islands . High water temperatures fueled further development , first into a moderate tropical storm late on January 28 and then into a tropical cyclone 24 hours later . By then , the JTWC had upgraded Geralda to the equivalent of a minimal hurricane . Continuing generally to the west @-@ southwest , Geralda intensified further , and MFR upgraded it to intense tropical cyclone status on January 30 . The cyclone developed a well @-@ defined eye 35 km ( 22 mi ) in diameter and grew to a size of 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) in diameter . At 0600 UTC on January 31 , the JTWC estimated peak 1 – minute sustained winds of 270 km / h ( 165 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . Six hours later , Geralda 's appearance on satellite imagery warranted a Dvorak rating of 7 @.@ 0 . Based on this , MFR estimated a minimum barometric pressure of 905 mbar ( 26 @.@ 7 inHg ) and peak 10 – minute winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) , just shy of very intense tropical cyclone status . At that time , gusts were estimated at over 300 km / h ( 190 mph ) . Geralda had intensified from a tropical disturbance to its peak intensity in only five days , which was described by MFR as " an exceptional phenomenon " . Near peak intensity , the center of Geralda passed about 45 km ( 28 mi ) northwest of Tromelin Island , offshore eastern Madagascar . After maintaining its peak winds for about 18 hours , Geralda weakened slightly while approaching eastern Madagascar . At 0600 UTC on February 2 , MFR estimated the winds were around 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) . At about 1100 UTC that day , the cyclone made landfall just north of Toamasina as an intense tropical cyclone , where a pressure of 943 mbar ( 27 @.@ 8 inHg ) was reported . Officials considered Geralda the strongest storm to hit the country since a cyclone in March 1927 . Geralda weakened rapidly over the mountainous terrain of Madagascar , passing over the capital Antananarivo late on February 2 ; both the JTWC and MFR had downgraded the cyclone to tropical depression status by the next day . About 30 hours after its first landfall , Geralda briefly emerged into the Mozambique Channel late on February 3 . However , a trough soon turned it to the south , and Geralda crossed over western Madagascar , reaching open waters on February 5 . By that time , the winds had decreased to 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . An approaching polar trough turned Geralda to the southeast on February 6 , and the cyclone became extratropical two days later . MFR continued tracking the remnants of Geralda until February 12 . = = Impact and aftermath = = Tromelin Island was the first landmass affected by Geralda . The island was just outside the eyewall , and experienced wind gusts of 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) . Cyclone Geralda struck Madagascar just weeks after Tropical Cyclone Daisy affected the same general area . While Geralda was approaching the country , officials declared Emergency Phase 3 for Toamasina Province , indicating immediate danger , and Emergency Phase 1 for Antananarivo , which is a general alert . As Geralda moved ashore , the cyclone produced wind gusts as strong as 350 km / h ( 220 mph ) , among the strongest gusts worldwide in several decades . The storm also dropped heavy rainfall that caused landslides and severe flooding , mostly in Toamasina Province . About 80 % of the city of Toamasina was destroyed , including the country 's only petroleum refinery at the time . Damage to the refinery alone was estimated at $ 800 @,@ 000 . An early estimate indicated that 95 % of schools , homes , and churches sustained severe damage to complete destruction in the city , leaving 50 @,@ 000 people homeless . In the harbor at Toamasina , Geralda sank seven ships , and throughout the city , power outages and road damage were commonplace . Elsewhere in Madagascar , Geralda wrecked houses and bridges in Fénérive . On Île Sainte @-@ Marie , all power lines and 90 % of plantations were destroyed . Brickaville , to the south of Toamasina , experienced severe flooding up to 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) deep . Lack of basic repairs before the storm contributed to roads and bridges being washed away there . The cyclone killed 43 people when it flooded large portions of Antananarivo , leaving 60 @,@ 000 people homeless . High rainfall damaged houses in the city and cut off roads outside of the city . Damage was heavy in valleys where flash flooding occurred . Across Madagascar , flooding wrecked over 300 @,@ 000 ha ( 740 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields , affecting 70 % of the rice crop , and killed more than 13 @,@ 000 cattle . The combined impact of Geralda and earlier Cyclone Daisy damaged or destroyed more than 40 @,@ 000 homes , leaving at least 356 @,@ 000 people homeless . The storms also left severe damage to roads and rail systems . A total of 20 national roads and several secondary roads were disrupted . The rail line between Moramanga near the capital and Brickaville near the coast was damaged . Overall , Cyclone Geralda killed at least 231 people , with 73 missing as of MFR 's annual cyclone report on the season ; the storm also injured 267 people and caused over $ 10 million in damage ( 1994 USD ) . In the aftermath , there was no pre @-@ existing method of dealing with a storm of such magnitude , and most local governments failed to respond immediately due to lack of coordination . As a result , agencies spent much time in dealing with the logistics of the aftermath . There were few food supplies that were pre @-@ positioned . The Malagasy government worked with the United Nations to create a committee , which met weekly and addressed various facets of the recovery . Malagasy officials deployed members of the military to help storm victims , although damaged roads initially hampered relief efforts . Due to crop damage , the price of rice increased by 300 % in the country , and there were food shortages in Antananarivo , along with fuel shortages elsewhere . In Toamasina , industrial activity was expected to take six months to resume production . Médecins Sans Frontières helped assure the cleanliness of shelters in Antananarivo , while CARE delivered food to residents in Brickaville . There were health issues related to the widespread flooding , prompting the government to distribute medical supplies for 60 @,@ 000 people . Shortly after Geralda struck , the Malagasy government requested international assistance . The United Nations Department of Human Services provided an emergency $ 30 @,@ 000 relief grant , and UNICEF later provided about $ 2 @.@ 3 million in assistance . The European Union provided about $ 560 @,@ 000 worth of medicine and relief . The French government sent $ 5 million worth of supplies via airplane from Réunion , including food and medicine . Eight other countries sent assistance in the form of money or relief items . By about two weeks after the storm 's landfall , water and power service were being restored in Toamasina , although by that time , 40 % of the communications network remained offline . By February 16 , the road from Antananrivo and Toamasina had been reopened . The Malagasy government imported oil for several months while its refinery was out of order . Non @-@ government organizations provided rice to stabilize prices . The damaged rail line between Antananarivo and the coast was rebuilt in 2003 . Schools that were repaired following Geralda were later successfully used as shelters .

= Māori Battalion = The 28th ( Māori ) Battalion , more commonly known as the Māori Battalion , was an infantry battalion of the New Zealand Army that served during the Second World War . It was formed following pressure on the Labour government by some Māori Members of Parliament ( MPs ) and Māori organisations throughout the country which wanted a full Māori unit to be raised for service overseas . The Māori Battalion followed in the footsteps of the Māori Pioneer Battalion that served during the First World War with success , and was wanted by Māori to raise their profile , and to serve alongside their Pākehā compatriots as subjects of the British Empire . It also gave a generation of people with a well @-@ noted military ancestry a chance to test their own warrior skills . Raised in 1940 as part of the Second New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( 2NZEF ) , the 28th ( Māori ) Battalion was attached to the 2nd New Zealand Division as an extra battalion that was moved between the division 's three infantry brigades . The battalion fought during the Greek , North African and Italian campaigns during which it earned a formidable reputation as a fighting force which has subsequently been acknowledged by both Allied and German commanders . It was also the most decorated New Zealand battalion during the war . Following the end of hostilities , the battalion contributed a contingent of personnel to serve in Japan as part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force , before being disbanded in January 1946 . = = History = = = = = Formation = = = The 28th ( Māori ) Battalion had its origins before the start of the Second World War . In mid @-@ 1939 , as war in Europe began to be seen as inevitable , Sir Āpirana Ngata started to discuss proposals for the formation of a military unit made up of Māori volunteers similar to the Māori Pioneer Battalion that had served during the First World War . This proposal was furthered by two Māori MPs , Eruera Tirikatene and Paraire Paikea , and from this support within the Māori community for the idea began to grow as it was seen as an opportunity for Māoris to participate as citizens of the British Empire and to test their warrior skills . At first the New Zealand government was hesitant , but on 4 October , the decision was announced that the proposal would be accepted and that the battalion would be raised in addition to the nine battalions and support units that had already been formed into three brigades of the 2nd New Zealand Division . Nevertheless , it was decided that the battalion 's key positions , including its officers , non commissioned officers ( NCOs ) and signallers , would initially be filled largely by New Zealanders of European descent . This decision was met with some consternation , so assurances were made that over time suitable Māori candidates would take over these positions . In this regard , it was decided that the battalion 's first commanding officer would be a regular officer , Major George Dittmer — later promoted to lieutenant colonel in January 1940 — and that his second @-@ in @-@ command would be a Reserve officer , Lieutenant Colonel George Bertrand , a part @-@ Māori who would take up the position with the rank of major . Both men were veterans of the First World War and had considerable experience . Almost immediately effort was focused upon selecting and identifying the officers and NCOs . To this end volunteers were called for amongst units that had already formed as part of the 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force ( 2NZEF ) and from new recruits . At the end of November , 146 trainees reported to the Army School at Trentham , where even serving officers and NCOs were required to prove their suitability for positions in the new battalion . Concurrently , recruiting of men to fill the other ranks positions began in early October and within three weeks nearly 900 men had enlisted . The process was carried out by recruiting officers who worked closely with tribal authorities , and the recruits were restricted to single men aged between 21 and 35 , although later married men were allowed to join , but only if they did not have more than two children of similar ages . On 26 January 1940 the battalion came together for the first time , marking its official raising at the Palmerston North Show Grounds . Upon formation it was decided that the battalion would be organised upon tribal lines . The unit consisted of a headquarters company and four rifle companies , designated ' A ' through ' D ' : ' A ' Company was recruited from North Auckland ; ' B ' Company from Rotorua , the Bay of Plenty and Thames – Coromandel ; ' C ' Company from the East Coast from Gisborne to East Cape and ' D ' Company from Waikato , Maniapoto , Hawkes Bay , Wellington and the South Island , as well as some Pacific Islands and the Chatham and Stewart Islands . February saw the issuing of equipment and the commencement of training , however , this was punctuated by medical inspections and dental treatment as well as ceremonial duties surrounding the commemoration of the Treaty of Waitangi . A lack of previous experience in technical trades also hampered the training of the battalion , as the unit was short of men who were able to serve in roles such as clerks , drivers and signallers because the majority of personnel were drawn from mainly rural backgrounds . Consequently , men for these roles had to be trained from scratch . The organisation of the battalion was finally completed in March , when the men were allocated to their respective companies , and on 13 March 1940 the 28th ( Māori ) Battalion was declared on active service . After 14 days leave , the battalion conducted a five @-@ week concentration period before embarking on 1 May 1940 . The battalion 's strength at this time was 39 officers and 642 other ranks . = = = United Kingdom = = = Sailing upon the Aquitania via Fremantle and Cape Town , the battalion arrived at Gourock , Scotland , after six weeks at sea . Initially they had been destined to join the rest of the 2nd New Zealand Division in the Middle East , but due to concerns about a possible invasion of the United Kingdom by the German Wehrmacht , the decision was made to divert the division 's second echelon , a brigade @-@ sized force that included the 28th ( Māori ) Battalion , to Britain to help bolster the island 's defences . In late June or early July 1940 the 28th ( Māori ) Battalion was attached to a mixed brigade under Brigadier Harold Barrowclough . During this time they manned defences in the south of England and undertook further training . The battalion suffered from a lack of equipment , largely due to the priority given to re @-@ equip British units following the losses suffered by the British Expeditionary Force in France , and consequently training was largely focused upon anti @-@ gas procedures and route marching . On 6 July they were inspected by King George VI and he was said to have been impressed by the " smartness of the close order and arms drill of the Māori Battalion " and " by the fine physique , keenness and determined demeanour " of the men . Shortly afterwards the Mixed Brigade began quick deployment and defensive manoeuvres in earnest , as fears of invasion grew . In between exercises , further training was undertaken and the battalion also worked to improve fixed defences throughout July and into August and September . These exercises varied in size from company to battalion @-@ level , and involved differing scenarios and enemy forces . In September , a divisional review was undertaken and amidst massive German air raids upon London , the New Zealanders were declared to be ready for front @-@ line service in the event of a German landing . Warning orders for deployment to Egypt were cancelled and the New Zealanders were placed under command of XII Corps , taking up defensive positions in the Folkestone – Dover region . In October , the Māori Battalion was attached to " Milforce " , under Dittmer 's command , along with a squadron of tanks , a squadron of cavalry and a medium machine gun company . The following month , with an invasion now considered unlikely , the battalion returned to Aldershot for the winter , remaining there for two months . During this time limited training was undertaken , although upon invitation the battalion fielded a rugby team against a Welsh side at Langley Park , losing 12 – 3 . Later in the month , the battalion received the order to begin preparing for redeployment to Egypt and an advance party was dispatched in mid @-@ December . On 7 January 1941 the rest of the battalion left for the Middle East , embarking from Liverpool on the Athlone Castle . = = = Middle East = = = After sailing via Freetown , Cape Town and Durban , the Athlone Castle sailed up the east coast of Africa and entered the Suez Canal , arriving at Tewfik harbour on 3 March 1941 . In the afternoon the battalion entrained and two days later they arrived in the desert , where they were met by motor transport which carried them to camp Garawi , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Cairo . At this point they were met by about 300 reinforcements which were used to replace men who had been laid down with influenza and to bring the battalion up to a higher establishment . Shortly afterwards they were moved to Alexandria , where they embarked on the Cameronia , bound for Greece . = = = Greece = = = On 6 April the German invasion of Greece and Yugoslavia began . In order to help defend Greece , a composite force of three divisions of Australian , British and New Zealand troops were to be deployed , and were grouped together under the title of ' W ' Force . However , by the time the invasion began only two of the three divisions had arrived , and the New Zealanders were consequently spread thin , holding a position to the north of Katerini , where they were tasked to defend the strategic Olympus Pass to the south . During this time , the 28th ( Māori ) Battalion was attached to the 5th Infantry Brigade , which was later grouped with other Australian and New Zealand units to form the Anzac Corps . Vastly outnumbered , within two days the situation for the Allies was not good as the Germans had broken through the defences along the Bulgarian border and the Yugoslav resistance had collapsed . As the situation worsened , orders came down from brigade headquarters that the passes would be held " to the last man and last round " . On 9 April , the fall of Salonika precipitated the order for the battalion to withdraw from their positions at Katerini south to Olympus . As events unfolded elsewhere , the battalion remained in position , digging in and constructing defences until 12 April when they were ordered to withdraw behind the Mavroneri Gorge and reposition themselves on the western aspect . At this time the 5th Infantry Brigade 's orders were changed from a holding action to a delay and withdrawal . It was in the Petra Pass , alongside the 22nd Battalion , that the 28th Battalion fought its first engagement of the war . In preparation for the coming attack , the Māoris built their position , running out barbed and concertina wire and digging in while German bombers droned overhead . During the night they carried out patrols along the Mavroneri riverbed , but no contact was made . The following morning , the divisional cavalry , which had been carrying out a rearguard action , conducted a withdrawal through the battalion 's position , making the Māori Battalion the most forward Allied unit . As German forces were halted at Platamon by the 21st Battalion , thrusts towards Larisa once again put the battalion 's position in doubt and they were again ordered to withdraw . Meanwhile , the Anzac Corps decided to make its last stand 100 miles ( 160 km ) south at Thermopylae . In the end the Māoris remained in position until 17 April . Throughout the previous two days the battalion worked hard to repel repeated attempts by elements of the German 2nd Infantry Regiment to infiltrate their lines , before finally they received the order to fall back . With isolated platoons still in contact with the Germans and amidst high winds and a heavy downpour of rain , the New Zealanders had difficulty disengaging . Withdrawing over difficult terrain towards the pass , the manoeuvre continued into the night as the Germans continued to harass their rearguard units . The move was carried out with considerable urgency because the intention was to blow a bridge up just after the battalion had withdrawn across it in order to delay the German advance . In the end the battalion only just made it , for the engineers tasked with carrying out the demolition had received the order to complete their task and were about to detonate when the battalion arrived shortly after 3 : 00 am . After meeting motor transport , the battalion moved back to Ay Dhimitrios , which they began to prepare to defend in order to help seal off the exit of the Olympus pass . The withdrawal continued , though , and on 19 April the Māori Battalion was called upon conduct a delaying action as the rest of the 5th Infantry Brigade pulled back through Larisa towards Lamia , 80 miles ( 130 km ) south . Along roads packed with vehicles and civilian traffic they withdrew amidst considerable confusion . Upon arrival at Thermopylae the battalion had had just enough time to dig in before receiving the order that they were to move their position in order to make way for the 6th Infantry Brigade . They completed this move by 21 April , taking up the same positions that Leonidas and his army had defended against Xerxes in 480 BC , according to legend . Here they took up position in a marsh and as they made preparations for its defence , on 22 April , in Athens , the decision was made that the units of the British Commonwealth forces would be withdrawn from the country . Over the course of the next two days , the battalion withdrew towards Athens , where they arrived in the early morning on 24 April . They continued on to the beach at Porto Rafti , destroying their vehicles and other equipment as they went . In the confusion of orders and counter orders , the battalion 's carrier and mortar platoons had gotten separated from the rest of the unit . By 9 : 00 pm on 24 April when the final move to the beach commenced they still had not arrived . The operation went according to plan however , and by 3 : 00 am on 25 April the transports embarked . Of the various groups that had become detached from the battalion , some were able to make their own way to the embarkation beaches , but a number of them were ultimately captured . The battalion 's casualties in Greece were 10 killed or died of wounds , six wounded , 83 captured , 11 wounded and captured . = = = Crete = = = After being evacuated from Greece , the Māori Battalion embarked upon the landing ship , infantry HMS Glengyle and was taken to Crete where they formed part of the island 's hastily formed garrison . The 5th Infantry Brigade was allocated to the area surrounding the airfield and the battalion was positioned on the north coast at Platanias , on the brigade 's right flank . On 20 May 1941 , the Germans launched the opening stages of their campaign with large @-@ scale glider and parachute drops of troops from Maleme to Canea . The landings were focused around the airfield and no troops landed in the area being held by the Māoris , nevertheless , a small force of glider troops were found to be occupying a house on the beach about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from them . A platoon was dispatched to attack them and after a brief fire @-@ fight in which two New Zealanders were wounded and eight Germans were killed , the 10 remaining men in the house surrendered . The main German attack was focused upon the 22nd Battalion which was defending the airfield . Hard pressed , late in the day the 22nd requested reinforcements and the 5th Infantry Brigade commander , Brigadier J. Hargest , sent one company from the 23rd and one from the 28th . The task was given to ' B ' Company and , as the company commander only knew the direct route , they had a night approach march of over 8 miles ( 13 km ) to cover . During the march they came in contact with a platoon @-@ sized force of Germans which briefly held up the company before reinforcements could arrive . The German force surrendered , but in doing so one of their number threw a grenade at the New Zealanders , wounding two men . In response the Māoris fixed bayonets and carried out the first bayonet charge by a New Zealand force during the war , killing 24 . A short while later they killed another eight in a separate engagement . Continuing on towards the 22nd Battalion , they bumped into a number of small pockets of Germans before eventually linking up with the 22nd Battalion 's headquarters where they were told to return to their own lines as the decision had been made to withdraw from the airfield . Eleven hours later the company reported back to the 28th Battalion 's lines . Over the course of the next ten days the battalion was involved in a series of engagements as they fought to defend the island , with the most notable probably being the bayonet charge that they undertook with the Australian 2 / 7th Battalion at 42nd Street on 27 May in which 280 Germans were killed , with the Māori accounting for 100 . However , it soon became clear that the garrison on Crete would need to be evacuated and on 28 May the bulk of Creforce began to disengage the Germans and begin the retreat towards Sfakia . The 5th Infantry Brigade took turns with two Australian battalions and the commandos of Layforce to carry out a rearguard action to guard the pass through which the troops had to traverse in order to escape . On 30 May the final order was received , although due to shipping losses it was not possible to evacuate everyone . In order to maintain fairness , each battalion was allotted a certain number of men who would have to remain and defend the embarkation beaches to allow the others to get away . The 28th Battalion was allocated 230 men to embark , while six officers and 144 men would have to stay behind . A large number of men volunteered to remain , and at midnight the remainder headed down to the beach and were taken off on a landing ship two hours later . The battalion suffered 243 casualties during the brief defence of the island , including 74 men killed and 102 men wounded . A further 67 were captured , of which 46 were wounded . For his leadership of the battalion during the fighting on Crete , Dittmer received the Distinguished Service Order . = = = North Africa = = = After their escape from Crete , the 28th ( Māori ) Battalion was evacuated to Egypt where they were re @-@ issued with summer uniforms and began to receive reinforcements . In June they carried out a ceremonial parade for King George VI and the Queen , and the commander of the 2nd New Zealand Division , Lieutenant General Bernard Freyberg . Throughout July , the battalion undertook desert familiarisation training and sports parades before moving to Kabrit where they concentrated with the rest of the 5th Infantry Brigade for a three @-@ week combined operations exercise . Later , in August , they moved to a position 20 miles ( 32 km ) west of El Alamein , known as the " Kaponga Box " where throughout September and into October they undertook the unfamiliar task of road construction . In October , the brigade received orders to link up with the rest of the division in preparation for their commitment to the battle along the frontier . On 11 November 1941 , the 5th Infantry Brigade concentrated near Mersa Matruh . Three days later the division had assembled and began the advance into Libya . Their first task was to capture the seaside town of Sollum , which was taken on 23 November from its Italian garrison with only a few casualties . Follow @-@ up artillery inflicted 18 killed and 33 wounded however , including the commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel George Dittmer , and two company commanders . Two hundred and forty @-@ seven Italian prisoners were taken . Following this , the 5th Infantry Brigade was placed under the command of the 4th Indian Division and the 28th Battalion took up positions near Bardia . Three days later the battalion attacked a column of tanks and motorised infantry before ambushing a column at Menastir on 3 December . Later , notable actions were undertaken at Gazala and at Sidi Magreb where over 1 @,@ 000 Italians prisoners were captured . Following this , the battalion was deployed to Syria before returning to Egypt in June 1942 . Now officially under the command of a Māori for the first time — Lieutenant Colonel Eruera Love having taken over from Dyer in May — the Māoris took part in the 2nd New Zealand Division 's breakout from Minqar Qaim , undertaking a successful bayonet charge . At this time , the battalion 's skills with the bayonet earned them a reputation as " scalp hunters " among German commanders , including Rommel . In September and October the battalion took part in important actions as part of the offensive in the Munassib Depression and at Miteiriya Ridge during the Second Battle of El Alamein . On 2 November the battalion supported the final breakthrough by Allied forces that decided the outcome of the battle . Casualties were high during this time and three of its commanding officers were either killed or wounded between July and November 1942 . Nevertheless , the battalion remained in the fighting and in March 1943 , at Medenine it undertook a defensive role before switching to the offensive at Point 209 in the Tebaga Gap , where it was responsible for almost completely destroying a German panzer grenadier battalion . It was during this action that Second Lieutenant Moana @-@ Nui @-@ a @-@ Kiwa Ngarimu performed the deeds that led to him being posthumously decorated with the Victoria Cross . The battalion 's commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Charles Bennett , also received the Distinguished Service Order for his leadership during the attack . Two weeks later , on the night 19 / 20 April 1943 , the battalion took part in the 5th Infantry Brigade 's attack on the Tunisian village of Takrouna . The village was situated atop a steep slope , and the attack stalled due to heavy concentrations of indirect fire and landmines , which wounded a number of men , including the commanding officer . Nevertheless , two sections under the command of Sergeant Haane te Rauawa Manahi , managed to scale the western side of the escarpment and gain a foothold on the pinnacle in the early dawn . Following heavy shellfire and hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with the Italian defenders , the Māoris were forced off the pinnacle twice ; each time , though , Manahi led his small force in a counterattack . In the afternoon , Manahi and two other men captured a number of machine gun and mortar positions , encircling the Italians and forcing them to surrender . For these actions , Manahi was also recommended for a Victoria Cross , but the nomination was not approved and he received a Distinguished Conduct Medal instead . = = = Italy = = = The battalion returned to Egypt with the 5th Infantry Brigade in late @-@ May and underwent a period of refit and retraining , during which the bulk of the original unit was given three months leave and returned to New Zealand . Following the evacuation to hospital of Lieutenant Colonel Kingi Keiha , there were no suitable senior Māori officers available and he was replaced as commanding officer by Lieutenant Colonel Monty Fairbrother on 11 September . Having taken no part in the Allied invasion of Sicily in July – August , the 2nd New Zealand Division was committed to battle again in late 1943 as part of Eighth Army during the Italian Campaign . The Māori Battalion subsequently arrived in Italy on 22 October , landing at Taranto . 5th Infantry Brigade undertook a period of training in close @-@ country tactics , remaining in camp at Taranto until 18 November when it was ordered to move north 250 miles ( 400 km ) to join the Eighth Army . The 2nd New Zealand Division had moved into the front line in November in order to relieve the 8th Indian Division and would take part in the advance across the Sangro planned for the end of the month . The brigade subsequently occupied positions around Atessa , with the Māori Battalion in brigade reserve , occupying a series of low hills which formed the Sangro river valley . The Eighth Army 's forward units had reached the Sangro in early November and General Harold Alexander — commander of the 15th Army Group — had planned for Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery to strike across the river on its coastal plain on 20 November with V Corps . Montgomery shifted the 8th Indian Division to the right in secret to narrow the V Corps front and concentrate its power , bringing the newly arrived 2nd New Zealand Division into the gap . Heavy rain flooded the river , forcing the postponement of the offensive and giving the Germans time to move in reinforcements . In the early hours of 28 November the Eighth Army attack began , supported by heavy artillery concentrations . The New Zealanders advanced steadily , capturing the bulk of their objectives . The Māori Battalion , still in brigade reserve , stood to during the attack but was not required . During December the 2nd New Zealand Division took part in the Moro River Campaign . By this time the attacking battalions had exploited forward towards the Winter Line and the Māori Battalion moved forward by truck on 1 December , crossing the Sangro . Heavy congestion on the road delayed the battalion 's movements , and although scheduled to assault towards Elici , they arrived to find the 23rd Battalion and the Division Cavalry had already completed the task . The Māoris were again ordered into reserve , occupying positions 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east of Castelfrentano . Meanwhile , on 3 December , the 6th Infantry Brigade assaulted Orsogna , and was involved in heavy fighting there , first capturing and then losing it following a counter @-@ attack by German armour . A subsequent attack against Orsogna was planned by the New Zealanders utilising both the 5th and 6th Infantry Brigades . The attack was scheduled for 7 December , with both brigades to advance on a one battalion front . The Māori Battalion would lead the assault in the 5th Infantry Brigade section , up the Pascuccio spur to cut the Orsogna – Ortona road east of the 6th Infantry Brigade 's objective . Fairbrother planned to assault with two companies forward , one in depth and one in reserve , with support from armour and anti @-@ tank guns . This could not be provided though , as difficult terrain prevented tracked vehicles from moving across the Moro and up on to Pascuccio . The attack on Orsonga began at 3 : 30 pm , following a half @-@ hour artillery bombardment , and marked the battalion 's first battle on Italian soil . Although initially some progress was made , the Germans managed to hold Orsonga throughout December amidst intense hand @-@ to @-@ hand fighting . Finally , the Māoris were withdrawn from the line on the night of 15 / 16 January 1944 when they were relieved by an Indian unit . Over the course of the battle , they had lost 11 men killed and 222 wounded . The New Zealanders were subsequently transferred to the Fifth Army for its advance up the west coast of Italy towards Rome . Leaving behind the bitter cold on the other side of the peninsula , the battalion undertook a period of training and reorganisation near Sant ' Angelo d 'Alife . At this time Fairbrother was replaced by another Pakeha officer , Major Russell Young , who was promoted to lieutenant colonel and subsequently led the battalion until July 1944 . As part of the Fifth Army 's advance up the Liri valley , the Māori Battalion 's next major engagement came in early 1944 when they took part in the fighting around Monte Cassino . The position at Cassino was dominated by an historic Benedictine monastery . Throughout January the Allies continued their advance , but as they were checked by the German positions at Cassino the advance stalled . On the night of 17 / 18 February 1944 , as part of an attempt to establish a bridgehead into the German lines , the Māoris were tasked with attacking the railway station in Cassino . They met very stiff resistance , and although they managed to reach the railway station they were unable to wrest control of it from its defenders . Lacking armoured support , which had failed to arrive , they fought through the morning and into the afternoon , but when their position was assaulted by two German tanks they were forced to withdraw . The two assaulting companies , ' A ' and ' B ' , suffered over 60 per cent casualties , losing 128 men killed or wounded . In March they were again involved in fighting around Cassino , however , it was not until May that the position was eventually captured , by which time the New Zealanders had been withdrawn from the line , and transferred back to the Eighth Army . Due to these losses , the battalion did not return to the front until July 1944 . It subsequently took part in the Allied advance towards Florence and is believed to have been first to reach the city on 4 August . During this time Major Arapeta Awatere led the battalion as its acting commanding officer after Young was hospitalised with jaundice , although he returned in late August and subsequently led them through the fighting around Rimini in September . In November , Awatere took over command substantively , and in December the battalion launched an attack around Faenza , for which its commanding officer later received a Distinguished Service Order . The winter snow set in after this and , as Allied attentions were temporarily focused elsewhere , offensive action died down . Thus , throughout January , February and into March the battalion undertook defensive duties , before being withdrawn from the line in mid @-@ March . In April 1945 the battalion returned to the front line to take part in the final stages of the war . On 1 April the battalion entered the line near Granarolo along with the rest of the 5th Infantry Brigade and for the next month they were involved in five main battles along the Senio , Santerno , Sillaro , Gaiana and Idice rivers as the Allies pursued the Germans back towards Trieste . It was in Trieste that the Māori Battalion 's war came to an end . Their involvement in the final stages of the fighting in Italy had cost them 25 killed and 117 wounded , while losses for the entire Italian campaign were 230 men killed , and 887 wounded . = = = Disbandment = = = On 2 May 1945 news was received that all German forces west of the Isonzo River had surrendered . While this did not officially end the fighting in Italy , it was all but over . Five days later , on the night of 7 May , the battalion received the momentous news that Germany had surrendered unconditionally to the Allies , and that the war in Europe was over . Nevertheless , tensions remained high and concerns about the intentions of Yugoslavia regarding the disputed province of Istria meant that the 28th ( Māori ) Battalion remained on high alert . This continued until early June when an agreement was reached and Yugoslavia withdrew its troops east of the Isonzo River . Following this the routine of the battalion became more settled and time was found for the men of each company to spend a fortnight at a hotel on the Lignano beach . Afterwards , preparations began for the battalion 's return to New Zealand . The war with Japan continued however , and at the time it was believed that the Māoris would take part in further operations in the Pacific . New Zealand policy at the time was that long serving men were to be repatriated and their places taken by men with less time in service . In this regard , commencing in late May , drafts of men departed in the order of their arrival at the battalion . This included the commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Arapeta Awatere , who was replaced by Lieutenant Colonel James Henare . Throughout July the battalion undertook garrison duties in Trieste before the 2nd New Zealand Division was withdrawn to Lake Trasimene . On 15 August 1945 news was received of Japan 's unconditional surrender , ending plans for the battalion to take part in further combat in the Pacific . In September it was decided that as part of the departure of New Zealand troops from the theatre , memorial services would be held at the locations of the division 's major battles . As a part of this program services were held at Cassino and Sangro and on Crete , while smaller parties were sent to Coriano Ridge , Faenza , Forli , Padua , Monfalcone and Udine . The last batch of long service men had departed shortly after the battalion 's arrival at Lake Trasimene , and so after this it was decided that the battalion would return to New Zealand as a formed unit . As such their return was to be delayed and so they found winter quarters in Florence . At this time it was decided that men from the battalion would be included within the New Zealand contribution to the occupation of Japan . In this vein , a 270 @-@ strong contingent from the battalion was sent to Japan under the designation of ' D ' Squadron , 2nd Divisional Cavalry Battalion , under the command of Major J.S Baker . Finally , on 6 December the battalion entrained at Florence and embarked on the troopship Dominion Monarch at Taranto on Boxing Day . Passing through the Suez Canal , they sailed via Fremantle , arriving in Wellington on 23 January 1946 , where they were met by the acting Prime Minister , Walter Nash , at Aotea Quay for an official Māori welcome home ceremony . Afterwards the men were sent back to their homes and the battalion was disbanded . Throughout the course of the war , 3 @,@ 600 men served in the battalion . Of these , 649 were killed or died of wounds while another 1 @,@ 712 were wounded . Another 29 died as a result of service following discharge , while two were killed by accident during training in New Zealand . The Māori Battalion 's service against the Germans in North Africa earned them a distinguished reputation . Such was the respect that Allied commanders had for the Māori Battalion that they were frequently used as a spearhead unit . Bernard Freyberg , the General Officer Commanding of the 2NZEF , commented , " No infantry had a more distinguished record , or saw more fighting , or , alas , had such heavy casualties , as the Maori Battalion . " The battalion 's reputation was also acknowledged by their opponents . Some sources state that the Afrika Korps commander , Erwin Rommel remarked , " Give me the Maori Battalion and I will conquer the world " . Although , other sources attribute this comment to Rommel 's former chief of staff , General Siegfried Westphal , who met with the former Māori Battalion chaplain , Reverend Canon W. T. Huata , during an Afrika Korps reunion dinner in Mainz , Germany , in 1972 . = = Decorations = = In total , the Māori Battalion received more individual bravery decorations than any other New Zealand battalion . One member of the battalion , Second Lieutenant Moana @-@ Nui @-@ a @-@ Kiwa Ngarimu , was awarded the Victoria Cross during the war , while another member , Sergeant Haane Manahi , was also recommended for the award . During the fighting around Takrouna in 1943 , Manahi led a section of men up a sheer limestone escarpment to capture a number of Italian positions ; the following day he set out to capture Italian outposts . Four generals , including Harold Alexander , Bernard Freyberg , Howard Kippenberger and Bernard Law Montgomery had recommended that Manahi receive the Victoria Cross but this recommendation was downgraded in London to the Distinguished Conduct Medal . In 2000 , iwi Te Arawa lodged a claim with the Waitangi Tribunal for Haane Manahi to have his award of the Distinguished Conduct Medal upgraded to a Victoria Cross . In December 2005 the Waitangi Tribunal released their findings supporting the claim , but in October 2006 the New Zealand Minister of Defence announced that the award could not be made as King George VI had ruled in 1949 that no further awards from the Second World War ought to be made . Instead , it was decided that Manahi would be recognised by the presentation of an altar cloth , a personal letter from Queen Elizabeth II acknowledging his gallantry and a sword . The award was presented to Manahi 's son by The Duke of York on 17 March 2007 at a ceremony in Rotorua . Other awards to members of the 28th ( Māori ) Battalion included : seven Distinguished Service Orders ; one Member of the Order of the British Empire ; 21 Military Crosses and three bars ; and 13 Distinguished Conduct Medals ; 51 Military Medals ; one British Empire Medal and one US Silver Star . = = Battle honours = = The following is a list of battle honours received by the 28th ( Māori ) Battalion : Second World War : Olympus Pass , Crete , El Alamein , Tebega Gap , Takrouna , North Africa 1942 – 43 , Orsogna , Cassino 1 , The Senio , Italy 1943 – 45 , Mount Olympus , Greece 1941 , Maleme , Canea , 42nd Street , Withdrawal to Sphakia , Middle East 1941 – 44 , Tobruk 1941 , Sidi Azeiz , Zemla , Alem Hamza , Mersa Matruh , Minqar Qaim , Defence of Alamein Line , El Mreir , Alam el Halfa , Nofilia , Medinine , El Hamma , Enfidaville , Djebibina , The Sangro , Castel Frentano , Monastery Hill , Advance to Florence , San Michele , Paula Line , Celle , Saint Angelo in Salute , Santerno Crossing , Bologna and Idice Bridgehead . = = Commanding officers = = The following is a list of the 28th ( Māori ) Battalion 's commanding officers : Lieutenant Colonel G. Dittmer ( 29 January 1940 – 7 February 1942 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel Humphrey Goring Dyer ( 7 February 1942 – 13 May 1942 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel Eruera Te Whiti o Rongomai Love ( 13 May 1942 – 12 July 1942 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel F. Baker ( 13 July 1942 – 2 November 1942 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel C.M. Bennett ( 2 November 1942 – 20 April 1943 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel K.A. Keiha ( 22 April 1943 – 11 September 1943 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel M.C. Fairbrother ( 11 September 1943 – 27 December 1943 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel R.R.T. Young ( 27 December 1943 – 27 July 1944 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel A. Awatere ( 27 July 1944 – 29 August 1944 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel R.R.T. Young , DSO ( 29 August 1944 – 18 November 1944 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel A. Awatere ( 18 November 1944 – 21 June 1945 ) ; Lieutenant Colonel J.C. Henare ( 21 June 1945 – 23 January 1946 ) .

= Yugoslav monitor Sava = The Yugoslav monitor Sava was a Temes @-@ class river monitor built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy as SMS Bodrog . She fired the first shots of World War I on the night of 28 July 1914 , when she and two other monitors shelled Serbian defences near Belgrade . She was part of the Danube Flotilla , and fought the Serbian and Romanian armies from Belgrade to the mouth of the Danube . In the closing stages of the war , she was the last monitor to withdraw towards Budapest , but was captured by the Serbs when she grounded on a sandbank downstream from Belgrade . After the war , she was transferred to the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( later Yugoslavia ) , and renamed Sava . During the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , Sava served with the 1st Monitor Division . Along with her fellow monitor Vardar , she laid mines in the Danube near the Romanian border during the first few days of the invasion . The two monitors fought off several attacks by the Luftwaffe , but were forced to withdraw to Belgrade . Due to high river levels and low bridges , navigation was difficult , and Sava was scuttled on 11 April . Some of her crew tried to escape cross @-@ country towards the southern Adriatic coast , but all were captured prior to the Yugoslav surrender . The vessel was later raised by the navy of the Axis puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia and continued to serve as Sava until the night of 8 September 1944 when she was again scuttled . Following World War II , Sava was raised once again , and was refurbished to serve in the Yugoslav Navy from 1952 to 1962 . She was then transferred to a state @-@ owned company that was eventually privatised . As of 2014 , Sava was still in service as a gravel barge . In 2005 , the government of Serbia granted her limited heritage protection after citizens demanded that she be preserved as a floating museum , but little else has been done to restore her . = = Description and construction = = A Temes @-@ class river monitor , the ship was built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy by H. Schönichen , and designed by Austrian naval architect Josef Thiel . Originally named SMS Bodrog , she was laid down at Neupest on 14 February 1903 . Like her sister ship SMS Temes , she had an overall length of 57 @.@ 7 m ( 189 ft 4 in ) , a beam of 9 @.@ 5 m ( 31 ft 2 in ) , and a normal draught of 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 ft 11 in ) . Her standard displacement was 440 tonnes ( 430 long tons ) , and her crew consisted of 86 officers and enlisted men . Bodrog had two triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving a single propeller shaft . Steam was provided by two Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers , and her engines were rated at 1 @,@ 400 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 000 kW ) . As designed , she had a maximum speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) , and carried 62 tonnes ( 61 long tons ) of coal . Bodrog was armed with two 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 35 guns in single gun turrets , a single 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 10 howitzer in a central pivot mount , and two 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns . The maximum range of her Škoda 120 mm guns was 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) , and her howitzer could fire its 20 kg ( 44 lb ) shells a maximum of 6 @.@ 2 km ( 3 @.@ 9 mi ) . Her armour consisted of belt , bulkheads and gun turrets 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick , and deck armour 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick . The armour on her conning tower was 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Bodrog was launched on 12 April 1904 , commissioned on 2 August 1904 , and completed on 10 November 1904 . = = Career = = = = = World War I = = = = = = = Serbian campaign = = = = Bodrog was part of the Danube Flotilla , and at the start of World War I she was based in Zemun , just upstream from Belgrade on the Danube , under the command of Linienschiffsleutnant ( LSL ) Paul Ekl . She shared the base with three other monitors and three patrol boats . Austria @-@ Hungary declared war on Serbia on 28 July 1914 , and that night Bodrog and two other monitors fired the first shots of the war against Serb fortifications on the Zemun – Belgrade railway bridge over the Sava river and on Topčider Hill . The Serbs were outgunned by the monitors , and by August began to receive assistance from the Russians . This support included the supply and emplacement of naval guns and the establishment of river obstacles and mines . On 8 September , the Austro @-@ Hungarian base at Zemun was evacuated in the face of a Serbian counterattack . Bodrog and the minesweeper Andor conducted a deception operation towards Pančevo on 19 September , and six days later , Bodrog bombarded Serb positions on the bank of the Sava near Belgrade . On 28 September , she rendezvoused with the monitor SMS Szamos at Banovci , and the following day the two monitors targeted the Belgrade Fortress and conducted a reconnaissance of Zemun . On 1 October , Bodrog sailed to Budapest , where she was placed in dry dock for two weeks . She returned to the flotilla on 15 October . By November , French artillery support had arrived in Belgrade , endangering the monitor 's anchorage , and on 12 November , Ekl was replaced by LSL Olaf Wulff . The stalemate continued until the following month , when the Serbs evacuated Belgrade in the face of an Austro @-@ Hungarian assault . On 1 December , Bodrog and the newly commissioned monitor SMS Enns engaged the retreating Serbs . After less than two weeks , the Austro @-@ Hungarians retreated from Belgrade , and it was soon recaptured by the Serbs with Russian and French support . Bodrog continued in action against Serbia and her allies at Belgrade until December , when her base was withdrawn to Petrovaradin , near Novi Sad , for the winter . The Germans and Austro @-@ Hungarians wanted to transport munitions down the Danube to the Ottoman Empire , so on 24 December 1914 , Bodrog and the minesweeper Almos escorted the steamer Trinitas loaded with munitions , the patrol boat b and two tugs from Zemun past Belgrade towards the Iron Gates gorge on the Serbian – Romanian border . The convoy ran the gauntlet of the Belgrade defences unharmed , but when it reached Smederevo it received information that the Russians had established a minefield and log barrier just south of the Iron Gates . It turned back under heavy fire , and withdrew as far as Pančevo without serious damage to any vessel . Bodrog returned to base , and the monitor SMS Inn was sent to guard the munitions and escort the convoy back to Petrovaradin . In January 1915 , British artillery arrived in Belgrade , further bolstering its defences , and Bodrog spent the first months of the year at Zemun . On 23 February , LSL Kosimus Böhm took command . On 1 March , Bodrog and several other vessels including the monitor SMS Körös were relocated to Petrovaradin . After the commencement of the Gallipoli campaign , munitions supply to the Ottomans became critical , so another attempt was planned . On 30 March , the steamer Belgrad left Zemun , escorted by Bodrog and Enns . The convoy was undetected as it sailed past Belgrade at night during a storm , but after the monitors returned to base , Belgrad struck a mine near Vinča , and after coming under heavy artillery fire , exploded near Ritopek . On 22 April 1915 , a British picket boat that had been brought overland by rail from Salonika was used to attack the Danube Flotilla anchorage at Zemun , firing two torpedoes without success . In September 1915 , the Central Powers were joined by Bulgaria , and the Serbian Army soon faced an overwhelming Austro @-@ Hungarian , German and Bulgarian ground invasion . In early October , the Austro @-@ Hungarian 3rd Army attacked Belgrade , and Bodrog , along with the majority of the flotilla , was heavily engaged in support of crossings near the Belgrade Fortress and the island of Ada Ciganlija . = = = = Romanian campaign = = = = Following the capture of Belgrade on 11 October and the initial clearance of mines and other obstacles , the flotilla sailed downstream to Orșova near the Hungarian – Romanian border and waited for the lower Danube to be swept for mines . Commencing on 30 October 1915 , they escorted a series of munitions convoys down the Danube to Lom where the munitions were transferred to the Bulgarian railway system for shipment to the Ottoman Empire . In November 1915 , Bodrog and the other monitors were assembled at Rustschuk , Bulgaria . The Central Powers were aware that the Romanians were negotiating to enter the war on the side of the Entente , so the flotilla established a sheltered base in the Belene Canal to protect the 480 @-@ kilometre ( 300 mi ) Danube border between Romania and Bulgaria . During 1915 , the 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns on the Bodrog were replaced with a single 66 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) L / 18 gun , and three machine guns were also fitted . When the Romanians entered the war on 27 August 1916 , the monitors were again at Rustschuk , and were immediately attacked by three improvised torpedo boats operating out of the Romanian river port of Giurgiu . The torpedoes that were fired missed the monitors but struck a lighter loaded with fuel . Tasked with shelling Giurgiu the following day , the Second Monitor Division , consisting of Bodrog and three other monitors , set fire to oil storage tanks , the railway station and magazines , and sank several Romanian lighters . While the attack was underway , the First Monitor Division escorted supply ships back to the Belene anchorage . Bodrog and her companions then destroyed two Romanian patrol boats and an improvised minelayer on their way back to Belene . This was followed by forays of the Division both east and west of Belene , during which both Turnu Măgurele and Zimnicea were shelled . On 2 October 1916 , Bodrog and Körös attacked a Romanian pontoon bridge being established across the Danube at Oryahovo , obtaining five direct hits , thus contributing to the defeat of the Romanian Flămânda Offensive . This was followed by action supporting the crossing of Generalfeldmarschall August von Mackensen 's Austro @-@ Hungarian Third Army at Sistow . Bodrog then wintered at Turnu Severin . From 21 February 1917 , Bodrog and Körös were deployed as guardships at Brăila . On 1 March , Bodrog became stuck in ice at nearby Măcin . LSL Guido Taschler took command of Bodrog in 1918 . That year 's spring thaw saw Bodrog , Körös , Szamos , Bosna and several other vessels sent through the mouth of the Danube into the Black Sea as part of Flottenabteilung Wulff ( Fleet Division Wulff ) under the command of Flottenkapitän ( Fleet Captain ) Olav Wulff , arriving in Odessa on 12 April . On 15 July , she and Bosna sailed to the port of Nikolaev , and from 5 August , Bodrog was stationed at Cherson . On 12 September , she returned to Brăila along with other vessels . Bodrog was sent to Reni near the mouth of the Danube to protect withdrawing Austro @-@ Hungarian troops , arriving there on 1 October . She then sailed upstream , reaching Rustschuk on 11 October , and Giurgiu two days later . On 14 October , she was deployed at Lom . She was the last Austro @-@ Hungarian monitor to withdraw towards Budapest and was the only one that failed to reach the city . On 31 October 1918 , Bodrog collided with a sand bank while navigating through heavy fog near Vinča . She was later captured by the Serbian Army . = = = Interwar period and World War II = = = From the Armistice to September 1919 , Bodrog was crewed by sailors of the newly created Kingdom of Serbs , Croats and Slovenes ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Kraljevina Srba , Hrvata i Slovenaca , KSCS ; later the Kingdom of Yugoslavia ) . Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Germain @-@ en @-@ Laye , Bodrog was transferred to the KSCS along with a range of other vessels , including three other river monitors , but was not officially handed over to the KSCS Navy and renamed Sava until 15 April 1920 . Her sister ship Temes was transferred to Romania and renamed Ardeal . In 1925 – 26 , Sava was refitted , but by the following year only two of the four river monitors of the KSCS Navy were being retained in full commission at any time . In 1932 , the British naval attaché reported that Yugoslav ships were engaging in little gunnery training , and few exercises or manoeuvres , due to reduced budgets . Sava was based at Dubovac when the German @-@ led Axis invasion of Yugoslavia began on 6 April 1941 . She was assigned to the 1st Monitor Division , and was responsible for the Romanian border on the Danube , under the operational control of the 3rd Infantry Division Dunavska . Her commander was Poručnik bojnog broda S. Rojos . On that day , Sava and her fellow monitor Vardar fought off several attacks by individual Luftwaffe aircraft on their base . Over the next three days , the two monitors laid mines in the Danube near the Romanian border . On 11 April , they were forced to withdraw from Dubovac towards Belgrade . During their withdrawal , they came under repeated attacks by Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive bombers . Sava and her fellow monitor were undamaged , and anchored at the confluence of the Danube and Sava near Belgrade at about 20 : 00 , where they were joined by the Morava . The three captains conferred , and decided to scuttle their vessels due to the high water levels in the rivers and low bridges , which meant there was insufficient clearance for the monitors to navigate freely . The crews of the monitors were then transshipped to two tugboats , but when one of the tugboats was passing under a railway bridge , charges on the bridge accidentally exploded and the bridge fell onto the tugboat . Of the 110 officers and men aboard the vessel , 95 were killed . After the scuttling of the monitors , around 450 officers and men from the Sava and various other riverine vessels gathered at Obrenovac . Armed only with personal weapons and some machine guns stripped from the scuttled vessels , the crews started towards the Bay of Kotor in the southern Adriatic in two groups . The smaller of the two groups reached its objective , but the larger group only made it as far as Sarajevo by 14 April before they were obliged to surrender . The remainder made their way to the Bay of Kotor , which was captured by the Italian XVII Corps on 17 April . Sava was raised and repaired by the navy of the Axis puppet state the Independent State of Croatia , and served under that name alongside her fellow monitor Morava , which was raised , repaired , and renamed Bosna . Along with six captured motorboats and ten auxiliary vessels , they made up the riverine police force of the Croatian state . Sava was part of the 1st Patrol Group of the River Flotilla Command , headquartered at Zemun . Her crew scuttled her near Slavonski Brod on the night of 8 September 1944 and defected to the Yugoslav Partisans . = = = Post @-@ war period = = = Sava was again raised and refurbished after World War II . Armed with two single 105 mm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) gun turrets , three single 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) gun mounts and six 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) weapons , she served in the Yugoslav Navy from 1952 to 1962 . Afterwards , she was placed into the hands of a state @-@ owned company , which was privatised after the breakup of Yugoslavia . As of 2014 , Sava was serving as a gravel barge . In 2005 , the government of Serbia granted her limited heritage protection after citizens demanded that she be preserved as a floating museum , though little else has been done to restore her as of 2014 . The ship is one of only two surviving Austro @-@ Hungarian river monitors from World War I , the other being SMS Leitha , a much older monitor , which has been a museum ship anchored alongside the Hungarian Parliament Building in Budapest since 2014 . = = = Books and journals = = = = = = Online sources = = =

= Coming Up to Breathe = Coming Up to Breathe is the fourth studio album by Christian rock band MercyMe . Released on April 25 , 2006 , by INO Records , the album was intended by MercyMe to be edgier than their previous albums . Coming Up to Breathe sold 58 @,@ 000 copies its first week , MercyMe 's biggest sales week at the time . It debuted and peaked at number one on the Billboard Christian Albums chart , number five on the Rock Albums chart , and number thirteen on the Billboard 200 . It also appeared on the Alternative Albums chart in 2007 , peaking at number thirteen . Coming Up to Breathe was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 2007 , signifying shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . Coming Up to Breathe received positive reviews from critics . It was also nominated for Best Pop / Contemporary Gospel Album at the 49th Grammy Awards , and for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 38th GMA Dove Awards . The song " Bring the Rain " was nominated for Song of the Year at the 39th GMA Dove Awards . Three singles were released in promotion of Coming Up to Breathe . Lead single " So Long Self " peaked at number one on the Christian Songs chart , spending four weeks atop that chart . The second single from the album , " Hold Fast " , peaked at number three on the Christian Songs chart . The third and final single from the album , " Bring the Rain " , spent one week at number one on the Christian Songs chart . " So Long Self " and " Hold Fast " also appeared on the Adult Contemporary chart , peaking at number sixteen and number twenty @-@ seven , respectively . = = Background = = According to lead vocalist Bart Millard , MercyMe had started as a rock band and had wanted to make a rock record . Following the success of their breakthrough single " I Can Only Imagine " , a ballad , they were advised to " duplicate [ ' I Can Only Imagine ' ] on the next two records " . Millard says they felt that they were at a point where " we are known more for ballads than the rock band we wanted to be " . With the consent of their label , which felt there was a trend towards heavier music , MercyMe decided to make an " edgier " record . In particular the band focused on up @-@ tempo songs , trying to put more edge into what they were making . Millard noted that while the songs are still pop rock songs , the band tried to put a bit more edge into them . Additionally , the band decided to work with producer Brown Bannister , who had produced the group 's Christmas record and Millard 's solo album Hymned No. 1 , as opposed to Pete Kipley , who had produced the band 's previous three albums . Bannister 's producing style was different from Kipley 's ; while Kipley was a hands @-@ on producer , " involved in every part of the song " , Bannister would wait until the band had " run down all [ their ] avenues " before giving input . The band felt Bannsiter was an " amazing encourager " and were satisfied with the Christmas album Bannister had produced with him ; although they felt Kipley did a great job on their previous records , improving themselves as a band and as songwriters , they felt it was " time for a change " . Another factor in the decision to use Bannister was his previous recording experience ; Bannister had produced one of Millard 's favorite albums , White Heart 's 1989 album Freedom . The different approach the band took with Bannister resulted in a sometimes " radical " approach , with the band " taking songs apart , putting them back together and , at times , totally reinventing them " . One song , " Something About You " , shifted from " an aggressive rock song to a soaring anthem " . The tracks on Coming Up to Breathe were recorded in Allaire Studios in Shokan , New York ; the studio had previously hosted artists such as Norah Jones , Tim McGraw , and David Bowie . Overdubs were recorded at Oxford Sound in Nashville , Tennessee . Strings were recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London , England by the London Session Orchestra . Recording sessions at Allaire started in October 2005 , and lasted a month . = = Composition = = Although Coming Up to Breathe possesses an overall heavier tone than MercyMe 's previous albums , it has been described as an extension or a shift in presentation rather than a total departure . The sound of the album has been described as epitomizing the genre of modern rock . Guitars and guitar solos are more prominent on the album . As a whole , the album does not mention Jesus directly by name ; the only song to do so , " Bring the Rain " uses his name in the refrain " Jesus , bring the rain " . " I Would Die for You " is also a tribute to a teen who died after serving on a mission field . " One Trick Pony " is a response to MercyMe 's critics who argue that the band recycles the same song over and over . " So Long Self " is about bidding farewell to sinful nature , while " Hold Fast " is a reminder of God 's presence through difficult times . " Something About You " and " 3 : 42 a.m. ( Writer 's Block ) " both relate to the difficulty of writing a song about an omnipotent God . = = Critical reception = = Coming Up to Breathe received positive reception from music critics . Steve Losey of Allmusic gave the album four out of five stars , saying " In a concerted effort to revert back to the days when they were more a rock band and less of a hitmaking machine , MercyMe delivers . While it 's certainly not heavy metal , the songs definitely keep driving forward . Guitars are more prominent and production leans on a more earthy formula ... MercyMe is able to rock on portions of each song but they always bring it back to a memorable chorus or a hooky verse . That 's the formula that has always worked for them , and it does here , too " . Deborah Evans Price of Billboard noted that " For the most part , MercyMe has built a multiplatinum foundation on compelling power ballads . But on this set , the Texas band rocks out with passion and edgy intensity . It doesn 't stray so far that it would alienate the faithful , but it delivers a powerful collection of pop / rock that should take the band 's career to a new level " . She also praised Millard 's vocals and called it a " landmark album in an already impressive career " . Mark Joseph of CCM Magazine gave the album a B- ; he called the album " enjoyable " but suggesting that a stronger producer or A & R team would have resulted in better lyrics . Tony Cummings of Cross Rhythms gave the album nine out of ten stars , praising the vocals and string arrangements as well as the choir on " Bring the Rain " . Russ Breimeier of The Fish called Coming Up to Breathe MercyMe 's " best album to date " and an " impressive step in the right direction for a band that many have pegged to be too formulaic " , but derided the album 's " simplistic songwriting " . Lauren Summerford of Jesus Freak Hideout gave the album four out of five stars , calling it " unlike anything we 've heard from [ MercyMe ] so far " and " undeniably strong project from MercyMe " . She suggested that some of the lyrics off the album are too predictable , but said that " some places [ on the album ] display some of the best songwriting we have heard from the band so far " . Brian Mansfield of USA Today gave the album two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of four stars , opining that it " has the feel of a blockbuster rock album " but suggesting that the Christian songwriting on the record would limit its success . Coming Up to Breathe was nominated for Best Pop / Contemporary Gospel Album at the 49th Grammy Awards . It was also nominated for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 38th GMA Dove Awards . " Bring the Rain " was nominated for Dove Award for Song of the Year at the 39th GMA Dove Awards . = = Singles = = Three singles were released in promotion of Coming Up to Breathe . " So Long Self " was released on March 18 , 2006 as the lead single from the album . It was added by fifty @-@ two Christian AC stations in its first week , a record for the most first @-@ week adds in the history of Christian AC radio . It peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart , spending a total of four weeks at the top of that chart . It also appeared on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart , peaking at number sixteen . " So Long Self " ranked at number ten on the 2006 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart . The second single from Coming Up to Breathe , " Hold Fast " was released on September 4 , 2006 . It peaked at number three on the Hot Christian Songs chart and at number twenty @-@ seven on the Adult Contemporary chart . The final single from the album , " Bring the Rain " , was released on March 24 , 2007 . It peaked at number one on the Hot Christian Songs chart . It ranked at number five on the 2007 year @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart and at number forty @-@ nine on the decade @-@ end Hot Christian Songs chart . An album cut , " No More No Less " , spent one frame on the Hot Christian Songs chart , debuting and peaking at number thirty . = = Release = = Coming Up to Breathe was released on April 25 , 2006 . Coming Up to Breathe sold 58 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , debuting atop the Christian Albums chart and at number 13 on the Billboard 200 . The album beat out MercyMe 's previous best sales week ( 56 @,@ 000 copies ) , which came following the release of their 2004 album " Undone " . " Coming Up to Breathe " also peaked at number 5 on the Rock Albums chart and number 13 on the Alternative Albums chart during its chart run . Coming Up to Breathe ranked at number 6 on 2006 year @-@ end Christian Albums chart , and at number 14 on the 2007 year @-@ end Christian Albums chart . In 2007 , the album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America , signifying shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies . An acoustic version of the album , Coming Up to Breathe : Acoustic , was released in late 2007 and peaked at number 22 on the Christian Albums chart . = = Track listing = = ( All songs written by MercyMe ) = = Personnel = = ( Credits lifted from the album liner notes ) = = Charts and certifications = =

= John Mousinho = John Michael Lewis Mousinho ( born 30 April 1986 ) is an English professional footballer who plays for Burton Albion as a midfielder . Mousinho began his professional football career at Brentford , having previously been on the books at Chesham United and Notre Dame Fighting Irish , the latter whilst studying at the University of Notre Dame . He spent two and a half years at Brentford , before joining Wycombe Wanderers in June 2008 on a free transfer . Mousinho played regularly for Wycombe for two seasons ; witnessing both a promotion and relegation during his tenure at the Buckinghamshire club . He rejected a contract extension from Wycombe in June 2010 , and instead opted to join Stevenage on a two – year contract . In his first season at Stevenage , Mousinho helped guide the club to back @-@ to @-@ back promotions , scoring the winner in the 2010 – 11 League Two play @-@ off final , as well as finishing as the club 's joint top goalscorer for the season . Following an injury @-@ hit season during the 2011 – 12 campaign , Mousinho left Stevenage and joined Preston North End . In his final season at the club , he was loaned to Gillingham and back to Stevenage before being released and joining Burton in June 2014 . = = Career = = = = = Brentford = = = Born in Isleworth , Greater London , Mousinho was signed by then Brentford manager Martin Allen during the 2005 – 06 season , after returning from the United States where he was studying and playing at the University of Notre Dame . He was recommended to Brentford by Martin Allen 's son , having previously been on the books at Chesham United . He made his Brentford debut in October 2005 in a 1 – 1 against Oxford United in the Football League Trophy ; playing the whole match . He made his league debut for the club two months later in a 4 – 1 away win over Tranmere Rovers , coming on as a 76th @-@ minute substitute . Initially he acted as cover for regular right @-@ back Kevin O 'Connor , but was then played in a central midfield role . He was also the outfield player chosen to play as goalkeeper against Gillingham in 2006 , when Clark Masters was sent @-@ off , and there was not a substitute goalkeeper available ; the game ended 2 – 2 with Mousinho playing 75 minutes in goal . Mousinho was then sent on loan to several non – league clubs in the form of Woking , Slough Town , and Yeading respectively mid – way through the 2005 – 06 season . He failed to make any first – team appearances for Woking , with his loan spell lasting just two weeks . He was loaned to Slough Town just days later , and made his debut for the club in a 2 – 1 away win over Fisher Athletic , before scoring his first goal for the club in a 3 – 2 win over Bromley – Mousinho scoring a goal in the 58th minute as Slough came from two goals down to win the match . In April 2006 , he was loaned out to Conference South side Yeading , where he played a total of six times , making his debut in the club 's 4 – 0 defeat to Basingstoke Town . Martin Allen stated that Mousinho 's loan moves were " positive " and " definitely not the end of his time at Brentford " . On return to his parent club , Mousinho played a lot more frequently during the 2006 – 07 season , a total of 39 times , and was subsequently rewarded with an extended contract which was due to run until June 2009 . The following campaign , he scored his first goal for the club in a 2 – 1 win against Barnet – tapping in the rebound from Kevin O 'Connor 's missed penalty , and also scored Brentford 's first against Dagenham & Redbridge shortly after . However , he only played a total of 24 times in all competitions , 15 times less than during the club 's previous campaign . At the end of the 2007 – 08 season , Mousinho was transfer – listed by manager Andy Scott because he did not feature in the club 's future plans and , as a result , his first – team chances would be limited . = = = Wycombe Wanderers = = = His contract was terminated by mutual consent with a year to run on 16 June 2008 and he joined Wycombe later that day . On joining Wycombe , Mousinho said " It 's been my local club since I was quite young so I 've been down here a few times and it was the lure of that , plus the chance to work with Peter Taylor , that made me jump at the chance " . He made his debut for Wycombe in a 1 – 1 draw against Morecambe , and scored his first goal for the club shortly after in a 2 – 0 away victory over Chester City . Shortly after this , Wycombe triggered a one – year extension clause in his contract , subsequently keeping him at the club until 2010 . Mousinho scored his second goal of the season in Wycombe 's 3 – 3 draw against his former employers , Brentford , netting in the first – half of the game with a volley . Two weeks later , he provided the assist for John Akinde 's goal in the club 's 1 – 1 draw with Barnet . He played a total of 38 times in all competitions during his first season with the club , scoring twice as Wycombe earned promotion to League One after finishing in the third and final automatic promotion place . The following season , he played a further 41 games for the club , scoring once in a 5 – 2 home defeat to Brighton & Hove Albion , but Wycombe were relegated at the end of the season . During his two years at Wycombe , he played a total of 79 times for the club , scoring three goals . = = = Stevenage = = = In late June 2010 , Mousinho rejected a contract extension at Wycombe , which led to Wycombe manager Gary Waddock saying " we wanted to keep John , but he 's decided to go elsewhere . It 's an open secret where he 's going " . Two days later Mousinho joined newly promoted League Two outfit Stevenage on a two – year deal , officially signing for the club on 1 July . A day later , he was assigned the number 21 shirt ahead of the 2010 – 11 season . Mousinho made his Stevenage debut in the club 's 1 – 0 loss to Bradford City in the club 's second game of the season , playing the whole game in the centre of midfield . He scored his first goal for Stevenage in October 2010 , scoring the equaliser in the club 's 1 – 1 draw with Rotherham United . A month later , Mousinho scored twice in Stevenage 's 3 – 0 victory away at local rivals Barnet . Mousinho scored his fourth goal of the season in a 1 – 0 away win at his former employers , Wycombe Wanderers , at Adams Park , scoring with a low drilled shot from 30 yards out . Ten days later , Mousinho scored both of Stevenage 's goals in their 2 – 0 away win against Burton Albion at the Pirelli Stadium . This subsequently meant that all six of Mousinho 's goals were scored away from Broadhall Way , although this record ended when he scored a penalty in Stevenage 's 2 – 1 home win against Bradford City on 2 April 2011 . Mousinho was sent @-@ off for the first time in his Stevenage career on 30 April 2011 , receiving a straight red card in Stevenage 's 2 – 0 defeat at Northampton Town . The red card meant that Mousinho served a three @-@ game suspension . Stevenage appealed against the sending off , but were unsuccessful . He subsequently missed the club 's 3 – 3 draw against Bury , as well as Stevenage 's 3 – 0 aggregate play @-@ off win against Accrington Stanley . Mousinho returned to the first @-@ team for the 2010 – 11 play @-@ off final against Torquay United at Old Trafford on 28 May 2011 , a game in which he scored the only goal with a strike from 20 yards out in a 1 – 0 Stevenage victory . During his first season with the club , Mousinho finished as the club 's joint top goalscorer with eight goals in 44 appearances . Mousinho missed the start of the 2011 – 12 season due to suffering a calf injury during pre @-@ season , subsequently missing Stevenage 's first three games of the campaign . He returned to first @-@ team action on 16 August 2011 , starting in a 3 – 1 away victory against Bournemouth , scoring Stevenage 's second goal of the game from the penalty spot . Mousinho 's second goal of the season came in Stevenage 's 5 – 1 win against Sheffield Wednesday at Broadhall Way , beating defender Rob Jones for pace before driving a shot from 20 yards past goalkeeper Richard O 'Donnell . He injured a metatarsal bone in his right foot in Stevenage 's 1 – 0 away victory against Hartlepool United in the FA Cup on 12 November 2011 , and was subsequently ruled out of first @-@ team action for six weeks . Mousinho suffered another setback in January , when scans revealed further damage to the metatarsal bone . After a brief substitute appearance in Stevenage 's reserve game against Southend United in early April 2012 , Mousinho returned to first @-@ team action on 14 April 2012 , coming on as a late substitute in the club 's 6 – 0 away victory at Yeovil Town . In the club 's next match , a " vital " game against fellow play @-@ off contenders Carlisle United , Mousinho came on as a substitute in the 73rd minute and scored the winning goal three minutes later as Stevenage ran out 1 – 0 winners . He made 23 appearances during an injury @-@ hit season , scoring three goals . Just three days after Stevenage 's play @-@ off semi @-@ final defeat , on 17 May 2012 , Stevenage announced that Mousinho had turned down an improved contract and was leaving the club after two years . = = = Preston North End = = = Mousinho joined League One side Preston North End on a free transfer on 29 May 2012 , signing a two @-@ year deal with the club . The move reunited him with former Stevenage manager Graham Westley . He was named as club captain for the 2012 – 13 season . Mousinho made his Preston debut in the club 's opening game of the season , playing the whole match as a new @-@ look Preston side beat Championship team Huddersfield Town 2 – 0 at Deepdale . He scored his first goal for the club on 1 January 2013 , netting the only goal of the game courtesy of a first @-@ half header in a 1 – 0 away win against Hartlepool United . On 7 November 2013 , Mousinho signed for Gillingham on loan until 2 January 2014 . On 31 January , he returned to Stevenage on loan for the remainder of the season . Mousinho was one of six players released by Preston manager Simon Grayson on 20 May 2014 , following their failure to win promotion to the Championship . = = = Burton Albion = = = Following his release by Preston , Mousinho was signed by League Two club Burton Albion on a two @-@ year deal on 6 June 2014 . Manager Gary Rowett revealed that Mousinho had been the club 's primary transfer target that summer . = = Personal life = = Mousinho is of Portuguese descent , with his father 's side of the family hailing from Lisbon . He grew up supporting Tottenham Hotspur , and states his footballing heroes were Darren Anderton and Teddy Sheringham after watching the attacking football Tottenham played during the early 1990s . He plays the guitar , and mostly likes listening to indie music . Amongst his favourite television programmes are Fonejacker and Facejacker , with Mousinho impersonating many of the show 's characters in his Stevenage ' Two Minutes to Win It ' challenge prior to the club 's play @-@ off game with Accrington Stanley during the 2010 – 11 season . = = Honours = = Wycombe Wanderers League two promotion winners 2008 @-@ 09 Stevenage League two playoffs winners 2010 @-@ 11 Burton Albion League two champions 2014 @-@ 15 League one promotion winners 2015 @-@ 16 = = Career statistics = = As of 27 April 2013 .

= Charlie Getzein = Charles H. Getzein ( sometimes spelled Getzien ) ( February 14 , 1864 – June 19 , 1932 ) was an American professional baseball player from 1883 to 1891 . He played all or parts of nine seasons in Major League Baseball with four different National League teams from 1884 to 1891 . He was the first German in MLB history Getzein was known by the nickname " Pretzels " . Sources conflict as to whether the nickname was derived from his German ethnicity or from the belief that he was able to throw a " double curve " following " the curves of a pretzel . " During nine major league seasons , Getzein compiled a 145 @-@ 139 win @-@ loss record and a 3 @.@ 46 earned run average ( ERA ) . He threw 277 complete games , a total that ranks 58th in major league history . Only three pitchers threw more complete games in major league careers shorter than Getzein 's nine @-@ year career . Getzein had his most extensive playing time with the Detroit Wolverines , compiling records of 30 @-@ 11 and 29 @-@ 13 in 1886 and 1887 . In the 1887 World Series ( which Detroit won , 10 games to 5 ) , Getzein pitched six complete games and compiled a 4 @-@ 2 record with a 2 @.@ 48 ERA . He also won 23 games for the Boston Beaneaters in 1890 . = = Early years = = Getzein was born in 1864 , but sources are in conflict as to whether he was born in Chicago or Germany . Getzein began playing baseball as a boy in Chicago . He played as an amateur in the Chicago City League . = = Professional baseball = = = = = The " Pretzel Curve " = = = During his career , Getzein 's drew acclaim for his curveball . Getzein 's version of the pitch was sometimes referred to as the " pretzel curve . " Sporting Life described Getzein 's unusual delivery as follows : " In delivering his ' pretzels ' ' Getz ' faces third base with one foot in either corner of the lower end of the box . Bending the left knee slightly , he draws his right arm well back . Then , straightening up quickly , he slides the left foot forward with a characteristic little skip , and , bringing his arm around with a swift overhand swing , drives the ball in at a lively pace . " After a Getzein victory over the Kansas City Cowboys in 1886 , the Detroit Free Press wrote : " The Pretzel is all right . He went into the box to @-@ day and pitched one of his finest , his curves circling around in the form of the delicious pastry from which Getz takes his sobriquet . " However , the editor of the Grand Rapids World opined that Getzein 's " curved ball " was a fiction . He wrote : " The baseball enthusiasts claim for Getzein that he is able to so pitch a ball that it will describe the arc of a circle on a horizontal plane before reaching the catcher , and that therein lies the secret of his marvelous pitching . . . Scientifically , this theory is utterly absurd . The forces that act upon a ball pitched by Getzein are not different from those which operate upon a projectile thrown from any other source , and the results must be the same , and governed by the same laws . The curves are in the imagination of Getzein 's admirers . When the ball leaves his hand it is beyond his control , and it moves forward from the impulse last given it as it leaves his hand . It is then controlled by the force of propulsion , the resistance of the atmosphere , and gravitation . . . . Getzein 's antic and deceptive motions may deceive the batter , so that he is unable to discover the exact course of the ball in time to strike it , but he cannot throw a ball so as to make a curve on the horizontal plane . " The Scientific American magazine responded in July 1886 by publishing an article written by Henry Chadwick ( accompanied by several diagrams , two of which are reproduced above ) explaining the physics behind the curve ball pitch . In 1891 , O. P. Caylor in Outing magazine examined " The Theory and Introduction of Curve Pitching " and noted that many " ignorant ball players " had believed that Getzein was capable of throwing a " double curve . " Caylor deemed the " double curve " to be " an ocular delusion " , but claimed that Getzein 's nickname was based on the delusion : " [ W ] e have the nickname of ' the Pretzel Pitcher , ' given to Getzein by players who imagine the curve from his hands comes at them with the curves of a pretzel . " Getzein was known by the nickname " Pretzels " . Sources conflict as to whether the nickname was derived from his German ethnicity or from the belief that he was able to throw a " double curve " following " the curves of a pretzel . " = = = Grand Rapids = = = Getzein was listed at 5 feet , 10 inches , and 172 pounds , and he batted and threw right handed . In 1882 , Getzein made his professional baseball debut with the Grand Rapids , Michigan , team in the Northwestern League . According to an account published in The Sporting News , he " pitched his puzzling twisters and curves in the Northwestern League while that organization was in existence . " During the 1884 season , Getzein started and completed 30 games , and threw 11 shutouts , for Grand Rapids , compiling a record of 27 – 4 win – loss record with a 0 @.@ 52 earned run average ( ERA ) . = = = Detroit Wolverines = = = On August 9 , 1884 , the Grand Rapids team was dropped from the Northwestern League and disbanded . Jack Chapman , manager of the Detroit Wolverines , seized the opportunity to sign five former Grand Rapids players , including " what is known as the ' G ' battery -- Getzein and Gastfield . " The Detroit Free Press reported that Getzein " has been a formidable man to face in the Northwestern League , in one instance striking out sixteen batters . " Getzein made his major league debut at Detroit 's Recreation Park on August 13 , 1884 . Getzein faced Cleveland and did not allow an earned run . The Detroit Free Press took note of Getzein 's performance : " Getzien caused the Cleveland batters to pound the air thirty @-@ seven times , and eleven more strikes were called . It is a great record , and one that is seldom equaled . He had great speed at the outset , and struck out six of the first eight men who came to the bat . He could not maintain the pace , however , and was not so effective in the latter portion of the game , but was sufficiently so to prevent any one from earning a run . " Despite Getzein 's pitching performance , Detroit lost the game by a 1 – 0 score as Cleveland scored an unearned run . Getzein went on to start ( and complete ) 17 games for the Wolverines during the remaining two months of the 1883 season . He posted a 5 – 12 record for a Detroit team that finished in last place in the National League with a 28 – 84 record , 56 games out of contention . Getzein provided one of the few highlights for the 1884 Wolverines , pitching a six @-@ inning no @-@ hitter against the Philadelphia Phillies on October 1 , 1884 . The Detroit Free Press reported on Getzein 's no @-@ hitter as follows : " When Spalding compiles the history of remarkable games for his Guide for 1885 , it will embrace the fact that in the Detroit @-@ Philadelphia game of October 1 Getzien , the Detroit pitcher , was not batted for a base – a feat seldom accomplished . It should contain further fact that of eighteen men at bat he struck out ten , and of the other eight but one hit the ball beyond the diamond – Purcell , in the first inning , a fly to Weidman . Of the other seven , only three hit to the diamond , or a total of four balls struck inside the foul lines . Of the eighteen , [ Detroit catcher ] Gastfield put out eleven and threw out three others , Bennett , Scott and Weidman each had a fly , and Jones threw one out at first . " Getzein finished the 1884 season with a 1 @.@ 95 ERA , third best in the National League behind Old Hoss Radbourn ( 1 @.@ 38 ) and Charlie Sweeney ( 1 @.@ 95 ) , both of whom played for the league champion Providence Grays . Over the course of the full 1884 season , pitching for both Grand Rapids and Detroit , Getzein started and completed 47 games and pitched 423 @-@ 1 / 3 innings . In 1885 , Getzein compiled a 12 – 25 record as his ERA jumped to 3 @.@ 03 . His record in 1885 was again impacted by playing with an noncompetitive team . The 1885 Wolverines finished the season in sixth place with a 41 – 67 record . In 1886 , Getzein and the Wolverines saw their fortunes rise as the Wolverines assembled one of the best hitting teams in National League history featuring , among others , Dan Brouthers , Sam Thompson , Hardy Richardson , and Jack Rowe . Despite having a 3 @.@ 03 ERA ( precisely the same as his 1885 performance ) , Getzein won a career @-@ high 30 victories against 11 losses . Getzein was not the Wolverines ' leading pitcher in 1886 , as teammate Lady Baldwin led the National League with 42 wins . The 1886 Wolverines finished in second place , 2 ½ games behind the Chicago White Stockings , with an 87 – 36 record and a .707 winning percentage . In 1887 , Getzein was the leading pitcher on a Detroit Wolverines team that won the National League pennant and then defeated the St. Louis Browns in the 1887 World Series . Getzein compiled a 29 – 13 record and a 3 @.@ 73 ERA , leading the league in winning percentage ( .690 ) but also in home runs allowed ( 24 ) . In September 1887 , a group of influential fans in Detroit contributed money to purchase " an elegant two hundred dollar gold watch and chain " for Getzein to express their admiration for Getzein 's " magnificent work for the club . " In the 1887 World Series ( which Detroit won , 10 games to 5 ) , Getzein pitched six complete games and compiled a 4 – 2 record with a 2 @.@ 48 ERA . On October 17 , 1887 , Getzein pitched a no @-@ hitter through the first eight innings in Game 10 of the World Series played before 10 @,@ 000 spectators at the Polo Grounds in New York . The Detroit Free Press wrote : " Getzien made a remarkable showing . Up to and including the eighth inning only twenty @-@ seven men went to the bat and not a clean hit had been scored . Not till the ninth did the world beaters succeed in getting a hit , and then they failed to score the much desired run . " In 1888 , Getzein compiled an 18 – 22 record and a 3 @.@ 05 ERA . He started 46 games and completed 45 of them with 404 innings pitched . However , Getzein lost his role at the team 's leading pitcher , as Pete Conway compiled a 30 – 14 record and a 2 @.@ 25 ERA for the 1888 Wolverines . After Getzein gave up 10 runs in an August 1888 game against Washington , the Detroit Free Press dubbed him the " Pulverized Pretzel . " The newspaper reported : " The Detroits were defeated again to @-@ day ... simply because Getzein could not keep the ball away from the Senatorial bat . When he pitched high they hit it . When he delivered his famous drop , he was knocked out of the lot , and his in and out curves were as big as balloons to Ted Sullivan 's men . " As the 1888 season progressed , relations between Getzein and the Detroit manager became strained . After a game in which Getzein gave up 21 hits against Boston , The Sporting Life reported on speculation that Getzein may have intentionally thrown the game : " The Getzein episode makes Detroiters weary . The Bostons have no license to make 21 hits off the Pretzel when he pitches his game . Either he was not in condition to pitch or he didn 't try to . . . . If the latter , and he repeated his performance against the Kansas Citys a few years ago , when he deliberately tossed the balls to the plate and permitted the Cowboys to make 13 runs in one inning , why no one here would mourn much if he was fined to the limit . What the merits of his quarrel with Watkins are of course are not known here . But Getzein is inclined to be very free with his tongue . Considering his fine treatment here it is time for him to get over his childish humors and do the best he knows how whenever called on . " = = = Later years = = = Getzein 's career with the Wolverines ended after the 1888 season . On March 5 , 1889 , he was sold by Detroit to the Indianapolis Hoosiers . During the 1889 season , he compiled an 18 – 22 record and a 4 @.@ 54 ERA for the Hoosiers and led the National League in home runs allowed with 27 . After a sub par season with the Hoosiers , Getzein was acquired by the Boston Beaneaters in March 1890 . He returned to good form in 1890 , compiling a 23 – 17 record with a 3 @.@ 19 ERA for the fifth @-@ place Beaneaters . While pitching for Detroit in 1887 , Getzein was teamed up with catcher Charlie Ganzel , and the pair became known as the " Pretzel Battery " because of their shared German ethnicity . When Getzein signed with Boston in 1890 , he was reunited with Ganzel . The Sporting Life reported : " The signing of Getzein by the Boston League Club re @-@ unites the famous ' Pretzel Battery , ' Getzein and Ganzel , of the Detroit ex @-@ champions . " Getzein began the 1891 season with Boston , but he was released by the team on July 16 , 1891 , after compiling a 4 – 5 record in nine starts . He attempted a comeback with the Cleveland Spiders in August 1891 , but he appeared in only one game for the Spiders , allowing nine runs in nine innings . He concluded his major league career appearing in 13 games for the St. Louis Browns in 1892 . In 1894 , Getzein was reported to be playing first base for a Chicago City League team . = = = Career statistics = = = During nine major league seasons , he compiled a 145 – 139 record and a 3 @.@ 46 earned run average ( ERA ) in 296 games . He totaled 292 games started and threw 277 complete games , a total that ranks 58th in major league history . Only three pitchers in major league history ( Ed Morris , Mark Baldwin , and Hall of Famer Albert Spalding ) threw more complete games in careers shorter than Getzein 's nine @-@ year career . Getzein 's record for complete games is based in part on the customs of the 1880s . In 1915 , Baseball Magazine reported that managers were not allowed to freely pull the starting pitcher from a game in the bygone era . It cited an incident involving Getzein to illustrate the old practice : " The Nationals got onto Getzein in the fourth inning and batted him all over the field . In the fifth inning they kept up the slugging until Getzein said he was ill , and Manager Hanlon wanted the Nationals to allow Getzein to retire , claiming that he was too sick to play . Baker , captaining the home club , said he would call a doctor and have him examine Getzein , and if the latter was really sick he would probably allow the change to be made . Dr. Bond , who happened to be present , was called on , and he examined the pitcher , while the crowd guyed Getzein terribly . The doctor announced that he did not consider Getzein sick , only discouraged at the pounding he had received , and that he would be able to finish the game . " = = Family and death = = Getzien was married to Rose Dibble . He died in June 1932 after suffering a heart attack at his home in Chicago . He was buried at Concordia Cemetery in Forest Park , Illinois .

= Guatemalan Revolution = The Guatemalan Revolution ( Spanish : Revolución de Guatemala ) was the period in Guatemalan history between the popular uprising that overthrew dictator Jorge Ubico in 1944 and the United States @-@ orchestrated coup d 'état in 1954 that unseated President Jacobo Árbenz . It is also known as the Ten Years of Spring , highlighting the only years of representative democracy in Guatemala from 1930 until the end of the civil war in 1996 , and included a program of agrarian reform that was enormously influential across Latin America . From the late 19th century until 1944 Guatemala was governed by a series of authoritarian rulers who sought to strengthen the economy by supporting the export of coffee . Between 1898 and 1920 , Manuel Estrada Cabrera granted significant concessions to the United Fruit Company , an American corporation that traded in tropical fruit , and dispossessed many indigenous people of their communal lands . Under Jorge Ubico , who ruled as a dictator between 1931 and 1944 , this process was intensified , with the institution of harsh labor regulations and a police state . In June 1944 , a popular pro @-@ democracy movement led by university students and labor organizations forced Ubico to resign . He appointed a three @-@ person military junta to take his place , led by Federico Ponce Vaides . This junta continued Ubico 's oppressive policies , until it was toppled in a military coup led by Jacobo Árbenz in October 1944 , an event also known as the " October Revolution " . The coup leaders formed a junta which swiftly called for open elections . These elections were won in a landslide by Juan José Arévalo , a progressive professor of philosophy who had become the face of the popular movement . He implemented a moderate program of social reform , including a widely successful literacy campaign and a largely free election process , although illiterate women were not given the vote and communist parties were banned . Following the end of Arévalo 's presidency in 1951 , Jacobo Árbenz was elected to the presidency in a landslide . The progressive military leader of 1944 continued Arévalo 's reforms , and began an ambitious land @-@ reform program , known as Decree 900 . Under it , the uncultivated portions of large land @-@ holdings were expropriated in return for compensation , and redistributed to poverty @-@ stricken agricultural laborers . Approximately 500 @,@ 000 people benefited from the decree . The majority of them were indigenous people , whose forebears had been dispossessed after the Spanish invasion . Árbenz ' policies ran afoul of the United Fruit Company , which lost some of its uncultivated land . The company lobbied the US government for Árbenz ' overthrow , and the State Department responded by engineering a coup under the pretext that Árbenz was a communist . Carlos Castillo Armas took power at the head of a military junta , provoking the Guatemalan Civil War . The war lasted from 1960 to 1996 , and saw the US @-@ backed military commit genocide against the indigenous Maya peoples , and widespread human rights violations against civilians . = = Background = = = = = Early 20th Century = = = Prior to the Spanish invasion in 1524 , the population of Guatemala was almost exclusively Maya . The Spanish conquest created a system of wealthy European landowners overseeing a labor force composed of slaves and bonded laborers . However , the community lands of the indigenous population remained in their control until the late 19th century . At this point , rising global demand for coffee made its export a significant source of income for the government . As a result , the state supported the coffee growers by passing legislation that took land away from the Indian population , as well as relaxing labor laws so that bonded labor could be used on the plantations . The US @-@ based United Fruit Company ( UFC ) was one of many foreign companies that acquired large tracts of both state land and indigenous land . Manuel Estrada Cabrera , who was president of Guatemala from 1898 to 1920 , permitted limited unionization in rural Guatemala , but also made further concessions to the UFC . In 1922 , the Communist Party of Guatemala was created , and became a significant influence among urban laborers ; however , it had little reach among the rural and Indian populations . In 1929 , the Great Depression led to the collapse of the economy and a rise in unemployment , leading to unrest among workers and laborers . Fearing the possibility of a revolution , the landed elite lent their support to Jorge Ubico y Castañeda , who had built a reputation for ruthlessness and efficiency as a provincial governor . Ubico won the election that followed in 1931 , in which he was the only candidate . = = = Dictatorship of Jorge Ubico = = = Ubico had made statements supporting the labor movement when campaigning for the presidency , but after his election his policy quickly became authoritarian . He abolished the system of debt peonage , and replaced it with a vagrancy law , which required all men of working age who did not own land to perform a minimum of 100 days of hard labor . In addition , the state made use of unpaid Indian labor to work on public infrastructure like roads and railroads . Ubico also froze wages at very low levels , and passed a law allowing land @-@ owners complete immunity from prosecution for any action they took to defend their property , an action described by historians as legalizing murder . He greatly strengthened the police force , turning it into one of the most efficient and ruthless in Latin America . The police were given greater authority to shoot and imprison people suspected of breaking the labor laws . The result of these laws was to create tremendous resentment against him among agricultural laborers . Ubico was highly contemptuous of the country 's indigenous people , once stating that they resembled donkeys . Ubico had great admiration for the fascist leaders of Europe , such as Francisco Franco and Benito Mussolini . However , he saw the United States as an ally against the supposed communist threat of Mexico . He made a concerted effort to gain American support ; when the US declared war on Germany and Japan in 1941 , Ubico followed suit , and acting on American instructions arrested all people of German descent in Guatemala . He permitted the US to establish an air base in Guatemala , with the stated aim of protecting the Panama Canal . Like his predecessors , he made large concessions to the United Fruit Company , granting it 200 @,@ 000 hectares ( 490 @,@ 000 acres ) hectares of public land in exchange for a promise to build a port . He later released the company from this obligation as well , citing the economic crisis . Since its entry into Guatemala , the UFC had expanded its land @-@ holdings by displacing the peasantry and converting their farmland into banana plantations . This process accelerated under Ubico , whose government doing nothing to stop it . = = October revolution = = = = = June 1944 general strike = = = The onset of World War II increased economic unrest in Guatemala . Ubico responded by cracking down more fiercely on any form of protest or dissent . In 1944 , popular revolt broke out in neighboring El Salvador , which briefly toppled dictator Maximiliano Hernández Martínez . However , he quickly returned to power , leading to a flood of exiled El Salvadorian revolutionaries moving to Guatemala . This coincided with a series of protests at the university in Guatemala City . Ubico responded by suspending the constitution on 22 June 1944 . The protesters , who by this point included many middle @-@ class members in addition to students and workers , called for a general strike , and presented an ultimatum to Ubico the next day , demanding the reinstatement of the constitution . They also presented him a petition signed by 311 of the most prominent Guatemalan citizens . Ubico sent the police to disrupt the protests by firing on them , and declared martial law . Clashes between protesters and the military continued for a week , during which the revolt gained momentum . At the end of June , Ubico submitted his resignation to the National Assembly , leading to huge celebrations in the streets . The resignation of Ubico did not restore democracy . Ubico appointed three generals , Federico Ponce Vaides , Eduardo Villagrán Ariza , and Buenaventura Pineda , to a junta which would lead the provisional government . A few days later , Ponce Vaides persuaded the congress to appoint him interim president . Ponce pledged to hold free elections soon , while at the same time suppressing the protests . Press freedom was suspended , arbitrary detentions continued , and memorial services for slain revolutionaries were prohibited . However , the protests had grown to the point where the government could not stamp them out , and rural areas also began organizing against the dictatorship . The government began using the police to intimidate the indigenous population to keep the junta in power through the forthcoming election . This resulted in growing support for an armed revolution among some sections of the populace . By now , the army was disillusioned with the junta , and progressives within it had begun to plot a coup . = = = Interim presidency of Ponce Vaides = = = On 1 October 1944 , Alejandro Cordova , the editor of El Imparcial , the main opposition newspaper , was assassinated . This led to the military coup plotters reaching out to the leaders of the protests , in an attempt to turn the coup into a popular uprising . Ponce Vaides announced elections , but the pro @-@ democracy forces denounced them as a fraud , citing his attempts to rig them . Ponce Vaides sought to stabilize his regime by playing on inter @-@ racial tension within the Guatemalan population . The most vocal support for the revolution had come from the Ladinos , or people of mixed racial descent . Ponce Vaides sought to exploit their fear of the Indians by paying thousands of indigenous peasants to march in Guatemala City in his support , and promising them land if they supported the Liberal party that Ubico had begun as a front for the dictatorship . By mid @-@ October , several different plans to overthrow the junta had been set in motion by various factions of the pro @-@ democracy movement , including teachers , students , and progressive factions of the army . On 19 October , the government learned of one of these conspiracies . That same day , a small group of army officers launched a coup , led by Francisco Javier Arana and Jacobo Árbenz Guzmán . They were joined the next day by other factions of the army and the civilian population . Initially , the battle went against the revolutionaries , but after an appeal for support their ranks were swelled by unionists and students , and they eventually subdued the police and army factions loyal to Ponce Vaides . On October 20 , the next day , Ponce Vaides surrendered unconditionally . Ponce Vaides was allowed to leave the country safely , as was Ubico himself . The military junta was replaced by another three @-@ person junta consisting of Árbenz , Arana , and an upper @-@ class youth named Jorge Toriello , who had played a significant role in the protests . Although Arana had come to the military conspiracy relatively late , his defection had brought the powerful Guardia de Honor ( Honor Guard ) over to the revolutionaries , and for this crucial role he was rewarded with a place on the junta . The junta promised free and open elections to the presidency and the congress , as well as for a constituent assembly . The resignation of Ponce Vaides and the creation of the junta has been considered by scholars to be the beginning of the Guatemalan Revolution . However , the revolutionary junta did not immediately threaten the interests of the landed elite . Two days after Ponce Vaides ' resignation , a violent protest erupted at Patzicía , a small Indian hamlet . The junta responded with swift brutality , silencing the protest . The dead civilians included women and children . = = = Election of Arévalo = = = Juan José Arévalo Bermejo was born into a middle @-@ class family in 1904 . He became a primary school teacher for a brief while , and then earned a scholarship to a university in Argentina , where he earned a doctorate in the philosophy of education . He returned to Guatemala in 1934 , and sought a position in the Ministry of Education . However , he was denied the position he wished for , and felt uncomfortable under the dictatorship of Ubico . He left the country and held a faculty position in Argentina until 1944 , when he returned to Guatemala . In July 1944 the Renovación Nacional , the teachers ' party , had been formed , and Arévalo was named its candidate . In an unexpected surge of support , his candidacy was endorsed by many of the leading organizations among the protesters , including the student federation . His lack of connection to the dictatorship and his academic background both worked in his favor among the students and teachers . At the same time , the fact that he had chosen to go into exile in conservative Argentina rather than revolutionary Mexico reassured landowners worried about socialist or communist reform . The subsequent elections took place in December 1944 , and were broadly considered free and fair , although only literate men were given the vote . Unlike in similar historical situations , none of the junta members stood for election . Arévalo 's closest challenger was Adrián Recinos , whose campaign included a number of individuals identified with the Ubico regime . The ballots were tallied on 19 December 1944 , and Arévalo won in a landslide , receiving more than four times as many ballots as the other candidates combined . = = Presidency of Arévalo = = Arévalo took office on 15 March 1945 , inheriting a country with numerous social and economic issues . Despite Ubico 's policy of using unpaid labor to build public roads , internal transport was severely inadequate . 70 % of the population was illiterate , and malnutrition and poor health were widespread . The wealthiest 2 % of landowners owned nearly three quarters of agricultural land , and as a result less than 1 % was cultivated . The indigenous peasants either had no land , or had far too little to sustain themselves . Three quarters of the labor force were in agriculture , and industry was essentially nonexistent . = = = Ideology = = = Arévalo identified his ideology as " spiritual socialism . " He held the belief that the only way to alleviate the backwardness of most Guatemalans was through a paternalistic government . He was strongly opposed to classical Marxism , and believed in a capitalist society that was regulated to ensure that its benefits went to the entire population . Arévalo 's ideology was reflected in the new constitution that the Guatemalan assembly ratified soon after his inauguration , which was one of the most progressive in Latin America . It mandated suffrage for all but illiterate women , a decentralization of power , and provisions for a multiparty system . Communist parties were , however , forbidden . The constitution and Arévalo 's socialist ideology became the basis for much of the reform enacted under Arévalo and ( later ) Jacobo Árbenz . Although the US government would later portray the ideology of the revolution as radical communist , it did not in fact represent a major shift leftward , and was staunchly anti @-@ communist . Arévalo 's economic vision for the country was centered around private enterprise . = = = Labor movement = = = The revolution in 1944 left many of the biggest opponents of organized labor unaffected , such as the landed elite and the United Fruit Company . The revolution , and election of Arévalo , nonetheless marked a significant shift in the fortunes of labor unions . The protests of 1944 strengthened the labor movement to the point where Ponce Vaides stopped enforcing the repressive vagrancy law , which was abolished in the 1945 constitution . On 1 May 1945 , Arévalo made a speech celebrating organized labor , to a tremendously positive reception . The freedom of press guaranteed in the new constitution also drew much attention to the brutal working conditions in Guatemala City . From the beginning , the new unions that were formed fell into two camps , those that were communist and those that were not . The repressive policies of the Ubico government had driven both factions underground , but they re @-@ emerged after the revolution . The communist movement was also strengthened by the release of those of its leaders who had been imprisoned by Ubico . Among them were Miguel Mármol , Víctor Manuel Gutiérrez , and Graciela García , the latter unusual for being a woman in a movement that women were discouraged from participating in . The communists began to organize in the capital , and established a school for workers , known as the Escuela Claridad , or the Clarity School , which taught reading , writing , and also helped organize unions . Six months after the school was established , President Arévalo closed the school down , and deported all the leaders of the movement who were not Guatemalan . However , the communist movement survived , mostly by its dominance of the teacher 's union . Arévalo 's response toward the non @-@ communist unions was mixed . In 1945 , he criminalized all rural labor unions in workplaces with fewer than 500 workers , which included most plantations . One of the few unions big enough to survive this law was of the banana workers employed by the UFC . In 1946 this union organized a strike , which provoked Arévalo into outlawing all strikes until a new labor code was passed . This led to efforts on the part of employers to stall the labor code , as well as to exploit workers as far as possible before it was passed . The unions were also damaged when the US government persuaded the American Federation of Labor to found the Organización Regional Internacional del Trabajo ( ORIT ) , a union that took a virulently anti @-@ communist stance . Despite the powerful opposition , by 1947 the labor unions had managed to organize enough support to force the congress to pass a new labor code . This law was revolutionary in many ways ; it forbade discrimination in salary levels on the basis of " age , race , sex , nationality , religious beliefs , or political affiliation . " It created a set of health and safety standards in the workplace , and standardized an eight @-@ hour working day and a 45 @-@ hour working week , although the congress succumbed to pressure from the plantation lobby and exempted plantations from this provision . The code also required plantation owners to construct primary schools for the children of their workers , and expressed a general commitment to " dignifying " the position of workers . Although many of these provisions were never enforced , the creation of administrative mechanisms for this law in 1948 allowed several of its provisions to be systematically enforced . The law as a whole had a huge positive impact on worker rights in the country , including raising the average wages by a factor of three or more . = = = Foreign relations = = = The Arévalo government attempted to support democratic ideals abroad as well . One of Arévalo 's first actions was to break diplomatic relations with the government of Spain under dictator Francisco Franco . At two inter @-@ American conferences in the year after his election , Arévalo recommended that the republics in Latin America not recognize and support authoritarian regimes . This initiative was defeated by the dictatorships supported by the United States , such as the Somoza regime in Nicaragua . In response , Arévalo broke off diplomatic ties with the Nicaraguan government and with the government of Rafael Trujillo in the Dominican Republic . Frustrated by the lack of results from working with the other Latin American governments , Arévalo began to support the Caribbean Legion , which sought to replace dictatorships with democracies across Latin America , by force if necessary . This led to the administration being labelled as communist by the dictatorial governments in the region . The Arévalo government also floated the idea of a Central American Federation , as being the only way that a democratic government could survive in the region . He approached several leaders of democratic Central American countries , but was rejected by all except Castañeda Castro , the president of El Salvador . The two leaders began talks to build a union , and set up several commissions to look into the issue . In late 1945 they announced the formation of the union , but the formalization of the process got delayed by internal troubles in both countries , and in 1948 the Castro government was toppled in a military coup led by Óscar Osorio . = = = 1949 coup attempt = = = As the highest @-@ ranking military officer in the October Revolution , Francisco Arana had led the three @-@ man junta that formed the interim government after the coup . He was opposed to handing over power to a civilian government , first seeking to postpone the 1944 election , and then to annul it . In return for allowing Arévalo to become president , Arana was granted the newly created position of " chief of the armed forces , " ranked above the minister of defense . The position had a six @-@ year term , and controlled all military appointments . In December 1945 , Arévalo was involved in a motoring accident which left him seriously injured . Fearing a military coup , the leaders of the Revolutionary Action Party ( PAR ) made a pact with Arana , in which the party agreed to support his candidacy in the 1950 elections in return for a promise to refrain from a coup . Arana 's support began to be solicited by the landed elite , who felt threatened by Arévalo 's reforms . Arana , who was not initially inclined to get involved with politics , began to make occasional statements against the government . In the 1948 parliamentary election , he backed a number of opposition candidates , all of whom were defeated . By 1949 the National Renovation Party and the PAR were both openly hostile to Arana , while a small fragment of the Popular Liberation Front split off to support him . The leftist parties decided to back Árbenz instead , as they believed that only a military officer could defeat Arana . On 16 July 1949 , Arana delivered an ultimatum to Arévalo , demanding the expulsion of all of Árbenz ' supporters from the cabinet and the military ; he threatened a coup if his demands were not met . Arévalo informed Árbenz and other progressive leaders of the ultimatum , who all agreed that Arana should be exiled . Two days later , Arévalo and Arana had another meeting ; on the way back , Arana 's convoy was intercepted by a small force led by Árbenz . A shootout ensued , killing three men , including Arana . Arana 's supporters in the military rose up in revolt , but they were leaderless , and by the next day the rebels asked for negotiations . The coup attempt left approximately 150 dead and 200 wounded . Many of Arana 's supporters , including Carlos Castillo Armas , were exiled . The details of the incident were not made public . = = Presidency of Árbenz = = = = = Election = = = Árbenz 's role as defense minister had already made him a strong candidate for the presidency , and his firm support of the government during the 1949 uprising further increased his prestige . In 1950 , the economically moderate Partido de Integridad Nacional ( PIN ) announced that Árbenz would be its presidential candidate in the upcoming election . This announcement was quickly followed by endorsements from most parties on the left , including the influential PAR , as well as from labor unions . Árbenz had only a couple of significant challengers in the election , in a field of ten candidates . One of these was Jorge García Granados , who was supported by some members of the upper @-@ middle class who felt the revolution had gone too far . Another was Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes , who had been a general under Ubico , and who had the support of the hardline opponents of the revolution . During his campaign , Árbenz promised to continue and expand the reforms begun under Arévalo . The election was held on 15 November 1950 , and Árbenz won more than 60 % of the vote , in elections that were free and fair with the exception of the disenfranchisement of illiterate female voters . Árbenz was inaugurated as president on 15 March 1951 . = = = Árbenz ' personal background = = = Árbenz was born in 1913 into a middle @-@ class family of Swiss heritage . In 1935 he had graduated from the Escuela Politécnica , Guatemala 's national military academy , with excellent grades , and had subsequently became an officer in the Guatemalan army under Ubico . As an officer , Árbenz himself had been required to escort chain @-@ gangs of prisoners . This process had radicalized him , and he had begun to form links to the labor movement . In 1938 he had met and married María Vilanova , who was also interested in social reform , and who became a significant influence on him and a national figure in her own right . Another strong influence on him was José Manuel Fortuny , a well @-@ known Guatemalan communist , who was one of his main advisers during his government . In 1944 , disgusted with Ubico 's authoritarian regime , he and his fellow officers had begun plotting against the government . When Ubico resigned in 1944 , Árbenz had witnessed Ponce Vaides intimidate the congress into naming him president . Highly offended by this , Árbenz had plotted against Ponce Vaides , and was one of the military leaders of the coup that toppled him , in addition to having been one of the few officers in the revolution who had formed and maintained connections to the popular civilian movement . = = = Agrarian reform = = = The biggest component of Árbenz 's project of modernization was his agrarian reform bill . Árbenz drafted the bill himself with the help of advisers that included some leaders of the communist party as well as non @-@ communist economists . He also sought advice from numerous economists from across Latin America . The bill was passed by the National Assembly on 17 June 1952 , and the program went into effect immediately . The focus of the program was on transferring uncultivated land from large landowners to their poverty stricken laborers , who would then be able to begin a viable farm of their own . Árbenz was also motivated to pass the bill because he needed to generate capital for his public infrastructure projects within the country . At the behest of the United States , the World Bank had refused to grant Guatemala a loan in 1951 , which made the shortage of capital more acute . The official title of the agrarian reform bill was Decree 900 . It expropriated all uncultivated land from landholdings that were larger than 673 acres ( 272 ha ) . If the estates were between 672 acres ( 272 ha ) and 224 acres ( 91 ha ) in size , uncultivated land was expropriated only if less than two @-@ thirds of it was in use . The owners were compensated with government bonds , the value of which was equal to that of the land expropriated . The value of the land itself was the value that the owners had declared in their tax returns in 1952 . The redistribution was organized by local committees that included representatives from the landowners , the laborers , and the government . Of the nearly 350 @,@ 000 private land @-@ holdings , only 1710 were affected by expropriation . The law itself was cast in a moderate capitalist framework ; however , it was implemented with great speed , which resulted in occasional arbitrary land seizures . There was also some violence , directed at land @-@ owners , as well as at peasants that had minor landholdings of their own . By June 1954 , 1 @.@ 4 million acres of land had been expropriated and distributed . Approximately 500 @,@ 000 individuals , or one @-@ sixth of the population , had received land by this point . The decree also included provision of financial credit to the people who received the land . The National Agrarian Bank ( Banco Nacional Agrario , or BNA ) was created on 7 July 1953 , and by June 1951 it had disbursed more than $ 9 million in small loans . 53 @,@ 829 applicants received an average of 225 US dollars , which was twice as much as the Guatemalan per capita income . The BNA developed a reputation for being a highly efficient government bureaucracy , and the United States government , Árbenz 's biggest detractor , did not have anything negative to say about it . The loans had a high repayment rate , and of the $ 3 @,@ 371 @,@ 185 handed out between March and November 1953 , $ 3 @,@ 049 @,@ 092 had been repaid by June 1954 . The law also included provisions for nationalization of roads that passed through redistributed land , which greatly increased the connectivity of rural communities . Contrary to the predictions made by the detractors of the government , the law resulted in a slight increase in Guatemalan agricultural productivity , and to an increase in cultivated area . Purchases of farm machinery also increased . Overall , the law resulted in a significant improvement in living standards for many thousands of peasant families , the majority of whom were indigenous people . Historian Piero Gleijeses stated that the injustices corrected by the law were far greater than the injustice of the relatively few arbitrary land seizures . Historian Greg Grandin stated that the law was flawed in many respects ; among other things , it was too cautious and deferential to the planters , and it created communal divisions among peasants . Nonetheless , it represented a fundamental power shift in favor of those that had been marginalized before then . = = United Fruit Company = = = = = History = = = The United Fruit Company had been formed in 1899 by the merger of two large American corporations . The new company had major holdings of land and railroads across Central America , which it used to support its business of exporting bananas . In 1900 it was already the world 's largest exporter of bananas . By 1930 it had an operating capital of 215 million US dollars , and had been the largest landowner and employer in Guatemala for several years . Under Manuel Estrada Cabrera and other Guatemalan presidents , the company obtained a series of concessions in the country that allowed it to massively expand its business . These concessions frequently came at the cost of tax revenue for the Guatemalan government . The company supported Jorge Ubico in the leadership struggle that occurred from 1930 to 1932 , and upon assuming power , Ubico expressed willingness to create a new contract with it . This new contract was immensely favorable to the company . It included a 99 @-@ year lease to massive tracts of land , exemptions from virtually all taxes , and a guarantee that no other company would receive any competing contract . Under Ubico , the company paid virtually no taxes , which hurt the Guatemalan government 's ability to deal with the effects of the Great Depression . Ubico asked the company to pay its workers only 50 cents a day , to prevent other workers from demanding higher wages . The company also virtually owned Puerto Barrios , Guatemala 's only port to the Atlantic ocean , allowing the company to make profits from the flow of goods through the port . By 1950 , the company 's annual profits were 65 million US dollars , twice the revenue of the Guatemalan government . = = = Impact of the revolution = = = Due to its long association with Ubico 's government , the United Fruit Company ( UFC ) was seen as an impediment to progress by Guatemalan revolutionaries after 1944 . This image was worsened by the company 's discriminatory policies towards its colored workers . Thanks to its position as the country 's largest landowner and employer , the reforms of Arévalo 's government affected the UFC more than other companies . Among other things , the labor code passed by the government allowed its workers to strike when their demands for higher wages and job security were not met . The company saw itself as being specifically targeted by the reforms , and refused to negotiate with the numerous sets of strikers , despite frequently being in violation of the new laws . The company 's labor troubles were compounded in 1952 when Jacobo Árbenz passed Decree 900 , the agrarian reform law . Of the 550 @,@ 000 acres ( 220 @,@ 000 ha ) that the company owned , 15 % were being cultivated ; the rest of the land , which was idle , came under the scope of the agrarian reform law . = = = Lobbying efforts = = = The United Fruit Company responded with intensive lobbying of members of the United States government , leading many US congressmen and senators to criticize the Guatemalan government for not protecting the interests of the company . The Guatemalan government responded by saying that the company was the main obstacle to progress in the country . American historians observed that " To the Guatemalans it appeared that their country was being mercilessly exploited by foreign interests which took huge profits without making any contributions to the nation 's welfare . " In 1953 , 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 @,@ 000 ha ) of uncultivated land was expropriated by the government , which offered the company compensation at the rate of 2 @.@ 99 US dollars to the acre , twice what the company had paid when it bought the property . More expropriation occurred soon after , bringing the total to over 400 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 @,@ 000 ha ) ; the government offered compensation to the company at the rate at which the UFC had valued its own property for tax purposes . This resulted in further lobbying in Washington , particularly through Secretary of State John Foster Dulles , who had close ties to the company . The company had begun a public relations campaign to discredit the Guatemalan government ; it hired public relations expert Edward Bernays , who ran a concerted effort to portray the company as the victim of the Guatemalan government for several years . The company stepped up its efforts after Dwight Eisenhower had been elected in 1952 . These included commissioning a research study on Guatemala from a firm known to be hawkish , which produced a 235 @-@ page report that was highly critical of the Guatemalan government . Historians have stated that the report was full of " exaggerations , scurrilous descriptions and bizarre historical theories . " The report nonetheless had a significant impact on the Congressmen that it was sent to . Overall , the company spent over a half @-@ million dollars to influence both lawmakers and members of the public in the US that the Guatemalan government needed to be overthrown . = = CIA instigated coup d 'état = = = = = Political motivations = = = In addition to the lobbying of the United Fruit Company , several other factors also led the United States to launch the coup that toppled Árbenz in 1954 . During the years of the Guatemalan Revolution , military coups occurred in several other Central American countries that brought firmly anti @-@ communist governments to power . Army officer Major Oscar Osorio won staged elections in El Salvador in 1950 , Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista took power in 1952 . Honduras , where the land @-@ holdings of the United Fruit Company were the most extensive , had been ruled by an anti @-@ communist government sympathetic to the United States since 1932 . These developments created tension between the other governments and Árbenz , which was exacerbated by Arévalo 's support for the Caribbean Legion . This support also worried the United States and the newly formed Central Intelligence Agency . According to US historian Richard Immerman , during the beginning of the Cold War , the US and the CIA tended to assume that everybody who opposed it was a communist . Thus , despite Arévalo 's ban of the communist party , important figures in the US government were already predisposed to believe that the revolutionary government had been infiltrated by communists , and was a danger to the US . During the years of the revolution , several reports and memoranda were circulated amongst US government agencies that furthered this belief . = = = Operation PBFORTUNE = = = Although the administration of Harry Truman had become convinced that the Guatemalan government had been penetrated by communists , it relied on purely diplomatic and economic means to try and reduce the communist influence , at least until the end of its term . The United States had refused to sell arms to the Guatemalan government after 1944 ; in 1951 it began to block weapons purchases by Guatemala from other countries . In 1952 Truman became sufficiently convinced of the threat posed by Árbenz to start planning a covert overthrow , titled Operation PBFORTUNE . The plan had originally been suggested by the US supported dictator of Nicaragua , Anastasio Somoza García , who said that if he were given weapons , he could overthrow the Guatemalan government . Truman gave the CIA permission to go ahead with the plan , without informing the state department . The CIA placed a shipment of weapons on a vessel owned by the United Fruit Company , and the operation was paid for by Rafael Trujillo and Marcos Pérez Jiménez , the right @-@ wing anti @-@ communist dictators of the Dominican Republic and Venezuela , respectively . The operation was to be led by Carlos Castillo Armas . However , the US state department discovered the conspiracy , and secretary of state Dean Acheson persuaded Truman to abort the plan . = = = Operation PBSUCCESS = = = In November 1952 , Dwight Eisenhower was elected president of the US . Eisenhower 's campaign had included a pledge for a more active anti @-@ communist policy . Several figures in his administration , including Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and his brother and CIA director Allen Dulles had close ties to the United Fruit Company . Both of these factors made Eisenhower predisposed to supporting the overthrow of Árbenz . The CIA operation to overthrow Jacobo Árbenz , code @-@ named Operation PBSUCCESS , was authorized by Eisenhower in August 1953 . The operation was granted a budget of 2 @.@ 7 million dollars for " pychological warfare and political action . " The total budget has been estimated at between 5 and 7 million dollars , and the planning employed over 100 CIA agents . The CIA planning included drawing up lists of people within Árbenz ' government to be assassinated if the coup were to be carried out . Manuals of assassination techniques were compiled , and lists were also made of people whom the junta would dispose of . After considering several candidates to lead the coup , including Miguel Ydígoras Fuentes , the CIA settled on Carlos Castillo Armas . The US state department also embarked on a campaign to ensure that other countries would not sympathize with the Guatemalan government , by linking it to communism and the Soviet Union . By 1954 Árbenz had become desperate for weapons , and decided to acquire them secretly from Czechoslovakia , which would have been the first time that a Soviet bloc country shipped weapons to the Americas . The shipment of these weapons acted as the final spur for the CIA to launch its coup . = = = Invasion = = = On 18 June 1954 , Castillo Armas led a convoy of trucks carrying 480 men across the border from Honduras into Guatemala . The weapons had come from the CIA , which had also trained the men in camps in Nicaragua and Honduras . Since his army was badly outnumbered by the Guatemalan army , the CIA plan required Castillo Armas to camp within the Guatemalan border , while it mounted a psychological campaign to convince the Guatemalan people and government that Armas ' victory was a fait accompli . This campaign included using Catholic priests to give anti @-@ communist sermons , strafing several towns using CIA aircraft , and placing a naval blockade around the country . It also involved dropping leaflets by airplane through the country , and carrying out a radio broadcast entitled " The Voice of Liberation " which announced that Guatemalan exiles led by Castillo Armas were shortly about to liberate the country . The military force led by Castillo Armas attempted to make forays towards the towns of Zacapa and Puerto Barrios ; however , these were beaten back by the Guatemalan army . The propaganda broadcast by the CIA had far more effect ; it succeeded in leading a Guatemalan pilot to defect , which led to Árbenz grounding the entire air force , fearing its defection . The CIA also used its planes , flown by American pilots , to bomb Guatemalan towns for psychological effect . When the old planes used by the invasion force were found to be inadequate , the CIA persuaded Eisenhower to authorize the use of two additional planes . Guatemala made an appeal to the United Nations , but the US vetoed an investigation into the incident by the Security Council , stating that it was an internal matter in Guatemala . On 25 June , a CIA plane bombed Guatemala City , destroying the government 's main oil reserves . Frightened by this , Árbenz ordered the army to distribute weapons to local peasants and workers . The army refused to do this , instead demanding that Árbenz either resign or come to terms with Castillo Armas . Knowing that he could not fight on without the support of the army , Jacobo Árbenz resigned on 27 June 1954 , handing over power to Colonel Carlos Enrique Diaz . US ambassador John Peurifoy then mediated negotiations held in El Salvador between the army leadership and Castillo Armas which led to Armas being included in the ruling military junta on 7 July 1954 , and was named provisional president a few days later . The US recognized the new government on 13 July . Elections were held in early October , from which all political parties were barred from participating , and Castillo Armas was the only candidate , winning the election with 99 % of the vote . Among the outcomes of the meeting in El Salvador was a planned new constitution , which would rollback most of the progressive reform brought by the revolution . = = = Aftermath = = = Following the coup , hundreds of peasant leaders were rounded up and executed . Historian Greg Grandin has stated that " There is general consensus today among academics and Guatemalan intellectuals that 1954 signaled the beginning of what would become the most repressive state in the hemisphere — a state responsible for the torture and murder of two hundred thousand of its citizens . " Following the coup and the establishment of the military dictatorship , a series of leftist insurgencies began in the countryside , frequently with a large degree of popular support , which triggered the Guatemalan Civil War that lasted until 1996 . The largest of these movements was led by the Guerrilla Army of the Poor , which at its largest point had 270 @,@ 000 members . 200 @,@ 000 civilians were killed in the war , and numerous human rights violations committed , including massacres of civilian populations , rape , aerial bombardment , and forced disappearances . Historians estimate that 93 % of these violations were committed by the United States @-@ backed military , which included a genocidal scorched @-@ earth campaign against the indigenous Maya population in the 1980s .

= Black Lab = Black Lab is an alternative rock band founded in Berkeley , California and currently based in Los Angeles and Montana . They released one album on Geffen Records , entitled Your Body Above Me , and scored two rock radio hits in the US , " Wash It Away " in 1997 and " Time Ago " in 1998 . After leaving Geffen in 1999 , the band signed to Epic Records , but did not release any material , and left the label after two years . The band is now unsigned . They have independently released an EP and three full @-@ length albums since 2003 , the latest being Two Strangers released in October 2010 . Passion Leaves a Trace , released in 2007 , featured the single " Mine Again " and gained significant exposure through internet media outlets . Paul Durham and Andy Ellis are currently the core members , with Isaac Carpenter and Brian Paturalski accompanying in the studio . The band works with Secret Road Music Services and Paul Durham 's licensing company , Snap Music Licensing , to make the band 's available for licensing . = = History = = = = = Your Body Above Me ( 1995 @-@ 1999 ) = = = Twin Falls , Idaho native Paul Durham 's singing career began when he was offered a spot singing in a local youth choir . After graduating from Oberlin College , Durham supported himself as a substitute teacher in the San Francisco Bay Area while fronting his acoustic band , Durham . Durham did not have any official releases , but some of their recorded material was released in 2004 as part of Paul Durham 's solo album Ten Million Years . Paul Durham disbanded this band in 1995 , signed to Geffen Records in 1996 after attracting attention from a number of labels , and hired bassist Geoff Stanfield , guitarist Michael Belfer and drummer Bryan Head to form Black Lab . The name is an amalgamation of two of the band 's influences , Black Sabbath and Stereolab . Their debut album , Your Body Above Me , co @-@ produced by David Bianco and the band , was released on October 21 , 1997 in the United States . Two singles from the album charted in the U.S. , the power ballad " Time Ago " and the alternative rock hit " Wash It Away " ; the album also featured the PJ Harvey @-@ penned " All the Money in the World " . The LP peaked on Billboard 's Heatseekers charts at No. 19 in 1998 , and sales of the album eventually topped 120 @,@ 000 . Reviews of Your Body Above Me noted the album 's dark , melodic modern rock sound , and were mixed but generally positive . The Washington Post called Your Body Above Me " moodily sumptuous " , Guitar Player described the music as having " drama and rhythmic urgency " , and Allmusic noted the album 's " brooding yet propulsive sound that 's actually quite intriguing " . The band subsequently toured with Days of the New , Cracker , and Our Lady Peace , and were called " The American U2 " by the San Francisco Chronicle . Black Lab songs were featured on soundtracks to Can 't Hardly Wait , Varsity Blues , Permanent Midnight , and Buffy the Vampire Slayer , and the song " Wash It Away " was also included on a charity album , Live in the X Lounge . Just as momentum was building on their debut , however , Geffen went out of business after being subsumed by Universal ; dissatisfied with the new label arrangement , Durham moved to Los Angeles , and the band broke up in 1999 . = = = See the Sun ( 2000 @-@ 2005 ) = = = In 2000 , Paul Durham re @-@ formed Black Lab with an alternate lineup after Epic Records expressed an interest in releasing a second album from the band . The band was quiet until 2002 , which saw the release of " Learn to Crawl " on the Spider @-@ Man soundtrack , with a band consisting of Paul Durham , Andy Ellis , bassist Eve Hill and drummer Scotty Coogan . The electronic @-@ flavored result was described as " tightly spun , highly melodic rock " by Rolling Stone . After a series of delays , Black Lab asked to be released from Epic ; legal problems with the record label ensued , but the band won the rights to the master recordings of the material they had been working on . While searching for a new label , the band self @-@ released a six @-@ song EP in 2003 , first online and then on CD , which featured " Learn to Crawl " and the single " See the Sun " . However , the planned second full @-@ length , called See the Sun , wouldn 't see light until 2005 , after the band decided on an independent release . See the Sun did not receive any mainstream press coverage , but online reviews noted the band 's turn toward increasing use of keyboards and synthesizers to introduce and underlay tracks , describing it as " startling , but in a good way " . The band benefited heavily from promotion from online rock site Alternative Addiction , who included the track " Lonely Boy " on one of its compilations , regularly reports on the band 's music , and places them in heavy rotation on its internet radio station . After leaving the major labels , Black Lab essentially ceased touring , fearing that a self @-@ booked and promoted national tour would not be cost @-@ effective . They maintained a relationship with fans via their website and MP3 of the Month Club , through which users were able to subscribe to monthly tracks of new content , such as soundtrack songs , unreleased works , and insights into the band 's songwriting process . = = = Passion Leaves a Trace and other projects ( 2006 @-@ 2009 ) = = = Early in 2006 , Durham and a few of his old friends reacquainted to record as a side project , called Cake or Death . This band , featuring Kristin Kelly , Joshua Leavitt and Olya Mokina , have recorded one full @-@ length self @-@ titled LP . At the end of October 2006 , Paul also announced that a special " Director 's Cut " edition of Your Body Above Me was being released . The rerelease contained two songs originally recorded for the album , extended cuts of several songs , new liner notes and photos . A third Black Lab album , entitled Passion Leaves a Trace , was released on January 16 , 2007 . The track " This Night " was featured on the promotional advertisement for the sixth series of The Shield ; tracks from this album were also featured in CBS 's Numb3rs , ABC 's 6 Degrees and the films The Benchwarmers and Lovewrecked . The song was also featured in the television series House M.D. in season 7 episode 16 , and the Season 2 finale of Cinemax 's Banshee ( TV series ) . The band attracted media attention in March 2007 through the campaign " Bum Rush the Charts " , in which one of their songs was promoted through podcasting and blogging . The aim of this was to harness independent media and music to promote unsigned bands and to raise money for a scholarship fund . As a result of this effort , on March 22 , 2007 , the single " Mine Again " was purchased over 14 @,@ 000 times in the United States . The iTunes charts represent a weekly average of purchases , not just “ a snapshot of the previous 24 hours ’ worth of sales , ” as a spokesman for Apple reported in a Washington Post story about the campaign . “ Mine Again , ” however , still cracked the top 100 songs on the U.S. chart at No. 99 , and peaked at No. 11 on the U.S. rock chart . The campaign had a significant international impact , selling songs in every country in which iTunes has stores and pushing " Mine Again " to No. 53 on the Canadian chart ( # 10 rock ) , No. 15 in the Netherlands ( # 2 rock ) , and No. 73 in Germany ( # 12 rock ) , among others . The song broached the iTunes rock charts in eleven additional countries as well . Songs from the album also became popular on the PMC Top10 podcast , with three of them reaching the site 's year @-@ end Top 10 : " Mine Again " ( # 8 ) , " Broken Heart " ( # 6 ) , and " Hole in My Heart " ( # 5 ) . In June 2007 , Black Lab released its second album of the year , Technologie . It is described as an album of electronica , techno @-@ rock and remixes . It features remixes of previously released songs , several songs released on movie soundtracks and brand new material , including the band 's cover of the Transformers theme song . In 2009 , the band released Give Us Sugar , a compilation of assorted rarities from throughout their career including non @-@ LP b @-@ sides and songs previously exclusive to movie soundtracks . It was intended to be released as a limited edition of only 250 autographed copies , but the number of pre @-@ orders far surpassed that limit , forcing the band to change the publishing and distribution approach . = = = Two Strangers and A Raven Has My Heart ( 2010 @-@ present ) = = = On October 19 , Black Lab released Two Strangers . Two Strangers introduces orchestrations and pianos by Jonathan Grand on several tracks , cello by Zach Kroff and Banjo by Paul Bohak , on track 11 . In November 2011 , Black Lab released their first acoustic album which features unplugged versions of 13 previously released Black Lab songs , as well as 3 new songs . In April 2014 , Black Lab released A Raven Has My Heart . This is the first Black Lab album to be crowd @-@ funded on Kickstarter . The funding was successful , and resulted in live performances in Los Angeles and New York City in August 2014 . = = Members = = Current members Paul Durham – lead vocals , guitar , Pro Tools ( 1995 – present ) Andy Ellis – guitar , keyboards , programming ( 2000 – present ) Brian Paturalski - bass , guitar , programming ( 2007 – present ) Isaac Carpenter - drums , percussion ( 2007 – present ) Past members Michael Belfer – guitar ( 1996 – 1999 ) Geoff Stanfield – bass guitar ( 1996 – 1999 ) Bryan Head – drums , percussion ( 1997 – 1999 ) Eve Hill – bass guitar ( 2000 – 2003 ) Scotty Coogan – drums , percussion ( 2000 – 2003 ) Michael Urbano – drums , percussion ( 1996 – 1997 ) Josh Freese - drums , percussion ( 1999 ) ( Recorded only 3 songs with the band , one of which was released on Give Us Sugar ) = = Discography = = Studio albums Your Body Above Me ( Geffen , October 21 , 1997 ) See the Sun ( Self @-@ released , June 2005 ) Passion Leaves a Trace ( Self @-@ released , January 16 , 2007 ) Two Strangers ( Self @-@ released , October 2010 ) A Raven Has My Heart ( Self @-@ released , April 2014 ) = = Photos = =

= Kenneth Walker = Brigadier General Kenneth Newton Walker ( 17 July 1898 – 5 January 1943 ) was a United States Army aviator and a United States Army Air Forces general who exerted a significant influence on the development of airpower doctrine . He posthumously received the Medal of Honor in World War II . Walker joined the United States Army in 1917 , after the American entry into World War I. He trained as an aviator and became a flying instructor . In 1920 , after the end of the war , he received a commission in the Regular Army . After service in various capacities , Walker graduated from the Air Corps Tactical School in 1929 , and then served as an instructor there . He supported the creation of a separate air organization that is not subordinate to other military branches . He was a forceful advocate of the efficacy of strategic bombardment , publishing articles on the subject and becoming part of a clique known as the " Bomber Mafia " that argued for the primacy of bombardment over other forms of military aviation . He advanced the notion that fighters could not prevent a bombing attack . He participated in the Air Corps Tactical School 's development of the doctrine of industrial web theory , which called for precision attacks against carefully selected critical industrial targets . Shortly before the United States entered World War II , Walker became one of four officers assigned to the Air War Plans Division , which was tasked with developing a production requirements plan for the war in the air . Together , these officers devised the AWPD @-@ 1 plan , a blueprint for the imminent air war against Germany that called for the creation of an enormous air force to win the war through strategic bombardment . In 1942 , Walker was promoted to brigadier general and transferred to the Southwest Pacific , where he became Commanding General , V Bomber Command , Fifth Air Force . The Southwest Pacific contained few strategic targets , relegating the bombers to the role of interdicting supply lines and supporting the ground forces . This resulted in a doctrinal clash between Walker and Lieutenant General George C. Kenney , an attack aviator , over the proper method of employing bombers . Walker frequently flew combat missions over New Guinea , for which he received the Silver Star . On 5 January 1943 , he was shot down and killed leading a daylight bombing raid over Rabaul , for which he was awarded the Medal of Honor . = = Early life and World War I = = Walker was born in Los Cerrillos , New Mexico , on 17 July 1898 to Wallace Walker and his wife Emma née Overturf . The family subsequently moved to Denver , Colorado . Kenneth 's father left when he was young , and Emma became a single mother . Kenneth began his education at the Maria Mitchell School in Denver , Colorado , from 1905 to 1908 , and then attended the Columbian School there from 1908 to 1912 . He went to Central High School for a time until 1913 when he started at the Omaha High School of Commerce , from which he graduated in 1915 . From January to June 1917 he took a course at the YMCA Night School in Denver . He then studied business administration at La Salle Extension University . Walker enlisted in the United States Army in Denver , on 15 December 1917 . He received flight training at the University of California 's School of Military Aeronautics and at the pilot training base at Mather Field , near Sacramento , California . He was awarded his Aircrew Badge and commissioned as a temporary second lieutenant in the United States Army Air Service on 2 November 1918 . He then attended the Flying Instructor 's School at Brooks Field in San Antonio , Texas , and became an instructor at the flight training center at Barron Field . In March 1919 , he was posted to Fort Sill as an instructor at the Air Service Flying School . During 1918 , the School for Aerial Observers and the Air Service Flying School were built at nearby Post Field , where Walker spent the next four years as a pilot , instructor , supply officer , and post adjutant . = = Between the wars = = Walker became one of many officers holding wartime commissions to receive a commission in the Regular Army , into which he was commissioned as a first lieutenant on 1 July 1920 , but was subsequently reduced in rank to second lieutenant on 15 December 1922 , another common occurrence in the aftermath of World War I when the wartime army was demobilized . Already a command pilot , he also qualified as a combat observer in 1922 . He was promoted to first lieutenant again on 24 July 1924 . Walker courted Marguerite Potter , a sorority member and sociology graduate at the Norman campus of the University of Oklahoma . The two were married in September 1922 . In lieu of a honeymoon , they boarded a troop transport to the Philippines on 12 December 1922 . Walker initially became Commander of the Air Intelligence Section at Camp Nichols . He was then posted to the Philippine Air Depot , where he served at various times as property officer , supply officer , adjutant , and depot inspector , before ultimately being assigned to the 28th Bombardment Squadron in 1924 . In August 1923 he crashed an Airco DH.4 on take off but walked away unhurt . The Walkers had two sons , Kenneth Jr . , born in February 1927 , and Douglas , born in January 1933 . Walker returned to the United States in February 1925 and was posted to Langley Field , where he became a member of the Air Service Board . He served successively as adjutant of the 59th Service Squadron , commander of the 11th Bombardment Squadron , and operations officer of the 2nd Bomb Group there . In June 1929 he graduated from the Air Corps Tactical School , where he studied under Captain Robert Olds , a former aide to air power pioneer Billy Mitchell and a passionate advocate of strategic bombing . He then served at the Air Corps Tactical School as an instructor under Captain Olds in the Bombardment Section until July 1933 , both at Langley and at Maxwell Field , where the school was relocated in 1931 . Walker became part of a small clique of Air Corps Tactical School instructors that became known as the " Bomber Mafia " , that argued that bombardment was the most important form of airpower . Its members also included Haywood Hansell , Donald Wilson , Harold L. George , and Robert M. Webster , Their influence was such that , during their tenure , bombardment achieved primacy over pursuit in the development of Air Corps doctrine . One of Walker 's tasks was to rewrite the bombardment text . He felt it was flawed because it failed to drive home what he saw as the most important fact , that " bombardment aviation is the basic arm of the air force " . Following the views of air power theorists Billy Mitchell , Hugh Trenchard , and Giulio Douhet , Walker enunciated two fundamental principles : that bombardment would take the form of daylight precision bombing ; and that it should be directed against critical industrial targets . In his article " Driving Home the Bombardment Attack " , published in the Coast Artillery Journal in October 1930 , he argued that fighters could not prevent a bombing attack and that " the most efficacious method of stopping a bombardment attack would appear to be an offensive against the bombardment airdrome . " The Bomber Mafia argued that bombers flew too high and too fast to be intercepted by fighters , that even if they were intercepted , the bombers had enough firepower to drive off their attackers , and enough armor and resilience to absorb any damage their attackers might attempt to inflict . The Air Corps Tactical School developed a doctrine that became known as industrial web theory , which called for precision attacks against carefully selected critical industrial targets . Walker drove home his belief in bombardment with a famous dictum from his lectures : " A well @-@ organized , well @-@ planned , and well @-@ flown air force attack will constitute an offensive that can not be stopped . " Walker published another professional article in 1933 , entitled " Bombardment Aviation : Bulwark of National Defense " . " Whenever we speak in terms of ' air force ' we are thinking of bombardment aviation , " he wrote , dismissing other forms of aviation . This was orthodox at the Air Corps Tactical School , which taught that " every dollar which goes into the building of auxiliary aviation and special types , which types are not essential for the efficient functioning of the striking force can only occur at the expense of that air force 's offensive power . " Walker 's major thesis was that " a determined air attack , once launched , is most difficult , if not impossible to stop when directed against land objectives . " At the conclusion of his article , he renewed his call for the creation of an independent air force " as a force with a distinct mission , of importance co @-@ equal to that of the Army and the Navy . " Walker 's persistent advocacy of strategic bombing led to frequent clashes with Captain Claire Chennault , who led instruction in pursuit aviation at the Air Corps Tactical School from 1931 to 1936 . Chennault believed that the right mix of fighters and ground defenses could successfully defeat a bomber assault and ridiculed Walker for suggesting that bombers could not be stopped , leading to " legendary " debates between the two . In November 1934 , Walker , now a student at the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , testified with Robert Olds , Claire Chennault , Donald Wilson , Harold George and Robert Webster on the military aspects of aviation before the Howell Commission on Federal Aviation . All were current or former instructors at the Air Corps Tactical School , and all except Chennault were part of the Bomber Mafia . They argued for an independent air force , in contradiction to Army doctrine . Walker told the commission : " unless we create an adequate and separate Air Force , this next war ' will begin in the air and end in the mud ' -in the mud and debris of the demolished industries that have brought us to our knees . " They were unable to persuade the commission to recommend an independent air force , although it did agree that the Air Corps should be granted greater autonomy within the Army . The commission concluded that " there is ample reason to believe that aircraft have now passed far beyond their former position as useful auxiliaries ... An adequate striking force for use against objectives both near and remote is a necessity for a modern army " . The appearance in 1935 of the Boeing B @-@ 17 bomber gave the bombardment advocates the weapon they had long dreamt of . Not only could it carry an impressive bomb load of 2 @,@ 500 pounds ( 1 @,@ 100 kg ) of bombs for 2 @,@ 260 miles ( 3 @,@ 640 km ) or 5 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 300 kg ) for 1 @,@ 700 miles ( 2 @,@ 700 km ) , but its top speed of 250 miles per hour ( 400 km / h ) was faster than that of the contemporary P @-@ 26 fighter . Its high speed also led the bombardment advocates to downplay the danger posed by antiaircraft fire . Walker 's marriage ended in divorce in 1934 , after he had an affair . He remarried and had a son named John , but his second marriage also ended in divorce . Walker graduated from the Command and General Staff School in June 1935 and was posted to Hamilton Field , first as Intelligence and Operations Officer of the 7th Bombardment Group , and then as commander of the 9th Bombardment Squadron . While landing a Martin B @-@ 12 bomber , he overshot the runway . The station commander , Brigadier General Henry Arnold reported that Walker , " supposed to be one of our best pilots , apparently cuts out completely , uses up 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) and finally hits a concrete block and spoils a perfectly good airplane when he normally would have given her the gun and gone around again . " After fifteen years in the rank , jokes circulated about his being the most senior first lieutenant in the Air Corps , but he was finally promoted to captain on 1 August 1935 . He was temporary major from 20 October 1935 to 16 June 1936 , and again on 4 October 1938 , before the rank finally became substantive on 1 July 1940 . He had another accident in 1937 , when he crashed a B @-@ 17 on take off from Denver Municipal Airport but this time his flying skills were credited with saving the entire crew of nine from injury . In 1938 Walker began a three @-@ year tour in Hawaii , where he was operations officer of the 5th Bombardment Group at Luke Field , executive officer at Hickam Field , and then commander of the 18th Pursuit Group at Wheeler Field . Commanding a pursuit group involved a considerable change of pace for a man whose career thus far had been spent in bombers . His adjutant , First Lieutenant Bruce K. Holloway felt that Walker never demonstrated the " emotional exhilaration toward flying a high performance machine that is so typical of fighter pilots . " Nor did he warm to the Curtiss P @-@ 36 Hawk fighter , especially after a near @-@ fatal accident . = = World War II = = = = = Air War Plans Division = = = Walker returned to the United States in January 1941 and joined the Air War Plans Division in the Office of the Chief of the United States Army Air Corps in Washington , D.C. , as an assistant chief of staff . Brigadier General Carl Andrew Spaatz was head of the division . Lieutenant Colonels Olds and Muir S. Fairchild , old colleagues of Walker 's from the Air Corps Tactical School , were two of Spaatz ' assistants . Walker was promoted to temporary lieutenant colonel on 15 July 1941 . In the June 1941 reorganization of the Air Corps , Spaatz became chief of staff to the Commanding General , United States Army Air Forces , Major General Henry H. Arnold , who appointed Colonel Harold L. George , a former student of Walker at the Air Corps Tactical School from 1931 to 1932 , to replace Spaatz as head of the Air War Plans Division . Walker joined George 's planning team , along with Majors Haywood S. Hansell and Laurence S. Kuter . All were former instructors at the Air Corps Tactical School and members of the " Bomber Mafia " . The Air War Plans Division was tasked with developing a production requirements plan for President Franklin D. Roosevelt , who wanted it by 10 September 1941 . In just nine days in August 1941 , George , Olds , Fairchild , Walker , Kuter and Hansell drafted the AWPD @-@ 1 plan for a war against Germany . Reflecting their belief in bombardment as the principal form of aviation , the plan was based upon the number of bombers that they estimated would be required to knock out Germany 's key industries – electric power , transportation and petroleum . In order to neutralize anticipated opposition from the German Air Force , they planned for bombing aircraft factories and the sources of the light metals needed for aircraft production . These targets were collated along with the estimated tonnage of bombs required to destroy them . The plan called for a bomber force of 98 medium , heavy and very heavy bomber groups , totaling 6 @,@ 834 aircraft . Sixteen fighter groups would defend the bombers ' bases . Should this bomber force prove insufficient to defeat Germany without a major land offensive , provision was made for a tactical air force of 13 light bomber groups , two photo reconnaissance groups , five fighter groups , 108 observation squadrons and 19 transport groups . In retrospect , this part of the plan represented a considerable underestimate . The plan required 2 @,@ 164 @,@ 916 personnel , including 103 @,@ 482 pilots . At the moment though , the United States had , as General Arnold put it , " plans but not planes " . Due to poor security , verbatim extracts of AWPD @-@ 1 were published in the Chicago Tribune and other newspapers on 4 December . The war in Europe had cast grave doubt on the Air Corps ' doctrine that fighters could not shoot down bombers and the bomber will always get through . In the Battle of Britain the British Royal Air Force had demonstrated that it could shoot down bombers , while its own bomber force had suffered such heavy losses over Germany that it had abandoned daylight bombing in favor of night raids . Nonetheless , the planners held firm in their belief that , since American bombers were better armed and armored than their British or German counterparts , the bombers would get through , even in daylight , and that enemy fighter strength could be destroyed on the ground by bombing airbases and factories . " Each of us , " Kuter wrote years later , " scoffed at the idea that fighters would be needed to protect bombers , to enable bombers to reach their objective . In preparing AWPD @-@ l , we stayed in that rut . " Walker was promoted to colonel on 1 February 1942 . In April 1942 Walker joined the Operations Division ( OPD ) of the War Department General Staff as executive officer of Brigadier General St. Clair Streett 's Theater Group . He co @-@ authored a memorandum with Brigadier General Dwight Eisenhower in which they advanced the position that the determinations of the Joint Chiefs of Staff " must be taken as authoritative unless and until modified by the same or higher authority . " After his death , Walker was awarded the Legion of Merit in recognition of his contributions as a staff officer at OPD . = = = Papuan Campaign = = = Walker was promoted to brigadier general on 17 June 1942 and was transferred to the Southwest Pacific Area , flying to Australia in the company of Brigadier General Ennis Whitehead , another newly promoted brigadier general . The commander of Allied Air Forces there , Lieutenant General George Brett , aware that he would soon be replaced , sent the two newcomers on an inspection trip . Walker learned a great deal . He joined three combat missions over New Guinea , experiencing for himself the difficulties that his aircrews faced . He also experienced an air raid in Port Moresby . For this , Walker was awarded the Silver Star . His citation read : For gallantry in action over Port Moresby , New Guinea , during July 1942 . This Officer took part in four different missions over enemy territory , each time being subjected to heavy enemy fire from anti @-@ aircraft and fighter planes . The large amount of firsthand information gained by General Walker has proved of inestimable value in the performance of his duties . His complete disregard for personal safety , above and beyond the call of duty , has proved highly stimulating to the morale of all Air Force personnel with whom he has come in contact . Such courage and gallantry are in keeping with the finest American traditions and are worthy of the highest commendation . Brett 's replacement , Major General George Kenney , arrived in the theater in August , and Walker was appointed Commanding General , V Bomber Command , Fifth Air Force on 3 September , with his headquarters in Townsville . At this time , Port Moresby was subject to frequent Japanese air raids , so the bombers were generally based in the Townsville area and staged through Port Moresby to minimize their chance of loss or damage on the ground . In mid @-@ September 1942 , at the height of the Kokoda Track campaign , Kenney sent Walker to Port Moresby for a few weeks to direct the advanced echelon , to give Whitehead a rest and Walker more experience . Walker attempted to lift morale by improving the men 's living conditions . He made a point of small gestures of fellowship , such as standing in line with the men at meal times . But what endeared him most to his men was his willingness to share the dangers as well as their hardships , by flying a mission a week on average . In October , General Douglas MacArthur gave Kenney a dressing down for flying over the Owen Stanley Range . In turn , Kenney ordered Walker , Wilson and Whitehead not to fly any more missions . For a variety of reasons , all four of them eventually disobeyed their orders . The Southwest Pacific was not a promising theater of war for the strategic bomber . The bombers of the day did not have the range to reach Japan from Australia , and there were no typical strategic targets in the theater other than a few oil refineries . Thus , " The air mission was to interdict Japan 's sea supply lanes and enable the ground forces to conduct an island @-@ hopping strategy . " This set up a doctrinal clash between Kenney , an attack aviator , and Walker , the bomber advocate . The long @-@ standing Air Corps tactic for attacking shipping called for large formations of high @-@ altitude bombers . With sufficient mass , so the theory went , bombers could bracket any ship with walls of bombs , and do so from above the effective range of the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft fire . However the theoretical mass required was two orders of magnitude greater than what was available in the Southwest Pacific . A dozen or so bombers was the most that could be put together , owing to the small number of aircraft in the theater and the difficulties of keeping them serviceable . The results were therefore generally ineffective , and operations incurred heavy casualties . Walker objected to Kenney 's suggestion that the bombers conduct attacks from low level with bombs armed with instantaneous fuses . Kenney ordered Walker to try the instantaneous fuses for a couple of months , so that data could be gained about their effectiveness ; a few weeks later Kenney discovered that Walker had discontinued the use of the instantaneous fuses . In November , Kenney arranged for a demonstration attack on the SS Pruth , a ship that had sunk off Port Moresby in 1924 and was often used for target practice . After the attack Walker and Kenney took a boat out to the wreck to inspect the damage . As expected , none of the four bombs dropped had hit the stationary wreck ; but the instantaneous fuses had detonated the bombs when they struck the water , and bomb fragments had torn holes in the sides of the ship . Walker reluctantly conceded the point . " Ken was okay , " Kenney later recalled . " He was stubborn , over @-@ sensitive , and a prima donna , but he worked like a dog all the time . His gang liked him a lot but he tended to get a staff of ' yes @-@ men ' . He did not like to delegate authority . I was afraid that Ken was not durable enough to last very long under the high tension of this show . " In December , Kenney learned that Whitehead had been on board a B @-@ 25 in which a Japanese antiaircraft gun had blown a hole in the wing " big enough for him to jump through without touching the sides " , and that Walker had flown on a B @-@ 17 that had clipped a tree and lost part of a wing . Kenney then repeated his earlier order , explaining the reasons behind it : I told him that from then on I wanted him to run his command from his headquarters . In the airplane he was just extra baggage . He was probably not as good in any job on the plane as the man already assigned to it . In fact , in case of trouble , he was in the way . On the other hand , he was the best bombardment commander I had and I wanted to keep him so that the planning and direction would be good and his outfit take minimum losses in the performance of their missions . One of the big reasons for keeping him home was that I would hate to have him taken prisoner by the Japs . They would have known that a general was bound to have access to a lot of information and there was no limit to the lengths they would go to extract that knowledge from him . We had plenty of evidence that the Nips had tortured their prisoners until they either died or talked . After the prisoners talked they were beheaded , anyhow , but most of them had broken under the strain . I told Walker that frankly I didn 't believe he could take it without telling everything he knew , so I was not going to let him go on any more combat missions . On 9 January 1943 , MacArthur issued a communiqué praising the forces under his command for the victory that had been achieved at Buna and announcing the award of the Distinguished Service Cross to twelve officers , including Walker . = = = Battle of Wau = = = On 3 January 1943 , Kenney received intelligence from Allied Ultra codebreakers that the Japanese were about to attempt a reinforcement run from their main base at Rabaul to Lae , on the mainland of New Guinea . He ordered Walker to carry out a full @-@ scale dawn attack on the harbor 's shipping before it could depart . Walker demurred . His bombers would have difficulty making their rendezvous if they had to leave Port Moresby in the dark . He recommended a noon attack instead . Kenney acknowledged Walker 's concerns but was insistent ; he preferred bombers out of formation to bombers shot down by the enemy fighters that were certain to intercept a daylight attack . In spite of this , Walker ordered that the attack be made at noon on 5 January . Bad weather over northern Australia prevented participation by the bombers there , which left Walker with only those based at Port Moresby : six B @-@ 17s and six B @-@ 24s . This force was far too small for the tactics that he wanted to use . He flew in the lead plane , B @-@ 17 # 41 @-@ 24458 , nicknamed " San Antonio Rose I " , from the 64th Bombardment Squadron , 43rd Bombardment Group , which was piloted by Lieutenant Colonel Jack W. Bleasdale , the group 's executive officer . The 64th Bombardment Squadron 's commanding officer , Major Allen Lindberg was also on board . The briefing officer for the mission , Major David Hassemer , did not think that it was a good idea for so many senior officers to fly in the same plane , but his objection was overruled . They encountered heavy flak and continuous fighter attacks . Owing to the delay , the ten @-@ ship convoy that they were sent to attack had departed two hours earlier , but there were still plenty of targets . Forty 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) and twenty four 1 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 450 kg ) bombs were dropped from 8 @,@ 500 feet ( 2 @,@ 600 m ) . The mission claimed hits on nine ships , totaling 50 @,@ 000 tons . After the war , JANAC confirmed the sinking of only one Japanese merchant ship , the 5 @,@ 833 @-@ ton Keifuku Maru . Two other ships were damaged , as was the destroyer Tachikaze . Two B @-@ 17s were shot down , including Walker 's . Fred Wesche flew the 5 January mission over Rabaul . He later recalled : On January 5th of 1943 , I was on one of what most of us thought was a suicide mission ... The Japanese were getting ready to mount a large expeditionary force to relieve their garrisons on New Guinea , and Brigadier General Walker , who was the commanding general of the V Bomber Command there , was flying in the lead ship , and I was flying on his wing . When it was announced that it was going to be done in broad daylight at noontime , as a matter @-@ of @-@ fact , at low altitude , something like 5000 feet over the most heavily defended target in the Pacific almost ... most of us went away shaking our heads . Many of us believed we wouldn 't come back from it . Anyway , we went over the target and all of us got attacked . I was shot up . Nobody was injured , fortunately , but the airplane was kind of banged up a little bit . We had to break formation over the target to bomb individually and then we were supposed to form up immediately after crossing the target , but no sooner had we dropped our bombs that my tail gunner says , " Hey , there 's somebody in trouble behind us " So we made a turn and looked back and here was an airplane , one of our airplanes , going down , smoking and on fire , not necessarily fire , but smoke anyway , and headed down obviously for a cloud bank with a whole cloud of fighters on top of him . There must have been 15 or 20 fighters . Of course they gang up on a cripple , you know , polish that one off with no trouble , but he disappeared into a cloud bank and we never saw him again . It turns out it was the general ... He actually had a pilot , but he was the overall air commander for the operation . He was conducting it from the astrodome , just behind the pilot 's seat , where he could look out with a microphone and directing what should be done and so on ... The results of the raid , I 'm not sure what it was , whether it was successful or not , but it certainly was a most hair @-@ raising experience you want to go through . I mean , suddenly , you look ahead of you and see about fifteen or twenty airplanes all shooting at you at the same time , you see ... he won the Congressional Medal for that . The rest of us got the Air Medal , and , of course , he did all the planning and whatnot , too , even though many of us thought it was foolhardy , to tell you the truth . Kenney was furious when he discovered that Walker had not only changed the takeoff time without notice , but had also defied his orders by accompanying the mission . He told MacArthur that when Walker showed up he was going to give him a reprimand and send him back to Australia on leave for two weeks . " Alright George , " MacArthur replied , " but if he doesn 't come back , I 'm going to send his name in to Washington recommending him for a Congressional Medal of Honor . " All available aircraft were sent to search for Walker , preventing attacks on the Japanese convoy as it headed for Lae . They managed to locate and rescue the crew of the other B @-@ 17 that had been shot down in the raid , but not Walker 's . MacArthur 's recommendation therefore went ahead . The Adjutant General , Major General James A. Ulio , queried whether it was " considered above and beyond the call of duty for the commanding officer of a bomber command to accompany it on bombing missions against enemy held territory . " Major General George Stratemeyer , the chief of the air staff , replied that it was . In March 1943 , Roosevelt presented Kenneth Walker Jr. with the medal in a ceremony at the White House . It was one of 38 Medals of Honor awarded to flying personnel of the US Army Air Forces in World War II . The citation read : For conspicuous leadership above and beyond the call of duty involving personal valor and intrepidity at an extreme hazard to life . As commander of the V Bomber Command during the period from 5 September 1942 , to 5 January 1943 , Brigadier General Walker repeatedly accompanied his units on bombing missions deep into enemy @-@ held territory . From the lessons personally gained under combat conditions , he developed a highly efficient technique for bombing when opposed by enemy fighter airplanes and by antiaircraft fire . On 5 January 1943 , in the face of extremely heavy antiaircraft fire and determined opposition by enemy fighters , he led an effective daylight bombing attack against the shipping in the harbor at Rabaul , New Britain , which resulted in direct hits on 9 enemy vessels . During this action his airplane was disabled and forced down by the attack of an overwhelming number of enemy fighters . Neither Walker 's body nor the wreck of his aircraft was found , and as of June 2013 it remains undiscovered . Walker was therefore listed on the Tablets of the Missing at Manila American Cemetery and Memorial , Philippines , where servicemen missing in action or buried at sea in the Southwest Pacific are commemorated . On 7 December 2001 , a headstone marker was erected in Section MC @-@ 36M of Arlington National Cemetery to give family members a place to gather in the United States . = = Awards and decorations = = General Walker 's military awards include : Source : Fogerty , USAF Historical Study 91 , Biographical Data on Air Force General Officers 1917 – 1952 ( 1953 ) Air Force Historical Research Agency = = Legacy = = In January 1948 , Roswell Army Air Field in Roswell , New Mexico , was renamed Walker Air Force Base in honor of Walker . The base was inactivated on 2 July 1965 and closed on 30 June 1967 . Walker Hall , and its Walker Air Power Room , at Maxwell Air Force Base , home of the Air Force Doctrine Development and Education Center , are also named after him . The Walker Papers is an Air Force Fellows program that annually honors the top three research papers produced by Air Force Fellows with the Walker Series award . The Walker Series recognizes the contributions each Fellow has made to research supporting air and space power and its use in the implementation of US strategic policy .

= Balbergbakken = Balbergbakken or Balbergbakkene was a ski jumping hill complex located at Fåberg in Lillehammer , Norway . The centerpiece consisted of a large hill with a construction point of 120 meters ( 390 ft ) ( K @-@ 120 ) , in addition to three smaller K @-@ 40 , K @-@ 25 and K @-@ 15 hills . The venue was opened in 1972 , having cost slightly more than one million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) after significant cost overruns . Balbergbakken hosted three Norwegian Championships , in 1973 , 1978 and 1983 , and a FIS Ski Jumping World Cup in 1984 . The hill record of 130 @.@ 5 meters was set by Tom Levorstad in 1981 . It was planned that the venue would be used for the 1994 Winter Olympics , but because of lack of infrastructure , the new Lysgårdsbakken was built instead . Balbergbakken was closed in 1992 . = = History = = The old hill at Lysgård in Lillehammer was closed in 1964 , and Lillehammer SK spent some time deciding where to build a new venue . Storhove , Vingrom and Kanthaugen were all considered as locations , although Balberg was eventually chosen . The municipal council passed the plans in May 1969 . The original cost estimate was for NOK 347 @,@ 065 . The hill opened in 1972 , having cost more than NOK 1 million to be built . In addition to the large K @-@ 120 hill , it consisted of three smaller training hills , at K @-@ 40 , K @-@ 25 and K @-@ 15 . The hills were owned by Lillehammer SK . The construction was controversial in Lillehammer , both amongst the general public and politicians . The chief of administration had doubted whether he should recommend construction . The original plans had called for both a large and normal hill , but lack of funding meant that the normal hill was never built , meaning that the number of competitions in the hill would be severely limited . The cost overruns were largely created by errors in the plans , which estimated too little earthwork to fill the hillside , and not enough blasting . To cut costs , a floodlighting system was taken out of the plans , so the venue could not be used during the evenings , limiting the amount of time the venue could be used . It was also a concern that very few locals were able to jump on such a large hill . Many politicians stated in 1972 that the money should have been spent instead on an indoor hall for handball . The first trial jump was made by Helge Nordstrand , while Jan Stenbekk is credited with the first hill record , at 110 @.@ 5 meters . In Lillehammer 's bids for the 1992 and 1994 Winter Olympics , Balbergbakken was the proposed site of ski jumping . Lillehammer was awarded the 1994 Olympics in 1988 , but a year later the plans to use Balbergbanen were abandoned . The venue was regarded as unsuitable ; for instance NOK 30 million would have to be spent on building a new access road . In addition , a new water and sewer system , new stands , participant facilities and a normal hill would have to be built . The available space at Balbergbakken was limited , and the organizers saw it as advantageous to have the ski stadium close to the ski jumping hills . = = Events = = The hill was used for 31 tournaments , of which six had to be cancelled because of wind or snow conditions . The tournaments included the Norwegian Championships in 1973 , 1978 and 1983 ; the Norwegian champions in Balbergbakken were Nils @-@ Per Skarseth ( 1973 ) and Per Bergerud ( 1978 and 1983 ) . A FIS Ski Jumping World Cup race was held on 9 March 1984 . It saw Pavel Ploc win ahead of Matti Nykänen and Ernst Vettori . The event drew 5 @,@ 000 spectators . The World Cup race incurred a large loss , with the organizers only covering half of the NOK 260 @,@ 000 it cost to host . The hill record was set by Tom Levorstad in 1981 , who reached 130 @.@ 5 meters . The final race was scheduled to be the 1992 Junior Norwegian Championships , but they were canceled because of lack of snow .

= Rufus Wilmot Griswold = Rufus Wilmot Griswold ( February 13 , 1815 – August 27 , 1857 ) was an American anthologist , editor , poet , and critic . Born in Vermont , Griswold left home when he was 15 years old . He worked as a journalist , editor , and critic in Philadelphia , New York City , and elsewhere . He built up a strong literary reputation , in part due to his 1842 collection The Poets and Poetry of America . This anthology , the most comprehensive of its time , included what he deemed the best examples of American poetry . He produced revised versions and similar anthologies for the remainder of his life , although many of the poets he promoted have since faded into obscurity . Many writers hoped to have their work included in one of these editions , although they commented harshly on Griswold 's abrasive character . Griswold was married three times : his first wife died young , his second marriage ended in a public and controversial divorce , and his third wife left him after the previous divorce was almost repealed . Edgar Allan Poe , whose poetry had been included in Griswold 's anthology , published a critical response that questioned which poets were included . This began a rivalry which grew when Griswold succeeded Poe as editor of Graham 's Magazine at a higher salary than Poe 's . Later , the two competed for the attention of poet Frances Sargent Osgood . They never reconciled their differences and , after Poe 's mysterious death in 1849 , Griswold wrote an unsympathetic obituary . Claiming to be Poe 's chosen literary executor , he began a campaign to harm Poe 's reputation that lasted until his own death eight years later . Griswold considered himself an expert in American poetry and was an early proponent of its inclusion on the school curriculum . He also supported the introduction of copyright legislation , speaking to Congress on behalf of the publishing industry , although he was not above infringing the copyright of other people 's work . A fellow editor remarked , " even while haranguing the loudest , [ he ] is purloining the fastest " . = = Life and career = = = = = Early life = = = Griswold was born to Rufus and Deborah ( Wass ) Griswold on February 13 , 1815 , in Vermont , near Rutland , and raised a strict Calvinist in the hamlet of Benson . He was the twelfth of fourteen children and his father was a farmer and shoemaker . In 1822 , the family sold the Benson farm and moved to nearby Hubbardton . As a child , Griswold was complex , unpredictable , and reckless . He left home when he was 15 , calling himself a " solitary soul , wandering through the world , a homeless , joyless outcast " . Griswold moved to Albany , New York , to live with a 22 @-@ year @-@ old flute @-@ playing journalist named George C. Foster , a writer best known for his work New @-@ York by Gas @-@ Light . Griswold lived with Foster until he was 17 , and the two may have had a romantic relationship . When Griswold moved away , Foster wrote to him begging him to return , signing his letter " come to me if you love me " . Griswold attempted to enroll at the Rensselaer School in 1830 , but was not allowed to take any classes after he was caught attempting to play a prank on a professor . = = = Early career and first marriage = = = After a brief spell as a printer 's apprentice , Griswold moved to Syracuse where , with some friends , he started a newspaper called The Porcupine . This publication purposefully targeted locals for what was later remembered as merely malicious critique . He moved to New York City in 1836 and , in March of that year , was introduced to 19 @-@ year @-@ old Caroline Searles , whom he later married . He was employed as an editor for various publications in the New York area . In October , he considered running for office as a Whig but did not receive the party 's support . In 1837 he was licensed as a Baptist clergyman , although he never had a permanent congregation . Griswold married Caroline on August 12 , 1837 , and the couple had two daughters . Following the birth of their second daughter , Griswold left his family behind in New York and moved to Philadelphia . His departure on November 27 , 1840 , was by all accounts abrupt , leaving his job with Horace Greeley 's New York Tribune , and his library of several thousand volumes . He joined the staff of Philadelphia 's Daily Standard and began to build his reputation as a literary critic , becoming known for his savagery and vindictiveness . On November 6 , 1842 , Griswold visited his wife in New York after she had given birth to their third child , a son . Three days later , after returning to Philadelphia , he was informed that both she and the infant had died . Deeply shocked , Griswold traveled by train alongside her coffin , refusing to leave her side for 30 hours . When fellow passengers urged him to try to sleep , he answered by kissing her dead lips and embracing her , his two children crying next to him . He refused to leave the cemetery after her funeral , even after the other mourners had left , until forced to do so by a relative . He wrote a long poem in blank verse dedicated to Caroline , " Five Days " , which was printed in the New York Tribune on November 16 , 1842 . Griswold had difficulty believing she had died and often dreamed of their reunion . Forty days after her entombment , he entered her vault , cut off a lock of her hair , kissed her on the forehead and lips , and wept for several hours , staying by her side until a friend found him 30 hours later . = = = Anthologist and critic = = = In 1842 , Griswold released his 476 @-@ page anthology of American poetry , The Poets and Poetry of America , which he dedicated to Washington Allston . Griswold 's collection featured poems from over 80 authors , including 17 by Lydia Sigourney , three by Edgar Allan Poe , and 45 by Charles Fenno Hoffman . Hoffman , a close friend , was allotted twice as much space as any other author . Griswold went on to oversee many other anthologies , including Biographical Annual , which collected memoirs of " eminent persons recently deceased " , Gems from American Female Poets , Prose Writers of America , and Female Poets of America . Between 1842 and 1845 while Griswold was collecting material for Prose Writers of America he discovered the identity of Horace Binney Wallace , who had been writing in various literary magazines at the time ( including Burton 's ) under the pen name William Landor . Wallace declined to be included in the anthology but the two became friends , exchanging many letters over the years . Wallace eventually ghostwrote Griswold 's Napoleon and the Marshals of the Empire ( 1847 ) . Prose Writers of America , published in 1847 , was prepared specifically to compete with a similar anthology by Cornelius Mathews and Evert Augustus Duyckinck . The prose collection earned Griswold a rivalry with the two men , which Griswold expected . As it was being published , Griswold wrote to Boston publisher James Thomas Fields that " Young America will be rabid " . In preparing his anthologies , Griswold would write to the living authors whose work he was including to ask their suggestions on which poems to include , as well as to gather information for a biographical sketch . In 1843 Griswold founded The Opal , an annual gift book that collected essays , stories , and poetry . Nathaniel Parker Willis edited its first edition , which was released in the fall of 1844 . For a time , Griswold was editor of the Saturday Evening Post and also published a collection of poetry , The Cypress Wreath ( 1844 ) . His poems , with titles such as " The Happy Hour of Death " , " On the Death of a Young Girl " , and " The Slumber of Death " , emphasized mortality and mourning . Another collection of his poetry , Christian Ballads and Other Poems , was published in 1844 , and his nonfiction book , The Republican Court or , American Society in the Days of Washington , was published in 1854 . The book is meant to cover events during the presidency of George Washington , though it mixes historical fact with apocryphal legend until one is indistinguishable from the other . During this period , Griswold occasionally offered his services at the pulpit delivering sermons and he may have received an honorary doctorate from Shurtleff College , a Baptist institution in Illinois , leading to his nickname the " Reverend Dr. Griswold " . = = = Second marriage = = = On August 20 , 1845 , Griswold married Charlotte Myers , a Jewish woman ; she was 42 and he was 33 . Griswold had been pressured into the marriage by the woman 's aunts , despite his concern about their difference in religious beliefs . This difference was strong enough that one of Griswold 's friends referred to his wife only as " the little Jewess " . On their wedding night , he discovered that she was , according to Griswold biographer Joy Bayless , " through some physical misfortune , incapable of being a wife " or , as Poe biographer Kenneth Silverman explains , incapable of having sex . Griswold considered the marriage void and no more valid " than there would have been had the ceremony taken place between parties of the same sex , or where the sex of one was doubtful or ambiguous " . Still , the couple moved together to Charleston , South Carolina , Charlotte 's home town , and lived under the same roof , albeit sleeping in separate rooms . Neither of the two was happy with the situation , and at the end of April 1846 she had a lawyer write up a contract " to separate , altogether and forever , ... which would in effect be a divorce " . The contract forbade Griswold from remarrying and paid him $ 1 @,@ 000 for expenses in exchange for his daughter Caroline staying with the Myers family . After this separation , Griswold immediately moved back to Philadelphia . = = = Move to New York City = = = A few years later , Griswold moved back to New York City , leaving his younger daughter in the care of the Myers family and his elder daughter , Emily , with relatives on her mother 's side . He had by now earned the nickname " Grand Turk " , and in the summer of 1847 made plans to edit an anthology of poetry by American women . He believed that women were incapable of the same kind of " intellectual " poetry as men and believed they needed to be divided : " The conditions of aesthetic ability in the two sexes are probably distinct , or even opposite " , he wrote in his introduction . The selections he chose for The Female Poets of America were not necessarily the greatest examples of poetry but instead were chosen because they emphasized traditional morality and values . That same year , Griswold began working on what he considered " the maximum opus of his life " , an extensive biographical dictionary . Although he worked on it for several years and even advertised for it , it was never produced . He also helped Elizabeth F. Ellet publish her book Women of the American Revolution , and was angered when she did not acknowledge his assistance in the book . In July 1848 , he visited poet Sarah Helen Whitman in Providence , Rhode Island , although he had been suffering with vertigo and exhaustion , rarely leaving his apartment at New York University , and was unable to write without taking opium . In autumn of that year , he had an epileptic fit , the first of many he would suffer for the remainder of his life . One fit caused him to fall out of a ferry in Brooklyn and nearly drown . He wrote to publisher James T. Fields : " I am in a terrible condition , physically and mentally . I do not know what the end will be ... I am exhausted — betwixt life and death — and heaven and hell . " In 1849 , he was further troubled when Charles Fenno Hoffman , with whom he had become good friends , was committed to an insane asylum . Griswold continued editing and contributing literary criticism for various publications , both full @-@ time and freelance , including 22 months from July 1 , 1850 , to April 1 , 1852 , with The International Magazine . There , he worked with contributors including Elizabeth Oakes Smith , Mary E. Hewitt and John R. Thompson . In the November 10 , 1855 , issue of The Criterion , Griswold anonymously reviewed the first edition of Walt Whitman 's Leaves of Grass , declaring : " It is impossible to image how any man 's fancy could have conceived such a mass of stupid filth " . Griswold charged that Whitman was guilty of " the vilest imaginings and shamefullest license " , a " degrading , beastly sensuality . " Referring to Whitman 's poetry , Griswold said he left " this gathering of muck to the laws which ... must have the power to suppress such gross obscenity . " Whitman later included Griswold 's review in a new edition of Leaves of Grass . He ended his review with a phrase in Latin referring to " that horrible sin , among Christians not to be named " , the stock phrase long associated with Christian condemnations of sodomy . Griswold was the first person in the 19th century to publicly point to and stress the theme of erotic desire and acts between men in Whitman 's poetry . More attention to that aspect of Whitman 's poetry would only surface late in the 19th century . = = = Divorce and third marriage = = = After a brief flirtation with poet Alice Cary , Griswold pursued a relationship with Harriet McCrillis . He originally did not want to divorce Charlotte Myers because he " dreaded the publicity " and because of her love for his daughter . He applied for divorce at the Court of Common Pleas in Philadelphia on March 25 , 1852 . Elizabeth Ellet and Ann S. Stephens wrote to Myers urging her not to grant the divorce , and to McCrillis not to marry him . To convince Myers to agree to the divorce , Griswold allowed her to keep his daughter Caroline if she signed a statement that she had deserted him . She agreed and the divorce was made official December 18 ; he likely never saw Myers or his daughter again . McCrillis and Griswold were married shortly thereafter on December 26 , 1852 , and settled at 196 West Twenty @-@ third Street in New York . Their son , William , was born on October 9 , 1853 . Ellet and Stephens continued writing to Griswold 's ex @-@ wife , urging her to have the divorce repealed . Myers was finally convinced and filed in Philadelphia on September 23 , 1853 . The court , however , had lost records of the divorce and had to delay the appeal . Adding to Griswold 's troubles , that fall , a gas leak in his home caused an explosion and a fire . He was severely burned , losing his eyelashes , eyebrows , and seven of his finger nails . That same year , his 15 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Emily , nearly died in Connecticut . A train she was riding on had fallen off a drawbridge into a river . When Griswold arrived he saw 49 corpses in a makeshift morgue . Emily had been pronounced dead when pinned underwater but a doctor was able to revive her . On February 24 , 1856 , the divorce appeal went to court , with Ellet and Stephens providing lengthy testimony against Griswold 's character . Neither Griswold nor Myers attended and the appeal was dismissed . Embarrassed by the ordeal , McCrillis left Griswold in New York and moved in with family in Bangor , Maine . = = = Death = = = Griswold died of tuberculosis in New York City on August 27 , 1857 . Sarah Anna Lewis , a friend and writer , suggested that the interference of Elizabeth Ellet had exacerbated Griswold 's condition and that she " goaded Griswold to his death " . At the time of his death , the sole decorations found in his room were portraits of himself , Frances Osgood , and Poe . A friend , Charles Godfrey Leland , found in Griswold 's desk several documents attacking a number of authors which Griswold was preparing for publication . Leland decided to burn them . Griswold 's funeral was held on August 30 . His pallbearers included Leland , Charles Frederick Briggs , George Henry Moore , and Richard Henry Stoddard . His remains were left for eight years in the receiving tomb of Green @-@ Wood Cemetery before being buried on July 12 , 1865 , without a headstone . Although his library of several thousand volumes was auctioned off , raising over $ 3 @,@ 000 to be put towards a monument , none was ever commissioned . = = Reputation and influence = = Griswold 's anthology The Poets and Poetry of America was the most comprehensive of its kind to date . As critic Lewis Gaylord Clark said , it was expected Griswold 's book would " become incorporated into the permanent undying literature of our age and nation " . The anthology helped Griswold build up a considerable reputation throughout the 1840s and 1850s and its first edition went through three printings in only six months . His choice of authors , however , was occasionally questioned . A British editor reviewed the collection and concluded , " with two or three exceptions , there is not a poet of mark in the whole Union " and referred to the anthology as " the most conspicuous act of martyrdom yet committed in the service of the transatlantic muses " . Even so , the book was popular and was even continued in several editions after Griswold 's death by Richard Henry Stoddard . In more modern times , The Poets and Poetry of America has been nicknamed a " graveyard of poets " because its anthologized writers have since passed into obscurity to become , as literary historian Fred Lewis Pattee wrote , " dead ... beyond all resurrection " . Pattee also called the book a " collection of poetic trash " and " voluminous worthlessness " . Within the contemporary American literary scene Griswold became known as erratic , dogmatic , pretentious , and vindictive . As historian Perry Miller wrote , " Griswold was about as devious as they came in this era of deviousness ; did not ample documentation prove that he actually existed , we might suppose him ... one of the less plausible inventions of Charles Dickens " . Later anthologies such as Prose Writers of America and Female Poets of America helped him become known as a literary dictator , whose approval writers sought even while they feared his growing power . Even as they tried to impress him , however , several authors voiced their opinion on Griswold 's character . Ann S. Stephens called him two @-@ faced and " constitutionally incapable of speaking the truth " . Even his friends knew him as a consummate liar and had a saying : " Is that a Griswold or a fact ? " Another friend once called him " one of the most irritable and vindictive men I ever met " . Author Cornelius Mathews wrote in 1847 that Griswold fished for writers to exploit , warning " the poor little innocent fishes " to avoid his " Griswold Hook " . A review of one of Griswold 's anthologies , published anonymously in the Philadelphia Saturday Museum on January 28 , 1843 , but believed to have been written by Poe , asked : " What will be [ Griswold 's ] fate ? Forgotten , save only by those whom he has injured and insulted , he will sink into oblivion , without leaving a landmark to tell that he once existed ; or if he is spoken of hereafter , he will be quoted as the unfaithful servant who abused his trust . " James Russell Lowell , who had privately called Griswold " an ass and , what 's more , a knave " , composed a verse on Griswold 's temperament in his satirical A Fable for Critics : Griswold was one of the earliest proponents of teaching schoolchildren American poetry in addition to English poetry . One of his anthologies , Readings in American Poetry for the Use of Schools , was created specifically for that purpose . His knowledge in American poetry was emphasized by his claim that he had read every American poem published before 1850 — an estimated 500 volumes . " He has more literary patriotism , if the phrase be allowable ... than any person we ever knew " , wrote a contributor to Graham 's . " Since the Pilgrims landed , no man or woman has written anything on any subject which has escaped his untiring research . " Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. noted that Griswold researched literature like " a kind of naturalist whose subjects are authors , whose memory is a perfect fauna of all flying and creeping things that feed on ink . " Evert Augustus Duyckinck commented that " the thought [ of a national literature ] seems to have entered and taken possession of [ Griswold 's ] mind with the force of monomania " . Poet Philip Pendleton Cooke questioned Griswold 's sincerity , saying he " should have loved [ it ] ... better than to say it " . By the 1850s , Griswold 's literary nationalism had subsided somewhat , and he began following the more popular contemporary trend of reading literature from England , France , and Germany . He disassociated himself from the " absurd notion ... that we are to create an entirely new literature " . Publicly , Griswold supported the establishment of international copyright , although he himself often duplicated entire works during his time as an editor , particularly with The Brother Jonathan . A contemporary editor said of him , " He takes advantage of a state of things which he declares to be ' immoral , unjust and wicked , ' and even while haranguing the loudest , is purloining the fastest . " Even so , he was chosen to represent the publishing industry before Congress in the spring of 1844 to discuss the need for copyright law . = = Relationship with Poe = = Griswold first met Edgar Allan Poe in Philadelphia in May 1841 while working for the Daily Standard . At the outset , their relationship was cordial , at least superficially . In a letter dated March 29 , 1841 , Poe sent Griswold several poems for The Poets and Poetry of America anthology , writing that he would be proud to see " one or two of them in the book " . Griswold included three of these poems : " Coliseum " , " The Haunted Palace " , and " The Sleeper " . In November of that year , Poe , who had previously praised Griswold in his " Autography " series as " a gentleman of fine taste and sound judgment " , wrote a critical review of the anthology , on Griswold 's behalf . Griswold paid Poe for the review and used his influence to have it published in a Boston periodical . The review was generally favorable , although Poe questioned the inclusion of certain authors and the omission of others . Poe also said that Griswold " unduly favored " New England writers . Griswold had expected more praise and Poe privately told others he was not particularly impressed by the book , even calling it " a most outrageous humbug " in a letter to a friend . In another letter , this time to fellow writer Frederick W. Thomas , Poe suggested that Griswold 's promise to help get the review published was actually a bribe for a favorable review , knowing Poe needed the money . Making the relationship even more strained , only months later , Griswold was hired by George Rex Graham to take up Poe 's former position as editor of Graham 's Magazine . Griswold , however , was paid more and given more editorial control of the magazine than Poe . Shortly after , Poe began presenting a series of lectures called " The Poets and Poetry of America " , the first of which was given in Philadelphia on November 25 , 1843 . Poe openly attacked Griswold in front of his large audience and continued to do so in similar lectures . Graham said that during these lectures , Poe " gave Mr. Griswold some raps over the knuckles of force sufficient to be remembered " . In a letter dated January 16 , 1845 , Poe tried to reconcile with Griswold , promising him that his lecture now omitted all that Griswold found objectionable . Another source of animosity between the two men was their competition for the attention of the poet Frances Sargent Osgood in the mid to late 1840s . While both she and Poe were still married to their respective spouses , the two carried on a public flirtation that resulted in much gossip among the literati . Griswold , who was smitten with Osgood , escorted her to literary salons and became her staunchest defender . " She is in all things the most admirable woman I ever knew " , he wrote to publisher James T. Fields in 1848 . Osgood responded by dedicating a collection of her poetry to Griswold , " as a souvenir of admiration for his genius , of regard for his generous character , and of gratitude for his valuable literary counsels " . = = = " Ludwig " obituary = = = After Poe 's death , Griswold prepared an obituary signed with the pseudonym " Ludwig " . First printed in the October 9 , 1849 , issue of the New York Tribune , it was soon republished many times . Here he asserted that " few will be grieved " by Poe 's death as he had few friends . He claimed that Poe often wandered the streets , either in " madness or melancholy " , mumbling and cursing to himself , was easily irritated , was envious of others , and that he " regarded society as composed of villains " . Poe 's drive to succeed , Griswold wrote , was because he sought " the right to despise a world which galled his self @-@ conceit " . Much of this characterization of Poe was copied almost verbatim from that of the fictitious Francis Vivian in The Caxtons by Edward Bulwer @-@ Lytton . Griswold biographer Joy Bayless wrote that Griswold used a pseudonym not to conceal his relationship to the obituary but because it was his custom never to sign his newspaper and his magazine contributions . Regardless , Griswold 's true identity was soon revealed . In a letter to Sarah Helen Whitman dated December 17 , 1849 , he admitted his role in writing Poe 's death notice . " I was not his friend , nor was he mine " , he wrote . = = = Memoir = = = Griswold claimed that " among the last requests of Mr. Poe " was that he become his literary executor " for the benefit of his family " . Griswold claimed that Poe 's aunt and mother @-@ in @-@ law Maria Clemm said Poe had made such a statement on June 9 , 1849 , and that she herself released any claim to Poe 's works . And indeed a document exists in which Clemm transfers power of attorney to Griswold , dated October 20 , 1849 , although there are no signed witnesses . Clemm , however , had no right to make such a decision ; Poe 's younger sister Rosalie was his closest next of kin . Although Griswold had acted as a literary agent for other American writers , it is unclear if Poe really appointed Griswold his executor ( perhaps as part of his " Imp of the Perverse " ) , if it were a trick on Griswold 's part , or a mistake on Maria Clemm 's . It is also possible that Osgood persuaded Poe to name Griswold as his executor . In any case , Griswold , along with James Russell Lowell and Nathaniel Parker Willis , edited a posthumous collection of Poe 's works published in three volumes starting in January 1850 . He did not share the profits of his edition with Poe 's surviving relatives . This edition included a biographical sketch titled " Memoir of the Author " which has become notorious for its inaccuracy . The " Memoir " depicts Poe as a madman , addicted to drugs and chronically drunk . Many elements were fabricated by Griswold using forged letters as evidence and it was denounced by those who knew Poe , including Sarah Helen Whitman , Charles Frederick Briggs , and George Rex Graham . In March , Graham published a notice in his magazine accusing Griswold of betraying trust and taking revenge on the dead . " Mr. Griswold " , he wrote , " has allowed old prejudices and old enmities to steal ... into the coloring of his picture . " Thomas Holley Chivers wrote a book called New Life of Edgar Allan Poe which directly responded to Griswold 's accusations . He said that Griswold " is not only incompetent to Edit any of [ Poe 's ] works , but totally unconscious of the duties which he and every man who sets himself up as a Literary Executor , owe the dead " . Today Griswold 's name is usually associated with Poe 's as a character assassin , although not all believe that Griswold deliberately intended to cause harm . Some of the information that Griswold asserted or implied was that Poe was expelled from the University of Virginia and that Poe had tried to seduce his guardian John Allan 's second wife . Even so , Griswold 's attempts only drew attention to Poe 's work ; readers were thrilled at the idea of reading the works of an " evil " man . Griswold 's characterization of Poe and the false information he originated appeared consistently in Poe biographies for the next two decades .

= Israel the Grammarian = Israel the Grammarian ( c . 895 – c . 965 ) was one of the leading European scholars of the mid @-@ tenth century . In the 930s , he was at the court of King Æthelstan of England ( r . 924 – 39 ) . After Æthelstan 's death , Israel successfully sought the patronage of Archbishop Rotbert of Trier and became tutor to Bruno , later the Archbishop of Cologne . In the late 940s Israel is recorded as a bishop , and at the end of his life he was a monk at the Benedictine monastery of Saint @-@ Maximin in Trier . Israel was an accomplished poet , a disciple of the ninth @-@ century Irish philosopher John Scottus Eriugena and one of the few Western scholars of his time to understand Greek . He wrote theological and grammatical tracts , and commentaries on the works of other philosophers and theologians . = = Background = = The reign of Charlemagne saw a revival in learning in Europe from the late eighth century , known as the Carolingian Renaissance . The Carolingian Empire collapsed in the late ninth century , while the tenth is seen as a period of decline , described as the " Age of Iron " by a Frankish Council in 909 . This negative picture of the period is increasingly challenged by historians ; in Michael Wood 's view " the first half of the tenth century saw many remarkable and formative developments that would shape European culture and history . " The Bible remained the primary fount of knowledge , but study of classical writers , who had previously been demonised as pagans , became increasingly acceptable . When Alfred the Great became King of Wessex in 871 , learning in southern England was at a low level , and there were no Latin scholars . He embarked on a programme of revival , bringing in scholars from Continental Europe , Wales and Mercia , and himself translated works he considered important from Latin to the vernacular . His grandson , Æthelstan , carried on the work , inviting foreign scholars such as Israel to England , and appointing a number of continental clerics as bishops . In the 930s the level of learning was still not high enough to supply enough literate English priests to fill the bishoprics . The generation educated in Æthelstan 's reign , such as the future Bishop of Winchester , Æthelwold , who was educated at court , and Dunstan , who became Archbishop of Canterbury , went on to raise English learning to a high level . = = Early life = = Very little is known about Israel 's early life . Michael Lapidge dates his birth to around 900 , while Wood places it slightly earlier , around 890 . He was a disciple of Ambrose and spent time at Rome , but it is unknown who Ambrose was or whether he was Israel 's tutor in Rome . In Wood 's view Israel was a monk at Saint @-@ Maximin in Trier in the 930s . Tenth @-@ century sources provide conflicting evidence on Israel 's origin . Ruotger in his life of Bruno referred to Israel as Irish , whereas Flodoard in his Chronicle described him as " Britto " , which may refer to Brittany , Cornwall or Wales , all three of which were Celtic speaking refuges for Britons who had fled the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion of England . According to Lapidge : " The consensus of modern scholarship is in favour of an Irish origin , but the matter has not been properly investigated . " He argues that the bishop of Bangor in County Down , Dub Innse , described Israel as a " Roman scholar " , and that he therefore does not appear to have recognised him as a fellow Irishman . Lapidge states that Flodoard was contemporary with Israel and may have known him , whereas Ruotger wrote after Israel 's death and probably did not have first hand knowledge . Giving children Old Testament Hebrew names such as Israel was common in Celtic areas in the tenth century . Lapidge concludes that Brittany is more likely than Wales or Cornwall , as manuscripts associated with him have Breton glosses , and Æthelstan 's court was a haven for Breton scholars fleeing Viking occupation of their homeland . In 2007 , Wood revived the Irish theory , questioning whether Flodoard 's " Israel Britto " means " Breton " , and stating that Ruotger knew Israel . Æthelstan 's biographer , Sarah Foot , mentions Wood 's view , but she rejects it , stating that Israel was not Irish and may have been a Breton . Thomas Charles @-@ Edwards , a historian of medieval Wales , thinks he may have been Welsh . = = Æthelstan 's court = = Israel 's presence in England is known from a gospel book written in Ireland in about 1140 , which contains a copy of a tenth @-@ century drawing and explanation of a board game called Alea Evangelii ( Gospel Game ) , based on canon tables ( concordances for parallel texts of the four gospels ) . According to a translation by Lapidge of a note on the manuscript : Here begins the Gospel Dice which Dub Innse , bishop of Bangor , brought from the English king , that is from the household of Æthelstan , King of England , drawn by a certain Franco [ or Frank ] and by a Roman scholar , that is Israel . The twelfth @-@ century copyist appears to have changed Dub Innse 's first person note to the third person . In a later passage , he interprets " Roman scholar , that is Israel " as meaning a Roman Jew ( Iudeus Romanus ) . This has been taken by some historians , including David Wasserstein , as showing that there was a Jewish scholar at Æthelstan 's court , but Lapidge argues that this interpretation was a misunderstanding by the copyist , and his view has been generally accepted by historians . Israel is thought to be Israel the Grammarian , described as a Roman scholar because of his time in the city , and the Gospel Game manuscript shows that he spent a period at Æthelstan 's court . A number of manuscripts associated with Israel , including two of the four known copies of his poem De arte metrica , were written in England . In Foot 's view : Israel provides a tantalising link between the spheres of masculine camaraderie of a conventional royal court and the more rarefied , scholarly atmosphere that Æthelstan may have liked both his contemporaries and posterity to think he was keen to promote . Israel was a practitioner of the " hermeneutic style " of Latin , characterised by long , convoluted sentences and a predilection for rare words and neologisms . He probably influenced the scribe known to historians as " Æthelstan A " , an early exponent of the style in charters he drafted between 928 and 935 . Hermeneutic Latin was to become the dominant style of the English Benedictine reform movement of the later tenth century , and Israel may have been an early mentor of one of its leaders , Æthelwold , at Æthelstan 's court in the 930s . The Latin texts which Israel brought to Æthelstan 's court were influenced by Irish writers , and the historian Jane Stevenson sees them as contributing a Hiberno @-@ Latin element to the hermeneutic style in England . = = Later career = = Israel 's poem De arte metrica was dedicated to Rotbert , Archbishop of Trier . It was almost certainly composed in England , and the dedication was probably a successful plea for Rotbert 's patronage when Æthelstan died in 939 . From about 940 Israel was the tutor of Bruno , the future Archbishop of Cologne and brother of the Holy Roman Emperor , Otto the Great . Froumund of Tegernsee described Israel as Rotbert 's " shining light " . In 947 Israel attended a synod at Verdun presided over by Rotbert , where he was referred to as a bishop , but without identification of his see . He was famous as a schoolmaster and probably played an important role in Emperor Otto 's establishment of a court school at Aachen . Tenth @-@ century sources describe Israel as a bishop ; around 950 a man with this name is identified as Bishop of Aix @-@ en @-@ Provence , but it is not certain that he was the same person . Between 948 and 950 he may have held a bishopric in Aachen , where he debated Christian ideas about the Trinity with a Jewish intellectual called Salomon , probably the Byzantine ambassador of that name . He retired to become a monk at the Benedictine monastery of Saint @-@ Maximin in Trier , and died on 26 April in an unknown year . Lapidge sets his death in about 970 , whereas Wood dates it before 967 – 68 . = = Scholarship = = Charters produced from 928 by King Æthelstan 's scribe , " Æthelstan A " , include unusual words almost certainly copied from the Hiberno @-@ Irish poems Adelphus adelphe and Rubisca . The poems display a sophisticated knowledge of Greek and are described by Lapidge as " immensely difficult " . It is likely that they were brought by Israel from the Continent , while Adelphus adelphe was probably , and Rubisca possibly , his work . Mechthild Gretsch describes Israel as " one of the most learned men in Europe " , and Lapidge says that he was " an accomplished grammarian and poet , and one of the few scholars of his time to have first @-@ hand knowledge of Greek " . Greek scholarship was so rare in western Europe during this period that in the 870s Anastasius the Librarian was unable to find anyone competent to edit his translation of a text from Greek , and had to do it himself . Israel wrote on theology and collected works of medicine . In the 940s he became interested in the Irish philosopher John Scottus Eriugena , and commented on his works in a manuscript which survives in Saint Petersburg . In a manuscript glossing Porphyry 's Isagoge , he recommended John 's Periphyseon . His redaction of a commentary on Donatus 's Ars Minor was a major teaching text in the Middle Ages , and still in print in the twentieth century .

= 2009 Ford 400 = The 2009 Ford 400 was the thirty @-@ six and final stock car race of the 2009 NASCAR Sprint Cup Series as well as the tenth and final race of the season @-@ ending Chase for the Sprint Cup . It was held on November 22 , 2009 at Homestead @-@ Miami Speedway , in Homestead , Florida before a crowd of 70 @,@ 000 people . The 267 @-@ lap race was won by Denny Hamlin of the Joe Gibbs Racing team after starting from thirty @-@ eighth position . Jeff Burton finished second and his teammate Kevin Harvick came in third . Jimmie Johnson won the pole position and maintained his lead on the first lap of the race . Many Chase for the Sprint Cup participants , including Johnson , Kurt Busch and Mark Martin , were in the top ten for most of the race , although some encountered problems in the closing laps . Kyle Busch was leading the race with forty @-@ four laps remaining , giving the lead to Hamlin who maintained it to win the race . There were seven cautions in the race , as well as eighteen lead changes among ten different drivers . The race was Hamlin 's fourth win in the 2009 season , and the eighth of his career . Johnson became the first driver to win four consecutive Drivers ' Championships and was 141 points ahead of Mark Martin . Johnson 's team owner Jeff Gordon won the Owners ' Championship . Chevrolet won the Manufacturers ' Championship with 262 points , fifty @-@ five points ahead of Toyota and ninety @-@ eight ahead of Ford . The race attracted 5 @.@ 60 million television viewers . = = Report = = = = = Background = = = Homestead Miami Speedway is one of ten intermediate tracks to hold NASCAR races , the others being Atlanta Motor Speedway , Kansas Speedway , Chicagoland Speedway , Darlington Raceway , Texas Motor Speedway , New Hampshire Motor Speedway , Kentucky Speedway , Las Vegas Motor Speedway , and Charlotte Motor Speedway . The race was held on the standard track at Homestead Miami Speedway ; a four @-@ turn oval track that is 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long . The track 's turns are banked from 18 to 20 degrees , and both the front stretch ( the location of the finish line ) and the back stretch are banked at three degrees . Before the final race of the season , Jimmie Johnson led the Drivers ' Championship with 6 @,@ 492 points ; Mark Martin was second with 6 @,@ 384 points , 92 points behind Johnson . A maximum of 195 points were available for the final race . Behind Johnson and Martin in the Drivers ' Championship , Jeff Gordon was third with 6 @,@ 323 , and Kurt Busch was fourth with 6 @,@ 281 points . Chevrolet had already secured the Manufacturer 's Championship , and entered the race on 256 points , 58 points ahead of Toyota on 198 points , with a maximum of nine points available at the Ford 400 . Carl Edwards was the race 's defending champion . = = = Practice and qualifying = = = Three practice sessions were held before the Sunday race — one on Friday , and two on Saturday . The first session lasted 90 minutes , and the second 45 minutes . The final session lasted 60 minutes . In the first practice session , Kurt Busch was fastest , placing ahead of Juan Pablo Montoya in second and Clint Bowyer in third . Ryan Newman took fourth position and Joey Logano placed fifth . Tony Stewart , Edwards , Dale Earnhardt , Jr . , Kevin Harvick and David Reutimann rounded out the top ten fastest drivers in the session . Although forty @-@ eight drivers were entered in the qualifier ; according to NASCAR 's qualifying procedure , only forty @-@ three could race . Each driver ran two laps , with the starting order determined by the competitor 's fastest times . Johnson clinched his fifth pole position of the season , with a time of 31 @.@ 049 . He was joined on the grid 's front row by Scott Speed . Marcos Ambrose qualified third , Martin took fourth and Stewart started fifth . Harvick , Newman , Greg Biffle , Bill Elliott and Bowyer completed the top ten fastest qualifiers . Kurt Busch , one of the drivers in the Chase for the Sprint Cup , qualified twelfth , while Jeff Gordon set the twentieth fastest time . The five drivers who failed to qualify were Joe Nemechek , Dave Blaney , Mike Skinner , Max Papis and David Stremme . After the qualifier Johnson said , " I had a talk with myself to do what I could today and don 't freak out if it 's not as good as what Mark [ Martin ] ran . I kept my emotions in check and drove the car with the right touch and feel , and that comes from being relaxed , so it went well . " On Saturday morning , Martin was fastest in the second practice session , ahead of Denny Hamlin in second , and Johnson in third . Newman was fourth quickest , and Kyle Busch took fifth . Jeff Burton managed sixth . Biffle , Kasey Kahne , Joey Logano and Martin Truex , Jr. followed in the top ten . Of the other drivers in the Chase , Jeff Gordon finished with the seventeenth fastest time , while Stewart set the twenty @-@ fourth fastest time . Burton paced the final practice session , with Harvick and Martin followed in second and third respectively . Truex was fourth fastest , ahead of Newman and Logano . Johnson was scored seventh , Casey Mears eighth , Brad Keselowski ninth and Hamlin tenth . The other Chase drivers , Jeff Gordon and Kurt Busch were scored fifteenth and eleventh respectively . = = = Race = = = The race , the last in the 2009 season , began at 3 : 15 pm EDT and was televised live in the United States on ABC . Around the start of the race , weather conditions were partly cloudy with the air temperature 28 ° C ( 82 ° F ) . Fidel Gomez , assistant pastor of Calvary Chapel Fort Lauderdale in Fort Lauderdale , Florida , began pre @-@ race ceremonies with an invocation . Actress Anika Noni Rose performed the national anthem , and Actor Mike Rowe commanded the drivers to start their engines . During the pace laps , Robby Gordon had to move to the back of the grid because of him changing his engine . Johnson retained his pole position lead into the first corner , with Speed behind him . Two laps later , Harvick had moved into fourth position ; Jamie McMurray , who began the race in eleventh , had moved up four positions to seventh place . By lap six , Ambrose began to reduce the lead of Johnson , and Martin got loose on the same lap but regained control of his car . On lap nine , Stewart passed Martin for fourth . One lap later , Ambrose passed Johnson to become the new race leader . On lap 13 , Johnson retook the lead off Ambrose . After having made three positions early , Harvick moved up into second position by passing Ambrose . On lap 16 , Ambrose 's car suffered a flat tire and came into the pit road . Earnhardt who began the race in thirty @-@ second , had moved up nineteen positions to thirteenth by lap 24 . Two laps later , Ambrose began to slow and made a pit stop three laps later to change his car 's battery . On lap 33 , Stewart passed Johnson to become the new race leader while Ambrose 's car went into his garage . Three laps later , Earnhard. had passed McMurray for tenth position . On lap 38 , Clint Bowyer passed Martin for fourth position , as Ambrose rejoined the race four laps later . On lap 47 , Kurt Busch passed Martin to claim sixth position . Three laps later , green flag pit stops began , as Matt Kenseth and Martin were the first to pit . Johnson made his pit stop one lap later . On lap 53 , Kurt Busch became the new race leader after Stewart came into his pit stall . One lap later , Kurt Busch came onto pit road and Bowyer became the new race leader . On lap 57 , Harvick passed Bowyer to clinch the lead . Two laps later , Bowyer moved into second position by passing Stewart . Four laps later , Stewart reclaimed the lead after passing Harvick . On lap 64 , Johnson passed Martin to move into ninth . By lap 73 , Stewart had a 2 @.@ 4 second lead over Harvick . One lap later , Newman collided with the wall , falling to eleventh place , and escaped with minor damage . On the 79th lap , Truex moved into seventh after passing Jeff Gordon . Two laps later , Ambrose spun at turn four but avoided contact with the barriers , causing the first caution of the race , and the pace car came out on track . During the caution , most of the leaders made pit stops . Stewart maintained his lead on the restart , but Harvick reclaimed the lead immediately afterward , and Stewart was passed by Bowyer for second . One lap later , Stewart dropped to sixth as he was passed by Johnson , Montoya and Kurt Busch . On lap 89 , Montoya passed Kurt Busch to move into fourth position . Two laps later , Montoya moved into third position after passing Johnson . On lap 92 , Montoya passed Bowyer for second , as Burton moved into third . Three laps later , Kurt Busch moved up into sixth after passing Johnson . On lap 101 , John Andretti collided with the wall , causing the second caution of the race . As with the first caution , most of the leaders made their pit stops . Harvick maintained his lead on the restart . Three laps later , Ambrose collided with the wall which prompted the third caution . Most of the drivers stayed on track during the caution , allowing Harvick to remain the leader on the restart . A collision involving Montoya and Stewart occurred on lap 116 and the third caution was given as a result . Harvick led on the restart , although he was passed by Kurt Busch within eleven laps . By lap 143 , Kurt Busch had a 1 @.@ 5 second lead over Harvick . Two laps later , Hamlin passed Harvick to claim second . On lap 155 , Montoya and Stewart were involved in a collision and prompted the fifth caution . During the caution , all of the leaders made pit stops and Montoya was black @-@ flagged for two laps . On lap 158 , Hamlin reclaimed the lead , followed by Kurt Busch and Burton . On lap 165 , Johnson moved into seventh . Afterward , Johnson passed Jeff Gordon for sixth position . Seven laps later , Kurt Busch reclaimed the lead off Hamlin . During the 184th lap , Burton passed Hamlin for second . Ten laps later , a sixth caution came out as Robby Gordon spun sideways . All leading cars made pit stops , with Hamlin maintaining his lead until Burton passed him on the restart . By lap 205 , Burton had a lead of over two seconds . On lap 216 , debris was spotted on the track and the seventh and final caution was prompted . The lead drivers made their pit stops . One lap later , Michael Waltrip became the new leader , followed by Andretti . Kurt Busch regained the lead one lap later , when Waltrip and Andretti made their pit stops . Kyle Busch immediately passed Kurt Busch on the restart for the lead . One lap later , Hamlin reclaimed the lead off Kyle Busch . On lap 229 , Jeff Gordon passed Johnson for the seventh position . Seven laps later , Martin moved into twelfth . After 247 laps , Hamlin 's lead over Kyle Busch was 2 @.@ 3 seconds . During the 249th lap , Edwards passed Bowyer for eighth . Six laps later , Kurt Busch passed Kyle Busch for third , and Kyle Busch lost fourth place to Johnson on lap 256 . Hamlin maintained the lead to win his fourth race of the 2009 season . Burton finished second , ahead of Harvick and Kurt Busch . Johnson , who finished fifth , became the first driver to clinch four consecutive Drivers ' Championships . Gordon , Edwards , Kyle Busch , Truex and A.J. Allmendinger rounded out the top ten finishers . = = = Post @-@ race = = = Hamlin appeared in victory lane to start celebrating his fourth win of the season in front of 70 @,@ 000 who attended the race . Hamlin also earned $ 347 @,@ 975 in race winnings . After winning the race , Hamlin described his disappointment by saying , " The car took off and it was game @-@ over , Everyone 's got a little fight in them , especially when they get done wrong . After our performance today , it 's easy to put yesterday behind me . Afterward , Johnson began celebrating his fourth consecutive Sprint Cup Series championship . During the celebration , Johnson was delighted with his performance , saying , " The truth of it is , to do something that 's never been done in this sport -- to love the sport like I do and respect it like I do -- and the greats : Petty , Earnhardt , Gordon ... to do something they 've never done is so awesome . To win four championships in eight years , what this team has done ... I don 't know where to start . It 's unbelievable . " Burton , who finished second , commended Johnson 's achievements saying , " It ’ s hard to say he ’ s the best when you ’ re out there racing against him , but you have to put him on the list . ” Martin , who finished second in points , said , " Our car didn 't work well [ Sunday ] , It didn 't work well , and we really struggled with it . And as the sun went down , we went to the back . We came in and pitted and tried to do some work on it to try to improve it , and it didn 't really improve it a whole lot , so then we were stuck with sorry track position on top of not having a great race car . We just fought and fought and fought , and actually the last adjustment perked it up , and we drove from 21st to 10th , and then right at the end a couple of the guys got the high line going and got me back . " In the Drivers ' Championship , Johnson finished first with 6 @,@ 652 points , one @-@ hundred and forty one ahead of Martin in second . Jeff Gordon followed in third with 6 @,@ 473 . Kurt Busch and Hamlin rounded out the top five positions with 6 @,@ 446 and 6 @,@ 335 points respectively . In the Manufacturers ' Championship , Chevrolet won with 262 points , fifty @-@ five ahead of Toyota and ninety @-@ eight ahead of Ford . Dodge finished fourth with 159 points . 5 @.@ 60 million people watched the race on television . The race took three hours , six minutes and eighteen seconds to complete , and the margin of victory was 2 @.@ 632 seconds . = = Results = = = = = Qualifying = = = = = = Race results = = = = = Standings after the race = =

= 1867 Manhattan , Kansas earthquake = The 1867 Manhattan earthquake struck Riley County , Kansas on April 24 at 14 : 22 local time . It measured 5 @.@ 1 on a seismic scale that is based on an isoseismal map or the event 's felt area . The earthquake 's epicenter was by the town of Manhattan and is the strongest earthquake to originate in the state . The earthquake had an intensity of VII ( Very strong ) on the Mercalli intensity scale , and was felt over an area of roughly 193 @,@ 051 square miles ( 500 @,@ 000 km2 ) . It caused largely minor damage , reports of which were confined to Kansas , Iowa , and Missouri , according to the United States Geological Survey . Manhattan is near the Nemaha Ridge , a long structure that is bounded by several faults . The nearby Humboldt Fault Zone in particular poses a threat to the city ; though Kansas is not known for earthquake activity , an earthquake could occur at any time . = = Background and geography = = The earthquake 's epicenter lay near Manhattan , Kansas , a town just off the connection of the Kansas River and the Big Blue River . Nearby is the anticline Nemaha Ridge , which has been associated with at least a few earthquakes of Kansas . A 300 ‑ million @-@ year @-@ old Precambrian granite range bounded by faults , it hosts the Humboldt Fault Zone , which , in addition to serving as the range 's easternmost boundary , has produced a large portion of the state 's earthquakes . Each year , it is responsible for at least several small tremors less than magnitude 2 @.@ 7 . It cuts through Permian rock , and according to the Geological Society of America , may actually be a complex fault . Previously , it was believed to be a simple , Precambrian structure . The Nemaha Range lies roughly 50 miles ( 80 km ) east of the Midcontinent rift , which forms a layer of basaltic rock around 1 @.@ 1 billion years old . This rift extends northward to Lake Superior and the surrounding area and southward to Kansas , then stops abruptly . Also present in the state is the Central Kansas Uplift , the faults of which produced several small earthquakes during the late 1980s . According to United States Geological Survey geophysicist Don Steeples , earthquakes at the Humboldt Zone have decreased and activity at the Uplift has increased . Felt over an area of 193 @,@ 051 square miles ( 500 @,@ 000 km2 ) , the earthquake followed the Midcontinent seismic trend : unlike earthquakes on the Western Coast of the US , events in the central and east @-@ central sectors of the country are spread out over extensive areas ; for example , the 1968 Illinois earthquake also followed this trend . The 1867 Manhattan earthquake remains the only notable earthquake to originate in the state , though 25 in total have taken place since . According to a report in the Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America , the frequency between earthquakes is between 40 and 45 years . = = Damage and casualties = = Originating at 20 : 22 UTC , or around 2 : 30 local time , the earthquake was assigned a maximum intensity of VII . Minor damage occurred throughout the geographical region . Injuries were reported as well . The earthquake fractured walls , downed chimneys , and interfered with the stability of structures , even loosening stones . In Louisville and Leavenworth , chimneys fell ; in Paola , the earthquake destroyed one wall of a large post office building . Waves were observed on the Kansas River , 2 feet ( 1 m ) in height . Isolated reports from Iowa and Missouri , describing fallen and cracked plaster in Dubuque and Chillicothe , compliment additional reports of fallen plaster and roof shingles , damaged wells , and cracked walls . A series of articles were published by the Chicago Tribune describing the extent of the damage throughout the state of Kansas . " At Kansas City " details that the earthquake jolted homes with a sudden burst , giving off a resonating roar like thunder . The earthquake also extended into Indiana and Illinois , according to the United States Geological Survey . = = = Reaction = = = The Chicago Tribune observed in its article " At Leavenworth , Kansas " that the earthquake was completely unexpected , describing the event as " [ ... ] sudden in its coming and departure . " It confirms that earthquakes were not common in earlier time and states that " all were more or less startled , and , indeed , frightened . " The earthquake renewed geological interest of the state , and scientists began to analyze faults and earthquakes . One study found that between December 1977 and June 1989 , more than 200 earthquakes were recognized by a seismograph network . All were between 4 and .8 on the Richter magnitude scale . = = Future threat = = Despite the fact that Kansas is not seismically active , a strong earthquake could pose significant threats to the state . If an earthquake were to occur , it would likely be along the Nemaha Ridge , which is still active . The Humboldt Fault Zone , a fault just off the Ridge , lies just 12 miles ( 19 km ) eastward of the Tuttle Creek Reservoir near Manhattan . If an earthquake were to occur here , it would likely destroy the dam , releasing 300 @,@ 000 feet ( 91 @,@ 440 m ) of water per second and flooding the nearby area , also threatening roughly 13 @,@ 000 people and 5 @,@ 900 homes . A moderate earthquake " between 5 @.@ 7 to 6 @.@ 6 would cause sand underneath the dam to liquefy into quicksand , causing the dam to spread out and the top to drop up to three feet . " A large earthquake would spawn gaps , forcing water to leak and eventually cause the dam to collapse . Any earthquake that could pose a threat occurs on a cycle of roughly 1 @,@ 800 years , according to the United States Army Corps of Engineers , who studied the area first in 1980 . To counter this threat , the group has galvanized an effort to strengthen the dam . Replacing the sand , which could shift during an earthquake , with more than 350 walls , the group has equipped the dam with sensors . Alarms are connected to these sensors , which would alert nearby citizens to the earthquake .

= Delaware Route 20 = Delaware Route 20 ( DE 20 ) is an east – west highway in Sussex County , Delaware . Its western terminus is the Maryland state line in Reliance , where it continues as Maryland Route 392 ( MD 392 ) . Its eastern terminus is DE 54 west of Fenwick Island . The route runs through rural areas of Sussex County and passes through the towns of Seaford , Millsboro , and Dagsboro . DE 20 intersects U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) in Seaford , US 9 in Hardscrabble , US 113 and DE 24 / DE 30 in Millsboro , DE 26 in Dagsboro , and DE 17 in Roxana . DE 20 was originally created by 1936 to run from the Maryland border east to US 113 in Millsboro . By 1970 , it was realigned to bypass Seaford . The route was extended east to DE 1 in Fenwick Island by 1994 ; however , the eastern terminus was cut back to DE 54 in 2005 to avoid the concurrency with that route . = = Route description = = DE 20 begins at the Maryland border in Reliance , where the road continues west into that state as MD 392 . From the state line , the route heads east on two @-@ lane undivided Stein Highway through farmland with some woods and homes . The road crosses the Maryland and Delaware Railroad 's Seaford Line and continues into Seaford , where it heads into industrial areas . DE 20 widens into a five @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane and passes through residential and commercial areas of the city . The road becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway and comes to a bridge over Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary railroad line , turning back into a five @-@ lane road . The route becomes a divided highway again as it intersects with Front Street / Bridgeville Highway . Past this intersection , DE 20 becomes Norman A. Eskridge Highway and bends northeast , reaching an intersection with US 13 . At this point , DE 20 turns south for a concurrency with US 13 on the four @-@ lane divided Sussex Highway . The road crosses Williams Pond before passing through commercial areas and coming to a bridge over the Nanticoke River . Near Blades , DE 20 splits from US 13 by turning east on two @-@ lane undivided Concord Road . The road passes through wooded residential neighborhoods , reaching the community of Concord . The route continues southeast through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes , curving to the east . DE 20 reaches the community of Hardscrabble and intersects US 9 , at which point it is briefly a divided highway . Past this intersection , the name changes to Hardscrabble Road and the road becomes undivided again . The road heads southeast before it makes a turn to the east . The route comes to an intersection with US 113 northwest of Millsboro . DE 20 turns southeast to form a concurrency with US 113 on four @-@ lane divided Dupont Boulevard , entering Millsboro . The road passes through commercial areas , intersecting DE 24 / DE 30 . The two routes run past more businesses and a few homes before leaving Millsboro . DE 20 splits from US 113 by turning southeast on two @-@ lane undivided Dagsboro Road . The road continues through wooded areas with some homes before heading into farmland and crossing Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line . The route enters Dagsboro and becomes Main Street , passing homes and a few businesses . DE 20 comes to an intersection with DE 26 , at which point that route becomes concurrent with DE 20 . The two routes curve east and leave town on Vines Creek Road . Upon leaving Dagsboro , the road passes to the south of Prince George 's Chapel and DE 20 splits from DE 26 by heading southeast on Armory Road . The road heads to the north of Indian River High School and runs through agricultural areas with some woods and homes , reaching Omar . In Omar , the route crosses Omar Road and becomes Pyle Center Road . DE 20 continues to an intersection with DE 17 in Roxana . Following , the route becomes Zion Church Road and runs through more rural land , crossing DE 54 Alt . Farther southeast , residential development near the road increases and it widens to four lanes . DE 20 comes to its eastern terminus at an intersection with DE 54 west of Fenwick Island . The portion of the route between Bridgeville Highway and US 13 in Seaford is designated as part of the Nanticoke Heritage Byway , a Delaware Byway . DE 20 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 34 @,@ 190 vehicles at the north end of Millsboro to a low of 3 @,@ 030 vehicles at the Shiloh Church Road intersection between Hardscrabble and Millsboro . The portions of DE 20 concurrent with US 13 and US 113 are part of the National Highway System . = = History = = What would become DE 20 was originally an unimproved county road in 1920 , with the portion between Seaford and Concord under contract as a state highway . By 1924 , the road was completed as a state highway from the Maryland border east to Concord . The portion of road between Concord and Hardscrabble was proposed as a state highway a year later . By 1931 , the state highway was extended from Concord to Hardscrabble . A portion of what would become DE 20 west of Millsboro was built as a state road the following year . DE 20 was designated to run from the Maryland border in Reliance east to US 113 in Millsboro by 1936 , following its current alignment to Seaford before heading south along what was then US 13 ( Front Street ) to Blades , where it turned east onto High Street and picked up its current alignment to Millsboro . In 1939 , plans were made to eliminate the grade crossing with the Pennsylvania Railroad ( now Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary ) in Seaford by replacing it with a bridge over the tracks . Construction on this bridge began a year later . On September 2 , 1941 , the DE 20 bridge over the railroad tracks in Seaford opened to traffic . By 1970 , the Norman Eskridge Highway was built between Front Street and US 13 in Seaford , and DE 20 was moved to its current alignment bypassing Seaford and Blades to the north and northeast along the Norman Eskridge Highway and US 13 . In 1985 , the highway was widened into a four @-@ lane road through Seaford , with a parallel bridge built over Conrail 's Delmarva Secondary ( now Norfolk Southern ) . The route was extended to DE 1 in Fenwick Island by 1994 , following its current alignment between Millsboro and DE 54 before overlapping with DE 54 ( Lighthouse Road ) for the easternmost portion of the route . In 2005 , DE 20 was removed from the DE 54 concurrency after it was determined unnecessary for there to be two route numbers for that stretch of road . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Sussex County .

= Lothian Buses = Lothian Buses is the largest municipal bus company in the United Kingdom . It is the dominant provider of bus services in Lothian . Transport for Edinburgh , a company wholly owned by the City of Edinburgh Council , owns 91 % of the company , with the remainder being owned by the East Lothian , West Lothian and Midlothian councils . Lothian Buses operates the majority of bus services in Edinburgh , extending to outlying suburbs , towns and villages . The company also operates several limited stop express routes , an Edinburgh Airport service , park & ride services and a night bus network as well as several tourist services . The company operates four travel shops ( three in the city centre and one in Dalkeith ) , and operates buses from three depot locations ; Longstone , Annandale Street and Marine at Seafield . The company also maintains a driver training school and an engineering depot at Seafield . = = History = = The company can trace its history back to the Edinburgh Street Tramways Company of 1871 , also involving at various times the tramway companies of Leith , Musselburgh and Edinburgh North . The City Council ( Edinburgh Corporation Tramways Department ) took over operation of the tramways in 1919 , at which time most of the system was cable operated . Electrification of the tram network was completed in 1923 , but the first motor buses had arrived in 1919 . The tramway was closed between 1950 and 1956 , after which the operation became the Edinburgh Corporation Transport Department . In 1965 , it purchased its first rear @-@ engined double @-@ decker bus , ESF801C , a Leyland Atlantean PDR1 / 1 , which is currently preserved at the Scottish Vintage Bus Museum in Fife . Almost 600 buses were added to the fleet over the next 17 years . In 1975 Edinburgh Corporation Transport was renamed Lothian Region Transport . In 2000 , it was again renamed as Lothian Buses . On 15 August 2013 , Edinburgh Council announced the creation of Transport for Edinburgh , a new public body meant to oversee public transport in Edinburgh , including both buses and the new tram system . Transport convener for Edinburgh Council Lesley Hinds stated : " Our first priority will be integration between bus and tram services and we will have the executive directors of Lothian Buses on the board of the new organisation " . = = = Awards = = = Lothian Buses have won several awards for their services to the Lothian region including Bus Operator of the Year in the 2007 UK Bus Awards , and has subsequently been voted Public Transport Operator of the Year ( Bus ) at the 2008 National Transport Awards . When the company was cited for its substantial route development , 32 % growth in passenger numbers since 1998 and £ 100 million investment in low @-@ floor buses since 2000 . Lothian Buses was voted Best UK Bus Company in 2002 and 2003 , and vehicles previously carried the wording Voted Scotland 's Best Bus Company 2006 in a laurel wreath type logo near the fleetname . In November 2011 , the company won the Top City Operator of the Year award at the UK Bus Awards . = = Fares = = Lothian Buses have operated a flat @-@ fare system , charged per adult , since March 2006 ; child fares , all @-@ day tickets , pre @-@ paid multiple singles and ' Ridacards ' are also available , with senior citizens travelling on free travel passes in line with the rest of Scotland . Since April 2016 , an Adult single fare is £ 1 @.@ 60 , and a child is 80p . A day ticket is £ 4 @.@ 00 since 19 April 2015 . Cash payment is placed in a hopper , which automatically dumps into a vault that the driver has no access to . Change is not given , increasing security and allowing passengers to board more quickly . The Lothian ' Ridacard ' bus pass is a pre @-@ paid plastic smartcard giving unlimited travel on regular daytime and night bus services , as well as Edinburgh Trams services . It is purchased initially from a Transport for Edinburgh Travelshop , where the owner 's picture is incorporated on the card to prevent mis @-@ use . Once purchased , the card can be placed on an on @-@ board reader , which reads the contactless chip in the smartcard . Cards can be credited for a weekly , 4 weekly or annual period . A warning is displayed on the last five days of validity . The card can then be topped up at Transport for Edinburgh Travelshops or Pay Point equipped retailers . = = Bus network = = In conjunction with management changes and route branding , the route network has undergone considerable change with the removal of several apparently confusing aspects such as letter prefixed routes and clockwise / anticlockwise circular services . Some services have been transferred to and re @-@ routed via Princes Street from the parallel George Street in New Town , after the banning of cars from most of Princes Street and the closing of certain access points . The majority of the current network comprises through routes that pass through the city centre from opposing termini . Most services pass in part or in full along Princes Street , with Bristo Place and Leith Walk being the crossing points for the remaining cross city services . There also exists a northern and a southern semi @-@ circle orbital routes , and a local loop in the Sighthill area . Many routes are contained within the Edinburgh conurbation , whereas others , most notably the ' playing card ' branded routes , extend into surrounding areas , such as Penicuik , Tranent , Mayfield , Balerno and Edinburgh Airport . Double deck buses show an intermediate points display , as well as a final destination . The company 's double decker buses are unique in Scotland in still displaying the destination at both the front and rear . In early mornings and late evenings , some services are curtailed to the city centre or to early termini , in the transition to the night bus service . In such cases , ' Part Route ' is displayed in the intermediate display . Certain routes have all day short working termini , and minor diversions which are often indicated through the use of internal or external ' tram boards ' . Since 2006 double @-@ deck deliveries feature a ' Route Diverted ; intermediate display , used when road closures cause a service to be diverted from its normal route . = = = Night buses = = = Lothian Buses also operates a nightbus network . Ridership increased when the routes were re @-@ numbered and re @-@ routed to match daytime routes and increased in frequency . The operation of night buses provides a continuous 24 @-@ hour bus service to some areas of the city . This ticket allows for unlimited travel all night on any night bus . = = Infrastructure = = Lothian Buses operates three garages , and have an engineering works at Seafield , where major work on buses is carried out . The previous company headquarters and engineering works in Shrub Hill , off Leith Walk , were sold in 1999 subject to planning permission , after being occupied by the company since 1871 . After repeated delays , controversies and a public inquiry , in 2004 , the site was sold to BL Developments for £ 12m so that the site could be developed flats and houses . Lothian Buses also maintain four Travel Shops . Three of these are in the city at Waverley Bridge , Hanover Street and Haymarket . A Travel Shop opened at the Jarnac Court shopping mall in Dalkeith town centre on 4 February 2008 . = = Trams = = Lothian Buses ' services have been integrated with Edinburgh Trams , since the trams commenced operation in 2014 – both are owned by the council , and Lothian Buses services interchange with the trams at various locations . The now closed guided busway element of Fastlink formed part of phase 1a of the tram permanent way . = = Fleet = = Edinburgh Corporation and Lothian Buses have historically employed a high degree of standardisation of their service bus fleet , including the use of low @-@ floor buses to facilitate maintenance savings . Lothian have never employed minibuses on their services , although some midibuses were used for a time . As at December 2012 the fleet consisted of 721 buses . = = = Current vehicles = = = Lothian Buses has a modern fleet by national standards , with an average vehicle age of 5 @.@ 6 years . As of 1 September 2009 the main service fleet is all low floor . The majority of the current main service fleet comprises : Single @-@ deck Volvo B7RLE with Wright Eclipse bodies ( 68 ) Volvo B7RLE with Wright Eclipse 2 bodies ( 29 ) Optare Solo SR ( 6 ) Volvo 7900 diesel @-@ electric hybrids ( 50 ) Double @-@ deck Dennis Trident 2 with Plaxton President bodies ( 95 ) Volvo B7TL with Plaxton President and Wright Eclipse Gemini bodies ( 125 ) Volvo B9TL with Wright Eclipse Gemini bodies ( 100 ) Volvo B9TL with Wright Eclipse Gemini 2 bodies ( 135 ) Scania OmniCity ( 15 ) Alexander Dennis Enviro400H Hybrid ( 15 ) Twenty @-@ eight Plaxton President Dennis Trident 2s have been converted to open @-@ top , all for use on tour and sightseeing operations . All vehicles are fitted with internal and external CCTV cameras and cab radios , for passenger and driver safety , bus lane enforcement and assisting the police , although they have also been used in action against the company 's own drivers . At the end of 2009 , Lothian Buses started replacing their ticket machines with the Wayfarer 200 ticket machines . These machines have been supplied by Transport Scotland as part of the National Concessionary Travel Scheme to improve free travel throughout Scotland . = = = Preserved vehicles = = = Many vehicles previously used by Lothian Buses and its predecessors have been preserved ( or are awaiting preservation ) by various groups and societies . Several of the vehicles regularly appear at events , rallies and running days around the country . = = Main fleet liveries and route branding = = Traditionally , Edinburgh Corporation , Lothian Regional Transport and Lothian Buses had a livery of madder ( a dark red ) and cream , with matching madder leatherette seating . Some coach @-@ seated Alexander RH bodied Leyland Olympians and Alexander Royale bodied Volvo Olympians were painted in the same scheme , but with red in place of the madder . These vehicles are not branded for , but usually operated only on routes 15 / 15A . While the company have traditionally maintained a uniform livery for all buses , deliveries of low floor vehicles has seen a new standard livery introduced . Route branding has been increasingly used by Lothian since the introduction of low floor vehicles . Route branding highlights the route of certain services making the buses easier to be spotted throughout Lothian . Since May 2010 the Harlequin livery used to identify low floor buses has started to be phased out , as the company is now a full low floor operation , with a return to the traditional madder and white livery although the style has been altered slightly to suit the lines of modern buses . Each type of bus owned directly by Lothian Buses has had at least one of their type painted in the new livery . In July 2011 Lothian Buses introduced 60 new double deck buses . These buses continued with the same madder red and white pattern on the outside of the bus but Lothian Buses changed the seats to a matching madder red colour . They also changed the entrance to the bus to a more wooden effect . Routes 4 , 5 , 19 , 23 and 27 were the first buses to receive this branding . Eco branding New branding was created to go with the reintroduction of the madder and white livery to Edinburgh . The buses used on route 36 were gradually repainted in green promoting colours to reflect the type of engine used . In 2011 , 15 Alexander Dennis Enviro400 hybrid buses were added to the fleet and began operating on route 10 between Western Harbour and Torphin . The new hybrids had some first for Lothian Buses : a madder and gold colour scheme , free Wi @-@ Fi , alloy wheels and electronic destination displays . In 2013 , Lothian Buses took delivery of 10 Volvo 7900 single @-@ deck hybrids . These have entered service on route 1 . Another 20 were delivered in summer 2014 for route 30 , and a further 20 in December of that year for work on services 12 @,@ 24 & 36 Penicuik City Link Buses for routes 37 , 47 and X47 between Edinburgh and Penicuik were branded as Penicuik City Link , with blue uppers and roofline , and the positions of the red and madder on the skirting transposed . In 2011 , one of these buses was repainted into madder and white , with no roof colour . However , the other vehicles in Penicuik City Link colours were repainted into the new madder and white livery with a turquoise mint coloured roof and the name Pen @-@ Y @-@ Cog . This is to celebrate the history of the area as Pen @-@ Y @-@ Cog is the original name for Penicuik . These buses were de @-@ branded in 2014 due to high fuel consumption of the B7TL 's used and the 37 / 47 / X37 is now worked by standards liveries Volvo B9TL 's . Playing cards theme Four double decker routes using the low @-@ floor scheme are , or have been , based on a playing card theme , with the symbol of the suit incorporating the route number ; Route 3 / 3A was , until September 2010 , Club Class – across the City and Midlothian with extra yellow on the uppers and roofline and a black " club " symbol . Bus 720 , formerly one of the " Club Class " branded buses , was repainted into the new madder and white livery with a yellow roof and " 3 Connect " branding in spring 2010 , and it was expected that this would replace the Club Class branding . However , in September 2010 , it was announced that the 3 and 3A would be rebranded , using the same livery style as trialled on 720 , as The Lady Victoria to honour Midlothian 's mining heritage as the routes pass the Scottish Mining Museum based in the former Lady Victoria Colliery in Newtongrange . Route 26 was , until mid @-@ 2009 , East to West Through the Heart of the City featuring red on the roofline , gold between the decks and a large heart with an arrow symbol . Route 31 was Ace of Spades – cutting across the city and Midlothian with orange uppers and roofline , and a black spade symbol , which was worn by buses 751 – 768 . However , these buses have been repainted into madder and white with no route branding . Route 44 was Service with a Sparkle with black uppers and roofline and a yellow diamond symbol . This was superseded by a new branding , " The Mill Race " , with pebble grey uppers and roofline , but was later removed due to the high fuel consumption of the long route diagram . Two single @-@ deck routes also received branding based on the playing card theme , Route 29 was branded as The Best Deal ( Volvos 136 – 150 , red ) and route 49 Leader of the Pack ( Volvos 151 – 160 and 170 , blue ) . Volvos 151 – 160 were repainted into a new branding for route 49 , The Queen of Scots with 136 – 138 and 170 now repainted into standard madder and white . Meanwhile , Route 29 was rebranded as The Stock Brig until both of these routes commenced double decker operation in June 2014 and March 2015 respectively . The 29 has retained an orange roof but with no " Stock Brig " branding . Connect branding Mid 2009 saw the introduction of Connect branding , with the first example being red @-@ based 26 Connect : Clerwood , City Centre , Seton Sands / Tranent This supersedes the earlier playing card theme . The second example applies to new , buggy friendly vehicles on route 22 , with the branding 22 Connect : Gyle + Edinburgh Park , City Centre , Ocean Terminal The base colour here is pink . A third example was applied to bus 720 on route 3 , with the legend 3 Connect . The base colour here is yellow , and was applied together with a new interpretation of the classic madder and white livery . The 3 Connect branding was replaced by The Lady Victoria branding in October 2010 . Zoom to the Zoo advertising In June 2009 Lothian Buses entered into a two @-@ year deal with Edinburgh Zoo to create a fleet of ten vehicles carrying animal @-@ themed advertising designs over Route 26 Connect branding . Five variations exist , on two vehicles each : " Recognise Anyone ? " – featuring the chimps " Dive On " – penguins " Have a Purrfect day Out " – tigers " Go Faster Stripes " – zebras " Take Off ! " – rainbow lorikeets = = Tourism = = = = = History of tour operations = = = Lothian Buses have operated city tours using white liveried coaches . Later , Leyland Atlanteans were employed in this same livery , with blinds for City Tour . These wore an updated version of the white livery with blue detailing after a short period . An Edinburgh Classic Tour was set up in 1989 using open top Leyland Atlanteans , and later Leyland Olympians , which competed with Guide Friday . This was as a result of Guide Friday introducing competition on the city centre to Airport route . The buses wore a blue and white livery , each carrying a name e.g.Scottish Star , Lothian Star and Highland Star . Lothian Buses also operated open top tours in Oxford ( in conjunction with local operator Tappins ) and Cambridge under the Classic Tour identity . = = = Edinburgh Bus Tours = = = Lothian Buses operate several open top double deck tour bus services under four distinct brands : City Sightseeing , Edinburgh Tours , Mac Tours and The Majestic Tour . The City Sightseeing tour is operated as a franchise of the City Sightseeing brand . In 2013 , all were brought under the control of one entity , Edinburgh Bus Tours , although the separate trading names are retained . City Sightseeing , Edinburgh Tours and Mac Tours visit the Old Town , New Town , Calton Hill , Holyrood Palace and Edinburgh Castle , albeit on slightly differing routes . The Majestic Tour operates a long loop from Holyrood and New Town , via the Royal Botanic Garden , to the coast at Ocean Terminal , the site of the former Royal Yacht Britannia . The Mac Tours operation uses AEC Routemaster buses in a dark red and cream livery , with See Edinburgh By Vintage Bus branding . All other tours use Plaxton President bodied Dennis Trident 2s . For the City Sightseeing tours , the livery is red , for Edinburgh Tours the livery is white and green , and Majestic Tours use yellow and blue coloured vehicles . = = = Forth Tours = = = Since 2007 Mac Tours has operated a bus for Forth Tours providing departues from Waverley Bridge for their various tours and cruises of the Firth of Forth . The bus used is a dedicated Plaxton President bodied Dennis Trident painted in a special yellow , blue and green Forth Tours livery . ( XIL 1484 ) . = = Services = = = = = Airlink 100 = = = Lothian Buses operates a dedicated limited stop service , route 100 , to Edinburgh Airport from Waverley Bridge along Corstorphine Road . This service uses a dedicated fleet , special fares and its own web @-@ site . An orange winged ' A ' logo adorns the web site and the interior / exterior of the vehicles . After the original Leyland Olympians in plain Airline blue , the later Scania OmniDekkas were replaced by new Wright Eclipse Gemini 2 bodied Volvo B9TLs in March 2010 . The new vehicles included " E @-@ leather " upholstery ( a type of manmade composition leather made from recycled waste leather offcuts ) , power sockets , CCTV which enables passengers on the top deck to watch their luggage on the lower deck , LED lights and free wi @-@ fi . The vehicles cost over £ 200 @,@ 000 each , £ 30 @,@ 000 more than standard vehicles , and carry a two @-@ tone blue and red livery . The previous Scanias carried a livery of white and light / dark blue , with orange detailing . = = = Park & Ride = = = Edinburgh has a network of existing and proposed park & ride sites . Lothian buses call at some of these sites : = = Lothian Country Buses = = In June 2012 Lothian Buses expanded into East Lothian with the introduction of route 113 from Pencaitland to Edinburgh , replacing First Group 's 44B service following them withdrawing from the area . Route 113 is operated by a separate legal entity , Lothian Country Buses . Initially operated by existing Lothian buses , the service is now operated by five Wright Eclipse bodied Volvo B7RLEs and two Plaxton President bodied Dennis Trident 2s painted in a green and cream livery similar to that of the former Scottish Motor Traction / Eastern Scottish buses . In September 2014 , a second service commenced from Haddington to Edinburgh . This service is run by 5 Volvo B7RLE Wright Eclipse Urban 2 bodies buses which were formally liveried for Lothian 's " The Queen Of Scots " route 49 branding . = = East Coast Buses = = In August 2016 , the Musselburgh and North Berwick garages of First Scotland East will be taken over . These will be operated as East Coast Buses . = = Vehicle tracking = = Lothian Buses are active members of the Bustracker system and are responsible for the funding of it as well as being partly responsible for the operation of it . It operates by tracking the movements of buses ; computers then relay this information to the designated bus tracker signs throughout the city giving real @-@ time and more up @-@ to @-@ date information on when buses are due to the passengers . In December 2009 , it was announced that following the success of Bustracker , an application had been developed for the iPhone that is similar to the way Bustracker works . It allows people to download an application to their iPhone that enables them to see where their nearest bus stop is and when the bus is due . Although not developed by Lothian Buses or The City of Edinburgh Council , the application has now won the backing of both companies . My Bus Edinburgh is an application developed for the Android platform which is similar in functionality to the iPhone application . Like the iPhone application , this application is developed by an independent developer , backed by Lothian Buses and The City of Edinburgh Council , and is available free of charge . In August 2010 , the company introduced an early running alarm system for drivers , which is linked into the automatic vehicle tracking system , and sounds an alarm and displays warning messages if the bus is running early . This was as a result of the company being fined £ 10 @,@ 500 by the Traffic Commissioner for Scotland , having been found to be running buses early . After a customer complaint , Vehicle and Operator Services Agency monitored services 45 , 27 , 4 and 16 in February 2010 , and found that of 303 instances , 44 buses were running early , despite starting the route on time , while 20 were running late . The company 's defence was that they had built in some running time to cope with the delays due to tram works , but in some places , these works had ended early . The Commissioner accepted this defence , and chose not to take action against the company 's operating licence ( which authorises a maximum of 700 vehicles ) . Instead the Commissioner imposed a fine set much lower than the legal maximum ( calculated as £ 550 * 700 vehicles = £ 385 @,@ 000 ) = = In popular culture = = Since 2006 , Lothian Buses Seafield depot has been used as the setting for the CBeebies programme Me Too ! under the name of Riversea Buses . The company 's staff also feature in the show . Of the firm 's participation in the series , the company 's then Chief executive officer Neil Renilson said " It 's a good opportunity to keep public transport in the eye of the next generation of customers . "

= Effect of Hurricane Katrina on the New Orleans Hornets = After Hurricane Katrina devastated the U.S. city of New Orleans , Louisiana on August 29 , 2005 , and caused extensive damage to the New Orleans Arena , the New Orleans Hornets ( now known as the New Orleans Pelicans ) of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) were unable to play any home games there for the entire 2005 – 06 season . They temporarily relocated to Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , becoming the New Orleans / Oklahoma City Hornets . After playing the majority of home games for both the 2005 – 06 and 2006 – 07 seasons at the Ford Center in Oklahoma City , the Hornets returned to New Orleans for the 2007 – 08 season . Following the success of the Hornets ' tenure in the city , the Seattle SuperSonics relocated to Oklahoma City for the 2008 – 09 season , and now compete as the Oklahoma City Thunder . = = Response = = Because of the extensive damage resulting from the hurricane , where the Hornets would play for the 2005 – 06 season came into question . Although the New Orleans Arena suffered only slight damage , the flooding surrounding the area made it impossible to use . With the training camp scheduled to begin on October 4 , the team announced that the first three weeks of camp would be held at the Air Force Academy in Colorado Springs , Colorado , instead of their usual location , Alario Center in Westwego . Additionally the team stated that they wanted to play home games within Louisiana , at either the Pete Maravich Assembly Center or the Rivercenter in Baton Rouge . On September 3 , Hornets owner George Shinn stated that the storm would not be used as a reason to permanently relocate the franchise . By September 10 , the prospect of securing a Baton Rouge location to host the Hornets was fading as a result of the facilities being utilized for hurricane related relief operations . Numerous cities inquired about hosting the franchise for the season , including Kansas City , Louisville , Nashville , Oklahoma City and San Diego . During this period , Oklahoma City announced that it was the favored choice to serve as the temporary home of the franchise , although by mid @-@ September SMG announced that the New Orleans arena could potentially be ready for occupancy by the All @-@ Star Break . However , by late September the Hornets finalized a move to Oklahoma City , where 35 games would be played at the Ford Center , as well as six in Baton Rouge at the Pete Maravich Assembly Center . Additionally , it was announced that three of the games in March could be moved to New Orleans if the arena repairs were complete . At the same time , the NBA also announced the team would be referred to officially as the New Orleans / Oklahoma City Hornets , and that the deal reached with Oklahoma City would allow for the team to return for the 2006 – 07 season , if necessary . = = Delayed return = = In order to allow for a full recovery of the New Orleans market in the wake of the storm , the NBA announced on January 31 , 2006 , that the Hornets would remain in Oklahoma City for the 2006 – 07 season and return for the 2007 – 08 season . The league also announced that New Orleans would play host for the 2008 All @-@ Star Game , in addition to hosting the team for six of their 41 home games during the season . Although guarantees by the league and organization indicated a return for 2007 – 08 , many fans in New Orleans were still skeptical of a permanent return due to the popularity of the team in Oklahoma City . Meanwhile , the Hornets opened their season in Oklahoma City with a 26 @-@ point win over the Sacramento Kings on November 1 , 2005 . They played their first game in Louisiana in a loss to the Phoenix Suns on December 21 , 2005 , and they played the first professional sports event in New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina on March 8 , 2006 , where they lost to the Los Angeles Lakers . The Hornets completed the 2005 – 06 season by winning 38 games , tenth in the Western Conference . They became the first team since the 1974 – 75 Boston Celtics to play home games at four separate venues : the Ford Center in Oklahoma City , the New Orleans Arena in New Orleans , the Pete Maravich Assembly Center in Baton Rouge , and the Lloyd Noble Center in Norman , Oklahoma . The Hornets had finished last in attendance in the previous season in New Orleans , but playing in Ford Center , they averaged 18 @,@ 168 fans , a 78 % increase . Referring to the fan support in Oklahoma City , Hornets star Chris Paul said that " You get a feeling you 're a part of something special " ; mayor Mick Cornett said , " My expectations were lofty , but we 've exceeded them . " All repair work on the New Orleans Arena was finished by March 2006 , and a new scoreboard and video displays were added during the process . In June 2006 , Shinn stated he was pleased with the ongoing recovery process in New Orleans and again reaffirmed his desire to permanently return for the 2007 – 08 season . However , the Hornets also announced that they were in the process of negotiating with Oklahoma City to play the 2007 – 08 season at the Ford Center as a contingency plan . The Hornets opened the 2006 – 07 season at New Orleans with a win over the Boston Celtics . They improved their final record from the previous season by one game , and again finished tenth in the Western Conference , three games out of the playoffs . Their attendance declined slightly compared to the previous season , and they finished 15th overall in attendance . The Hornets made their permanent return to New Orleans on October 31 , 2007 , when they defeated the Sacramento Kings 109 @-@ 90 to open the 2007 – 08 season . In the following two seasons , the Hornets averaged an attendance of 15 @,@ 574 . During the 2008 All @-@ Star Game , the NBA donated $ 5 million towards relief work , and staged an NBA Cares program throughout the city to help rebuilding efforts .

= Old Tjikko = Old Tjikko is a 9 @,@ 558 -year @-@ old Norway Spruce , located on Fulufjället Mountain of Dalarna province in Sweden . Old Tjikko originally gained fame as the " world 's oldest tree " , however , this is inaccurate , as only clonal trees , and not individual trees , are known to live this long . Though there are older clonal trees , Old Tjikko is recognized as the oldest living clonal Norway Spruce . The age of the tree was determined by carbon dating of genetically matched plant material collected from under the tree , as dendrochronology would cause damage . The trunk itself is estimated to be only a few hundred years old , but the plant has survived for much longer due to a process known as layering ( when a branch comes in contact with the ground , it sprouts a new root ) , or vegetative cloning ( when the trunk dies but the root system is still alive , it may sprout a new trunk ) . = = Discovery and details = = Old Tjikko is estimated to be at least 9 @,@ 550 years old , making it the world 's oldest known individual vegetatively cloned tree . It stands 5 metres ( 16 ft ) tall and is located on Fulufjället Mountain of Dalarna province in Sweden . For thousands of years , the tree appeared in a stunted shrub formation ( also known as a krummholz formation ) due to the harsh extremes of the environment in which it lives . During the warming of the 20th century , the tree sprouted into a normal tree formation . The man who discovered the tree , Leif Kullman ( Professor of Physical Geography at Umeå University ) , has attributed this growth spurt to global warming , and given the tree its nickname " Old Tjikko " after his late dog . The tree has survived for so long due to vegetative cloning . The visible tree is relatively young , but it is part of an older root system which dates back thousands of years . The trunk of the tree may die and regrow multiple times , but the tree 's root system remains intact and in turn sprouts another trunk . The trunk may only live for about 600 years , and when one trunk dies another eventually grows back in its place . Also , each winter , heavy snow may push the tree 's low @-@ lying branches to ground level , where they take root and survive to grow again the next year in a process known as layering . Layering occurs when a tree 's branch comes in contact with the earth , and new roots sprout from the contact point . Other trees , such as coast redwoods and western redcedars are known to reproduce by layering . The tree 's age was determined by carbon @-@ 14 dating of the root system , which found roots dating back to 375 , 5 @,@ 660 , 9 @,@ 000 , and 9 @,@ 550 years . Carbon dating is not accurate enough to pin down the exact year the tree sprouted from seed , but given the estimated age the tree is supposed to have sprouted around 7550 BC . For comparison , the invention of writing ( and thus , the beginning of recorded history ) did not occur until around 4000 BC . Researchers have found a cluster of around 20 spruce trees in the same area , all over 8 @,@ 000 years old . Previous researchers considered the Norway spruce species to be a relative newcomer to Sweden , with theories postulating the tree migrated into the area around 2 @,@ 000 years ago . Trees much older than 10 @,@ 000 years would be practically impossible in Sweden , because until around 11 @,@ 000 years ago the area was in the grip of a world @-@ wide ice age . Nature conservancy authorities are considering putting a fence around the tree to protect it from possible vandals or trophy hunters . = = Access = = There is a small path leading up towards the tree . However , it is unmarked , as park rangers do not want to encourage large groups of tourists to surround the tree . A free guided tour can be arranged at the entrance ( Naturum ) that can take tourists to the tree .

= Andrew M. Gleason = Andrew Mattei Gleason ( November 4 , 1921 – October 17 , 2008 ) was an American mathematician who as a young World War II naval officer broke German and Japanese military codes , then over the succeeding sixty years made fundamental contributions to widely varied areas of mathematics , including the solution of Hilbert 's fifth problem , and was a leader in reform and innovation in math ­ e ­ mat ­ ics teaching at all levels . Gleason 's theorem in quantum logic and the Greenwood – Gleason graph , an important example in Ramsey theory , are named for him . Gleason 's entire academic career was at Harvard , from which he retired in 1992 . His numerous academic and scholarly leadership posts included chairmanship of the Harvard Mathematics Department and Harvard Society of Fellows , and presidency of the American Mathematical Society . He continued to advise the United States government on cryptographic security , and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts on math ­ e ­ mat ­ ics education for children , almost until the end of his life . Gleason won the Newcomb Cleveland Prize in 1952 and the Gung – Hu Distinguished Service Award of the American Mathematical Society in 1996 . He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences and of the American Philosophical Society , and held the Hollis Chair of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy at Harvard . He was fond of saying that math ­ e ­ mat ­ ic ­ al proofs " really aren 't there to convince you that something is true — ​ ​ they 're there to show you why it is true . " The Notices of the American Mathematical Society called him " one of the quiet giants of twentieth @-@ century mathematics , the consummate professor dedicated to scholarship , teaching , and service in equal measure . " = = Biography = = Gleason was born in Fresno , California , the youngest of three children ; his father Henry Gleason was a botanist and a member of the Mayflower Society , and his mother was the daughter of Swiss @-@ American winemaker Andrew Mattei . His older brother Henry , Jr. became a linguist . He grew up in Bronxville , New York , where his father was the curator of the New York Botanical Garden . After briefly attending Berkeley High School ( Berkeley , California ) he graduated from Roosevelt High School in Yonkers , winning a scholarship to Yale University . Though Gleason 's mathematics education had gone only so far as some self @-@ taught calculus , Yale mathematician William Raymond Longley urged him to try a course in mechanics normally intended for juniors . So I learned first year calculus and second year calculus and became the consultant to one end of the whole Old Campus ... I used to do all the homework for all the sections of [ first @-@ year calculus ] . I got plenty of practice in doing elementary calculus problems . I don 't think there exists a problem — ​ ​ the classical kind of pseudo reality problem which first and second @-@ year students are given — ​ ​ that I haven 't seen . " One month later he enrolled in a differential equations course ( " mostly full of seniors " ) as well . When Einar Hille temporarily replaced the regular instructor , Gleason found Hille 's style " unbelievably different ... He had a view of mathematics that was just vastly different ... That was a very important experience for me . So after that I took a lot of courses from Hille " including , in his sophomore year , graduate @-@ level real analysis . " Starting with that course with Hille , I began to have some sense of what mathematics is about . " While at Yale he competed three times ( 1940 , 1941 and 1942 ) in the recently founded William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition , always placing among the top five entrants in the country ( making him the second three @-@ time Putnam Fellow ) . After the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor during his senior year , Gleason applied for a commission in the US Navy , and on graduation joined the team working to break Japanese naval codes . ( Others on this team included his future collaborator Robert E. Greenwood and Yale professor Marshall Hall , Jr . ) He also collaborated with British researchers attacking the German Enigma cipher ; Alan Turing , who spent substantial time with Gleason while visiting Washington , called him " the brilliant young Yale graduate mathematician " in a report of his visit . In 1946 , at the recommendation of Navy colleague Donald Howard Menzel , Gleason was appointed a Junior Fellow at Harvard . An early goal of the Junior Fellows program was to allow young scholars showing extraordinary promise to sidestep the lengthy PhD process ; four years later Harvard appointed Gleason an assistant professor of mathematics , though he was almost immediately recalled to Washington for cryptographic work related to the Korean War . He returned to Harvard in the fall of 1952 , and soon after published the most important of his results on Hilbert 's fifth problem ( see below ) . Harvard awarded him tenure the following year . In January 1959 he married Jean Berko whom he had met at a party featuring the music of Tom Lehrer . Berko , a psycholinguist , worked for many years at Boston University . They had three daughters . In 1969 Gleason took the Hollis Chair of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy , the oldest ( est . 1727 ) scientific endowed professorship in the US . He retired from Harvard in 1992 but remained active in service to Harvard ( as chair of the Society of Fellows , for example ) and to mathematics : in particular , promoting the Harvard Calculus Reform Project and working with the Massachusetts Board of Education . He died in 2008 from complications following surgery . = = Teaching and education reform = = Gleason said he " always enjoyed helping other people with math " — ​ ​ a colleague said he " regarded teaching mathematics — ​ ​ like doing mathematics — ​ ​ as both important and also genuinely fun . " At fourteen , during his brief attendance at Berkeley High School , he found himself not only bored with first @-@ semester geometry , but also helping other students with their homework — ​ ​ including those taking the second half of the course , which he soon began auditing . At Harvard he " regularly taught at every level " , including administratively burdensome multisection courses . One class presented Gleason with a framed print of Picasso 's Mother and Child in recognition of his care for them . In 1964 he created " the first of the ' bridge ' courses now ubiquitous for math majors , only twenty years before its time . " Such a course is designed to teach new students , accustomed to rote learning of mathematics in secondary school , how to reason abstractly and construct mathematical proofs . That effort led to publication of his Fundamentals of Abstract Analysis , of which one reviewer wrote : This is a most unusual book ... Every working mathematician of course knows the difference between a lifeless chain of formalized propositions and the " feeling " one has ( or tries to get ) of a mathematical theory , and will probably agree that helping the student to reach that " inside " view is the ultimate goal of mathematical education ; but he will usually give up any attempt at successfully doing this except through oral teaching . The originality of the author is that he has tried to attain that goal in a textbook , and in the reviewer 's opinion , he has succeeded remarkably well in this all but impossible task . Most readers will probably be delighted ( as the reviewer has been ) to find , page after page , painstaking discussions and explanations of standard mathematical and logical procedures , always written in the most felicitous style , which spares no effort to achieve the utmost clarity without falling into the vulgarity which so often mars such attempts . But Gleason 's " talent for exposition " did not always imply that the reader would be enlightened without effort of his own . Even in a wartime a memo on the urgently important decryption of the German Enigma cipher , Gleason and his colleagues wrote : The reader may wonder why so much is left to the reader . A book on swimming strokes may be nice to read , but one must practice the strokes while actually in the water before one can claim to be a swimmer . So if the reader desires to actually possess the knowledge for recovering wiring from a depth , let the reader get his paper and pencils , using perhaps four colors to avoid confusion in the connecting links , and go to work . His notes and exercises on probability and statistics , drawn up for his lectures to code @-@ breaking colleagues during the war ( see below ) remained in use in National Security Agency training for several decades ; they were published openly in 1985 . In a 1964 Science article , Gleason wrote of an apparent paradox arising in attempts to explain mathematics to nonmathematicians : It is notoriously difficult to convey the proper impression of the frontiers of mathematics to nonspecialists . Ultimately the difficulty stems from the fact that mathematics is an easier subject than the other sciences . Consequently , many of the important primary problems of the subject — ​ ​ that is , problems which can be understood by an intelligent outsider — ​ ​ have either been solved or carried to a point where an indirect approach is clearly required . The great bulk of pure mathematical research is concerned with secondary , tertiary , or higher @-@ order problem , the very statement of which can hardly be understood until one has mastered a great deal of technical mathematics . Gleason was part of the School Mathematics Study Group , which helped define the New Math of the 1960s — ​ ​ ambitious changes in American elementary and high school mathematics teaching emphasizing understanding of concepts over rote algorithms . Gleason was " always interested in how people learn " ; as part of the New Math effort he spent most mornings over several months with second @-@ graders . Some years later he gave a talk in which he described his goal as having been : to find out how much they could figure out for themselves , given appropriate activities and the right guidance . At the end of his talk , someone asked Andy whether he had ever worried that teaching math to little kids wasn 't how faculty at research institutions should be spending their time . [ His ] quick and decisive response : " No , I didn 't think about that at all . I had a ball ! " In 1986 he helped found the Calculus Consortium , which has published a successful and influential series of " calculus reform " textbooks for college and high school , on precalculus , calculus , and other areas . His " credo for this program as for all of his teaching was that the ideas should be based in equal parts of geometry for visualization of the concepts , computation for grounding in the real world , and algebraic manipulation for power . " However , the program faced heavy criticism from the mathematics community for its omission of topics such as the mean value theorem , and for its perceived lack of mathematical rigor . = = Cryptanalysis work = = During World War II Gleason was part of OP @-@ 20 @-@ G , the U.S. Navy 's signals intelligence and cryptanalysis group , one task of which ( in collaboration with British cryptographers at Bletchley Park such as Alan Turing ) was to penetrate German Enigma machine communications networks . The British had great success with two of these networks , but the third , used for German @-@ Japanese naval coordination , remained unbroken because of a faulty assumption that it employed a simplified version of Enigma . After OP @-@ 20 @-@ G 's Marshall Hall observed that certain metadata in Berlin @-@ to @-@ Tokyo transmissions used letter sets disjoint from those used in Tokyo @-@ to @-@ Berlin metadata , Gleason hypothesized that the corresponding unencrypted letters sets were A @-@ M ( in one direction ) and N @-@ Z ( in the other ) , then devised novel statistical tests by which he confirmed this hypothesis . The result was routine decryption of this third network by 1944 . ( This work also involved deeper math ­ e ­ mat ­ ics related to permutation groups and the graph isomorphism problem . ) OP @-@ 20 @-@ G then turned to the Japanese navy 's " Coral " cipher , a key tool for the attack on which was the " Gleason crutch " , a form of Chernoff bound on tail distributions of sums of independent random variables , but predating Chernoff 's work by a decade . Toward the end of the war he concentrated on documenting the work of OP @-@ 20 @-@ G and developing systems for training new cryptographers . In 1950 Gleason returned to active duty for the Korean War , serving as a Lieutenant Commander in the Nebraska Avenue Complex ( which much later became the home of the DHS Cyber Security Division ) . His cryptographic work from this period remains classified , but it is known that he recruited mathematicians and taught them cryptanalysis . He served on the advisory boards for the National Security Agency and the Institute for Defense Analyses , and he continued to recruit , and to advise the military on cryptanalysis , almost to the end of his life . = = Mathematics research = = Gleason made fundamental contributions to widely varied areas of mathematics , including the theory of Lie groups , quantum mechanics , and combinatorics . According to Freeman Dyson 's famous classification of mathematicians as being either birds or frogs , Gleason was a frog : he worked as a problem solver rather than a visionary formulating grand theories . = = = Hilbert 's fifth problem = = = In 1900 David Hilbert posed 23 problems he felt would be central to next century of mathematics research . Hilbert 's fifth problem concerns the characterization of Lie groups by their actions on topological spaces : to what extent does their topology provide information sufficient to determine their geometry ? The " restricted " version of Hilbert 's fifth problem ( solved by Gleason ) asks , more specifically , whether every locally Euclidean topological group is a Lie group . That is , if a group G has the structure of a topological manifold , can that structure be strengthened to a real analytic structure , so that within any neighborhood of an element of G , the group law is defined by a convergent power series , and so that overlapping neighborhoods have compatible power series definitions ? Prior to Gleason 's work , special cases of the problem had been solved by Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer , John von Neumann , Lev Pontryagin , and Garrett Birkhoff , among others . Gleason 's interest in the fifth problem began in the late 1940s , sparked by a course he took from George Mackey . In 1949 he published a paper introducing the " no small subgroups " property of Lie groups ( the existence of a neighborhood of the identity within which no nontrivial subgroup exists ) that would eventually be crucial to its solution . His 1952 paper on the subject , together with a paper published concurrently by Deane Montgomery and Leo Zippin , solves affirmatively the restricted version of Hilbert 's fifth problem , showing that indeed every locally Euclidean group is a Lie group . Gleason 's contribution was to prove that this is true when G has the no small subgroups property ; Montgomery and Zippin showed every locally Euclidean group has this property . As Gleason told the story , the key insight of his proof was to apply the fact that monotonic functions are differentiable almost everywhere . On finding the solution , he took a week of leave to write it up , and it was printed in the Annals of Mathematics alongside the paper of Montgomery and Zippin ; another paper a year later by Hidehiko Yamabe removed some technical side conditions from Gleason 's proof . The " unrestricted " version of Hilbert 's fifth problem , closer to Hilbert 's original formulation , considers both a locally Euclidean group G and another manifold M on which G has a continuous action . Hilbert asked whether , in this case , M and the action of G could be given a real analytic structure . It was quickly realized that the answer was negative , after which attention centered on the restricted problem . However , with some additional smoothness assumptions on G and M , it might yet be possible to prove the existence of a real analytic structure on the group action . The Hilbert – Smith conjecture , still unsolved , encapsulates the remaining difficulties of this case . = = = Quantum mechanics = = = The Born rule states that an observable property of a quantum system is defined by a Hermitian operator on a separable Hilbert space , that the only observable values of the property are the eigenvalues of the operator , and that the probability of the system being observed in a particular eigenvalue is the square of the absolute value of the complex number obtained by projecting the state vector ( a point in the Hilbert space ) onto the corresponding eigenvector . George Mackey had asked whether Born 's rule is a necessary consequence of a particular set of axioms for quantum mechanics , and more specifically whether every measure on the lattice of projections of a Hilbert space can be defined by a positive operator with unit trace . Though Richard Kadison proved this was false for two @-@ dimensional Hilbert spaces , Gleason 's theorem ( published 1957 ) shows it to be true for higher dimensions . Gleason 's theorem implies the nonexistence of certain types of hidden variable theories for quantum mechanics , strengthening a previous argument of John von Neumann . Von Neumann had claimed to show that hidden variable theories were impossible , but ( as Grete Hermann pointed out ) his demonstration made an assumption that quantum systems obeyed a form of additivity of expectation for noncommuting operators that might not hold a priori . In 1966 , John Stewart Bell showed that Gleason 's theorem could be used to remove this extra assumption from von Neumann 's argument . = = = Ramsey theory = = = The Ramsey number R ( k , l ) is the smallest number r such that every graph with at least r vertices contains either a k @-@ vertex clique or an l @-@ vertex independent set . Ramsey numbers require enormous effort to compute ; when max ( k , l ) ≥ 3 only finitely many of them are known precisely , and an exact computation of R ( 6 @,@ 6 ) is believed to be out of reach . In 1953 , the calculation of R ( 3 @,@ 3 ) was given as a question in the Putnam Competition ; in 1955 , motivated by this problem , Gleason and his co @-@ author Robert M. Greenwood made significant progress in the computation of Ramsey numbers with their proof that R ( 3 @,@ 4 )

= 9 , R ( 3 @,@ 5 ) = 14 , and R ( 4 @,@ 4 )

= 18 . Since then , only five more of these values have been found . In the same 1955 paper , Greenwood and Gleason also computed the multicolor Ramsey number R ( 3 @,@ 3 @,@ 3 ) : the smallest number r such that , if a complete graph on r vertices has its edges colored with three colors , then it necessarily contains a monochromatic triangle . As they showed , R ( 3 @,@ 3 @,@ 3 ) = 17 ; this remains the only nontrivial multicolor Ramsey number whose exact value is known . As part of their proof , they used an algebraic construction to show that a 16 @-@ vertex complete graph can be decomposed into three disjoint copies of a triangle @-@ free 5 @-@ regular graph with 16 vertices and 40 edges ( sometimes called the Greenwood – Gleason graph ) . Ronald Graham writes that the paper by Greenwood and Gleason " is now recognized as a classic in the development of Ramsey theory " . In the late 1960s , Gleason became the doctoral advisor of Joel Spencer , who also became known for his contributions to Ramsey theory . = = = Coding theory = = = Gleason published few contributions to coding theory , but they were influential ones , and included " many of the seminal ideas and early results " in algebraic coding theory . During the 1950s and 1960s , he attended monthly meetings on coding theory with Vera Pless and others at the Air Force Cambridge Research Laboratory . Pless , who had previously worked in abstract algebra but became one of the world 's leading experts in coding theory during this time , writes that " these monthly meetings were what I lived for . " She frequently posed her mathematical problems to Gleason and was often rewarded with a quick and insightful response . The Gleason – Prange theorem is named after Gleason 's work with AFCRL researcher Eugene Prange ; it was originally published in a 1964 AFCRL research report by H. F. Mattson , Jr. and E. F. Assmus , Jr . It concerns the quadratic residue code of order n , extended by adding a single parity check bit . This " remarkable theorem " shows that this code is highly symmetric , having the projective linear group PSL2 ( n ) as a subgroup of its symmetries . Gleason is also the namesake of the Gleason polynomials , a system of polynomials that generate the weight enumerators of linear codes . These polynomials take a particularly simple form for self @-@ dual codes : in this case there are just two of them , the two bivariate polynomials x2 + y2 and x8 + 14x2y2 + y8 . Gleason 's student Jessie MacWilliams continued Gleason 's work in this area , proving a relationship between the weight enumerators of codes and their duals that has become known as the MacWilliams identity . = = = Other areas = = = Gleason founded the theory of Dirichlet algebras , and made other math ­ e ­ mat ­ i ­ cal contributions including work on the enumerative combinatorics of permutations . ( In 1959 he wrote that his research " sidelines " included " an intense interest in combinatorial problems . " ) As well , he was not above publishing research in more elementary mathematics , such as the derivation of the set of polygons that can be constructed with compass , straightedge , and an angle trisector . = = Awards and honors = = In 1952 Gleason was awarded the American Association for the Advancement of Science 's Newcomb Cleveland Prize for his work on Hilbert 's fifth problem . He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society , was a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences , and belonged to the Société Mathématique de France . In 1981 and 1982 he was president of the American Mathematical Society , and at various times held numerous other posts in professional and scholarly organizations , including chairmanship of the Harvard Department of Mathematics . In 1986 he chaired the organizing committee for the International Congress of Mathematicians in Berkeley , California , and was president of the Congress . In 1996 the Harvard Society of Fellows held a special symposium honoring Gleason on his retirement after seven years as its chairman ; that same year , the Mathematics Association of America awarded him the Yueh @-@ Gin Gung and Dr. Charles Y. Hu Distinguished Service to Mathematics Award . A past president of the Association wrote : In thinking about , and admiring , Andy Gleason 's career , your natural reference is the total profession of a mathematician : designing and teaching courses , advising on education at all levels , doing research , consulting for the users of mathematics , acting as a leader of the profession , cultivating math ­ e ­ mat ­ i ­ cal talent , and serving one 's institution . Andy Gleason is that rare individual who has done all of these superbly . After his death a 32 @-@ page collection of essays in the Notices of the American Mathematical Society recalled " the life and work of [ this ] eminent American mathematician " , calling him " one of the quiet giants of twentieth @-@ century mathematics , the consummate professor dedicated to scholarship , teaching , and service in equal measure . " = = Selected publications = = Research papers Gleason , A. M. ( 1952 ) , " One @-@ parameter subgroups and Hilbert 's fifth problem " ( PDF ) , Proceedings of the International Congress of Mathematicians , Cambridge , Mass . , 1950 , Vol . 2 , Providence , R. I. : American Mathematical Society , pp. 451 – 452 , MR 0043788 — — ( 1956 ) , " Finite Fano planes " , American Journal of Mathematics 78 : 797 – 807 , doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2372469 , MR 0082684 . — — ( 1957 ) , " Measures on the closed subspaces of a Hilbert space " , Journal of Mathematics and Mechanics 6 : 885 – 893 , doi : 10 @.@ 1512 / iumj.1957.6.56050 , MR 0096113 . — — ( 1958 ) , " Projective topological spaces " , Illinois Journal of Mathematics 2 : 482 – 489 , MR 0121775 , Zbl 0083 @.@ 17401 . — — ( 1967 ) , " A characterization of maximal ideals " , Journal d 'Analyse Mathématique 19 : 171 – 172 , doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / bf02788714 , MR 0213878 . — — ( 1971 ) , " Weight polynomials of self @-@ dual codes and the MacWilliams identities " , Actes du Congrès International des Mathématiciens ( Nice , 1970 ) , Tome 3 , Paris : Gauthier @-@ Villars , pp. 211 – 215 , MR 0424391 . Greenwood , R. E. ; Gleason , A. M. ( 1955 ) , " Combinatorial relations and chromatic graphs " , Canadian Journal of Mathematics 7 : 1 – 7 , doi : 10 @.@ 4153 / CJM @-@ 1955 @-@ 001 @-@ 4 , MR 0067467 . Books Gleason , Andrew M. ( 1966 ) , Fundamentals of Abstract Analysis , Addison @-@ Wesley Publishing Co . , Reading , Mass.-London @-@ Don Mills , Ont . , MR 0202509 . Corrected reprint , Boston : Jones and Bartlett , 1991 , MR 1140189 . — — ; Greenwood , Robert E. ; Kelly , Leroy Milton ( 1980 ) , The William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition : Problems and Solutions 1938 – 1964 , Mathematical Association of America , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 88385 @-@ 462 @-@ 4 , MR 0588757 . — — ; Penney , Walter F. ; Wyllys , Ronald E. ( 1985 ) , Elementary Course in Probability for the Cryptanalyst , Laguna Hills , CA : Aegean Park Press . Unclassified reprint of a book originally published in 1957 by the National Security Agency , Office of Research and Development , Mathematical Research Division . — — ; Hughes @-@ Hallett , Deborah ( 1994 ) , Calculus , Wiley . Since its original publications this book has been extended to many different editions and variations with additional co @-@ authors . Film Gleason , Andrew M. ( 1966 ) , Nim and other oriented @-@ graph games , Mathematical Association of America . 63 minutes , black & white . Produced by Richard G. Long and directed by Allan Hinderstein .

= Bishop 's Palace , Wells = The Bishop 's Palace and accompanying Bishops House at Wells in the English county of Somerset , is adjacent to Wells Cathedral and has been the home of the Bishops of the Diocese of Bath and Wells for 800 years . It has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building . Building of the palace started around 1210 by Bishops Jocelin of Wells and Reginald Fitz Jocelin . The chapel and great hall were added by Bishop Robert Burnell between 1275 and 1292 . The walls , gatehouse and moat were added in the 14th century by Bishop Ralph of Shrewsbury . The Bishops House was added in the 15th century by Bishop Thomas Beckington . The great hall later fell into disrepair and was partially demolished around 1830 . The palace was originally surrounded by a medieval deer park . When the walls were built , streams were diverted to form the moat as a reservoir . In the 1820s , the grounds within the walls were planted and laid out as pleasure grounds by Bishop George Law , who created a reflecting pond near the springs . Parts of the buildings are still used as a residence by the current bishop , however much of the palace is now used for public functions and as a tourist attraction . = = History = = Construction began around 1210 by Bishop Jocelin of Wells but principally dates from 1230 . Bishop Jocelin continued the cathedral building campaign begun by Bishop Reginald Fitz Jocelin , and was responsible for building the Bishop 's Palace , as well as the choristers ' school , a grammar school , a hospital for travellers and a chapel within the liberty of the cathedral . He also built a manor house at Wookey , near Wells . The chapel and great hall were built between 1275 and 1292 for Bishop Robert Burnell . The windows had stone tracery . Stone bosses where the supporting ribs meet on the ceiling are covered with representations of oak leaves and the Green Man . The building is seen as a fine example of the Early English architectural style . In the 14th century , Bishop Ralph of Shrewsbury continued the building . He had an uneasy relationship with the citizens of Wells , partly because of his imposition of taxes , and surrounded his palace with crenellated walls , a moat and a drawbridge . The 5 metres ( 16 ft ) high three @-@ storey gatehouse , which dates from 1341 , has a bridge over the moat . The entrance was protected by a heavy gate , portcullis and drawbridge , operated by machinery above the entrance , and spouts through which defenders could pour scalding liquids onto any attacker . The drawbridge was still operational in 1831 when it was closed after word was received that the Palace of the Bishop of Bristol was subject to an arson attack during the Bristol riots . These took place after the House of Lords rejected the second Reform Bill . The proposal had aimed to get rid of some of the rotten boroughs and give Britain 's fast growing industrial towns such as Bristol , Manchester , Birmingham , Bradford and Leeds greater representation in the House of Commons ; however there was no rioting in Wells . The water which filled the moat flowed from the springs in the grounds which had previously chosen its own course as a small stream separating the cathedral and the palace and causing marshy ground around the site . The moat acted as a reservoir , controlled by sluice gates , which powered watermills in the town . The north wing ( now the Bishop 's House ) was added in the 15th century by Bishop Beckington , with further modifications in the 18th century , and in 1810 by Bishop Beadon . It was restored , divided , and the upper storey added by Benjamin Ferrey between 1846 and 1854 . Following the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1548 , Bishop Barlow sold Edward Seymour , 1st Duke of Somerset the palace and grounds . These were recovered after the Duke 's execution in 1552 . In the 1550s , Bishop Barlow sold the lead from the roofs of the great hall . This resulted in it falling into a ruined state . It can be seen in an engraving of 1733 but was largely demolished around 1830 by Bishop Law . He created a " more picturesque ruin " by removing the south and east walls and laying out and planting the area previously occupied by the great hall . The palace was used as a garrison for troops in both the English Civil War and Monmouth Rebellion after which it was used as a prison for rebels after the Battle of Sedgemoor . Bishop Kidder was killed during the Great Storm of 1703 , when two chimney stacks in the palace fell on him and his wife , while they were asleep in bed . A central porch was added around 1824 and , in the 1840s and 1850s , Benjamin Ferrey restored the palace and added an upper storey . He also restored the chapel using stained glass from ruined French churches . In 1953 , it was designated as a Grade I listed building . In February 2008 , the poet laureate of the United Kingdom , Andrew Motion , was commissioned by the BBC West television programme Inside Out West to write a poem in Harry Patch 's honour . Entitled " The Five Acts of Harry Patch " it was first read at a special event at the Bishop 's Palace , where it was introduced by the Prince of Wales and received by Harry Patch . = = = The Glastonbury Chair = = = One of the two surviving Glastonbury chairs is on display in the palace . It was made in Britain from a description brought back from Rome in 1504 by Abbot Richard Beere to Glastonbury Abbey , and was produced for or by John Arthur Thorne , a monk who was the treasurer at the abbey . Arthur perished on Glastonbury Tor in 1539 , hanged , drawn and quartered alongside his master , Richard Whiting , the last Abbot of Glastonbury , during the dissolution of the monasteries . The Abbot sat on a Glastonbury chair of this type during his trial at the Bishop 's Palace . Other chairs of this age and later reproductions can also be seen . = = = Current use = = = The palace now belongs to the Church Commissioners and is managed and run by The Palace Trust . The main palace is open to the public , including the medieval vaulted undercroft , chapel and a long gallery , although the Bishops House is still used as a residence and offices . There is a café overlooking the Croquet Lawn . The palace is licensed for weddings and used for conferences and meetings . The croquet lawn in front of the palace is used on a regular basis . The palace was used as a location for some of the scenes in the 2007 British comedy Hot Fuzz , and more recently in the 2016 film The Huntsman . On 10 December 2013 , it was announced that Peter Hancock would become Bishop of Bath and Wells in 2014 . A few days earlier , the Church Commissioners had announced that the new bishop would work , but not live , in the Palace ; it was later announced that he would instead live , at least temporarily , at The Old Rectory a few miles away at Croscombe . However that decision proved controversial . The Bishops ' Council formally objected to the Commissioners ' decision , and the matter was referred by the Archbishops ' Council to a committee which , in May 2014 , decided that the house in Croscombe was not suitable to be a see house , and that the bishop should remain living in the Palace . = = Architecture = = = = = Bishop 's Eye = = = The Bishop 's Palace lies within the Liberty of St Andrew , which encloses the cathedral , the Bishop 's Palace , Vicar 's Close and the residences and offices of the clergy who serve the cathedral . The palace is accessible from the adjacent market place through an archway known as The Bishop 's Eye in the gatehouse to the walled precinct . The Bishop 's Eye was built around 1450 , by Bishop Beckington . It is a three @-@ storey building of Doulting ashlar stone , with a copper roof and has been designated as a Grade I listed building . The Bishop 's Eye forms one of a pair with the Penniless Porch which is the gateway into the Cathedral from the market place , which was built at the same time and in a similar style . = = = Bishop 's Palace = = = The palace is a two @-@ storey building of seven bays , with three gables over alternating bays , two of which are supported by buttresses . There is an attic beneath the coped gables and surmounted by octagonal chimney stacks . The interior is laid out with a hall , solar and gallery with an undercroft . It has flagstone floors and a 16th @-@ century stone fireplace . To the right of the building is an aisless chapel in the early Decorated Gothic style of the late 13th century , built of local stone with Doulting Stone dressings . The remains of the 13th century great hall are the north wall and some column bases of an internal arcade , indicating that it was a five bayed aisled hall with crenellations and tall windows in the Decorated Gothic style . = = = Bishops House = = = The Bishops House consists of two narrow ranges with a narrow courtyard . The front of the building on the south side is crenelated . The arrangement of the rooms inside has been changed many times over the years . It still includes features from the 15th century including a doorway and oak screens . The windows include some remnants of 16th century stained glass . = = Grounds = = The grounds of the palace in the 13th century included a medieval deer park . The right to form the park was granted by King John to Bishop Jocelin in 1207 . The Palace Camery was planted with orchards , a herbarium and kitchen gardens to provide food for the Bishop and staff . There are now 14 acres ( 5 @.@ 7 ha ) of gardens including St Andrew 's Spring from which the city takes its name . The spring supplies St. Andrew 's Well from which water flows at a rate of 40 imperial gallons ( 180 L ) per second into the moat which holds 4 million imperial gallons ( 18 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) . The water emerging from the spring originates from the cave system of the Mendip Hills including Thrupe Lane Swallet . The Well House was built in 1451 , for Bishop Beckington to provide water to the citizens of Wells in the market place . The small stone building with a slate roof has a central hole in the stone floor giving access to the well itself . The gardens are listed , Grade II * , on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England . The grounds included The Bishop 's Barn which was built as a tithe barn in the 15th century , and the area next to it which is now a public park and play area . The barn was built of local stone roughly squared , with Doulting ashlar dressings and a Westmorland slate roof . Royalist troops were quartered in the barn during the Bloody Assizes . Much of the existing landscaping on the south lawn was carried out by Bishop George Henry Law in the 1820s . This included the incorporation of the remains of the roofless great hall and the construction of a raised rampart around the inside of the wall accessible from one of the towers . Bishop Law also created a grotto which he used to display fossils from Banwell Caves which were also part of his estate . A range of tress and shrubs were planted including : a black walnut , Lebanon cedar , catalpa and ginkgo . In the 1830s , Bishop Law had a pool created next to the springs . This acts as a mirror on a still day providing reflections of the east end of the cathedral in the water . In the outer garden is an arboretum , planted in 1977 by Bishop John Bickersteth to commemorate the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II . The mute swans on the moat have been trained to ring bells by pulling strings , to beg for food . The first swans were trained by one of the daughters of Bishop Hervey in the 1870s . Two swans which were given to the bishop by Queen Elizabeth II in 2006 , are still able to ring for lunch fed to them by the caretakers who live in the gatehouse . Every August bank holiday , the moat is used for the Wells Moat Boat Race , a charity raft race organised by Wells Lions Club and Air Training Corps . In 2007 , the Bishop entered a raft into the race . In 2013 , a " tree of heaven " on the south lawn , which had been planted in 1885 , was blown down during the St. Jude storm .

= Ethnic Cleansing ( video game ) = Ethnic Cleansing is a first @-@ person shooter video game for Microsoft Windows computers , created by the American White nationalist organization National Alliance ( and published by its record label Resistance Records on January 21 , 2002 . As part of a " Race War " , the player controls a neo @-@ Nazi or a Klansman and is tasked with killing stereotypical African @-@ American , Latino , and Jewish enemies , ending with former Israeli Prime Minister Ariel Sharon . Using the Genesis3D engine , the National Alliance created the game to be provocative and promote their white supremacist messages . The game has been controversial , with the Anti @-@ Defamation League taking particular issue ; it has been ranked several times as one of the most controversial games ever created . It was planned to be followed by a long line of sequels , but only one , titled White Law , has been released . = = Overview = = Ethnic Cleansing is a standard , short @-@ length first @-@ person shooter set in a single level . The player can select a neo @-@ Nazi , a Skinhead , or a Klansman to control . They run through a ghetto that has been compared to New York City and shoot African @-@ Americans and Latinos , before descending into a subway system to kill Jews . Finally , the player reaches the " Yiddish Control Center " , where a fictionalized version of Ariel Sharon , then Prime Minister of Israel , is directing plans for world domination . He carries a rocket launcher ; the player must kill him to complete the game . The heads @-@ up display contains a map of nearby enemies and a counter of remaining ammunition . The game 's soundtrack consists of white power rock music . The game 's art assets and sound effects feature racial stereotypes : when shot , black enemies make monkey noises and Jewish enemies shout " oy vey ! " . In addition , black enemies are drawn to resemble apes and some wear T @-@ shirts with the lettering " NIGZ " , while Latino enemies wear sombreros . = = Development and release = = Ethnic Cleansing was developed by members of the National Alliance , an American white supremacist organization , and published by Resistance Records , its subsidiary record label that specializes in white power music . It was developed for Microsoft Windows personal computers using Eclipse Entertainment 's open @-@ source game engine Genesis3D along with the Reality Factory development kit . The source code was not substantially changed from the original . Instead , the developers simply plugged in images and sounds that they had created in freely available editing programs . Shaun Walker , the chairman of the National Alliance , explained to the United Press that the intent was to produce a racially provocative video game and promote racial segregation . National Alliance founder William Luther Pierce , who also appears in the game to discuss an " upcoming white revolution " , considered video games to be simply another medium to promote his organization 's messages . Resistance released the game on Martin Luther King , Jr . Day ( January 21 ) of 2002 . It was priced at USD $ 14 @.@ 88 , a reference to the white supremacist Fourteen Words slogan and the neo @-@ Nazi numerical code " 88 " ( which stands for " HH " or " Heil Hitler " ) . = = Reception and controversy = = While it received little attention from the mainstream media , the game was immediately controversial among Americans on both sides of the political spectrum . The Anti @-@ Defamation League , an anti @-@ racist organization that especially covers anti @-@ Semitism , publicized the existence of the game and unsuccessfully lobbied the developers of Genesis3D to change their licensing conditions to prohibit the use of the engine to develop racist games . They lobbied the Interactive Digital Software Association to encourage its members to adopt such policies . The game 's reception from critics was extremely negative . David Leonard of PopMatters decried the game 's graphics and " playability , " While not approving of the game 's message , he argued that it was only the latest in a long line of racist video games that included the likes of Grand Theft Auto III , NFL Street , and Freedom Fighters . In January 2003 , Stuff named Ethnic Cleansing the 40th most controversial video game of all time . The staff opined that only " very stupid children " would be susceptible to its message and that it would make players feel like " small @-@ minded assholes . " Complex and UGO ranked it as the single most racist video game in history ; UGO staff writer K. Thor Jensen called it " profoundly stupid . " Pierce estimated that " a couple thousand " copies of the game had been sold within a month of its release and that 90 percent of consumers had been white teenage boys . = = Sequel = = The National Alliance and Resistance Records released a similar game , White Law , in June 2003 . It starred an Irish @-@ American police officer taking up arms to protect his territory from racial minorities . It has been compared to Freedom Fighters , though it was based on the events of Pierce 's novel The Turner Diaries . The National Alliance intended to create an entire line of racist games , but no more have surfaced .

= Charlie Chan = Charlie Chan is a fictional character created by Earl Derr Biggers . Biggers loosely based Chan on Honolulu , Hawaii detective Chang Apana , and conceived of the benevolent and heroic Chan as an alternative to Yellow Peril stereotypes and villains like Fu Manchu . Chan is a detective for the Honolulu police , though many stories feature Chan traveling the world as he investigates mysteries and solves crimes . Chan first appeared in Biggers ' novels , then was featured in a number of media . Over four dozen films featuring Charlie Chan were made , beginning in 1926 . The character was first portrayed by East Asian actors , and the films met with little success . In 1931 , the Fox Film Corporation cast Swedish actor Warner Oland as Chan in Charlie Chan Carries On ; the film became popular , and Fox went on to produce fifteen more Chan films with Oland in the title role . After Oland 's death , American actor Sidney Toler was cast as Chan ; Toler made twenty @-@ two Chan films , first for Fox and then for Monogram Studios . After Toler 's death , six films were made , starring Roland Winters . Readers and movie @-@ goers of white America greeted Chan warmly , seeing him as an attractive character who is portrayed as intelligent , heroic , benevolent and honorable in contrast to the racist depictions of evil or conniving Asians which dominated Hollywood and national media . However , in later decades critics took contending views , finding that Chan , despite his good qualities , reinforces condescending Asian stereotypes such as an alleged incapacity to speak idiomatic English and a tradition @-@ bound and subservient nature . Many found it objectionable that he was played on screen by Caucasian actors in yellowface . Film adaptations in the 1990s have been poorly received . The character has been featured in several radio programs , two television shows , and comics . = = Books = = The character of Charlie Chan was created by Earl Derr Biggers . In 1919 , while visiting Hawaii , Biggers planned a detective novel to be called The House Without a Key . He did not begin to write that novel until four years later , however , when he was inspired to add a Chinese @-@ American police officer to the plot after reading in a newspaper of Chang Apana ( 鄭阿平 ) and Lee Fook , two detectives on the Honolulu police force . Biggers , who disliked the Yellow Peril stereotypes he found when he came to California , explicitly conceived of the character as an alternative : " Sinister and wicked Chinese are old stuff , but an amiable Chinese on the side of law and order has never been used . " It overwhelms me with sadness to admit it … for he is of my own origin , my own race , as you know . But when I look into his eyes I discover that a gulf like the heaving Pacific lies between us . Why ? Because he , though among Caucasians many more years than I , still remains Chinese . As Chinese to @-@ day as in the first moon of his existence . While I – I bear the brand – the label – Americanized .... I traveled with the current .... I was ambitious . I sought success . For what I have won , I paid the price . Am I an American ? No . Am I , then , a Chinese ? Not in the eyes of Ah Sing . The " amiable Chinese " made his first appearance in The House Without a Key ( 1925 ) . The character was not central to the novel and was not mentioned by name on the dust jacket of the first edition . In the novel , Chan is described as walking with " the light dainty step of a woman " and as being " very fat indeed … an undistinguished figure in his Western clothes . " According to critic Sandra Hawley , this description of Chan allows Biggers to portray the character as nonthreatening , the opposite of evil Chinese characters , such as Fu Manchu , while simultaneously emphasizing supposedly Chinese characteristics such as impassivity and stoicism . Biggers wrote six novels in which Charlie Chan appears : The House Without a Key ( 1925 ) The Chinese Parrot ( 1926 ) Behind That Curtain ( 1928 ) The Black Camel ( 1929 ) Charlie Chan Carries On ( 1930 ) Keeper of the Keys ( 1932 ) = = Film , radio , and television adaptations = = = = = Films = = = The first Charlie Chan film was The House Without a Key ( 1926 ) , a ten @-@ chapter serial produced by Pathé Studios , starring George Kuwa , a Japanese actor , as Chan . A year later Universal Pictures followed with The Chinese Parrot , starring Japanese actor , Kamiyama Sojin , in the starring role . In both productions , Charlie Chan 's role was minimized . Contemporary reviews were unfavorable ; in the words of one reviewer , speaking of The Chinese Parrot , Sojin plays " the Chink sleuth as a Lon Chaney cook @-@ waiter … because Chaney can 't stoop that low . " In 1929 , the Fox Film Corporation opted Charlie Chan properties and produced Behind That Curtain , starring Korean actor E.L. Park . Again , Chan 's role was minimal , with Chan appearing only in the last ten minutes of the film . Not until a white actor was cast in the title role in 1931 did a Chan film meet with success . In Charlie Chan Carries On Chan was played by Swedish actor Warner Oland , who had also played Fu Manchu in an earlier film . Oland , who claimed some Mongolian ancestry , played the character as more gentle and self @-@ effacing than he had been in the books , perhaps in " a deliberate attempt by the studio to downplay an uppity attitude in a Chinese detective . " Oland starred in sixteen Chan films for Fox , often with Keye Luke , who played Chan 's " Number One Son " , Lee Chan . Oland 's " warmth and gentle humor " helped make the character and films popular ; the Oland Chan films were among Fox 's most successful . By attracting " major audiences and box @-@ office grosses on a par with A 's " they " kept Fox afloat " during the Great Depression . Oland died in 1938 , and the Chan film , Charlie Chan at the Ringside , was rewritten with additional footage as Mr. Moto 's Gamble , an entry in the Mr. Moto series , another contemporary series featuring an East Asian protagonist ; Luke appeared as Lee Chan , not only in already shot footage but also in scenes with Moto actor Peter Lorre . Fox hired another white actor , Sidney Toler , to play Charlie Chan , and produced eleven Chan films through 1942 . Toler 's Chan was less mild @-@ mannered than Oland 's , a " switch in attitude that added some of the vigor of the original books to the films . " He is frequently accompanied , and irritated , by his Number Two Son , Jimmy Chan , played by Sen Yung . When Fox decided to produce no further Chan films , Sidney Toler purchased the film rights . Producers Philip N. Krasne and James S. Burkett of Monogram Pictures produced and released further Chan films , starring Toler . The budget for these films was reduced from Fox 's average of $ 200 @,@ 000 to $ 75 @,@ 000 . For the first time , Chan was portrayed on occasion as " openly contemptuous of suspects and superiors . " African @-@ American comedic actor Mantan Moreland played chauffeur Birmingham Brown in 13 films ( 1944 – 1949 ) which led to criticism of the Monogram films in the forties and since ; some call his performances " brilliant comic turns " , while others describe Moreland 's roles as an offensive and embarrassing stereotype . Toler died in 1947 and was succeeded by Roland Winters for six films . Keye Luke , missing from the series after 1938 's Mr. Moto rework , returned as Charlie 's son in the last two entries . = = = = Spanish @-@ language adaptations = = = = Three Spanish @-@ language Charlie Chan films were made in the 1930s and 1950s . The first , Eran Trece ( There Were Thirteen ) ( 1931 ) , is a Spanish @-@ language version of Charlie Chan Carries On ( 1931 ) . The two films were made concurrently and followed the same production schedule , with each scene filmed twice the same day , once in English and then in Spanish . The film followed essentially the same script as the Anglophonic version , with minor additions such as brief songs and skits and some changes to characters ' names ( for example , the character Elmer Benbow was renamed Frank Benbow ) . A Cuban production , La Serpiente Roja ( The Red Snake ) , followed in 1937 . In 1955 , Producciones Cub @-@ Mex produced a Mexican version of Charlie Chan called El Monstruo en la Sombra ( Monster in the Shadow ) , starring Orlando Rodriguez as " Chan Li Po " ( Charlie Chan in the original script ) . The film was inspired by La Serpiente Roja as well as the American Warner Oland films . = = = = Chinese @-@ language adaptations = = = = During the 1930s and 1940s , five Chan films were produced in Shanghai and Hong Kong . In these films , Chan owns his detective agency and is aided , not by a son , but by a daughter , Manna , played first by Gu Meijun ( 顾梅君 ) in the Shanghai productions and then by Bai Yan ( 白燕 ) in postwar Hong Kong . Chinese audiences also saw the original American Charlie Chan films . They were by far the most popular American films in 1930s China and among Chinese expatriates ; " one of the reasons for this acceptance was this was the first time Chinese audiences saw a positive Chinese character in an American film , a departure from the sinister East Asian stereotypes in earlier movies like Thief of Baghdad and Welcome Danger , which incited riots that shut down the Shanghai theater showing it . " Oland 's visit to China was reported extensively in Chinese newspapers , and the actor was respectfully called " Mr. Chan " . = = = = Modern adaptations = = = = In Neil Simon 's Murder By Death , Peter Sellers plays a Chinese detective called Sidney Wang , a parody of Chan . In 1980 , Jerry Sherlock began production on a comedy film to be called Charlie Chan and the Dragon Lady . A group calling itself C.A.N. ( Coalition of Asians to Nix ) was formed , protesting the fact that non @-@ Chinese actors , Peter Ustinov and Angie Dickinson , had been cast in the primary roles . Others protested that the film script contained a number of stereotypes ; Sherlock responded that the film was not a documentary . The film was released the following year as Charlie Chan and the Curse of the Dragon Queen and was an " abysmal failure . " An updated film version of the character was planned in the 1990s by Miramax . While this Charlie Chan was to be " hip , slim , cerebral , sexy and ... a martial @-@ arts master , " nonetheless the film did not come to fruition . Actress Lucy Liu is slated to star in and executive @-@ produce a new Charlie Chan film for Fox . The film has been in preproduction since 2000 ; as of 2009 it is slated to be produced . = = = Radio = = = On radio , Charlie Chan was heard in several different series on three networks ( the NBC Blue Network , Mutual , and ABC ) between 1932 and 1948 . Walter Connolly initially portrayed Chan on Esso Oil 's Five Star Theater , which serialized adaptations of Biggers novels . Ed Begley , Sr. had the title role in N.B.C. ' s The Adventures of Charlie Chan ( 1944 – 45 ) , followed by Santos Ortega ( 1947 – 48 ) . Leon Janney and Rodney Jacobs were heard as Lee Chan , Number One Son , and Dorian St. George was the announcer . Radio Life magazine described Begley 's Chan as " a good radio match for Sidney Toler 's beloved film enactment . " = = = Television adaptations = = = In 1956 – 57 , The New Adventures of Charlie Chan , starring J. Carrol Naish in the title role , were made independently for TV syndication in 39 episodes , by Television Programs of America . The series was filmed in England . In this series , Chan is based in London rather than the United States . Ratings were poor , and the series was canceled . In the 1960s , Joey Forman played an obvious parody of Chan named " Harry Hoo " in two episodes of Get Smart . In the 1970s , Hanna @-@ Barbera produced an animated series called The Amazing Chan and the Chan Clan . Keye Luke , who had played Chan 's son in many Chan films of the 1930s and ' 40s , lent his voice to Charlie , employing a much @-@ expanded vocabulary . The series focused on Chan 's children , played initially by East Asian @-@ American child actors before being recast , due to concerns that younger viewers would not understand the accented voices . The title character bears some resemblance to the Warner Oland depiction of Charlie Chan . Leslie Kumamota voiced Chan 's daughter Anne , before being replaced by Jodie Foster . The Return of Charlie Chan , a television film starring Ross Martin as Chan , was made in 1971 but did not air until 1979 . = = Comics and games = = A Charlie Chan comic strip , drawn by Alfred Andriola , was distributed by the McNaught Syndicate beginning 24 October 1938 . Andriola was chosen by Biggers to draw the character . Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , the strip was dropped in May 1942 . Over decades , other Charlie Chan comic books have been published : Joe Simon and Jack Kirby created Prize Comics ' Charlie Chan ( 1948 ) which ran for five issues . It was followed by a Charlton Comics title ( four issues , 1955 ) . DC Comics published The New Adventures of Charlie Chan , a 1958 tie @-@ in with the TV series ; the DC series lasted for six issues . Dell Comics did the title for two issues in 1965 . In the 1970s , Gold Key Comics published a short @-@ lived series of Chan comics based on the Hanna @-@ Barbera animated series . In addition , a board game , The Great Charlie Chan Detective Mystery Game ( 1937 ) , and a Charlie Chan Card Game ( 1939 ) , have been released . = = Modern interpretations and criticism = = The character of Charlie Chan has been the subject of controversy . Some find the character to be a positive role model , while others argue that Chan is an offensive stereotype . Critic John Soister argues that Charlie Chan is both ; when Biggers created the character , he offered a unique alternative to stereotypical evil Chinamen , a man who was at the same time " sufficiently accommodating in personality ... unthreatening in demeanor ... and removed from his Asian homeland ... to quell any underlying xenophobia . " Critic Michael Brodhead argues that " Biggers 's sympathetic treatment of the Charlie Chan novels convinces the reader that the author consciously and forthrightly spoke out for the Chinese – a people to be not only accepted but admired . Biggers 's sympathetic treatment of the Chinese reflected and contributed to the greater acceptance of Chinese @-@ Americans in the first third of [ the twentieth ] century . " S. T. Karnick writes in the National Review that Chan is " a brilliant detective with understandably limited facility in the English language [ whose ] powers of observation , logic , and personal rectitude and humility made him an exemplary , entirely honorable character . " Ellery Queen called Biggers 's characterization of Charlie Chan " a service to humanity and to inter @-@ racial relations . " Dave Kehr of The New York Times said Chan " might have been a stereotype , but he was a stereotype on the side of the angels . " Luke agreed ; when asked if he thought that the character was demeaning to the race , he responded , " Demeaning to the race ? My God ! You 've got a Chinese hero ! " and " [ W ] e were making the best damn murder mysteries in Hollywood . " Other critics , such as Yen Le Espiritu and Huang Guiyou , argue that Chan , while portrayed positively in some ways , is not on a par with white characters , but a " benevolent Other " who is " one @-@ dimensional . " The films ' use of white actors to portray East Asian characters indicates the character 's " absolute Oriental Otherness ; " the films were only successful as " the domain of white actors who impersonated heavily @-@ accented masters of murder mysteries as well as purveyors of cryptic proverbs . Chan 's character " embodies the stereotypes of Chinese Americans , particularly of males : smart , subservient , effeminate . " Chan is representative of a model minority , the good stereotype that counters a bad stereotype : " Each stereotypical image is filled with contradictions : the bloodthirsty Indian is tempered with the image of the noble savage ; the bandido exists along with the loyal sidekick ; and Fu Manchu is offset by Charlie Chan . " However , Fu Manchu 's evil qualities are presented as inherently Chinese , while Charlie Chan 's good qualities are exceptional ; " Fu represents his race ; his counterpart stands away from the other Asian Hawaiians . " Some argue that the character 's popularity is dependent on its contrast with stereotypes of the Yellow Peril or Japanese people in particular . American opinion of China and Chinese @-@ Americans grew more positive in the 1920s and 30s in contrast to the Japanese , who were increasingly viewed with suspicion . Sheng @-@ mei Ma argues that the character is a psychological over @-@ compensation to " rampant paranoia over the racial other . " In June 2003 , the Fox Movie Channel cancelled a planned Charlie Chan Festival , soon after beginning restoration for cablecasting , after a special @-@ interest group protested . Fox reversed its decision two months later , and on 13 September 2003 , the first film in the festival was aired on Fox . The films , when broadcast on the Fox Movie Channel , were followed by round @-@ table discussions by prominent East Asians in the American entertainment industry , led by George Takei , most of whom were against the films . Collections such as Frank Chin 's Aiiieeee ! An Anthology of Asian @-@ American Writers and Jessica Hagedorn 's Charlie Chan is Dead are put forth as alternatives to the Charlie Chan stereotype and " [ articulate ] cultural anger and exclusion as their animating force . " Fox released the restored versions on D.V.D. in 2006 ; as of mid @-@ 2008 , Fox has released all of the extant Warner Oland titles and has begun issuing the Sidney Toler series . The first six Monogram productions , all starring Sidney Toler , were released by MGM in 2004 . Some modern critics , particularly East Asian @-@ Americans , dismiss the Charlie Chan character as " bovine " and " asexual " , allowing " white America … [ to be ] securely indifferent about us as men . " Charlie Chan 's good qualities are the product of what Frank Chin and Jeffery Chan call " racist love " , arguing that Chan is a model minority and " kissass " . Fletcher Chan , however , argues that the Chan of Biggers 's novels is not subservient to white characters , citing The Chinese Parrot as an example ; in this novel , Chan 's eyes blaze with anger at racist remarks and in the end , after exposing the murderer , Chan remarks " Perhaps listening to a ' Chinaman ' is no disgrace . " In the films , both Charlie Chan in London ( 1934 ) and Charlie Chan in Paris ( 1935 ) " contain scenes in which Chan coolly and wittily dispatches other characters ' racist remarks . " Yunte Huang manifests an ambivalent attitude , stating that in the USA , Chan " epitomizes the racist heritage and the creative genius of this nation ’ s culture . " Huang also suggests that critics of Charlie Chan may have themselves , at times , " caricatured " Chan himself . Chan 's character has also come under fire for " nuggets of fortune cookie Confucius " and the " counterfeit proverbs " which became so widespread in popular culture . The Biggers novels did not introduce the " Confucius say " proverbs , which were added in the films , but one novel features Chan remarking : " As all those who know me have learned to their distress , Chinese have proverbs to fit every possible situation . " Huang Yunte gives as examples " Tongue often hang man quicker than rope , " " Mind , like parachute , only function when open , " and " Man who flirt with dynamite sometime fly with angels . " He argues , however , that these " colorful aphorisms " display " amazing linguistic acrobatic skills . " Like the African American " signifying monkey , " Huang continues , Chan " imparts as much insult as wisdom . " = = Filmography = = Unless otherwise noted , information is taken from Charles P. Mitchell 's A Guide to Charlie Chan Films ( 1999 ) .

= SMS Preussen ( 1873 ) = For the battleship of the same name , see SMS Preussen SMS Preussen was an armored frigate of the German Kaiserliche Marine . The ship was built by the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1871 – 1876 ; she was commissioned into the fleet in July 1876 . She was the first large warship of the German navy built by a private shipyard ; all previous vessels had been ordered abroad or built by Royal or Imperial dockyards . Her main battery of four 26 cm ( 10 in ) guns was mounted in a pair of twin gun turrets amidships . Preussen served with the fleet from her commissioning until 1891 , though she was frequently placed in reserve throughout her career . She cruised the Mediterranean Sea several times during her service , including during a mission in 1877 after unrest in the Ottoman Empire threatened German citizens living there . The ship was withdrawn from service at the end of 1891 and used as a harbor guard ship until 1896 , when she was relegated to being a supply ship in Wilhelmshaven . She ended her career as a coal hulk for torpedo boats . In 1903 , she was renamed Saturn so her name could be reused . The ship was ultimately sold to shipbreakers in 1919 . = = Construction = = Preussen was ordered by the Imperial Navy from the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin ; her keel was laid in 1871 under construction number 66 . This was the first time a private German shipbuilder was given a contract to build a large warship for the navy . The ship was launched on 22 November 1873 and commissioned into the German fleet on 4 July 1876 . Preussen cost the German government 7 @,@ 303 @,@ 000 gold marks . Although she was the third and final ship in her class to be laid down , she was the first to be launched and commissioned . This was because her two sisters , Friedrich der Grosse and Grosser Kurfürst , were built by newly established Imperial dockyards , while Preussen was built by an experienced commercial ship builder . The ship was 96 @.@ 59 meters ( 316 @.@ 9 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 16 @.@ 30 m ( 53 @.@ 5 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 12 m ( 23 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . Preussen was powered by one 3 @-@ cylinder single @-@ expansion steam engine , which was supplied with steam by six coal @-@ fired transverse trunk boilers . The ship 's top speed was 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) , at 5 @,@ 471 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 080 kW ) . She was also equipped with a full ship rig . Her standard complement consisted of 46 officers and 454 enlisted men . She was armed with four 26 cm ( 10 @.@ 2 in ) L / 22 guns mounted in a pair of gun turrets placed amidships . As built , the ship was also equipped with two 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) L / 25 chase guns . After being rebuilt in 1888 – 1890 , her armament was increased by six and later ten 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns , a pair of machine guns , and five 35 cm ( 14 in ) torpedo tubes , all submerged in the ship 's hull . Preussen 's armor was made of wrought iron and backed with teak . The armored belt was arrayed in two strakes . The upper strake was 203 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) thick ; the lower strake ranged in thickness from 102 to 229 mm ( 4 @.@ 0 to 9 @.@ 0 in ) . Both were backed with 234 to 260 mm ( 9 @.@ 2 to 10 @.@ 2 in ) of teak . The gun turrets were protected by 203 to 254 mm ( 8 @.@ 0 to 10 @.@ 0 in ) armor on the sides , backed by 260 mm of teak . = = Service history = = After her commissioning in July 1876 , Preussen served with the fleet . She joined a squadron sent to the Mediterranean Sea in 1877 in response to unrest in the Ottoman Empire related to the Russo @-@ Turkish War ; the violence threatened German citizens living there . The squadron , under the command of Rear Admiral Carl Ferdinand Batsch , steamed to the ports of Haifa and Jaffa in July 1877 , but found no significant tensions ashore . Batsch then departed and cruised the Mediterranean for the remainder of the summer , returning to Germany in October . In April 1878 , Preussen participated in the fleet maneuvers , again under the command of Rear Admiral Batsch . By this time , she was joined by her two sister ships , Friedrich der Grosse and Grosser Kurfürst . While steaming in the English Channel on 31 May , the armored frigate König Wilhelm accidentally rammed Grosser Kurfürst ; the latter quickly sank with the loss of 276 men . After assisting in the rescue attempt , Preussen escorted the damaged König Wilhelm to Portsmouth , where the Royal Navy made available a dry dock for emergency repairs . Albrecht von Stosch , the chief of the Kaiserliche Marine , ordered Rear Admiral Batsch and his staff to return to Germany immediately aboard Preussen and the dispatch vessel Falke . The annual summer maneuvers for 1878 were canceled within a week of the sinking . In May 1879 , the armored squadron was reactivated , composed of Preussen , her sister Friedrich der Grosse , and the old armored frigates Kronprinz and Friedrich Carl . The annual summer training cruise was primarily conducted in just the Baltic Sea , apart from a short voyage in June to the coast of Norway . The four ships returned to Kiel in September , where they were demobilized for the winter . The new armored corvette Sachsen replaced Kronprinz in the squadron in 1880 . Wilhelm von Wickede , a former Austrian naval officer , replaced Batsch as the squadron commander . Again , the squadron remained in the Baltic for the summer cruise , with the exception of a short visit to Wilhelmshaven and Cuxhaven in August . The summer cruise in 1881 followed the same pattern as the year previous , though Kronprinz returned in place of Sachsen , which was plagued with engine problems . Wickede again served as the commander . In July , the ships hosted a visit by the British reserve squadron , which by this time included the first British ironclad , HMS Warrior . Preussen and the rest of the squadron visited Danzig in September during a meeting between Kaiser Wilhelm I and the Russian Tsar Alexander III . The 1882 summer cruise included the same four ironclads from the previous year , and was again commanded by Wickede , who had by then been promoted to Rear Admiral . Preussen was kept in reserve during the annual summer maneuvers starting in 1883 , as new ships , including the rest of the Sachsen @-@ class ironclads entered service . In August 1889 , Preussen was reactivated to participate in Kaiser Wilhelm II 's visit to Great Britain . The ship was assigned to the II Division , along with her sister Friedrich der Grosse and the central battery ironclads Kaiser and Deutschland , under command of Rear Admiral Friedrich Hollmann . The fleet then conducted maneuvers in the North Sea before returning to Germany . Preussen and the rest of the II Division became the training squadron for the fleet in 1889 – 1890 , the first year the Kaiserliche Marine maintained a year @-@ round ironclad force . The squadron escorted Wilhelm II 's imperial yacht to the Mediterranean ; the voyage included state visits to Italy and the Ottoman Empire . The squadron remained in the Mediterranean until April 1890 , when it returned to Germany . Preussen participated in the ceremonial transfer of the island of Helgoland from British to German control in the summer of 1890 . She was present during the fleet maneuvers in September , where the entire eight @-@ ship armored squadron simulated a Russian fleet blockading Kiel . The II Division , including Preuseen , served as the training squadron in the winter of 1890 – 1891 . The squadron again cruised the Mediterranean , under the command of Rear Admiral Wilhelm Schröder . Preussen saw one final round of fleet maneuvers with the II Division in 1891 . She was removed from fleet duty to serve as a harbor guard ship at the end of 1891 . She was based in Wilhelmshaven as a harbor ship starting on 16 November 1896 . She was renamed Saturn on 12 November 1903 , so her name could be reused on the new battleship Preussen . The ship was formally stricken from the naval register on 21 May 1906 . She was subsequently used as a coal hulk for torpedo boats . After being converted for this use , Saturn could hold up to 5 @,@ 000 t ( 4 @,@ 900 long tons ; 5 @,@ 500 short tons ) of coal . She was eventually sold for scrapping on 27 June 1919 and broken up that year in Wilhelmshaven . Her figurehead is on display in the Militärhistorisches Museum der Bundeswehr in Dresden , while her bow ornament is located in the Deutsches Museum in Munich .

= Taoism = Taoism , also known as Daoism , is a religious or philosophical tradition of Chinese origin with an emphasis on living in harmony with , and in accordance to the natural flow or cosmic structural order of the universe commonly referred to as the Tao ( 道 , also romanized as Dao ) . Taoist thought and philosophy was later incorporated into the religious traditions and practices of the ancient Chinese religion hundreds of years after its original development . The term Tao means the " natural way of the universe " , " the way " , " path " , or " principle " , and can also be found in other unrelated ancient Chinese philosophies and religions other than Taoism . In Taoism , however , Tao denotes something that is both the source of , and the force behind , everything that exists . Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the tenets of the School of Yin Yang , and is heavily influenced and informed by the acknowledged oldest text of ancient Chinese classics , the I Ching , which prescribes a system of philosophical thought on the ethics of human behaviours based on articulating cycles of change in the natural and social worlds by means of hexagrams , and includes instructions for divination practice still adhered to by modern @-@ day religious Taoists . Daoism , as Taoism is sometimes referred , diverged sharply from Confucian thoughts by scorning rigid rituals and social classes . The Tao Te Ching , a compact and ambiguous book containing teachings attributed to Laozi ( Chinese : 老子 ; pinyin : Lǎozǐ ; Wade – Giles : Lao Tzu ) , is widely considered the keystone work of this philosophy . Together with the writings of Zhuangzi , which interprets and adds to the teaching of Laozi , these classic texts provide the philosophical foundation of Taoism deriving from the 8 trigrams ( bagua ) of Fu Xi in the 2700s BC in China , the various combinations of which creates the 64 hexagrams as documented in the I Ching . Taoist propriety and ethics may vary depending on the particular school , but in general they tend to emphasize wu @-@ wei ( action through non @-@ action ) , " naturalness " , simplicity , spontaneity , and the Three Treasures : jing ( sperm / ovary energy , or the essence of the physical body ) , qi ( energy , including the thoughts and emotions ) , and Shén ( spirit or spiritual power ) . Taoism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture in the course of the centuries , and clerics of institutionalised Taoism ( Chinese : 道士 ; pinyin : dàoshi ) usually take care to note distinction between their ritual tradition and the customs and practices found in Chinese folk religion as these distinctions sometimes appear blurred . Chinese alchemy ( especially neidan ) , Chinese astrology , Chan ( Zen ) Buddhism , several martial arts , traditional Chinese medicine , feng shui , and many styles of qigong have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history . Beyond China , Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia . After Laozi and Zhuangzi , the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon — the Daozang — which was published at the behest of the emperor . Throughout Chinese history , Taoism was several times nominated as a state religion . After the 17th century , however , it fell from favor . Today , ancient Taoist thought incorporated into the ancient Chinese religion is one of five religions officially recognized in the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) as well as Taiwan , and although it does not travel readily from its East Asian roots , claims adherents in a number of societies . Taoism also has sizable communities in Hong Kong , Taiwan , Japan and in Southeast Asia . = = Definition = = = = = Spelling and pronunciation = = = English speakers continue to debate the preferred romanization of the words " Daoism " and " Taoism " . The root Chinese word 道 " way , path " is romanized tao in the older Wade – Giles system and dào in the modern Pinyin system . In linguistic terminology , English Taoism / Daoism is formed from the Chinese loanword tao / dao 道 " way ; route ; principle " and the native suffix -ism . The debate over Taoism vs. Daoism involves sinology , phonemes , loanwords , and politics – not to mention whether Taoism should be pronounced / ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm / or / ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm / . Daoism is pronounced / ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm / , but English speakers disagree whether Taoism should be / ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm / or / ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm / . In theory , both Wade – Giles tao and Pinyin dao are articulated identically , as are Taoism and Daoism . An investment book titled The Tao Jones Averages ( a pun on the Dow Jones Indexes ) illustrates this / daʊ / pronunciation 's widespread familiarity . In speech , Tao and Taoism are often pronounced / ˈtaʊ / and ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm / , reading the Chinese unaspirated lenis ( " weak " ) / t / as the English voiceless stop consonant / t / . Lexicography shows American and British English differences in pronouncing Taoism . A study of major English dictionaries published in Great Britain and the United States found the most common Taoism glosses were / taʊ.ɪzəm / in British sources and / daʊ.ɪzəm , taʊ.ɪzəm / in American ones . = = = Categorization = = = The word " Taoism " is used to translate different Chinese terms which refer to different aspects of the same tradition and semantic field : " Taoist religion " ( Chinese : 道教 ; pinyin : dàojiào ; lit . " teachings of the Tao " ) , or the " liturgical " aspect — A family of organized religious movements sharing concepts or terminology from " Taoist philosophy " ; the first of these is recognized as the Celestial Masters school . " Taoist philosophy " ( Chinese : 道家 ; pinyin : dàojiā ; lit . " school or family of the Tao " ) or " Taology " ( Chinese : 道學 ; pinyin : dàoxué ; lit . " learning of the Tao " ) , or the " mystical " aspect — The philosophical doctrines based on the texts of the I Ching , the Tao Te Ching ( or Daodejing , Chinese : 道德經 ; pinyin : dàodéjīng ) and the Zhuangzi ( Chinese : 莊子 ; pinyin : zhuāngzi ) . These texts were linked together as " Taoist philosophy " during the early Han Dynasty , but notably not before . It is unlikely that Zhuangzi was familiar with the text of the Daodejing , and Zhuangzi would not have identified himself as a Taoist as this classification did not arise until well after his death . However , the discussed distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars . It is contested by hermeneutic ( interpretive ) difficulties in the categorization of the different Taoist schools , sects and movements . Taoism does not fall under an umbrella or a definition of a single organized religion like the Abrahamic traditions ; nor can it be studied as a mere variant of Chinese folk religion , as although the two share some similar concepts , much of Chinese folk religion is separate from the tenets and core teachings of Taoism . Sinologists Isabelle Robinet and Livia Kohn agree that " Taoism has never been a unified religion , and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations . " Chung @-@ ying Cheng , a Chinese philosopher , views Taoism as a religion that has been embedded into Chinese history and tradition . " Whether Confucianism , Daoism , or later Chinese Buddhism , they all fall into this pattern of thinking and organizing and in this sense remain religious , even though individually and intellectually they also assume forms of philosophy and practical wisdom . " Chung @-@ ying Cheng also noted that the Daoist view of heaven flows mainly from " observation and meditation , [ though ] the teaching of the way ( dao ) can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature " . In Chinese history , the three religions of Buddhism , Daoism and Confucianism stand on their own independent views , and yet are " involved in a process of attempting to find harmonization and convergence among themselves , so that we can speak of a ' unity of three religious teaching ' ( sanjiao heyi ) " . = = = The term " Taoist " = = = Traditionally , the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism , who fall instead within the field of folk religion . " Taoist " , in the sinological literature of the 19th and early 20th centuries , was used as a translation of daoshi ( 道士 , " master of the Tao " ) , or " Taoist priest " , that is applied to the ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who " represent Taoist culture on a professional basis " , are experts of Taoist liturgy , and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skills for the benefit of a community . This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as a " liturgical framework for the development of local cults " , in other words a scheme or structure for the Chinese folk religion , proposed first by Kristofer Schipper in The Taoist Body ( 1986 ) . Daoshi traditions are comparable in their role to the non @-@ Taoist fashi ( 法師 , " ritual masters " ) traditions ( Faism ) . The term dàojiàotú ( Chinese : 道教徒 ; literally : " follower of Taoism " ) , with the meaning of " Taoist " as " lay member or believer of Taoism " , is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of " organized religion " in China in the 20th century , and the creation of the Chinese Taoist Association , but it has little application in the fabric of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an " order " of the larger structure of Chinese religion . = = Origins and development = = Laozi is traditionally regarded as the founder of Taoism and is closely associated in this context with " original " or " primordial " Taoism . Whether he actually existed is disputed ; however , the work attributed to him – the Tao Te Ching – is dated to the late 4th century BCE . Taoism draws its cosmological foundations from the School of Naturalists ( in the form of its main elements – yin and yang and the Five Phases ) , which developed during the Warring States period ( 4th to 3rd centuries BC ) . Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism : Philosophical Taoism , i.e. the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi techniques for achieving ecstasy practices for achieving longevity or immortality exorcism . Some elements of Taoism may be traced to prehistoric folk religions in China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition . In particular , many Taoist practices drew from the Warring @-@ States @-@ era phenomena of the wu ( connected to the shamanic culture of northern China ) and the fangshi ( which probably derived from the " archivist @-@ soothsayers of antiquity , one of whom supposedly was Laozi himself " ) , even though later Taoists insisted that this was not the case . Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to " ... magic , medicine , divination , ... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings " as well as exorcism ; in the case of the wu , " shamans " or " sorcerers " is often used as a translation . The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists , and relied much on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities . The first organized form of Taoism , the Tianshi ( Celestial Masters ' ) school ( later known as Zhengyi school ) , developed from the Five Pecks of Rice movement at the end of the 2nd century CE ; the latter had been founded by Zhang Daoling , who claimed that Laozi appeared to him in the year 142 . The Tianshi school was officially recognized by ruler Cao Cao in 215 , legitimizing Cao Cao 's rise to power in return . Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid @-@ 2nd century BCE . Taoism , in form of the Shangqing school , gained official status in China again during the Tang dynasty ( 618 – 907 ) , whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative . The Shangqing movement , however , had developed much earlier , in the 4th century , on the basis of a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi in the years between 364 and 370 . Between 397 and 402 , Ge Chaofu compiled a series of scriptures which later served as the foundation of the Lingbao school , which unfolded its greatest influence during the Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) . Several Song emperors , most notably Huizong , were active in promoting Taoism , collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the Daozang . In the 12th century , the Quanzhen School was founded in Shandong . It flourished during the 13th and 14th century and during the Yuan dynasty became the largest and most important Taoist school in Northern China . The school 's most revered master , Qiu Chuji , met with Genghis Khan in 1222 and was successful in influencing the Khan towards exerting more restraint during his brutal conquests . By the Khan 's decree , the school also was exempt from taxation . Aspects of Confucianism , Taoism , and Buddhism were consciously synthesized in the Neo @-@ Confucian school , which eventually became Imperial orthodoxy for state bureaucratic purposes under the Ming ( 1368 – 1644 ) . The Qing Dynasty ( 1644 – 1912 ) , however , much favored Confucian classics over Taoist works . During the 18th century , the imperial library was constituted , but excluded virtually all Taoist books . By the beginning of the 20th century , Taoism had fallen much from favor ( for example , only one complete copy of the Daozang still remained , at the White Cloud Monastery in Beijing ) . Today , Taoism is one of five religions recognized by the People 's Republic of China . The government regulates its activities through the Chinese Taoist Association . Taoism is freely practiced in Taiwan , where it claims millions of adherents . = = Doctrines = = = = = Ethics = = = Taoism tends to emphasize various themes of the I Ching , the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi , such as naturalness , spontaneity , simplicity , detachment from desires , and most important of all , wu wei . However , the concepts of those keystone texts cannot be equated with Taoism as a whole . = = = = Tao and Te = = = = Tao ( Chinese : 道 ; pinyin : dào ) literally means " way " , but can also be interpreted as road , channel , path , doctrine , or line . In Taoism , it is " the One , which is natural , spontaneous , eternal , nameless , and indescribable . It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course . " It has variously been denoted as the " flow of the universe " , a " conceptually necessary ontological ground " , or a demonstration of nature . The Tao also is something that individuals can find immanent in themselves . The active expression of Tao is called Te ( also spelled – and pronounced – De , or even Teh ; often translated with Virtue or Power ; Chinese : 德 ; pinyin : dé ) , in a sense that Te results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao . = = = = Wu @-@ wei = = = = The ambiguous term wu @-@ wei ( simplified Chinese : 无为 ; traditional Chinese : 無爲 ; pinyin : wú wéi ) constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism . Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action , while wu carries the meaning of " there is no ... " or " lacking , without " . Common translations are " nonaction " , " effortless action " or " action without intent " . The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression " wei wu wei " : " action without action " . In ancient Taoist texts , wu @-@ wei is associated with water through its yielding nature . Taoist philosophy , in accordance with the I Ching , proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways . When someone exerts their will against the world in a manner that is out of rhythm with the cycles of change , they may disrupt that harmony and unintended consequences may more likely result rather than the willed outcome . Taoism does not identify one 's will as the root problem . Rather , it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural universe . Thus , a potentially harmful interference may be avoided , and in this way , goals can be achieved effortlessly . " By wu @-@ wei , the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao , which itself accomplishes by nonaction . " = = = = Naturalness = = = = Naturalness ( Chinese : 自然 ; pinyin : zìrán ; Wade – Giles : tzu @-@ jan ; lit . " self @-@ such " ， " self organisation " ) is regarded as a central value in Taoism . It describes the " primordial state " of all things as well as a basic character of the Tao , and is usually associated with spontaneity and creativity . To attain naturalness , one has to identify with the Tao ; this involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire , and appreciating simplicity . An often cited metaphor for naturalness is pu ( simplified Chinese : 朴 ; traditional Chinese : 樸 ; pinyin : pǔ , pú ; Wade – Giles : p 'u ; lit . " uncut wood " ) , the " uncarved block " , which represents the " original nature ... prior to the imprint of culture " of an individual . It is usually referred to as a state one returns to . = = = = Three Treasures = = = = The Taoist Three Treasures or Three Jewels ( simplified Chinese : 三宝 ; traditional Chinese : 三寶 ; pinyin : sānbǎo ) comprise the basic virtues of ci ( Chinese : 慈 ; pinyin : cí , usually translated as compassion ) , jian ( Chinese : 俭 ; pinyin : jiǎn , usually translated as moderation ) , and bugan wei tianxia xian ( Chinese : 不敢为天下先 ; pinyin : bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān , literally " not daring to act as first under the heavens " , but usually translated as humility ) . As the " practical , political side " of Taoist philosophy , Arthur Waley translated them as " abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment " , " absolute simplicity of living " , and " refusal to assert active authority " . The Three Treasures can also refer to jing , qi and shen ( Chinese : 精氣神 ; pinyin : jīng @-@ qì @-@ shén ; jing is usually translated with " essence " and shen with " spirit " ) . These terms are elements of the traditional Chinese concept of the human body , which shares its cosmological foundation - Yinyangism - with Taoism . Within this framework , they play an important role in neidan ( " Taoist Inner Alchemy " ) . = = = Cosmology = = = Taoist cosmology is cyclic ; relativity , evolution and ' extremes meet ' are main characters . It shares similar views with the School of Yin Yang which was headed by Zou Yan ( 305 – 240 BCE ) . The school 's tenets harmonized the concepts of the Wu Xing ( Five Phases ) and yin and yang . In this spirit , the universe is seen as being in a constant process of re @-@ creating itself , as everything that exists is a mere aspect of qi , which , " condensed , becomes life ; diluted , it is indefinite potential " . Qi is in a perpetual transformation between its condensed and diluted state . These two different states of qi , on the other hand , are embodiments of the abstract entities of yin and yang , two complementary extremes that constantly play against and with each other and cannot exist without the other . Human beings are seen as a microcosm of the universe , and for example comprise the Wu Xing in form of the zang @-@ fu organs . As a consequence , it is believed that deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself . = = = Theology = = = Taoism is practiced as a religion in various Asian communities , but its theology is not foundationally dependent on the existence of an anthropomorphic godlike figurehead ( even though some communities do worship Laozi as the attributed founder of the philosophical doctrine , as well as other deities from ancient Chinese folklore ) ; on a theological basis , the Taoist religion has more affinities with pantheistic traditions around the world , given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the " Way " rather than anthropomorphic concepts of " God " . Nevertheless , as Taoist beliefs include teachings based on various sources , and are often intermingled with Chinese folk religious practice , popular Taoist religious sects have co @-@ opted mythical figures from Chinese folklore as well as actual Taoist personages as figures of worship , with the latter better understood as analogous to " saints " in Catholic veneration rather than as divine deities in and of themselves , even though they were also often mythologised to possess superhuman or supernatural powers . Different branches of Taoism often have differing beliefs , especially concerning deities and the proper composition of the pantheon . Nevertheless , there are certain core beliefs that nearly all the sects share . Traditional conceptions of Tao should not be confused with the Western concepts of theism , however . Being one with the Tao does not necessarily indicate a union with an eternal spirit in , for example , the Hindu sense . Popular Taoism typically presents the Jade Emperor as the official head deity . Intellectual ( " elite " ) Taoists , such as the Celestial Masters sect , usually present Laozi ( Laojun , " Lord Lao " ) and the Three Pure Ones at the top of the pantheon of deities . The pantheon tends to mirror the bureaucracy of Imperial China ; deities also may be promoted or demoted for their actions . While a number of immortals or other mysterious figures appear in the Zhuangzi , and to a lesser extent in the Tao Te Ching , these have generally not become the objects of worship . = = Texts = = = = = Tao Te Ching = = = The Tao Te Ching or Daodejing is widely considered the most influential Taoist text . According to legend , it was written by Laozi , and often the book is simply referred to as the " Laozi . " However , authorship , precise date of origin , and even unity of the text are still subject of debate , and will probably never be known with certainty . The earliest texts of the Tao Te Ching that have been excavated ( written on bamboo tablets ) date back to the late 4th century BCE . Throughout the history of religious Taoism , the Tao Te Ching has been used as a ritual text . The famous opening lines of the Tao Te Ching are : 道可道非常道 ( pinyin : dào kĕ dào fēi cháng dào ) " The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao " 名可名非常名 ( pinyin : míng kĕ míng fēi cháng míng ) " The name that can be named is not the eternal name . " There is significant , at times acrimonious debate regarding which English translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferable , and which particular translation methodology is best . The Tao Te Ching is not thematically ordered . However , the main themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant formulations , often with only a slight difference . The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it . Tao is said to be ineffable , and accomplishing great things through small means . Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right . Perhaps the oldest one , the Heshang Gong commentary , was most likely written in the 2nd century CE . Other important commentaries include the one from Wang Bi and the Xiang 'er . = = = Zhuangzi = = = The Taoist book Zhuangzi ( simplified Chinese : 庄子 ; traditional Chinese : 莊子 ; pinyin : Zhuāngzǐ ) , named after its purported author Zhuangzi , is a composite of writings from various sources , and is considered one of the most important texts in Taoism . The commentator Guo Xiang ( circa 300 AD ) helped establish the text as an important source for Taoist thought . The traditional view is that Zhuangzi himself wrote the first seven chapters ( the " inner chapters " ) and his students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts ( the " outer " and " miscellaneous " chapters ) . The work uses anecdotes , parables and dialogues to express one of its main themes , that is aligning oneself to the laws of the natural world and " the way " of the elements . = = = I Ching = = = The I Ching , or Yijing , was originally a divination system that had its origins around 1150 B.C. Although it predates the first mentions of Tao as an organised system of philosophy and religious practice , this text later became of philosophical importance to Daoism and Confucianism . The I Ching itself , shorn of its commentaries , consists of 64 combinations of 8 trigrams ( called " hexagrams " ) , traditionally chosen by throwing coins or yarrow sticks , to give the diviner some idea of the situation at hand and , through reading of the " changing lines " , some idea of what is developing . The 64 original notations of the hexagrams in the I Ching can also be read as a meditation on how change occurs , so it assists Taoists with managing yin and yang cycles as Laozi advocated in the Tao Te Ching ( the oldest known version of this text was dated to 400 BC ) . More recently as recorded in the 18th century , the Taoist master Liu Yiming continued to advocate this usage . = = = Daozang = = = The Daozang ( 道藏 , Treasury of Tao ) is also referred to as the Taoist canon . It was originally compiled during the Jin , Tang , and Song dynasties . The version surviving today was published during the Ming Dynasty . The Ming Daozang includes almost 1500 texts . Following the example of the Buddhist Tripiṭaka , it is divided into three dong ( 洞 , " caves " , " grottoes " ) . They are arranged from " highest " to " lowest " : The Zhen ( " real " or " truth " 眞 ) grotto . Includes the Shangqing texts . The Xuan ( " mystery " 玄 ) grotto . Includes the Lingbao scriptures . The Shen ( " divine " 神 ) grotto . Includes texts predating the Maoshan ( 茅山 ) revelations . Daoshi generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang , but individually choose , or inherit , texts included in the Daozang . These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student . The Shangqing school has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study . It is believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality . = = = Other texts = = = While the Tao Te Ching is most famous , there are many other important texts in traditional Taoism . Taishang Ganying Pian ( " Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution " ) discusses sin and ethics , and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries . It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives . The wicked , and their descendants , will suffer and have shortened lives . = = Symbols and images = = The taijitu ( simplified Chinese : 太极图 ; traditional Chinese : 太極圖 ; pinyin : tàijítú ; commonly known as the " yin and yang symbol " or simply the " yin yang " ) as well as the bagua 八卦 ( " Eight Trigrams " ) are associated with Taoist symbolism . The taijitu is not an exclusive symbol of Taoism , however . While almost all Taoist organizations make use of it , one could actually also call it Confucian , Neo @-@ Confucian or pan @-@ Chinese . One is likely to see this symbol as decorations on Taoist organization flags and logos , temple floors , or stitched into clerical robes . According to Song dynasty sources , it originated around the 10th century . Previously , yin and yang were symbolized by a tiger and dragon . Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags . They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead , to bring good fortune , increase life span , etc . Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves . A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed , representing the Big Dipper ( or the Bushel , the Chinese equivalent ) . In the Shang Dynasty the Big Dipper was considered a deity , while during the Han Dynasty , it was considered a qi path of the circumpolar god , Taiyi . Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs , which feature dragons and phoenixes made from multi @-@ colored ceramic tiles . They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang ( with the phoenix being yin ) . A related symbol is the flaming pearl which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons , as well as on the hairpin of a Celestial Master . In general though , Chinese Taoist architecture has no universal features that distinguish it from other structures . = = Practices = = = = = Vegetarian diet = = = Taoist diet encourages fasting and vegetarianism . = = = Rituals = = = At certain dates , food may be set out as a sacrifice to the spirits of the deceased or the gods , such as during the Qingming Festival . This may include slaughtered animals , such as pigs and ducks , or fruit . Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of Joss paper , or Hell Bank Notes , on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear — not as a mere image , but as the actual item — in the spirit world , making them available for revered ancestors and departed loved ones . At other points , a vegan diet or full fast may be observed . Also on particular holidays , street parades take place . These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower @-@ covered floats broadcasting traditional music . They also variously include lion dances and dragon dances ; human @-@ occupied puppets ( often of the " Seventh Lord " and " Eighth Lord " ) ; tongji ( 童乩 " spirit @-@ medium ; shaman " ) who cut their skin with knives ; Bajiajiang , which are Kungfu @-@ practicing honor guards in demonic makeup ; and palanquins carrying god @-@ images . The various participants are not considered performers , but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question . Fortune @-@ telling — including astrology , I Ching , and other forms of divination — has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit . Mediumship is also widely encountered in some sects . There is an academic and social distinction between martial forms of mediumship ( such as tongji ) and the spirit @-@ writing that is typically practiced through planchette writing . = = = Physical cultivation = = = A recurrent and important element of Taoism are rituals , exercises and substances aiming at aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces , at undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys , or at improving physical health and thereby extending one 's life , ideally to the point of immortality . Enlightened and immortal beings are referred to as xian . A characteristic method aiming for longevity is Taoist alchemy . Already in very early Taoist scriptures - like the Taiping Jing and the Baopuzi - alchemical formulas for achieving immortality were outlined . A number of martial arts traditions , particularly the ones falling under the category of Neijia ( like T 'ai Chi Ch 'uan , Bagua Zhang and Xing Yi Quan ) embody Taoist principles to a significant extent , and some practitioners consider their art a means of practising Taoism . = = Society = = = = = Adherents = = = The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate , due to a variety of factors including defining Taoism . According to a survey of religion in China in the year 2010 , the number of people practicing some form of Chinese folk religion is near to 950 million ( 70 % of the Chinese ) . Among these , 173 million ( 13 % ) practice some form of Taoist @-@ defined folk faith . Further in detail , 12 million people have passed some formal initiation into Taoism , or adhere exclusively to it . Most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Taoist tradition . Recently , there have been some efforts to revive the practice of Taoist religion . In 1956 , the Chinese Taoist Association was formed , and received official approval in 1957 . It was disbanded during the Cultural Revolution under Mao , but re @-@ established in 1980 . The headquarters of the Association are at the Baiyun guan , or White Cloud Temple , of the Longmen branch of Quanzhen Taoism . Since 1980 , many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt , most of them belonging to the Zhengyi or Quanzhen schools . For these two schools , ordination has been officially allowed again . However , " the Chinese government prefers the celibate model of ... Quanzhen clergy " , while " Zhengyi clergy are often married , and often reside at home . " Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of Korea , Japan , and Vietnam . Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non @-@ Chinese following until modern times . In Taiwan 7 @.@ 5 million people ( 33 % of the population ) identify themselves as Taoists . Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of Hong Kong and Singapore show that , respectively , 14 % and 11 % of the people of these cities identify as Taoists . = = = Art and poetry = = = Throughout Chinese history there have been many examples of art being influenced by Taoist thought . Notable painters influenced by Taoism include Wu Wei , Huang Gongwang , Mi Fu , Muqi Fachang , Shitao , Ni Zan , T 'ang Mi , and Wang Tseng @-@ tsu . Taoist arts represents the diverse regions , dialects , and time spans that are commonly associated with Taoism . Ancient Taoist art was commissioned by the aristocracy , however scholars masters and adepts also directly engaged in the art themselves . = = = Political aspects = = = Unlike Confucianism , Taoism favors philosophical anarchism , pluralism and laissez @-@ faire @-@ government . Laozi has been cited as an early example of a proponent of liberalism . On the other hand , politics never have been a main issue in Taoism . = = = Relations with other religions and philosophies = = = Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a countermovement to Confucianism . The philosophical terms Tao and De are indeed shared by both Taoism and Confucianism , and Laozi is traditionally held to have been a teacher of Confucius . Zhuangzi explicitly criticized Confucianist and Mohist tenets in his work . In general , Taoism rejects the Confucianist emphasis on rituals , hierarchical social order , and conventional morality , and favors naturalness , spontaneity , and individualism instead . The entry of Buddhism into China was marked by significant interaction and syncretism with Taoism . Originally seen as a kind of " foreign Taoism " , Buddhism 's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary . Representatives of early Chinese Buddhism , like Sengzhao and Tao Sheng , knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts . Taoism especially shaped the development of Chan ( Zen ) Buddhism , introducing elements like the concept of naturalness , distrust of scripture and text , and emphasis on embracing " this life " and living in the " every @-@ moment " . Taoism on the other hand also incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang period , such as monasteries , vegetarianism , prohibition of alcohol , the doctrine of emptiness , and collecting scripture in tripartite organisation . Ideological and political rivals for centuries , Taoism , Confucianism , and Buddhism deeply influenced one another . For example , Wang Bi , one of the most influential philosophical commentators on Laozi ( and Yijing ) , was a Confucian . The three rivals also share some similar values , with all three embracing a humanist philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection . In time , most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously . This became institutionalised when aspects of the three schools were synthesised in the Neo @-@ Confucian school . Some authors have dealt with comparative studies between Taoism and Christianity . This has been of interest for students of history of religion such as J.J.M. de Groot , among others . The comparison of the teachings of Laozi and Jesus of Nazareth has been done by several authors such as Martin Aronson , and Toropov & Hansen ( 2002 ) , who believe that they have parallels that should not be ignored . In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto the main difference is that Christianity preaches a personal God while Theist Taoism does not . Yet , a number of authors , including Lin Yutang , have argued that some moral and ethical tenets of these religions are similar . The work " Christ the Eternal Tao " by Hieromonk Damascene provides a study of " The Tao Te Ching " of Lao Tzu , in the light of Christian revelation . = = Synthetic doctrine = = Cao Đài

= Nyanyi Sunyi = Njanji Soenji ( Republican Spelling : Njanji Sunji ; Perfected Spelling : Nyanyi Sunyi ; Indonesian for " Songs of Solitude " or " Songs of Silence " ) is a 1937 poetry collection by Amir Hamzah . Written some time after the poet was forced to marry the daughter of the Sultan of Langkat instead of his chosen love in Java , this collection consists of 24 titled poems and pieces of lyrical prose , none of which are dated . First published in the magazine Poedjangga Baroe , the collection has been republished as a stand @-@ alone book several times . Analysis of Nyanyi Sunyi has focused on the theme of God and His relationship to humanity , as well as of aspects of human existence : fate , dissatisfaction , and escape . Literary critics H.B. Jassin and Zuber Usman view the collection as an attempt to address Amir ’ s worldly problems . The collection has been noted as difficult to read owing to its usage of rarely used Malay and Javanese terms and basis in Islamic culture and Malay history . Despite this , Nyanyi Sunyi has been described as freer in its form than traditional Malay poetry , with what poet Chairil Anwar termed " compactly violent , sharp , and yet short " sentences which brought a new style to the Indonesian language . = = Background = = Amir Hamzah ( 1911 – 1946 ) was a Dutch @-@ educated Malay writer of noble descent and devout Muslim . He was well @-@ oriented in traditional Malay literature , with favourites including historical texts such as Hikayat Hang Tuah , Syair Siti Zubaidah , and Hikayat Panca Tanderan . Amir likewise read works of Arabic , Persian , and Hindu literature . As a result , he had an extensive vocabulary . Poet Laurens Koster Bohang considers the poems included in Nyanyi Sunyi as having been written between 1933 and 1937 , while Dutch scholar of Indonesian literature A. Teeuw dates the poems to 1936 and 1937 . The time was one of great emotional turmoil for Hamzah , who was required to marry the daughter of the Sultan of Langkat , who had funded his studies in Java . At the time Amir had reportedly fallen in love with a Javanese woman while studying , and was forced to leave her . = = Contents = = Njanji Sunji consists of twenty @-@ four titled pieces and an untitled quatrain . Indonesian literary documentarian H.B. Jassin classifies eight of the works as lyrical prose , with the remaining thirteen as poems . None of the works in Nyanyi Sunyi ( and indeed none of Amir 's other works ) are dated . At the end of the book is a couplet , reading " Sunting sanggul melayah rendah / sekaki sajak seni sedih " , which American poet and translator Burton Raffel translates as " A flower floating in a loose knot of hair / Gave birth to my sorrowful poems " . The poems within the collection are : Untitled poems Untitled quatrain ( " Sunyi Itu Duka " ; " Silence is Sorrow " ) Titled poems = = Form = = The poems in Nyanyi Sunyi , unlike much of Amir 's earlier work , generally did not follow the traditional pantun and syair format of four lines of four words . Teeuw notes that some , such " Batu Belah " , followed traditional European forms such as the ballad . Others were more free @-@ form , leaning towards prose poetry . Amir 's diction depends heavily on old Malay terms which saw little contemporary use . He also borrows heavily from other Indonesian languages , particularly Javanese and Sundanes . The choice of words was influenced by the need for rhythm and metre , as well as symbolism related to particular terms . Ultimately , however , Amir is freer in his language use than traditional poets . Indonesian critic Bakri Siregar writes that the result is " a beautiful wordplay " . Translator John M. Echols writes that the poems are " difficult reading even for Indonesians " , while poet Chairil Anwar described the works as " obscure poetry " which could not be understood by persons without an understanding of Islam and Malay history . Indonesian literary scholar Muhammad Balfas notes that the work also has many allusions to religious texts , both Islamic and Christian . Anwar opined that Amir , through Nyanyi Sunyi , brought a new style to the Indonesian language , with its " compactly violent , sharp , and yet short " sentences . In a 1945 article he wrote ( translation by Raffel ) , " Before Amir ( Hamzah ) one could call the old poetry a destructive force ; but what a bright light he shone on the new language " . = = Themes = = Religion and God are omnipresent throughout the collection , as evidenced from the first poem , " Padamu Jua " . Amir often uses the word " Tuhan " ( " God " ) . However , unlike his earlier poems which used it in a similar manner to " Dewa " ( " Deity " ) , in Nyanyi Sunyi the word is used as understood in Abrahamic religions , such as Amir 's own Islam ; Amir shows influences from Sufism . In some cases , writes Teeuw , Amir treats God almost as a lover , using familiar terms such as " engkau " ( " you " ) to address Him . However , Amir recognises that he cannot be one with God . Jassin writes that Amir seems aware of his own smallness before God , acting as a puppet for God 's will ; Teeuw notes that Amir recognises that he would not exist if God did not . This is not to say that Amir accepts his lower position in relation to God ; in several cases , Jassin writes , Amir shows a feeling of dissatisfaction over his own lack of power and protests God 's absoluteness . Teeuw likewise notes a sense of dissatisfaction throughout the poems , writing that Amir seems to treat God as an entity that " only toys with humans , allowing them to be pushed aside and erased " . Elsewhere Teeuw writes that Amir questions fate and the need for him to separate from his love . Aside from themes of God and religion , Amir also shows an awareness of his own humanity , recognising his own instincts and drives . Jassin writes that " Amir 's song is the song of a man 's soul " , showing sadness and joy which do not acknowledge class or creed . Teeuw notes a sense of distrust , a feeling that – having once lost his love – there is no reason Amir will not lose his next lover . Indonesian critic Zuber Usman , meanwhile , discusses the theme of love lost in relation to religion , writing that the loss of his Javanese lover led Amir closer to God . Jassin writes that Amir uses " sunyi " ( " silence " ) as a way to address his worldly problems : regarding time , his own identity , God , and love . According to Jassin , by the end of the compilation physical love has drifted towards a spiritual one , with the answers supplied originating from the supernatural . Ultimately , however , Jassin concludes that Amir 's soul has not reached maturity ; he considers the collection 's last poem , " Astana Rela " , as but a temporary escape . Jassin finds that the theme of religion is likewise meant as an escape from Amir 's worldly sorrows , an opinion echoed by Usman . = = Publication = = Nyanyi Sunyi was first published in the November 1937 issue of Poedjangga Baroe , a literary magazine which Amir had helped establish . It was later published as a standalone book , and by 1949 it had seen its third printing . In 1941 Amir published another collection of poems , entitled Buah Rindu ( " Fruits of Longing " ) , which consisted mostly of his earlier works . Jassin notes that the works in Nyanyi Sunyi appear more developed and mature than those in the later collection . Teeuw notes that the later collection was more explicitly about romantic love , rather than the religious love of Nyanyi Sunyi . = = = Explanatory notes = = =

= Princess Louise , Duchess of Argyll = Princess Louise , Duchess of Argyll , GCVO , GBE , RRC , GCStJ , VA , CI ( Louise Caroline Alberta ; 18 March 1848 – 3 December 1939 ) , was the sixth child and fourth daughter of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert . Her early life was spent moving among the various royal residences in the company of her family . When her father , the Prince Consort , died on 14 December 1861 , the court went into a period of intense mourning , to which Louise was unsympathetic . Louise was an able sculptor and artist , and several of her sculptures remain today . She was also a supporter of the feminist movement , corresponded with Josephine Butler , and visited Elizabeth Garrett . She held that " the subject of Domestic Economy lies at the root of the – highest life of every true woman . " Before her marriage , Louise served as an unofficial secretary to her mother , the Queen ( 1866 – 1871 ) . The question of Louise 's marriage was discussed in the late 1860s . Suitors from the royal houses of Prussia and Denmark were suggested , but Victoria wanted new blood in the family and therefore suggested a high @-@ ranking member of the aristocracy . Despite opposition from members of the royal family , Louise fell in love with John , Marquess of Lorne , the heir to the Duke of Argyll , and Victoria consented to the marriage , which took place on 21 March 1871 . Despite a happy beginning , the two drifted apart , possibly because of their childlessness and the Queen 's constraints on their activities . In 1878 , Lorne was appointed Governor General of Canada . Louise became viceregal consort , but her stay was unhappy as a result of homesickness and dislike of Ottawa . Following Victoria 's death in 1901 , Louise entered the social circle established by her brother , the new king , Edward VII . Louise 's marriage survived thanks to long periods of separation , but the couple reconciled in 1911 , and she was devastated by her husband 's death in 1914 . After the end of the First World War in 1918 , at the age of 70 , she began to retire from public life , undertaking few public duties outside Kensington Palace , where she died at age 91 . = = Early life = = Louise was born on 18 March 1848 at Buckingham Palace , London . She was the fourth daughter and sixth child of the reigning British monarch , Queen Victoria , and her husband Prince Albert of Saxe @-@ Coburg and Gotha . As the daughter of the sovereign , Louise was styled Her Royal Highness The Princess Louise from birth . Her birth coincided with revolutions which swept across Europe , prompting the Queen to remark that Louise would turn out to be " something peculiar " . The Queen 's labour with Louise was the first to be aided with chloroform . Albert and Victoria chose the names Louisa Caroline Alberta . Louise was chosen to honour Albert 's mother . Though christened Louisa in Buckingham Palace 's private chapel by John Bird Sumner , the Archbishop of Canterbury , on 13 May 1848 , she was invariably known as Louise throughout her life . Her godparents were Duke Gustav of Mecklenburg @-@ Schwerin ( her paternal great @-@ great @-@ uncle , for whom Prince Albert stood proxy ) ; The Duchess of Saxe @-@ Meiningen ( for whom her great @-@ aunt Queen Adelaide stood proxy ) ; and The Hereditary Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg @-@ Strelitz ( her first cousin once @-@ removed , for whom the Hereditary Grand Duchess 's mother The Duchess of Cambridge stood proxy ) . During the ceremony , The Duchess of Gloucester , one of the few children of George III who was still alive , forgot where she was , and suddenly got up in the middle of the service and knelt at the Queen 's feet , much to the Queen 's horror . Like her siblings , Louise was brought up with the strict programme of education devised by her father , Prince Albert , and his friend and confidant , Baron Stockmar . The young children were taught practical tasks , such as cooking , farming , household tasks and carpentry . From her early years , Louise was a talented and intelligent child , and her artistic talents were quickly recognised . On his visit to Osborne House in 1863 , Hallam Tennyson , the son of the poet Alfred , Lord Tennyson , remarked that Louise could " draw beautifully " . Because of her royal rank , an artistic career was not considered . However , the Queen first allowed her to attend art school under the tutelage of the sculptor Mary Thornycroft , and later ( 1863 ) allowed her to study at the National Art Training School , South Kensington . Louise also became an able dancer , and Victoria wrote , after a dance , that Louise " danced the sword dance with more verve and accuracy than any of her sisters " . Her wit and intelligence made her a favourite with her father , with her inquisitive nature earning her the nickname " Little Miss Why " from other members of the royal family . = = Death of Prince Albert = = Louise 's father , Prince Albert , died at Windsor on 14 December 1861 . The Queen was devastated , and ordered her household to move from Windsor to Osborne House on the Isle of Wight . The atmosphere of the royal court became gloomy and morbid in the wake of the Prince 's death , and entertainments became dry and dull . Louise quickly became dissatisfied with her mother 's prolonged mourning . For her seventeenth birthday in 1865 , Louise requested the ballroom to be opened for a debutante dance , the like of which had not been performed since Prince Albert 's death . Her request was refused , and her boredom with the mundane routine of travelling between the different royal residences at set times irritated her mother , who considered Louise to be indiscreet and argumentative . The Queen comforted herself by rigidly continuing with Prince Albert 's plans for their children . Princess Alice was married to Prince Louis , the future Grand Duke of Hesse , at Osborne on 1 June 1862 . In 1863 , Edward , the Prince of Wales , married Princess Alexandra of Denmark . The Queen made it a tradition that the eldest unmarried daughter would become her unofficial secretary , a position which Louise filled in 1866 , despite the Queen 's concern that she was indiscreet . Louise , however , proved to be good at the job : Victoria wrote shortly afterwards : " She is ( and who would some years ago have thought it ? ) a clever dear girl with a fine strong character , unselfish and affectionate . " However , when Louise fell in love with her brother Leopold 's tutor , the Reverend Robinson Duckworth ( 14 years her senior ) , between 1866 and 1870 , the Queen reacted by dismissing Duckworth in 1870 . He later became Canon of Westminster Abbey . Louise was bored at court , and by fulfilling her duties , which were little more than minor secretarial tasks , such as writing letters on the Queen 's behalf ; dealing with political correspondence ; and providing the Queen with company , she had more responsibilities . = = Marriage = = = = = Suitors = = = As a daughter of the Queen , Louise was a desirable bride ; more so as she is regarded as the Queen 's most beautiful daughter by both contemporary and modern biographers . However , she was accused by the press , without substantiation , of romantic affairs . This , coupled with her liberalism and feminism , prompted the Queen to find her a husband . The choice had to suit Victoria as well as Louise , and the Queen insisted that her daughter 's husband should live near her , a promise which had also been extracted from the husband of Helena , Louise 's sister . Various suitors were proposed by the leading royal houses of Europe : Princess Alexandra proposed her brother , the Crown Prince of Denmark , but the Queen was strongly opposed to another Danish marriage that could antagonise Prussia . Victoria , Louise 's eldest sister , proposed the tall and rich Prince Albert of Prussia , but Queen Victoria disapproved of another Prussian marriage that would have been unpopular in England . Prince Albert was also reluctant to settle in England as required . William , Prince of Orange was also considered a suitor , but because of his extravagant lifestyle in Paris , where he lived openly with a mistress , the Queen quickly vetoed the idea . Louise viewed marriage to any prince as undesirable , and announced that she wished to marry John Campbell , Marquess of Lorne , heir to the Dukedom of Argyll . No such marriage , between a daughter of a Sovereign and a British subject , had been given official recognition since 1515 , when Charles Brandon , the first Duke of Suffolk , married Mary Tudor . Louise 's brother , the Prince of Wales , was strongly opposed to a marriage with a non @-@ mediatized noble . Furthermore , Lorne 's father , George Campbell , the eighth Duke of Argyll , was an ardent supporter of William Ewart Gladstone , and the Prince of Wales was worried that he would drag the royal family into political disputes . Nevertheless , the opposition was crushed by the Queen , who wrote to the Prince of Wales in 1869 : That which you object to [ that Louise should marry a subject ] I feel certain will be for Louise 's happiness and for the peace and quiet of the family ... Times have changed ; great foreign alliances are looked on as causes of trouble and anxiety , and are of no good . What could be more painful than the position in which our family were placed during the wars with Denmark , and between Prussia and Austria ? ... You may not be aware , as I am , with what dislike the marriages of Princesses of the Royal Family with small German Princes ( German beggars as they most insultingly were called ) ... As to position , I see no difficulty whatever ; Louise remains what she is , and her husband keeps his rank ... only being treated in the family as a relation when we are together ... The Queen averred that Louise 's marriage to a subject would bring " new blood " into the family , while all European princes were related to each other . She was convinced that this would strengthen the royal family morally and physically . = = = Engagement and wedding = = = Louise became engaged to the Marquess of Lorne on 3 October 1870 . Lorne was invited to Balmoral Castle in Scotland , and accompanied Louise , the Lord Chancellor , Lord Hatherley and Queen Victoria 's lady @-@ in @-@ waiting , Jane , Marchioness of Ely on a drive . Later that day , Louise returned and announced to the Queen that Lorne had " spoken of his devotion " to Louise , and she accepted his proposal in the knowledge of the Queen 's approval . The Queen later gave Lady Ely a bracelet to mark the occasion . The Queen found it difficult to let go of her daughter , confiding in her journal that she " felt painfully the thought of losing her " . The new breach in royal tradition caused surprise , especially in Germany , and Queen Victoria wrote to the Queen of Prussia that princes of small impoverished German houses were " very unpopular " in Britain and that Lord Lorne , a " person of distinction at home " with " an independent fortune " was " really no lower in rank than minor German Royalty " . Victoria settled an annuity on Louise shortly before her marriage . The ceremony was conducted at St George 's Chapel at Windsor Castle on 21 March 1871 , and the crowd outside was so large that , for the first time , policemen had to form chain barriers to keep control . Louise wore a wedding veil of Honiton lace that she designed herself , and was escorted into the Chapel by her mother , and her two eldest brothers , the Prince of Wales and the Duke of Edinburgh . On this occasion , the usually severe black of the Queen 's mourning dress was relieved by the crimson rubies and blues of the Garter star . Following the ceremony , the Queen kissed Louise , and Lorne – now a member of the royal family , but still a subject – kissed the Queen 's hand . The couple then journeyed to Claremont in Surrey for the honeymoon , but the presence of attendants on the journey , and at meal times , made it impossible for them to talk privately . The short four @-@ day visit did not pass without an interruption from the Queen , who was curious about her daughter 's thoughts on married life . Among their wedding gifts was a maplewood desk from Queen Victoria , now at Inveraray Castle . = = Viceregal Consort of Canada = = = = = Inauspicious arrival = = = In 1878 , British Prime Minister , Benjamin Disraeli , chose Lorne to be Canada 's new Governor General , and he was duly appointed by Queen Victoria . Louise thus became his Viceregal Consort . On 15 November 1878 , the couple left Liverpool and arrived for the inauguration at Halifax on 25 November . Louise became the first royal to take up residence in Rideau Hall , officially the Queen 's royal residence in Ottawa . However , the hall was far from the splendour of British royal residences , and , as each viceregal couple decorated the hall with their own furnishings , and thus took them when they departed , the Lornes found the palace sparse in décor upon their arrival . Louise put her artistic talents to work and hung many of her watercolour and oil paintings around the hall , also installing her sculpted works . Though the news that a daughter of the Queen would be viceregal consort of Canada first saw a " thrill of joy burst upon the Dominion " , it being felt that the Princess would be a strong link between Canadians and their sovereign , the arrival of the new governor general and his wife was not initially welcomed by the Canadian press , which complained about the imposition of royalty on the country 's hitherto un @-@ regal society . Relations with the press further deteriorated when Lorne 's private secretary , Francis de Winton , threw four journalists off the royal train . Although the Lornes had no knowledge of de Winton 's action , it was assumed by the press that they did , and they earned an early reputation for haughtiness . Louise was horrified by the negative press , and when she heard about reports of " a nation of flunkies " at the viceregal court , taking lessons in " the backward walk , " Louise declared that she " wouldn 't care if they came in blanket coats ! " . ( A reference to the ubiquitous capote , a coat made of blanket @-@ cloth , both durable and warm . The cultural significance of the blanket coat in genteel society , with reference to several early Governors @-@ General and their wives , can be found in " ' Very Picturesque and Very Canadian ' : The Blanket Coat and Anglo @-@ Canadian Identity in the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century " by Eileen Stack of the McCord Museum of Canadian History . ) Eventually the worries of a rigid court at Rideau Hall and the " feeble undercurrent of criticism " turned out to be unfounded as the royal couple proved to be more relaxed than their predecessors . = = = Canadian entertainments = = = Louise 's first few months in Canada were tinged with sadness as her favourite sister , The Grand Duchess of Hesse and by Rhine , died on 14 December 1878 . Although homesick over that first Christmas , Louise soon grew accustomed to the winter climate . Sleighing and skating were two of her favourite pastimes . In Canada , as the monarch 's direct representative , Lorne always took precedence over his wife , so that at the Opening of the Parliament of Canada on 13 February 1879 , Louise was ranked no differently from others in attendance . She had to remain standing with the MPs , until Lorne asked them to be seated . In order for Lorne to meet every Canadian member of Parliament , he held bi @-@ weekly dinners for 50 people . However , some of the Canadian ladies responded negatively to the British party . One of her ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting reported that some had an " ' I 'm as good as you ' sort of manner when one begins a conversation . " Court entertainments were open ; anyone who could afford the clothing to attend functions was simply asked to sign the visitor 's book . Louise 's first state ball was given on 19 February 1879 , and she made a good impression on her guests when she ordered the silk cordon , separating the viceregal party from the guests , be removed . However , the ball was marred by various mishaps , including a drunken bandsman nearly starting a fire by pulling a curtain over a gas lamp . The open house practice was criticised by guests who complained about the low social status of other guests . One attendee was horrified to find the attendee 's grocer dancing in the same set . Louise and Lorne founded the Royal Canadian Academy of Arts , and enjoyed visiting Quebec ( where they made their summer home ) , and Toronto . Louise served as patroness of the Ladies ' Educational Association , of the Woman 's Protective Immigration Society , of the Society of Decorative Arts and of the Art Association , all of Montreal . One of her works as a sculptor is the statue of her Royal mother Queen Victoria , which now stands in front of the Royal Victoria College , Montreal , now the Strathcona Music Building of McGill University . Lorne 's father , The Duke of Argyll , arrived with two of his daughters in June , and in the presence of the family , Louise caught a 28 @-@ pound ( almost 13 kg ) salmon . The women 's success at fishing prompted the Duke to remark that fishing in Canada required no skill . = = = Sleigh accident = = = Louise , Lorne , and two attendants , were hurt in a sleigh accident on 14 February 1880 . The winter was particularly severe , and the carriage in which they were traveling overturned , throwing the coachman and footman from the sleigh . The horses then panicked , and dragged the overturned carriage over more than 400 yards ( 370 m ) of ground . Louise was knocked unconscious when she hit her head on the iron bar supporting the roof , and Lorne was trapped underneath her , expecting " the sides of the carriage to give way at any moment " . Eventually , as they overtook the sleigh ahead , the horses calmed , and the occupant of that sleigh , Princess Louise 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp , ordered an empty carriage to convey the injured party back to Rideau Hall . The doctors who attended Louise reported she was severely concussed and in shock , and that " it was a wonder her skull was not fractured " . Louise 's ear had been injured when her earring caught on the side of the sleigh , tearing her ear lobe in two . The press played down the story on instructions from Lorne 's private secretary , an act that was described by contemporaries as " stupid and ill advised " . For example , one New Zealand newspaper reported , " Excepting immediately after the blow , the Princess was perfectly sensible during the whole time ... " Knowledge of Louise 's true condition might have elicited sympathy from the Canadian people . As it was , one Member of Parliament wrote : " Except the cut in the lower part of the ear I think there was no injury done worth mentioning . " Therefore , when Louise cancelled her immediate engagements , people thought she was malingering . News of the accident was also played down in Britain , and in letters home to the anxious Queen Victoria . She played a major role in the development of the nascent tourism industry of the colony of Bermuda , 770 miles South @-@ east of Nova Scotia . In 1883 , for reasons of her fragile health , she spent the winter in Bermuda , popularising a trend for wealthy North Americans to escape to Bermuda 's relatively mild climate during the winter months . Her visit brought such attention to Bermuda that a palatial hotel , which opened in 1885 , intended to cater to these new visitors , was named after her ; the Princess Hotel was built on the shore of Hamilton Harbour , in the parish of Pembroke . = = = Continued interest in Canada = = = After returning to Britain in 1883 , Louise continued to take an interest in Canada . During the North @-@ West Rebellion of 1885 she sent a certain Dr. Boyd with medical supplies and a large fund of money for distribution . Her express instructions were that assistance was to be rendered to friend and foe indiscriminately . To fulfill her wishes , Boyd accompanied the Militia Medical Staff , under Dr. Thomas Roddick to the sites of the Battle of Fish Creek and the Battle of Batoche to help give medical treatment to the wounded , including the Métis opposition . In 1905 , the province of Alberta was named after Princess Louise Caroline Alberta . In the province , there is Lake Louise , and Mount Alberta is named in her honour . = = Victoria 's last years = = = = = Family conflict = = = Louise returned to Britain , from Quebec , with her husband on 27 October 1883 , and landed at Liverpool . Queen Victoria had prepared apartments at Kensington Palace , and the couple took up official residence there . Louise retained those apartments until her death there 56 years later . Lorne resumed his political career , campaigning unsuccessfully for the Hampstead seat in 1885 . In 1896 , he won the South Manchester seat , entering parliament as a Liberal . Louise , unlike Lorne and his father , was in favour of Irish Home Rule , and disappointed when he defected from Gladstonian Liberalism to the Liberal Unionists . Relations between Louise and Lorne were strained , and , despite the Queen 's attempts to keep them under one roof , they often went their separate ways . Even when he accompanied Louise , he was not always received with favour at court , and the Prince of Wales did not take to him . Out of all the royal family , Lorne was the only one to be identified closely with a political party , having been a Gladstonian liberal in the House of Commons . Louise 's relationship with the two sisters closest to the Queen , Beatrice and Helena , was strained at best . Beatrice had married the tall and handsome Prince Henry of Battenberg in a love match in 1885 , and they had four children . Louise , who had a jealous nature , had grown accustomed to treating Beatrice with pity on account of the Queen 's constant need for her . Beatrice 's biographer , Matthew Dennison , claims that in contrast to Beatrice , Louise remained strikingly good looking throughout her forties . Louise and her husband were no longer close , and rumours spread about Lorne 's alleged homosexuality . Thus , Beatrice was enjoying a satisfying sexual relationship with her popular husband , which Louise was not . Louise may have considered Prince Henry a more appropriate husband for herself . Certainly , following Prince Henry 's death in 1896 , Louise wrote that : " he [ Henry ] was almost the greatest friend I had — I , too , miss him more than I can say " . In addition , Louise attempted to champion her late brother @-@ in @-@ law by announcing that she was his confidante and that Beatrice , a mere cipher , meant nothing to him . = = = Rumours regarding Louise = = = Further rumours spread that Louise was having an affair with Arthur Bigge , later Lord Stamfordham , the Queen 's assistant private secretary . Beatrice mentioned the rumours to the Queen 's physician , calling it a " scandal " , and Prince Henry claimed to have seen Bigge drinking to Louise 's health at dinner . Louise denied the rumour , claiming that it was started by Beatrice and Helena to undermine her position at court . However , on Henry 's death , relations between the sisters sporadically improved , and it was Louise , rather than the Queen , who was the first to arrive at Cimiez to be with the widowed Beatrice . Nevertheless , Louise 's jealousy did not evaporate completely . James Reid , the Queen 's physician , wrote to his wife a few years later : " Louise is as usual much down on her sisters . Hope she won 't stay long or she will do mischief ! " Rumours of affairs did not surround only Bigge . In 1890 , the sculptor Joseph Edgar Boehm died in Louise 's presence at his studio in London , leading to rumours that the two were having an affair . Boehm 's assistant , Alfred Gilbert , who played a central role in comforting Louise after Boehm 's death , and supervised the destruction of Boehm 's private papers , was rapidly promoted as a royal sculptor . Louise was also romantically linked to fellow artist Edwin Lutyens ; her equerry , Colonel William Probert ; and an unnamed music master . However , Jehanne Wake , Louise 's biographer , argues that there is no substantial evidence to suggest that Louise had sexual relationships with anyone other than her husband . During Victoria 's last years , Louise carried out a range of public duties , such as opening public buildings , laying foundation stones , and officiating at special programmes . Louise , like her eldest sister Victoria , was more liberally minded , and supported the suffragist movement , completely contrary to the Queen 's views . Louise privately visited Britain 's first female doctor , Elizabeth Garrett . Queen Victoria deplored the idea of women joining professions , especially the medical profession , and described the training of female doctors as a " repulsive subject " . = = = Louise as unconventional royal = = = Louise was determined to be seen as an ordinary person and not as a member of the court . When travelling abroad , she often used the alias " Mrs Campbell " . Louise was known for her charity towards servants . On one occasion , the butler approached her and requested permission to dismiss the second footman , who was late getting out of bed . When she advised that the footman be given an alarm clock , the butler informed her that he already had one . She then went so far as to suggest a bed that would throw him out at a specified time , but she was told this was not feasible . Finally , she suggested that he might be ill , and when checked , he was found to be suffering from tuberculosis . The footman was therefore sent to New Zealand to recover . On another occasion , when she visited Bermuda , she was invited to a reception and chose to walk rather than be driven . She became thirsty along the way and stopped at a house , where she asked a black woman named Mrs McCarthy for a glass of water . Owing to the scarcity of water , the woman had to go some distance to obtain it , but was reluctant because she had to finish her ironing . When Louise offered to continue the ironing , the woman refused , adding that she was in a great hurry to finish so that she could go and see Princess Louise . Realising that she had not been recognised , Louise enquired whether McCarthy would recognise her again . When the woman said that she would have thought so , but was admittedly unsure , Louise replied : " Well take a good look at me now , so you can be sure to know me tomorrow at St. Georges . " The Princess clung to her privacy , and enjoyed not being recognised . Louise and her sisters had another disagreement after the death of the Queen 's close friend , Jane Spencer , Baroness Churchill . Determined not to put her mother through more misery , Louise wanted the news to be broken to the Queen gradually . When this was not done , Louise voiced her sharp criticism of Helena and Beatrice . One month later , on 22 January 1901 , Queen Victoria died at Osborne House on the Isle of Wight . In her will , the Queen bequeathed Kent House , on the Osborne Estate , to Louise as a country residence , and gave Osborne Cottage to Louise 's youngest sister , Beatrice . Louise and Beatrice were now neighbours both at Kensington Palace and Osborne . = = Later life = = = = = Edwardian period = = = Upon Queen Victoria 's death , Louise entered the social circle of her brother , the new King Edward VII , with whom she had much in common , including smoking . She had an obsession with physical fitness , and if she was sneered at for this , she would retort by saying : " Never mind , I 'll outlive you all . " Meanwhile , Louise 's husband , 9th Duke of Argyll since 1900 , took his seat in the House of Lords . The Colonial Secretary , Joseph Chamberlain , offered him the office of Governor @-@ General of Australia that year , but the offer was declined . Louise continued her sculpture , and in 1902 , designed a memorial to the colonial soldiers who died in the Boer War . In the same year , she began a nude study on a married woman suggested by the English painter Sir William Blake Richmond . Louise spent much of her time at Kent House , and she frequently visited Scotland with her husband . Financial pressures did not disappear when Lorne became Duke , and Louise avoided inviting the King to Inveraray , Argyll 's ancestral home , because the couple were economising . When Queen Victoria had visited the house before Lorne became Duke of Argyll , there were seventy servants and seventy @-@ four dogs . By the time of Edward VII 's accession , there were four servants and two dogs . The Duke of Argyll 's health continued to deteriorate . He became increasingly senile , and Louise nursed him devotedly from 1911 . In these years Louise and her husband were closer than they had been before . In spring 1914 Louise stayed at Kensington Palace while her husband remained on the Isle of Wight . He developed bronchial problems followed by double pneumonia . Louise was summoned on 28 April 1914 , and he died on 2 May . Following his death , Louise had a nervous breakdown and suffered from intense loneliness , writing to a friend shortly afterwards : " My loneliness without the Duke is quite terrible . I wonder what he does now ! " = = = Last years = = = Louise spent her last years at Kensington Palace , occupying rooms next to her sister Princess Beatrice . She made occasional public appearances with the royal family , such as at the Cenotaph at Whitehall on 11 November 1925 . However , her health deteriorated . In 1935 , she greeted her nephew , King George V , and his wife , Queen Mary , at Kensington Town Hall during their Silver Jubilee celebrations , and was made an Honorary Freeman of the Borough of Kensington . Her last public appearance occurred in 1937 , at the Home Arts and Industries Exhibition . Between these occasions , her great nephew , King Edward VIII , abdicated on 11 December 1936 . In December 1936 , Louise wrote to the British prime minister , Stanley Baldwin , sympathising with him about the crisis . Following the accession of Edward 's brother King George VI , she became too ill to move around , and was confined to Kensington Palace , affectionately called the " Auntie Palace " by Princess Elizabeth and Princess Margaret . She developed neuritis in her arm , inflammation of the nerves between the ribs , fainting fits , and sciatica . Louise occupied herself by drafting prayers , one of which was sent to Neville Chamberlain , reading " Guide our Ministers of State and all who are in authority over us ... " = = Death = = She died at Kensington Palace on the morning of 3 December 1939 at the age of 91 years , 8 months and 15 days , the same age to the day as her younger brother Prince Arthur , wearing the wedding veil she had worn almost 70 years earlier . Following a simple funeral , owing to the war , her remains were cremated at Golders Green Crematorium on 8 December . Her ashes were quietly placed in the Royal Crypt at St. George 's Chapel on 12 December , with many members of the Royal and Argyll families present . Her ashes were moved to the Royal Burial Ground , Frogmore near Windsor , on 13 March 1940 . Louise 's will stated that if she died in Scotland she should be buried at the Campbell mausoleum in Kilmun next to her husband ; if in England , at Frogmore near her parents . Her coffin was borne by eight NCOs of her own regiment , The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders . = = Legacy = = Louise bestowed her name on four Canadian regiments : The Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada ( Princess Louise 's ) in Hamilton , Ontario ; the Princess Louise Dragoon Guards in Ottawa , Ontario ( inactive since 1965 ) ; the 8th Canadian Hussars ( Princess Louise 's ) in Moncton , New Brunswick ; and the Princess Louise Fusiliers in Halifax , Nova Scotia . Queen Elizabeth II later recalled that Louise and her sister Beatrice would talk until they stunned their audience with their output of words . The province of Alberta in Canada is named after her . Although the name " Louise " was originally planned , the Princess wished to honour her dead father , so her last name was chosen . Lake Louise in Alberta is also named after her , as is Mount Alberta . Although her time in Canada was not always happy , she liked the Canadian people and retained close links with her Canadian regiments . Back at home , she gained a reputation for paying unscheduled visits to hospitals , especially during her later years . Her relationship with her family was generally close . Although at times she bickered with the Queen , and her sisters Helena and Beatrice , the relations did not remain strained for long . She retained a lifelong correspondence with her brother , Prince Arthur , and was one of King Edward VII 's favourite sisters . Of all her siblings , she was closest to Prince Leopold , later Duke of Albany , and she was devastated by his death in 1884 . Among the younger generations of the family , Louise 's favourite relatives were the Duke and Duchess of Kent . At the coronation of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth in 1937 , Louise lent the Duchess the train that she designed and wore for the coronation of King Edward VII and Queen Alexandra in 1902 . A war hospital in Erskine , Scotland , is named after Louise . It took her name as she was the first patron of the unit . It was originally called Princess Louise Scottish Hospital for Limbless Sailors and Soldiers . The name changed over the years to Erskine Hospital and then just Erskine . The charity is close to its centenary year and has grown to become the biggest ex @-@ service establishment in the country . = = = Art Practice = = = Louise had artistic training from childhood , first with Susan Durant from 1864 , then Mary Thornycroft from 1867 , and further lessons with Edgar Boehm . She also then attended National Art Training School , or NATS , which marks the first time a member of the British royal family attended a public education institution . Like many women artists in the nineteenth century , Louise had to make do with training intended for industrial designers and art teachers rather than fine artists . There was no training from the nude model , as there was for male art students . Louise held an account with the London artists ’ colourman Charles Roberson & Co. from April 1872 until February 1931 , buying materials for oil and water colour painting including numerous sketchbooks . Louise was the most artistically talented of Queen Victoria 's daughters . As well as being an able actress , pianist and dancer , she was a prolific artist and sculptor . When Louise sculpted a statue of the Queen , portraying her in Coronation robes , the press claimed that her tutor , Sir Edgar Boehm , was the true creator of the work . The claim was denied by Louise 's friends , who asserted her effort and independence . The work was intended to be exhibited in 1887 , but production was delayed until 1893 . A memorial to her brother @-@ in @-@ law , Prince Henry of Battenberg , and a memorial to the Colonial soldiers who fell during the Boer War , reside at Whippingham Church on the Isle of Wight , and another statue of Queen Victoria remains at McGill University in Montreal . = = = = Selected Works of Art = = = = = = = = = Works on Paper = = = = = Queen Victoria , 1881 . Pencil on paper , 36 @.@ 9 x 24 @.@ 0 cm ( sheet of paper ) . Royal Collection Trust , RCIN 980422 . = = = = = Sculpture = = = = = Princess Beatrice , 1864 . Marble , 55 @.@ 0 x 29 @.@ 0 x 23 @.@ 0 cm . Royal Collection Trust , RCIN 53351 . Prince Arthur , 1869 . Marble , 61 @.@ 5 x 33 @.@ 0 x 26 @.@ 0 cm . Royal Collection Trust , RCIN 31662 . Prince Leopold , 1869 . Marble , 43 @.@ 4 x 29 @.@ 0 x 19 @.@ 0 cm . Royal Collection Trust , RCIN 34511 . Queen Victoria , 1887 . Bronze , 61 @.@ 5 x 46 x 41 cm . Leeds Museums and Galleries , Temple Newsam House . Self Portrait , n.d. Terracotta , 63 @.@ 5 cm . National Portrait Gallery , London . = = = Titles and styles = = = 18 March 1848 – 21 March 1871 : Her Royal Highness The Princess Louise 21 March 1871 – 24 April 1900 : Her Royal Highness The Princess Louise , Marchioness of Lorne 24 April 1900 – 3 December 1939 : Her Royal Highness The Princess Louise , Duchess of Argyll = = = Honours = = = 21 January 1865 : Lady of the Royal Order of Victoria and Albert ( first class ) 1 January 1878 : Companion of the Order of the Crown of India 7 August 1885 : Member of the Royal Red Cross 10 February 1904 : Royal Family Order of King Edward VII ( second class ) 3 June 1911 : Royal Family Order of King George V ( second class ) 3 June 1918 : Dame Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire 12 June 1927 : Dame Grand Cross of the Venerable Order of St John 11 May 1937 : Dame Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order = = = = Honorary military appointments = = = = 3 July 1911 : Honorary Colonel , 5th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards ( which became 4th Princess Louise Dragoon Guards in 1936 ) 22 June 1914 : Colonel @-@ in @-@ Chief , the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders ( Princess Louise 's ) 15 April 1930 : Colonel @-@ in @-@ Chief , the Argyll and Sutherland Highlanders of Canada ( Princess Louise 's ) 14 August 1936 : Colonel @-@ in @-@ Chief , the Princess Louise Fusiliers = = = = Honorary roles = = = = President of the Women 's Education Union from 1871 . Patron of the Girls ' Day School Trust , 1872 – 1939 Patron of the Ladies Lifeboat Guild , Royal National Lifeboat Institution , 1923 @-@ 39 = = = Arms = = = In 1858 , Louise and the three younger of her sisters were granted use of the royal arms , with an inescutcheon of the shield of Saxony and differenced by a label of three points argent . On Louise 's arms , the outer points bore cantons gules , and the centre a rose gules . In 1917 , the inescutcheon was dropped by royal warrant from George V. = = Ancestry = =

= Sinsinawa Mound raid = The Sinsinawa Mound raid occurred on June 29 , 1832 , near the Sinsinawa mining settlement in Michigan Territory ( present @-@ day Grant County , Wisconsin in the United States ) . This incident , part of the Black Hawk War , resulted in the deaths of two men ; a third man survived by seeking cover in a nearby blockhouse . In the aftermath of the raid , Captain James W. Stephenson set out to pursue the attackers — a straggling band of Sauk Native Americans — but lost their trail at the Mississippi River . The attack occurred in the same week as other skirmishes and raids , and as a result helped contribute to the growing fear in the region . The raid caused the residents of nearby Platteville to consider fleeing their settlement . = = Background = = As a consequence of an 1804 treaty between the governor of Indiana Territory and a group of Sauk and Fox leaders regarding land settlement , the tribes vacated their lands in Illinois and moved west of the Mississippi in 1828 . However , Sauk Chief Black Hawk and others disputed the treaty , claiming that the full tribal councils had not been consulted , nor did those representing the tribes have authorization to cede lands . Angered by the loss of his birthplace , between 1830 – 31 Black Hawk led a number of incursions across the Mississippi River into Illinois , but was persuaded each time to return west without bloodshed . In April 1832 , encouraged by promises of alliance with other tribes and the British , he again moved his so @-@ called " British Band " of around 1 @,@ 000 warriors and non @-@ combatants into Illinois . Finding no allies , he attempted to return across the Mississippi ( to present @-@ day Iowa ) , but the undisciplined Illinois Militia 's actions led to the Battle of Stillman 's Run . A number of other engagements followed , and the militia of Michigan Territory and the state of Illinois were mobilized to hunt down Black Hawk 's band . The conflict became known as the Black Hawk War . The period between Stillman 's Run and the raid at Sinsinawa Mound was filled with war @-@ related activity . A series of attacks at Buffalo Grove , the Plum River settlement , Fort Blue Mounds and the war 's most famous incident , the Indian Creek massacre , all took place between mid @-@ May and late June 1832 . The week before the Battle of Apple River Fort ( on June 24 ) was an important turning point for the settlers : between June 16 and 18 two key battles , one at Waddams Grove and the other at Horseshoe Bend , played a role in changing public perception about the militia after its defeat at Stillman 's Run . The Battle of Apple River Fort occurred five days before the Sinsinawa Mound raid ; the fight was a 45 minute gun battle between defenders garrisoned inside Apple River Fort and Sauk and Fox warriors led by Chief Black Hawk himself . = = Prelude = = George W. Jones , who would later become a U.S. Senator from Iowa , arrived in the Sinsinawa Mound area in 1827 , and in 1828 established a mining settlement there . The first structure at the settlement was Jones 's own log cabin , built during the spring of 1828 in two days . The cabin measured 49 feet ( 14 @.@ 9 m ) by 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) and each room had one door and one window . When the Black Hawk War began four years later he also built a small fort at the site . The remains of the fort , one of many constructed in the region to protect local residents , are said to still stand at the entrance to the Sinsinawa Dominican complex . One of the men who assisted Jones in building the fort 's blockhouse was Enoch Robinson , a soldier who later helped bury the victims of the Sinsinawa Mound raid . At the time of the attack Jones was with Henry Dodge 's militia volunteers , on the way to meet overall commander General Henry Atkinson at Lake Koshkonong , then a marsh region . = = Attack = = On June 29 , 1832 , what was probably a small band of Sauk attacked three men working in a cornfield at the Jones mining settlement near Sinsinawa Mound . The Sauk took up a position directly between the settlers and their weapons . Two of the men — James Boxley and John Thompson — were killed by the raiding party ; their badly mutilated bodies were later recovered . The third , an unidentified man , made a run for Jones blockhouse and survived the attack . The raiders were most likely a group of stragglers from the main body of the British Band , which was moving toward the Rock River with Chief Black Hawk . = = Aftermath = = When news of the raid reached Galena , Illinois , Captain James W. Stephenson set out with thirty soldiers to pursue the raiding party . Arriving at Sinsinawa Mound , they buried the two " most shockingly mutilated " settlers there ; both Thompson and Boxley had been scalped and Thompson 's heart had been removed . Stephenson then followed the Sauk trail to the Mississippi River where it went cold , the raiders having apparently crossed the river . Stephenson 's party returned to Galena empty handed . Henry Dodge ordered the various elements of the militia to rendezvous at Fort Hamilton to eventually join General Henry Atkinson near present @-@ day Madison , Wisconsin . When word of the attack at Sinsinawa Mound reached George W. Jones he left the volunteers under the command of Dodge and returned to the settlement at the mound . The attack at Sinsinawa Mound , compounded by other incidents around the region , helped contribute to the fear gripping the settlers . The people of Platteville , in present @-@ day Wisconsin , contemplated fleeing to Galena , about 25 miles ( 40 km ) south , as a direct result of the Sinsinawa Mound raid . Colonel Dodge dispatched one of his men , Frederick Hollman , to Platteville to reassure its nervous residents . However , by the time Hollman arrived the settlers had already been informed that the local Native American Ho @-@ Chunk tribesmen were friendly . This and the subsequent delivery of promised supplies from Galena further placated Platteville 's residents , and the threatened exodus was called off .

= Thomas Brunner = Thomas Brunner ( April 1821 – 22 April 1874 ) was an English @-@ born surveyor and explorer remembered for his exploration of the West Coast of New Zealand 's South Island . Brunner was born in April 1821 in Oxford . When he was fifteen , he began to learn architecture and surveying . In 1841 , he joined the New Zealand Company in its venture to establish a settlement in the north of the South Island of New Zealand , to be called Nelson . As well as working as an apprentice surveyor and laying sections and roads for the new settlement , he explored the interior , seeking pastoral land for a growing colony . In 1846 he undertook extensive journeys with Charles Heaphy and a Māori named Kehu towards and along the West Coast . In December 1846 , Brunner commenced an expedition , accompanied by four Māori including Kehu , which began from Nelson . The party travelled down the Buller River and along the West Coast reaching as far south as Tititira Head , near Paringa before returning to Nelson via the Arahura River . This arduous journey , which at one stage saw one of his legs paralysed , took him 550 days . He received honours from the Royal Geographical Society and the Société de géographie ( French Geographic Society ) . He continued to work as a surveyor and in 1851 was appointed Government Surveyor . He surveyed the sites , which he and Heaphy had scouted on previous explorations , for what would become the towns of Westport and Greymouth . He retired in 1869 and died of a stroke on 22 April 1874 . = = Early life = = Thomas Brunner was born in Oxford , England , in April 1821 , and baptised four months later on 22 August . He was the oldest son of William Brunner , an Oxford attorney who was also the county coroner . He was of Swiss descent , his father 's parents having emigrated to England at the time of the French Revolution . The Brunner family were active in the Oxford community , Thomas ' parents raising him and his siblings to appreciate cultural and charitable activities . In 1836 , at the age of fifteen , Brunner was apprenticed to an architect , Thomas Greenshields , to learn architecture and surveying . Over the next five years , he became proficient in both skills . = = Service with the New Zealand Company = = In 1841 , Brunner 's father put his son 's name forward to the New Zealand Company , which was seeking prospective emigrants for its proposed settlement in the South Island of New Zealand . The company wanted to populate its new settlement with well educated young men of excellent character and with leadership potential . Furthermore , apprentice surveyors , at the time known as " improvers " , were in particular demand and Brunner , aided by character references from his employer and other notable residents of Oxford , was duly selected to join the company . In addition to his work as an improver , he was to assist the settlement 's principal surveyor , Frederick Tuckett . Brunner joined a party of six other young improvers which left England on 27 April 1841 aboard the Whitby . During the voyage to New Zealand , the improvers received further instruction and were tested by having to prepare draft layouts for the new settlement , Brunner 's plan being the best of these . On 18 September , the Whitby arrived at Port Nicholson , the New Zealand Company 's first settlement . The approximate site for the new settlement had yet to be finalised ; initially intended for Banks Peninsula , this location was vetoed by the Governor of New Zealand , William Hobson . Instead , it was to be located at the top of the South Island , at Tasman Bay . Early the following month a convoy of the company 's ships , with Brunner aboard one them , crossed the Cook Strait to Tasman Bay . After scouting the area for three weeks , a site adjacent a deep and sheltered natural harbour was identified as being suitable for the settlement . For the next two years Brunner assisted in the laying out of the settlement , which was to be called Nelson . A drawback with the Nelson settlement was its lack of pasture and the colony began to appropriate more and more of the nearby Wairau Plain , much to the displeasure of local Māori . Several personnel of the company , including Arthur Wakefield , the senior official of the company in Nelson , were killed in the Wairau Affray in June 1843 . The New Zealand Company was forced to look south for more farming land . Brunner was sent to scout the Motueka Valley but failed to penetrate far due to poor weather . From local Māori he heard of a large plain to the south and passed on his findings to Tuckett . In August 1843 , Tuckett dispatched Brunner to confirm the reports . Brunner , accompanied by Kehu , a Māori he had befriended , was again defeated by poor weather . Life in Nelson was hard for the colonists . The company had limited finances and tightened its expenditure which affected the salaries of its employees . In 1844 , it had to halt its operations for a time . Although Nelson had 300 landowners , nearly two thirds were absentee owners and only 80 actually lived in the town . Brunner lived at Riwaka , a nearby village , and , in addition to carrying out survey work along the Motueka River , helped in the design and building of houses in the area . He ended his service with the company in August 1844 . = = Exploring the West Coast = = In February 1846 , Brunner and Kehu , accompanied by Charles Heaphy and William Fox , undertook an expedition southwest of Nelson . Fox was the resident agent for the New Zealand Company in Nelson and provided the equipment and provisions for the party in addition to paying a salary to Brunner and Heaphy . Land in Nelson for farming was still scarce but it was hoped that beyond the steep hills to the southwest , good pastoral land would be found . Difficult terrain faced them ; high mountain ranges topped with snow and ice , steep bush , numerous rivers and gorges . Food sources included roots and berries ; birds could be snared and eels caught from streams . Along the coast , shellfish and gull eggs added to the diet . The party , each carrying a load of 75 pounds ( 34 kg ) , trekked to Lake Rotoiti and then climbed the high ranges that backed onto the lake . On 11 February , they saw Lake Rotoroa and made their way to its shores and spent two days exploring the area . They gained the Buller River on 18 February and walked its banks as far as the Maruia River . Here , believing themselves to be only 20 miles from the coast , dwindling provisions prevented them proceeding to the mouth of the Buller River . Guided by Kehu , the party traversed the Hope Saddle on their way back to Nelson , which they reached on 1 March . Brunner was keen for further exploration and Fox persuaded him to scout along the West Coast to the mouth of the Buller River in the hope of finding suitable land for farming . Brunner , Kehu and Heaphy left Nelson on 17 March on what became a five @-@ month expedition tracing the western coast of South Island as far south as what is now known as Hokitika . Their journey began from Golden Bay , and they made their way to West Wanganui where Brunner hired a local Māori , Etau , as a porter for the party . The expedition hit a snag when the local chief barred their journey south but Brunner and Heaphy mollified him with some tobacco . They continued along the coast , climbing sometimes steep cliffs and fording rivers as they went . Their movements would be held up at times due to rain and high tides . At night , they would shelter in small caves augmented with a screen of Nikau palm leaves . They crossed the Karamea River on 20 April and reached the Buller River ten days later . This had to be crossed using an old canoe that was repaired by Kehu and Etau . After safely getting across , they stayed at the local pā ( village ) . In early May , they sighted the Southern Alps . At the Arahura River ( a tributary of the Grey River ) , the southernmost point of the expedition , they were hosted by the local Ngāi Tahu tribe at Taramakau Pā . Poor weather plagued their return trip back along the coast but they reached Nelson on 18 August . = = = The Great Journey = = = On 3 December 1846 , Brunner began what became his longest and most arduous expedition . He planned to follow the Buller River to the sea and then trek down the West Coast as far south as Milford Sound . During his previous expedition , he had been told of the existence of a route through the Southern Alps by the Māori at the Arahura River . He hoped to discover this route and use it to cross the Southern Alps and reach Canterbury . He was accompanied once again by Kehu , who brought along his wife . Another Māori , Pitewate , a friend of Kehu 's , also joined the venture , accompanied by his wife . Brunner provided clothing and shoes for his companions . The wives proved problematic during the journey as they quarrelled , sometimes supported by their husbands , and Brunner would have to mediate . Stocked with provisions that included two guns , 16 pounds ( 7 kg ) of tobacco , 112 pounds ( 51 kg ) of flour , salt and pepper , biscuits and tea , the party travelled by mules and canoe for the first two weeks until they reached Buller River . They then followed the path of the river down to the coast . The journey was difficult ; the party was constantly bothered by sandflies and rain and they had to ford the river several times . They settled into a routine of trekking for a week then camping for the same period to restock their provisions , living off freshwater fish and cabbage- and fern @-@ tree roots . By May 1847 , they were at the final reaches of the Buller but food was becoming so scarce to find , they had to kill Brunner 's dog . He noted its flesh was " ... something between mutton and pork . It is too richly flavoured to eat by itself . " This incident led to him being nicknamed Kai Kuri ( dog eater ) . Brunner was disappointed at the condition of the land along the banks of the Buller River as it neared the coast . He had briefly scouted the area on his previous journey and believed it had potential for pastoral farming . He now found it too damp and mossy to be cultivated . The party reached the mouth of the Buller on 1 June and made their way to the pā that Brunner and Heaphy had stayed at on their last journey but on arrival , found that it had been abandoned . They continued on down to the Arahura River and reached the Taramakau Pā where they stayed for three months over the worst of the winter months . On 12 October , Brunner continued south with some local Māori . He went as far south as Tititira Head , near Paringa where in December he severely sprained his ankle . After recovering , he decided to make his way back to Taramakau Pā . From here he along with his companions , journeyed up the Arahura River and in late January 1848 , discovered the coalfield and lake which now bears his name . He wanted to continue on this route to Canterbury but Kehu and Pitewate would have none of it . The party began to make their way back to Nelson . They travelled north via a tributary of the Arahura River which eventually met the Buller River , which they reached in March . In April , while making his way up the Buller Gorge , Brunner suffered paralysis of his leg . The party had to lay up for a week for Brunner to recover some use of his body . With the aid of Kehu ( Pitewate and his wife abandoned the party when Brunner became ill ) , he was able to reach Nelson in June 1848 , thus ending after 550 days what he described as his ' Great Journey ' . In Nelson , many people had thought Brunner dead and he readily recognised that he would not have survived his endeavours without the aid of Kehu , writing : " ... I found my native Ekehu of much use - invaluable indeed , but the other three rather an encumbrance - I could have made better progress without them ; but to Ekehu I owe my life - he is a faithful and attached servant . " As well as further information about the West Coast , Brunner informed the colony that coal was to be found in the Grey River valley . However , he also considered , mistakenly , that " there is nothing on the West Coast worth incurring the expense of exploring . " Reports of Brunner 's endeavours on the West Coast soon spread to Wellington and England . He wrote an account of his journey which was first published by Charles Elliott , the editor of the local newspaper the Nelson Examiner , and later , in 1850 , in the Journal of the Royal Geographical Society . The Royal Geographical Society also awarded him their Patron 's Medal and appointed him a Fellow of the Society . His exploits were also recognised in France , the Société de géographie ( French Geographic Society ) awarding him a diploma in 1852 . = = Later life = = Brunner 's constitution was considerably impaired by his exertions and his health never fully returned . Despite this , after a period of recovery he set out in November 1848 with three companions , including Kehu , to discover a quicker route between Nelson and Wairau . This involved travelling the paths of the Maitai and Wairoa Rivers to their headwaters . The weather was poor throughout the six @-@ week trip and Brunner was in discomfort for much of the ultimately unsuccessful venture , which determined that the existing route to Wairau was the fastest . Apart from a short period doing contract surveying for the New Zealand Company in March 1849 , Brunner remained unemployed and wrote numerous letters to his contacts . His former travelling companion , William Fox , and Dillon Bell , chief agent of the New Zealand Company , also sought to find him a job and through them , he was able to find work as a clerk with the Canterbury Association between September 1849 and February 1850 . He returned to Nelson in May 1850 and secured full @-@ time employment as a surveyor with the New Zealand Company , but with the proviso that he would be able to take on private work which did not interfere with his duties . To supplement his income Brunner began to take on architectural commissions . In 1851 , the New Zealand Company was still struggling financially and eventually transferred its land to the New Zealand Government . Brunner 's employment with the company ceased and he , after writing a letter soliciting for surveying work , was appointed the Government Surveyor with an annual salary of ₤ 100 ( 2014 approximation ₤ 8 @,@ 000 ) . This was still a low salary for a professional and Brunner was allowed to continue with his architectural commissions , working from an office he had purchased in Nelson . He was kept busy for the next several years ; in addition to carrying out and supervising survey work in the area , he took on responsibility for some public works . He drew up plans for roading , bridges and botanical gardens . On 11 October 1855 , Brunner married Jane Robson , the 26 @-@ year @-@ old daughter of a labourer who had brought his family to New Zealand the previous year . It was a respectable match for Jane as Brunner was considered a particularly eligible bachelor in Nelson , one of around 45 professionals working in the town of about 1600 people . His salary had increased to ₤ 300 ( ₤ 24 @,@ 000 ) and he was now Chief Surveyor for the Nelson Province , the local returning officer and the Commissioner of Native Reserves for Nelson . He also owned three properties , including his Nelson office . Brunner returned to the mouth of the Buller River in March 1861 but this time aboard a ship . Working in much greater comfort than on his last visit to the area in 1848 , with other members of his staff he surveyed and laid out sections for what would become the town of Westport . Later that month he did the same for Greymouth . The work was soon completed and the party returned to Nelson in April 1861 . Brunner designed St Michael 's Church in Waimea West in 1866 , which was probably New Zealand 's first memorial church . It commemorates Captain Francis H. Blundell , an early settler who died in 1865 and is buried here . The previous church on the site from 1843 was the first church in the Nelson Province . On 5 April 1984 , St Michael 's was registered with the New Zealand Historic Places Trust as a Category I structure with registration number 248 . = = Retirement and death = = Brunner retired in 1869 at the relatively young age of 46 . He remained employed by the Nelson Provincial Council as a consultant surveyor and was also head of the Nelson Survey Department . His administration skills were not up to the latter role and many of the surveys produced under his supervision were of poor quality . He also continued to seek private work and contributed to a report on the suitability of the Buller region for settlement and this was published in early 1873 . On his retirement in 1869 he had retained his offices of sheriff , returning officer and registration officer but was relieved of these in 1872 in cost @-@ cutting measures by the Nelson Provincial Council . This did not meet with the approval of locals . In late 1873 , Brunner suffered a paralysis of his left side which prevented him from working . By mid @-@ April 1874 , he had sufficiently recovered to begin soliciting the provincial government for suitable employment . However , on the morning of 22 April he suffered a stroke and died few hours later . His funeral service was held at Nelson Cathedral and was attended by several hundred people . A large Māori contingent , including his long @-@ time friend Kehu , was also present . Brunner was buried at Wakapuaka Cemetery . He was survived by his wife , who moved to England soon after his death . She lived with her brother until her death in 1895 . The couple had no children . Several geographic features are named for him . Brunner , originally called Brunnerton , is a small settlement on the Grey River inland from Greymouth where he first found coal . It is the site of the former Brunner Mine , best known for New Zealand 's worst mine disaster in 1896 . Lake Brunner is located some 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) by road from here , upstream along the Arnold River ; Brunner went there after his coal discovery . Another feature named for him is the Brunner Range , which is located east of the valley through which the Inangahua River flows . A plaque to his memory lies in the Nelson Cathedral .

= Opeth = Opeth is a Swedish heavy metal band from Stockholm , formed in 1990 . The group has been through several personnel changes , but singer , guitarist and songwriter Mikael Åkerfeldt has remained Opeth 's only founding member and primary driving force throughout the years . Opeth has consistently incorporated progressive , folk , blues , classical and jazz influences into their usually lengthy compositions , as well as strong influences from death metal , especially in their early works . Many songs include acoustic guitar passages and strong dynamic shifts , as well as both death growls and clean vocals . Opeth is also well @-@ known for their incorporation of Mellotrons in their work . Opeth rarely made live appearances supporting their first four albums ; but since conducting their first world tour after the 2001 release of Blackwater Park , they have led several major world tours . Opeth has released eleven studio albums , three live DVDs , three live albums ( two that are in conjunction with DVDs ) , and two boxsets . The band released its debut album Orchid in 1995 . Although their eighth studio album , Ghost Reveries , was quite popular in the United States , Opeth did not experience major American commercial success until the 2008 release of their ninth studio album , Watershed , which peaked at No. 23 on the Billboard 200 , and topped the Finnish albums chart in its first week of release . Opeth has sold over 1 @.@ 5 million albums and DVDs worldwide , including 300 @,@ 000 collective SoundScans of their albums Blackwater Park , Damnation and Deliverance in the United States . = = History = = = = = Formation ( 1990 – 1993 ) = = = Opeth was formed as a death metal band in the autumn of 1990 in Stockholm , Sweden by vocalist David Isberg . Isberg asked former Eruption band member Mikael Åkerfeldt ( just 16 years old at the time ) to join Opeth as a bassist . When Åkerfeldt showed up to practice the day after Isberg invited him , it became clear that Isberg had not told the band members , including the band 's current bassist , that Åkerfeldt would be joining . An ensuing argument led to all members but Isberg and Åkerfeldt leaving to form a new project . The band name was derived from the word " Opet , " taken from the Wilbur Smith novel The Sunbird . In this novel , Opet is the name of a fictional Phoenician city in South Africa whose name is translated as " City of the Moon " . Isberg and Åkerfeldt recruited drummer Anders Nordin , bassist Nick Döring , and guitarist Andreas Dimeo . Unsatisfied with Opeth 's slow progress , Döring and Dimeo left the band after their first performance , and were replaced by guitarist Kim Pettersson and bassist Johan De Farfalla . After the next show , DeFarfalla left Opeth to spend time with his girlfriend in Germany , and was initially replaced by Mattias Ander , before Åkerfeldt 's friend Peter Lindgren took on the role of bassist . Rhythm guitarist Kim Pettersson left following the band 's next performance , and Lindgren switched to guitar , with the role of bassist falling to Stefan Guteklint . The following year , David Isberg left the band citing " creative differences " . Following Isberg 's departure , Åkerfeldt took over vocal duties and he , Lindgren , and Nordin spent the next year writing and rehearsing new material . The group began to rely less on the blast beats and aggression typical of death metal , and incorporated acoustic guitars and guitar harmonies into their music ; developing the core sound of Opeth . Bassist Guteklint was dismissed by the band after they signed their first record deal with Candlelight Records in 1994 . Opeth initially employed former member DeFarfalla as a session bassist for their demo recordings , and he went on to join on a full @-@ time basis following the release of Opeth 's debut album , " Orchid " , in 1995 . = = = Orchid , Morningrise , and My Arms , Your Hearse ( 1994 – 1998 ) = = = Opeth recorded its debut album , Orchid , with producer Dan Swanö in April 1994 . Because of distribution problems with the newly formed Candlelight Records , the album was not released until May 15 , 1995 , and only in Europe . Orchid tested the boundaries of traditional death metal , featuring acoustic guitars , piano , and clean vocals . AllMusic called Orchid " brilliant , " " startlingly unique , " and " a far @-@ beyond @-@ epic prog / death monstrosity exuding equal parts beauty and brutality . " After a few live shows in the United Kingdom , Opeth returned to the studio in March 1996 to begin work on a second album , again produced by Dan Swanö . The album was named Morningrise , and was released in Europe on June 24 , 1996 . With only five songs , but lasting 66 minutes ; it features Opeth 's longest song , the twenty @-@ minute " Black Rose Immortal " . Morningrise was a huge success , with Allmusic giving the album four stars . Opeth toured the UK in support of Morningrise , followed by a 26 @-@ date Scandinavian tour with Cradle of Filth . While on tour , Opeth attracted the attention of Century Media Records , who signed the band and released the first two albums in the United States in 1997 . In 1997 , after the tour , Åkerfeldt and Lindgren dismissed DeFarfalla for personal reasons , without the consent of Nordin . When Åkerfeldt informed Nordin , who was on a vacation in Brazil , Nordin left the band and remained in Brazil for personal reasons . Former Eternal members , drummer Martín López ( formerly of Amon Amarth ) and bassist Martín Méndez , responded to an ad at a music shop placed by Åkerfeldt . The Martíns were fans of the band and took the ads down themselves so no other musicians could apply for the job . Åkerfeldt and Lindgren did not want the Martíns to join at first , due to them already knowing each other ; they felt that they wanted two strangers so that there wouldn 't be two camps in the band , but eventually hired both . López made his debut with Opeth playing on a cover version of Iron Maiden 's " Remember Tomorrow " , which was included on the album A Call to Irons : A Tribute to Iron Maiden . With a larger recording budget from Century Media , Opeth began work on its third album , with noted Swedish producer Fredrik Nordström , at Studio Fredman in August 1997 . Although Opeth had Méndez , due to time constraints Åkerfeldt played bass on the album . My Arms , Your Hearse was released to critical acclaim on August 18 , 1998 . = = = Still Life and Blackwater Park ( 1999 – 2001 ) = = = In 1999 , the ownership of Candlelight Records changed hands , with owner and friend of the band Lee Barrett leaving the company . Opeth signed with UK label Peaceville Records in Europe , which was distributed by Music for Nations . Opeth reserved time at Studio Fredman to begin work on its next album , but recording was postponed while the studio was relocated . Due to time constraints , the band was able to rehearse only twice before entering the studio . Delays with the album 's artwork pushed the release back an additional month and Still Life was released on October 18 , 1999 . Due to problems with the band 's new distribution network , the album was not released in the United States until February 2001 . Still Life was the first album recorded with Méndez , and also the first Opeth album to bear any kind of caption on the front cover upon its initial release , including the band 's logo . Allmusic called Still Life a " formidable splicing of harsh , often jagged guitar riffs with graceful melodies . " As explained by Åkerfeldt , Still Life is a concept album : " The main character is kind of banished from his hometown because he hasn 't got the same faith as the rest of the inhabitants there . The album pretty much starts off when he is returning after several years to hook up with his old ' babe . ' The big bosses of the town know that he 's back ... A lot of bad things start happening . " Following a few live dates in Europe , Opeth returned to Studio Fredman to begin work on its next album , with Porcupine Tree 's Steven Wilson producing . The band sought to recreate the recording experience of Still Life , and again entered the studio with minimal rehearsals , and no lyrics written . " This time it was tough , " Åkerfeldt said , " I feel pleasantly blown away by the immense result , though . It was indeed worth the effort . " Wilson also pushed the band to expand its sound , incorporating new sounds and production techniques . " Steve guided us into the realms of ' strange ' noises for guitars and voice , " Åkerfeldt said . Opeth released its fifth studio album , Blackwater Park , on February 21 , 2001 . Allmusic called Blackwater Park " astounding , a work of breathtaking creative breadth , " noting that the album " keeps with Opeth 's tradition by transcending the limits of death / black metal and repeatedly shattering the foundations of conventional songwriting . " In support of Blackwater Park , Opeth embarked on its first world tour , headlined Europe for the first time , and made an appearance at the 2001 Wacken Open Air festival in Germany , playing to a crowd of 60 @,@ 000 . = = = Deliverance and Damnation ( 2002 – 2004 ) = = = Opeth returned to Sweden after touring in support of Blackwater Park , and began writing for the next album . At first , Åkerfeldt had trouble putting together new material : " I wanted to write something heavier than we 'd ever done , still I had all these great mellow parts and arrangements which I didn 't want to go to waste . " Jonas Renkse of Katatonia , a long @-@ time friend of Åkerfeldt , suggested writing music for two separate albums — one heavy and one soft . Excited at the prospect , Åkerfeldt agreed without consulting his band mates or record label . While his band mates liked the idea of recording two separate albums , Åkerfeldt had to convince the label : " I had to lie somewhat ... saying that we could do this recording very soon , it won 't cost more than a regular single album . " With most of the material written , the band rehearsed just once before entering Nacksving Studios in 2002 , and again with producer Steven Wilson in Studio Fredman . Under pressure to complete both albums simultaneously , Åkerfeldt said the recording process was " the toughest test of our history . " After recording basic tracks , the band moved production to England to first mix the heavy album , Deliverance , with Andy Sneap at Backstage Studios . " Deliverance was so poorly recorded , without any organisation whatsoever , " Åkerfeldt claimed , that Sneap " is credited as a ' saviour ' in the sleeve , as he surely saved much of the recording . " Deliverance was released on November 4 , 2002 , and debuted at number 19 on the US Top Independent Albums chart , marking the band 's first US chart appearance . Allmusic stated , " Deliverance is altogether more subtle than any of its predecessors , approaching listeners with haunting nuances and masterful dynamics rather than overwhelming them with sheer mass and complexity . " Opeth performed a one @-@ off concert in Stockholm , then returned to the UK to finish recording vocals for the second of the two albums , Damnation , at Steven Wilson 's No Man 's Land Studios . Although Åkerfeldt believed the band could not finish both albums , Opeth completed Deliverance and Damnation in just seven weeks of studio time , which was the same amount spent on Blackwater Park alone . Damnation was released on April 14 , 2003 , and garnered the band its first appearance on the US Billboard 200 at number 192 . The album also won the 2003 Swedish Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance . On January 1 , 2016 , Opeth re @-@ released both Deliverance and Damnation in one package , containing CD and DVD versions , along with new mixing . The band embarked on its biggest tour yet , playing nearly 200 shows in 2003 and 2004 . Opeth performed three special shows in Europe with two song lists each — one acoustic set and one heavy set . The band recorded its first DVD , Lamentations ( Live at Shepherd 's Bush Empire 2003 ) , at Shepherd 's Bush Empire in London , England . The DVD features a two @-@ hour performance , including the entire Damnation album , several songs from Deliverance and Blackwater Park , and a one @-@ hour documentary about the recording of Deliverance and Damnation . Lamentations was certified Gold in Canada . Opeth was scheduled to perform in Jordan without a crew due to the fear of terrorist attacks in the Middle East . Opeth 's tour manager distributed 6 @,@ 000 tickets for the concert , but before the band left for Jordan , drummer Lopez called Åkerfeldt stating he was having an anxiety attack and could not perform , forcing the band to cancel the show . In early 2004 , Lopez was sent home from Canada after more anxiety attacks on tour . Opeth decided against cancelling the remainder of the tour , with Lopez 's drum technician filling in for two concerts . Lopez promised that he would return to the tour as soon as he could , but two shows later Opeth asked Strapping Young Lad drummer Gene Hoglan to fill in . Lopez returned to Opeth for the Seattle show on the final leg of the Deliverance and Damnation tour . Per Wiberg also joined the band on tour to perform keyboards , after more than a year on tour . = = = Ghost Reveries ( 2005 @-@ 2007 ) = = = Opeth returned home in 2004 to start writing new material for its eighth album , and by the end of the year , they had finished writing it . Opeth 's European label , Music for Nations , closed its doors in 2005 , and after negotiations with various labels , the band signed with Roadrunner Records . Åkerfeldt said the primary reason for signing with Roadrunner was the label 's wide distribution , ensuring the album would be available at larger @-@ chain retailers . When news leaked that the band was signed to Roadrunner , who predominantly worked with trend @-@ oriented rock and metal , some fans accused the band of selling out . " To be honest , " Åkerfeldt said , " that 's such an insult after 15 years as a band and 8 records . I can 't believe we haven 't earned each and every Opeth fan 's credibility after all these years . I mean , our songs are 10 minutes long ! " The band rehearsed for three weeks before entering the studio , the first time the band rehearsed since the 1998 album , My Arms , Your Hearse . During rehearsal , keyboardist Wiberg joined Opeth as a full @-@ time member . Opeth recorded at Fascination Street Studios in Örebro , Sweden , from March 18 to June 1 , 2005 , and released the resulting Ghost Reveries on August 30 , 2005 , to critical acclaim and commercial success . The album debuted at number 64 in the US , and number nine in Sweden , higher than any previous Opeth release . Keith Bergman of Blabbermouth.net gave the album ten out of ten , one of only 21 albums to achieve a perfect rating from the site . Rod Smith of Decibel magazine called Ghost Reveries " achingly beautiful , sometimes unabashedly brutal , often a combination of both . " On May 12 , 2006 , Martin Lopez announced that he had officially parted ways with Opeth due to health problems , and was replaced by Martin Axenrot . Opeth toured on the main stage of Gigantour in 2006 , alongside Megadeth . Ghost Reveries was re @-@ released on October 31 , 2006 , with a bonus cover song ( Deep Purple 's " Soldier of Fortune " ) , a DVD featuring a 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mix of the album and a documentary on the making of the record . A recording of Opeth 's live performance at the Camden Roundhouse , in London , on November 9 , 2006 , was released as the double live album The Roundhouse Tapes , which topped the Finnish DVD chart . On May 17 , 2007 , Peter Lindgren announced he would be leaving Opeth after 16 years . " The decision has been the toughest I 've ever made but it is the right one to make at this point in my life , " Lindgren said . " I feel that I simply have lost some of the enthusiasm and inspiration needed to participate in a band that has grown from a few guys playing the music we love to a worldwide industry . " Ex @-@ Arch Enemy guitarist Fredrik Åkesson replaced Lindgren , as Åkerfeldt explained " Fredrik was the only name that popped up thinking about a replacement for Peter . In my opinion he 's one of the top three guitar players out of Sweden . We all get along great as we 've known each other for maybe four years and he already has the experience to take on the circus @-@ like lifestyle we lead as members of Opeth . " = = = Watershed and In Live Concert at the Royal Albert Hall ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = Opeth entered Fascination Street Studios in November 2007 to record their ninth studio album , with Åkerfeldt producing . By January 2008 , Opeth had recorded 13 songs , including three cover songs . The finished album , Watershed , features seven tracks , with cover songs used as bonus tracks on different versions of the album . Watershed was released on June 3 , 2008 . Åkerfeldt described the songs on the album as " a bit more energetic " . Opeth toured in support of Watershed , including headlining the UK Defenders of the Faith tour with Arch Enemy , an appearance at Wacken Open Air , and the Progressive Nation tour with headliner Dream Theater . Watershed was Opeth 's highest @-@ charting album to date , debuting at number 23 on the US Billboard 200 , on the Australian ARIA album charts at number seven and at number one on Finland 's official album chart . Opeth went on a worldwide tour in support of Watershed . From September to October , the band toured North America backed by High on Fire , Baroness , and Nachtmystium . They returned to tour Europe for the rest of the year with Cynic and The Ocean . In 2010 , Opeth wrote and recorded the new track , " The Throat of Winter " , which appeared on the digital EP soundtrack of the video game , God of War III . Åkerfeldt described the song as " odd " and " not very metal . " To celebrate their 20th anniversary , Opeth performed a six @-@ show , worldwide tour called Evolution XX : An Opeth Anthology , from March 30 through April 9 , 2010 . Blackwater Park was performed in its entirety , along with several songs never before performed . The concert of April 5 , 2010 , at the Royal Albert Hall in London , England was filmed for a DVD and live album package titled In Live Concert at the Royal Albert Hall . The set was released on September 21 , 2010 , in 2 @-@ DVD and 2 @-@ DVD / 3 @-@ CD configurations . For the DVD the concert was split into two sets . The first set consists of the entire Blackwater Park album , while the second set contains one song from every album excluding Blackwater Park , in chronological order representing the twenty years of " evolution " in their music . Åkerfeldt stated , " I can 't believe it , but , fuck , we 're celebrating 20 years . I 've been in this band ever since I was 16 . It 's insane . " A special edition of Blackwater Park was released in March 2010 to coincide with the tour . = = = Heritage ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = = In September 2010 , Mikael Åkerfeldt stated that he was writing for a new Opeth album . The band announced on their website that they would start recording their tenth album on January 31 , 2011 , at the Atlantis / Metronome studios in Stockholm , once again with Jens Bogren ( engineering ) and Steven Wilson from Porcupine Tree as co @-@ producer . Shortly after mixing was complete on the new album in April 2011 , Opeth announced that Per Wiberg was relieved of his duties in the band . In the press statement , Mikael Åkerfeldt explained the decision , saying , " Mendez , Axe and Fredrik and I came to the decision that we should find a replacement for Per right after the recordings of the new album , and this came as no surprise to Per . He had , in turn , been thinking about leaving , so you could say it was a mutual decision . There 's no bad blood , just a relationship that came to an end , and that 's that . " Opeth 's tenth album , Heritage , was released on September 14 , 2011 , to generally favorable reviews . The album sold 19 @,@ 000 copies in the United States in its first week of release and debuted at number 19 on the Billboard 200 chart . Heritage debuted at number four in the band 's native country of Sweden . Heritage became the second Opeth album to not feature any death growls and had a much more progressive style than previous albums from the band , something that Åkerfeldt had been wanting to do for some time . The first two songs Åkerfeldt wrote for Heritage were in the style of Watershed . After hearing the songs for the first time , Martín Méndez told Åkerfeldt that he would be disappointed if the album continued in that direction . Relieved that Méndez was not interested in doing another conventional Opeth album , Åkerfeldt scrapped the two songs and started the writing process over in a different style . In the press release for Heritage , Mikael Åkerfeldt revealed that he felt as though he had been building to write the album since he was 19 years old . In a review for Allmusic , Thom Jurek called Heritage the band 's most adventurous album , describing the songs as " drenched in instrumental interludes , knotty key and chord changes , shifting time signatures , clean vocals , and a keyboard @-@ heavy instrumentation that includes Mellotrons , Rhodes pianos , and Hammond organs " . Opeth supported Heritage with a tour that would last for over 200 tour dates . The tour was the band 's first with new keyboardist , Joakim Svalberg , who played on the opening track of the album . During the tour , Opeth played with bands such as Katatonia , Pain of Salvation , Mastodon , Ghost and Anathema all over the world in countries such as the United States , Europe , Turkey , India , Japan , Greece , Israel , Latin America and Sweden . The tour concluded with " Melloboat 2013 " . = = = Pale Communion ( 2013 – 2015 ) = = = On August 26 , 2014 , Opeth released its eleventh studio album , titled Pale Communion . Åkerfeldt began working on new material as far back as August 2012 . In January 2014 he stated , " We 've been looking at [ tracking the next album at ] Rockfield Studios in Wales where Queen recorded " Bohemian Rhapsody " , but we haven 't made a decision yet , but it will be an expensive album . There 's a lot going on , lots of string arrangements that we haven 't had in the past . " Despite fearing that the band 's new musical direction would split Opeth 's fanbase , when asked if it will it be heavier or softer than Heritage , Åkerfeldt said , " Maybe a little bit heavier , not death metal heavy , but hard rock / heavy metal heavy . There 's also lots of progressive elements and acoustic guitars , but also more sinister @-@ sounding riffs . " Åkerfeldt also produced the new album which will include string instrumentation , something that he became interested in doing when working on Storm Corrosion . The band members in Opeth felt rejuvenated after creating Heritage which resulted in closer relationships between them . The Guardian reviewed Pale Communion positively , calling it " strange , intricate prog @-@ metal genius " somewhat flawed by Åkerfeldt 's indulgent vocal stylings . The album saw Opeth 's highest chart positions in the history of the band with Pale Communion debuting at number 19 in the US , number 3 in Sweden , and number 14 in the United Kingdom . It sold 13 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release in the US . Pale Communion was supported with more touring from Opeth . In 2015 , Opeth played several concerts to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the band . At these special shows , the band was doing two sets . The first set is 2005 's Ghost Reveries as a ten @-@ year anniversary celebration of the album . The second set spanned the rest of the band 's career , celebrating their 25th anniversary . Åkerfeldt expressed excitement for the concerts = = = Sorceress ( 2016 – present ) = = = On June 15 , 2016 , Nuclear Blast Entertainment announced the signing of Opeth . Three days later , on June 18th , Opeth released a 30 @-@ second teaser for their new album , Sorceress . A month later , on July 18th , the band confirmed the album would be released on September 30th , in addition to revealing the artwork and track list . Mikael Åkerfeldt described it as " a fine little record . My favorite in our discography right now . Of course . That 's how it should be , right ? It 's both fresh and old , both progressive and rehashed . Heavy and calm . Just the way we like it . " On July 25 , 2016 , in the build up towards the album release , the band posted the first ' Sorceress ' Making Of Webisode on their YouTube channel . In the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes studio tour , it is confirmed that the band had returned to Rockfield Studios where they previously recorded Pale Communion . At the end of the video , there is a 20 second excerpt of a track believed to be from the album featuring heavily down @-@ tuned guitars . = = Musical style and influence = = As Opeth 's primary songwriter and lyricist , vocalist / guitarist Mikael Åkerfeldt heads the direction of Opeth 's sound . He was influenced at a young age by the 1970s progressive rock bands Camel , P.F.M. and Gracious , and by heavy metal bands such as Iron Maiden , Slayer , Death , Black Sabbath , Deep Purple , Celtic Frost , King Diamond , Morbid Angel , Voivod , and most importantly Judas Priest . Åkerfeldt considers Sad Wings of Destiny the best metal album of all time , and notes that there was a time when he only listened to Judas Priest . Åkerfeldt sings " Here Come the Tears " by Judas Priest before most Opeth concerts while warming up . Åkerfeldt later discovered progressive rock and folk music , both of which had a profound impact on the sound of the band . Opeth 's distinct sound mixes death metal with progressive rock . Steve Huey of Allmusic refers to Opeth 's " epic , progressive death metal style . " Ryan Ogle of Blabbermouth described Opeth 's sound as incorporating " the likes of folk , funk , blues , ' 70s rock , goth and a laundry list of other sonic oddities into their trademark progressive death style . " In his review of Opeth 's 2001 album Blackwater Park , Allmusic 's Eduardo Rivadavia wrote , " Tracks start and finish in seemingly arbitrary fashion , usually traversing ample musical terrain , including acoustic guitar and solo piano passages , ambient soundscapes , stoner rock grooves , and Eastern @-@ tinged melodies — any of which are subject to savage punctuations of death metal fury at any given moment . " Åkerfeldt commented on the diversity of Opeth 's music : I don 't see the point of playing in a band and going just one way when you can do everything . It would be impossible for us to play just death metal ; that is our roots , but we are now a mishmash of everything , and not purists to any form of music . It 's impossible for us to do that , and quite frankly I would think of it as boring to be in a band that plays just metal music . We 're not afraid to experiment , or to be caught with our pants down , so to speak . That 's what keeps us going . More recently , Opeth have abandoned their death metal sound resulting in a mellower progressive rock sound . When talking about Heritage , guitarist Fredrik Åkesson stated : In the beginning it took me a little while to get used to the new idea of the sound , not having any screaming vocals and stuff like that . But I think the album was necessary for us to do . Maybe the band wouldn 't have continued if we hadn 't done Heritage . I think the old Opeth fans understand this album . There 's always going to be some haters , but you can 't be loved by everyone . Opeth has always been about not repeating ourself . A lot of people don 't think Heritage is metal but I think it 's metal to go somewhere people don 't expect . It doesn 't mean we 're not embracing the past sound of Opeth . Vocally , Åkerfeldt shifts between traditional death metal vocals for heavy sections , and clean , sometimes whispered or soft @-@ spoken vocals over mellower passages . While his death growls were dominant on early releases , later efforts incorporate more clean vocals , with Damnation , Heritage and Pale Communion featuring only clean singing . Rivadavia noted that " Åkerfeldt 's vocals run the gamut from bowel @-@ churning grunts to melodies of chilling beauty — depending on each movement section 's mood . " = = Band members = = For the timeline and list of lineups , see List of Opeth members . Mikael Åkerfeldt – guitars , vocals ( 1990 – present ) , lead vocals ( 1992 – present ) , acoustic guitar , sound effects , mixing , engineering , production , bass guitar , grand piano Martín Méndez – bass guitar , upright bass ( 1997 – present ) Martin " Axe " Axenrot – drums , percussion ( 2005 – present ) Fredrik Åkesson – guitars , backing vocals ( 2007 – present ) Joakim Svalberg – keyboards , synthesizer , piano , mellotron , backing vocals , percussion ( 2011 – present ) = = = Former members = = = David Isberg – vocals ( 1990 – 1992 ) Martin Persson – bass ( 1990 ) Anders Nordin – drums ( 1990 – 1997 ) Andreas Dimeo – guitars ( 1990 – 1991 ) Nick Döring – bass ( 1990 – 1991 ) Kim Pettersson – guitars ( 1991 ) Johan DeFarfalla – bass , backing vocals ( 1991 , 1995 – 1997 ) Mattias Ander – bass ( 1991 ) Peter Lindgren – guitars ( 1991 – 2007 ) , bass ( 1991 ) Stefan Guteklint – bass ( 1991 – 1994 ) Martin Lopez – drums ( 1997 – 2006 ) Per Wiberg – keyboards , mellotron , backing vocals ( 2005 – 2011 , touring member 2003 – 2005 ) = = Discography = = Orchid ( 1995 ) Morningrise ( 1996 ) My Arms , Your Hearse ( 1998 ) Still Life ( 1999 ) Blackwater Park ( 2001 ) Deliverance ( 2002 ) Damnation ( 2003 ) Ghost Reveries ( 2005 ) Watershed ( 2008 ) Heritage ( 2011 ) Pale Communion ( 2014 ) Sorceress ( 2016 )

= Paco de Lucía = Francisco Gustavo Sánchez Gomez ( 21 December 1947 – 25 February 2014 ) , known as Paco de Lucía [ ˈpako ðe luˈθia ] , was a Spanish virtuoso flamenco guitarist , composer and producer . A leading proponent of the new flamenco style , he helped legitimize flamenco among the establishment in Spain , and was one of the first flamenco guitarists to have successfully crossed over into other genres of music such as classical and jazz . Richard Chapman and Eric Clapton , authors of Guitar : Music , History , Players , describe de Lucía as a " titanic figure in the world of flamenco guitar " , and Dennis Koster , author of Guitar Atlas , Flamenco , has referred to de Lucía as " one of history 's greatest guitarists " . De Lucía was espeically noted for his unusually fast and fluent picados ( fingerstyle runs ) and powerful rhythmic strumming . He is generally thought to have been one of the most technically gifted and accomplished guitarists of any age . A master of contrast , he was known for his tendency to juxtapose fast and aggressive playing with more sensitive styles , and pioneered the incorporation of abstract and unusual chords and scale tones in his compositions , reflecting his jazz influences . These innovations saw De Lucía play a key role in the development of traditional flamenco and the evolution of new flamenco and Latin jazz fusion . He received enormous acclaim for his recordings with legendary flamenco singer Camarón de la Isla in the 1970s , recording ten albums which are considered some of the most important and influential in flamenco history . His recording of Joaquin Rodrigio 's Concierto De Aranjuez in a flamenco style is often considered one of the best and most unique recordings of the much @-@ loved composition . Some of De Lucía 's best known recordings include Río Ancho ( later fused with Al Di Meola 's Mediterranean Sundance ) , Entre dos aguas , La Barrosa , Ímpetu , Cepa Andaluza and Gloria al Niño Ricardo . His collaborations with guitarists John McLaughlin , Al Di Meola and Larry Coryell in the late 1970s saw him gain wider popularity outside his native Spain . De Lucía formed the Paco de Lucía Sextet in 1981 with his brothers , singer Pepe de Lucía and guitarist Ramón de Algeciras , and collaborated with jazz pianist Chick Corea on their 1990 album , Zyryab . In 1992 , he performed live at Expo ' 92 in Seville and a year later on the Plaza Mayor in Madrid . After 2004 he greatly reduced his public performances , retiring from full touring , and typically only gave several concerts a year , usually in Spain and Germany and at European festivals during the summer months . = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Paco de Lucía was born on 21 December 1947 as Francisco Sánchez Gomez in Algeciras , a city near the far southern point of Spain in the province of Cádiz . He was the youngest of the five children of flamenco guitarist Antonio Sánchez Pecino and Portuguese mother Lúcia Gomez ; his brothers include flamenco singer Pepe de Lucía and flamenco guitarist Ramón de Algeciras ( now deceased ) . Playing in the streets as a young boy , there were many Pacos and Pablos in Algeciras , and he wanted to honor his Portuguese mother Lucia Gomez , so he adopted the stage name Paco de Lucía . His father Antonio received guitar lessons from the hand of a cousin of Melchor de Marchena : Manuel Fernández ( aka Titi de Marchena ) , a guitarist who arrived in Algeciras in the 1920s and established a school there . Antonio introduced Paco to the guitar at a young age and was extremely strict in his upbringing from the age of 5 , forcing him to practice up to 12 hours a day , every day , to ensure that he could find success as a professional musician . At one point , his father took him out of school to concentrate solely on his guitar development . In a 2012 interview de Lucía stated that , " I learned the guitar like a child learns to speak . " Flamenco guitarist and biographer Donn Pohren and record producer José Torregrosa compared Paco 's relationship with his father to the relationship of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Leopold Mozart in the way both fathers " moulded their sons " into becoming world @-@ class musicians , and both continued to dictate even after they became famous . Paco 's brother Ramón idolized Niño Ricardo , and taught his complex falsetas to his young brother , who would learn them with relative ease and change them to his own liking and embellish them . This angered Ramón initially who considered Ricardo 's works to be sacred and thought his brother was showing off , but he soon began to immensely respect his brother and came to realize that he was a prodigious talent and a fuera de serie , a special person . Like his brother , Ricardo was Paco 's most important influence , and his first guitar hero ; Paco said " all of us youngsters would look up to him , trying to learn from him and copy him . " In 1958 , at age 11 , Paco made his first public appearance on Radio Algeciras . That year , he met Sabicas for the first time in Málaga . A year later , he was awarded a special prize at the Festival Concurso International Flamenco de Jerez de la Frontera flamenco competition . = = = 1960s = = = At the age of 14 he made his first record with his brother Pepe , Los Chiquitos de Algeciras ( Kids of Algeciras ) . In the early 1960s , de Lucía toured with the flamenco troupe of dancer José Greco . In New York City in 1963 , at the age of 15 , he had his second encounter with Sabicas and his first encounter with Mario Escudero , both of whom became de Lucía 's mentors and later close friends . They urged him to start writing his own material , advice he took to heart . In 1964 , he met Madrileño guitarist Ricardo Modrego with whom he recorded three albums : Dos guitarras flamencas ( 1964 ) , 12 canciones de García Lorca para guitarra and 12 éxitos para 2 guitarras flamencas ( 1965 ) . His early albums were traditional flamenco recordings and he recorded classics such as Malagueña on the 12 éxitos para 2 guitarras flamencas album . He toured again with José Greco in 1966 and recorded Ímpetu , a bulerias composed by Mario Escudero , for his debut solo album , La fabulosa guitarra de Paco de Lucía ( 1967 ) . He appeared at the 1967 Berlin Jazz Festival . According to Gerhard Klingenstein , top jazz musicians who appeared at the festival ( i.e. Miles Davis , Thelonious Monk ) , profoundly influenced de Lucía , and sparked a fascination for jazz that remained with him throughout his life . In the late 1960s , de Lucía toured Europe with a group called Festival Flamenco Gitano and encountered other new talents in the flamenco world including singer Camarón de la Isla , with whom he enjoyed a fruitful collaboration between 1968 and 1977 . They recorded ten albums together and received considerable acclaim . Richard Nidel said that their partnership was " central to the history of flamenco in the last quarter of the twentieth century . " Organizers began offering de Lucía lucrative contracts for concert tours in 1967 , which he declined as he preferred to tour in company , which he did with his brother Ramón , de la Isla and other musicians . De Lucía recorded many albums with his brother , including Canciones andaluzas para 2 guitarras ( 1967 ) , Dos guitarras flamencas en América Latina ( 1967 ) , Fantasía flamenca de Paco de Lucía ( 1969 ) , and 12 Hits para 2 guitarras flamencas y orquesta de cuerda ( 1969 ) . They met Esteban Sanlucar in Buenos Aires and Juan Serrano in Detroit , and during 1970 spent considerable time in New York City where they grew close to Sabicas and Mario Escudero , playing together into the night . = = = 1970s = = = De Lucía made a cameo appearance , dressed as a Mexican guitarist , in the 1971 western Hannie Caulder , playing the melody of Ken Thorne 's main theme over a string section . That year , he released the album El mundo del flamenco , which included a version of Mario Escudero 's Ímpetu , a bulerías . Guitar International mentioned his " very aggressive " approach to playing Ímpetu . Escudero was a major influence on de Lucía during this period , inspiring him to explore new possibilities for flamenco . He began working with record producer José Torregrosa . De Lucía 's 1972 release El duende flamenco de Paco de Lucía was considered a groundbreaking album in the flamenco community . As the 1970s progressed , de Lucía continued to produce groundbreaking albums and ventured into an increasingly unconventional and innovative style of flamenco with jazz influences . His next release , Fuente y caudal , acclaimed particularly for his Entre dos aguas , which has become arguably his best @-@ known composition , and also for Solera and Cepa Andaluza . Entre dos aguas , a rumba featuring bongos with an electric bass , means " Between two waters , " referring to his home town of Algeciras , where the Mediterranean meets the Atlantic . Biographer Pohren describes Cepa Andaluza as a " phenomenal " bulerías , which is " accompanied by palmas , shouts of encouragement and general jaleo , and makes one want to leap up and dance . " The album also features several other tracks named after Andalusian landmarks , a theme de Lucía continued in his later albums . The Fuente y caudal album was one of the best @-@ selling Spanish records for several months and de Lucía and Torregrosa found that the additional instruments and approach away from traditional flamenco proved more popular with the general public . The early influences of the traditional players became increasingly less apparent as de Lucía embraced jazz and other influences , creating his own voice and distinct style , yet never venturing too far from his roots . On 18 February 1975 , de Lucía became the first @-@ ever flamenco performer to perform at the Teatro Real of Madrid . He played a set with his brother Ramón , in front of a relatively young audience without the use of effects . Pohren said that de Lucía 's performance " was brilliant technically , and played a meaningful , moving , traditional brand of flamenco that did not betray what Paco had in store for the flamenco guitar in the future . " The recording was released as En vivo desde el Teatro Real . His 1976 album , Almoraima , was a wider success and featured Almoraima and Río Ancho . The album was named after a former convent of the same name located about 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) from Algeciras on the road to Jimena de la Frontera , which had recently been converted into a hotel complex . The album featured significant Arabic and jazz influences especially in the bulerías composition of the same name ; the name Almoraima is of Arabic origin from the Moorish period . De Lucía performed on an episode of Parkinson on BBC in the UK , in which Michael Parkinson said " a marvelous young musician who is making his very first appearance on British television . His unconventional and modern approach to playing flamenco has already made him a big star in Europe , particularly in his native Spain . " In 1977 , de Lucía married Casilda Varela , the daughter of General Varela ; they had three children . He released his final album , Castillo de Arena with Camarón de la Isla , The lyrics were written by Antonio Sánchez , with the exception of the bulerías Samara , which Sánchez and de la Isla wrote together . This would be his last LP with a singer for at least 15 years . He reportedly said that the human voice is " naturally too limited " and that he prefers the exploration of different instrumentalists ; he also said a busy schedule was the reason for lack of recordings with singers . He performed extensively across the US and Europe during this period , increasing his popularity outside Spain and the flamenco community in Europe , and met many jazz , Latin and other musicians who continued to influence de Lucía 's evolution as a " Nuevo flamenco " player . He began to show a very keen interest in jazz fusion and rock , and in 1977 performed with Carlos Santana in the Plaza de toros de las Arenas bullring in Barcelona . He was invited by Al Di Meola to record on his " Mediterranean Sundance " piece for his album Elegant Gypsy . Despite considerable new interest in flamenco and de Lucía 's playing generated by the album , traditionalist flamenco critics did not approve of the piece and hated that many people considered Mediterranean Sundance flamenco music and frowned upon de Lucía . Di Meola informed the critics not to worry and that " Paco is not leaving flamenco , but expanding it . " In 1978 , Paco and his brothers recorded Interpreta a Manuel de Falla , a classical effort of compositions by Manuel de Falla . In 1979 , de Lucía , John McLaughlin , and Larry Coryell formed The Guitar Trio and together made a tour of Europe and released a video recorded at London 's Royal Albert Hall entitled Meeting of the Spirits . Pohren said that de Lucía 's decision to work with musicians like McLaughlin , Di Meola , Coryell , and Chick Corea must have been an " exciting and stimulating " experience for him , given their technical musical knowledge and ability to improvise and said that they carried him " so far afield that at times he must have been profoundly confused , a man running the risk of losing his musical identity . " This concerned de Lucía , who said in a late 1990s interview , " I have never lost the roots in my music , because I would lose myself . What I have tried to do is have a hand holding onto tradition and the other scratching , digging in other places , trying to find new things I can bring into flamenco . " = = = 1980s = = = The Guitar Trio continued touring in 1980 . De Lucía reportedly suffered from headaches and backaches while performing because he found it difficult to improvise and follow McLaughlin and Coryell 's advanced knowledge of jazz improvisation . Paco professed , " Some people assume that they were learning from me , but I can tell you it was me learning from them . I have never studied music , I am incapable of studying harmony — I don 't have the discipline , playing with McLaughlin and Di Meola was about learning these things . " In 1981 , Coryell was replaced with Di Meola , and The Guitar Trio released one of their most successful records , Friday Night in San Francisco , which sold over 1 million copies and generated a significant interest in flamenco music in America and Europe . It featured an extended combination of Mediterranean Sundance and Río Ancho ; this became arguably the piece most associated with the musicians . De Lucía also formed the Paco de Lucía Sextet in 1981 ( which included his brothers Ramón and Pepe ) , and released the first of its three albums that same year . On 30 August 1981 , de Lucía performed a solo set at St. Goarshausen in Germany , where he performed Monasterio de Sal and Montino among others and later performed with The Guitar Trio . The event was broadcast on national WDR television . In 1982 , Paco put on a series of concerts with jazz pianist Chick Corea . Corea was a considerable influence on him in the 1980s and he and McLaughlin adapted a version of his piece Spain , performing it live together several times in the mid to late 1980s . He released a " Golden " double compilation album in 1982 , La Guitarra de Oro de Paco de Lucía , covering Paco 's earliest recordings with Ricardo Modrego of Federico García Lorca songs to date , and featured two siguiriyas , a flamenco form in which he hadn 't indulged in his recordings since 1972 . In 1983 , the Trio released Passion , Grace & Fire , and he had an acting role in Carlos Saura 's highly acclaimed film Carmen , for which he was also nominated for a BAFTA Film Award for Best Score . De Lucía composed original film scores for several films in the 1980s , including The Hit , a 1984 film in which he provided the soundtrack with Eric Clapton , with a minor contribution by Roger Waters . On his 1984 album , Live ... One Summer Night , De Lucía not only played guitar , but also filled the role of producer . Paco de Lucía has also appeared as himself on television in documentaries and TV shows and accepted a position as a judge at Seville 's 1984 Biena . By the mid @-@ 1980s , both the Sextet and the Guitar Trio had reached its plateau and stopped performing together , although de Lucía would continue to perform with McLaughlin as a duo across Europe in 1986 and later . In a 1986 interview with Down Beat magazine , Di Meola said that the reason for the breakdown was that their performances were designed to " drive the audience berserk " with a display of astonishing virtuosity and that they had run out of new spectacular fast runs to impress the audiences . Di Meola remarked that the music had become too " wild and crazy " and that he preferred to explore the quieter side of music , something Paco also felt , saying that he preferred " controlled expression to velocity . " In May 1986 , he performed at the Centro de Bellas Artes Rock music festival alongside the likes of Earl Klugh , Spyro Gyra , and Dave Valentin . In 1987 , de Lucía performed for the first time in the Soviet Union , and went back to his roots with his highly successful release , Siroco . Siroco is often cited as his best album and one of the greatest flamenco albums of all time . His compositions La Cañada , the opening track , a tango called La Barrosa , an alegrías named after the Playa la Barrosa in the province of Cadiz , and Gloria al Niño Ricardo , a soléa , received considerable attention and are considered modern flamenco classics . Eric Clapton and Richard Chapman described La Barrosa , a sweet alegrías played in B major , as , " full of effortless delicacy with cascading phrases . " " Gloria al Niño Ricardo " is dedicated to Niño Ricardo who was de Lucía 's " first hero " of the guitar . Several of his compositions from that album form the staple of his contemporary concert performances , and he often begins his concerts with La Cañada . In 1989 , de Lucía refused to perform at the bullring in Seville with Plácido Domingo and Julio Iglesias . = = = 1990s = = = Although the sextet had declined after 1986 , in 1990 they got together to record Zyryab , a groundbreaking Arabic flamenco / jazz album with jazz pianist Chick Corea and fellow virtuoso flamenco guitarist Manolo Sanlúcar . The album is named after Ziryab , an 8th – 9th century Shiraz @-@ born poet / musician at the Umayyad court in Córdoba , credited with introducing to Spain the Persian lute , which evolved into the Spanish guitar — and according to some , established flamenco itself . One track on the album , a tarantas , is dedicated to Sabicas . The album was critically well @-@ received ; Jazz Times praised the passion and rhythm of the musicians featuring on the album . Until asked to perform and interpret Joaquín Rodrigo 's Concierto de Aranjuez in 1991 , de Lucía was not proficient at reading musical notation . Biographer Pohren , however , at the time of writing his biography in 1992 , said that he was still not proficient and had found a bizarre way of learning the piece , locking himself away . His performance with the orchestra under Edmon Colomer was highly acclaimed , a sensitive , atmospheric rendition that composer Rodrigo himself praised , describing it as " pretty , exotic , inspired " ... I might add that Paco plays it with a great deal of feeling , far more than is normally heard . And that goes for the orchestra that backs him up . " In 1992 , he performed live at the bullring at Seville Expo ' 92 , and a year later on the Plaza Mayor in Madrid , playing " La Barrosa " . In 1995 , he and Bryan Adams recorded the hit song and video Have You Ever Really Loved A Woman on the soundtrack for the American film Don Juan DeMarco . In 1996 , his first " golden hits " album , Antología , was in the top 20 in Spain for at least 16 weeks , selling over 65 @,@ 000 copies . In 1997 , de Lucía performed in a tribute show to the assassinated Spanish politician Miguel Angel Blanco , alongside the likes of Julio Iglesias and Los Del Rio . In 1998 he released and produced " Luzia " , dedicated to his mother ( whose name is spelled phonetically ) . It is considered to be one of de Lucia 's most complete and mature artistic statements . = = = 2000 – 14 = = = De Lucía lived for five years in Yucatan , Mexico , but returned to his native Spain in 2003 after professing to have become really tired with spending his whole life touring for six to eight months a year , getting up at the crack of dawn and living in hotels . He continued to keep a holiday home in Mexico though and regularly visited with his family . In 2004 he toured the United States and Canada with Seville flamenco singer La Tana , but subsequently greatly reduced his live performances in public . He retired from full touring , and would only give a few concerts a year , usually in Spain and Germany and at European festivals during the summer months . Pohren described de Lucía as " extremely timid and retiring " , saying that , " Being a very private person , [ he ] was dismayed at the ensuing popularity and lionization , and the increased pressure fame placed upon his shoulders , demanding that he constantly innovate and work harder to achieve technical and revolutionary perfection . " In 2003 , de Lucía released Integral ( 2003 ) , a 26 CD Limited Edition Box Set , and Por Descubrir , a compilation album . In 2004 , de Lucía released Cositas Buenas with Javier Limón . It was released on Blue Thumb Records by Universal Music Spain S.L. , and features four bulerías , two rumba tracks , a tangos and a tientos . It won the Latin Grammy Award for Best Flamenco Album 2004 . In 2005 , he was nominated for producer of the year by the Latin Grammy for La Tana 's " Tu , Ven a Mi " , which was De Lucía 's first recording where he directed another artist since working on Camarón de la Isla 's Potro de rabia y miel . In 2004 , he won the Prince of Asturias Awards in Arts , and on 23 March 2007 , the University of Cadiz recognized de Lucía 's musical and cultural contributions by conferring on him the title of Doctor Honoris Causa . In 2010 , he was awarded an honorary doctorate by Berklee College of Music in Boston , and performed at the Montreux Festival . However , he is known some years to select countries where he doesn 't usually perform and played in Pula , Croatia in 2006 and 2010 , and in Turkey , Morocco and Tunisia in 2013 . He appeared at the 49th Carthage International Festival on 31 July , playing at the Roman Theatre . = = = Death = = = De Lucía died of a heart attack on 25 February 2014 , while on holiday with his family in Playa del Carmen , Quintana Roo , Mexico . His remains were buried at a cemetery in Algeciras , Andalusia . De Lucía posthumously won the Latin Grammy Award for Album of the Year for his album Canción andaluza at the 2014 awards ceremony . = = Influence = = De Lucía was widely considered to be the world 's premier flamenco guitarist and by many to be Spain 's greatest musical export . He has had a revolutionary influence on flamenco music both as a composer and otherwise . His influence on flamenco guitar has been compared with that of Andrés Segovia 's on classical guitar . His album Fuente y Caudal ( Fountain and Flow ) has been cited by many to have changed the world of flamenco guitar beyond traditional flamenco culture . Along with Enrique Morente and Camarón de la Isla , de Lucía was the first artist to break away from traditional flamenco and form what is now known as nuevo flamenco . As a composer , de Lucía was the first Spanish artist to mix jazz with Andalusian music in a more or less systematic way . This includes , but is not limited to , his collaborations with Di Meola , McLaughlin , and Pedro Iturralde . De Lucía was influenced primarily by Niño Ricardo , a leading figure in the history of flamenco guitar , and Sabicas , regarded as one of the most influential musicians involved in the development and refinement of the flamenco guitar as a concert instrument at a time when the guitar was an instrument to accompany the singer . Sabicas was a mentor to Paco in developing his flamenco guitar technique , as well in honing Paco 's skills as a composer , characterized by melodic structure , rhythmic and harmonic , perfectly consistent from beginning to end , and non @-@ lyrical phrased guitar falsetas when the singer stops singing . Esteban de Sanlúcar and Mario Escudero were also major influences on him and sources of inspiration . According to biographer Pohren , de Lucía was " fascinated with jazz " and held a deep respect for high @-@ tech jazz musicians , regarding Di Meola , McLaughlin , Coryell and Corea as highly as musicians as he did his flamenco mentors . Despite these influences , according to the Jazz Times , " Most flamenco fans can trace the music 's history to either Before Paco or After Paco . " In 2004 interview with El País he said " I have always found that the more technique you have the easier it is to express yourself . If you lack technique you lose the freedom to create . " Like many other flamenco guitarists he often played a Hermanos Conde guitar and had his own signature model , but had a range of guitars in his collection . Richard Chapman and Eric Clapton describe de Lucía as a " titanic figure in the world of flamenco guitar " , highlighting his " astounding technique and inventiveness " and his broad range of musical ideas from other styles , such as Brazilian music and jazz . He is noted for his innovation and colour in harmony and his remarkable dexterity , technique , strength and fluidity in his right hand , capable of executing extremely fast and fluent picados . A master of contrast , he often juxtaposes picados with rasgueados and other techniques and often adds abstract chords and scale tones to his compositions with jazz influences . Bill Milkowski of Down Beat described him as " the portrait of studied concentration and pristine perfection : stiff backed and stern faced , with a distinguished air about him that some might misread as haughtiness . He 's proud and majestic , like a regal Arabian steed prancing with grace and elegance , yet able to reveal great power . " Craig Harris of AllMusic noted his " deeply personal melodic statements and modern instrumentation . " Atlanta magazine said , " The guitar , when used properly , can be one of the most haunting and beautiful instruments to create sound ... when he brushes his fingers across the strings , [ he ] can create some of the most incredible music . It 's almost like a lullaby . " José Luis Acosta , president of the Spanish Artists and Editors Society stated that " Paco was and will be a universal artist , who took the guitar and flamenco sentiment to the heart of the whole world . " In 2015 , Billboard magazine named de Lucía as one of The 30 Most Influential Latin Artists of All Time , an editor writes : " The virtuoso intrumentalist popularized flamenco worldwide , and brought the Spanish sound to the forefront of avant @-@ garde jazz . " . In the same year , he was posthumously inducted into the Latin Songwriters Hall of Fame for his contributions to flamenco music . Another of Paco de Lucía 's contributions was the inclusion of the cajón , an Afro @-@ Peruvian instrument Caitro Soto exposed to him during his visit to Peru in the late 1970s . He understood this instrument , which he saw as a permanent solution to the need for percussion in flamenco . Along with Rubem Dantas , he added its percussive elements and it became an essential tool of contemporary flamenco and later , other international musical trends . = = Discography = =

= NSB Class 73 = NSB Class 73 ( Norwegian : NSB @-@ type 73 ) is a class of 22 electric multiple units built by Adtranz for the Norwegian State Railways . The four @-@ car trains were modifications of Class 71 , which was again based on the Swedish X2 . The A @-@ series consists of 16 intercity trains ; they were delivered in 1999 and 2000 and are used on the Bergen , Dovre and Sørland Lines . The intercity service was branded as Signatur until 2003 . The B @-@ series consists of six regional trains delivered in 2002 and used on the Østfold Line . The regional trains were originally part of the Agenda concept . The trains have a power output of 2 @,@ 646 kilowatts ( 3 @,@ 548 hp ) and a maximum speed of 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) . They have an overall length of 108 meters ( 354 ft ) and have a capacity for 208 seated passengers in the A @-@ series and 250 in the B @-@ series . The trains have tilting mechanism allowing for faster travel through curves . The trains were delivered late , and were put into service after the Norwegian Railway Inspectorate had given dispensation from parts of the safety regulation . On 17 June 2000 , a train derailed at Nelaug Station after an axle broke . The class was grounded for a month , and the investigation showed both design errors , and lack of proper inspection and testing . After they were put back into service , they were not allowed to use the tilting mechanism — thus not being allowed to run faster than their predecessors . The construction was reinforced , and in 2004 , the tilting mechanism was re @-@ enabled along with higher speeds . In 2007 , a train derailed on the Bergen Line , and questions were raised about the trains ' ability to operate in snow , however the accident report showed that the trains ' front axle load was just as able to cope with heavy snow conditions as the locomotives running on the line , and that the derailment would have been more severe if the same conditions would hit a normal train with less secure connections between carriages . On 16 June 2011 , two units were destroyed when the train ran into a fire in a snow tunnel at Hallingskeid Station . = = Specifications = = Class 73 is a four @-@ car electric multiple unit built by Adtranz . Each four @-@ car train has eight bogies — of which three are powered — with a total power output of 2 @,@ 646 kW ( 3 @,@ 548 hp ) . The trains have active tilting , which allows speeds 20 to 30 percent higher than conventional trains through curves on conventional lines . Maximum permitted speed is 210 km / h ( 130 mph ) . A four @-@ car train is 108 @.@ 48 meters ( 355 @.@ 9 ft ) long ; an A @-@ series weighs 215 @.@ 1 tonnes ( 211 @.@ 7 long tons ; 237 @.@ 1 short tons ) while a B @-@ series unit weighs 216 @.@ 1 tonnes ( 212 @.@ 7 long tons ; 238 @.@ 2 short tons ) . The trains have a steel body and the entire cabin is pressurized . Rail brakes are installed on all carrying bogies . The A @-@ series has a capacity of 207 seated passengers , while the B @-@ series has room for 250 . The difference is due to the B @-@ series having a smaller bistro and more compact seating . In the A @-@ series , each of the four cars has seating in a different color ( blue in BFM73 car , green in BMU73 , red in BFR73 , and yellow leather in BM73 and in the bistro area in BFR73 ) . Originally , three of the cars had floors with carpet , while the fourth car ( BFM73 ) had vinyl , of consideration to people with allergies . The carpets were removed in about 2005 as it was difficult to keep them clean . Seating is in two classes , standard and Komfort ( originally " Plus " ) ; the latter ( BM73 car ) with leather seating and power supply for laptops . All the cars have cherry tree wood interior . The trains are equipped with a dining section ( BFR73 car ) and warm meals can be served at the seat or in the diner . The menu is according to the time of day , with breakfasts in the morning and larger meals in the afternoon and evening . The trains also feature a family section with a play area and HC area ( BFM73 car ) . The BFM73 car has also a bicycle room behind the driver 's cab . From 2011 , the trains are equipped with free wireless Internet . = = History = = = = = Background = = = In 1990 and 1994 , NSB published two reports regarding the future of intercity rail transport in Norway . The reports concluded that there would have to be invested 56 billion Norwegian krone ( NOK ) in new infrastructure if the main corridors were to be built as high @-@ speed railways . Instead , the use of tilting technology was proposed to allow higher speeds on existing lines . In 1992 , the Parliament of Norway voted to build Oslo Airport , Gardermoen and connect it to the capital with the high @-@ speed Gardermoen Line . It was decided that the service should take 19 minutes — and not one minute more . When issuing invitations to tenders , NSB specified this time limit as a criterion , which was also the reason the line was dimensioned for 210 kilometers per hour ( 130 mph ) . Proposals had been made for NSB to purchase the same units as the Swedish State Railways ( SJ ) , the X2 , in a Nordic cooperation to use the same trains in Norway , Sweden and Denmark , but the idea was abandoned . In 1994 , NSB launched plans to build 200 kilometers ( 120 mi ) of high @-@ speed railways by 2011 , but also these plans were shelved . In May 1995 , Osmund Ueland was hired as director @-@ general of NSB , and he scrapped all plans to build new railways , and instead decided to focus on tilting technology . Class 71 and 73 are based on the Swedish X2 , built by Kalmar Verkstad ( KVAB ) for the Swedish State Railways , and introduced in 1990 . Carbody is built of stainless steel . Forty @-@ three units were delivered by 1997 ; they each considered of a locomotive and two to five unpowered carriages , including a driving trailer . The locomotives had a power output of 3 @,@ 260 kW ( 4 @,@ 370 hp ) and a top speed of 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) . Compared to X2 , Class 73 has an upgraded bogie construction and motors in multiple cars instead of having a locomotive unit . The latter forces a four @-@ car configuration , but allows for better traction and better use of space and weight by placing the technical equipment throughout all four cars . In 1993 , NSB test @-@ ran an X2 train on the Randsfjord Line , and between 29 September and 21 December 1996 , ran a unit in regular service on the Sørland Line . On 23 February 1995 , NSB signed a contract to purchase 16 Class 71 trains for use on the Airport Express Train on the Gardermoen Line . The contract included two options , one for 16 trains for intercity traffic and one for 6 trains for regional traffic . The reason for using the same type of train as the Airport Express Train , was to reduce maintenance and operation costs through having a unified fleet . The options would only modify the trains slightly ; they were primarily designed for the airport service and any optimization for intercity and tilting technology was secondary in the design process . The first option was taken out on 5 March 1997 . The differences between Class 71 and 73 is that the latter has a different interior , four instead of three cars , different door design , the removal of one set of doors per car and the addition of tilting . At the time of ordering , it was announced that the trains would enter service on the Sørland Line during the summer of 1999 , the Dovre Line during the fall of 1999 , and the Bergen Line during the fall of 2000 . Class 71 was delivered in 1997 and 1998 ; one of the units was delivered with tilting technology to test it out — and subsequently removed . The first batch of trains cost NOK 1 @.@ 6 billion . In April 1999 , NSB launched a new branding scheme for their trains . In addition to Puls for local trains and Agenda for regional trains , the Signatur ( " Signature " ) concept was introduced for intercity trains . Signatur would only be used on the Class 73 services , and consist of two classes , Comfort and Comfort Plus . NSB abolished its branding of only having red trains , and introduced a blue and silver livery on the Class 73 trains . The new service had fewer stops and faster travel times . To take advantage of the faster speeds , the Norwegian National Rail Administration needed to do upgrades to the track , overhead wires and signaling for NOK 1 @.@ 2 billion . Tickets on the Signatur service cost NOK 25 more than with conventional trains , which would continue to run . Tickets were also made available via Amadeus , a ticket reservation system in Norway previously only used for airlines . Prices became differentiated , with prices between Oslo and Kristiansand varying between NOK 250 and 780 , depending on time of travel and class . NSB stated that they hoped to compete with airlines between the two cities , as travel time from city center to center was about the same as by plane . = = = Entry into service = = = Three days before scheduled services were to start , permission to use the trains had still not been granted by the Norwegian Railway Inspectorate . The inspectorate had a series of safety concerns , including follow @-@ up on the safety terms for the wheels and axles ; lack of documentation of the crew 's training ; denying NSB 's request to have fewer inspections and less maintenance on the trains ; lack of consideration of critical events deemed to have a high probability to occur but have a low consequence ; lack of a safety inspector for operations and maintenance ; and that the trains were so heavy that they would exceed the permitted axle load of the lines . Det Norske Veritas ( DNV ) warned against a possible weakness in the axles . NSB wanted to use an expert from Deutsche Bahn to perform the necessary tests , but limited availability of the expert resulted in the Norwegian National Rail Administration granting a half @-@ year delay of the inspections . On 28 October 1999 , Minister of Transport Dag Jostein Fjærvoll asked the directors of the three involved parties , Osmund Ueland of NSB , Sverre Quale of the inspectorate and Steinar Killi of the National Rail Administration , to meet at his office the following day if the issue was not resolved . The following day , the inspectorate gave permission for the trains to be taken into use , despite noting a series of non @-@ conformities with safety regulations : the inspectorate lacked a list of the train 's deviations from the safety regulations ; lack of a system to automatically monitor the speed of the trains , particularly when automatic train stop was disconnected ; lack of safety training for the crew ; lack of an evacuation analysis ; and lack of control of the marking of safety equipment . Most of the deviations were to be followed up within two weeks . Quale stated that the deviated issues were of a nature which had not previously been applied to trains and that it was therefore not critical . The first train was delivered on 22 October and was put into use on the Sørland Line from 1 November . Scheduled travel time was reduced by 40 minutes to 3 hours and 40 minutes . In December , the trains had problems with the pantographs not working correctly in cold weather , causing the trains to lose power and be several hours delayed . NSB stated that a contributing cause was the previous year 's mild winter , which made it impossible to test the trains in extreme weather . After two and a half months of operation on the Sørland Line , every other train was at least 5 minutes late and every tenth train at least 20 minutes late . The trains also caused travel sickness , also among employees , particularly on the section from Kristiansand to Bø . NSB stated that this had also occurred on the old trains and that it was reports of the number of people affected were exaggerated . On 16 December 1999 , NSB confirmed the option for another six Class 73 trains , costing NOK 680 million , for use on the Østfold Line . On 7 January 2000 , the trains were put into service on the Dovre Line between Oslo and Trondheim , and on the Sørland Line between Kristiansand and Stavanger . The travel time from Trondheim to Oslo was 5 hours and 46 minutes . In an independent marketing survey , Signatur customers were more satisfied than the customers for the two main airlines , Braathens and Scandinavian Airlines , but the train service had a lower reputation than the airlines . By May , the number of passengers on the Sørland Line had fallen by 10 percent . The reason was the limited capacity during the weekends ; while NSB had previously run trains with 400 to 500 seats , Class 73 had considerably less capacity . Additional services were introduced on the Dovre Line from 11 June 2000 , while the introduction on the Bergen Line was delayed because the infrastructure upgrades on the Bergen Line were not yet completed . = = = Axle faults = = = On 17 June 2000 , a Class 73 train derailed at Nelaug Station on the Sørland Line . The train was traveling at slow speed and no @-@ one was injured , but had the derailment happened at full speed , it could have been fatal . The derailment was caused by a fatigue failure in the front axle of the train . All Class 71 and 73 trains were immediately grounded , and were investigated by maintenance crews . The derailed train had recently had its axle checked for fatigue , but no cracks had been found . On 19 June , NSB stated that they had made insufficient tests during the 100 @,@ 000 @-@ kilometer ( 62 @,@ 000 mi ) controls . Class 71 had been through ultrasonic testing and were therefore allowed to resume operation the day after the accident . A DNV report from late August concluded with that the cracks had been caused by rust , which was again caused by water being sealed in by the corrosion @-@ protective layer . On 23 June , Quale stated that the inspectorate should never have approved the trains . He stated that the Sørland Line was extreme in Europe in the number of curves , and that this gave increased stress on the axles . The tests which were used to approve the trains had been done on the Dovre Line and with a Class 71 set equipped with tilting technology , a class which weighs less than Class 73 . He further stated that NSB had controlled only part of the axle and that if proper tests had been made , the fatigue would have been discovered . NSB stated that they had tested the trains on a section of the Dovre Line they considered to be more curvy than the most curvy parts of the Sørland Line . There was also a misunderstanding in the approval , as NSB had said to DNV that the tests on the Dovre Line were not to be considered representative for the Sørland Line , while the inspectorate had the impression that DNV had approved the tests also for the Sørland Line . NSB stated that all tests would be done again before the trains were put back into service . NSB stated that they would demand a discount from Adtranz . Following the incident , the trains would have to be in for maintenance examinations every 100 @,@ 000 kilometers ( 62 @,@ 000 mi ) , rather than every 1 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 kilometers ( 750 @,@ 000 mi ) . With each exam costing NOK 50 @,@ 000 , NSB stated that this represented an extra cost of NOK 20 million per year . The contract between Adtranz and NSB states how often trains are to be maintained , and Adtranz holds a financial responsibility if the trains systematically need more maintenance than that . By 24 June , cracks had been found in two additional units . Similar cracks had occurred in the X2 trains , but after many years of operations . The same manufacturer had been used for the axles on both trains . In Sweden impurities in the steel , combined with undersized axles , were thought to be a cause , but replacements had caused the same issues . On 26 June , NSB stated that in April they had discovered that not checking the whole axle was a weakness in the maintenance procedures , but that despite this , no new examinations had been done . The reason this was ignored , was that there was nothing that indicated that this part of the axle represented a weak point . Ueland was unanimously fired as CEO by NSB 's board on 29 June . Immediately afterwards his deputy Randi Flesland resigned , after she had rejected the board 's proposal for her to become acting CEO . The same day , Adtranz assumed full responsibility for the defects , and guaranteed that they would cover NSB 's costs . In a report , Adtranz stated that the axles should be examined every 6 @,@ 000 kilometers ( 3 @,@ 700 mi ) , which would mean weekly inspections . They stated that they hoped further inquiries would find a way to have less frequent inspections . This was rejected by NSB , who would not have sufficient trains to run the schedules with such a tight inspection scheme . Instead , Adtranz and NSB agreed to a new programme which would involve inspection every three weeks . The trains were put back into service on 13 July . The trains were only allowed to operate at conventional speeds and had to go through a weekly inspection . At the same time , NSB removed the surcharge on the Signatur services . NSB stated that they were considering revocation the purchase of the four trains which were still to be delivered . In addition to problems with axles , there were also issues with the braking and air conditioning systems . In mid @-@ August , the tilting mechanism was disabled on all the trains because of a fault in a bearing in the connection between the bogie and the body which allowed for a movement of several millimetres ( at least 0 @.@ 1 in ) . In late August , problems occurred with the braking system causing the trains to automatically brake even when not receiving such signals from the automatic train stop system . The cause of the cracks was a rubber washer which had been installed on the first eight trains — rather than the conventional plastic cover — which was intended to protect the axles from ice and stones . Adtranz had delivered thousands of trains with the conventional method without cracks , but the washers trapped water and this caused them to corrode and crack . Adtranz had applied a coat of paint as the sole means to avoid corrosion to the axle . The DNV inspector had " hardly believed his ears " when he heard about it . In addition , the axles were undersized , and DNV stated that it was only under duress that they considered it safe to operate the trains at conventional speeds , and that all the axles would have to be replaced . On 30 August , NSB gave Adtranz two weeks to solve the axle issues unless the contract was to be revoked . In mid @-@ September , the press announced that on 8 May 1996 NSB had agreed that Class 71 's axles could receive a steel quality substandard to European standard and recommendation from the International Union of Railways . The reason was that the class would have a much higher weight than planned , and that this would cause the trains to operate more slowly and thus not be able to reach the airport in the desired 19 minutes . Class 73 inherited the same axle quality from the Class 71 order . On 11 September , Adtranz accepted responsibility for the axle problems , and stated that they would replace all axles free of charge , an operation which would cost them NOK 70 million . In October , Adtranz announced that they would also replace all the wheels on both classes . NSB was spending NOK 1 @.@ 5 million on brake discs and brake shoes per month . The parties continued to disagree on the size of compensation Adtranz should give NSB , with NOK 100 million separating the two . In July , NSB replaced DNV with CorrOcean as their inspection supplier for the class . NSB stated that this halved the cost of the inspections . The same month , Bombardier Transportation , who by then had taken over Adtranz , stated that they were going to replace the bogie frames for all the Class 71 and 73 , as well as Class 93 trains , as part of the compensation deal with NSB . = = = Bergen and Østfold = = = The first of the B @-@ series trains were delivered for trial runs on 7 March 2001 . In May , NSB stated that they would never be able to operate the trains with the speeds they had previously stated they could , and that at least for the next year , the tilting trains would operate at the same speeds as conventional trains . On 17 September 2001 , the trains were put into service on the Bergen Line between Oslo and Bergen . During the following winter , the trains had problems running through snowdrift unless they were running at a sufficiently high speed . Because part of the Bergen Line had frost heave , trains were forced to drive extra slowly , causing trains to get stuck . NSB stated that tests had shown that Class 73 was better able to do this than El 16 , which had previously been the main locomotive on the line , although Class 73 did not do as well as the modern El 18 . In January 2002 , NSB started rebuilding the A @-@ series trains with a larger baggage compartment . This was largely because of insufficient space for passengers to take skis with them . The B @-@ series was originally put into service on the Sørland Line between Kristiansand and Stavanger , as part of the brand Agenda . The B @-@ series had been planned for use on the Østfold Line , but because the latter is largely a commuter service with many standing passengers , the company was not comfortable using the trains there until the issues regarding the axles and wheels had been resolved . NSB also stated that they were dissatisfied with that the A @-@ series and B @-@ series were not capable of working together . The B @-@ series ' lack of a manned dining car meant that they could not be used on intercity trains , while the A @-@ series ' smaller seating capacity meant it could not be used on regional trains . The B @-@ series was put into service on the Østfold Line on 6 January 2003 . NSB stated that the new class would offer better comfort and reduce the railway 's problems from delays caused by icing . On the Østfold Line , the maximum speed is 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) . From June 2003 , NSB discontinued the brands Agenda and Signatur . The same year , NSB adjusted the timetables so that the trains look the same time as the conventional trains , and that they would use one minute more than in 1982 . Starting on 15 December , three of the services on the Østfold Line were extended to Gothenburg in Sweden . On 21 February 2007 , a Class 73 derailed after hitting an avalanche between Hallingskeid and Myrdal on the Bergen Line . The accident raised questions about the class 's abilities to handle hard snow , such as in avalanches . In particular , a DNV report from 1999 had shown that the train could act as a sled , lose contact with the tracks and slide on top of the snow . A former NSB employee who worked with route planning , stated that a locomotive @-@ hauled train would be better suitable for such situations , because more of the weight is located at the front of the train , and it will therefore plow instead of slide . The National Rail Administration said that they took extra precautions for the Class 73 trains and that during snowfall they would run a snow @-@ clearing unit ahead of all Class 73 runs . NSB stated that they would consider the possibility of reverting to conventional trains , but that unless new information could shed light on the situation , they would retain use of the Class 73 trains . NSB assured passengers that the trains were more capable than their reputation , and that they would continue to be used on the Bergen Line . If an alternative was needed , NSB stated that they would have to use El 18 locomotives in combination with B5 carriages . However , the carriages were at the time being used on regional rush @-@ hour trains around Oslo , were in need of renovation and did not offer the facilities required by intercity travelers . In October , NSB stated that they planned to withdraw Class 73 from service on the Bergen Line , because the use of multiple units was not flexible enough . With locomotive @-@ hauled trains , it was possible for the company to add or remove just a single carriage , but with multiple units , it was necessary to double the capacity if a single unit was insufficient . While originally planned to be introduced in 2008 , delays in the upgrades delayed the delivery of the carriages beyond 2010 . On 16 June 2011 , a fire started in the snow tunnel at Hallingskeid Station on the Bergen Line . As the station is unmanned , there was no prior warning of the fire until the driver saw it from the cab just as the train entered the tunnel . More or less simultaneously , the train reached the point of the line were the fire had damaged the overhead supply . The driver immediately applied the emergency brake , which caused the train to stop 5 to 10 meters ( 16 to 33 ft ) from the fire . Because the train had no power , it was not possible to reverse out . The 257 passengers were then immediately evacuated . All personnel acted according to regulations and no @-@ one was injured in the accident . According to the driver , had he not lost the power , he would have continued through the tunnel , as the fire was just at the beginning stage . The train , which consisted of two Class 73 units , no . 10 and 13 , eventually caught fire and was damaged beyond repair . Class 73 trains are to be taken out of service on the Bergen Line from the fall of 2012 . = = Mid @-@ life overhaul = = Early May 2014 Dutch railway refurbishment and overhaul company NedTrain announced they had won the contract to refurbish the entire fleet . The first set was to arrive in May 2014 for inspection , scheduling of the works involved and evaluation of the process while the remainder of the fleet would come in from spring 2015 . All sets were to be transported by rail via Sweden , Denmark and Germany to the main facility in Haarlem .

= Zytglogge = The Zytglogge ( Bernese German : / ˈt ͡ sitˌklɔkːə / ) tower is a landmark medieval tower in Bern , Switzerland . Built in the early 13th century , it has served the city as guard tower , prison , clock tower , centre of urban life and civic memorial . Despite the many redecorations and renovations it has undergone in its 800 years of existence , the Zytglogge is one of Bern 's most recognisable symbols and , with its 15th @-@ century astronomical clock , a major tourist attraction . It is a heritage site of national significance , and part of the Old City of Bern , a UNESCO World Cultural Heritage site . = = History = = When it was built around 1218 – 20 , the Zytglogge served as the gate tower of Bern 's western fortifications . These were erected after the city 's first westward expansion following its de facto independence from the Empire . At that time , the Zytglogge was a squat building of only 16 metres ( 52 ft ) in height . When the rapid growth of the city and the further expansion of the fortifications ( up to the Käfigturm ) relegated the tower to second @-@ line status at around 1270 – 75 , it was heightened by 7 metres ( 23 ft ) to overlook the surrounding houses . Only after the city 's western defences were extended again in 1344 – 46 up to the now @-@ destroyed Christoffelturm , the Zytglogge was converted to a women 's prison , notably housing Pfaffendirnen – " priests ' whores " , women convicted of sexual relations with clerics . At this time , the Zytglogge also received its first slanted roof . In the great fire of 1405 , the tower burnt out completely . It suffered severe structural damage that required thorough repairs , which were not complete until after the last restoration in 1983 . The prison cells were abandoned and a clock was first installed above the gate in the early 15th century , probably including a simple astronomical clock and musical mechanism . This clock , together with the great bell cast in 1405 , gave the Zytglogge its name , which in Bernese German means " time bell " . In the late 15th century , the Zytglogge and the other Bernese gate towers were extended and decorated after the Burgundian Romantic fashion . The Zytglogge received a new lantern ( including the metal bellman visible today ) , four decorative corner towerlets , heraldic decorations and probably its stair tower . The astronomical clock was extended to its current state . In 1527 – 30 , the clockwork was completely rebuilt by Kaspar Brunner , and the gateway was overarched to provide a secure foundation for the heavy machinery . The Zytglogge 's exterior was repainted by Gotthard Ringgli and Kaspar Haldenstein in 1607 – 10 , who introduced the large clock faces that now dominate the east and west façades of the tower . The corner towerlets were removed again some time before 1603 . In 1770 – 71 , the Zytglogge was renovated by Niklaus Hebler and Ludwig Emanuel Zehnder , who refurbished the structure in order to suit the tastes of the late Baroque , giving the tower its contemporary outline . Both façades were again repainted in the Rococo style by Rudolf von Steiger in 1890 . The idealising historicism of the design came to be disliked in the 20th century , and a 1929 competition produced the façade designs visible today : on the west façade , Victor Surbek 's fresco " Beginning of Time " and on the east façade , a reconstruction of the 1770 design by Kurt Indermühle . In 1981 – 83 , the Zytglogge was thoroughly renovated again and generally restored to its 1770 appearance . In the advent season and from Easter until the end of October , it is illuminated after dusk . = = = Name = = = The Bernese German Zytglogge translates to Zeitglocke in Standard German and to time bell in English ; ' Glocke ' means ' bell ' in German , as in the related term ' glockenspiel ' . A " time bell " was one of the earliest public timekeeping devices , consisting of a clockwork connected to a hammer that rang a small bell at the full hour . Such a device was installed in the Wendelstein in Bern – the tower of the Leutkirche church which the Münster later replaced – in 1383 at the latest ; it alerted the bell @-@ ringer to ring the tower bells . The name of Zytglogge was first recorded in 1413 . Previously , the tower was referred to as the kebie ( " cage " , i.e. , prison ) and after its post @-@ 1405 reconstruction , the nüwer turm ( " new tower " ) . = = Exterior = = = = = External structure = = = The Zytglogge has an overall height of 54 @.@ 5 metres ( 179 ft ) , and a height of 24 metres ( 79 ft ) up to the roof @-@ edge . Its rectangular floor plan measures 11 @.@ 2 by 10 @.@ 75 metres ( 36 @.@ 7 by 35 @.@ 3 ft ) . The wall strengths vary widely , ranging from 260 centimetres ( 100 in ) in the west , where the tower formed part of the city walls , to 65 centimetres ( 26 in ) in the east . The outward appearance of the Zytglogge is determined by the 1770 renovation . Only the late Gothic cornice below the roof and the stair tower are visible artifacts of the tower 's earlier history . The main body of the tower is divided into the two @-@ storey plinth , whose exterior is made of alpine limestone , and the three @-@ storey tower shaft sheathed in sandstone . The shaft 's seemingly massive corner blocks are decorative fixtures held in place by visible iron hooks . Below the roof , the cornice spans around the still @-@ visible bases of the former corner towerlets . The two @-@ story attic is covered by the sweeping , red @-@ tiled , late Gothic spire , in which two spire lights are set to the West and East . They are crowned by ornamental urns with pinecone knobs reconstructed in 1983 from 18th @-@ century drawings . From atop the spire , the wooden pinnacle , copper @-@ sheathed since 1930 , rises an additional 15 metres ( 49 ft ) into the skies , crowned with a gilded knob and a weather vane displaying a cut @-@ out coat of arms of Bern . = = = Bells and bell @-@ striker = = = The tower 's two namesake bronze bells hang in the cupola at its very top . The great hour bell , cast by Johann Reber , has remained unchanged since the tower 's reconstruction in 1405 . It has a diameter of 127 centimetres ( 50 in ) , a weight of 1 @,@ 400 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 100 lb ) and rings with a nominal tone of e ' . The inscription on the bell reads , in Latin : In the October month of the year 1405 I was cast by Master John called Reber of Aarau . I am vessel and wax , and to all I tell the hours of the day . When the great bell rings out every full hour , struck by a large clockwork @-@ operated hammer , passers @-@ by see a gilded figure in full harness moving its arm to strike it . The larger @-@ than @-@ life figure of bearded Chronos , the Greek personification of time , is traditionally nicknamed Hans von Thann by the Bernese . The wooden bell @-@ striker , which has been replaced several times , has been a fixture of the Zytglogge since the renewal of the astronomical clock in 1530 , whose clockwork also controls the figure 's motions . The original wooden Chronos might have been created by master craftsman Albrecht von Nürnberg , while the current and most recent Hans is a 1930 reconstruction of a Baroque original . The bell @-@ striker has been gilded , just like the bells , since 1770 . Below the hour bell hangs the smaller quarter @-@ hour bell , also rung by a clockwork hammer . It was cast in 1887 to replace the cracked 1486 original . = = = Clock faces and façade decorations = = = Both principal façades , East and West , are dominated by massive clockfaces . The Zytglogge 's first clockface was likely located on the plinth , but was moved up to the center of the shaft during the tower 's 15th @-@ century reconfiguration . The eastern clock face features an outer ring of large golden Roman numerals , on which the larger hand indicates the hour , and an inner ring on which the smaller hand indicates the minutes . The golden sun on the hour hand is pivot @-@ mounted so that it always faces up . Below the clock face one sees an idealised profile of city founder Duke Berchtold V of Zähringen . While the exact decoration of the clockface has varied from renovation to renovation , the current ( post @-@ 1983 ) layout is generally that of 1770 . The western clock face has similar hands , but is an integral part of Victor Surbek 's 1929 fresco " Beginning of Time " . The painting depicts Chronos swooping down with cape fluttering , and , below the clockface , Adam and Eve 's eviction from Paradise by an angel . = = = Astronomical clock = = = The dial of the Zytglogge 's astronomical clock is built in the form of an astrolabe . It is backed by a stereographically projected planisphere divided into three zones : the black night sky , the deep blue zone of dawn and the light blue day sky . The skies are crisscrossed with the golden lines of the horizon , dawn , the tropics and the temporal hours , which divide the time of daylight into twelve hours whose length varies with the time of year . Around the planisphere moves the rete , a web @-@ like metal cutout representing the zodiac , which also features a Julian calendar dial . Above the rete , a display indicates the day of the week . Because leap days are not supported by the clockwork , the calendar hand has to be reset manually each leap year on 29 February . A moon dial circles the inner ring of the zodiac , displaying the moon phase . The principal hand of the clock indicates the time of day on the outer ring of 24 golden Roman numerals , which run twice from I to XII . It features two suns , the smaller one indicating the date on the rete 's calendar dial . The larger one circles the zodiac at one revolution per year and also rotates across the planisphere once per day . Its crossing of the horizon and dawn lines twice per day allows the timing of sunrise , dawn , dusk and sunset . The painted frieze above the astronomical clock shows five deities from classical antiquity , each representing both a day of the week and a planet in their order according to Ptolemaic cosmology . From left to right , they are : Saturn with sickle and club for Saturday , Jupiter with thunderbolts for Thursday , Mars with sword and shield for Tuesday , Venus with Cupid for Friday and Mercury with staff and bag for Wednesday . The painting of the entire clock area was refurbished in 1983 . Only the matte areas on the clock face are from the earlier coat of paint . = = Movement = = The clock dial has been dated to either the building phases of 1405 or 1467 @-@ 83 , or to the installation of the Brunner clockwork in 1527 @-@ 30 . Ueli Bellwald notes that the planisphere uses a southern projection , as was characteristic for 15th @-@ century astronomical clocks ; all later such clocks use a northern projection . This would seem to confirm the dating of the clock to the 1405 or 1467 / 83 renovations . A clock is documented in this tower since 1405 , when a new bell was installed . The city accounts of 1438 mention the repair of the clockworks . The first mention of a dial is in 1443 , and the first known image of the , much smaller first astrolabium dial ( in the diary a cobbler journeyman from Ulm ) is dated 1534 . The jacquemart ( bellstriker ) is also documented in the same 1534 source . In the first two decades of the sixteenth century many craftsman unsuccessfully tried to improve the clockworks . The current movement was made in 1530 by clockmaker Kasper Bruner and is dated and signed by a forged nameplate . No other clockworks by this master are known . The core of the movement was forged in @-@ situ , in the very room it is still located , and the fire pit of the forge remains in the room . One of the more unusual features of the movement is that each individual tooth of the major gears is removable ( i.e.replaceable as it wears ) . Originally the movement had a verge escapement with a foliot , as it was built 127 years before the pendulum clock was invented . The Zytglogge movement was converted to a much more accurate pendulum mechanism by the French clockmaker Pierre Angely between 1686 and 1688 . The current pendulum bob , a " recycled " iron cannonball , possibly dates from that time . The pendulum suspension is made from leather rather than using a metal spring . The weight @-@ driven movement is wound daily by hand . That task , a role known as the " Zytgloggenrichter " , has been held for over 25 years by the same individual . = = Interior = = The Zytglogge 's internal layout has changed over time to reflect the tower 's change of purpose from guard tower to city prison to clock tower . The thirteenth @-@ century guard tower was not much more than a hollow shell of walls that was open towards the city in the east . Only in the fourteenth century was a layer of four storeys inserted . The rooms above the clockwork mechanism were used by the city administration for various purposes up until the late 20th century , including as archives , storerooms , as a firehose magazine and even as an air raid shelter . The interior was frequently remodelled in a careless , even vandalistic fashion ; for instance , all but three of the original wooden beams supporting the intermediate floors were destroyed . Since 1979 , the tower 's interior is empty again . It is only accessed for maintenance and in the course of regular guided tours .

= Proteus ( video game ) = Proteus is an open world exploration video game developed by Ed Key and David Kanaga for Linux , Mac OS , Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 , and PlayStation Vita . The game was released on 30 January 2013 for Windows and Mac , and on 8 April 2013 for Linux . PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita versions were later released on 29 October 2013 . The game is based around adventuring and discovering an island , with no specific goals . Players explore an environment in which every creature and plant has a unique musical signature , which results in changes in audio depending on the area . The game world is procedurally generated , creating a unique layout each game . Ed Key began the game 's development in 2008 and was joined by David Kanaga in 2010 ; the two aimed to make a " nontraditional and nonviolent " game . They considered different game mechanics , including quests , before settling on the final game design . Curve Studios developed the PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita versions and added extra features to the Vita version at Sony 's behest . Proteus won the prize for Best Audio in the 2011 Indiecade awards and was a finalist for the 2012 Independent Games Festival 's Nuovo Award . Critics received both the original and PlayStation releases well , specifically praising the game 's use of audio , though some reviewers commented negatively on the length and replayability . = = Gameplay = = In Proteus , players explore an island from a first @-@ person perspective . The island is drawn in a pixel art style and contains hills , trees , structures , and animals such as frogs and rabbits . Its layout is different each time the game is played . The focus of the game is on exploration rather than interaction , as there is no narrative and the player is given no instructions on how to proceed . Possible interactions are limited — for example , animals may run away when players come too close . The soundtrack changes depending on the player 's movements and location . It may become silent when the player is at the top of a hill or sonically dense as they travel down . The soundtrack will add extra sounds and notes when the player nears objects or animals . When the game begins , players are situated away from the island and must move across an ocean of water to reach it . Upon arrival , players are free to explore all of the island during the initial season of spring . During nighttime , players can enter a cluster of lights to advance time to the next season ; going through each until the end of winter , after which the game ends . The landscape changes with the season , such as trees shedding their leaves in autumn . The PlayStation Vita version lets the player directly affect the environment with the console 's rear touch panel and generate islands based on the current date and location in the real world . = = Development = = British developer Ed Key began work on Proteus in 2008 during his evenings and weekends . The game only neared its final form when David Kanaga joined development in 2010 . Key originally envisioned the game as a procedural role @-@ playing game in the same vein as The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion , in which the player would visit towns and complete quests . Realizing the extent of the work that would be needed for such a game , the developers decided to instead make something " nontraditional and nonviolent " . Key developed the game using a game engine he had written in the C # programming language . The developers expressed interest in allowing player @-@ created mods of the game ; some such modified versions of the game have since been created by the community . After David Kanaga joined the development team as audio composer , the audio mechanics were refined through many different ideas , such as allowing players to create their own music within the game . This idea was cut because the developers felt it would detract from the exploratory emphasis of the game and turn it into more of a creative tool . Proteus was released on 30 January 2013 for Windows and Mac , and on 8 April of the same year for Linux . When pre @-@ orders were open in 2012 , an Artifact Edition was also available ; a version which included a boxed version of the game with artwork , the soundtrack , and notes on the game 's development . Key apologised when the Artifact Edition was still in development and unshipped at the end of its release year , and offered to refund customers upon request . The Artifact Edition was released in July 2016 . Around the time of the game 's release , Curve Studios approached , and later worked with , the developers to port the game for release on PlayStation 3 and Vita . These versions of the game use Curve Studio 's own game engine . Sony requested that new features be added to the game , though Key said that the company never attempted to steer the direction of the development of these features . Key added location and date @-@ based world generation and a way to interact with the game using the Vita 's rear touchpad . He has stated that the location- and date @-@ specific world generation feature could come to the other versions in the future . The PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita versions were released on 29 October 2013 . = = Reception = = A beta version of Proteus was featured in indie game festivals and received coverage from video game journalists . It won the 2011 Indiecade Award for Best Audio , and was shortlisted for the 2012 GameCity Prize , but lost to Journey . Proteus was a finalist for the 2012 Independent Games Festival 's Nuovo Award , a prize aimed at abstract and unconventional game development , and received honorable mentions in the Excellence in Audio and Seumas McNally Grand Prize categories . The game also won the Most Amazing Indie Game prize at the 2012 A MAZE . Indie Connect Festival and in the same year was featured in the Museum of Modern Art 's " Common Senses " exhibit . In an article that discussed 2011 's exploration games , Jim Rossignol of Rock , Paper , Shotgun described Proteus as " one of the most charming experiences " he had had in an indie game . In 2012 , Rick Lane of IGN stated that he found the game " delightfully intoxicating " , unique , and intriguing , and Tom Francis of PC Gamer responded positively in his game preview , drawing particular attention to the game 's changing soundtrack . Proteus received generally positive reviews following release , holding aggregate scores of 80 % and 78 % on Metacritic and GameRankings respectively for the Windows PC version . Eurogamer 's Oli Welsh , PC Gamer 's Tom Senior , and IGN writer Nathan Grayson all gave the game 's changing audio praise , commenting on how it accompanied them through the game , with Grayson saying , " It 's oddly captivating to just walk around and let [ the sounds ] wash over your surroundings " . A review in Edge , though generally positive about the soundtrack , said that the music " never truly gets going " , particularly because of the lack of drums in most seasons . A Shacknews staff poll named Proteus the seventh best game of 2013 . Alice O 'Connor , writing for the website , called the game " delightfully devoid of explanation " . The game 's length and replay value received mixed reactions . GameSpot 's John Robertson thought that the game had little replayability , and PC Gamer 's Senior said that the game felt very similar in subsequent playthroughs . GameTrailers ' Daniel Bloodworth , however , thought that the randomly generated islands provided an opportunity to see things players may have missed the first time and Grayson found himself replaying the game many times . The PlayStation 3 and Vita versions were also received well . Mike Rose , writing for Pocket Gamer , gave the game 7 / 10 in his review . He praised the extra features present in the Vita version , though noted performance issues . In Metro 's review , Roger Hargreaves said the Vita 's version gave him more reasons to re @-@ play the game due to the addition of playstation trophies , and PlayStation Official Magazine 's Joel Gregory called the Playstation 3 version " simple but wonderfully effective " . Many players debated Proteus ' status as a video game , citing aspects such as the lack of real goals or objectives . Some called it an anti @-@ game . This description , however , was controversial . Grayson argued that Proteus does contain an action ( walking ) and a goal ( proceeding through the seasons ) . Edge 's reviewer contended that the day / night cycle , changeable weather , and a player @-@ triggered change of seasons qualified Proteus as a legitimate game . Key responded by pointing out that , while the product does include rudimentary game mechanics , interacting with them is optional and they do not usually provide feedback . However , Key went on to argue that " encouraging a strict definition of ' game ' does nothing but foster conservatism and defensiveness " .

= The Sponge Who Could Fly = " The Sponge Who Could Fly " , also known as " The Lost Episode " , is the 19th episode of the third season and the 59th overall episode of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . It was written by Paul Tibbitt , Kent Osborne , and Merriwether Williams , with Andrew Overtoom and Tom Yasumi serving as animation director and Mark O 'Hare as the director of the walk cycles in the beginning of the episode . The episode was produced in 2002 and aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on March 21 , 2003 . The series follows the adventures and endeavors of the title character in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom . In this episode , SpongeBob wishes he could fly with the jellyfish . He makes several attempts to do so , but all of these fail . At home , SpongeBob is drying his hair and receives a phone call , he puts the hair dryer in his square pants , and the dryer inflates them , giving him the ability to fly . He goes around helping people , earning their admiration and becoming a superhero of sorts . However , other characters continue to ask increasingly unnecessary favors of him , leaving him no time to fly with the jellyfish . The episode became available on the VHS of the same name on March 4 , 2003 . Tie @-@ in promotions made with Burger King , which released a series of toys . Upon release , " The Sponge Who Could Fly " gained seven million views receiving mixed reviews from television critics , especially concerning the live action segments . " The Sponge Who Could Fly " was adapted into a musical called SpongeBob SquarePants Live ! The Sponge Who Could Fly ! , which toured selected cities in Asia , in 2007 . The musical was renamed to SpongeBob SquarePants : The Sponge Who Could Fly ! A New Musical when it toured the United Kingdom in 2009 . = = Plot = = The beginning opens with Patchy the Pirate , as he has presumably lost the " Lost Episode Of SpongeBob , " prior to the episode . He is hesitant to keep the episode lost , so he sets off to look for the episode , using a treasure map to find . Throughout several difficulties , he eventually finds the episode . He then returns home in glee , and watches the episode , which is revealed to be a series of walk cycles . Patchy gets angry , and throws a " temper @-@ tantrum , " which results in him running away . The real episode then begins to start playing , and Patchy returns , fixes all of his stuff , then enjoys the episode . In the episode , SpongeBob wishes he could fly with the jellyfish . He makes several attempts to do so , including a biplane , bat wings , a lawn chair with balloons , and a giant kite pulled by a bicycle . All of these attempts fail , and SpongeBob faces ridicule from others . He tells those mocking him that " it is a sad day in Bikini Bottom , when a guy is ridiculed for having dreams ! " They respond that they all have had unfulfilled dreams , and start chasing him . SpongeBob runs off a cliff and falls into a truck of mud , then into a truck of feathers . Back home , having given up on his dream , SpongeBob dries himself out when he receives an insulting phone call and puts the hair dryer in his pants . While he talks , the dryer inflates his pants , giving him the ability to fly . He goes around helping people , earning their admiration and becoming a superhero of sorts . However , the other characters continue to ask increasingly unnecessary favors of him , leaving him no time to fly with the jellyfish . When he tries to escape to the Jellyfish Fields , a mob forms and chases him , but is unable to catch him . Cannonball Jenkins , formerly a farmer and later on , a sailor , launches himself at SpongeBob , popping the pants and sending him plummeting to the ground . Everyone then hold a funeral for his now @-@ deflated pants . Upset , SpongeBob decides to go home , but the jellyfish help him fly and take him back there . Patrick arrives and asks if they could fly over to the pizzeria , but SpongeBob decides to leave the flying to the jellyfish , only for Patrick to fly off himself . The story then shifts back to Patchy , who wants to replay the episode , but fails , leading him to destroy the tape . = = Production = = " The Sponge Who Could Fly " was written by Paul Tibbitt , Kent Osborne and Merriwether Williams , with Andrew Overtoom serving as animation director . Tibbitt and Osborne also functioned as storyboard directors , and Carson Kugler , Caleb Meurer , and William Reiss worked as storyboard artists . The episode originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on March 21 , 2003 , with a TV @-@ Y7 parental rating . " The Sponge Who Could Fly " was one of the few episodes of the third season that aired during the production of the series ' 2004 feature film . In 2002 , series creator Stephen Hillenburg , with his crew , halted production of the show to work on the film , resulting in few airings of new episodes . Nickelodeon announced nine " as @-@ yet @-@ unaired " episodes would be shown . During the break in TV production , " The Sponge Who Could Fly " first aired during a two @-@ hour " Sponge " -a @-@ thon , while the other eight were broadcast subsequently . Mark O 'Hare directed and animated the walk cycles in the beginning of the episode . The cycle originated when supervising producer at the time Derek Drymon called O 'Hare . O 'Hare said " Derek would call me out of the blue for freelance , and it was tough to know the context of stuff . " He remembered the crew gave him a " bad " synthesizer song and he was told to do " some kind of weird walk to it . " He said " I animated this bizarre SpongeBob walk and turned it in , and that was that . " Eventually , Drymon saw the cycle and referred to it as " The Lost Episode " walk . O 'Hare had no idea what Drymon was talking about until he learned it was already used in an episode . O 'Hare said " so I just figured that it ended up on the cutting room floor , like a lot of stuff you end up doing in animation . I had no idea that he was referring to the actual name of the show [ ' The Lost Episode ' ] . " The live action scenes were directed by Mark Osborne , and were hosted by Tom Kenny in character as Patchy the Pirate , the president of the fictional SpongeBob SquarePants fan club . " The Sponge Who Could Fly " was released on VHS on March 4 , 2003 . It was included in the DVD compilation called SpongeBob SquarePants : The Complete 3rd Season on September 27 , 2005 . On September 22 , 2009 , the episode was released in the SpongeBob SquarePants : The First 100 Episodes DVD , alongside all the episodes of seasons one through five . = = Marketing = = To promote the episode , Nickelodeon launched an on @-@ air campaign called " SpongeBob 's Lost Episode " , which culminated with the premiere of " The Sponge Who Could Fly " . Nickelodeon also partnered with Burger King to release a line of toys as a marketing tie @-@ in to the event . The toy line consisted of eight figures , including SpongeBob Silly Squirter , Swing Time Patrick , Jellyfish Fields , Plankton Bubble Up , Squirt N ' Whistle Squidward , Plush Shakin ' SpongeBob , Karate Chop Sandy and Gravity Defying Gary . The promotion ran for five weeks , during which time one of the popular items on the " Big Kids " menu , Chicken Tender , came " in fun star and lightning bolt shapes . " Craig Braasch , vice president of global advertising and promotions for the Burger King Corporation , said " These eight new , fun , seaworthy toys inside our Big Kids Meals provide hours of aquatic entertainment for our young customers . " Each of the toys released included a " clue card " containing a SpongeBob SquarePants character riddle . By visiting Nickelodeon 's website , the viewers could answer the riddle in order to win digital SpongeBob trading cards . They could also enter a sweepstakes to win an at @-@ home SpongeBob SquarePants party for 25 people where " The Sponge Who Could Fly " was viewed on the winner 's new large @-@ screen television . Pam Kaufman , senior vice president of marketing for Nickelodeon , said " We are proud of the relationship we have built with Burger King Corporation and excited that SpongeBob is returning for his second Burger King promotion . The promotion is sure to bring the young Burger King customers all of the fun they have come to expect from Nickelodeon and SpongeBob SquarePants . " = = Reception = = Upon its release , " The Sponge Who Could Fly " was viewed in seven million households . However , the episode received mixed reviews from critics . David Kronke of the Los Angeles Daily News criticized the special as being a standard episode that has been padded out to an extra length , with the live action Patchy the Pirate segments not being that entertaining . In his review for the DVD Verdict , Bryan Pope criticized " The Sponge Who Could Fly " as a " misstep . " Pope said " Season three remains the high point for the series , producing such classics as ' No Weenies Allowed ' , ' SpongeBob Meets The Strangler ' , and ' Krusty Krab Training Video ' , a hilarious parody of industrial training videos . The one misstep is ' The Lost Episode ' [ ' The Sponge Who Could Fly ' ] , which veers too far away from Bikini Bottom and into unfunny live action territory . " Dana Orlando of the Philadelphia Daily News expressed the opinion that both the cartoon and the live action segments of the episode were funny , and described " The Sponge Who Could Fly " as one of the best episodes to date . In 2003 , the episode received a Hors Concours Honor for Recently Telecast Programs at the Banff Rockie Awards . Tom Maurstad of The Dallas Morning News responded negatively to " The Sponge Who Could Fly , saying " it 's not a very good episode . " He described the episode as " another SpongeBob @-@ and @-@ his @-@ love @-@ of @-@ jellyfish story " that does " not [ have ] enough laughs " and having " too much drippy sentimentality . " = = Musical adaptation = = " The Sponge Who Could Fly " was adapted into a musical called SpongeBob SquarePants Live ! The Sponge Who Could Fly ! . It was launched in Singapore at The Singapore Expo Hall on May 31 , 2007 , and was the first customization of SpongeBob into a live musical event , joining a list of TV @-@ inspired live offerings from Nickelodeon that includes Blue 's Clues and Dora the Explorer . The musical also marked the first time Nickelodeon premiered a live tour outside the United States . The show is a story of courage and coming of age which tells of SpongeBob 's desire to fly with the jellyfish of Jellyfish Fields . It traveled to five cities across Asia , including Singapore , Kuala Lumpur , Jakarta , Bangkok , and Manila , before it toured cities of Australia and New Zealand . A Mandarin @-@ language version toured China and Hong Kong in the fall . The script was written by Steven Banks , head writer for the series , with songs by Eban Schletter . Gip Hoppe served as director , with choreographer and associate director Jenn Rapp , and the set was designed by Rialto vet David Gallo . The musical was produced by Nickelodeon and MTVN Kids and Family Group , partnered with Broadway Asia Entertainment . In 2009 , the show toured the United Kingdom and Ireland with the name of SpongeBob SquarePants : The Sponge Who Could Fly ! A New Musical . It opened at the Hackney Empire in London , England on February 3 , 2009 . The musical toured the UK from March 2009 for six months with performances at the Hammersmith Apollo , Southend , Edinburgh , Birmingham , Reading , Salford , Sunderland , Nottingham , Liverpool , High Wycombe , Plymouth , Bristol , Cardiff , Oxford , Killarney and Dublin . Alison Pollard choreographed and directed the UK adaptation and said that the episode already had a few songs in it , which helped with the conversion to a musical . She said " The episode chosen for the show already had four or five really catchy tunes in it , and the idea that he wants to fly with jellyfish is nice for the stage as well . " The adaptation includes twelve songs of various styles . English actor Chris Coxon played the role of SpongeBob . Coxon was a fan of the series and said " If I 'd been told a year ago that I would be playing SpongeBob today I would have loved it , although I 'm not sure I would have believed it . " Coxon admitted it was difficult to adapt the show into a musical . He remarked " It is difficult because you are trying to recreate this character that is so fluid on screen . For example I 'm just getting used to my square costume , although it does have an incredible design , so that , although I am restricted , I can do a lot of the things he does in the cartoon . " = = = Critical reception = = = The musical was well received by most critics . In his review for The Sentinel , Chris Blackhurst brought along a seven @-@ year @-@ old child called Dylan Brayford , and his 34 @-@ year @-@ old godfather , James Humphreys , from Nantwich to watch the musical . The two " weren 't disappointed . " Blackhurst said " The fast @-@ paced tale of courage and dreams kept both entertained with plenty of hilarious moments for the children and a sprinkle of gags which flew over younger fans ' heads but brought a wry smile to mums and dads ' faces . " Brayford summed it up , saying " It was good , but not quite as good as the TV show . " Gordon Barr and Roger Domeneghetti of the Evening Chronicle described the show as " a silly riot of colour [ ... ] as you 'd have to expect from an adaptation of a cartoon TV show . " They lauded the song called " Ker Ching " performed by Mr. Krabs , saying " [ It ] stands out above the rest . " Viv Hardwick of the The Northern Echo said " Younger ones are just pleased to see a colourful collection of characters , vaguely resembling the ten year @-@ old TV show cast , cavorting around the stage . " Hardwick praised the role of Charles Brunton as Squidward Tentacles while John Fricker ( Patrick Star ) and Martin Johnston ( Mr. Krabs ) were said to " win the biggest costume contest . "

= Jessica Gallagher = Jessica Gallagher ( born 14 March 1986 ) is an Australian Paralympic alpine skier , track and field athlete , and tandem cyclist . She was Australia 's second female Winter Paralympian , and the first Australian woman to win a medal at the Winter Paralympics at the 2010 Vancouver Games . She competed at the 2014 Winter Paralympics in Sochi , where she won a bronze medal in the Women 's Giant Slalom Visually Impaired . She is legally blind , and represents Australia internationally in three sports : skiing , athletics and cycling . Besides her skiing achievements , she has represented Australia in athletics at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , and won a silver and a bronze medal at the 2011 Christchurch IPC Athletics World Championships in long jump and javelin , respectively . She has also represented the state of Victoria as a junior in netball and basketball . Gallagher has been selected in the Australian cycling team with her pilot Madison Janssen for the 2016 Rio Paralympics . Her " long term goal is to be the first Australian to medal at a summer and winter Paralympics or Olympics " . = = Personal = = Gallagher was born on 14 March 1986 and lives in the Geelong suburb of Highton . In 2009 , she graduated from RMIT University with a Master of Osteopathy , and is a registered osteopath . At the time of the 2010 Vancouver Winter Paralympics , she was dating the American Paralympic sitting ski slalomer Gerald Hayden . She is an ambassador for the Australian Paralympic Committee , Vision Australia , Seeing Eye Dogs Australia , Vision 2020 Australia , Kx Pilates and 2XU . She is legally blind due to Best 's disease , a rare condition . She started to lose her eyesight when she was a teenager , having received the results of tests while she was competing at the U17 national netball championships . Gallagher was selected to compete at the 2008 Beijing Paralympics in long jumping , 100 m , shot put and discus , but she failed her classification test because the classifiers said the eyesight in her right eye was 0 @.@ 01 % too good . In November 2009 , her classification was revisited due to deterioration of her vision and she was deemed eligible to compete . She is aiming to become the first Australian Paralympic competitor to win medals at both the Summer and Winter Paralympics . = = Sports = = = = = Netball , basketball and snowboarding = = = She played netball and basketball with able @-@ bodied competitors , having first participated at the elite level in both sports as she started to lose her vision . In netball , she was a goal keeper and goal attack , represented Victoria several times and was named as an emergency for the Australian U16 team . In the Victorian league 's Championship Division , she represented both Palladians and Altona Lightning . In basketball , she represented the Geelong Cats for five years and also represented Victoria Country . At that time , her goal was to become a professional netball or basketball player . As well , she played netball in the Geelong Football / Netball League , representing South Barwon and Leopold . Despite her low vision and missing one third of the games due to her Paralympic training program , she won the A grade Best and Fairest Award in 2007 , representing Leopold . Gallagher is also a snowboarder , having taken up the sport while on a working holiday in Vail , Colorado before she found out about the Winter Paralympic Games . = = = Competitive skiing = = = Gallagher was the first Australian woman to win a medal at the Winter Paralympics , and Australia 's second female Winter Paralympian . She was given the opportunity to compete at the highest levels in skiing after being identified during a talent search and because of her snowboarding experience . As she is blind , she competes with a guide with Eric Bickerton being her first guide . She is coached by Steve Graham , who also coached Michael Milton and is the current head coach of the Australian Institute of Sport 's Winter Paralympic program . Her Australian training base is at the Victorian Institute of Sport 's training centre located at Lakeside Stadium in South Melbourne . While actively training six days a week , her individual training sessions will last between two and three hours each a total of ten to twelve sessions by the end of the week . Gallagher first represented Australia in 2009 at the New Zealand Winter Games , where she won a gold medal . In January 2010 , she competed at her first IPC Alpine Skiing World Cup event in Austria and won a bronze medal in slalom . Before the start of the 2010 Games , she had competed in nine World Cup events . On her 24th birthday , she won a bronze medal at the Vancouver games in the Women 's Slalom visually impaired event , becoming the first Australian woman to do so . In her first and second time down the hill , she finished third both times , She also competed in the Women 's Giant Slalom visually impaired event at the 2010 Games , finishing seventh after headset issues that caused problems with communication . In 2013 , at the IPC Alpine Skiing World Cup in Thredbo , New South Wales , several weeks after taking on her new guide , Christian Geiger , she won two silver medals in giant slalom and slalom . At the 2014 Sochi Paralympics , Gallagher ( guided by Geiger ) won a bronze medal in the Women 's Giant Slalom Visually Impaired and came seventh in the Women 's Giant Slalom Visually Impaired . She has been in the Australian Institute of Sport Alpine Skiing Program since 2009 . Australia 's National Sports Museum put several items related to her on display after her bronze medal win at the 2010 Vancouver Games . = = = Competitive athletics = = = Gallagher is an athletics competitor , competing in long jump , discus , shot put , javelin and sprinting , She became involved in athletics after learning about the Paralympics . At the skills assessment , the classifiers had her try shot put and , despite being dressed in casual athletic attire , she managed a throw that met the Paralympic qualifying distance . After a year of training , she increased this initial distance by 2 @.@ 5 metres ( 8 ft 2 in ) to have a personal best throw of over 12 metres ( 39 ft ) . She holds several records in the F13 classification , including Australian and Oceanian records in the long jump , javelin and shot put , and an Australian record in discus . In athletics , her coaches have included Mike Edwards and John Boas . In January 2011 , she competed at the 2011 Christchurch IPC Athletics World Championships , where she finished second in the long jump and third in the javelin throw event , with a throw of 33 @.@ 75 metres ( 110 @.@ 7 ft ) . Her appearance at the championships marked her return to the sport after having taken a break to compete in skiing . At the 2012 London Paralympics , Gallagher competed in the Women 's Long Jump F13 and Women 's Javelin Throw F12 / 13 events , finishing fifth and sixth respectively . Gallagher was disappointed with these result , having suffered a severe tear in her meniscus during training that forced her to use crutches in the month leading up to the competition . In a 2014 interview Gallagher expressed what competing at Summer and Winter Paralymics meant to her . She said : I love the unique cultural experience each host city brings . Ultimately , competing for your country on the worlds biggest sporting stage is a pinnacle . It brings memories and experiences that last a lifetime . = = = Competitive cycling = = = She was encouraged to take up cycling by Victorian Institute of Sport coach Glenn Doney . The decision to transfer to cycling was made easier after her favorite athletics event the long jump was not included on the 2016 Rio Paralympics athletics program . Gallagher believes that track cycling is easier than downhill skiing . She said " " Being a skier , the guide is not connected to me like on a tandem and so I need to ski at high speeds under incredibly intense variabilities that constantly change . The velodrome is a stable environment . " At the 2016 UCI Para @-@ cycling Track World Championships in Montichiari , Italy , Gallagher and her pilot Madison Janssen made their international debut . They won the gold medal in the Women 's Sprint B in world record time and the bronze medal in the Women 's 1 km Time Trial B.

= Keeper of the Flame ( film ) = Keeper of the Flame is a 1943 Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) drama film directed by George Cukor , and starring Spencer Tracy and Katharine Hepburn . The screenplay by Donald Ogden Stewart is adapted from the novel Keeper of the Flame by I. A. R. Wylie . Hepburn plays the widow of a famous civic leader who has suddenly died in an accident , while Tracy portrays a former war correspondent who intends to write a flattering biography of the dead man , only to find that his death is shrouded in mystery . Screenwriter Stewart considered the script to be the finest moment of his entire career , feeling vindicated by the assignment as he believed that Hollywood had punished him for years for his political views . Principal filming began in the last week of August 1942 , four months after the release of the novel , published by Random House . The entire picture was filmed on a sound stage , with no location shooting . Hepburn had already begun her extramarital affair with Tracy , and due to his heavy drinking , she became his constant guardian during filming . The film was screened for the Office of War Information 's Bureau of Motion Pictures on December 2 , 1942 , where it was disapproved of by the Bureau 's chief , Lowell Mellett . Keeper of the Flame premiered to a poor reception at Radio City Music Hall on Thursday , March 18 , 1943 . MGM head Louis B. Mayer stormed out of the cinema , enraged by his having encouraged the making of a film which equated wealth with fascism . Republican members of Congress complained about the film 's obviously leftist politics , and demanded that Will H. Hays , President of the Motion Picture Production Code , establish motion picture industry guidelines for propaganda . Cukor himself was highly dissatisfied by the film and considered it one of his poorest efforts . Nonetheless , today the film is seen more positively , with one critic concluding that Keeper of the Flame is " truly provocative in that it was one of Hollywood 's few forays into imagining the possibility of homegrown American Fascism and the crucial damage which can be done to individual rights when inhumane and tyrannical ideas sweep a society through a charismatic leader . " = = Plot = = When national hero Robert Forrest is killed in an riding accident , the entire United States goes into deep mourning . Admirer and renowned journalist Stephen O 'Malley ( Spencer Tracy ) returns from Europe to write a biography of the great man . Among the throngs covering the funeral , he finds his old friends and fellow reporters , Jane Harding ( Audrey Christie ) and Freddie Ridges ( Stephen McNally ) . They remain after the rest of the press leave . Forrest 's widow , Christine ( Katharine Hepburn ) , refuses to speak to reporters throughout the proceedings . However , O 'Malley befriends youngster Jeb ( Darryl Hickman ) , son of the gatekeeper of the Forrest estate , Jason Rickards ( Howard Da Silva ) . The grief @-@ stricken boy shows him a way into the mansion , where he meets Christine . Though she is cordial enough , she refuses any cooperation with his biography . After O 'Malley leaves , Forrest 's private secretary , Clive Kerndon ( Richard Whorf ) , fearful of how the reporter will react to the brushoff , convinces Christine to offer her help so that they can steer him in the direction they want . As time goes on , O 'Malley gains the widow 's trust . Christine is the " keeper of the flame " , protecting her husband 's memory and reputation . O 'Malley 's instincts tell him that some secret is being kept from him . He discovers that Forrest 's elderly , mentally ill mother ( Margaret Wycherly ) is living in a separate house on the vast estate . Despite her servants ' attempts to keep them apart , he manages to speak with her and obtains more clues from her ramblings . O 'Malley notices " the arsenal , " a stone building near the Forrest mansion which served as Robert Forrest 's office and library . One afternoon , O 'Malley observes smoke rising from the arsenal 's chimney . When he asks Kerndon about the building 's purpose , Kerndon ( who cannot see the smoke ) tells him it is only a storehouse . O 'Malley slips away to investigate . He discovers Christine burning what she claims are love letters , but he suspects otherwise . Later , Kerndon telephones somebody and assures the unnamed party that he will take care of the situation . As O 'Malley learns more , he begins to wonder if Christine and her cousin Geoffrey Midford ( Forrest Tucker ) are lovers and murderers . However , Geoffrey 's announcement of his engagement to Rickard 's daughter , and Christine 's reaction , discounts that theory . When O 'Malley admits he has fallen in love with her , Christine finally breaks down and reveals the ugly truth . Her husband was corrupted by the power and adulation he received . He became a fascist , plotting to gain control of the United States and use his enormous influence to turn Americans to fascist ideals . She shows O 'Malley papers stored in the arsenal which reveal how Forrest ( backed by secretive , ultra @-@ wealthy , power @-@ hungry individuals ) planned to use racism , anti @-@ union feeling , and antisemitism to divide the country , turning one group against another if it became too powerful to control , in order to create the chaos that would let him seize power . Christine discovered the plot the day before her husband 's death . She went riding the next morning and came upon the washed @-@ out bridge . She could have warned her husband , but decided that a " clean death in the rain was the best thing that could happen to Robert Forrest . " O 'Malley convinces her to help him write a book detailing Forrest 's scheme . Kerndon eavesdrops , then locks the sole arsenal door and sets the building ablaze . Through an opening , he fatally shoots Christine with a pistol . He attempts to kill O 'Malley , too , but misses . When an automobile rushes to the scene , Kerndon shoots at the passengers and is struck by the vehicle . O 'Malley ultimately writes a book titled Christine Forrest : Her Life , which exposes the plot . = = Cast = = = = Production = = = = = Script and casting = = = The script was based on an unpublished book by I. A. R. Wylie . RKO Pictures bought the book in outline form in April 1941 , but encountered casting difficulties and sold the rights to MGM in December 1941 for $ 50 @,@ 000 . A day or two after they had obtained the rights , MGM Vice @-@ President Eddie Mannix realized the source material was political in nature and tried to abandon the project . However , following the attack on Pearl Harbor , Mannix relented and the production went forward . Once the film went into production at MGM , the book was published by Random House in April 1942 . MGM studio head Louis B. Mayer assigned the script to Donald Ogden Stewart — one of his favorite screenwriters . Mayer 's choice seemed unusual , because up to that time Stewart had written only light romantic comedies featuring wealthy East Coast socialites , but Mayer felt Stewart 's strongly leftist political leanings would enable him to chalk out a better screenplay . Stewart approached the project with gusto , remarking that he " wrote an adaptation from a novel that tells about the fascist mice who are nibbling away at our country while we 're busy fighting a good war " . Stewart believed Hollywood had punished him for years for his political views , and felt vindicated by the assignment , declaring that " here was my compensation for the sabotage of my radical attempt to do my bit ... " . The script was the proudest moment of his entire career . Stewart , however , had extensive problems adapting the novel for the screen , and filming — originally due to begin in June 1942 — was delayed for several months while he worked on the screenplay . He consulted with the Bureau of Motion Pictures in the U.S. Office of War Information , an agency of the federal government created in June 1942 to promote patriotism and warn the public about domestic spying . Spencer Tracy had been cast as the male lead in the film just days after MGM purchased the rights to the novel . George Cukor was chosen to direct in late April 1942 because he had dealt well with troubled and headstrong actors in the past , and Tracy was considered a difficult actor to direct . Bronisław Kaper , who had come to MGM in 1935 from Nazi Germany , was assigned to compose the film score . William H. Daniels was named the cinematographer . Katharine Hepburn joined the cast in mid @-@ April 1942 after Stewart sent her a copy of the unfinished script . Hepburn was fascinated by the character of Christine , and felt that doing the film would be a way of contributing to the war effort . MGM executives did not want Hepburn attached to the picture , feeling it was an inappropriate follow @-@ up for her ( first ) previous pairing with Tracy in Woman of the Year ( 1942 ) , but Hepburn insisted , and MGM relented . Hepburn showed some concerns with Stewart 's redrafting of the script , in that he toned down the novel 's love story , placing more emphasis on the character of O 'Malley role and the action . She asked for more romance in the film . Although Hepburn had spent much of the prior year searching for scripts with equally strong male and female parts for her and Tracy , she now requested that the O 'Malley role be restored to the function it served in the novel ( where O 'Malley is impotent , troubled , and despairing of love ) and her own part expanded . Film producer Victor Saville threatened to resign if the changes were made , and Spencer Tracy supported him , which led to the changes being rejected . Nonetheless , the script still had numerous problems , and Stewart refused to recognize these shortcomings . In late summer 1942 , Cukor brought in Zoë Akins , one of his favorite playwrights and screenwriters , to help with the script . Victor Saville expressed concern that Stewart was basing more and more of the script on William Randolph Hearst , one of Louis B. Mayer 's best friends , and that this might jeopardize the success of the picture . As script work continued , casting on the film ( which had been delayed months ) went ahead in mid @-@ 1942 . Richard Whorf was cast as the villain , Clive Kerndon , in early June . Frank Craven , Audrey Christie , Donald Meek and Stephen McNally were all cast in mid @-@ July . Pauline Lord was cast in late July , and Darryl Hickman added in early August . Craven , whose character was not initially specified , was given the role of Dr. Fielding in early August . Forrest Tucker and Percy Kilbride were the last members of the cast hired . Phyllis Brooks tested for a part in the film in mid @-@ June , but was not cast . A search was even made for the voice of Robert Forrest . = = = Principal filming and post @-@ production = = = Principal filming began the last week of August 1942 . The entire picture was filmed on a sound stage , with no location shooting . Hepburn had already begun her extramarital affair with Spencer Tracy , and the production was notorious for the ways in which Hepburn doted on Tracy . Tracy drank heavily during the shoot , and Hepburn was his constant guardian , nurse , maid , and gofer during this time . She tried to keep him out of the bars , assisted him when he was drunk , reinforced his ego , and ran lines with him . However , Hepburn continued to be upset by the script , and dealt with this problem by isolating herself from friends and family in order to concentrate on her interpretation of the role . " The filming process was an efficient one , and it was going so well that in the middle of the production Cukor asked Hepburn to talk to Judy Garland in an attempt to convince Garland of the need to sober up . In order to add realism to the production , Cukor consulted reporters from United Press for advice on how newspapermen would handle Forrest 's funeral . Based on their critiques , Cukor changed the scene in the village hotel 's bar so that instead of drinking and talking about the funeral , the reporters get to work drafting articles on their typewriters . The script , too , was changed to permit the bartender to make a quip about reporters working rather than drinking . Reshoots occurred in September and October . Katharine Hepburn returned to Hollywood in early September for retakes , and Pauline Lord was called back in early October . Although James E. Newcom was the film 's editor , Cukor had final cut on the film . Pauline Lord 's scenes were deleted from the picture , and her name did not appear on cast lists . = = Release = = The film was screened for the Office of War Information 's Bureau of Motion Pictures on December 2 , 1942 . The Bureau 's chief , Lowell Mellett , was unhappy with the picture and found it heavy @-@ handed . MGM promoted Spencer Tracy for an Academy Award for Best Actor but he was not nominated . Keeper of the Flame premiered at New York City 's Radio City Music Hall on Thursday , March 18 , 1943 . The premiere served as a fundraiser for the Outdoor Cleanliness Association ( a group dedicated to public lighting and enforcement of trash laws ) . The premiere did not go well : MGM head Louis B. Mayer stormed out , enraged by his having encouraged the making of a film which equated wealth with fascism . It opened in Los Angeles at Grauman 's Chinese Theatre on Thursday , April 1 , 1943 . Keeper of the Flame made its Australian premiere at the Metro Theatre in Melbourne in June 1943 . It didn 't appear on American television until March 1957 . = = = Box Office = = = Although the film was held over for a fourth week at Radio City Music Hall ( most films lasted a week ) , it did not do well at the box office nationally and is considered the least successful of the Hepburn @-@ Tracy films . It earned $ 2 @,@ 190 @,@ 000 in the United States and Canada and $ 1 @,@ 032 @,@ 000 elsewhere , making an overall profit of $ 1 @,@ 040 @,@ 000 . = = Reception = = The film generated some political controversy . Republican members of Congress complained about the film 's obviously leftist politics , and demanded that Will H. Hays , President of the Motion Picture Production Code , establish guidelines regarding propagandization for the motion picture industry . Critical reaction at the time was mixed . While at least one reviewer felt the film was reminiscent of motion pictures like Citizen Kane and Rebecca , Hedda Hopper called it " Citizen Kane with all the art scraped off " . Bosley Crowther , writing in The New York Times , concluded that while the first half of the film was very good , the latter half felt slow and failed to deliver emotional punch . Crowther called the film " a courageous and timely drama " and praised Tracy and Hepburn for performances that featured " taut solemnity " . But the script seemed uneven dramatically ( " ... the nature of this story is a murder mystery and yet the interest is centered much more upon the dead man than on the hunt " ) , and a critical problem was that the audience " is informed much sooner than the journalist what the nature of Forrest was , and the story drags while we wait for the journalist to catch up . " Crowther still enjoyed Cukor 's direction , which he felt sustained mystery even when little existed . Like Crowther , the Chicago Tribune and other critics pointed out that the picture seemed slow . The Hartford Courant , meanwhile , raved about the film : " Hepburn and Tracy have given us a great film in Keeper of the Flame ... Great because of the courage and daring it took to make it , the magnificent production it has been given , the excellent acting within it , and the exciting , tense story it contains . " Generally speaking , the film was better received in the eastern half of the United States . Cukor himself was highly dissatisfied by the film . " I suspect the story was basically fraudulent , " he told an interviewer . Like many critics , he felt that " as a piece of storytelling , the unfolding of a mystery , the first half of Keeper of the Flame is a damn good show " , but the rest of the film had substantial problems . He praised Spencer Tracy 's work , saying : " Tracy ... was at his best in the picture . Subdued , cool , he conveyed the ruthlessness of the reporter sent to investigate Forrest 's death without seeming to try . He was ideally cast in the role , grimly and skeptically exploring the secret of the dead boys ' club hero who was in fact a rampant fascist . " Hepburn , he felt , was hindered by the role and her approach to it . " It was Kate 's last romantic glamour @-@ girl part , and she acted with some of that artificiality she 'd supposedly left behind at RKO . That first scene , floating into a room in yards and yards of draperies with these lillies — well , it was all far , far too much . I don 't think I really believed in the story , it was pure hokeypokey , and her part was phony , highfalutin . " He particularly disliked Hepburn 's entrance in the film , with the long dress and lillies . But he felt Hepburn did her best : " That 's awfully tricky isn 't it ? And doesn 't she give long , piercing looks at his portrait over the mantel ? Well . I think she finally carried a slightly phony part because her humanity asserted itself , and her humor . They always did . " Overall , though , Cukor felt the film was leaden , and that it had " a wax work quality " . Even screenwriter Stewart eventually came to feel the film was " tedious , wooden , and heavy @-@ handed " . More recently , some critics have reassessed the film positively , and it has been cited as 1943 's " great emotional drama . " Critics and scholars note that the film is a good example of the type of anti @-@ fascist films produced in America early in World War II . Kevin Starr states that the film " remains astonishing in its bold effort to shape American public opinion " , and is a film which " preaches a hard @-@ line Popular Front message . " Robert Fyne , author of The Hollywood Propaganda of World War II ( 1997 ) notes the film 's " strong warning to the American people about demagoguery , domestic fascism , and mind control , while praising the virtues of freedom of the press . " One film historian has concluded that Keeper of the Flame is " truly provocative in that it was one of Hollywood 's few forays into imagining the possibility of homegrown American Fascism and the crucial damage which can be done to individual rights when inhumane and tyrannical ideas sweep a society through a charismatic leader . " Other authors have noted that the film is different from other anti @-@ fascist films of the period in that it clearly links wealth and fascism and points out the ways in which patriotism may far too easily be turned toward fascist ends . The technical quality of Keeper of the Flame has been highly praised since its release . William H. Daniels ' cinematography and lighting design has been described as lush and virtuosic , and he received accolades from his peers for his work on the film . Cukor biographer and film critic Emanuel Levy praised the strong atmosphere of Keeper of the Flame and Cukor 's " interesting Gothic style " . Other historians have pointed out that the film 's score is particularly good . For example , one review noted that the music goes silent during the climactic scene in which Katharine Hepburn reveals her secrets to Spencer Tracy — an effective and unexpected emotional tactic .

= Chris Young ( pitcher ) = Christopher Ryan " Chris " Young ( born May 25 , 1979 ) is an American professional baseball right @-@ handed pitcher for the Kansas City Royals of Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He made his major league debut on August 24 , 2004 , with the Texas Rangers and also has Major League experience with the San Diego Padres , New York Mets , Seattle Mariners , and Kansas City Royals . He had previously excelled in basketball and baseball at Highland Park High School in University Park , Texas , and Princeton University . Young helped Highland Park reach the Class 4A Region II basketball final in 1997 and the Class 4A Texas state basketball final in 1998 . He tossed a no @-@ hitter in 1997 while compiling a 6 – 0 record , helping Highland Park reach the Class 4A Texas state baseball final . During his senior year , he was District Most Valuable Player in basketball , and led his baseball team to the state championship , while pitching in two no @-@ hitters . That year , he was a first @-@ team All @-@ State selection in basketball and baseball . After a high school career as an athlete and scholar , Young excelled in both baseball and basketball for Princeton University and became the Ivy League 's first male two @-@ sport Rookie of the Year . Selected by the Pittsburgh Pirates in the third round of the June 2000 Draft , he had brief professional experiences in the Pirates , Montreal Expos , and Texas Rangers minor league systems before debuting with the Rangers in August 2004 . Young 's professional baseball career took off in the 2006 season , when he was the major league leader in opponent batting average , hits per nine innings and road earned run average ( ERA ) and was named the National League Pitcher of the Month for June . Additionally , he extended his streak of consecutive undefeated games started as a visiting pitcher to 24 , and secured the only Padres win in the team 's 3 – 1 series loss to the St. Louis Cardinals in the 2006 National League Division Series . In 2007 , he defended his opponent batting average and hits per nine innings titles , but instead of winning the road ERA title he won the home ERA title . He is 6 feet 10 inches ( 2 @.@ 08 m ) , which makes him , along with former pitchers Eric Hillman , Randy Johnson , Andrew Brackman and Andrew Sisco , the second tallest player in baseball history , next to relief pitcher Jon Rauch ( who is 6 feet 11 inches ( 2 @.@ 11 m ) and Young 's teammate on the 2012 New York Mets ) . He was elected to the 2007 MLB All @-@ Star Game as a first @-@ time All @-@ Star via the All @-@ Star Final Vote . = = High school = = Young attended Highland Park High School , where he played basketball and baseball . He lettered three times in basketball , in a career in which he scored over 1 @,@ 000 points , and accumulated 500 rebounds and 200 blocks . He was a two @-@ year letterman in baseball , compiling a 14 – 3 record with 180 strikeouts . In basketball he averaged 16 points , 12 rebounds , and 3 blocked shots a game , and in baseball he had an 8 – 3 record with a 1 @.@ 70 ERA and 95 strikeouts in 80 innings pitched . As a sophomore in the fall of 1995 , he was moved up to the varsity basketball team from the junior varsity due to injuries . As a junior , his presence was significant enough that one opposing team practiced with a coach holding a broom in the air to simulate playing against him . He helped his team reach the Class 4A @-@ state Region II final . As a junior in baseball , Young threw a no @-@ hitter against McKinney High School in Spring 1997 . However , he missed a large part of the season after getting off to a 6 – 0 start because of a stress fracture in his foot . Nonetheless , he was already considered a top professional prospect , and he was named as one of seven Highland Park players on the all @-@ district team . By the summer of 1997 , he was able to play for the Dallas Mustangs who were the defending national champions in the Connie Mack World Series , and he earned the win in the fifth place game of the World Series . By January of Young 's senior season , he had led his basketball team to a district @-@ leading 23 – 1 ( 4 – 0 in district ) record and first place in both the The Dallas Morning News ' Class 4A area poll and the Texas Association of Basketball Coaches ' state poll . Young developed a reputation as a finesse post player , and that season he led his team to the UIL State Tournament championship game . Highland Park lost to Houston 's Waltrip High School and Young was credited with a tournament @-@ high 18 rebounds by the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram , although The Dallas Morning News only credited him with 17 points and 14 rebounds . Young finished his senior season as a Texas Association of Basketball Coaches ' first @-@ team All @-@ State selection and the District 9 @-@ 4A Most Valuable Player . He was later chosen to play in the mid @-@ summer Texas High School Coaches Association 's Southwestern All @-@ Star basketball game at the Hofheinz Pavilion . Young announced he planned to attend Princeton in May 1998 . He chose Princeton over Boston College , University of Oklahoma , University of Pennsylvania , University of Texas , Vanderbilt University , and Yale University . Young 's decision was based on Princeton 's rising national profile in basketball and the opportunity to work with baseball coach Scott Bradley , who had played catcher for the Seattle Mariners while 6 – 10 pitcher Randy Johnson was with the team . On May 9 , 1998 , Young was involved in a combined no @-@ hitter when he pitched into the fifth inning against Moisés E. Molina High School and was relieved by Mike Matthews . Highland Park won this game , which was the clinching Region II best @-@ of @-@ 3 bi @-@ district series game , by the 10 @-@ run rule . Young displayed home run power as a senior , and in some games , he played designated hitter . Later that month , Young pitched another no @-@ hitter in another 10 @-@ run rule victory , this time against Carthage High School . Young was the starting pitcher at UFCU Disch @-@ Falk Field during the Texas state 4A championship game victory against Calallen High School , and he clinched the game with a successful pickoff move . He was selected to the Texas High School Baseball Coaches Association 1998 All @-@ State baseball team as well as The Texas Sports Writers Association third @-@ team Class 4A all @-@ state baseball . = = College career = = In his freshman season at Princeton University , Young was the first male athlete to be named Ivy League Rookie of the Year in two sports — basketball and baseball — and was a unanimous selection for both awards . In addition , Young was named second @-@ team All @-@ Ivy in basketball and was basketball Rookie of the Week each of the final six weeks and seven weeks overall . His season was capped with Ivy League Player of the Year and freshman All @-@ America honors from Basketball Weekly . Statistically , Young set Princeton Tigers men 's basketball freshman records for points ( 387 ) and rebounds ( 160 ) by averaging 12 @.@ 9 points and 5 @.@ 3 rebounds a game with the 1998 – 99 Princeton Tigers men 's basketball team . He also had 39 points , 19 rebounds , and 15 assists in three games at the Rainbow Classic basketball tournament , hosted by the University of Hawaii . He posted a season @-@ high 24 points in an National Invitation Tournament win against the NC State Wolfpack . In baseball , Young led Princeton and the Ivy League with a 2 @.@ 38 ERA . During this performance he allowed only one home run over the course of 150 batters faced , and was twice named Ivy League Rookie of the Week . Young concluded his college basketball career by starting every game with the 1999 – 2000 team . Among his accomplishments that season were 22 double @-@ digit scoring games , breaking his own single @-@ season school record for blocked shots with 87 , and leading the team with 13 @.@ 8 points per game , 6 @.@ 3 rebounds per game , 87 blocked shots and 40 steals . He was also second on the team with 105 assists . Young had the highest rebounding average of any Princeton player since 1978 and was also the thirteenth player in school history to record 100 assists in a season . For his college basketball career , Young accumulated 801 points , 350 rebounds , and 142 blocks . His best game performances included a 20 @-@ point game on the road against the 11th @-@ ranked Kansas Jayhawks , a career @-@ high 30 points against Harvard , and a school record of nine blocked shots against the Ohio Bobcats . During his sophomore baseball season in 2000 , Young was the Ivy League 's leading pitcher with a 1 @.@ 82 ERA overall and a 1 @.@ 05 figure in conference games . He compiled a perfect record of 5 – 0 in eight appearances , with 52 strikeouts in 49 ⅓ innings . Young was a unanimous first @-@ team All @-@ Ivy League baseball selection , and he led the Tigers to their first Ivy League title since 1996 . Young pitched a complete game and struck out seven batters in the 5 – 2 win in the championship series opener against Dartmouth . Young was selected by the Pittsburgh Pirates in the third round of the 2000 amateur draft and signed a $ 1 @.@ 65 million contract with Pittsburgh on September 6 after holding out until he gained assurances that he would be able to complete his collegiate education . His athletic career was not entirely on hold as an upperclassman , and he was able to get some low minor league experience before completing his degree at Princeton in politics in June 2002 and becoming a full @-@ time professional athlete . He played in the class A minor leagues after his junior year . Young then completed his senior thesis , entitled " The Impact of Jackie Robinson and the Integration of Baseball on Racial Stereotypes in America : A Quantitative Content Analysis of Stories about Race in the New York Times " while commuting on minor league buses as a player for the Hickory Crawdads . Young was also offered a two @-@ year guaranteed contract to play basketball for the Sacramento Kings of the National Basketball Association in 2002 by fellow Princeton alum and Kings president Geoff Petrie . = = Professional career = = Young was drafted by the Pittsburgh Pirates in the third round of the 2000 MLB Draft . He was signed to a deal on September 6 . After a few years of minor league service , he was traded to the Montreal Expos ' organization . The Expos traded him to the Texas Rangers , for whom he eventually made his major league debut . After less than two seasons with the Rangers , he was traded to the San Diego Padres . = = = Minor leagues = = = In 2001 , Young went 5 – 3 with a 4 @.@ 12 ERA in 12 starts for the Hickory Crawdads in the Class @-@ A South Atlantic League , including two complete games . In 2002 , Young helped the Crawdads to the league title with an 11 – 9 record and 3 @.@ 11 ERA in 26 starts . Young earned decisions in fifteen straight starts from April 16 and July 4 . He allowed more than three earned runs in just two of 26 starts . Opposing batters batted .234 . He was traded to the Montreal Expos with Jon Searles for pitcher Matt Herges in a postseason trade . Young began the 2003 season on the disabled list before joining the Brevard County Manatees of the Florida State League towards the end of April . He posted a 5 – 2 record with a 1 @.@ 62 ERA , and held opposing batters to a .150 batting average in eight starts . His season was highlighted by an eight @-@ inning , one @-@ hit , no @-@ walk , eight @-@ strikeout performance against the Fort Myers Miracle on May 11 . This capped a 3 – 0 , 0 @.@ 47 ERA start to the season . In June 2003 , Young was promoted to the Harrisburg Senators of the Double @-@ A Eastern League . He went 4 – 4 with a 4 @.@ 01 ERA in 15 starts . In July , he went 3 – 0 and finished with an ERA of 3 @.@ 03 over five starts . His season was highlighted by an eight @-@ strikeout final outing on August 30 against the Norwich Navigators and a win on July 27 against the Reading Phillies in which he threw seven shutout innings . He was traded by the Montreal Expos to the Texas Rangers organization on April 3 , 2004 in a preseason deal along with Josh McKinley for Einar Diaz and Justin Echols . He started the 2004 season with the Frisco RoughRiders of the Texas League where he went 6 – 5 with a 4 @.@ 48 ERA in 18 starts . The only two home runs he allowed in his final 12 starts and 61 innings with the RoughRiders occurred on July 3 , against Round Rock . He struck out a season @-@ high eight batters on May 9 against El Paso . Young was promoted to the Triple @-@ A Oklahoma RedHawks of the Pacific Coast League in late July and went a perfect 3 – 0 with a 1 @.@ 48 ERA in five starts . During this brief stint he allowed only nine walks while compiling 34 strikeouts , and held opposition batters to a .189 average . He posted four quality starts , and in his fifth start he only allowed two runs . The club was 4 – 1 in his PCL starts . The only loss was due to a blown save with a 4 – 2 ninth @-@ inning lead on August 7 against the Tacoma Rainiers in a game in which Young allowed no earned runs . He was named Pacific Coast League Pitcher of the Week for August 16 to 22 after his last start on August 18 against the Memphis Redbirds . Young took a no @-@ hitter into the sixth inning of his second Triple @-@ A start on August 2 against the Sacramento River Cats . = = = Texas Rangers = = = = = = = 2004 = = = = Young debuted with the Rangers on August 24 , 2004 against the Minnesota Twins . He pitched 5 ⅔ innings , giving up four hits and three earned runs , while striking out four and walking three batters . Young exited the game trailing 3 – 0 , but was rescued by a comeback walk @-@ off 5 – 4 win . This debut made Young the first Princeton baseball player to start a major league game at any position since Dave Sisler ( son of Hall of Famer George Sisler and brother of Dick Sisler ) gave up six earned runs in just over four innings on August 27 , 1961 in the second game of a doubleheader against the Detroit Tigers . The game also marked the first appearance in a major league game by a Princeton baseball player since Bob Tufts played his final game for the Kansas City Royals on May 6 , 1983 . Other Princeton baseball players who have recorded either 50 innings pitched or 130 at bats ( the requirements to qualify for Rookie of the Year ) in the major leagues are Moe Berg , Homer Hillebrand , King Lear , Dutch Meier , Dutch Sterrett , and Bobby Vaughn . Young has been joined in the major leagues by Princetonian Ross Ohlendorf who debuted for the New York Yankees on September 11 , 2007 . Another Princetonian , Tim Lahey , was on the Philadelphia Phillies roster from the team 's Opening Day on March 31 , 2008 until April 5 , 2008 without making an appearance . The debut , which occurred in a home game at Ameriquest Field in Arlington , served as a homecoming for Young who grew up in nearby Dallas , Texas and went to Highland Park High School . With his debut , Young became the second @-@ tallest player in Major League Baseball , only an inch shorter than the 6 @-@ foot @-@ 11 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 11 m ) Jon Rauch . Three other current and previous pitchers — Randy Johnson , Andrew Sisco and Eric Hillman — are also 6 feet 10 inches ( 2 @.@ 08 m ) . He became the tallest pitcher in Rangers history , surpassing the 6 @-@ foot @-@ 8 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 03 m ) right @-@ handed pitcher Mike Smithson . After becoming part of the starting rotation , he made seven starts and compiled a 3 – 2 record with a 4 @.@ 71 ERA . Young signed a three @-@ year contract through 2007 on November 19 . Young 's first major league decision came during his second start in an August 29 loss to the Baltimore Orioles . His first win came in his third start on September 4 against the Boston Red Sox . His fifth start was a six @-@ inning performance in a 1 – 0 win against the Anaheim Angels on September 19 . This was the first Ranger 1 – 0 victory since August 25 , 2000 against the Toronto Blue Jays , a stretch of 669 games . The club went 5 – 2 during his starts in his brief 2004 stint with the club . = = = = 2005 = = = = Young was one of three rookies on the Opening Day roster . He made 31 starts in 2005 with the Rangers , compiling a 12 – 7 record with a 4 @.@ 26 ERA . His twelve victories tied Kevin Brown 's record for most wins by a Rangers rookie . His season started slowly , with seven earned runs allowed in 7 ⅓ innings pitched ( 8 @.@ 59 ERA ) over his first two starts . However , over the course of 11 starts from April 17 – June 13 , he lowered his ERA to a season @-@ low 2 @.@ 78 by going 6 – 2 , 2 @.@ 18 in 70 ⅓ innings pitched over that stretch . This included the month of May when he went 3 – 0 in five starts with a 1 @.@ 42 ERA that was third @-@ best among all qualifying major leaguers for the month . This included his season @-@ high 13 ⅔ scoreless innings recorded from May 3 – 9 . He had subsequent hot and cold streaks , with a record of 2 – 4 and a 9 @.@ 07 ERA in nine starts from June 20 – August 2 , followed by a 2 @.@ 53 ERA over his final nine starts . He closed out the season by winning his final four decisions , which was a personal best . May 9 was one of two times Young came within an inning of a shutout by pitching eight scoreless innings ; August 17 against the Cleveland Indians was the other . Young recorded a personal @-@ best eight strikeouts in a seven @-@ inning no @-@ decision on June 2 at Detroit . The closest Young came to a no @-@ hitter was 5 ⅔ innings of hitless pitching in a road game against the Houston Astros on June 25 before allowing a Craig Biggio single in the sixth inning . Over the course of the season , Young was the beneficiary of the second @-@ highest run support in the majors , trailing only David Wells of the Boston Red Sox . However , he surrendered three runs or less in 22 of 31 starts . After a 2005 season when he went 5 – 0 with a 3 @.@ 47 ERA in 11 games during the day and 7 – 7 with a 4 @.@ 71 ERA in 20 games at night , he had a career 8 – 1 record with a 3 @.@ 31 ERA in 15 day games and 7 – 8 with a 5 @.@ 05 mark in 23 games at night . In his rookie season , Young ranked in the top five among qualifying major league rookies in several statistical categories : strikeouts ( second , 137 ) , wins ( tied for third , 12 ) , ERA ( fourth , 4 @.@ 26 ) , starts ( fifth , 31 ) and innings pitched ( fifth , 164 ⅔ ) . He also tied Rangers rookie club records : wins ( 12 , Edwin Correa in 1986 and Kevin Brown in 1989 ) and pre All @-@ Star break wins ( 8 , Jeff Zimmerman in 1999 and José Guzmán in 1986 ) . Young ranked fifth among all American League pitchers with 7 @.@ 5 strikeouts per 9 innings . Despite this success , however , he was a key part of an offseason trade that also sent Terrmel Sledge and Adrian Gonzalez to the San Diego Padres for starting pitcher Adam Eaton , middle reliever Akinori Otsuka and minor @-@ league catcher Billy Killian . = = = San Diego Padres = = = = = = = 2006 = = = = 2006 marked Young 's breakout season . His ERA continued its downward trend , falling to 3 @.@ 46 over 31 starts , good enough for sixth best in the National League , and he recorded a career @-@ high 169 strikeouts . He finished with an 11 – 5 record , led all major league pitchers with a 2 @.@ 41 road ERA , allowed a league @-@ leading 6 @.@ 72 hits per 9 innings pitched , and a .206 opponent batting average . During 2006 he led the majors in stolen bases allowed , with 41 . During the season , Young won a National League Pitcher of the Month award , took a no @-@ hitter into the sixth inning or beyond three times , and extended his undefeated road start streak to 24 games . This streak made Young one of only three pitchers in major league history to have gone at least 23 straight road starts without a loss ; Allie Reynolds set the record at 25 straight road starts spanning the 1948 and 1949 seasons , with Russ Meyer falling one short , going undefeated in 24 straight road contests spanning the 1953 and 1954 seasons . In his first six starts after Memorial Day , he improved from a 3 – 3 with a 4 @.@ 32 ERA to 7 – 3 with a 2 @.@ 97 ERA , by allowing only four earned runs over 38 ⅔ innings . He was named one of five candidates from the National League for Major League Baseball 's " All @-@ Star Final Vote " to determine the final official selection for the 2006 Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game ; however , Los Angeles Dodgers first baseman Nomar Garciaparra was elected . Nonetheless , his strong June performance – during which he allowed 16 hits and 13 walks over 30 ⅔ innings , maintained a 1 @.@ 17 ERA and struck out 34 – earned him the National League Pitcher of the Month award . His five starts in June were highlighted by a career @-@ best 12 @-@ strikeout performance on June 9 against the Florida Marlins and a June 21 win over his former team , the Texas Rangers . On September 22 , Young had a no @-@ hitter through 8 ⅓ innings of the game against the Pittsburgh Pirates before pinch hitter Joe Randa hit a two @-@ run home run . This would have been the first no @-@ hitter in Padres history . It was the first time a Padre had taken a no @-@ hitter into the ninth inning since Andy Ashby on September 5 , 1997 vs. the Atlanta Braves . Young had been on pace for a perfect game through 5 ⅔ innings . Young also took a no @-@ hitter into the eighth inning on May 30 against the Colorado Rockies as a prelude to his June performance . In that game , which marked the first time a pitcher took a no @-@ hitter into the eighth inning during the 2006 season , he surrendered a double to Brad Hawpe , who had been a teammate in the 1997 Connie Mack World Series , on his first pitch of the eighth inning and 99th of the game . During Young 's next start on June 4 at Pittsburgh , he did not allow a hit for the first 5 ⅓ innings , making him one of only two pitchers ( Steve Trachsel – June 20 – 25 , 2002 ) to have consecutive starts with at least five hitless innings since the 2000 season . He ended the season by winning his first career postseason start ; on October 7 , he earned a 3 – 1 victory in Game 3 of the 2006 National League Division Series against the St. Louis Cardinals . He pitched 6 ⅔ shutout innings , struck out nine , walked two and allowed four hits . It remains the Padres ' only victory in ten post @-@ season games against the Cardinals . The Padres lost the series three games to one . Young 's 6 – 0 road performance in 2006 was one of 49 undefeated road seasons with at least five victories by a pitcher since post @-@ season play began in 1903 . However , it was the first to be followed by a postseason road victory . In November , he traveled to Japan to take part in the Major League Baseball Japan All @-@ Star Series . Young was the starter in an exhibition game against the Yomiuri Giants , which was memorable for the major leaguers ' three @-@ run ninth @-@ inning rally to earn a tie . This game was the prelude to the five @-@ game series which began with three games at the Tokyo Dome and was followed by games in Osaka and Fukuoka . Young pitched the fourth game of the series . Young also blogged on behalf of mlb.com about daily life during the trip . He detailed visits with United States Ambassador to Japan Tom Schieffer , time in the Harajuku , and travels on the Bullet Train . = = = = 2007 = = = = In his season debut on April 4 against the San Francisco Giants , Young became the 435th different pitcher to surrender a home run to Barry Bonds when he surrendered Bonds ' first of the season and 735th of his career . The game marked Young 's 25th consecutive road start without a loss . Young was 9 – 0 during the streak , which ended in his subsequent road start on April 15 at Dodger Stadium in a 9 – 3 loss to the Los Angeles Dodgers . The last of the nine other pitchers to go 20 consecutive road starts without a loss was Greg Maddux who went 22 starts without a loss during 1997 and 1998 . Young 's streak began on June 25 , 2005 . On April 10 , Young signed a four @-@ year extension with the Padres through the 2010 season , reportedly worth $ 14 @.@ 5 million with a club option for 2011 . On June 16 , Young threw a pitch that hit Chicago Cubs All @-@ Star first baseman Derrek Lee on the back of the upper left arm . The day before the fracas , Alfonso Soriano homered off David Wells , and the Padres believed Soriano showed poor sportsmanship by admiring and celebrating his home run . The pitch nicked Lee 's left hand near his surgically repaired wrist . When the 6 ft 5 in ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) Lee began walking towards first base , both he and Young , 6 ft 10 in ( 2 @.@ 08 m ) , exchanged words , and a bench @-@ clearing altercation ensued . Both Young and Lee were ejected from the game , along with Jake Peavy and Cubs bench coach Gerald Perry . On June 18 , Young and Lee were suspended five games each for their roles in the brawl , and Perry was suspended three games . All suspended parties were fined , as were Peavy and Brian Giles . Young and Lee appealed their suspensions , which were to begin the following day . At the time of the scuffle in the fourth inning , both pitchers were working on no @-@ hitters . Young was ejected in the game , and he earned a no @-@ decision in the game which the Padres ultimately won 1 – 0 . On June 24 , Jake Peavy surrendered three earned runs in five innings , which caused his ERA to rise from 1 @.@ 98 to 2 @.@ 14 . This gave Young , who had a 2 @.@ 08 ERA , the National League @-@ leading average for one day . The next day , Brad Penny allowed only one earned run over eight innings to take the lead with a 2 @.@ 04 ERA . On July 1 , Young was nominated as a candidate for the All @-@ Star Final Vote , contending against Tom Gorzelanny , Roy Oswalt , Brandon Webb and Carlos Zambrano . In a bid for the final spot on July 4 , Young posted seven scoreless innings in a 1 – 0 victory over the Florida Marlins to not only retake the National League ERA lead , but also assume the major league lead over Brad Penny by a slim margin ( 1 @.@ 9968 to 1 @.@ 9970 ) . The voting ended on July 5 , with Young defeating the four opposing pitchers to earn his first career All @-@ Star Game selection . The selection made Young the sixth Ivy League athlete named to the All @-@ Star team ( joining Lou Gehrig , Red Rolfe , Ron Darling , Brad Ausmus and Mike Remlinger ) . Young entered the All @-@ Star break with the major league lead in ERA and opponent batting average as well as an undefeated streak extending back to a May 12 loss to the Cardinals . Prior to the announcement of his election , Young dropped his appeal of the five @-@ game suspension . Young served his suspension during the final four games before the All @-@ Star break and the first game afterwards , yet was allowed to play in the All @-@ Star Game at AT & T Park in San Francisco , California . In the fifth inning of the 5 – 4 American League victory for which Young was the losing pitcher , he surrendered the first inside @-@ the @-@ park home run in All @-@ Star game history to Ichiro Suzuki . He was placed on the disabled list after he incurred a strained oblique muscle during the third inning of his July 24 start . On August 9 , he was activated off the disabled list to make a scheduled start . He took a 12 @-@ start ( five @-@ decision ) undefeated streak , dating back to a May 12 loss to the Cardinals , into his first start off the disabled list , but he took the loss in a 5 – 0 defeat , which was again against the Cardinals . Young ended the 2007 season as the major league leader in opponent batting average and hits per nine innings , but also in stolen bases allowed ( with 44 ) . He battled injuries late in the season and surrendered the ERA leadership to Jake Peavy in his August 30 start . = = = = 2008 = = = = Young started the season in the second spot in the Padres rotation between ace Peavy and Maddux . He pitched his first three turns from the second spot in the rotation . On April 18 , he missed his turn and Maddux moved into the second spot in the rotation . Young has since been pitching in the third spot in the rotation . The number three spot in the rotation is the only one that was not scheduled to start during the Padres visit to Wrigley Field May 12 – 15 , 2008 . Young , thus , did not make a start against the Cubs with whom he had an altercation in 2007 . On May 21 , 2008 in a game against the St. Louis Cardinals , Young was hit in the face by a line @-@ drive from Albert Pujols . Young was sitting on the ground for several minutes but was able to leave the field under his own power as he only sustained a nasal fracture and a laceration on his nose . Later in the same inning , Pujols would also sprain the ankle of Padres catcher Josh Bard while sliding into home plate . Young returned to the mound on July 29 with five shutout innings against the Arizona Diamondbacks . Young then did not pitch between August 10 and September 1 due to another disabled list stint and returned to the lineup to take the loss in a game where Greg Maddux , who had become a Los Angeles Dodger , earned his 354th victory to tie Roger Clemens for eighth on the all @-@ time list . Then , on September 7 he came within four outs of perfection when Milwaukee Brewers ' Gabe Kapler hit a one @-@ out home run in the eighth inning . He allowed two hits , did not walk a batter and struck out five , en route to 10 – 1 victory at Milwaukee 's Miller Park . Young did not get his first perfect game or first no @-@ hitter , but he did end up with the first complete game of his career after 114 starts . Two starts later he hit his first home run as a major league batter . = = = = 2009 = = = = After starting the season with a 4 – 2 record , Young lost his last four starts before spending the remainder of the season on the disabled list . His final start occurred on June 14 . He was initially placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list on June 19 , but on July 31 he was transferred to the 60 @-@ day disabled list . In August , he had season ending arthroscopic surgery to repair partial tears in his labrum . He had been disabled with shoulder inflammation . = = = = 2010 = = = = Young pitched six shutout innings in the second game of the season before being pulled with a right shoulder strain . He missed almost the entire season except for three starts near the end of the season , finishing the season 2 – 0 with a 0 @.@ 90 ERA . In November , the Padres declined to pick up the option for 2011 . In 2010 , he was chosen as the eighth @-@ smartest athlete in sports by Sporting News . = = = New York Mets = = = = = = = 2011 = = = = On January 17 , 2011 , Young signed a contract with the New York Mets worth $ 1 @.@ 1 million with the ability to reach up to $ 4 @.@ 5 million through incentives . In his first career start with the Mets on April 5 , 2011 , Young went five and a third innings while striking out seven batters , recording the victory in a 7 – 1 Mets win over the Philadelphia Phillies . He also went three for three at the plate with two runs batted in against Phillies starter Cole Hamels . In that game , Young became the first Mets pitcher in team history to record two hits in a single inning . Shortly after the start of the season , Young sustained an arm injury which forced him to miss the remainder of the 2011 season on the disabled list . Following the season , he was a free agent . = = = = 2012 = = = = On March 26 , 2012 , Young signed on a minor league deal with the Mets . He had recently undergone surgery to repair a torn anterior capsule in his right shoulder . He spent the first 33 days of the season on the triple A Buffalo Bisons ' disabled list before being activated on May 10 . Young subsequently made three starts with the single A St. Lucie Mets on May 11 , May 16 and 25 before being promoted back to Buffalo on May 27 . He compiled a 1 – 0 record with 3 @.@ 18 ERA in 17 @.@ 0 innings during the three starts . On May 31 , he pitched 6 scoreless innings for the Bisons against the Columbus Clippers . The Mets announced on June 4 that they would call Young up to the major league roster on June 5 . On June 5 , 2012 , Young made his return against the Washington Nationals at Nationals Park with the Mets , giving up 3 runs ( 2 earned ) over 5 innings in a game that was eventually decided in 12 innings . On June 6 his wife gave birth and he was placed on a paternity leave , which was not intended to interfere with his June 10 scheduled start . The move was for the purpose of freeing up a roster spot during Young 's off days under a Major League Baseball rule that allows for a three @-@ day leave . Young made his next start on June 12 against the Tampa Bay Rays , earning his first win in over a year . = = = Washington Nationals = = = = = = = 2013 – 14 = = = = On February 21 , 2013 , Young signed a minor league deal with the Washington Nationals and an invitation to training camp . On March 26 , 2013 he was granted his unconditional release by the Nationals after opting out of his contract . He was re @-@ signed by the Nationals on April 4 , 2013 . He was then assigned to Triple @-@ A Syracuse . He made his season debut on April 23 against Rochester , giving up 6 runs in 4 @.@ 2 innings . He made 6 additional starts before going on the disabled list with a neck injury on May 28 , 2 days after leaving a start against Columbus after the first inning . He made 2 starts at the end of the year in the Gulf Coast League and with Short @-@ Season Auburn before the end of the injury @-@ marred season . In 9 total starts , he went 1 – 2 with a 6 @.@ 81 ERA , striking out 21 in 37 innings . After experiencing pain in his shoulder and neck , he had surgery to repair what was diagnosed as thoracic outlet syndrome . This condition is a nerve problem that puts pressure on a pitcher ’ s shoulder . On November 19 , 2013 , Young re @-@ signed with the Nationals on a minor league deal . He was released on March 25 , 2014 . = = = Seattle Mariners = = = = = = = 2014 = = = = Young signed a highly incentivized one @-@ year deal with the Seattle Mariners on March 27 , 2014 . Young was scheduled to debut as a starter for the Mariners on April 4 . However , the Oakland Coliseum had its first rainout since 1998 . As a result , after 159 Major League starts and 102 Minor League starts , Young made his first appearance as a relief pitcher ( other than the 2007 All @-@ Star Game ) and he pitched two shutout innings on April 6 against the Oakland A 's later in that series . He made his first Major League start since September 9 , 2012 on April 13 against Oakland . He posted six scoreless innings , while scattering 4 hits and 3 walks . By early June , Young was in the conversation for Major League Baseball Comeback Player of the Year Award , with a 5 – 2 start and 3 @.@ 27 ERA , according to MLB.com 's Adam Lewis . In helping to stabilize a rotation battered by injuries and ineffectual fifth starters , Mariners manager Lloyd McClendon was unabashed in his praise of the right @-@ hander at the time , calling him a " godsend . " Young finished the season with a 12 – 9 record and a 3 @.@ 65 ERA in 29 starts . His 7 @.@ 8 hits per nine innings was the sixth in the AL . Following the season , Young was recognized with the Major League Baseball Comeback Player of the Year Award , The Sporting News American League Comeback Player of the Year Award , and Players Choice Comeback Player of the Year Award . At the conclusion of the season , Young became a free agent . = = = Kansas City Royals = = = = = = = 2015 = = = = On March 7 , 2015 , Young signed with the Kansas City Royals . Young entered the season in the long reliever role with the Royals . He appeared in the Royals ' sixth game on April 12 against the Los Angeles Angels with two scoreless innings as the Royals started the season 6 – 0 . Young made his first start with the Royals on May 1 . He tossed five no @-@ hit innings against the Detroit Tigers . On June 16 , Young posted 7 shutout innings and 3 runs batted in against the Milwaukee Brewers , becoming the first Royals pitcher to tally 3 RBI in a game since 1972 . After achieving a record of 8 – 6 with a 3 @.@ 25 ERA through the end of July , Young was returned to the bullpen on July 31 after posting a 5 @.@ 11 ERA over a 5 @-@ game stretch . On September 27 ( one day after his father died ) , Young made his first start since July 28 and pitched 5 no @-@ hit innings against the Cleveland Indians . On October 20 , Young started and pitched 4 2 / 3 innings in a game 4 victory in the 2015 American League Championship Series against the Toronto Blue Jays . It was Young 's first postseason start since the 2006 National League Division Series . He earned the win in the October 27 game 1 of the 2015 World Series when he shut down the New York Mets , giving up a walk and no hits while striking out 4 over the final three innings , to help the Royals win 5 – 4 in 14 innings . = = = = 2016 = = = = On December 7 , 2015 , the Royals announced that they had signed Young to a two @-@ year $ 11 @.@ 75 million contract with mutual third @-@ year option . After beginning the 2016 season with a record of 1 @-@ 5 in 7 starts , Young was placed on the disabled list with a strained right forearm from May 12 to May 28 . = = Player profile = = = = = Pitching style = = = Young is not a traditional power pitcher . He is said to be a control pitcher in a 6 feet 10 inches ( 2 @.@ 08 m ) power pitcher 's body — his pitching style is more like Greg Maddux 's than that of five @-@ time Cy Young Award winner Randy Johnson , who is the same height as Young . Young has been traded three times partly because of the low velocity of his fastball , which is in the 83 – 87 miles per hour ( 133 @.@ 6 – 140 km / h ) range . Young has learned how to use precise location to make his fastball effective . He has also been compared to another control pitcher , Jim Palmer , because Young similarly induces popups and fly ball outs with deceptive late movement on his high fastballs . Over 50 % of the balls put in play against him are fly balls . Of the flyballs hit off Young in 2007 , 3 @.@ 8 % were home runs. while the average is about 11 % . From 2003 to 2006 the best single @-@ season percentage was 6 @.@ 2 % by Dontrelle Willis in 2005 . Young 's mid @-@ 2000s repertoire included fastballs , curveballs , sliders and changeups . His curveball is a slow curveball and his 85 miles per hour ( 137 km / h ) fastball has been described by former teammate and catcher Mike Piazza as having late life and late movement that seems to jump . His curveball is used to keep the hitters off balance so that they do not jump on his low @-@ velocity fastball . Former Ranger pitching coach Orel Hershiser says Young has the ability to throw his fastball to all locations effectively which gives him a chance at success . Hershiser describes Young 's pitches as sneaky fast because his methodical delivery and size give him deception . This delivery has also left him susceptible to stolen bases due to the relatively long time it takes for him to deliver a pitch from the stretch . By 2012 , nearly all of his pitches were fastballs or sliders . = = = Batting = = = As of the end of the 2015 season , Young has a career .150 batting average , including 31 hits , eight of which were extra base hits ( six doubles , one triple , and one home run ) . He has yet to record a stolen base . The only Princeton players who have hit a home run or recorded a stolen base at least once during their careers , along with Young , are Moe Berg , Dutch Sterrett , Homer Hillebrand , Dutch Meier , Ted Reed , Bobby Vaughn , and Will Venable . Venable is the most recent player to have accomplished the feat . These same players join Young as Princeton alumni to have hit a home run . Berg had been the last to do so before Young hit his home run on September 20 , 2008 . = = Personal life = = Young 's wife , Elizabeth Patrick , is the granddaughter of Lester Patrick , who was the namesake of the National Hockey League 's Patrick Division and the Lester Patrick Trophy . She was also a member of the Princeton University class of 2002 , and she attends law school in Washington , D.C. On March 4 , 2008 , she was induced into labor four days before her due date to deliver a girl named Catherine Elizabeth . In July 2010 , the Youngs had their second child ( first son ) , Scott Patrick . On June 6 , 2012 , the Youngs had their third child , Grant Christopher .

= Sonia Sotomayor = Sonia Maria Sotomayor ( / ˈsoʊnjə ˈsoʊtəˌmaɪər / , Spanish : [ ˈsonja sotomaˈʝor ] ; born June 25 , 1954 ) is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States , serving since August 2009 . She has the distinction of being its first justice of Hispanic heritage , the first Latina , its third female justice , and its twelfth Roman Catholic justice . Sotomayor , along with John Roberts and Elena Kagan , is one of the youngest justices on the Supreme Court . Sotomayor was born in The Bronx , New York City , to Puerto Rican @-@ born parents . Her father died when she was nine , and she was subsequently raised by her mother . Sotomayor graduated summa cum laude from Princeton University in 1976 and received her J.D. from Yale Law School in 1979 , where she was an editor at the Yale Law Journal . She was an advocate for the hiring of Latino faculty at both schools . She worked as an assistant district attorney in New York for four and a half years before entering private practice in 1984 . She played an active role on the boards of directors for the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund , the State of New York Mortgage Agency , and the New York City Campaign Finance Board . Sotomayor was nominated to the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York by President George H. W. Bush in 1991 ; confirmation followed in 1992 . In 1997 , she was nominated by President Bill Clinton to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit . Her nomination was slowed by the Republican majority in the United States Senate , but she was eventually confirmed in 1998 . On the Second Circuit , Sotomayor heard appeals in more than 3 @,@ 000 cases and wrote about 380 opinions . Sotomayor has taught at the New York University School of Law and Columbia Law School . In May 2009 , President Barack Obama nominated Sotomayor to the Supreme Court following the retirement of Justice David Souter . Her nomination was confirmed by the Senate in August 2009 by a vote of 68 – 31 . Sotomayor has supported , while on the court , the informal liberal bloc of justices when they divide along the commonly perceived ideological lines . During her tenure on the Supreme Court , Sotomayor has been identified with concern for the rights of defendants , calls for reform of the criminal justice system , and making impassioned dissents on issues of race , gender and ethnic identity . = = Early life = = Sonia Maria Sotomayor was born in the New York City borough of The Bronx . Her father was Juan Sotomayor ( born c . 1921 ) , from the area of Santurce , San Juan , Puerto Rico , and her mother was Celina Báez ( born 1927 ) , an orphan from the neighborhood of Santa Rosa in Lajas , a still mostly rural area on Puerto Rico 's southwest coast . The two left Puerto Rico separately , met , and married during World War II after Celina served in the Women 's Army Corps . Juan Sotomayor had a third @-@ grade education , did not speak English , and worked as a tool and die worker ; Celina Baez worked as a telephone operator and then a practical nurse . Sonia 's younger brother , Juan Sotomayor ( born c . 1957 ) , later became a physician and university professor in the Syracuse , New York , area . Sotomayor was raised a Catholic and grew up in Puerto Rican communities in the South Bronx and East Bronx ; she self @-@ identifies as a " Nuyorican " . The family lived in a South Bronx tenement before moving in 1957 to the well @-@ maintained , racially and ethnically mixed , working @-@ class Bronxdale Houses housing project in Soundview ( which has over time been thought as part of both the East Bronx and South Bronx ) . Her relative proximity to Yankee Stadium led to her becoming a lifelong fan of the New York Yankees . The extended family got together frequently and regularly visited Puerto Rico during summers . Sonia grew up with an alcoholic father and a mother who was emotionally distant ; she felt closest to her grandmother , who she later said gave her a source of " protection and purpose " . Sonia was diagnosed with type 1 diabetes at age seven , and began taking daily insulin injections . Her father died of heart problems at age 42 , when she was nine years old . After this , she became fluent in English . Sotomayor has said that she was first inspired by the strong @-@ willed Nancy Drew book character , and then after her diabetes diagnosis led doctors to suggest a different career from detective , she was inspired to go into a legal career and become a judge by watching the Perry Mason television series . She reflected in 1998 : " I was going to college and I was going to become an attorney , and I knew that when I was ten . Ten . That 's no jest . " Celina Sotomayor put great stress on the value of education ; she bought the Encyclopædia Britannica for her children , something unusual in the housing projects . Despite the distance between the two , which became even worse after her father 's death and which was not fully reconciled until decades later , Sotomayor has credited her mother with being her " life inspiration " . For grammar school , Sotomayor attended Blessed Sacrament School in Soundview , where she was valedictorian and had a near @-@ perfect attendance record . Although underage , Sotomayor worked at a local retail store and a hospital . Sotomayor passed the entrance tests for and then attended Cardinal Spellman High School in the Bronx . Meanwhile , the Bronxdale Houses had fallen victim to increasing heroin use , crime , and the emergence of the Black Spades gang . In 1970 , the family found refuge by moving to Co @-@ op City in the Northeast Bronx . At Cardinal Spellman , Sotomayor was on the forensics team and was elected to the student government . She graduated as valedictorian in 1972 . = = College and law school = = Sotomayor entered Princeton University on a full scholarship , by her own later description gaining admission in part due to her achievements in high school and in part because affirmative action made up for her standardized test scores not being fully comparable to those of other applicants . She would later say that there are cultural biases built into such testing and praise affirmative action for fulfilling " its purpose : to create the conditions whereby students from disadvantaged backgrounds could be brought to the starting line of a race many were unaware was even being run . " She would describe her time at Princeton as a life @-@ changing experience . Initially , she felt like " a visitor landing in an alien country " as her exposure had been limited to the Bronx and Puerto Rico . Princeton had few women students and fewer Latinos ( about 20 ) . She was too intimidated to ask questions during her freshman year ; her writing and vocabulary skills were weak , and she lacked knowledge in the classics . She put in long hours in the library and over summers , worked with a professor outside of class , and gained skills , knowledge , and confidence . She became a moderate student activist and co @-@ chair of the Acción Puertorriqueña organization , which served as a social and political hub and sought more opportunities for Puerto Rican students . She worked in the admissions office , traveling to high schools and lobbying on behalf of her best prospects . As an activist , Sotomayor focused on faculty hiring and curriculum , since Princeton did not have a single full @-@ time Latino professor nor any class on Latin American studies . A meeting with university president William G. Bowen in her sophomore year saw no results , leading to Sotomayor 's saying in a New York Times story at the time that " Princeton is following a policy of benign neutrality and is not making substantive efforts to change . " So , Acción Puertorriqueña filed a formal letter of complaint in April 1974 with the Department of Health , Education and Welfare , saying the school discriminated in its hiring and admission practices . Sotomayor wrote opinion pieces for the Daily Princetonian with the same theme . The university began to hire Latino faculty , and Sotomayor established an ongoing dialogue with Bowen . Sotomayor also successfully persuaded historian Peter Winn to create a seminar on Puerto Rican history and politics . Sotomayor joined the governance board of Princeton 's Third World Center and served on the university 's student – faculty Discipline Committee , which issued rulings on student infractions . She also ran an after @-@ school program for local children and volunteered as an interpreter for Latino patients at Trenton Psychiatric Hospital . A history major , Sotomayor received almost all A 's in her final two years of college . Sotomayor wrote her senior thesis at Princeton on Luis Muñoz Marín , the first democratically elected governor of Puerto Rico , and on the territory 's struggles for economic and political self @-@ determination . The 178 @-@ page work , " La Historia Ciclica de Puerto Rico : The Impact of the Life of Luis Muñoz Marin on the Political and Economic History of Puerto Rico , 1930 – 1975 " , won honorable mention for the Latin American Studies Thesis Prize . As a senior , Sotomayor won the Pyne Prize , the top award for undergraduates , which reflected both strong grades and extracurricular activities . In 1976 , she was elected to Phi Beta Kappa and awarded an A.B. from Princeton , graduating summa cum laude . She was influenced by the then @-@ fashionable critical race theory , which would be reflected in her later speeches and writings . On August 14 , 1976 , just after graduating from Princeton , Sotomayor married Kevin Edward Noonan , whom she had dated since high school , in a small chapel at St. Patrick 's Cathedral in New York . She used the married name Sonia Sotomayor de Noonan . He became a biologist and a patent lawyer . Sotomayor entered Yale Law School in the fall of 1976 , once more on a scholarship . While she believes she again benefited from affirmative action to compensate for somewhat lower standardized test scores , a former dean of admissions at Yale has said that given her record at Princeton , it probably had little effect . At Yale she fit in well although she found there were again few Latino students . She was known as a hard worker but she was not considered among the star students in her class . Yale General Counsel and professor José A. Cabranes acted as an early mentor to her to successfully transition and work within " the system " . She became an editor of the Yale Law Journal and was also managing editor of the student @-@ run Yale Studies in World Public Order publication ( later known as the Yale Journal of International Law ) . Sotomayor published a law review note on the effect of possible Puerto Rican statehood on the island 's mineral and ocean rights . She was a semi @-@ finalist in the Barristers Union mock trial competition . She was co @-@ chair of a group for Latin , Asian , and Native American students , and her advocacy to hire more Hispanic faculty was renewed . Following her second year , she gained a job as a summer associate with the prominent New York law firm Paul , Weiss , Rifkind , Wharton & Garrison . By her own later evaluation , her performance there was lacking . She did not receive an offer for a full @-@ time position , an experience that she later described as a " kick in the teeth " and one that would bother her for years . In her third year , she filed a formal complaint against the established Washington , D.C. , law firm of Shaw , Pittman , Potts & Trowbridge for suggesting during a recruiting dinner that she was at Yale only via affirmative action . Sotomayor refused to be interviewed by the firm further and filed her complaint with a faculty – student tribunal , which ruled in her favor . Her action triggered a campus @-@ wide debate , and news of the firm 's subsequent December 1978 apology made the Washington Post . In 1979 , Sotomayor was awarded a J.D. from Yale Law School . She was admitted to the New York Bar the following year . = = Early legal career = = On the recommendation of Cabranes , Sotomayor was hired out of law school as an assistant district attorney under New York County District Attorney Robert Morgenthau starting in 1979 . She said at the time that she did so with conflicted emotions : " There was a tremendous amount of pressure from my community , from the third world community , at Yale . They could not understand why I was taking this job . I 'm not sure I 've ever resolved that problem . " It was a time of crisis @-@ level crime rates and drug problems in New York , Morgenthau 's staff was overburdened with cases , and like other rookie prosecutors , Sotomayor was initially fearful of appearing before judges in court . Working in the trial division , she handled heavy caseloads as she prosecuted everything from shoplifting and prostitution to robberies , assaults , and murders . She also worked on cases involving police brutality . She was not afraid to venture into tough neighborhoods or endure squalid conditions in order to interview witnesses . In the courtroom , she was effective at cross examination and at simplifying a case in ways to which a jury could relate . In 1983 in her highest profile case she helped convict the " Tarzan Murderer " ( who acrobatically entered apartments , robbed them , and shot residents for no reason ) . She felt lower @-@ level crimes were largely products of socioeconomic environment and poverty , but she had a different attitude about serious felonies : " No matter how liberal I am , I 'm still outraged by crimes of violence . Regardless of whether I can sympathize with the causes that lead these individuals to do these crimes , the effects are outrageous . " Hispanic @-@ on @-@ Hispanic crime was of particular concern to her : " The saddest crimes for me were the ones that my own people committed against each other . " In general , she showed a passion for bringing law and order to the streets of New York , displaying special zeal in pursuing child pornography cases , unusual for the time . She worked 15 @-@ hour days and gained a reputation for being driven and for her preparedness and fairness . One of her job evaluations labelled her a " potential superstar " . Morgenthau later described her as " smart , hard @-@ working , [ and having ] a lot of common sense , " and as a " fearless and effective prosecutor . " She stayed a typical length of time in the post and had a common reaction to the job : " After a while , you forget there are decent , law @-@ abiding people in life . " Sotomayor and Noonan divorced amicably in 1983 ; they did not have children . She has said that the pressures of her working life were a contributing factor , but not the major factor , in the breakup . From 1983 to 1986 , Sotomayor had an informal solo practice , dubbed Sotomayor & Associates , located in her Brooklyn apartment . She performed legal consulting work , often for friends or family members . In 1984 , she entered private practice , joining the commercial litigation practice group of Pavia & Harcourt in Manhattan as an associate . One of 30 attorneys in the law firm , she specialized in intellectual property litigation , international law , and arbitration . She later said , " I wanted to complete myself as an attorney . " Although she had no civil litigation experience , the firm recruited her heavily , and she learned quickly on the job . She was eager to try cases and argue in court , rather than be part of a larger law firm . Her clients were mostly international corporations doing business in the United States ; much of her time was spent tracking down and suing counterfeiters of Fendi goods . In some cases , Sotomayor went on @-@ site with the police to Harlem or Chinatown to have illegitimate merchandise seized , in the latter instance pursuing a fleeing culprit while riding on a motorcycle . She said at the time that Pavia & Harcourt 's efforts were run " much like a drug operation " , and the successful rounding up of thousands of counterfeit accessories in 1986 was celebrated by " Fendi Crush " , a destruction @-@ by @-@ garbage @-@ truck event at Tavern on the Green . At other times , she dealt with dry legal issues such as grain export contract disputes . In a 1986 appearance on Good Morning America that profiled women ten years after college graduation , she said that the bulk of law work was drudgery , and that while she was content with her life , she had expected greater things of herself coming out of college . In 1988 she became a partner at the firm ; she was paid well but not extravagantly . She left in 1992 when she became a judge . In addition to her law firm work , Sotomayor found visible public service roles . She was not connected to the party bosses that typically picked people for such jobs in New York , and indeed she was registered as an independent . Instead , District Attorney Morgenthau , an influential figure , served as her patron . In 1987 , Governor of New York Mario Cuomo appointed Sotomayor to the board of the State of New York Mortgage Agency , which she served on until 1992 . As part of one of the largest urban rebuilding efforts in American history , the agency helped low @-@ income people get home mortgages and to provide insurance coverage for housing and AIDS hospices . Despite being the youngest member of a board composed of strong personalities , she involved herself in the details of the operation and was effective . She was vocal in supporting the right to affordable housing , directing more funds to lower @-@ income home owners , and in her skepticism about the effects of gentrification , although in the end she voted in favor of most of the projects . Sotomayor was appointed by Mayor Ed Koch in 1988 as one of the founding members of the New York City Campaign Finance Board , where she served for four years . There she took a vigorous role in the board 's implementation of a voluntary scheme wherein local candidates received public matching funds in exchange for limits on contributions and spending and agreeing to greater financial disclosure . Sotomayor showed no patience with candidates who failed to follow regulations and was more of a stickler for making campaigns follow those regulations than some of the other board members . She joined in rulings that fined , audited , or reprimanded the mayoral campaigns of Koch , David Dinkins , and Rudy Giuliani . Based upon another recommendation from Cabranes , Sotomayor was a member of the board of directors of the Puerto Rican Legal Defense and Education Fund from 1980 to 1992 . There she was a top policy maker who worked actively with the organization 's lawyers on issues such as New York City hiring practices , police brutality , the death penalty , and voting rights . The group achieved its most visible triumph when it successfully blocked a city primary election on the grounds that New York City Council boundaries diminished the power of minority voters . During 1985 and 1986 , Sotomayor served on the board of the Maternity Center Association , a Manhattan @-@ based non @-@ profit group which focused on improving the quality of maternity care . = = Federal district judge = = = = = Nomination and confirmation = = = Sotomayor had wanted to become a judge since she was in elementary school , and in 1991 she was recommended for a spot by Democratic New York senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan . Moynihan had an unusual bipartisan arrangement with his fellow New York senator , Republican Al D 'Amato , whereby he would get to choose roughly one out of every four New York district court seats even though a Republican was in the White House . Moynihan also wanted to fulfill a public promise he had made to get a Hispanic judge appointed for New York . When Moynihan 's staff recommended her to him , they said " Have we got a judge for you ! " Moynihan identified with her socio @-@ economic and academic background and became convinced she would become the first Hispanic Supreme Court justice . D 'Amato became an enthusiastic backer of Sotomayor , who was seen as politically centrist at the time . Of the impending drop in salary from private practice , Sotomayor said : " I 've never wanted to get adjusted to my income because I knew I wanted to go back to public service . And in comparison to what my mother earns and how I was raised , it 's not modest at all . " Sotomayor was thus nominated on November 27 , 1991 , by President George H. W. Bush to a seat on the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York vacated by John M. Walker , Jr . Senate Judiciary Committee hearings , led by a friendly Democratic majority , went smoothly for her in June 1992 , with her pro bono activities winning praise from Senator Ted Kennedy and her getting unanimous approval from the committee . Then a Republican senator blocked her nomination and that of three others for a while in retaliation for an unrelated block Democrats had put on another nominee . D 'Amato objected strongly ; some weeks later , the block was dropped , and Sotomayor was confirmed by unanimous consent of the full United States Senate on August 11 , 1992 , and received her commission the next day . Sotomayor became the youngest judge in the Southern District and the first Hispanic federal judge in New York State . She became the first Puerto Rican woman to serve as a judge in a U.S. federal court . She was one of seven women among the district 's 58 judges . She moved from Carroll Gardens , Brooklyn , back to the Bronx in order to live within her district . = = = Judgeship = = = Sotomayor generally kept a low public profile as a district court judge . She showed a willingness to take anti @-@ government positions in a number of cases , and during her first year in the seat , she received high ratings from liberal public @-@ interest groups . Other sources and organizations regarded her as a centrist during this period . In criminal cases , she gained a reputation for tough sentencing and was not viewed as a pro @-@ defense judge . A Syracuse University study found that in such cases , Sotomayor generally handed out longer sentences than her colleagues , especially when white @-@ collar crime was involved . Fellow district judge Miriam Goldman Cedarbaum was an influence on Sotomayor in adopting a narrow , " just the facts " approach to judicial decision @-@ making . As a trial judge , she garnered a reputation for being well @-@ prepared in advance of a case and moving cases along a tight schedule . Lawyers before her court viewed her as plain @-@ spoken , intelligent , demanding , and sometimes somewhat unforgiving ; one said , " She does not have much patience for people trying to snow her . You can 't do it . " = = = Notable rulings = = = On March 30 , 1995 , in Silverman v. Major League Baseball Player Relations Committee , Inc . , Sotomayor issued a preliminary injunction against Major League Baseball , preventing it from unilaterally implementing a new collective bargaining agreement and using replacement players . Her ruling ended the 1994 baseball strike after 232 days , the day before the new season was scheduled to begin . The Second Circuit upheld Sotomayor 's decision and denied the owners ' request to stay the ruling . The decision raised her profile , won her the plaudits of baseball fans , and had a lasting effect on the game . In the preparatory phase of the case , Sotomayor informed the lawyers of both sides that , " I hope none of you assumed ... that my lack of knowledge of any of the intimate details of your dispute meant I was not a baseball fan . You can 't grow up in the South Bronx without knowing about baseball . " In Dow Jones v. Department of Justice ( 1995 ) , Sotomayor sided with the Wall Street Journal in its efforts to obtain and publish a photocopy of the last note left by former Deputy White House Counsel Vince Foster . Sotomayor ruled that the public had " a substantial interest " in viewing the note and enjoined the U.S. Justice Department from blocking its release . In New York Times Co. v. Tasini ( 1997 ) , freelance journalists sued the New York Times Company for copyright infringement for the New York Times ' inclusion in an electronic archival database ( LexisNexis ) of the work of freelancers it had published . Sotomayor ruled that the publisher had the right to license the freelancers ' work . This decision was reversed on appeal , and the Supreme Court upheld the reversal ; two dissenters ( John Paul Stevens and Stephen Breyer ) took Sotomayor 's position . In Castle Rock Entertainment , Inc. v. Carol Publishing Group ( also in 1997 ) , Sotomayor ruled that a book of trivia from the television program Seinfeld infringed on the copyright of the show 's producer and did not constitute legal fair use . The United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit upheld Sotomayor 's ruling . = = Court of Appeals judge = = = = = Nomination and confirmation = = = On June 25 , 1997 , Sotomayor was nominated by President Bill Clinton to a seat on the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit , which was vacated by J. Daniel Mahoney . Her nomination was initially expected to have smooth sailing , with the American Bar Association Standing Committee on the Federal Judiciary giving her a " well qualified " professional assessment . However , as The New York Times described , " [ it became ] embroiled in the sometimes tortured judicial politics of the Senate . " Some in the Republican majority believed Clinton was eager to name the first Hispanic Supreme Court justice and that an easy confirmation to the appeals court would put Sotomayor in a better position for a possible Supreme Court nomination ( despite there being no vacancy at the time nor any indication the Clinton administration was considering nominating her or any Hispanic ) . Therefore , the Republican majority decided to slow her confirmation . Radio commentator Rush Limbaugh weighed in that Sotomayor was an ultraliberal who was on a " rocket ship " to the highest court . During her September 1997 hearing before the Senate Judiciary Committee , Sotomayor parried strong questioning from some Republican members about mandatory sentencing , gay rights , and her level of respect for Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas . After a long wait , she was approved by the committee in March 1998 , with only two dissensions . However , in June 1998 , the influential Wall Street Journal editorial page opined that the Clinton administration intended to " get her on to the Second Circuit , then elevate her to the Supreme Court as soon as an opening occurs " ; the editorial criticized two of her district court rulings and urged further delay of her confirmation . The Republican block continued . Ranking Democratic committee member Patrick Leahy objected to Republican use of a secret hold to slow down the Sotomayor nomination , and Leahy attributed that anonymous tactic to GOP reticence about publicly opposing a female Hispanic nominee . The prior month , Leahy had triggered a procedural delay in the confirmation of fellow Second Circuit nominee Chester J. Straub — who , although advanced by Clinton and supported by Senator Moynihan , was considered much more acceptable by Republicans — in an unsuccessful effort to force earlier consideration of the Sotomayor confirmation . During 1998 , several Hispanic organizations organized a petition drive in New York State , generating hundreds of signatures from New Yorkers to try to convince New York Republican senator Al D 'Amato to push the Senate leadership to bring Sotomayor 's nomination to a vote . D 'Amato , a backer of Sotomayor to begin with and additionally concerned about being up for re @-@ election that year , helped move Republican leadership . Her nomination had been pending for over a year when Majority Leader Trent Lott scheduled the vote . With complete Democratic support , and support from 25 Republican senators including Judiciary chair Orrin Hatch , Sotomayor was confirmed on October 2 , 1998 , by a 67 – 29 vote . She received her commission on October 7 . The confirmation experience left Sotomayor somewhat angry ; she said shortly afterwards that during the hearings , Republicans had assumed her political beliefs based on her being a Latina : " That series of questions , I think , were symbolic of a set of expectations that some people had [ that ] I must be liberal . It is stereotyping , and stereotyping is perhaps the most insidious of all problems in our society today . " = = = Judgeship = = = Over her ten years on the Second Circuit , Sotomayor heard appeals in more than 3 @,@ 000 cases and wrote about 380 opinions where she was in the majority . The Supreme Court reviewed five of those , reversing three and affirming two — not high numbers for an appellate judge of that many years and a typical percentage of reversals . Sotomayor 's circuit court rulings led to her being considered a political centrist by the ABA Journal and other sources and organizations . Several lawyers , legal experts , and news organizations identified her as someone with liberal inclinations . In any case , the Second Circuit 's caseload typically skewed more toward business and securities law rather than hot @-@ button social or constitutional issues . Sotomayor tended to write narrow , practiced rulings that relied on close application of the law to the facts of a case rather than import general philosophical viewpoints . A Congressional Research Service analysis found that Sotomayor 's rulings defied easy ideological categorization , but did show an adherence to precedent and an avoidance of overstepping the circuit court 's judicial role . Unusually , Sotomayor read through all the supporting documents of cases under review ; her lengthy rulings explored every aspect of a case and tended to feature leaden , ungainly prose . Some legal experts have said that Sotomayor 's attention to detail and re @-@ examination of the facts of a case came close to overstepping the traditional role of appellate judges . Across some 150 cases involving business and civil law , Sotomayor 's rulings were generally unpredictable and not consistently pro @-@ business or anti @-@ business . Sotomayor 's influence in the federal judiciary , as measured by the number of citations of her rulings by other judges and in law review articles , increased significantly during the length of her appellate judgeship and was greater than that of some other prominent federal appeals court judges . Two academic studies showed that the percentage of Sotomayor 's decisions that overrode policy decisions by elected branches was the same as or lower than that of other circuit judges . Sotomayor was a member of the Second Circuit Task Force on Gender , Racial and Ethnic Fairness in the Courts . In October 2001 , she presented the annual Judge Mario G. Olmos Memorial Lecture at UC Berkeley School of Law ; titled " A Latina Judge 's Voice " ; it was published in the Berkeley La Raza Law Journal the following spring . In the speech , she discussed the characteristics of her Latina upbringing and culture and the history of minorities and women ascending to the federal bench . She said the low number of minority women on the federal bench at that time was " shocking " . She then discussed at length how her own experiences as a Latina might affect her decisions as a judge . In any case , her background in activism did not necessarily influence her rulings : in a study of 50 racial discrimination cases brought before her panel , 45 were rejected , with Sotomayor never filing a dissent . An expanded study showed that Sotomayor decided 97 cases involving a claim of discrimination and rejected those claims nearly 90 percent of the time . Another examination of Second Circuit split decisions on cases that dealt with race and discrimination showed no clear ideological pattern in Sotomayor 's opinions . In the Court of Appeals seat , Sotomayor gained a reputation for vigorous and blunt behavior toward lawyers appealing before her , sometimes to the point of brusque and curt treatment or testy interruptions . She was known for extensive preparation for oral arguments and for running a " hot bench " , where judges ask lawyers plenty of questions . Unprepared lawyers suffered the consequences , but the vigorous questioning was an aid to lawyers seeking to tailor their arguments to the judge 's concerns . The 2009 Almanac of the Federal Judiciary , which collected anonymous evaluations of judges by lawyers who appear before them , contained a wide range of reactions to Sotomayor . Comments also diverged among lawyers willing to be named . Attorney Sheema Chaudhry said , " She 's brilliant and she 's qualified , but I just feel that she can be very , how do you say , temperamental . " Defense lawyer Gerald B. Lefcourt said , " She used her questioning to make a point , as opposed to really looking for an answer to a question she did not understand . " In contrast , Second Circuit Judge Richard C. Wesley said that his interactions with Sotomayor had been " totally antithetical to this perception that has gotten some traction that she is somehow confrontational . " Second Circuit Judge and former teacher Guido Calabresi said his tracking showed that Sotomayor 's questioning patterns were no different from those of other members of the court and added , " Some lawyers just don ’ t like to be questioned by a woman . [ The criticism ] was sexist , plain and simple . " Sotomayor 's law clerks regarded her as a valuable and strong mentor , and she said that she viewed them like family . In 2005 , Senate Democrats suggested Sotomayor , among others , to President George W. Bush as an acceptable nominee to fill the seat of retiring Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor . = = = Notable rulings = = = Abortion In the 2002 decision Center for Reproductive Law and Policy v. Bush , Sotomayor upheld the Bush administration 's implementation of the Mexico City Policy , which states that " the United States will no longer contribute to separate nongovernmental organizations which perform or actively promote abortion as a method of family planning in other nations . " Sotomayor held that the policy did not constitute a violation of equal protection , as " the government is free to favor the anti @-@ abortion position over the pro @-@ choice position , and can do so with public funds . " First Amendment rights In Pappas v. Giuliani ( 2002 ) , Sotomayor dissented from her colleagues ' ruling that the New York Police Department could terminate from his desk job an employee who sent racist materials through the mail . Sotomayor argued that the First Amendment protected speech by the employee " away from the office , on [ his ] own time " , even if that speech was " offensive , hateful , and insulting " , and that therefore the employee 's First Amendment claim should have gone to trial rather than being dismissed on summary judgment . In 2005 , Sotomayor wrote the opinion for United States v. Quattrone . Frank Quattrone had been on trial on charges of obstructing investigations related to technology IPOs . Some members of the media had wanted to publish the names of the jurors deciding Quattrone 's case , and a district court had issued an order to forbid the publication of the juror 's names . In United States v. Quattrone , Sotomayor wrote the opinion for the Second Circuit panel striking down this order on First Amendment grounds , stating that the media should be free to publish the names of the jurors . The first trial ended in a deadlocked jury and a mistrial , and the district court ordered the media not to publish the names of jurors , even though those names had been disclosed in open court . Sotomayor held that although it was important to protect the fairness of the retrial , the district court 's order was an unconstitutional prior restraint on free speech and violated the right of the press " to report freely on events that transpire in an open courtroom " . In 2008 , Sotomayor was on a three @-@ judge panel in Doninger v. Niehoff that unanimously affirmed , in an opinion written by Second Circuit Judge Debra Livingston , the district court 's judgment that Lewis S. Mills High School did not violate the First Amendment rights of a student when it barred her from running for student government after she called the superintendent and other school officials " douchebags " in a blog post written while off @-@ campus that encouraged students to call an administrator and " piss her off more " . Judge Livingston held that the district judge did not abuse her discretion in holding that the student 's speech " foreseeably create [ d ] a risk of substantial disruption within the school environment " , which is the precedent in the Second Circuit for when schools may regulate off @-@ campus speech . Although Sotomayor did not write this opinion , she has been criticized by some who disagree with it . Second Amendment rights Sotomayor was part of the three @-@ judge Second Circuit panel that affirmed the district court 's ruling in Maloney v. Cuomo ( 2009 ) . Maloney was arrested for possession of nunchucks , which are illegal in New York ; Maloney argued that this law violated his Second Amendment right to bear arms . The Second Circuit 's per curiam opinion noted that the Supreme Court has not , so far , ever held that the Second Amendment is binding against state governments . On the contrary , in Presser v. Illinois , a Supreme Court case from 1886 , the Supreme Court held that the Second Amendment " is a limitation only upon the power of Congress and the national government , and not upon that of the state " . With respect to the Presser v. Illinois precedent , the panel stated that only the Supreme Court has " the prerogative of overruling its own decisions , " and the recent Supreme Court case of District of Columbia v. Heller ( which struck down the district 's gun ban as unconstitutional ) did " not invalidate this longstanding principle " . The panel upheld the lower court 's decision dismissing Maloney 's challenge to New York 's law against possession of nunchucks . On June 2 , 2009 , a Seventh Circuit panel , including the prominent and heavily cited judges Richard Posner and Frank Easterbrook , unanimously agreed with Maloney v. Cuomo , citing the case in their decision turning back a challenge to Chicago 's gun laws and noting the Supreme Court precedents remain in force until altered by the Supreme Court itself . Fourth Amendment rights In N.G. & S.G. ex rel . S.C. v. Connecticut ( 2004 ) , Sotomayor dissented from her colleagues ’ decision to uphold a series of strip searches of " troubled adolescent girls " in juvenile detention centers . While Sotomayor agreed that some of the strip searches at issue in the case were lawful , she would have held that due to " the severely intrusive nature of strip searches " , they should not be allowed " in the absence of individualized suspicion , of adolescents who have never been charged with a crime " . She argued that an " individualized suspicion " rule was more consistent with Second Circuit precedent than the majority 's rule . In Leventhal v. Knapek ( 2001 ) , Sotomayor rejected a Fourth Amendment challenge by a U.S. Department of Transportation employee whose employer searched his office computer . She held that , " Even though [ the employee ] had some expectation of privacy in the contents of his office computer , the investigatory searches by the DOT did not violate his Fourth Amendment rights " because here " there were reasonable grounds to believe " that the search would reveal evidence of " work @-@ related misconduct " . Alcohol in commerce In 2004 , Sotomayor was part of the judge panel that ruled in Swedenburg v. Kelly that New York 's law prohibiting out @-@ of @-@ state wineries from shipping directly to consumers in New York was constitutional even though in @-@ state wineries were allowed to . The case , which invoked the 21st Amendment , was appealed and attached to another case . The case reached the Supreme Court later on as Swedenburg v. Kelly and was overruled in a 5 – 4 decision that found the law was discriminatory and unconstitutional . Employment discrimination Sotomayor was involved in the high @-@ profile case Ricci v. DeStefano that initially upheld the right of the City of New Haven to throw out its test for firefighters and start over with a new test , because the City believed the test had a " disparate impact " on minority firefighters . ( No black firefighters qualified for promotion under the test , whereas some had qualified under tests used in previous years . ) The City was concerned that minority firefighters might sue under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 . The City chose not to certify the test results and a lower court had previously upheld the City 's right to do this . Several white firefighters and one Hispanic firefighter who had passed the test , including the lead plaintiff who has dyslexia and had put much extra effort into studying , sued the City of New Haven , claiming that their rights were violated . A Second Circuit panel that included Sotomayor first issued a brief , unsigned summary order ( not written by Sotomayor ) affirming the lower court 's ruling . Sotomayor 's former mentor José A. Cabranes , by now a fellow judge on the court , objected to this handling and requested that the court hear it en banc . Sotomayor voted with a 7 – 6 majority not to rehear it and a slightly expanded ruling was issued , but a strong dissent by Cabranes led to the case reaching the Supreme Court in 2009 . There it was overruled in a 5 – 4 decision that found the white firefighters had been victims of racial discrimination when they were denied promotion . Business In Clarett v. National Football League ( 2004 ) , Sotomayor upheld the National Football League 's eligibility rules requiring players to wait three full seasons after high school graduation before entering the NFL draft . Maurice Clarett challenged these rules , which were part of the collective bargaining agreement between the NFL and its players , on antitrust grounds . Sotomayor held that Clarett 's claim would upset the established " federal labor law favoring and governing the collective bargaining process " . In Merrill Lynch , Pierce , Fenner & Smith , Inc. v. Dabit ( 2005 ) , Sotomayor wrote a unanimous opinion that the Securities Litigation Uniform Standards Act of 1998 did not preempt class action claims in state courts by stockbrokers alleging misleading inducement to buy or sell stocks . The Supreme Court handed down an 8 – 0 decision stating that the Act did preempt such claims , thereby overruling Sotomayor 's decision . In Specht v. Netscape Communications Corp. ( 2001 ) , she ruled that the license agreement of Netscape 's Smart Download software did not constitute a binding contract because the system didn 't give " sufficient notice " to the user . Civil rights In Correctional Services Corp. v. Malesko ( 2000 ) , Sotomayor , writing for the court , supported the right of an individual to sue a private corporation working on behalf of the federal government for alleged violations of that individual 's constitutional rights . Reversing a lower court decision , Sotomayor found that an existing Supreme Court doctrine , known as " Bivens " — which allows suits against individuals working for the federal government for constitutional rights violations — could be applied to the case of a former prisoner seeking to sue the private company operating the federal halfway house facility in which he resided . The Supreme Court reversed Sotomayor 's ruling in a 5 – 4 decision , saying that the Bivens doctrine could not be expanded to cover private entities working on behalf of the federal government . Justices Stevens , Souter , Ginsburg , and Breyer dissented , siding with Sotomayor 's original ruling . In Gant v. Wallingford Board of Education ( 1999 ) , the parents of a black student alleged that he had been harassed due to his race and had been discriminated against when he was transferred from a first grade class to a kindergarten class without parental consent , while similarly situated white students were treated differently . Sotomayor agreed with the dismissal of the harassment claims due to lack of evidence , but would have allowed the discrimination claim to go forward . She wrote in dissent that the grade transfer was " contrary to the school 's established policies " as well as its treatment of white students , which " supports the inference that race discrimination played a role " . Property rights In Krimstock v. Kelly ( 2002 ) , Sotomayor wrote an opinion halting New York City 's practice of seizing the motor vehicles of drivers accused of driving while intoxicated and some other crimes and holding those vehicles for " months or even years " during criminal proceedings . Noting the importance of cars to many individuals ' livelihoods or daily activities , she held that it violated individuals ' due process rights to hold the vehicles without permitting the owners to challenge the City 's continued possession of their property . In Brody v. Village of Port Chester ( 2003 and 2005 ) , a takings case , Sotomayor first ruled in 2003 for a unanimous panel that a property owner in Port Chester , New York was permitted to challenge the state 's Eminent Domain Procedure Law . A district court subsequently rejected the plaintiff 's claims and upon appeal the case found itself again with the Second Circuit . In 2005 , Sotomayor ruled with a panel majority that the property owner 's due process rights had been violated by lack of adequate notice to him of his right to challenge a village order that his land should be used for a redevelopment project . However , the panel supported the village 's taking of the property for public use . In Didden v. Village of Port Chester ( 2006 ) , an unrelated case brought about by the same town 's actions , Sotomayor joined a unanimous panel 's summary order to uphold a trial court 's dismissal – due to a statute of limitations lapse – of a property owner 's objection to his land being condemned for a redevelopment project . The ruling further said that even without the lapse , the owner 's petition would be denied due to application of the Supreme Court 's recent Kelo v. City of New London ruling . The Second Circuit 's reasoning drew criticism from libertarian commentators . = = Supreme Court justice = = = = = Nomination and confirmation = = = Since President Barack Obama 's election there was speculation that Sotomayor could be a leading candidate for a Supreme Court seat . New York Senators Charles Schumer and Kirsten Gillibrand wrote a joint letter to Obama urging him to appoint Sotomayor , or alternatively Interior Secretary Ken Salazar , to the Supreme Court if a vacancy should arise during his term . The White House first contacted Sotomayor on April 27 , 2009 , about the possibility of her nomination . On April 30 , 2009 , Justice David Souter 's retirement plans leaked to the media , and Sotomayor received early attention as a possible nominee for Souter 's seat to be vacated in June 2009 . On May 25 , Obama informed Sotomayor of his choice ; she later said , " I had my [ hand ] over my chest , trying to calm my beating heart , literally . " On May 26 , 2009 , Obama nominated her . She became only the second jurist to be nominated to three different judicial positions by three different presidents . The selection appeared to closely match Obama 's presidential campaign promise that he would nominate judges who had " the heart , the empathy , to recognize what it 's like to be a teenage mom . The empathy to understand what it 's like to be poor , or African @-@ American , or gay , or disabled , or old . " Sotomayor 's nomination won praise from Democrats and liberals , and Democrats appeared to have sufficient votes to confirm her . The strongest criticism of her nomination came from conservatives and some Republican senators regarding a line she had used in similar forms in a number of her speeches , particularly in a 2001 Berkeley Law lecture : " I would hope that a wise Latina woman with the richness of her experiences would more often than not reach a better conclusion than a white male who hasn 't lived that life . " Sotomayor had made similar remarks in other speeches between 1994 and 2003 , including one she submitted as part of her confirmation questionnaire for the Court of Appeals in 1998 , but they had attracted little attention at the time . The remark now became widely known . The rhetoric quickly became inflamed , with radio commentator Rush Limbaugh and former Republican Speaker of the House of Representatives Newt Gingrich calling Sotomayor a " racist " ( although the latter later backtracked from that claim ) , while John Cornyn and other Republican senators denounced such attacks but said that Sotomayor 's approach was troubling . Backers of Sotomayor offered a variety of explanations in defense of the remark , and White House Press Secretary Robert Gibbs stated that Sotomayor 's word choice in 2001 had been " poor " . Sotomayor subsequently clarified her remark through Senate Judiciary Committee chair Patrick Leahy , saying that while life experience shapes who one is , " ultimately and completely " a judge follows the law regardless of personal background . Of her cases , the Second Circuit rulings in Ricci v. DeStefano received the most attention during the early nomination discussion , motivated by the Republican desire to focus on the reverse racial discrimination aspect of the case . In the midst of her confirmation process the Supreme Court overturned that ruling on June 29 . A third line of Republican attack against Sotomayor was based on her ruling in Maloney v. Cuomo and was motivated by gun ownership advocates concerned about her interpretation of Second Amendment rights . Some of the fervor with which conservatives and Republicans viewed the Sotomayor nomination was due to their grievances over the history of federal judicial nomination battles going back to the 1987 Robert Bork Supreme Court nomination . A Gallup poll released a week after the nomination showed 54 percent of Americans in favor of Sotomayor 's confirmation compared with 28 percent in opposition . A June 12 Fox News poll showed 58 percent of the public disagreeing with her " wise Latina " remark but 67 percent saying the remark should not disqualify her from serving on the Supreme Court . The American Bar Association gave her a unanimous " well qualified " assessment , its highest mark for professional qualification . Following the Ricci overruling , Rasmussen Reports and CNN / Opinion Research polls showed that the public was now sharply divided , largely along partisan and ideological lines , as to whether Sotomayor should be confirmed . Sotomayor 's confirmation hearings before the Senate Judiciary Committee began on July 13 , 2009 , during which she backed away from her " wise Latina " remark , declaring it " a rhetorical flourish that fell flat " and stating that " I do not believe that any ethnic , racial or gender group has an advantage in sound judgment . " When Republican senators confronted her regarding other remarks from her past speeches , she pointed to her judicial record and said she had never let her own life experiences or opinions influence her decisions . Republican senators said that while her rulings to this point might be largely traditional , they feared her Supreme Court rulings – where there is more latitude with respect to precedent and interpretation – might be more reflective of her speeches . Sotomayor defended her position in Ricci as following applicable precedent . When asked whom she admired , she pointed to Justice Benjamin N. Cardozo . In general , Sotomayor followed the hearings formula of recent past nominees by avoiding stating personal positions , declining to take positions on controversial issues likely to come before the Court , agreeing with senators from both parties , and repeatedly affirming that as a justice she would just apply the law . On July 28 , 2009 , the Senate Judiciary Committee approved Sotomayor 's nomination ; the 13 – 6 vote was almost entirely along party lines , with no Democrats opposing her and only one Republican supporting her . On August 6 , 2009 , Sotomayor was confirmed by the full Senate by a vote of 68 – 31 . The vote was largely along party lines , with no Democrats opposing her and nine Republicans supporting her . President Obama commissioned Sotomayor on the day of her confirmation ; Sotomayor was sworn in on August 8 , 2009 , by Chief Justice John Roberts . Sotomayor is the first Hispanic to serve on the Supreme Court . Some attention has been given to Justice Benjamin Cardozo – a Sephardic Jew believed to be of distant Portuguese descent – as the first Hispanic on the court when appointed in 1932 , but his roots were uncertain , the term " Hispanic " was not in use as an ethnic identifier at the time , and the Portuguese are generally excluded from its meaning . Sotomayor is among four women to have historically served on the Court , together with Sandra Day O 'Connor , Ruth Bader Ginsburg and Elena Kagan , the last of whom won confirmation a year after Sotomayor by a comparable 63 – 37 vote . Sotomayor 's appointment gives the Court a record six Roman Catholic justices serving at the same time . Sotomayor became one of the three youngest of the justices sitting on the Court , along with John Roberts and Elena Kagan . = = = Justiceship = = = Sotomayor cast her first vote as an associate Supreme Court justice on August 17 , 2009 , in a stay of execution case . She was given a warm welcome onto the Court and was formally invested in a September 8 ceremony . Sotomayor 's inaugural case in which she heard arguments was on September 9 during a special session , Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission . It involved the controversial aspect of the First Amendment and the rights of corporations in campaign finance ; Sotomayor dissented . In her vigorous examination of Floyd Abrams , representing the First Amendment issues in the case , Sotomayor challenged him , questioning 19th century rulings of the Court and saying , " What you are suggesting is that the courts , who created corporations as persons , gave birth to corporations as persons , and there could be an argument made that that was the Court 's error to start with ... [ imbuing ] a creature of State law with human characteristics . " Sotomayor 's first major written opinion was a dissent in the Berghuis v. Thompkins case dealing with Miranda rights . As her first year neared completion , Sotomayor said she felt swamped by the intensity and heavy workload of the job . During the oral arguments for National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius , Sotomayor showed her increasing familiarity with the Court and its protocols by directing the opening questions of the arguments to Donald Verrilli , the Solicitor General who was representing the government 's position . In succeeding Justice Souter , Sotomayor had done little to change the philosophical and ideological balance of the Court . While many cases are decided unanimously or with different voting coalitions , Sotomayor has continued to be a reliable member of the liberal bloc of the court when the justices divide along the commonly perceived ideological lines . Specifically , her voting pattern and judicial philosophy has been in close agreement with that of Justices Breyer , Ginsburg and Kagan . During her first couple of years there , Sotomayor voted with Ginsburg and Breyer 90 percent of the time , one of the highest agreement rates on the Court . In a 2015 article titled " Ranking the Most Liberal Modern Supreme Court Justices " , Alex Greer identified Sotomayor as representing a more liberal voting pattern than both Elena Kagan and Ruth Bader Ginzberg . Greer placed Sotomayor as having the most liberal voting history of all the current sitting Justices , and slightly less liberal than her predecessors Thurgood Marshall and John Marshall Harlan II on the Court . Justices Roberts , Kennedy , Thomas , and Alito ( and former Justice Scalia ) have comprised the identifiable conservative wing of the Court . Although , five of the justices on the Supreme Court self @-@ identify themselves as having Roman Catholic affiliation , Sotomayor 's voting history identifies her singly among them with the liberal bloc of the Court . However , there is a wide divergence among Catholics in general in their approaches to the law . Due to her upbringing and her past jobs and positions , Sotomayor has brought one of the more diverse set of life experiences to the court . There have been some deviations from the ideological pattern . In a 2013 book on the Roberts Court , author Marcia Coyle assessed Sotomayor 's position on the Confrontation Clause of the Sixth Amendment as a strong guarantee of the right of a defendant to confront his or her accusers . Sotomayor 's judicial philosophy on the issue is seen as being in parity with Elena Kagan and , unexpectedly for Sotomayor , also in at least partial agreement with the originalist reading of Antonin Scalia when applied to the clause . On January 20 and 21 , 2013 , Sotomayor administered the oath to Vice President Joe Biden for the inauguration of his second term . Sotomayor became the first Hispanic and fourth woman to administer the oath to a president or vice president . By the end of her fifth year on the court , Sotomayor had become especially visible in oral arguments and in passionate dissents from various majority rulings , especially those involving issues of race , gender and ethnic identity . Sotomayor has shown her individuality on the Court in a number of decisions . In her reading of the constitutionality of the Obama health care law favoring the poor and disabled , she sided with Ginsburg against fellow liberals Breyer and Kagan . In dealing with the Chief Justice , Sotomayor had no difficulty in responding to his statement that " the way to stop discrimination on the basis of race is to stop discrimination on the basis of race , " by stating , " I don 't borrow Chief Justice Roberts 's description of what color @-@ blindness is ... Our society is too complex to use that kind of analysis . " In the manufacturer liability case of Williamson v. Mazda , which the court decided unanimously , she wrote a separate concurring opinion . Sotomayor 's rapport with her clerks is seen as more formalistic than some of the other justices as she requires detailed and rigorous evaluations of cases she is considering with a table of contents attached . When compared to Kagan directly , one of their colleagues stated , " Neither of them is a shrinking violet " . Coyle , in her 2013 book on the Roberts Court stated that : " Both women are more vocal during arguments than the justices whom they succeeded , and they have energized the moderate @-@ liberal side of the bench . " During her tenure on the court , Sotomayor has also become recognizable as being among the court 's strongest voices in supporting the rights of the accused . She has been identified by Laurence Tribe as the foremost voice on the court calling for reforming criminal justice adjudication – in particular as it relates misconduct by police and prosecutors , abuses in prisons , concerns about how the death penalty is used , and the potential for loss of privacy – and Tribe has compared her will to reform in general to that of past Chief Justice Earl Warren . = = = Notable rulings = = = J.D.B. v. North Carolina was a 2011 case in which the Supreme Court of the United States held that age is relevant when determining police custody for Miranda purposes . Sotomayor was assigned to write the majority opinion in the case . J.D.B. was a 13 @-@ year @-@ old student enrolled in special education classes whom police had suspected of committing two robberies . A police investigator visited J.D.B. at school , where he was interrogated by the investigator , a uniformed police officer , and school officials . J.D.B. subsequently confessed to his crimes and was convicted . J.D.B. was not given a Miranda warning during the interrogation , nor an opportunity to contact his legal guardian . During the trial , attempts to suppress the statements given by J.D.B. because he was not given a Miranda warning were denied on the grounds that J.D.B. was not in police custody . The case was appealed and the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case . Sotomayor 's opinion for the Court held that a child 's age properly informs the Miranda custody analysis . Her opinion underscored the dangers of not applying age to the custody analysis , writing : " to hold ... that a child 's age is never relevant to whether a suspect has been taken into custody — and thus to ignore the very real differences between children and adults — would be to deny children the full scope of the procedural safeguards that Miranda guarantees to adults " . The opinion cited Stansbury v. California where the Court held that a child 's age " would have affected how a reasonable person " in the suspect 's position " would perceive his or her freedom to leave " . Yarborough v. Alvarado was also cited , where the Court wrote that a child 's age " generates commonsense conclusions about behavior and perception " . Finally , Sotomayor 's opinion pointed out that the law reflects the idea that a child 's judgment is not the same as an adult 's , in the form of legal disqualifications on children as a class ( e.g. limitations on a child 's ability to marry without parental consent ) . Sotomayor 's opinion was challenged by Associate Justice Samuel Alito who wrote a dissenting opinion for four Justices . A particularly fractious United States Supreme Court case was 2012 's United States v. Alvarez , involving judicial review in which the Court struck down the Stolen Valor Act , a federal law that criminalized false statements about having a military medal . The law had been passed as an effort to stem instances where people falsely claimed to have won the medal in an attempt to protect the " valor " of those who really had . While a 6 @-@ 3 majority of the Supreme Court agreed that the law was unconstitutional under the First Amendment 's free speech protections , it could not agree on a single rationale . Sotomayor was among four justices , along with Justices Roberts , Ginsburg and Kennedy , who concluded that a statement 's falsity is not enough , by itself , to exclude speech from First Amendment protection . Justices Breyer and Kagan concluded that while false statements were entitled to some protection , the Stolen Valor Act was invalid because it could have achieved its objectives in less restrictive ways . Justices Scalia , Thomas and Alito were in dissent . Most visibly during the 2012 term , in National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius , Sotomayor was part of a landmark 5 – 4 majority that upheld most of the provisions of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act ( while being part of a dissent against the reliance upon the Constitution 's Taxing and Spending Clause rather than Commerce Clause in arriving at the support ) . Legal writer Jeffrey Toobin wrote , " Sotomayor 's concerns tended toward the earthbound and practical . Sometimes , during oral arguments , she would go on tangents involving detailed questions about the facts of cases that would leave her colleagues stupefied , sinking into their chairs . This time , though , she had a simple line of inquiry . States require individuals to buy automobile insurance ( implicitly suggesting the unavoidable comparison to health insurance and the fairness of the applying the same principle to health insurance as well ) . " Sotomayor concluded with the incisive rhetorical flourish in the Court directed at the attorneys : " Do you think that if some states decided not to impose an insurance requirement that the federal government would be without power to legislate and require every individual to buy car insurance ? " For Toobin , this distinction drawn by Sotomayor was the heart of the argument for the case in which she was part of the prevailing majority opinion . In another high @-@ profile June 2012 decision at the end of her third term , Sotomayor was part of a 5 – 3 majority in Arizona v. United States that struck down several aspects of the Arizona SB 1070 anti @-@ illegal immigration law . The Arizona case was decided as a compromise verdict with Sotomayor joining Justices Roberts , Kennedy , Ginsburg and Breyer in the majority , with Justice Kagan not participating . In 2013 , Sotomayor 's unjoined concurrence in the prior year 's United States v. Jones decision , in which she said that in the digital age , " It may be necessary to reconsider the premise that an individual has no reasonable expectation of privacy in information voluntarily disclosed to third parties , " was cited by federal judge Richard Leon in his ruling that the National Security Agency 's bulk collection of Americans ' telephony records likely violated the Fourth Amendment . Law professors Adam Winkler and Laurence Tribe were among those who said that Sotomayor 's Jones concurrence had been influential in calling out the need for a new basis in understanding privacy requirements in a world , as she wrote , " in which people reveal a great deal of information about themselves to third parties in the course of carrying out mundane tasks . " On July 3 , 2014 , six justices ordered an injunction that allowed Wheaton College of Illinois , a religiously affiliated university , an exemption from complying with Affordable Care Act 's mandate on contraception . It came in the immediate wake of the Court 's 5 – 4 decision in Burwell v. Hobby Lobby , in which the conservative bloc had prevailed , and was opposed by the court 's three female members : Sotomayor , Ginsburg and Kagan . They suggested that the Hobby Lobby decision was not the Court 's conclusive opinion on birth control . In her dissent to the injunction , Sotomayor wrote that , " Those who are bound by our decisions usually believe they can take us at our word ... Not today . " Sotomayor stated further her opinion that the decision compromised " hundreds of Wheaton 's employees and students of their legal entitlement to contraceptive coverage . " = = Other activities = = Sotomayor was an adjunct professor at New York University School of Law from 1998 to 2007 . There she taught trial and appellate advocacy as well as a federal appellate court seminar . Beginning in 1999 , she was also a lecturer in law at Columbia Law School in a paying , adjunct faculty position . While there she created and co @-@ taught a class called the Federal Appellate Externship each semester from 2000 until her departure ; it combined classroom , moot court , and Second Circuit chambers work . She became a member of the Board of Trustees of Princeton University in 2006 , concluding her term in 2011 . In 2008 , Sotomayor became a member of the Belizean Grove , an invitation @-@ only women 's group modeled after the men 's Bohemian Grove . On June 19 , 2009 , Sotomayor resigned from the Belizean Grove after Republican politicians voiced concerns over the group 's membership policy . Sotomayor has maintained a public presence , mostly through making speeches , since joining the federal judiciary and throughout her time on the Supreme Court . She gave over 180 speeches between 1993 and 2009 , about half of which either focused on issues of ethnicity or gender or were delivered to minority or women 's groups . While on the Supreme Court she has been invited to give commencement addresses at a number of universities including New York University ( 2012 ) , Yale University ( 2013 ) , and the University of Puerto Rico ( 2014 ) . Her speeches have tended to give a more defined picture of her worldview than her rulings on the bench . The themes of her speeches have often focused on ethnic identity and experience , the need for diversity , and America 's struggle with the implications of its diverse makeup . She has also presented her career achievements as an example of the success of affirmative action policies in university admissions , saying " I am the perfect affirmative action baby " in regard to her belief that her admission test scores were not comparable to those of her classmates . During 2012 while already on the Supreme Court , Sotomayor made two appearances as herself on the children 's television program Sesame Street , explaining what a vocational career is in general and then demonstrating how a judge hears a case . Sotomayor long lived in Greenwich Village in New York City and had few financial assets other than her home . She enjoys shopping , traveling , and giving gifts and helps support her mother and her mother 's husband in Florida . Regarding her short financial disclosure reports prior to her Supreme Court nomination , she has said , " When you don 't have money , it 's easy . There isn 't anything there to report . " As a federal judge , she is entitled to a pension equal to her full salary upon retirement . Upon joining the Supreme Court , she took up residence in Washington but sorely missed the faster @-@ paced life of New York . After renting in the Cleveland Park neighborhood for three years , in 2012 she purchased a condominium in the U Street Corridor . She said , " I picked [ that area ] because it 's mixed . I walk out and I see all kinds of people , which is the environment I grew up in and the environment I love . " She takes several daily insulin injections , and her diabetes is considered to be well controlled . Sotomayor does not belong to a Catholic parish or attend Mass , but does attend church for important occasions . She has said , " I am a very spiritual person [ though ] maybe not traditionally religious in terms of Sunday Mass every week , that sort of thing . The trappings are not important to me , but , yes , I do believe in God . And , yes , I do believe in the commandments . " She maintains ties with Puerto Rico , visiting once or twice a year , speaking there occasionally , and visiting cousins and other relatives who still live in the Mayagüez area . She has long stressed her ethnic identity , saying in 1996 , " Although I am an American , love my country and could achieve its opportunity of succeeding at anything I worked for , I also have a Latina soul and heart , with the magic that carries . " Sotomayor said of the years following her divorce , that " I have found it difficult to maintain a relationship while I 've pursued my career . " She has talked of herself as " emotionally withdrawn " and lacking " genuine happiness " when living by herself ; after becoming a judge , she said she would not date lawyers . In 1997 , she was engaged to New York construction contractor Peter White , but the relationship had ended by 2000 . In July 2010 , Sotomayor signed a contract with Alfred A. Knopf to publish a memoir about the early part of her life . She received an advance of nearly $ 1 @.@ 2 million for the work , which was published in January 2013 and titled My Beloved World ( Mi mundo adorado in the simultaneously published Spanish edition ) . It focuses on her life up to 1992 , with recollections of growing up in housing projects in New York and descriptions of the challenges she faced . It received good reviews , with Michiko Kakutani of the New York Times describing it as " a compelling and powerfully written memoir about identity and coming of age . ... It 's an eloquent and affecting testament to the triumph of brains and hard work over circumstance , of a childhood dream realized through extraordinary will and dedication . " She staged a book tour to promote the work , and it debuted atop the New York Times Best Seller List . On December 31 , 2013 , Sotomayor pressed the ceremonial button and led the final 60 @-@ second countdown at the Times Square New Year 's Eve ball drop , being the first United States Supreme Court justice to perform the task . = = Awards and honors = = Sotomayor has received honorary law degrees from Lehman College ( 1999 ) , Princeton University ( 2001 ) , Brooklyn Law School ( 2001 ) , Pace University School of Law ( 2003 ) , Hofstra University ( 2006 ) , Northeastern University School of Law ( 2007 ) , Howard University ( 2010 ) , St. Lawrence University ( 2010 ) , New York University ( 2012 ) , Yale University ( 2013 ) , and the University of Puerto Rico ( 2014 ) . She was elected a member of the American Philosophical Society in 2002 . She was given the Outstanding Latino Professional Award in 2006 by the Latino / a Law Students Association . In 2008 , Esquire magazine included Sotomayor on its list of " The 75 Most Influential People of the 21st Century " . In 2013 , Sotomayor won the Woodrow Wilson Award at her alma mater Princeton University . In June 2010 , the Bronxdale Houses development , where Sotomayor grew up , was renamed after her . The Justice Sonia Sotomayor Houses and Justice Sonia Sotomayor Community Center comprise 28 buildings with some 3 @,@ 500 residents . While many New York housing developments are named after well @-@ known people , this was only the second to be named after a former resident . In 2011 , the Sonia M. Sotomayor Learning Academies , a public high school complex in Los Angeles , was named after her . In 2013 , a painting featuring her , Sandra Day O 'Connor , Ruth Bader Ginsburg , and Elena Kagan was unveiled at the Smithsonian 's National Portrait Gallery in Washington , D.C. According to the Smithsonian at the time , the painting was on loan to the museum for three years . In May 2015 she received the Katharine Hepburn medal from Bryn Mawr College . The Katharine Hepburn Medal recognizes women who change their worlds : those whose lives , work , and contributions embody the intelligence , drive , and independence of the four @-@ time Oscar winner and her namesake mother , an early feminist activist . = = Publications = = Books My Beloved World . Alfred A. Knopf ( 2013 ) ISBN 0 @-@ 307 @-@ 59488 @-@ 2 . Articles " Statehood and the Equal Footing Doctrine : The Case for Puerto Rican Seabed Rights " , 88 Yale Law Journal 825 ( 1979 ) " Returning Majesty to the Law and Politics : A Modern Approach " ( with Nicole A. Gordon ) , 30 Suffolk University Law Review 35 ( 1996 ) " La Independencia Judicial : Que Necessitamos Para Conservarla " 60 Revista Colegio de Abogados de Puerto Rico 59 ( 1999 ) Forewords " Foreword " , The International Judge : An Introduction to the Men and Women Who Decide the World 's Cases by Daniel Terris , Cesare P. R. Romano , and Leigh Swigart , University Press of New England ( 2007 ) Speeches " A Latina Judge 's Voice " ( Judge Mario G. Olmos Memorial Lecture ) , in symposium " Raising the Bar : Latino and Latina Presence in the Judiciary and the Struggle for Representation " , Berkeley La Raza Law Journal ( Spring 2002 ) " Tribute to John Sexton " 60 NYU Annual Survey of American Law 23 ( 2004 )

= Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories = Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories ( Japanese : キングダム ハーツ チェイン オブ メモリーズ , Hepburn : Kingudamu Hātsu Chein Obu Memorīzu ) is an action role @-@ playing game developed by Jupiter and published by Square Enix in 2004 for the Game Boy Advance . The game serves as an intermediary between the two larger @-@ scale PlayStation 2 games in the Kingdom Hearts series . It was one of the first GBA games to incorporate full motion video ( FMV ) . The game was remade into a PlayStation 2 game titled Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories , which was released in Japan as a second disc packaged with Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix in March 2007 . The remake was released in North America on December 2 , 2008 . Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories is the second game in the Kingdom Hearts series . It is a direct sequel to Kingdom Hearts , and its ending is set about a year before Kingdom Hearts II . The story centers on the protagonist of the first game , Sora , exploring a mysterious castle in search of his friends . As he ascends the castle , his friend and rival , Riku , explores the basement levels and fights his inner darkness . The game introduces new characters and plotlines that further expand the Kingdom Hearts universe and set up the premise for Kingdom Hearts II . Though not as successful as the other Kingdom Hearts games , it received positive reviews and sold well . It was praised for its story , graphics , and FMVs . The game features a new card @-@ based battle system that is a departure from its predecessor . When it debuted in Japan , it sold 104 @,@ 000 units in 48 hours . = = Gameplay = = Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories is a combination between a role @-@ playing video game and collectible card game . The main role @-@ playing aspect is an experience point system that is used to increase the character 's maximum health or Card Points , or to learn a new skill . The cards are utilized in the progression of the story as well as in combat . The game features a field map and battle screen . The field map is an isometric area where the player can traverse between rooms . Enemies inhabit the field map and track the player to engage in combat , which can be initiated through contact between the player and an enemy . Once combat has been engaged , the game switches to the battle screen which utilizes a card @-@ based battle system . A unique aspect to this game is " room synthesis " : to advance through the game , the player must utilize Map cards that he has found after winning battles to synthesize rooms . The properties of each room ― including quality of items and strength of enemies ― are determined by the Map cards that the player chooses . Each card has a specific effect : red cards affect the number and type of enemies ; green cards affect the power of the player 's deck ; and blue cards affect the properties of the room itself , such as allowing treasure chests or a save point to appear . The game features three modes of gameplay . The first two are story modes that feature either Sora or Riku , and the third is a two player battle mode . Initially only Sora 's story mode is available ; once completed , " Reverse / Rebirth " mode becomes available . Reverse / Rebirth allows the player to play a second story mode featuring Riku and a link mode where players can battle each other via a Game Link Cable . = = = Combat = = = Combat uses a card @-@ based battle system executed in real time . The player can jump and maneuver around the battle screen as they would on the field map , but all physical attacks , magic , items , and summonings are activated by playing cards . Cards are ranked from zero to nine , and are used for making attack combos or breaking enemy cards . With the exception of zero @-@ ranked cards which are more expensive in terms of Card Points ( CP ) compared to other cards of the same type and have other ranks , more CP are required to place higher @-@ ranked cards in the player 's deck . Card Points — increased through level up — limit the number of cards the player can use in a deck . Cards with rank " zero " can break any opposing card or combo if played after the opposing card or combo , but they can be broken by any card or combo as well if it is played after the zero card is played . Breaking an opposing card will cancel that attack and stun the loser of a card break for a short time . Special enemy cards may be obtained by defeating enemies and bosses , and are used to give the player a temporary ability , ranging from enhanced offensive and defensive capabilities to modifying the attributes of certain cards . Combining cards in sets of three will create combo attacks that are usually more difficult to break because the rank of the combo will be the sum of the ranks of the three cards in the combo . Certain card combinations will create a " sleight " , a special combination that will create a powerful physical attack , magical spell , or summon attack . When the player runs out of cards , the deck must be reloaded . Additionally , using a card combination will cause the first card in the combo to become unusable until the end of combat . Sora 's and Riku 's stories differ gameplay @-@ wise in several ways . In Sora 's story , Sora obtains cards by defeating enemies or through Moogle Shops . In some cases , Sora must earn the specific card first through a plot event before it becomes available . Sora can create and store three different decks in the pause menu . Unlike Sora , Riku has a closed deck that cannot be customized . The cards in his deck change depending on the world in which he is traveling . Riku is limited to mainly physical attacks , enemy cards , and Mickey Mouse ally cards . Riku can activate " dark mode " and unlock his sleight attacks if he accumulates enough " dark points " . Dark points are earned by breaking enemy cards and combos , and the difference between Riku 's card or combo and the enemy 's card or combo is how many dark points he will accumulate for that card break . = = Plot = = = = = Setting = = = Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories takes place directly after the ending of the first game , Kingdom Hearts . The game is set in Castle Oblivion , a mysterious castle kept by Lord Marluxia . Sora and his teammates are told that the castle causes visitors to lose their memories upon entering . The lobby and areas between floors are white with flower @-@ themed decorations , but each floor can be transformed into a different world from the first Kingdom Hearts game using " world cards " created from Sora 's memories . Like before , many of the worlds are based on Disney films while the rest were created by Square Enix . Unlike the previous game , the worlds are created from Sora 's memories . As such , many of the events experienced in Kingdom Hearts are relived in this game ; Sora encounters memory @-@ based versions of Disney characters that he has met before ( the exception being the Deep Jungle world based on Disney 's Tarzan ) . The individual plotlines differ from those in the original game and revolve around the theme of memory . Just as Kingdom Hearts had several worlds created specifically for that game , Chain of Memories introduces Twilight Town as a world created from memories on " the other side of Sora 's heart " , in addition to the original worlds of Kingdom Hearts . = = = Characters = = = Sora returns as the protagonist of the game . Donald Duck and Goofy also return , but are less involved in the gameplay and story . Like the first game , Chain of Memories features numerous characters from both the Final Fantasy series and the Disney animated features canon . Being a direct sequel , many of the characters from the first Kingdom Hearts reappear in this game . As each world and the related characters are recreated from Sora 's memories , they interact with Sora as if they had never met before . Chain of Memories also introduces a handful of new characters . Several are members of the enigmatic Organization . Other new characters include Naminé , a young girl capable of manipulating memories , and DiZ , a mysterious man concealed by red robes and bandages . Riku is also featured as a playable character in the second story mode . After being sealed in the realm of darkness at the end of Kingdom Hearts , Riku appears in the basement of Castle Oblivion . During his story , he is aided by King Mickey and DiZ . Six members of the Organization serve as the antagonists of the game , though only four appear in Sora 's story mode , while the rest appear in Riku 's story mode . Among the four are Marluxia , the antagonist and lord of Castle Oblivion ; Larxene , a female member assisting Marluxia ; Axel , a double agent whose loyalties are hidden ; and Vexen , an unwilling participant in Marluxia 's plan . Zexion and Lexaeus , allies of Vexen , appear only in Riku 's story mode . Ansem also appears in Riku 's story as an entity within Riku trying to gain control of him . Many of the Disney villains return ; although they are memory @-@ based recreations like the rest of the Disney characters , they have different motivations compared to their Kingdom Hearts counterparts . = = = Story = = = Sora and his friends Donald , Goofy , and Jiminy Cricket walk down a winding path in search of the missing Riku and King Mickey . A man dressed in a black , hooded coat appears and directs Sora towards a massive fortress called Castle Oblivion . Upon entering , the travelers realize that they have forgotten all of their abilities . The hooded man explains that the deeper they go into the castle , the more memories they will lose , but they will also uncover new memories in the process . He creates a deck of cards made from Sora 's and his friends ' memories , and tells them that everything they encounter in this castle will be based on their memories . Sora ascends the castle , facing off against other hooded figures who form a group called " the Organization " along the way . As Sora begins losing his memories , he gradually appears to remember a girl named Naminé as an old friend of his , and learns from the Organization member Larxene that she is being held prisoner in the castle . He also clashes with a replica of Riku created and controlled by another Organization member , Vexen , and believed by both Sora and the replica himself to be the real Riku . Axel , an Organization double agent , releases Naminé and allows her to meet Sora in person . Sora discovers Naminé to be the one manipulating his memories , having been forced to do so by Marluxia , the lord of Castle Oblivion and the figure who lured Sora there , as part of his plan to overthrow the rest of the Organization with Larxene . Sora climbs to the top of the tower and defeats Marluxia and the other Organization members , after which Naminé puts Sora and his friends into pod @-@ like machines to help them regain the memories they lost in the castle , even though they will forget the events that transpired in the castle . Before they are put to sleep , Sora and Naminé promise to meet again as real friends once he reawakens , Sora firmly believing that his memories of her and the castle will remain in his heart despite being forgotten . In Reverse / Rebirth , Riku has been transported from the realm of darkness and fights his inner darkness as he battles upward from the basement levels of Castle Oblivion . Vexen fights Riku to obtain his data and creates the replica of him to counter Marluxia 's plan . Ansem , who had previously taken over Riku 's body , tries to regain control of Riku , but King Mickey 's support keeps Ansem at bay . On the way , Riku battles and defeats Lexaeus , a member of Vexen 's circle , only to be dragged into the realm of darkness . However , he is saved by King Mickey when Ansem nearly succeeds in taking Riku 's body as his own . With Marluxia eliminated by this time , another of Vexen 's allies , Zexion , attempts to dispose of Riku by drowning him in light . Riku is saved by Naminé disguised as Kairi , who helps him to control his darkness , allowing him to defeat Zexion . Riku later meets DiZ , an enigmatic individual interested in Riku who sends him to find Naminé . Riku 's replica , who has since learned of his altered memories and seeks to justify his existence , fights Riku only to be destroyed by him . Riku chooses to face Ansem upon learning from Naminé that Ansem lives in his heart , and defeats him after DiZ summons him for Riku to fight . Riku then sets out on a journey to utilize both his darkness and his light with King Mickey as his companion . = = Development = = The idea for an intermediary title was developed after director Tetsuya Nomura and his team had already begun to develop ideas for the second Kingdom Hearts game , which he had intended to be set a year after the original . Originally titled Kingdom Hearts : Lost Memories , Nomura changed the name to match the overall outline of the story , while still reflecting the theme of memories . Chain of Memories was developed to bridge the gap between Kingdom Hearts and Kingdom Hearts II . Like most sequels , Kingdom Hearts II was planned to have the character start from the beginning , ability @-@ wise . To explain the loss of abilities gained in the previous game , Nomura had the story revolve around Sora 's memories getting corrupted and implemented the card battle system to symbolize Sora 's various memories . Nomura was hesitant about releasing a Kingdom Hearts title on the Game Boy Advance , feeling that the 3D graphics of the original game would not translate well into 2D . Nomura changed his position after hearing that children wanted to play Kingdom Hearts on the GBA . After exploring ideas for the gameplay , he felt that a 2D Kingdom Hearts game would be possible , and that it could still feel like and play like what gamers were used to in the original . Meanwhile , Nomura wanted to give the game a " lighter tone " than the PlayStation 2 games . Chain of Memories was announced along with Kingdom Hearts II at the Tokyo Game Show in September 2003 . Initial details included the switch to 2D graphics , the use of cards to perform attacks , and that compressed movies would be utilized in some cut scenes . The cut scene animations were rendered using the graphical engine of the PlayStation 2 iteration and then encoded for the Game Boy Advance by using a technology developed by Japanese company , AM3 . To help market the game , Disney and Square Enix launched official Japanese websites . A playable demo was first made available to the public at the 2003 Jump Festa in Japan ; this demo and subsequent demos highlighted the card @-@ based combat system . Aside from information gathered from the opening sequences , most details regarding the story were kept secret until the release . The card @-@ based gameplay of Chain of Memories would later serve to inspire the gameplay of Jupiter 's next game , The World Ends with You ; originally , the team envisioned a similar card game @-@ based system taking place on the lower screen of the Nintendo DS , but eventually this morphed to a battle system taking place on both screens , with a card game controlled on the upper screen . = = = Audio = = = Much of the music from the original Kingdom Hearts is present in Chain of Memories ; the main vocal theme for the Japanese release is " Hikari " ( 光 ) , while the English version of " Hikari " , " Simple And Clean " , is used in the Western releases . Additional and reworked tracks were created for its PlayStation 2 rerelease , Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories . Since the music is reused from the original , a Chain of Memories soundtrack was never released . The new reworked tracks , however , are included on two CDs in the Kingdom Hearts Original Soundtrack Complete . Due to the technological limitations of the Game Boy Advance cartridge size , voice acting was kept to a minimum . Though many characters from Kingdom Hearts were voiced by the cast from before , the Japanese version used the following voice actors : Keiji Fujiwara as Axel ; Tatsuya Kando as Vexen , Marluxia , and Lexaeus ; and Rieko Katayama as Larxene . A limited amount of voice acting was added only for the battle sequences . Voice clips from the first Kingdom Hearts were inserted into Chain of Memories . The English version is absent of dialogue ; voices during Organization battles are replaced with simple grunts , laughter , and other battle cries . = = Reception = = While the least successful in the series commercially , Chain of Memories received generally positive reviews and met with successful sales figures . In Japan , it sold 104 @,@ 000 units in 48 hours , a record for a Game Boy Advance title at the time . Its positive debut sales placed it in the top spot of sales charts in Japan . In the first month of its North American release , it was ranked 1st on GameSpot 's ChartSpot for portable systems and 6th for all consoles . By February 2005 , it had sold over one million copies in Japan and North America . Worldwide sales of the game reached 1 @.@ 50 million copies by the end of 2006 . As of August 2009 , Chain of Memories has sold over 1 @.@ 55 million copies worldwide , with 200 @,@ 000 units in PAL regions , 410 @,@ 000 units in Japan , and 940 @,@ 000 units in North America . = = = Critical response = = = The game received positive ratings from critics . The card @-@ based battle system received mixed reviews . GameSpot called it " unwieldy " , while GameSpy called it " engaging " and GameWatch called it original . Reviews also cited that the card battle system was awkward and made it difficult to plan strategies . G4TV commented that the gameplay was well suited for portable play and that it successfully combined card battles and random dungeons , " two much @-@ maligned RPG " elements . Some critics found the Room Synthesis to be far too linear . The most frequent praise went towards the story . IGN called it an " engrossing storyline that actually changes up after the adventure comes to an end " and rated the presentation a 10 out of 10 . The quality of the graphics was well received , particularly the cut scenes . IGN cited them as " wonderfully produced FMV sequences " . GameSpot stated that the movies were true to the art style of the original and were on par with GBA video paks . They also commented on the detailed and well animated game sprites . GameWatch described the event scenes as " high quality " . Many critics stated that though the graphics were not as good as the PlayStation 2 predecessor , they were very good for a GBA game . G4TV complimented the graphics stating that Chain of Memories was " one of the best @-@ looking GBA games out there . " = = Versions and merchandise = = Like its predecessor , a great deal of merchandise was produced to help market the release of the game . Square Enix released two products to coincide with the release of the video game . The first was a limited edition Kingdom Hearts Game Boy Advance SP set released only in Japan . The set contained the game , a " Kingdom deep silver " GBA SP with the Kingdom Hearts logo , and a carrying strap . The second was a Kingdom Hearts trading card game produced by Tomy . The TCG featured starter decks , playing mats , and booster packs . Fantasy Flight Games later acquired the rights to market it to English @-@ speaking countries . In 2007 , a remake for the PlayStation 2 , titled Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories was released along with Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix in a set , Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix + . A manga series ran in Monthly Shōnen Gangan in Japan , and was later released in the United States . It is accompanied by three novels — two set during Sora 's storyline and the third during Reverse / Rebirth , Riku 's story . Like with the Final Fantasy games and the first Kingdom Hearts game , Square released an Ultimania book on Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories following the release of the game . In North America , BradyGames released a strategy guide with a comprehensive walkthrough . = = = Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories = = = Kingdom Hearts : Chain of Memories was remade for the PlayStation 2 , titled Kingdom Hearts Re : Chain of Memories . It was developed by Square Enix 's fifth Product Development Division , based in Osaka , and released as the second disc of Kingdom Hearts II Final Mix + in Japan on March 29 , 2007 and as a standalone title in North America on December 2 , 2008 . It has not been released in Europe or Australia for the PlayStation 2 , but has seen a worldwide release as part of Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix . The remake includes polygonal 3D battles and worlds using the same graphics as Kingdom Hearts , as well as voice acting and an improved soundtrack . While the card @-@ based battle system and room synthesis aspects of the gameplay stayed mostly the same , there were additions , such as the " Reaction Command " function from Kingdom Hearts II . Voice @-@ acted scenes only occur in Castle Oblivion , as well as the Destiny Islands and Twilight Town simulations . The remake also includes new cutscenes and battles that were not in the original game . IGN ranked it as the 92nd best PlayStation 2 game . The staff felt that it stood out among other card @-@ based RPGs . = = = Manga = = = Like the first Kingdom Hearts , Chain of Memories was adapted into a manga by Shiro Amano , following the same plot as the video game . It was serialized in Square 's Monthly Shōnen Gangan in Japan , then released in two volumes in Japan and later in the United States by TOKYOPOP . The first volume was released in Japan on October 22 , 2005 . A year later , it was released in English on October 10 , 2006 , followed by the second volume on February 6 , 2007 . The manga series has had moderate success . The first volume was ranked 112th on USA Today 's " Top 150 best sellers " during the week of its release . IGN praised Amano 's renditions of the characters and the humor added into scenes . They also commented the weak elements of the game lessened the manga 's overall quality . The series was followed by a third manga series , Kingdom Hearts II . The Chain of Memories manga series was re @-@ released in a boxed set in the United States on October 9 , 2007 . = = = HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix = = = In September 2012 , Square Enix announced Kingdom Hearts HD 1 @.@ 5 Remix a compilation for the PlayStation 3 to include both Kingdom Hearts Final Mix and Re : Chain of Memories in high definition and trophy support . Additionally , the collection includes HD cinematic scenes from Kingdom Hearts 358 / 2 Days . It was released in Japan on March 14 , 2013 and in North America on September 10 , 2013 . Releases on September 12 , 2013 for Australia and September 13 , 2013 for Europe marked the first time Re : Chain of Memories was available in both of those territories .

= This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like = " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " is the debut single of American industrial singer @-@ songwriter Porcelain Black , featuring American rapper Lil Wayne . This song serves as the lead single from the singer 's debut studio album , Mannequin Factory . Produced by Moroccan @-@ Swedish producer RedOne , who had originally discovered Black , " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " is influenced by the genre of rock , lyrically stating how the listener should be proud of who they are . The song was released digitally in the United States on March 29 , 2011 , and managed to chart at number forty @-@ four on the US Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs . A music video for " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " , shot and directed by Sanaa Hamri , was released on March 27 , 2011 . The music video pays homage to Porcelain Black 's high school experiences , where she was constantly teased by " snobby rich kids " , but never gave in to the pressure of her peers around her . The video serves as a form of revenge for Porcelain Black against high school tormentors . " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " garnered mixed reviews from critics , most of whom were shocked by Porcelain Black 's image and sounds but favored her apparent perception of herself as the " offspring " of fellow musicians Britney Spears and Marilyn Manson and their individual styles . Porcelain Black performed the song on the Late Show with David Letterman , marking her debut televised appearance . The song was featured in an episode of Beavis and Butthead and the 2013 film , The Smurfs 2 . = = Background and release = = " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " was written by Porcelain Black , Lil Wayne , RedOne , Bilal Hajji , with RedOne providing the song 's production . In the song 's writing credits , Porcelain Black and Lil Wayne are credited under their real names , Alaina Beaton and Dwayne Carter , Jr. respectively . After being introduced to Lil Wayne 's manager , Derrick " EI " Lawrence , by producer RedOne , Porcelain Black stated that she met Lil Wayne in New York when he heard " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " , where he expressed an interest in adding his vocals to the song . The single cover for " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " was revealed on March 21 , 2011 , alongside a snippet of the song . " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " was released digitally through the United States iTunes Store on March 29 , 2011 . Following the release of Porcelain Black 's second single , " Naughty Naughty , " Dutch DJ , remixer and house music producer R3hab produced a remix of " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like , " making it available for free download through SoundCloud on January 24 , 2012 . R3hab went on to compliment Porcelain Black 's original song , stating , " The original vibe is crazy , and I am a big fan of Lil Wayne . This track makes you wanna rage like the lyrics say ! I see [ the remix ] as a rollercoaster ride . Breaks slow it down . Then there is a climb , and the big drop ! " Porcelain Black complimented R3hab 's remix in an interview with MTV News : " I wish [ ed ] his remixes were the official singles because they really pop off next level . I love all the spooky horror pop synths he throws in the mixes , and the breakdowns make me wanna throw back shots of whiskey and hair whip . If I could have sex with a song I 'd def be tappin ’ dat remix ! " = = Music and lyrics = = Described as " in @-@ your @-@ face " , " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " is influenced by the genres of rock , dance @-@ pop , and power pop , while containing " roaring " guitars and lyrics which aim to remind listeners to be proud of who they are . Vocally , Porcelain Black sings as if straining through " a maze of razorblades , " according to Steven J. Horowitz of YRB Magazine . The RedOne @-@ produced track employs a beat that is reminiscent of his work with Lady Gaga . Porcelain Black screams in the chorus " Hey hey hey if you 're ready to rage / Raise your hands up , this what rock and roll looks like / Yeah yeah yeah , wearing leather and lace / Raise your hands up , this what rock and roll looks like . " While being interviewed by the Los Angeles Times , Porcelain Black discussed in depth about the genre mix in " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " : Although the song 's title references the physical appearance of what rock and roll looks like , Porcelain Black revealed in an interview with AOL 's NoiceCreep that rock and roll is not dependent on the physical appearance of someone . She stated : = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " received generally mixed reviews by critics , most of whom were surprised with Porcelain Black 's outgoing persona and the pop production by RedOne . Gerrick D. Kennedy of Los Angeles Times complimented the song 's production by stating that it could have been used by Lady Gaga . Ian Drew of Us Weekly called the single " shocking " and " electric " . Allison Stewart of The Washington Post gave " This Is What Rock ‘ n ’ Roll Looks Like ” a mixed review , describing Porcelain Black as a " girl @-@ fronted version of Mötley Crüe circa Dr. Feelgood " . Jon Wiederhorn of Inked dubbed the song " a [ sic ] euphoric digital feast of raspy melodic vocals , four @-@ to @-@ the @-@ floor beats , and keyboards that buzz like electric guitars . " = = = Chart performance = = = " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " debuted on the U.S. Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs at number forty @-@ six , on the week ending July 18 , 2011 . The following week , the song went up two spots , peaking at number forty @-@ four . The following two weeks , " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " remained stationary at number forty @-@ four on the weeks ending August 1 , 2011 and August 8 , 2011 , respectively . = = Music video = = A music video for " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " was shot and directed by Sanaa Hamri at Citrus College in Glendora , California . Porcelain Black discussed the idea behind the music video for " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " with AOL 's Carlos Ramirez , stating it was based on real life experiences . After Porcelain Black 's mother had re @-@ married , she was forced to move to Rochester , Michigan , which Porcelain Black described as " a really rich area " . Attending high school , Porcelain Black was surrounded by " snotty rich kids " who would tease her saying " You 're a fucking freak , what 's your problem ? " , to which Porcelain Black would reply " You 're boring and fake , get away from me . " Reviewing her past , Porcelain Black realized it would make for a good music video . A behind the scenes look at shooting the music video was released on May 12 , 2011 . In an interview with AOL Music 's Contessa Gayles , Porcelain Black discussed the concept of the video as revenge . She stated : It was about getting revenge . People were always hating on me , because I was different . I was like , " I 'm going to sing , I 'm going to do this , I 'm going to do that , " they were like " OK , sure you are . " And I was like " No , I 'm serious . This is what I 'm going to do . " And everybody was like , " Yeah right . " Even when I told everyone I was moving to LA to do music and had a going away party , only one person showed up , because no one believed that I was really going away . They were like , " You 'll be back . " So it was kind of just like my revenge , and just a statement , like throwing it back in their face . The music video debuted on March 27 , 2011 . The music video begins with a young Porcelain Black being teased by a group of blonde girls , who resemble " The Plastics " in Mean Girls ( 2004 ) . As Porcelain Black is being teased , a young version of Lil Wayne comes to the defense of Porcelain Black , scaring away the group of blonde girls . The video then fast forwards nine years where Black , accompanied by her own entourage , walks past a group of snobby girls , giving them the middle @-@ finger as she walks away leaving them in shock . As the video continues , Black gets revenge on her high school enemies by tearing up the school 's library and cafeteria . During Lil Wayne 's verse , the two are seen raging in the school 's gym . Rapper Birdman makes a cameo appearance in this scene . = = Performances and usage in media = = Porcelain Black performed the song as the opening act for Lil Wayne on the I Am Music II tour . Porcelain Black made her first ever television appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman on Thursday , July 21 , 2011 . Porcelain Black wore a leather , leotard @-@ like bustiere number , complete with mesh , fringe and metallic studs as she whipped her black @-@ and @-@ blonde hair around , while prancing across the stage with her gothic dancers . While making her debut televised performance , Lil Wayne did not appear alongside Porcelain Black . In an interview with AOL 's NoiseCreep , Porcelain Black described her first televised appearance as " intense , amazing , surreal " , revealing that prior to the performance she was very nervous stating " Oh my god ! I 'm about to give birth to a panic attack ! " Becky Bain of Idolator compared Black 's styling to that of Lady Gaga 's . Contessa Gayles of AOL described Porcelain Black 's choreography as " racy , " later complimenting Porcelain Black on her " two @-@ toned , Cruella De Vil @-@ inspired coiffure . " Porcelain Black walked down the runway in a camouflage corset designed by Falguni and Shane Peacock at the 2012 Spring Fashion Week , as her song played in the background . Her appearance there was used to promote the single . " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " appeared in the tenth episode of the eighth season of Beavis and Butthead . Expecting the duo to comment on the disparity between the song 's title and its genre , R.L. Shaffer of IGN noticed that no such comparison was made ; instead , the classroom setting was criticized while the presence of Lil Wayne was appreciated . The song was also used in the 2013 film , The Smurfs 2 . = = Track listing = = Digital release : " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " ( featuring Lil Wayne ) – 4 : 12 = = Charts = =

= Soviet cruiser Maxim Gorky = Maxim Gorky ( Russian : Максим Горький ) was a Project 26bis Kirov @-@ class cruiser of the Soviet Navy that saw action during World War II and continued in service into the Cold War . The ship ’ s bow was blown @-@ off by a mine in the Gulf of Riga during the opening stages of Operation Barbarossa , but she made it to Kronstadt for repairs . However , after being repaired , the ship was trapped in harbour for most of the war , by Axis minefields at Leningrad and Kronstadt . Despite being trapped , Maxim Gorky was active in two engagements : the ship provided gunfire in support for the defenders during the Siege of Leningrad , and she later bombarded Finnish positions during the Vyborg – Petrozavodsk Offensive in mid @-@ 1944 . She saw no further action in World War II . A major modernization was begun in 1953 , but the navy reconsidered the cost @-@ effectiveness of the refit and work was cancelled in 1955 . Maxim Gorky was sold for scrap in 1959 . = = Description = = Maxim Gorky was 187 meters ( 613 ft 6 in ) long at the waterline , and 191 @.@ 4 meters ( 627 ft 11 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 17 @.@ 66 meters ( 57 ft 11 in ) and had a draft between 5 @.@ 87 to 6 @.@ 3 meters ( 19 ft 3 in to 20 ft 8 in ) . She displaced 8 @,@ 177 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 048 long tons ) at standard load and 9 @,@ 728 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 574 long tons ) at full load . Her steam turbines produced a total of 129 @,@ 750 shaft horsepower ( 96 @,@ 750 kW ) during her sea trials and propelled the ship to a maximum speed of 36 @.@ 72 knots ( 68 @.@ 01 km / h ; 42 @.@ 26 mph ) . This was barely short of her designed speed of 37 knots and was because she was over 900 tonnes ( 886 long tons ) overweight . She normally carried 650 metric tons ( 640 long tons ) of fuel oil , 1 @,@ 660 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 630 long tons ) at full load and 1 @,@ 750 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 720 long tons ) at overload . This gave her an endurance of 4 @,@ 220 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 820 km ; 4 @,@ 860 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Maxim Gorky carried nine 180 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) 57 @-@ calibre B @-@ 1 @-@ P guns in three electrically powered MK @-@ 3 @-@ 180 triple turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of six single 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) 56 @-@ calibre B @-@ 34 anti @-@ aircraft guns fitted on each side of the rear funnel . Her light anti @-@ aircraft guns consisted of nine semi @-@ automatic 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) 21 @-@ K guns and four DShK 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) machine guns . Six 533 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) 39 @-@ Yu torpedo tubes were fitted in two triple mountings . = = = Wartime modifications = = = By 1944 Maxim Gorky had exchanged her 45 mm guns for 15 fully automatic 37 mm 70 @-@ K AA guns with one thousand rounds per gun , two extra DsHK machine guns and two quadruple Lend @-@ Lease Vickers .50 machine gun MK III mounts . When war broke out in 1941 Maxim Gorky lacked radar , but she was equipped with British Lend @-@ Lease radar by 1944 . One Type 291 was used for air search . One Type 284 and two Type 285 radars were for main battery fire control , while anti @-@ aircraft fire control was provided by two Type 282 radars . = = Service = = Maxim Gorky was laid down at the Ordzhonikidze Yard , Leningrad on 20 December 1936 as a slightly improved version , Project 26bis as designated by the Soviets , of the first pair of Kirov @-@ class cruisers , which were called Project 26 . She was launched on 30 April 1938 and was completed on 12 December 1938 . The ship , and her escorts , ran into the German @-@ laid " Apolda " minefield in the Gulf of Riga while providing cover for Soviet defensive mining efforts on 23 June 1941 and Maxim Gorky and the destroyer Gnevny both lost their bows , although Gorky made it to port where temporary repairs were made . The ship was transferred , with assistance , to Tallinn and later to Kronstadt . She had a new bow section fabricated at Kronstadt and it was mated with the ship on 21 July . For most of the rest of the war she was blockaded in Leningrad and Kronstadt by Axis minefields and could only provide gunfire support for the defenders during the Siege of Leningrad , for example she fired 285 180 mm shells on 4 September 1941 and 701 rounds during the Krasnoye Selo – Ropsha Offensive in January 1944 . She also bombarded Finnish positions during the Soviet Vyborg – Petrozavodsk Offensive in June 1944 . Maxim Gorky was repeatedly , if lightly , damaged by German air and artillery attacks , but her only extended refit occurred over the winter of 1942 — 43 when her upper deck was reinforced with 37 @-@ millimetre armour plates . = = Postwar career = = Maxim Gorky tested the first Soviet naval helicopter , the Kamov Ka @-@ 10 in December 1950 and began her refit in mid @-@ 1953 . This was planned to include a complete overhaul of her machinery while her radar , fire @-@ control systems and anti @-@ aircraft guns were to be replaced by the latest Soviet systems . Torpedo bulges were to be fitted which would increase her displacement by 1 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 980 long tons ) , with consequent penalties to her speed and range . The navy re @-@ evaluated the scope of the work in 1955 and deemed it insufficient to create a fully modern ship and suspended the refit . Maxim Gorky was sold for scrapping on 18 April 1959 after the navy had decided that she wasn 't needed as a missile @-@ test ship .

= Apollo 1 = Apollo 1 , initially designated AS @-@ 204 , was the first manned mission of the United States Apollo program , which had as its ultimate goal a manned lunar landing . The low Earth orbital test of the Apollo Command / Service Module never made its target launch date of February 21 , 1967 . A cabin fire during a launch rehearsal test on January 27 at Cape Kennedy Air Force Station Launch Complex 34 killed all three crew members — Command Pilot Virgil I. " Gus " Grissom , Senior Pilot Edward H. White II , and Pilot Roger B. Chaffee — and destroyed the Command Module ( CM ) . The name Apollo 1 , chosen by the crew , was officially retired by NASA in commemoration of them on April 24 , 1967 . Immediately after the fire , NASA convened the Apollo 204 Accident Review Board to determine the cause of the fire , and both houses of the United States Congress conducted their own committee inquiries to oversee NASA 's investigation . The ignition source of the fire was determined to be electrical , and the fire spread rapidly due to combustible nylon material , and the high pressure , pure oxygen cabin atmosphere . The astronauts ' rescue was prevented by the plug door hatch , which could not be opened against the higher internal pressure of the cabin . A failure to identify the test as hazardous , based on the fact that the rocket was unfueled , led to the rescue being hampered by poor emergency preparedness . During the Congressional investigation , then @-@ Senator Walter Mondale publicly revealed a NASA internal document citing problems with prime Apollo contractor North American Aviation , which became known as the " Phillips Report " . This disclosure embarrassed NASA Administrator James E. Webb , who was unaware of the document 's existence , and attracted controversy to the Apollo program . Despite congressional displeasure at NASA 's lack of openness , both congressional committees ruled that the issues raised in the report had no bearing on the accident . Manned Apollo flights were suspended for 20 months while the Command Module 's hazards were addressed . However , the development and unmanned testing of the Lunar Module ( LM ) and Saturn V Moon rocket continued . The Saturn IB launch vehicle for Apollo 1 , AS @-@ 204 , was used for the first LM test flight , Apollo 5 . The first successful manned Apollo mission was flown by Apollo 1 's backup crew on Apollo 7 in October 1968 . = = Crew = = = = = First backup crew ( April – December 1966 ) = = = = = = Second backup crew ( December 1966 – January 1967 ) = = = = = Apollo manned test flight plans = = AS @-@ 204 was to be the first manned test flight of the Apollo Command / Service Module ( CSM ) to Earth orbit , launched on a Saturn IB rocket . AS @-@ 204 was to test launch operations , ground tracking and control facilities and the performance of the Apollo @-@ Saturn launch assembly and would have lasted up to two weeks , depending on how the spacecraft performed . The CSM for this flight , number 012 built by North American Aviation ( NAA ) , was a Block I version designed before the lunar orbit rendezvous landing strategy was chosen ; therefore it lacked capability of docking with the Lunar Module . This was incorporated into the Block II CSM design , along with lessons learned in Block I. Block II would be test @-@ flown with the LM when the latter was ready , and would be used on the Moon landing flights . Deke Slayton , the Mercury astronaut who was grounded and became Director of Flight Crew Operations , selected the first Apollo crew in January 1966 , with Grissom as Command Pilot , White as Senior Pilot , and rookie Donn F. Eisele as Pilot . But Eisele dislocated his shoulder twice aboard the KC135 weightlessness training aircraft , and had to undergo surgery on January 27 . Slayton replaced him with Chaffee , and NASA announced the crew selection on March 21 , 1966 . James McDivitt , David Scott and Russell Schweickart were named as the backup crew . On September 29 , Walter Schirra , Eisele , and Walter Cunningham were named as the prime crew for a second Block I CSM flight , AS @-@ 205 . NASA planned to follow this with an unmanned test flight of the LM ( AS @-@ 206 ) , then the third manned mission would be a dual flight designated AS @-@ 278 ( or AS @-@ 207 / 208 ) , in which AS @-@ 207 would launch the first manned Block II CSM , which would then rendezvous and dock with the LM launched unmanned on AS @-@ 208 . In March , NASA was studying the possibility of flying the first Apollo mission as a joint space rendezvous with the final Project Gemini mission , Gemini 12 in November 1966 . But by May , delays in making Apollo ready for flight just by itself , and the extra time needed to incorporate compatibility with the Gemini , made that impractical . This became moot when slippage in readiness of the AS @-@ 204 spacecraft caused the last @-@ quarter 1966 target date to be missed , and the mission was rescheduled for February 21 , 1967 . = = Mission background = = Grissom declared his intent to keep his craft in orbit for a full 14 days . A newspaper article published on August 4 , 1966 , referred to the flight as " Apollo 1 " . CM @-@ 012 arrived at the Kennedy Space Center on August 26 , labeled Apollo One by NAA on its packaging . In October 1966 , NASA announced the flight would carry a small television camera to broadcast live from the Command Module . The camera would also be used to allow flight controllers to monitor the spacecraft 's instrument panel in flight . Television cameras were carried aboard all manned Apollo missions . = = = Insignia = = = Grissom 's crew received approval in June 1966 to design a mission patch with the name Apollo 1 . The design 's center depicts a Command / Service Module flying over the southeastern United States with Florida ( the launch point ) prominent . The Moon is seen in the distance , symbolic of the eventual program goal . A yellow border carries the mission and astronaut names with another border set with stars and stripes , trimmed in gold . The insignia was designed by the crew , with the artwork done by North American Aviation employee Allen Stevens . = = = Spacecraft preparation = = = The Apollo Command / Service Module was much bigger and far more complex than any previously implemented spacecraft design . In October 1963 , Joseph F. Shea was named Apollo Spacecraft Program Office ( ASPO ) manager , responsible for managing the design and construction of both the CSM and the LM . In a spacecraft review meeting held with Shea on August 19 , 1966 ( a week before delivery ) , the crew expressed concern about the amount of flammable material ( mainly nylon netting and Velcro ) in the cabin , which both astronauts and technicians found convenient for holding tools and equipment in place . Though Shea gave the spacecraft a passing grade , after the meeting they gave him a crew portrait they had posed with heads bowed and hands clasped in prayer , with the inscription : It isn 't that we don 't trust you , Joe , but this time we 've decided to go over your head . Shea gave his staff orders to tell North American to remove the flammables from the cabin , but did not supervise the issue personally . North American shipped spacecraft CM @-@ 012 to Kennedy Space Center on August 26 , 1966 under a conditional Certificate of Flight Worthiness : 113 significant incomplete planned engineering changes had to be completed at KSC . But that was not all ; an additional 623 engineering change orders were made and completed after delivery . Grissom became so frustrated with the inability of the training simulator engineers to keep up with the spacecraft changes , that he took a lemon from a tree by his house and hung it on the simulator . The Command and Service Modules were mated in the KSC altitude chamber in September , and combined system testing was performed . Altitude testing was performed first unmanned , then with both the prime and backup crews , from October 10 through December 30 . During this testing , the Environmental Control Unit in the Command Module was found to have a design flaw , and was sent back to the manufacturer for design changes and rework . The returned ECU then leaked water / glycol coolant , and had to be returned a second time . Also during this time , a propellant tank in Service Module 017 had ruptured during testing at NAA , prompting the separation of the modules and removal from the chamber so the Service Module could be tested for signs of the tank problem . These tests were negative . In December , the second Block I flight AS @-@ 205 was canceled as unnecessary ; and Schirra , Eisele and Cunningham were reassigned as the backup crew for Apollo 1 . McDivitt 's crew was now promoted to prime crew of the Block II / LM mission , re @-@ designated AS @-@ 258 because the AS @-@ 205 launch vehicle would be used in place of AS @-@ 207 . A third manned mission was planned to launch the CSM and LM together on a Saturn V ( AS @-@ 503 ) to an elliptical medium Earth orbit ( MEO ) , to be crewed by Frank Borman , Michael Collins and William Anders . McDivitt , Scott and Schweickart had started their training for AS @-@ 258 in CM @-@ 101 at the NAA plant in Downey , California , when the Apollo 1 accident occurred . Once all outstanding CSM @-@ 012 hardware problems were fixed , the reassembled spacecraft finally completed a successful altitude chamber test with Schirra 's backup crew on December 30 . According to the final report of the accident investigation board , " At the post @-@ test debriefing the backup flight crew expressed their satisfaction with the condition and performance of the spacecraft . " This would appear to contradict the account given in Lost Moon : The Perilous Voyage of Apollo 13 by Jeffrey Kluger and astronaut James Lovell , that " When the trio climbed out of the ship , … Schirra made it clear that he was not pleased with what he had seen , " and that he later warned Grissom and Shea that " there 's nothing wrong with this ship that I can point to , but it just makes me uncomfortable . Something about it just doesn 't ring right , " and that Grissom should get out at the first sign of trouble . Following the successful altitude tests , the spacecraft was removed from the altitude chamber on January 3 , 1967 , and mated to its Saturn IB launch vehicle on pad 34 on January 6 . You sort of have to put that out of your mind . There 's always a possibility that you can have a catastrophic failure , of course ; this can happen on any flight ; it can happen on the last one as well as the first one . So , you just plan as best you can to take care of all these eventualities , and you get a well @-@ trained crew and you go fly . = = Accident = = = = = Plugs @-@ out test = = = The launch simulation on January 27 , 1967 , on pad 34 , was a " plugs @-@ out " test to determine whether the spacecraft would operate nominally on ( simulated ) internal power while detached from all cables and umbilicals . Passing this test was essential to making the February 21 launch date . The test was considered non @-@ hazardous because neither the launch vehicle nor the spacecraft was loaded with fuel or cryogenics , and all pyrotechnic systems were disabled . At 1 : 00 pm EST ( 1800 GMT ) on January 27 , first Grissom , then Chaffee , and White entered the Command Module fully pressure @-@ suited , and were strapped into their seats and hooked up to the spacecraft 's oxygen and communication systems . Grissom immediately noticed a strange odor in the air circulating through his suit which he compared to " sour buttermilk " , and the simulated countdown was held at 1 : 20 pm , while air samples were taken . No cause of the odor could be found , and the countdown was resumed at 2 : 42 pm . The accident investigation found this odor not to be related to the fire . Three minutes after the count was resumed , the hatch installation was started . The hatch consisted of three parts : a removable inner hatch , which stayed inside the cabin ; a hinged outer hatch , which was part of the spacecraft 's heat shield ; and an outer hatch cover , which was part of the boost protective cover enveloping the entire Command Module to protect it from aerodynamic heating during launch , and from launch escape rocket exhaust in the event of a launch abort . The boost hatch cover was partially , but not fully , latched in place because the flexible boost protective cover was slightly distorted by some cabling run under it to provide the simulated internal power . ( The spacecraft 's fuel cell reactants were not loaded for this test . ) After the hatches were sealed , the air in the cabin was replaced with pure oxygen at 16 @.@ 7 psi ( 115 kPa ) , 2 psi ( 14 kPa ) higher than atmospheric pressure . Movement by the astronauts was detected by the spacecraft 's inertial measurement unit and the astronaut 's biomedical sensors , and also indicated by increases in oxygen spacesuit flow , and sounds from Grissom 's stuck @-@ open microphone . There was no evidence to identify the movement , or whether it was related to the fire . The stuck microphone was part of a problem with the communications loop connecting the crew , the Operations and Checkout Building , and the Complex 34 blockhouse control room . The poor communications led Grissom to remark : " How are we going to get to the Moon if we can 't talk between two or three buildings ? " The simulated countdown was held again at 5 : 40 pm while attempts were made to troubleshoot the communications problem . All countdown functions up to the simulated internal power transfer had been successfully completed by 6 : 20 pm , but at 6 : 30 the count remained on hold at T minus 10 minutes . = = = Fire = = = The crew members were using the time to run through their checklist again , when a momentary increase in AC Bus 2 voltage occurred . Nine seconds later ( at 6 : 31 : 04 @.@ 7 ) , one of the astronauts ( some listeners and laboratory analysis indicate Grissom ) exclaimed " Hey ! " or " Fire ! " ; this was followed by two seconds of scuffling sounds through Grissom 's open microphone . This was immediately followed at 6 : 31 : 06 @.@ 2 ( 23 : 31 : 06 @.@ 2 GMT ) by someone ( believed by most listeners , and supported by laboratory analysis , to be Chaffee ) saying , " [ I 've , or We 've ] got a fire in the cockpit . " After 6 @.@ 8 seconds of silence , a second , badly garbled transmission occurred , interpreted by various listeners as : " They 're fighting a bad fire — Let 's get out .... Open ' er up " " We 've got a bad fire — Let 's get out .... We 're burning up " , or " I 'm reporting a bad fire .... I 'm getting out .... " . This transmission , believed by some listeners to be White , lasted 5 @.@ 0 seconds and ended with a cry of pain . Some blockhouse witnesses said that they saw White on the television monitors , reaching for the inner hatch release handle as flames in the cabin spread from left to right . The intensity of the fire fed by pure oxygen caused the pressure to rise to 29 psi ( 200 kPa ) , which ruptured the Command Module 's inner wall at 6 : 31 : 19 ( 23 : 31 : 19 GMT , initial phase of the fire ) . Flames and gases then rushed outside the Command Module through open access panels to two levels of the pad service structure . Intense heat , dense smoke , and ineffective gas masks designed for toxic fumes rather than heavy smoke hampered the ground crew 's attempts to rescue the men . There were fears the Command Module had exploded , or soon would , and that the fire might ignite the solid fuel rocket in the launch escape tower above the Command Module , which would have likely killed nearby ground personnel , and possibly have destroyed the pad . As the pressure was released by the cabin rupture , the convective rush of air caused the flames to spread across the cabin , beginning the second phase . The third phase began when most of the oxygen was consumed and was replaced with atmospheric air , essentially quenching the fire , but causing high concentrations of carbon monoxide and heavy smoke to fill the cabin , and large amounts of soot to be deposited on surfaces as they cooled . It took five minutes for the pad workers to open all three hatch layers , and they could not drop the inner hatch to the cabin floor as intended , so they pushed it out of the way to one side . Although the cabin lights remained lit , they were at first unable to find the astronauts through the dense smoke . As the smoke cleared , they found the bodies , but were not able to remove them . The fire had partly melted Grissom 's and White 's nylon space suits and the hoses connecting them to the life support system . Grissom had removed his restraints and was lying on the floor of the spacecraft . White 's restraints were burned through , and he was found lying sideways just below the hatch . It was determined that he had tried to open the hatch per the emergency procedure , but was not able to do so against the internal pressure . Chaffee was found strapped into his right @-@ hand seat , as procedure called for him to maintain communication until White opened the hatch . Because of the large strands of melted nylon fusing the astronauts to the cabin interior , removing the bodies took nearly 90 minutes . = = Investigation = = As a result of the in @-@ flight failure of the Gemini 8 mission on March 17 , 1966 , NASA Deputy Administrator Robert Seamans wrote and implemented Management Instruction 8621 @.@ 1 on April 14 , 1966 , defining Mission Failure Investigation Policy And Procedures . This modified NASA 's existing accident procedures , based on military aircraft accident investigation , by giving the Deputy Administrator the option of performing independent investigations of major failures , beyond those for which the various Program Office officials were normally responsible . It declared , " It is NASA policy to investigate and document the causes of all major mission failures which occur in the conduct of its space and aeronautical activities and to take appropriate corrective actions as a result of the findings and recommendations . " Immediately after the Apollo 1 fire , to avoid appearance of a conflict of interest , NASA Administrator James E. Webb asked President Lyndon B. Johnson to allow NASA to handle the investigation according to its established procedure , promising to be truthful in assessing blame , and to keep the appropriate leaders of Congress informed . Seamans then directed establishment of the Apollo 204 Review Board chaired by Langley Research Center director Floyd L. Thompson , which included astronaut Frank Borman , spacecraft designer Maxime Faget , and six others . On February 1 , Cornell University professor Frank A. Long left the board , and was replaced by Dr. Robert W. Van Dolah , of the U.S. Bureau of Mines . The next day , North American 's Chief engineer for Apollo , George Jeffs , also left . Seamans immediately ordered all Apollo 1 hardware and software impounded , to be released only under control of the board . After thorough stereo photographic documentation of the CM @-@ 012 interior , the board ordered its disassembly using procedures tested by disassembling the identical CM @-@ 014 , and conducted a thorough investigation of every part . The board also reviewed the astronauts ' autopsy results and interviewed witnesses . Seamans sent Webb weekly status reports of the investigation 's progress , and the board issued its final report on April 5 , 1967 . = = = Cause of death = = = According to the Board , Grissom suffered severe third degree burns on over one @-@ third of his body and his spacesuit was mostly destroyed . White suffered third degree burns on almost half of his body and a quarter of his spacesuit had melted away . Chaffee suffered third degree burns over almost a quarter of his body and a small portion of his spacesuit was damaged . The autopsy report confirmed that the primary cause of death for all three astronauts was cardiac arrest caused by high concentrations of carbon monoxide . Burns suffered by the crew were not believed to be major factors , and it was concluded that most of them had occurred postmortem . Asphyxiation happened after the fire melted the astronauts ' suits and oxygen tubes , exposing them to the lethal atmosphere of the cabin . = = = Major causes of accident = = = The review board identified several major factors which combined to cause the fire and the astronauts ' deaths : An ignition source most probably related to " vulnerable wiring carrying spacecraft power " and " vulnerable plumbing carrying a combustible and corrosive coolant " A pure oxygen atmosphere at higher than atmospheric pressure A cabin sealed with a hatch cover which could not be quickly removed at high pressure An extensive distribution of combustible materials in the cabin Inadequate emergency preparedness ( rescue or medical assistance , and crew escape ) = = = = Ignition source = = = = The review board determined that the electrical power momentarily failed at 23 : 30 : 55 GMT , and found evidence of several electric arcs in the interior equipment . However , they were unable to conclusively identify a single ignition source . They determined that the fire most likely started near the floor in the lower left section of the cabin , close to the Environmental Control Unit . It spread from the left wall of the cabin to the right , with the floor being affected only briefly . The board noted that a silver @-@ plated copper wire running through an environmental control unit near the center couch had become stripped of its Teflon insulation and abraded by repeated opening and closing of a small access door . This weak point in the wiring also ran near a junction in an ethylene glycol / water cooling line that had been prone to leaks . The electrolysis of ethylene glycol solution with the silver anode was discovered at MSC on May 29 , 1967 to be a hazard capable of causing a violent exothermic reaction , igniting the ethylene glycol mixture in the CM 's pure oxygen atmosphere . Experiments at the Illinois Institute of Technology confirmed the hazard existed for silver @-@ plated wires , but not for copper @-@ only or nickel @-@ plated copper . In July , ASPO directed both North American and Grumman to ensure no silver or silver @-@ coated electrical contacts existed in the vicinity of possible glycol spills in the Apollo spacecraft . = = = = Pure oxygen atmosphere = = = = The plugs @-@ out test had been run to simulate the launch procedure , with the cabin pressurized with pure oxygen at the nominal launch level of 16 @.@ 7 psi ( 115 kPa ) , 2 psi ( 14 kPa ) above standard sea level atmospheric pressure . This is more than five times the 3 psi ( 21 kPa ) partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere , and provides an environment in which materials not normally considered highly flammable will burst into flame . The high @-@ pressure oxygen atmosphere was consistent with that used in the Mercury and Gemini programs . The pressure before launch was deliberately greater than ambient in order to drive out the nitrogen @-@ containing air and replace it with pure oxygen , and also to seal the plug door hatch cover . During launch , the pressure would have been gradually reduced to the in @-@ flight level of 5 psi ( 34 kPa ) , providing sufficient oxygen for the astronauts to breathe while reducing the fire risk . The Apollo 1 crew had tested this procedure with their spacecraft in the Operations and Checkout Building altitude ( vacuum ) chamber on October 18 and 19 , 1966 , and the backup crew of Schirra , Eisele and Cunningham had repeated it on December 30 . The investigation board noted that , during these tests , the Command Module had been fully pressurized with pure oxygen four times , for a total of six hours and fifteen minutes , two and a half hours longer than it had been during the plugs @-@ out test . = = = = Flammable materials in the cabin = = = = The review board cited " many types and classes of combustible material " close to ignition sources . The NASA crew systems department had installed 34 square feet ( 3 @.@ 2 m2 ) of Velcro throughout the spacecraft , almost like carpeting . This Velcro was found to be flammable in a high @-@ pressure 100 % oxygen environment . Astronaut Buzz Aldrin states in his book Men From Earth that the flammable material had been removed per the crew 's August 19 complaints and Joseph Shea 's order , but was replaced before the August 26 delivery to Cape Kennedy . = = = = Hatch design = = = = The inner hatch cover used a plug door design , sealed by higher pressure inside the cabin than outside . The normal pressure level used for launch ( 2 psi ( 14 kPa ) above ambient ) created sufficient force to prevent removing the cover until the excess pressure was vented . Emergency procedure called for Grissom to open the cabin vent valve first , allowing White to remove the cover , but Grissom was prevented from doing this because the valve was located to the left , behind the initial wall of flames . Also , while the system could easily vent the normal pressure , its flow capacity was utterly incapable of handling the rapid increase to 29 psi ( 200 kPa ) absolute caused by the intense heat of the fire . North American had originally suggested the hatch open outward and use explosive bolts to blow the hatch in case of emergency , as had been done in Project Mercury . NASA did not agree , arguing the hatch could accidentally open , as it had on Grissom 's Liberty Bell 7 flight , so the Manned Spacecraft Center designers rejected the explosive design in favor of a mechanically operated one for the Gemini and Apollo programs . Before the fire , the Apollo astronauts had recommended changing the design to an outward @-@ opening hatch , and this was already slated for inclusion in the Block II Command Module design . According to Donald K. Slayton 's testimony before the House investigation of the accident , this was based on ease of exit for spacewalks and at the end of flight , rather than for emergency exit . = = = = Emergency preparedness = = = = The board noted that : the test planners had failed to identify the test as hazardous ; the emergency equipment ( such as gas masks ) were inadequate to handle this type of fire ; that fire , rescue , and medical teams were not in attendance ; and that the spacecraft work and access areas contained many hindrances to emergency response such as steps , sliding doors , and sharp turns . = = Choice of pure oxygen atmosphere = = When designing the Mercury spacecraft , NASA had considered using a nitrogen / oxygen mixture to reduce the fire risk near launch , but rejected it based on two considerations . First , nitrogen used with the in @-@ flight pressure reduction carried the clear risk of decompression sickness ( known as " the bends " ) . But the decision to eliminate the use of any gas but oxygen was crystalized when a serious accident occurred on April 21 , 1960 , in which McDonnell Aircraft test pilot G.B. North passed out and was seriously injured when testing a Mercury cabin / spacesuit atmosphere system in a vacuum chamber . The problem was found to be nitrogen @-@ rich ( oxygen @-@ poor ) air leaking from the cabin into his spacesuit feed . North American Aviation had suggested using an oxygen / nitrogen mixture for Apollo , but NASA overruled this . The pure oxygen design was judged to be safer , less complicated , and lighter in weight . In his monograph Project Apollo : The Tough Decisions , Deputy Administrator Seamans wrote that NASA 's single worst mistake in engineering judgment was not to run a fire test on the Command Module before the plugs @-@ out test . In the first episode of the 2009 BBC documentary series NASA : Triumph and Tragedy , Jim McDivitt said that NASA had no idea how a 100 % oxygen atmosphere would influence burning . Similar remarks by other astronauts were expressed in the 2007 documentary film In the Shadow of the Moon . = = = Other oxygen incidents = = = Several fires in high @-@ oxygen test environments had occurred before the Apollo fire . In 1962 , USAF Colonel B. Dean Smith was conducting a test of the Gemini space suit with a colleague in a pure oxygen chamber at Brooks Air Force Base in San Antonio , Texas when a fire broke out , destroying the chamber . Smith and his partner narrowly escaped . Other oxygen fire occurrences are documented in reports archived in the National Air and Space Museum , such as : Selection of Space Cabin Atmospheres . Part II : Fire and Blast Hazaards [ sic ] in Space Cabins . ( Emanuel M. Roth ; Dept of Aeronautics Medicine and Bioastronautics , Lovelace Foundation for Medical Education and Research. c.1964 – 1966 . ) " Fire Prevention in Manned Spacecraft and Test Chamber Oxygen Atmospheres . " ( MSC . NASA General Working Paper 10 063 . October 10 , 1966 ) Incidents had also occurred in the Soviet space program , but due to the government 's policy of secrecy , these were not disclosed to the West until well after the Apollo 1 fire . Cosmonaut Valentin Bondarenko died on March 23 , 1961 , from burns sustained in a fire while participating in a 15 @-@ day endurance experiment in a high @-@ oxygen isolation chamber , less than three weeks before the first Vostok manned space flight ; this was disclosed on January 28 , 1986 . During the Voskhod 2 mission in March 1965 , cosmonauts Pavel Belyayev and Alexey Leonov could not completely seal the spacecraft hatch after Leonov 's historic first walk in space . The spacecraft 's environmental control system responded to the leaking air by adding more oxygen to the cabin , causing the concentration level to rise as high as 45 % . The crew and ground controllers worried about the possibility of fire , remembering Bondarenko 's death four years earlier . = = Political fallout = = Committees in both houses of the United States Congress with oversight of the space program soon launched investigations , including the Senate Committee on Aeronautical and Space Sciences , chaired by Senator Clinton P. Anderson . Seamans , Webb , Manned Space Flight Administrator Dr. George E. Mueller , and Apollo Program Director Maj Gen Samuel C. Phillips were called to testify before Anderson 's committee . In the February 27 hearing , Senator Walter F. Mondale asked Webb if he knew of a report of extraordinary problems with the performance of North American Aviation on the Apollo contract . Webb replied he did not , and deferred to his subordinates on the witness panel . Mueller and Phillips responded they too were unaware of any such " report " . However , in late 1965 , just over a year before the accident , Phillips had headed a " tiger team " investigating the causes of inadequate quality , schedule delays , and cost overruns in both the Apollo CSM and the Saturn V second stage ( for which North American was also prime contractor ) . He gave an oral presentation ( with transparencies ) of his team 's findings to Mueller and Seamans , and also presented them in a memo to North American president John L. Atwood , to which Mueller appended his own strongly worded memo to Atwood . During Mondale 's 1967 questioning about what was to become known as the " Phillips Report " , Seamans was afraid Mondale might actually have seen a hard copy of Phillips ' presentation , and responded that contractors have occasionally been subjected to on @-@ site progress reviews ; perhaps this was what Mondale 's information referred to . Mondale continued to refer to " the Report " despite Phillips ' refusal to characterize it as such , and angered by what he perceived as Webb 's deception and concealment of important program problems from Congress , he questioned NASA 's selection of North American as prime contractor . Seamans later wrote that Webb roundly chastised him in the cab ride leaving the hearing , for volunteering information which led to the disclosure of Phillips ' memo . On May 11 , Webb issued a statement defending NASA 's November 1961 selection of North American as the prime contractor for Apollo . This was followed on June 9 by Seamans filing a seven @-@ page memorandum documenting the selection process . Webb eventually provided a controlled copy of Phillips ' memo to Congress . The Senate committee noted in its final report NASA 's testimony that " the findings of the [ Phillips ] task force had no effect on the accident , did not lead to the accident , and were not related to the accident " , but stated in its recommendations : Notwithstanding that in NASA 's judgment the contractor later made significant progress in overcoming the problems , the committee believes it should have been informed of the situation . The committee does not object to the position of the Administrator of NASA , that all details of Government / contractor relationships should not be put in the public domain . However , that position in no way can be used as an argument for not bringing this or other serious situations to the attention of the committee . Freshman Senators Edward W. Brooke III and Charles H. Percy jointly wrote an Additional Views section appended to the committee report , chastising NASA more strongly than Anderson for not having disclosed the Phillips review to Congress . Mondale wrote his own , even more strongly worded Additional View , accusing NASA of " evasiveness , … lack of candor , … patronizing attitude toward Congress , … refusal to respond fully and forthrightly to legitimate Congressional inquiries , and … solicitous concern for corporate sensitivities at a time of national tragedy . " The potential political threat to Apollo blew over , due in large part to the support of President Lyndon B. Johnson , who at the time still wielded a measure of influence with the Congress from his own Senatorial experience . He was a staunch supporter of NASA since its inception , had even recommended the Moon program to President John F. Kennedy in 1961 , and was skilled at portraying it as part of Kennedy 's legacy . Relations between NASA and North American deteriorated over assignment of blame . North American argued unsuccessfully it was not responsible for the fatal error in spacecraft atmosphere design . Finally , Webb contacted Atwood , and demanded either he or Chief Engineer Harrison A. Storms resign . Atwood elected to fire Storms . On the NASA side , Joseph Shea resorted to barbiturates and alcohol in order to help him cope . NASA administrator James Webb became increasingly worried about Shea 's mental state . Shea was asked to take an extended voluntary leave of absence , but Shea refused , threatening to resign rather than take leave . As a compromise , he agreed to meet with a psychiatrist and to abide by an independent assessment of his psychological fitness . This approach to remove Shea from his position was also unsuccessful . Finally , six months after the fire , Shea 's superiors reassigned him to NASA headquarters in Washington , D.C. Shea felt that his new post was a " non @-@ job , " and left after only two months . = = Program recovery = = Gene Kranz called a meeting of his staff in Mission Control three days after the accident , delivering a speech which has subsequently become one of NASA 's principles . Speaking of the errors and overall attitude surrounding the Apollo program before the accident , he stated : " We were too ' gung @-@ ho ' about the schedule and we blocked out all of the problems we saw each day in our work . Every element of the program was in trouble and so were we . " He reminded the team of the perils and mercilessness of their endeavor , and stated the new requirement that every member of every team in mission control be " tough and competent " , requiring nothing less than perfection throughout NASA 's programs . In 2003 , following the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster , NASA administrator Sean O 'Keefe quoted Kranz 's speech , applying it to the Columbia crew . = = = Command Module redesign = = = After the fire , the Apollo program was grounded for review and redesign . The Command Module was found to be extremely hazardous and in some instances , carelessly assembled ( for example , a misplaced socket wrench was found in the cabin ) . It was decided that remaining Block I spacecraft would be used only for unmanned Saturn V test flights . All manned missions would use the Block II spacecraft , to which many Command Module design changes were made : The cabin atmosphere at launch was adjusted to 60 % oxygen and 40 % nitrogen at sea @-@ level pressure : 14 @.@ 7 psi ( 101 kPa ) . During ascent the cabin rapidly vented down to 5 psi ( 34 kPa ) , releasing approximately 2 / 3 of the gas originally present at launch . The vent then closed and the environmental control system maintained a nominal cabin pressure of 5 psi ( 34 kPa ) as the spacecraft continued into vacuum . The cabin was then very slowly purged ( vented to space and simultaneously replaced with 100 % oxygen ) , so the nitrogen concentration fell asymptotically to zero over the next day . Although the new cabin launch atmosphere was significantly safer than 100 % oxygen , it still contained almost three times the amount of oxygen present in ordinary sea level air ( 20 @.@ 9 % oxygen ) . This was necessary to ensure a sufficient partial pressure of oxygen when the astronauts removed their helmets after reaching orbit . ( 60 % of 5 psi is 3 psi , compared to 20 @.@ 9 % of 14 @.@ 7 psi ( 101 kPa ) , or 3 @.@ 07 psi ( 21 @.@ 2 kPa ) in sea @-@ level air . ) The environment within the astronauts ' pressure suits was not changed . Because of the rapid drop in cabin ( and suit ) pressures during ascent , decompression sickness was likely unless the nitrogen had been purged from the astronauts ' tissues before launch . They would still breathe pure oxygen , starting several hours before launch , until they removed their helmets on orbit . Avoiding the " bends " was considered worth the residual risk of an oxygen @-@ accelerated fire within a suit . Nylon used in the Block I suits was replaced in the Block II suits with Beta cloth , a non @-@ flammable , highly melt @-@ resistant fabric woven from fiberglass and coated with Teflon . Block II had already been planned to use a completely redesigned hatch which opened outward , and could be opened in less than five seconds . Concerns of accidental opening were addressed by using a cartridge of pressurized nitrogen to drive the release mechanism in an emergency , instead of the explosive bolts used on Project Mercury . Flammable materials in the cabin were replaced with self @-@ extinguishing versions . Plumbing and wiring were covered with protective insulation . Aluminum tubing was replaced with stainless steel tubing that used brazed joints when possible . Thorough protocols were implemented for documenting spacecraft construction and maintenance . = = = New mission naming scheme = = = The astronauts ' widows asked that Apollo 1 be reserved for the flight their husbands never made , and on April 24 , 1967 , Associate Administrator for Manned Space Flight , Dr. George E. Mueller , announced this change officially : AS @-@ 204 would be recorded as Apollo 1 , " first manned Apollo Saturn flight – failed on ground test " . Since three unmanned Apollo missions ( AS @-@ 201 , AS @-@ 202 , and AS @-@ 203 ) had previously occurred , the next mission , the first unmanned Saturn V test flight ( AS @-@ 501 ) would be designated Apollo 4 , with all subsequent flights numbered sequentially in the order flown . The first three flights would not be renumbered , and the names Apollo 2 and Apollo 3 would go unused . The manned flight hiatus allowed work to catch up on the Saturn V and Lunar Module , which were encountering their own delays . Apollo 4 flew in November 1967 . Apollo 1 's ( AS @-@ 204 ) Saturn IB rocket was taken down from Launch Complex 34 , later reassembled at Launch complex 37B and used to launch Apollo 5 , an unmanned Earth orbital test flight of the first Lunar Module LM @-@ 1 , in January 1968 . A second unmanned Saturn V AS @-@ 502 flew as Apollo 6 in April 1968 , and Grissom 's backup crew of Wally Schirra , Don Eisele , and Walter Cunningham , finally flew the orbital test mission as Apollo 7 ( AS @-@ 205 ) , in a Block II CSM in October 1968 . = = Memorials = = Gus Grissom and Roger Chaffee were buried at Arlington National Cemetery . Ed White was buried at West Point Cemetery on the grounds of the United States Military Academy in West Point , New York . Their names are among those of several astronauts and cosmonauts who have died in the line of duty , listed on the Space Mirror Memorial at the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex in Merritt Island , Florida . President Jimmy Carter awarded the Congressional Space Medal of Honor posthumously to Grissom on October 1 , 1978 . President Bill Clinton awarded it to White and Chaffee on December 17 , 1997 . An Apollo 1 mission patch was left on the Moon 's surface after the first manned lunar landing by Apollo 11 crew members Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin . The Apollo 15 mission left on the surface of the Moon a tiny memorial statue , Fallen Astronaut , along with a plaque containing the names of the Apollo 1 astronauts , among others including Soviet cosmonauts , who perished in the pursuit of human space flight . = = = Launch Complex 34 = = = After the Apollo 1 fire , Launch Complex 34 was subsequently used only for the launch of Apollo 7 and later dismantled down to the concrete launch pedestal , which remains at the site ( 28 @.@ 52182 ° N 80 @.@ 561258 ° W  / 28 @.@ 52182 ; -80.561258 ) along with a few other concrete and steel @-@ reinforced structures . The pedestal bears two plaques commemorating the crew . Each year the families of the Apollo 1 crew are invited to the site for a memorial , and the Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex includes the site during the tour of the historic Cape Canaveral launch sites . In January 2005 , three granite benches , built by a college classmate of one of the astronauts , were installed at the site on the southern edge of the launch pad . Each bears the name of one of the astronauts and his military service insignia . = = = Stars , landmarks on the Moon and Mars = = = Apollo astronauts frequently aligned their spacecraft inertial navigation platforms and determined their positions relative to the Earth and Moon by sighting sets of stars with optical instruments . As a practical joke , the Apollo 1 crew named three of the stars in the Apollo catalog after themselves and introduced them into NASA documentation . Gamma Cassiopeiae became Navi – Ivan ( Gus Grissom 's middle name ) spelled backwards . Iota Ursae Majoris became Dnoces – " Second " spelled backwards , for Edward H. White II . And Gamma Velorum became Regor – Roger ( Chaffee ) spelled backwards . These names quickly stuck after the Apollo 1 accident and were regularly used by later Apollo crews . Craters on the Moon and hills on Mars are named after the three Apollo 1 astronauts . = = = Civic and other memorials = = = = = Remains of CM @-@ 012 = = The Apollo 1 Command Module has never been on public display . After the accident , the spacecraft was removed and taken to Kennedy Space Center to facilitate the review board 's disassembly in order to investigate the cause of the fire . When the investigation was complete , it was moved to the NASA Langley Research Center in Hampton , Virginia , and placed in a secured storage warehouse . On February 17 , 2007 , the parts of CM @-@ 012 were moved approximately 90 feet ( 27 m ) to a newer , environmentally controlled warehouse . Only a few weeks earlier , Gus Grissom 's brother Lowell publicly suggested CM @-@ 012 be permanently entombed in the concrete remains of Launch Complex 34 . = = Popular culture = = The Apollo 1 accident is briefly depicted in the opening scene of the 1995 film Apollo 13 . The Apollo 1 accident and its aftermath are the subject of episode 2 " Apollo One " , of the 1998 HBO miniseries From the Earth to the Moon , starring Mark Rolston as Gus Grissom , Chris Isaak as Ed White and Ben Marley as Roger Chaffee . The Apollo 1 mission and accident are covered in the ABC television series , The Astronaut Wives Club , episodes 8 " Rendezvous " , and 9 " Abort " . The launch pedestal and memorial plaque are briefly depicted in scenes from the 1985 film Chronos and the 1998 feature film Armageddon . The Apollo 1 disaster inspired the song Fire in the Cockpit from the band Public Service Broadcasting 's album , The Race for Space .

= Mohawk Airlines Flight 411 = Mohawk Airlines Flight 411 , a Fairchild FH @-@ 227B twin @-@ engine turboprop , registered N7811M , was a scheduled domestic passenger service operated by Mohawk Airlines , between Albany and Glens Falls , New York . On November 19 , 1969 , it crashed into Pilot Knob Mountain , killing all 14 passengers and crew on board . The National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) concluded that the crash was caused by the captain 's improper execution of an instrument approach , combined with a severe downdraft at a low altitude , which resulted in the aircraft descending uncontrollably into terrain . = = History of flight = = On the evening of November 19 , 1969 , at about 20 : 03 EST , Mohawk Airlines Flight 411 , a twin engine Fairchild FH @-@ 227B turboprop , departed from Albany International Airport near Albany , New York . It was operating as a scheduled passenger / cargo flight on an instrument flight rules ( IFR ) flight plan to its destination of Warren County Airport in Glens Falls , New York , 37 nautical miles ( 69 km ) northeast , with an estimated flight time of about 15 minutes . At 20 : 07 : 32 EST , just 4 minutes after takeoff , Flight 411 was cleared by air traffic control ( ATC ) for " a VOR approach to runway 19 " . The aircraft overflew the Glens Falls airport and proceeded northbound , subsequently reversing course . Shortly after course reversal , at about 20 : 20 EST , the aircraft hit trees on the northwest slope of the Pilot Knob Mountain , then impacted a rock cliff from which it fell 34 feet ( 10 m ) and became lodged between trees and caught fire . Of the 11 passengers and 3 crew on board , there were no survivors . = = Investigation and final report = = The accident was investigated by the National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) . The Flight Data Recorder was recovered intact from the wreckage , but the Cockpit Voice Recorder had been damaged in the post @-@ crash fire and was unusable . The weather at Glens Falls at the time of the accident was reported as " 2 @,@ 100 ( feet ) overcast , visibility 7 ( miles ) in light rain , wind 180 ( degrees ) at 12 ( knots ) , peak gusts 22 ( knots ) , altimeter 2980 , runway 19 in use " . The surface temperature was 54 degrees Fahrenheit ( 12 degrees Celsius ) . The investigation revealed that ATC cleared the flight to " the VOR approach " , without actually specifying which specific VOR approach procedure was to be used , possibly leaving it to the flight crew 's discretion . According to the radio communication transcript , the flight crew did not inquire as to which specific approach was in effect . There were two published VOR approaches at the time , one from the north and one from the south . The northern approach , called " VOR / DME 19 " , was not legally available to the crew under these circumstances , as Mohawk company policy prohibited reliance on DME as a primary navigational instrument . The other VOR approach , called " VOR 1 " , was the only one legally available to the flight , and would have required descending while approaching the airport from the south during the final approach segment , followed by a " circle to land " maneuver , landing to the south on runway 19 . Despite this , possibly due to their concerns with passenger comfort ( the VOR 1 approach would have required performing the " circle to land " maneuver at a relatively low altitude over the airport to land on runway 19 ) , or possibly by simply being late to set up for the recommended VOR 1 approach ( the flight time was only about 8 minutes from takeoff at Albany to the Glens Falls area , with a significant tailwind component of approximately 50 knots ) , the crew did not execute the VOR 1 approach . Instead , the crew appeared to select an improvised and unauthorized modified version of the VOR / DME 19 approach , which included flying outbound followed by a course reversal at about 10 nautical miles ( 20 km ) north of the airport , over Lake George . As the crew performed what appeared to be an unpublished and unauthorized procedure turn for course reversal on the VOR / DME 19 approach path , they descended prematurely and hit the side of a mountain . It was subsequently determined that a 60 @-@ knot ( 110 km / h ) southerly wind created a downdraft effect which , coupled with the aircraft 's low altitude over the terrain , contributed to the crash . In their final report , issued on June 25 , 1970 , the NTSB determined the following official Probable Cause for the accident : The captain , while conducting an approach , exceeded his clearance limits and , thereafter , flew the aircraft into a severe " lee of the mountain downdraft " at an altitude insufficient for recovery . No evidence was found to explain why this particular approach was attempted .

= Postage stamps of Ireland = The postage stamps of Ireland are issued by the postal operator of the independent Irish state . Ireland was part of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland when the world 's first postage stamps were issued in 1840 . These stamps , and all subsequent British issues , were used in Ireland until the new Irish Government assumed power in 1922 . Beginning on 17 February 1922 , existing British stamps were overprinted with Irish text to provide some definitives until separate Irish issues became available . Following the overprints , a regular series of definitive stamps was produced by the new Department of Posts and Telegraphs , using domestic designs . These definitives were issued on 6 December 1922 ; the first was a 2d stamp , depicting a map of Ireland ( including Northern Ireland , which remained a part of the United Kingdom ) . Since then new images , and additional values as needed , have produced of eight definitive series of different designs . These were the major stamp productions for everyday use . Commemorative stamps first appeared in 1929 , and these now appear several times a year , celebrating many aspects of Irish life , such as notable events and anniversaries , Irish life and culture , and many famous Irish people . Some definitive and commemorative stamps have been produced in miniature sheet , booklet and coil configurations in addition to the common sheet layout . Postage dues and airmails complete the stamp issues of the two , sequential , Irish stamp @-@ issuing authorities . Two styles of watermark were used though the overprinted issues came with the watermarks of the British stamps provided for overprinting by the British Post Office . Oifig an Phoist , the Irish Post Office , was the section of the Department of Posts and Telegraphs which issued all Irish stamps up to 1984 . After the division of the Department of Posts and Telegraphs into two semi @-@ state organisations in 1984 , An Post took over the responsibility for all Irish postal services including the issuing of postage stamps . = = Background = = = = = British stamps used in Ireland = = = To identify postage stamps used in Ireland between 1840 and 1922 , it is necessary to identify the postmark cancelling the stamp as being from an Irish town . Stamps used during this period are referred to as Great Britain used in Ireland . From 1840 to 1844 , the Penny Black , and other stamps issued , were obliterated with the Maltese Cross cancellation . There was no text or numeral to help identify any of these cancels as Irish , but some Maltese Crosses are uniquely identifiable with certain Irish towns , including Belfast , Eyrecourt , Cork , Hollymount , Limerick and Mullingar . From 1844 on , the cancels used included text or numerals that identified the post town . Cancels of both types are easier to identify if the stamp is still affixed to a cover , since this makes the complete postmark visible , but a stamp no longer affixed to a cover may still permit identification of the town of use if enough of the postmark can be seen on the stamp itself . = = = Stamp issuing authorities = = = Between 1922 and 1983 Oifig an Phoist , the Irish Post Office , a section of the Department of Posts and Telegraphs ( P & T ) , issued all postage stamps in the 26 counties of Ireland . During this time they employed some of the following companies to overprint or print the stamps : Dollard , Thom , Irish Government Printers , Waterlow and Sons ( London ) , De La Rue and Co . , Bradbury Wilkinson and Co . , Ltd . , ( London ) , Harrison and Sons Ltd . , ( London ) and Irish Security Stamp Printing Ltd . Since 1984 , An Post has issued all Irish postage stamps . Most have been printed by Irish Security Stamp Printing Ltd . , though a small number were printed by Harrison and Sons Ltd . , ( London ) , Questa , Walsall Security Printing , Prinset Pty Ltd . , ( Australia ) and SNP Cambec ( Sprintpak ) ( Australia ) . = = = Forerunners = = = In stamp collecting circles , the word forerunner usually describes a postage stamp used during the time period before a region or territory issues stamps of its own . However , in Irish reference books , such as Handbook of Irish Philately , the term forerunners usually refers to political and propaganda labels . These often resemble stamps , but few of them were used on Irish mail and they had no legal standing for mail in Ireland . Four values , 1c , 3c , 24c ( deep @-@ green ) , and 24c ( mauve @-@ purple ) were produced in New York by the Irish veterans of the US Civil War and are known as the 1865 – 67 Fenian issue . The 1893 colonial design are unofficial essays and are classed as bogus . Between 1907 and 1916 , Sinn Féin , one of the nationalist organisations of the time , issued propaganda labels symbolising Irish nationhood . Their use as stamps was forbidden by Post Office regulations . The first design was a Celtic Cross , similar to one later adopted for two definitive stamps of 1923 , and the second depicts a female figure and harp in an oval frame . In 1912 , labels inscribed " Imperial Union " appeared , with a design of a larger harp and female figure . These labels , expressing unionist sentiments , are believed to have been printed in Manchester as a counter to the Sinn Féin labels . After the Home Rule Bill for Ireland was passed in parliament , an Irish Republican body issued labels in 1916 with the portraits of three nationalist heroes known as The Manchester Martyrs against an Irish tricolour background . Forgeries of these labels are common . Following the Easter Rising of 1916 , American sympathisers printed eight ERIE PUIST labels showing portraits of seven prominent leaders and a harp and shamrock label . The misspelling ERIE for ÉIRE could have been because of hasty preparation . The Irish Republican Army , that controlled much of the southern part of the country during the Irish civil war , issued a 1d , 2d and 6d label , mainly because of a stamp shortage . These were printed in Cork and were to be put on sale in August 1922 , but in the meantime the Irish Free State army landed near Cork and the IRA set fire to their own barracks before they retreated from Cork , destroying most of the labels . = = = Essays = = = The Postmaster General of the Irish Free State issued an invitation to firms in Dublin and London on 1 February 1922 for the submission of designs for a permanent definitive stamp issue , and by March several designs had been submitted . The following companies and printers provided essays : Dollard Printing House Ltd . , Hely Ltd . , Perkins Bacon & Co . , and O 'Loughlin , Murphy & Boland . = = Postage stamps = = = = = Overprints = = = In 1922 , as an interim measure before the first specially designed definitives were ready , a series of contemporary stamps of King George V were overprinted . The unoverprinted stamps were issued and in use in the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland between 1912 and 1922 and continued in use in Great Britain and Northern Ireland until 1936 . Three printing firms held overprinting contracts : Dollard Printing House Ltd . , Alex . Thom & Co Ltd . , and Harrison & Sons . In June 1925 the Government Printers , Dublin Castle , obtained the contract and completed all overprinting until 1937 , when the final , high @-@ value stamps were issued . Collecting and identifying the overprints can be an arduous task as there are numerous variations in the overprint settings . Feldman states " the complex details of plating , shading , overprint colours , accurate measurements , to mention a few , often discourage even the most enthusiastic collector " . Three specialised books , or catalogue chapters , ( Freeman & Stubbs , Munk and Meredith ) , issued within five years of issue have concentrated on this topic and Meredith is regarded as unequalled . Two distinct overprints were made , before and after the formal independence of the state on 6 December 1922 . The Provisional Government of Ireland ( Rialtas Sealadach na hÉireann ) overprints were initially issued on 17 February 1922 , with eight low @-@ value and three high @-@ value stamps overprinted by Dollard and four by Thom . This overprint is composed of the four words Rialtas Sealadach na hÉireann and the numeral date 1922 arranged in five lines of seriffed text . The unoverprinted stamps remained valid for postage in Ireland until 31 March 1922 . The Irish Free State ( Saorstát Éireann ) overprints debuted on 11 December 1922 . This is a three @-@ line overprint using a sans @-@ serif typeface and was done by Thom , Harrison and the Government Printers . The last overprinted stamps were the Waterlow & Sons re @-@ engraved King George V 2 / 6 , 5 / - and 10 / - values that appeared in 1934 and were overprinted in 1937 for use in Ireland . = = = Name of state = = = On stamps , the name of the state has always been written in Irish and rarely also written in English . The overprints were stamped first Rialtas Sealadach na hÉireann ( " Provisional Government of Ireland " ) and later Saorstát Éireann ( " Irish Free State " ) . Subsequent stamps nearly all used the name Éire ( " Ireland " ) , even though this was not the name of the state until the 1937 Constitution took effect . The exceptions were issued in 1949 and 1950 , and used POBLAĊT NA hÉIREANN or Poblacht na h @-@ Éireann ( " Republic of Ireland " ) . This phrase is the official description of the state specified in the Republic of Ireland Act , which came into force in April 1949 ; the state 's name was not changed by the Act . Fianna Fáil defeated the outgoing government in the 1951 election and abandoned the use of the description , reverting to the name on stamps and elsewhere . Originally , Éire was written in Gaelic type ; from 1952 to 1979 , many stamps had the name of the state in Roman type , usually in all caps , and often written EIRE rather than ÉIRE , omitting the síneadh fada accent over the initial ' E ' . In 1981 the Department of Posts and Telegraphs recommended the inclusion of the word " Ireland " along with " Éire " on stamps but the Department of the Taoiseach vetoed the idea on the basis it could cause " constitutional and political repercussions " and that " the change could be unwelcome . " = = = Definitives = = = Since 1922 , eight Irish definitive stamp series have been released . Besides different designs , there were changes involving the watermark and eventually doing away with watermarked paper , changes in currency were also reflected on the stamps : decimalisation in 1971 , and Euro changeover in 2002 . The first twelve stamps , the low values up to 1 shilling , were issued during 1922 – 1923 , while the three high values , 2 / 6 , 5 / - and 10 / - , did not appear until 8 September 1937 . Designs included : Sword of Light , Map of Ireland , Celtic Cross , Arms of the Four Provinces and St. Patrick . Watermark and extra values were made until new designs , known as the Gerl definitives , using early Irish art motifs , were produced in 1968 . These were the first new designs in 31 years for the high values and 46 years for the low values . The Gerl series was denominated initially in pre @-@ decimal Irish pounds and later in decimal currency ( both watermarked issues ) . It latterly appeared as unwatermarked stamps . Between 1982 and 1988 a series based on Irish architecture through the ages was released , with line drawings by Michael Craig and graphics by Peter Wildbur . It contained twenty @-@ eight stamps , with values ranging from 1p to £ 5 . Stamps based on Irish cultural heritage followed between 1990 and 1995 . Irish birds feature in the 1997 series that span the conversion of currency from the Irish pound , through dual currency to the introduction of the Euro . These were the first definitives where all values were printed in full colour . On 9 September 2004 new stamps , featuring flowers native to the woodlands and hedgerows of Ireland , become available . These were replaced in September 2010 by a seventh series featuring animals and marine life using photographic images . For the centenary of the 1916 Easter Rising an eight series of definitive stamps were issued on 21 January 2016 and will only be on sale for a period of one year . There are sixteen stamps divided into four groups of four categories named as : Leaders and Icons , Participants , Easter Week and The Aftermath . Several Irish definitives have been issued in booklet and coil formats in addition to the normal sheet configuration . = = = Commemoratives = = = Irish postage stamps have been released to commemorate a wide variety of Irish topics , such as Irish notable events and anniversaries , aspects of Irish life and culture , famous Irish people ( statesmen , religious , literary and cultural figures , athletes , etc . ) , fauna and flora , works of art , and Christmas . Europa postage stamps have been issued since 1960 to celebrate membership of the European Conference of Postal and Telecommunications Administrations ( CEPT ) , and international events have also been commemorated . The first commemorative , a set of three Daniel O 'Connell stamps , appeared on 22 June 1929 . Until the mid @-@ 1990s , with only three exceptions in 1943 , 1977 and 1979 for Douglas Hyde , Louis le Brocquy and Pope John Paul II respectively , it was policy to not depict living persons . This policy has been put aside and since 1995 there have been several such issues , mainly depicting athletes ; for instance 30 stamps were issued showing living Irish sportsmen for the Millennium and several golfers are shown on three 2006 Ryder Cup stamps . = = = = Miniature sheets = = = = Some stamps were issued in the form of a miniature sheet comprising from one to sixteen stamps of a single , or multiple , design from one issue printed on the same sheet and sold in that format . The miniature sheets are most often produced in addition to the same designs issued as single stamps . The first miniature sheet of four stamp on stamp postage stamps was issued in 1972 to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the first Irish postage stamp . This was followed by a four @-@ stamp sheet to commemorate the bicentenary of the United States Declaration of Independence ; the stamps in this sheet were also available as single stamps . A set of four stamps showing Irish wildlife was issued in sheet form and also as single stamps in 1980 . Since 1983 miniature sheets have been produced with increasing frequency , from at least one per year initially to several sheets more recently . = = = Airmails = = = Seven Irish airmail stamps were issued between 1948 and 1965 in the 1d , 3d , 6d , 8d , 1 / - , 1 / 3 and 1 / 5 values . No specific airmail rate existed for the 1d and 3d stamps though their use was permitted on non @-@ airmail correspondence ; all others paid a contemporaneous rate when first produced . These were the only airmail stamps ever issued but many definitives and commemoratives have been produced in values that paid the postage rate for airmail service . The stamps were designed by R.J. King and recess printed by Waterlow and Sons , London , until 1961 , and thereafter by De La Rue & Co , Dublin . The designs feature the Flight of the Angel Victor – Messenger of St. Patrick – carrying the Voice of the Irish ' Vox Hiberniæ ' over the world flying over four well @-@ known Irish historical landmarks , one from each of the four provinces of Ireland : Lough Derg ( 3d and 8d values ) , Rock of Cashel ( 1d , 1 / 3 and 1 / 5 values ) , Glendalough ( 1 / - value ) and Croagh Patrick ( 6d value ) . These were printed in sheets of 60 stamps with an ' e ' watermark . = = = Postage dues = = = Surcharges imposed by the Irish post office on mail bearing insufficient pre @-@ paid postage had the postage due collected by the use of these labels . Since 1925 there have been six series printed , with the design remaining the same until 1980 , though the colour and watermarks have changed . The Irish word pingin , for penny , is used in both £ .s.d and decimal currency , but because it has the same meaning in each , the value on the label does not indicate whether the label was issued before or after decimalisation . Hence , identifying the issue of a label requires further information : if collectors knows the date of use , the existence of a watermark and if so which type , and the specific colour , identification will be easier . For example , the 3d value was blue between 1940 and 1969 , and stone colour from 1971 until 1980 ; it changed from a watermarked to a non @-@ watermark paper in 1978 . Additionally , the 1 , 5 and 8 pence values are seen in two different colours depending on the issue , while the 1 ⁄ 2d , 1d , 2d and 6d are seen with both watermark varieties . Except for the sixth issue , which has the word Éire in the design , there is no explicit country identity on any of the others . The first four series use only Irish words . = = = = Sterling issues = = = = The first issue consisted of four values released on 20 February 1925 ; 1 ⁄ 2d , 1d , 2d and 6d . Typographed by the Government Printers in Dublin Castle on ' se ' watermarked paper . The sheets were printed in larger sheets of 180 divided into three panes of 60 labels . The second issue had ten values : 1 ⁄ 2d , 1d , 11 ⁄ 2d , 2d , 3d , 5d , 6d , 8d , 10d and 1 / - , and were printed on ' e ' watermarked paper between 1940 and 1969 . Other details are the same . = = = = Decimal issues = = = = A third issue was made up of seven labels and issued in decimal currency in the following values : 1p , 11 ⁄ 2p , 3p , 4p , 5p , 7p and 8p . In the fourth issue the 3p , 4p and 5p values were reissued in non @-@ watermarked paper on 20 March 1978 . A new design , printed by photogravure , and appeared on 20 June 1980 in ten values : 1p , 2p , 4p , 6p , 8p , 18p , 20p , 24p , 30p and 50p made up the fifth issue . The sheet format was two panes of 100 divided by a gutter margin . The sixth issue consisted of ten newly designed labels by Q Design and lithographically printed by ISSP on non @-@ watermarked paper on 6 October 1988 . The values were : 1p , 2p , 3p , 4p , 5p , 17p , 20p , 24p , 30p , 50p and £ 1 . No Euro currency postage dues have been produced . = = = Booklets = = = Stamp booklets were first put on sale on 21 August 1931 . Booklet construction was a lightweight cardboard cover stitched on the left @-@ hand side with panes of stamps ( usually four panes ) , advertising panes and interleaving bound in . Until 1956 most booklets had half of the front cover devoted to advertising , and until 1963 booklets also had serial numbers on the front cover : two numbers indicated the year of issue and serial number ( in that order on the early issues but with the order reversed for later issues ) , until 1963 when the serial numbers ceased . Since 1983 , most booklets are no longer stitched ; the stamp pane , or panes , are glued into a folded card cover . Until 1988 , when the Dublin Millennium booklet containing commemorative stamps was issued , all booklets contained only definitive stamps . Since then , An Post has issued both commemorative and definitive booklets , with three times as many commemorative booklets issued . In 1990 An Post issued the first booklet mixing definitive and commemorative stamps in one booklet and also on a single pane . Many booklet stamps can be identified by one non @-@ perforated edge , though a few are perforated on all edges . On booklets up to 1977 , the printing plate construction enabled both upright and inverted watermarks in equal quantities owing to a gutter dividing rows 6 and 7 in the sheets of 12 × 10 stamps . The gutter was used for stitching during assembly , requiring rows 4 – 6 and 10 – 12 to be turned through 180 degrees so those panes could be stitched on the left of the booklet . = = = Watermarks = = = The Irish overprinted stamps came , as supplied from the printers in London , with a watermark of the Royal Cypher of George V. The first Irish watermark was a stylised design of the two overlapping letters ' s ' and ' e ' making an ' se ' watermark representing the name of the country Saorstát Éireann . This watermark was discontinued around 1940 when the country 's name changed to Éire ( Ireland ) ; it was replaced with e watermark paper to represent Éire . Stamps of the period may have the watermark in any of several states of inversion and rotation attributable to the way the paper was fed into the printing machines . Around 1971 , the use of watermarks was discontinued by the Irish stamp @-@ issuing authority , and current stamps issued by An Post do not use a watermarked paper . = = Postal stationery = = Postal stationery have been produced in the form of registered envelopes , postal cards , envelopes , letter cards , newspaper wrappers , airletters and telegram forms with different designs of impressed stamp applied to show that postage had been pre @-@ paid . Except for limited early usage of previously issued British postal stationery , which were not overprinted like the postage stamps , all post @-@ paid impressed stamps before 1984 were based on variations of a design showing the country 's name in Irish , Éire , with appropriate values in text and numeral tablets centred around an Irish harp motif . This was initially superseded by a shamrock design that later became loosely based on the logo of wavy lines and the word POST used by An Post from 1984 . An Post has also used some designs based on postage stamps as post @-@ paid impressed stamps on Irish postal stationery . A few early issued items were embossed but generally the post @-@ paid impressed stamps were typographed . The Revenue Stamping Branch , Dublin Castle , applied the impressed indicia until 1984 , when An Post employed the typographic printing method . = = = Official = = = At independence , a King George V 5 pence registered envelope and 1 shilling telegram form were printed in green for use in Ireland until domestic products became available . Irish telegram forms were only produced in 1 / - and 1 / 6 values . Registered envelopes have appeared in many values and sizes . The printed ( but non @-@ stamped ) registered envelopes were produced by private firms and stored by the Irish post office until needed , so envelopes from former periods , showing out @-@ dated fees in the text , often received an impressed stamp for the current postal rate , creating many subtypes for collectors . Other products have carried post @-@ paid imprint , such as commemorative and special issue postcards , including a series of St. Patrick 's Day cards issued annually since 1984 . Up to 1987 , airletters ( also known as aérogrammes ) were produced without any fee applied and were available free from post offices upon payment of the appropriate rate in force for the postage stamp purchased to mail the airletter . Most airletters with a pre @-@ paid indicia have been sold at a small premium over the then @-@ current aérogramme postal rate . = = = Stamped @-@ to @-@ order = = = Known as the stamping privilege , companies , associations and individuals were permitted to submit their own designed and pre @-@ printed envelopes , cards , letter sheets , etc . , to the Irish Post Office for impressing with an official post @-@ paid indicia . Window envelopes were popular for printed matter rate mail . The most prolific user was the Electricity Supply Board which used meter reading and appointment cards for over forty years . Stamped @-@ to @-@ order postal stationery users included Blackrock College , Córas Iompair Éireann , Esso , Great Northern Railway , and John Player & Sons , Dublin . No stamped @-@ to @-@ order registered envelopes are known . Apparently An Post have withdrawn the stamping privilege without any public notice , because stamped @-@ to @-@ order postal stationery has seldom been seen since An Post took control of the Irish Post Office in 1984 , with only five users recorded by Jung . Between 1963 and 2000 a few philatelically influenced items are known produced by six users . = = Collecting Irish stamps = = Newly issued Irish postage stamps are available from the Philatelic Bureau of An Post in the Dublin , General Post Office . Commemorative and special issue stamps are usually available for one year from the date of issue . Until the mid @-@ 1960s the Irish stamp @-@ issuing policy was very conservative , with only a few new ones each year ; up to four or five commemoratives , usually of two values , plus the occasional updated , or new , definitives . During the 1970s and beyond , the quantity produced rose considerably . Some collectors try to acquire a basic collection of the more common stamps from 1922 onwards , though that can be difficult now due to the quantity issued . Many collectors concentrate on one type of stamp , such as definitives or commemoratives , or even one issue , such as Gerl definitives . The First Day covers , especially commemoratives with full sets affixed , are popular though the older issues are harder to find because less than a million of the high value stamps were printed in the early years ( 1929 – 1940s ) for several issues , a far lower number than the 20 @-@ plus millions printed for most of the low values during the same period . The overprints , which proved very popular during their early years , are a complex topic giving an advanced collector a great philatelic challenge . = = = Numbering systems = = = The Irish Post Office has never publicised an official stamp numbering system for the postage stamps they issued , so collectors use a stamp numbering system from one of the most popular stamp catalogues , such as Stanley Gibbons , Scott , MacDonnell Whyte , MDW ( last edition 1991 ) , Hibernian or Michel . There are differences between these numbering systems that result in a varying sequence of stamps in each listing , with some stamps included on some lists but not on others — usually varieties that the publishers think do not belong in a general catalogue . For instance , Ireland 's first postage stamp , the 2d Map of Ireland , issued in 1922 is numbered 68 by Scott , 43 by Michel , D4 by Hibernian and MacDonnell Whyte and 74 by Stanley Gibbons . Collectors tend to use the catalogues produced in their own region and language , so in the United States , Scott is used most often as evidenced by the use of Scott numbers in American stamp auction catalogues . In contrast , SG numbers are used in England and Ireland because Stanley Gibbons ( a British publisher ) produces the catalogue of choice in those countries . Advanced and more specialist collectors have used the David Feldman , later called MacDonnell / Feldman , and later again called MacDonnellWhyte , catalogues between 1978 and 1991 , and Hibernian catalogues ( 1972 , 1976 , 1980 , 1983 , 1985 , 1986 , 2002 and 2009 editions ) . = = = Stamp societies = = = Local societies DSS , Dublin Stamp Society , founded in 1948 . IPS , Irish Philatelic Society , is more than a century old , having started as the Irish Philatelic Club following a meeting in Dublin on 12 February 1901 , of nineteen people who responded to a notice in the Irish Times . International societies ÉPA , Éire Philatelic Association , is a US @-@ based Irish philatelic society . IPC , Irish Philatelic Circle , is a British @-@ based Irish philatelic society . FAI , Forschungs- und Arbeitsgemeinschaft Irland e.V. , is a German @-@ based Irish philatelic society .

= William F. Raynolds = William Franklin Raynolds ( March 17 , 1820 – October 18 , 1894 ) was an explorer , engineer and U.S. army officer who served in the Mexican @-@ American War and American Civil War . He is best known for leading the 1859 – 60 Raynolds Expedition while serving as a member of the U.S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers . During the 1850s and again after his participation in the American Civil War , Raynolds was the head engineer on numerous lighthouse construction projects . He oversaw riverway and harbor dredging projects intended to improve accessibility and navigation for shipping . As a cartographer , Raynolds surveyed and mapped the islands and shorelines on the Great Lakes and other regions . At least six lighthouses whose construction he oversaw are still standing . Some are still in use and of these , several are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . In 1848 , during the American occupation of Mexico after the Mexican @-@ American War , Raynolds and other U.S. Army personnel were the first confirmed to have reached the summit Pico de Orizaba , the tallest mountain in Mexico , and inadvertently set what may have been a 50 @-@ year American alpine altitude record . In 1859 , Raynolds was placed in charge of the first government @-@ sponsored expedition to venture into the upper Yellowstone region that was later to become Yellowstone National Park . Heavy winter snowpack in the Absaroka Range of Wyoming prevented the expedition from reaching the Yellowstone Plateau , forcing them to divert to the south and cross Union Pass at the northern end of the Wind River Range . After negotiating the pass the expedition entered Jackson Hole and surveyed the Teton Range , now within Grand Teton National Park . During the American Civil War , Raynolds participated in the Battle of Cross Keys during the Valley Campaign of 1862 and a year later was in charge of fortifications in the defense of the military arsenal at Harpers Ferry , West Virginia . On March 13 , 1865 Raynolds was brevetted brigadier general for meritorious service during the Civil War . Raynolds retired from the Corps of Engineers on March 17 , 1884 with the permanent rank of colonel after a 40 @-@ year military career . = = Early life = = William Franklin Raynolds was born on March 17 , 1820 in Canton , Ohio , the fourth of six children to William Raynolds ( November 2 , 1789 – September 20 , 1829 ) and Elizabeth Seabury ( née Fisk 1796 – April 13 , 1853 ) . William F. Raynolds 's grandfather was also named William Raynolds ( 1764 – 1814 ) and had been a veteran of the War of 1812 , serving as a company captain from April 12 , 1812 until April 13 , 1813 . During the War of 1812 , the grandfather Raynolds rose to the rank of major while serving under Lewis Cass . William F. Raynolds entered the United States Military Academy at West Point , New York , on July 1 , 1839 after being appointed from Ohio . He graduated fifth out of 39 classmates in his class of 1843 , which included William B. Franklin , Raynolds 's friend Joseph J. Reynolds and future president Ulysses S. Grant . Raynolds married at a young age ; he and his wife had no children . = = Military career = = Initially appointed a brevet second lieutenant in the 5th U.S. Infantry , within a few weeks Raynolds was transferred to the U.S. Army Corps of Topographical Engineers . The Topographical Engineers performed surveys and developed maps for army use until their merger with the Corps of Engineers in 1863 . Raynolds 's first assignments from 1843 to 1844 were as an assistant topographical engineer involved in improving navigation on the Ohio River and surveying the northeastern boundary of the U.S. between 1844 and 1847 . = = = Mexican @-@ American War = = = When war with Mexico seemed imminent , topographic engineers were sent to the border to assist with the army 's preparations . Raynolds served in Winfield Scott 's Mexican @-@ American War campaign which marched overland to Mexico City from the Gulf of Mexico seaport at Veracruz . After the war , the American army occupied Mexico City and the surrounding region . During the occupation , Raynolds and others set out to map and explore nearby mountains . Raynolds 's party is credited with being the first confirmed to climb to the summit of Pico de Orizaba ( 19 ° 01 ′ 48 ″ N 97 ° 16 ′ 12 ″ W ) which at 18 @,@ 620 feet ( 5 @,@ 680 m ) is the tallest mountain in Mexico and third tallest in North America . Over a period of several months , Raynolds and other officers from both the army and navy mapped the best approach route to Pico de Orizaba . To assist them in their climb , the party planned on taking grapnels attached to long ropes and primitive crampons in the form of shoes with projecting points to help ensure they could safely climb up cliffs and across glaciers . Told by local villagers that any attempt to reach the summit would be fruitless because no one had ever done it before , the Americans became even more determined to show the Mexicans it could be climbed . As the expedition left to ascend the mountain , a long pack train of nearly fifty officers , soldiers and native guides departed from the town of Orizaba in early May 1848 . After several days of hiking through dense jungle , the expedition slowly gained altitude and established a base camp at 12 @,@ 000 ft ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) . Starting from base camp in the early morning of May 10 nearly two dozen climbers made the final push to the top of the mountain , but only Raynolds and a few others reached the summit . According to mountaineer and author Leigh N. Ortenburger , this feat may have inadvertently set the American mountaineering altitude record for the next 50 years . Raynolds estimated the summit of Pico de Orizaba to be 17 @,@ 907 ft ( 5 @,@ 458 m ) above sea level , which was slightly greater than previous estimates but below the modern known altitude . As no higher peaks were known in North America at that time , Raynolds believed Pico de Orizaba was the tallest mountain on the continent . The summit crater was covered in snow but estimated to be between 400 to 650 yards ( 370 to 590 m ) in diameter and 300 ft ( 91 m ) deep . The American achievement was disputed by the Mexicans until an 1851 French expedition discovered an American flag on the summit with the year 1848 carved in the flagpole . = = = Lighthouse engineer = = = After returning from Mexico , Raynolds resumed mapping the U.S. – Canada border which he had been surveying before the war , then embarked on a project to develop water resources for the nation 's growing capital of Washington , D.C. Raynolds traveled the Great Lakes for several years surveying and mapping shorelines while identifying potential lighthouse locations . After promotion to first lieutenant and then captain , in 1857 he was assigned to design and supervise the construction of lighthouses along the Jersey Shore and the Delmarva Peninsula regions. in the late 1850s Raynolds supervised construction of the Fenwick Island Light in Delaware and the Cape May Light in New Jersey . In 1859 , he made alterations to the Jupiter Inlet Light in Jupiter , Florida . = = = Raynolds Expedition = = = In early 1859 , Raynolds was charged with leading an expedition into the Yellowstone region of Montana and Wyoming to determine , " as far as practicable , everything relating to ... the Indians of the country , its agricultural and mineralogical resources ... the navigability of its streams , its topographical features , and the facilities or obstacles which the latter present to the construction of rail or common roads ... " . The expedition was carried out by a handful of technicians , including photographer and topographer James D. Hutton , artist and mapmaker Anton Schönborn , and geologist and naturalist Ferdinand V. Hayden , who led several later expeditions to the Yellowstone region . Raynolds 's second @-@ in @-@ command was lieutenant Henry E. Maynadier . The expedition was supported by a small infantry detachment of 30 and was federally funded with $ 60 @,@ 000 . Experienced mountain man Jim Bridger was hired to guide the expedition . The expedition started in late May 1859 at St. Louis , Missouri , then was transported by two steamboats up the Missouri River to New Fort Pierre , South Dakota . In late June the expedition left New Fort Pierre and headed overland to Fort Sarpy where they encountered the Crow Indians . Raynolds stated that the Crow were a " small band compared to their neighbors , but are famous warriors , and , according to common report , seldom fail to hold their own with any of the tribes unless greatly outnumbered . " Raynolds was impressed with the Crow chief Red Bear , and after assuring him that the expedition meant only to pass through Crow Indian territory and not linger , traded with the Crows for seven horses . Raynolds divided his expedition , sending a smaller detachment under Maynadier to explore the Tongue River , a major tributary of the Yellowstone River . Two of Maynadier 's party , James D. Hutton and Zephyr Recontre , the expedition 's Sioux interpreter , took a side trip to locate and investigate an isolated rock formation that had been seen from great distance by a previous expedition in 1857 . Hutton was the first person of European descent to reach this rock formation in northeastern Wyoming , later known as Devils Tower ; Raynolds never elaborated on this event , mentioning it only in passing . By September 2 , 1859 , Raynolds 's detachment had followed the Yellowstone River to the confluence with the Bighorn River in south @-@ central Montana . The two parties under Raynolds and Maynadier reunited on October 12 , 1859 and wintered at Deer Creek Station , on the Platte River in central Wyoming . The expedition recommenced its explorations in May 1860 . Raynolds led a party north and west up the upstream portion of the Bighorn River , which is today called the Wind River , hoping to cross the mountains at Togwotee Pass in the Absaroka Range , a mountain pass known to expedition guide Jim Bridger . Meanwhile , Maynadier led his party back north to the Bighorn River to explore it and its associated tributary streams more thoroughly . The plan was for the two parties to reunite on June 30 , 1860 at Three Forks , Montana , so they could make observations of a total solar eclipse forecast for July 18 , 1860 . Hampered by towering basaltic cliffs and deep snows , Raynolds attempted for over a week to reconnoiter to the top of Togwotee Pass , but was forced south due to the June 30 deadline for reaching Three Forks . Bridger then led the party south over another pass in the northern Wind River Range that Raynolds named Union Pass , to the west of which lay Jackson Hole and the Teton Range . From there the expedition went southwest , crossing the southern Teton Range at Teton Pass and entering Pierre 's Hole in present @-@ day Idaho . Though Raynolds and his party managed to get to Three Forks by the scheduled date , Maynadier 's party was several days late , which prevented a detachment heading north to observe the solar eclipse . The reunited expedition then headed home , traveling from Fort Benton , Montana , to Fort Union near the Montana @-@ North Dakota border via steamboat . It then journeyed overland to Omaha , Nebraska , where the expedition members were disbanded in October 1860 . Though the Raynolds Expedition was unsuccessful in exploring the region that later became Yellowstone National Park , it was the first federally funded party to enter Jackson Hole and observe the Teton Range . The expedition covered over 2 @,@ 500 miles ( 4 @,@ 000 km ) and explored an area of nearly 250 @,@ 000 square miles ( 650 @,@ 000 km2 ) . In a preliminary report sent east in 1859 , Raynolds stated that the once @-@ abundant bison were being killed for their hides at such an alarming rate that they might soon become extinct . Raynolds 's immediate participation in the American Civil War , followed by a severe illness , delayed him from presenting his report on the expedition until 1868 . Research data and botanical specimens , as well as fossils and geological items that had been collected during the expedition , were sent to the Smithsonian Institution , but were not studied in detail until after the war . Much of the artwork created by Hutton and especially Schönborn was lost , though several of Schönborn 's chromolithographs appeared in Ferdinand V. Hayden 's 1883 report that was submitted after later expeditions . = = = American Civil War = = = Raynolds returned to Washington at the outbreak of the war , and was made chief topographic engineer of the Department of Virginia in July 1861 . The army lacked adequate maps for military use , so Raynolds and his team of engineers began to survey and draw up maps of Virginia and the region of the western portion of that state that had remained loyal to the Union and would become the new state of West Virginia . In 1862 , Raynolds was engaged with John C. Frémont 's Mountain Department in chasing Stonewall Jackson up the Shenandoah Valley and participated in the Battle of Cross Keys . Raynolds spent two months recovering from illness after the Valley Campaign , then was assigned as chief engineer of Middle Department and VIII Corps in January 1863 . Promoted to major in the Corps of Engineers , he found himself in charge of the defenses of vital Harpers Ferry , West Virginia in March 1863 during Robert E. Lee 's second Confederate invasion of the north during the Gettysburg Campaign . On March 31 , 1863 , the Corps of Topographical Engineers ceased to be an independent branch of the army and was merged into the Corps of Engineers and Raynolds served in that branch of the army for the remainder of his career . Officers from the two corps maintained their ranks based on the time at which they received their promotion . As the end of war approached and hostilities with the Sioux Indians loomed , Raynolds 's knowledge of and experiences in the Great Lakes region became more important to the army than his command of the fortifications of Harpers Ferry . As a result , he returned to the Great Lakes as superintending engineer of surveys and lighthouses in April 1864 , and saw no further combat for the rest of his career . Before the war was over , on March 13 , 1865 Raynolds was brevetted to brigadier general for meritorious service . = = = Postwar career = = = After the Civil War , the Corps of Engineers undertook a program of river and harbor improvements . Raynolds supervised the dredging and improvement of navigation on the Arkansas , Mississippi and Missouri Rivers . He also helped supervise several harbor dredging and construction projects , involving the harbor in Buffalo , New York , the Harbor of Refuge in New Buffalo , Michigan , Erie Harbor in Erie , Pennsylvania , and the river harbors of St. Louis , Missouri and Alton , Illinois . Raynolds sited and oversaw the installation of dozens of lighthouses in the Great Lakes area , where he served as the superintending engineer from 1864 to 1870 . Raynolds was promoted to permanent rank of lieutenant colonel in the Corps of Engineers on March 7 , 1867 . He then supervised lighthouse construction along the Gulf Coast and in New Jersey where he managed the construction of the Hereford Inlet Lighthouse in 1874 . From May 5 to October 7 , 1877 , Reynolds led a procession of American engineers to an engineering conference in Europe . Promoted to the permanent rank of colonel on January 2 , 1881 , Raynolds continued serving with the Corps of Engineers supporting a variety of harbor and river navigational improvements until his retirement in 1884 , after a military career that spanned 40 years . As he approached retirement , Raynolds was elected a trustee of the Presbyterian Church . According to West Point classmate Joseph Reynolds , who saw him at the West Point graduates reunion in 1893 , Raynolds maintained a vigorous and healthy appearance long after his retirement , his brown hair , " then but slightly sprinkled with gray " . Raynolds died on October 18 , 1894 in Detroit , Michigan , leaving his widow a substantial estate for the time , estimated at between US $ 50 @,@ 000 ( $ 1 @,@ 422 @,@ 200 today ) and $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 2 @,@ 844 @,@ 400 today ) . After providing for his widow , his will directed that after her death , the entire estate would be donated to the Presbyterian Church . Raynolds was interred in West Lawn Cemetery in Canton , Ohio . = = Legacy = = Raynolds 's 1848 expedition to the summit of Pico de Orizaba in Mexico predated what is known as the Golden age of alpinism ( 1854 – 65 ) , when many major mountain peaks in the Alps were first climbed . The effort to summit the mountain was one of the earliest deliberate attempts to climb a major mountain peak , and involved logistics , planning and use of rudimentary climbing equipment , " making it one of the more serious mountaineering expeditions undertaken to that point in history . " Though unable to penetrate into the heart of what later became Yellowstone National Park , the Raynolds Expedition produced maps that were used by subsequent explorers to the greater Yellowstone region . Raynolds also located suitable wagon routes in the Bighorn Basin and was able to help narrow down the most appropriate routes for a future transcontinental railroad . The Raynolds Expedition further determined that few if any rivers in the region would be suitable for steamboats due to numerous rapids and steep gradients . Several lighthouses whose construction was designed or supervised by Raynolds are still in use and several are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . At least two geographical locations are named for William Raynolds . The mountain gap where the Raynolds Expedition crossed the Continental Divide between southwest Montana and northeast Idaho is named Raynolds Pass ( 44 ° 42 ′ 40 ″ N 111 ° 28 ′ 11 ″ W ) and Raynolds Peak ( 43 ° 52 ′ 15 ″ N 110 ° 49 ′ 30 ″ W ) is an isolated peak in the Teton Range that was named after him in 1938 . The fossil remains of the extinct gastropod Viviparus raynoldsanus was named by Ferdinand V. Hayden in honor of Raynolds after the specimen was collected in the Powder River Basin during the expedition .

= Soundtrack to the Apocalypse = Soundtrack to the Apocalypse is a box set by the American thrash metal band Slayer . Released November 25 , 2003 through American Recordings , the four – disc CD and DVD set features music from previous albums , unreleased material , and live film . A deluxe edition version ( which has the alias " ammo box " ) was released and featured everything from the standard edition , with the addition of 14 live tracks . The box set 's name originated from an alternative title for 2001 's God Hates Us All . After discussing among themselves the idea of the box set , the band informed their record company , who initially disliked but later approved the idea . Many dates were stated by band members as to when it would be released . The official release date was not announced until late October 2003 . The box set has been released into the public domain five times between late 2003 to early 2007 . There were several producers and film directors that were involved with the box set . The set received positive reviews from critics , but was not well received by fans , with the set debuting on no notable charts . = = Conception = = Around the time Slayer thought of the album title for 2001 's God Hates Us All , Soundtrack to the Apocalypse was considered an alternative name . Vocalist Tom Araya then suggested that if they ever opted to issue a box set , Soundtrack to the Apocalypse would be the most appropriate title . This inspired discussion regarding a possible box set release , which continued for several months . The group decided that once the label agreed to a release , they would be given a little more time to compile the material . Slayer approached the record company regarding a box set release , and discussions lasted roughly a year , since the band had to negotiate with the record company concerning plans they had with the box set which were not in their contract . In September 2003 , the record company granted permission to issue the box set and wanted an immediate release for the holiday season . Slayer submitted a range of material for the record company to choose from , instructing them to return a track list of what they felt to be the best items . Following this , Slayer looked at the returned material ; if the recorded track was a “ good ” performance but the band " didn ’ t care for the song " , they asked the record company to select another track . Guitarist Kerry King commented " there 's tons of stuff on there " , citing the amount they had to choose from as a problem . King himself owned five large Tupperware storage boxes full of material amassed over the years . Having every magazine had ever seen the group inside , King also possessed roughly 70 VHS and 8mm videos dating back to 1983 . Nick John of Slayer ’ s management team sifted through every video and transferred them to DVD . = = Production = = Soundtrack to the Apocalypse 's ideal release date was in early November 2003 . However , on September 25 , 2003 , it was announced by employees of MTV that the box set 's release date had been pushed back to November 18 , 2003 . On October 23 , 2003 , employees of MTV announced that the box set 's release date was pushed back to November 25 , 2003 . Since November 25 , 2003 , Slayer has released the box set five different times . The first three times were each released in 2003 , the first being released through Universal Records , and the other two , one being a Deluxe Edition version , were released through American Records . The set 's fourth release , which was packaged with only three discs , was released through American Records in 2006 . The box set 's final release was in 2007 , where it was released through WEA International . It was also released in the United Kingdom on December 8 , 2003 . It was produced with three Compact Discs , one DVD , and a booklet . The packaging was praised by PopMatters , insisting that the box set is " very nicely packaged , in a swanky fold @-@ out digipak with a clear plastic slipcase . The 72 @-@ page accompanying booklet is outstanding , with extensive liner notes , loads of photos , and many memories from the band members . " USA Today related : " [ it is ] a combination of the metal grinders ' best @-@ known tracks , with live and studio rarities plus 17 DVD selections . A deluxe edition ( $ 100 ) adds a live disc and a few souvenir extras . " Soundtrack to the Apocalypse was produced by Matt Hyde , Dino Paredes , Rick Rubin , D. Sardy , and Andy Wallace and was executively produced by Nick John and Rick Sales . The film on the fourth disc was directed by Di Puglia , Gerard . The set includes many Slayer tracks since 1986 with several rarities and b @-@ sides , and includes a remastered DVD of live performances spanning 20 years . A fifth disc was released with fourteen more tracks than the set 's standard edition . The bonus live tracks are were recorded at The Grove In Anaheim , California , on May 2 , 2002 , several months following the return of original drummer Dave Lombardo . The extra tracks are packaged in a " blood pack " sleeve , which is decorated with faux blood and skulls . = = Reception = = Although it did not enter any charts , Thom Jurek from AllMusic praised Soundtrack to the Apocalypse , rewarding the box set with four out of five stars . Jurek said it had " a whopping four CDs and one DVD . " Jurek noted that discs one and two " feature tracks from Reign in Blood , and all the albums that proceed from it , and includes bonus cuts previously only released in Japan , and cuts from soundtracks . " He also said that the third disc " is , appropriately , titled ' Shit You Never Heard ' because that 's what it is — sixteen tracks that have been unissued anywhere — from rehearsals , to in @-@ concert recordings , demos , and one ' No Remorse , ' a collaboration with Atari Teenage Riot , from the Spawn soundtrack , " and that the fourth disc are " an electronic press kit video for Diabolus in Musica , and an appearance at the Kerrang magazine awards . " Adrien Begrand from PopMatters favoured the album , lauding the packaging but stating that " like any other CD box set that has come out in recent years , the band seems torn about whom to appeal to , longtime fans , or newcomers . " Begrand noted that the first disc " is especially great , as it captures Slayer at the peak of their career , starting with the classic 1986 album Reign in Blood . " PR Newswire said it was " a Slayer fan 's ultimate experience , " and The Dallas Morning News called it " a fat new audiovisual box set . " = = Track listing = = = = Personnel = = Slayer Tom Araya – bass , vocals Jeff Hanneman – guitar Kerry King – guitar Dave Lombardo – drums on disc # 1 tracks 1 – 18 , disc # 2 track 15 , disc # 3 tracks 1 – 7 , 10 – 11 and 16 – 17 , disc # 4 tracks 1 – 10 and 15 – 17 , disc # 5 tracks 1 – 14 Paul Bostaph – drums on disc # 2 tracks 1 – 14 and 16 – 22 , disc # 3 tracks 12 and 14 – 15 , disc # 4 track 14 Jon Dette – drums on disc # 4 track 11 Production

= Pah Wongso = Louis Victor Wijnhamer , Jr . ( 11 February 1904 – 13 May 1975 ) , better known as Pah Wongso ( Chinese : 伯王梭 ; pinyin : Bó Wángsuō ) , was an Indo social worker popular within the ethnic Chinese community of what was initially the Dutch East Indies , and subsequently became Indonesia . Educated in Semarang and Surabaya , Pah Wongso began his social work in the early 1930s , using traditional arts such as wayang golek to promote such causes as monogamy and abstinence . By 1938 he had established a school for the poor , and was raising money for the Red Cross to send aid to China . In late 1938 , Pah Wongso used a legal defense fund , which had been raised for him when he was charged with extortion , in order to establish another school ; this was followed by an employment center in 1939 . In 1941 , Star Film released two productions starring him and featuring his name in the title . During the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies , Pah Wongso was held in a series of concentration camps in South @-@ East Asia . He returned to the then @-@ independent Indies by 1948 , and raised funds for the Red Cross and ran an employment office until his death . = = Early life and social work = = Louis Victor Wijnhamer , Jr . , was born on 11 February 1904 in Tegal , Central Java , the Dutch East Indies . One of three siblings , Wijnhamer was born to an ethnic Dutch administrator from Surabaya , Louis Gregorius Wijnhamer , Sr. , and J. F. Ihnen ; he was of Indo descent . He studied at the senior high school in Semarang , before spending some time at the Suikerschool in Surabaya , later arriving in Batavia ( now Jakarta ) . There , between 1927 and 1937 , he worked as an amanuensis at the School tot Opleiding van Inlandsche Artsen . By the early 1930s , Wijnhamer , known as Pah Wongso , was recognised in West Java for his promotion of social causes . These included promoting monogamy and faith in western medicine , as well as combating gambling and the use of opium and alcohol . In conveying his messages he often used the Sundanese wayang golek ( a form of shadow puppets ) , as the local people were generally unable to read . He was able to speak Dutch , Malay , and Javanese fluently , and had some command of Chinese and Japanese . This social work was funded predominantly from Pah Wongso 's day job , selling fried peanuts ( kacang goreng ) . By 1938 Pah Wongso had married and opened a school for poor children , particularly those of mixed Chinese descent , in Gang Patikee ; it was funded by donations . He was also a member of the Indies branch of the Red Cross , and recognized for his humanitarian work . He organised night fairs in various cities in the Indies ( including in Yogyakarta , Semarang , and Surabaya ) , holding auctions and selling drinks and snacks in order to raise money to send aid to China , then fighting against the Japanese . = = Establishment of schools and popularity = = After one of these fairs , in Yogyakarta , Pah Wongso was arrested for writing a threatening letter to Liem Tek Hien , who refused to pay f . 10 for a walking stick he said that he had not purchased , and held at Struiswijk Prison in Batavia . He was charged with " attempted extortion and unpleasant treatment " . The case was widely followed by ethnic Chinese in the Indies , and the magazine Keng Po established a defense fund for Pah Wongso , which raised more than f . 1 @,@ 300 by mid @-@ June 1938 ; this had reached almost f . 2 @,@ 000 by the end of the month . The case was brought to trial on 24 June 1938 . Although Liem regretted reporting Pah Wongso to the police , the prosecutor called for a two @-@ month sentence , while the defence asked for an acquittal , or time served . Ultimately , on 28 June 1938 the judge gave a sentence of one month – equal to the time Pah Wongso had served – and he was released . Pah Wongso appealed the court sentence , calling for an acquittal ; in August 1938 his sentence was reduced to a 25 @-@ cent fine . The defense fund collected by Keng Po , totaling almost f . 3 @,@ 500 by August , was allocated to the establishment of a school ; on 8 August 1938 the Pah Wongso Crèches school for impoverished youth opened at 20 Blandongan St. in Batavia . By the end of the year Pah Wongso had participated in a march on opium use and been featured in a special issue of Fu Len . In 1939 Pah Wongso expanded his school in Blandongan to include an employment office . Established with f . 1 @,@ 000 , the office was located above the school and by November 1939 was training 22 job seekers . The Pah Wongso Crèches , meanwhile , served more than 200 ethnic Chinese and indigene students . He continued speaking out against the working conditions in the Indies , giving a lecture to a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ strong audience at the Queens Theatre in Batavia in October 1939 . He remained highly popular with the ethnic Chinese . In 1941 , Star Film made two films starring Pah Wongso to take advantage of his popularity . The first , Pah Wongso Pendekar Boediman ( Pah Wongso the Cultured Warrior ) , depicted him as a nut seller who investigates the murder of a rich hajji . It was released to popular acclaim , although the journalist Saeroen suggest this was predominantly because of Pah Wongso 's existing popularity within the Chinese community . A second film , a comedy titled Pah Wongso Tersangka , depicted Pah Wongso as a suspect in an investigation and was released in December 1941 . Writing in the magazine Pertjatoeran Doenia dan Film , " S. " praised the introduction of comedy to the Indies ' film industry , and expressed hope that the film would " leave audiences rolling with laughter " . = = Later life = = In March 1942 , the Empire of Japan occupied the Dutch East Indies . Pah Wongso was captured in Bandung on 8 March , and spent three years in a series of concentration camps in South @-@ East Asia , including in Thailand , Singapore and Malaya . He returned to the Indies , now independent and known as Indonesia , by 1948 , when he established the " Tulung Menulung " ( literally " mutual assistance " ) social office ; he also worked for Bond Motors ' Jakarta branch . In the mid @-@ 1950s he met President Sukarno , and by 1957 a biography of Pah Wongso was for sale . He and his wife Gouw Tan Nio ( also known as Leny Wijnhamer ) had their fifth child on 3 February 1955 . Pah Wongso continued to raise money for the Red Cross by selling fried peanuts . He also continued to operate his school in Blandongan , as well as the employment office , which trained young men and women for positions such as maids , gardeners , and bellhops , then placed them with employers . Several of Pah Wongso 's students came from islands other than Java . De Nieuwsgier gave the story of one young man , from Bengkulu , who had come to Java to study , been robbed of all his possessions while in Jakarta , then been helped by Pah Wongso to find work . Pah Wongso continued operating his school and employment office , under the auspices of the Pah Wongso Foundation , into the 1970s . He touted that the foundation had found positions for 1 @,@ 000 young women and 11 @,@ 000 young men , and advertisements offering to place labourers were issued in Indonesian , English , and Dutch . The institution also provided printing services ; wrote letters on demand in English , Dutch , and Indonesian ; and provided wayang performances with four kinds of puppets . Pah Wongso died in Jakarta on 13 May 1975 . = = Explanatory notes = =

= Operation Totalize = Operation Totalize ( also spelled " Operation Totalise " in some more recent British sources ) was an offensive launched by Allied troops of the First Canadian Army during the later stages of Operation Overlord , from 8 to 13 August 1944 . The intention was to break through the German defences south of Caen on the eastern flank of the Allied positions in Normandy and exploit success by driving south to capture the high ground north of the city of Falaise . The goal was to precipitate the collapse of the entire German front , and cut off the retreat of German forces fighting American and British armies further west . The battle is considered the inaugural operation of the First Canadian Army , which had been formally activated on 23 July . In the early hours of 8 August 1944 , II Canadian Corps launched the attack using mechanized infantry . They broke through the German front lines and captured vital positions deep in the German defences . It was intended that two fresh armoured divisions would continue the attack , but some hesitancy by these two comparatively inexperienced divisions and German armoured counter @-@ attacks slowed the offensive . Having advanced 9 mi ( 14 km ) , the Allies were halted 7 mi ( 11 km ) north of Falaise , and forced to prepare a fresh attack . = = Background = = Caen had been an objective of the British forces assaulting Sword Beach on D @-@ Day . However , the German defences were strongest in this sector , and most of the German reinforcements sent to Normandy were committed to the defence of the city . Positional warfare ensued for the next six weeks . Several attempts by British and Canadian forces to capture Caen were unsuccessful until 9 July , when all of the city , north of the Orne River , was captured during Operation Charnwood . Between 18 July and 20 July , British forces launched Operation Goodwood to outflank the city to the east and south , while Canadian forces mounted Operation Atlantic to cross the Orne River and clear the remaining portions of the city . Although Operation Goodwood was halted with heavy tank losses , the two operations ultimately secured a bridgehead 6 mi ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) wide and 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) deep south of the Orne . The Germans still held the commanding terrain of the Verrières Ridge , 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) south of the city . The repeated British and Canadian attacks launched around Caen ( in part to distract the Germans from the western part of the front , where the First United States Army was preparing to break out of the Allied lodgement ) had caused the Germans to defend Verrières ridge with some of their strongest and most determined formations , including elements of three SS Panzer divisions of the I SS Panzer Corps . Within 48 hours of the end of Operation Goodwood , the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division launched an attack against the " formidable " German defences on Verrières Ridge . They suffered over 1 @,@ 300 casualties and territorial gains were minimal . From 25 July to 27 July , another attempt was made to take the ridge as part of Operation Spring . Poor execution resulted in around 1 @,@ 500 Canadian casualties . In total , the Battle of Verrières Ridge had claimed upwards of 2 @,@ 800 Canadian casualties . While the ridge remained in German hands , the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division had gained a foothold on the ridge between the village of Verrières to St.Martin @-@ de @-@ Fontenay , which would allow the troops to assemble free of German observation while they prepared to launch Totalize . Also on 25 July the Americans launched their break @-@ out offensive , Operation Cobra , which gained immediate success . By the end of the third day of the operation , American forces had advanced 15 mi ( 24 km ) south of the Cobra start line at several points . On 30 July , American forces captured Avranches , at the base of the Cotentin peninsula . The German left flank was now open and within 24 hours , units of the United States Third Army had entered Brittany and began advancing south and west through open country almost without opposition . Three German Panzer divisions — the 1st SS , 9th SS and 116th — were shifted westward from Verrières Ridge to face this new threat . British General Bernard Montgomery ( commanding the ground forces in Normandy ) now wanted an attack on the eastern flank of the front to capture Falaise , intending that such a move would precipitate a general German collapse . The First Canadian Army , commanded by Lieutenant General Harry Crerar , held this part of the Allied front . It consisted of the British I Corps , responsible for the extreme eastern flank of the Allied lines , and II Canadian Corps south of Caen . Canadian II Corps , which was to launch Operation Totalize , was commanded by Lieutenant General Guy Simonds and consisted of the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division , 3rd Canadian Infantry Division , 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division , 51st ( Highland ) Infantry Division , 4th Canadian ( Armoured ) Division , 1st Polish Armoured Division , 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade and the British 33rd Armoured Brigade . = = Offensive plan = = The German defensive positions on Verrières Ridge remained very strong . The forward infantry positions were well dug @-@ in , with wide fields of fire . The main concentration of one hundred 75 mm and 88 mm anti @-@ tank guns was deployed around the villages of Cramesnil and Saint @-@ Aignan @-@ de @-@ Cramesnil 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) behind the forward positions to halt any breakthrough by tanks along the Caen @-@ Falaise road . The front line and defences in depth were held by the 89th Infantry Division , 85th Infantry Division ( recently arrived from Rouen ) and the remnants of the 272nd Grenadier Infantry Division ( severely depleted by the Canadians in Operation Atlantic ) . The 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend with an attached heavy tank battalion , with fifty tanks , was in reserve a further 3 mi ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) back . Some of the infantry were commanded by the German LXXXVI Korps , but most of the sector ( and the 12th SS Panzer Division ) was under the command of the I SS Panzer Corps , which had arrived during Operation Goodwood . Simonds knew that infantry assaults supported by massed artillery had failed to overcome the German forward lines in Operation Atlantic and Operation Spring . During Operation Goodwood , a bombardment by aircraft of RAF Bomber Command had allowed British tanks to break through the German front but they had then suffered heavy casualties from the intact German defences in depth . Infantry had been unable to follow up quickly enough to support the leading tanks or to secure ground behind them ( so that follow @-@ up units were also slowed ) . To solve the tactical problem presented by the terrain and the deep defences , Simonds proposed a radical solution ; in effect , the world 's first large mechanized infantry attack . Some Canadian and British infantry divisions had been temporarily equipped with M7 Priest self @-@ propelled guns for the D @-@ Day landings , which had been replaced by towed Ordnance QF 25 pounders . Simonds had the Priests converted into Kangaroo Armoured Personnel Carriers , which would allow infantry to follow the tanks closely on any terrain . Permission was first requested from the Americans , from whom the M7s had been borrowed , to convert them into APCs . Simonds made air power an essential component in his plan for breaking through the German tactical zones . The preliminary aerial bombardment called for RAF bombers to saturate the German defences on both flanks of a 4 mi ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) wide corridor along the axis of the Caen – Falaise road during the night of 7 August . During the early hours of 8 August , two attacking forces of tanks and armoured personnel carriers would advance along this corridor . West of the road under the Canadian 2nd Division were the 4th Canadian Infantry Brigade and 2nd Canadian Armoured Brigade . East of the road , under the British 51st Division were the 154th ( Highland ) Brigade and the 33rd Armoured Brigade . These two columns would bypass the front @-@ line defenders and capture the main German anti @-@ tank defences around Cramesnil and Saint @-@ Aignan de Cramesnil at dawn . The second phase would follow immediately . While the remaining four infantry brigades of the 2nd Canadian and 51st British divisions cleared up the isolated German forward defences and the 3rd Canadian and British 49th divisions ( from I Corps ) began subsidiary attacks , to widen the base of salient captured in the first phase , the 4th Canadian Armoured Division and 1st Polish Armoured Division would move up the corridor to Cramesnil and prepare to advance further south . To prepare for their attack , bombers of the US Eighth Air Force would bombard the German reserve positions at Hautmesnil . The ultimate objective was the high ground north of Falaise , 15 mi ( 24 km ) beyond the start line . = = Anglo @-@ Canadian assault = = During the evening of 7 August 1944 , the attacking forces formed up in six columns , four vehicles wide , comprising tanks , Kangaroo APCs , half tracks , self @-@ propelled anti @-@ tank guns and Mine flail tanks . At 23 : 00 , Bomber Command commenced the bombardment of German positions along the entire Caen front . At 23 : 30 , the armoured columns began their advance behind a rolling barrage . Movement was slow at first , many APC drivers became disorientated by the dust caused by the vehicles . Several vehicles became stuck in bomb craters . Simonds had arranged several methods for the columns to maintain direction , some vehicles were fitted with radio direction finders , the artillery fired target @-@ marking shells , Bofors 40 mm guns fired bursts of tracer in the direction of advance . In spite of all these measures , there was still confusion . Several vehicles collided or were knocked out . The attack broke through the German defences in several places . By dawn , the attacking columns from the 51st ( Highland ) Division had reached their intended positions . The infantry dismounted from their Kangaroo APCs within 200 yards ( 180 m ) of their objectives , the villages of Cramensnil and Saint @-@ Aignan de Cramesnil and rapidly overran the defenders . The columns from the 2nd Canadian Division were delayed by fog and unexpected opposition on their right flank but by noon on 8 August , the Allied forces had captured Verrières Ridge . The novel methods used by Simonds ensured that the attackers suffered only a fraction of the loss which would have been incurred in a normal " dismounted " attack . The Allies were poised to move against Cintheaux , 2 mi ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of their furthest penetration but Simonds ordered a halt to the advance , to allow field artillery and the armoured divisions ( 4th Canadian and 1st Polish ) to move into position for the second phase of the operation . = = German counter @-@ moves = = SS General Kurt Meyer , commander of the 12th SS Panzer Division , had already ordered infantry from various formations shattered by the bombers and by the armoured attack , to occupy Cintheaux . He also moved forward two battlegroups from his division , consisting of assault guns , infantry and Tiger tanks , positioning them across the Canadian front . Shortly after midday , he ordered these two battlegroups to counter @-@ attack the leading Allied troops . At this point , the Allied offensive plan called for additional bombardment by the Eighth Air Force , before the 4th Canadian Armoured Division and the 1st Polish Armoured Division pushed south towards Falaise on either side of the Caen – Falaise Road . The counter @-@ attack by the 12th SS Panzer Division failed but placed Meyer 's tanks north of the target area that the Eighth Air Force bombarded in preparation for the second phase of the Allied attack . Spared the effects of the bombing , the tanks slowed the advance of the 1st Polish Armoured Division , preventing a breakthrough east of the road . West of the road , the German infantry at Cintheaux held up the Canadian armoured formations . Neither division ( both in combat for the first time ) pressed their attacks as hard as Simonds demanded and " laagered " ( went into a defensive formation while vehicles and troops were supplied and rested ) when darkness fell . To restore the momentum of the attack , Simonds ordered a column from the 4th Canadian Armoured Division to seize Hill 195 , just to the west of the main road , halfway between Cintheaux and Falaise . Worthington Force comprised three companies of the Algonquin Regiment ( B , C and HQ ) supporting 52 tanks from the British Columbia Regiment , bumped into the rear of Halfpenny Force fighting the SS in Bretteville @-@ le @-@ Rabet , went round them and got lost . When dawn broke on 9 August , Worthington Force was 4 @.@ 5 mi ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) to the east of Hill 195 at Hill 140 , half @-@ way between Estrees @-@ la @-@ Campagne and Mazieres . They held their ground against German armoured counter @-@ attacks during 9 August but suffered many casualties , including most of their tanks . By 17 @.@ 00 hours what remained of Worthington Force had either been captured or forced to withdraw . Because the column was so far from its intended objective , other units sent to relieve it could not find it . Eventually , another force captured Hill 195 in a model night attack on 10 August but the Germans had been given time to withdraw and reform a defensive line on the Laison River . By 11 August , the Anglo @-@ Canadian offensive had ended . = = Aftermath = = The early phases of the assault had been a great success , despite many casualties in the two Allied armoured divisions in their attempt to push towards Falaise . Formations of four divisions of the First Canadian Army held positions on Hill 195 , directly north of Falaise . At the same time , Allied forces managed to inflict upwards of 1 @,@ 500 more casualties on the German forces . Major General Rod Keller was removed from his command of the 3rd Canadian Infantry Division , after having been badly wounded , when his headquarters were hit by American bombs . Keller 's poor performance in Totalize lost him the confidence of General Crerar and he received no further command positions for the remainder of the war . Simonds and Crerar mounted a follow @-@ up offensive , Operation Tractable , which took place between 14 and 21 August . On 21 August , the Falaise Pocket was closed when Canadian and Polish units made contact with US troops to the south , ending Commonwealth participation in the Battle of Normandy with a decisive Allied victory .

= Rhenium = Rhenium is a chemical element with symbol Re and atomic number 75 . It is a silvery @-@ white , heavy , third @-@ row transition metal in group 7 of the periodic table . With an estimated average concentration of 1 part per billion ( ppb ) , rhenium is one of the rarest elements in the Earth 's crust . The free element has the third @-@ highest melting point and highest boiling point of any element , at 5 @,@ 869 K ( 10 @,@ 105 ° F ) . Rhenium resembles manganese and technetium chemically and is mainly obtained as a by @-@ product of the extraction and refinement of molybdenum and copper ores . Rhenium shows in its compounds a wide variety of oxidation states ranging from − 1 to + 7 . Discovered in 1925 , rhenium was the last stable element to be discovered . It was named after the river Rhine in Europe . Nickel @-@ based superalloys of rhenium are used in the combustion chambers , turbine blades , and exhaust nozzles of jet engines . These alloys contain up to 6 % rhenium , making jet engine construction the largest single use for the element , with the chemical industry 's catalytic uses being next @-@ most important . Because of the low availability relative to demand , rhenium is among the most expensive of metals , with an average price of approximately US $ 2 @,@ 750 per kilogram ( US $ 85 @.@ 53 per troy ounce ) as of April 2015 ; it is also of critical strategic military importance , for its use in high performance military jet and rocket engines . = = History = = Rhenium ( Latin : Rhenus meaning : " Rhine " ) was the last @-@ discovered of the elements that have a stable isotope ( other new elements discovered in nature since then , such as francium , are radioactive ) . The existence of a yet @-@ undiscovered element at this position in the periodic table had been first predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev . Other calculated information was obtained by Henry Moseley in 1914 . It is generally considered to have been discovered by Walter Noddack , Ida Tacke , and Otto Berg in Germany . In 1925 they reported that they had detected the element in platinum ore and in the mineral columbite . They also found rhenium in gadolinite and molybdenite . In 1928 they were able to extract 1 g of the element by processing 660 kg of molybdenite . It was estimated in 1968 that 75 % of the rhenium metal in the United States was used for research and the development of refractory metal alloys . It took several years from that point before the superalloys became widely used . In 1908 , Japanese chemist Masataka Ogawa announced that he had discovered the 43rd element and named it nipponium ( Np ) after Japan ( Nippon in Japanese ) . However , later analysis indicated the presence of rhenium ( element 75 ) , not element 43 . The symbol Np was later used for the element neptunium , and the name " nihonium " , also named after Japan , has been proposed for element 113 . = = Characteristics = = Rhenium is a silvery @-@ white metal with one of the highest melting points of all elements , exceeded by only tungsten and carbon . It also has the highest boiling point of all elements . It is also one of the densest , exceeded only by platinum , iridium and osmium . Rhenium has a hexagonal close @-@ packed crystal structure , with lattice parameters a

= 276 @.@ 1 pm and c = 445 @.@ 6 pm . Its usual commercial form is a powder , but this element can be consolidated by pressing and sintering in a vacuum or hydrogen atmosphere . This procedure yields a compact solid having a density above 90 % of the density of the metal . When annealed this metal is very ductile and can be bent , coiled , or rolled . Rhenium @-@ molybdenum alloys are superconductive at 10 K ; tungsten @-@ rhenium alloys are also superconductive around 4 – 8 K , depending on the alloy . Rhenium metal superconducts at 1 @.@ 697 ± 0 @.@ 006 K. In bulk form and at room temperature and atmospheric pressure , the element resists alkalis , sulfuric acid , hydrochloric acid , dilute ( but not concentrated ) nitric acid , and aqua regia . = = = Isotopes = = = Rhenium has one stable isotope , rhenium @-@ 185 , which nevertheless occurs in minority abundance , a situation found only in two other elements ( indium and tellurium ) . Naturally occurring rhenium is only 37 @.@ 4 % 185Re , and 62 @.@ 6 % 187Re , which is unstable but has a very long half @-@ life ( ≈ 1010 years ) . This lifetime can be greatly affected by the charge state of rhenium atom . The beta decay of 187Re is used for rhenium @-@ osmium dating of ores . The available energy for this beta decay ( 2 @.@ 6 keV ) is one of the lowest known among all radionuclides . The isotope rhenium @-@ 186m is notable as being one of the longest lived metastable isotopes with a half @-@ life of around 200 @,@ 000 years . There are twenty @-@ five other recognized radioactive isotopes of rhenium . = = = Compounds = = = Rhenium compounds are known for all the oxidation states between − 3 and + 7 except − 2 . The oxidation states + 7 , + 6 , + 4 , and + 2 are the most common . Rhenium is most available commercially as salts of perrhenate , including sodium and ammonium perrhenates . These are white , water @-@ soluble compounds . = = = = Halides and oxyhalides = = = = The most common rhenium chlorides are ReCl6 , ReCl5 , ReCl4 , and ReCl3 . The structures of these compounds often feature extensive Re @-@ Re bonding , which is characteristic of this metal in oxidation states lower than VII . Salts of [ Re2Cl8 ] 2 − feature a quadruple metal @-@ metal bond . Although the highest rhenium chloride features Re ( VI ) , fluorine gives the d0 Re ( VII ) derivative rhenium heptafluoride . Bromides and iodides of rhenium are also well known . Like tungsten and molybdenum , with which it shares chemical similarities , rhenium forms a variety of oxyhalides . The oxychlorides are most common , and include ReOCl4 , ReOCl3 . = = = = Oxides and sulfides = = = = The most common oxide is the volatile colourless Re2O7 . Rhenium trioxide ReO3 adopts a perovskite @-@ like structure . Other oxides include Re2O5 , ReO2 , and Re2O3 . The sulfides are ReS2 and Re2S7 . Perrhenate salts can be converted to tetrathioperrhenate by the action of ammonium hydrosulfide . = = = = Other compounds = = = = Rhenium diboride ( ReB2 ) is a hard compound having the hardness similar to that of tungsten carbide , silicon carbide , titanium diboride or zirconium diboride . = = = = Organorhenium compounds = = = = Dirhenium decacarbonyl is the most common entry to organorhenium chemistry . Its reduction with sodium amalgam gives Na [ Re ( CO ) 5 ] with rhenium in the formal oxidation state − 1 . Dirhenium decacarbonyl can be oxidised with bromine to bromopentacarbonylrhenium ( I ) : Re2 ( CO ) 10 + Br2 → 2 Re ( CO ) 5Br Reduction of this pentacarbonyl with zinc and acetic acid gives pentacarbonylhydridorhenium : Re ( CO ) 5Br + Zn + HOAc → Re ( CO ) 5H + ZnBr ( OAc ) Methylrhenium trioxide ( " MTO " ) , CH3ReO3 is a volatile , colourless solid has been used as a catalyst in some laboratory experiments . It can be prepared by many routes , a typical method is the reaction of Re2O7 and tetramethyltin : Re2O7 + ( CH3 ) 4Sn → CH3ReO3 + ( CH3 ) 3SnOReO3 Analogous alkyl and aryl derivatives are known . MTO catalyses for the oxidations with hydrogen peroxide . Terminal alkynes yield the corresponding acid or ester , internal alkynes yield diketones , and alkenes give epoxides . MTO also catalyses the conversion of aldehydes and diazoalkanes into an alkene . = = = = Nonahydridorhenate = = = = A distinctive derivative of rhenium is nonahydridorhenate , originally thought to be the rhenide anion , Re − , but actually containing the ReH2 − 9 anion in which the oxidation state of rhenium is + 7 . = = = Occurrence = = = Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in Earth 's crust with an average concentration of 1 ppb ; other sources quote the number of 0 @.@ 5 ppb making it the 77th most abundant element in Earth 's crust . Rhenium is probably not found free in nature ( its possible natural occurrence is uncertain ) , but occurs in amounts up to 0 @.@ 2 % in the mineral molybdenite ( which is primarily molybdenum disulfide ) , the major commercial source , although single molybdenite samples with up to 1 @.@ 88 % have been found . Chile has the world 's largest rhenium reserves , part of the copper ore deposits , and was the leading producer as of 2005 . It was only recently that the first rhenium mineral was found and described ( in 1994 ) , a rhenium sulfide mineral ( ReS2 ) condensing from a fumarole on Russia 's Kudriavy volcano , Iturup island , in the Kuril Islands . Kudryavy discharges up to 20 – 60 kg rhenium per year mostly in the form of rhenium disulfide . Named rheniite , this rare mineral commands high prices among collectors . = = Production = = Commercial rhenium is extracted from molybdenum roaster @-@ flue gas obtained from copper @-@ sulfide ores . Some molybdenum ores contain 0 @.@ 001 % to 0 @.@ 2 % rhenium . Rhenium ( VII ) oxide and perrhenic acid readily dissolve in water ; they are leached from flue dusts and gasses and extracted by precipitating with potassium or ammonium chloride as the perrhenate salts , and purified by recrystallization . Total world production is between 40 and 50 tons / year ; the main producers are in Chile , the United States , Peru , and Poland . Recycling of used Pt @-@ Re catalyst and special alloys allow the recovery of another 10 tons per year . Prices for the metal rose rapidly in early 2008 , from $ 1000 – $ 2000 per kg in 2003 – 2006 to over $ 10 @,@ 000 in February 2008 . The metal form is prepared by reducing ammonium perrhenate with hydrogen at high temperatures : 2 NH4ReO4 + 7 H2 → 2 Re + 8 H2O + 2 NH3 = = Applications = = Rhenium is added to high @-@ temperature superalloys that are used to make jet engine parts , using 70 % of the worldwide rhenium production . Another major application is in platinum – rhenium catalysts , which are primarily used in making lead @-@ free , high @-@ octane gasoline . = = = Alloys = = = The nickel @-@ based superalloys have improved creep strength with the addition of rhenium . The alloys normally contain 3 % or 6 % of rhenium . Second @-@ generation alloys contain 3 % ; these alloys were used in the engines for the F @-@ 15 and F @-@ 16 , whereas the newer single @-@ crystal third @-@ generation alloys contain 6 % of rhenium ; they are used in the F @-@ 22 and F @-@ 35 engines . Rhenium is also used in the superalloys , such as CMSX @-@ 4 ( 2nd gen ) and CMSX @-@ 10 ( 3rd gen ) that are used in industrial gas turbine engines like the GE 7FA . Rhenium can cause superalloys to become microstructurally unstable , forming undesirable TCP ( topologically close packed ) phases . In 4th- and 5th @-@ generation superalloys , ruthenium is used to avoid this effect . Among others the new superalloys are EPM @-@ 102 ( with 3 % Ru ) and TMS @-@ 162 ( with 6 % Ru ) , as well as TMS @-@ 138 and TMS @-@ 174 . For 2006 , the consumption is given as 28 % for General Electric , 28 % Rolls @-@ Royce plc and 12 % Pratt & Whitney , all for superalloys , whereas the use for catalysts only accounts for 14 % and the remaining applications use 18 % . In 2006 , 77 % of the rhenium consumption in the United States was in alloys . The rising demand for military jet engines and the constant supply made it necessary to develop superalloys with a lower rhenium content . For example , the newer CFM International CFM56 high @-@ pressure turbine ( HPT ) blades will use Rene N515 with a rhenium content of 1 @.@ 5 % instead of Rene N5 with 3 % . Rhenium improves the properties of tungsten . Tungsten @-@ rhenium alloys are more ductile at low temperature , allowing them to be more easily machined . The high @-@ temperature stability is also improved . The effect increases with the rhenium concentration , and therefore tungsten alloys are produced with up to 27 % of Re , which is the solubility limit . One application for the tungsten @-@ rhenium alloys is X @-@ ray sources . The high melting point of both compounds , together with the high atomic mass , makes them stable against the prolonged electron impact . Rhenium tungsten alloys are also applied as thermocouples to measure temperatures up to 2200 ° C. The high temperature stability , low vapor pressure , good wear resistance and ability to withstand arc corrosion of rhenium are useful in self @-@ cleaning electrical contacts . In particular , the discharge occurring during the switching oxidizes the contacts . However , rhenium oxide Re2O7 has poor stability ( sublimes at ~ 360 ° C ) and therefore is removed during the discharge . Rhenium has a high melting point and a low vapor pressure similar to tantalum and tungsten . Therefore , rhenium filaments exhibit a higher stability if the filament is operated not in vacuum , but in oxygen @-@ containing atmosphere . Those filaments are widely used in mass spectrometers , in ion gauges and in photoflash lamps in photography . = = = Catalysts = = = Rhenium in the form of rhenium @-@ platinum alloy is used as catalyst for catalytic reforming , which is a chemical process to convert petroleum refinery naphthas with low octane ratings into high @-@ octane liquid products . Worldwide , 30 % of catalysts used for this process contain rhenium . The olefin metathesis is the other reaction for which rhenium is used as catalyst . Normally Re2O7 on alumina is used for this process . Rhenium catalysts are very resistant to chemical poisoning from nitrogen , sulfur and phosphorus , and so are used in certain kinds of hydrogenation reactions . = = = Other uses = = = The isotopes 188Re and 186Re are radioactive and are used for treatment of liver cancer . They both have similar penetration depth in tissue ( 5 mm for 186Re and 11 mm for 188Re ) , but 186Re has advantage of longer lifetime ( 90 hours vs. 17 hours ) . 188Re is also being used experimentally in a novel treatment of pancreatic cancer where it is delivered by means of the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes . Related by periodic trends , rhenium has a similar chemistry to that of technetium ; work done to label rhenium onto target compounds can often be translated to technetium . This is useful for radiopharmacy , where it is difficult to work with technetium – especially the 99m isotope used in medicine – due to its expense and short half @-@ life . = = Precautions = = Very little is known about the toxicity of rhenium and its compounds because they are used in very small amounts . Soluble salts , such as the rhenium halides or perrhenates , could be hazardous due to elements other than rhenium or due to rhenium itself . Only a few compounds of rhenium have been tested for their acute toxicity ; two examples are potassium perrhenate and rhenium trichloride , which were injected as a solution into rats . The perrhenate had an LD50 value of 2800 mg / kg after seven days ( this is very low toxicity , similar to that of table salt ) and the rhenium trichloride showed LD50 of 280 mg / kg .

= New York State Route 380 = New York State Route 380 ( NY 380 ) was a 23 @-@ mile ( 37 km ) north – south state highway in Chautauqua County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the route was at an intersection with NY 60 in the town of Gerry . Its northern terminus was at a junction with NY 5 north of the village of Brocton in the town of Portland . In actuality , most of NY 380 was maintained by Chautauqua County ; the only part that was maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation was from NY 424 in Stockton to the west end of its overlap with U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) in Brocton . NY 380 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . On April 1 , 1980 , ownership and maintenance of NY 380 from NY 424 to the east end of its overlap with US 20 was transferred to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the county and the state of New York . NY 380 was redesignated as County Route 380 ( CR 380 ) just over four months later on August 7 , 1980 . Unlike its state @-@ numbered predecessor , CR 380 continues south of NY 60 to the town of Busti , where it ends at a junction with Forest Avenue . = = Route description = = NY 380 began at the modern intersection of NY 60 and CR 44 in the Ellicott community of Kimball Stand . The route proceeded west along modern CR 44 to what is now CR 380 , where it turned north to join the current alignment of CR 380 . NY 380 left the vicinity of Kimball Stand and headed northwest along the base of a valley surrounding Cassadaga Creek to the hamlet of Towerville , where it intersected with CR 59 and CR 48 . After leaving Towerville , Route 380 went northward into the town of Ellery . Here , it intersected CR 52 and CR 66 in Redbird , a community in the extreme northeastern corner of the town . The route continued past Redbird into the town of Stockton , where it left Cassadaga Creek and headed uphill as it curved to the west . In Centralia , NY 380 met CR 54 and CR 57 at a four @-@ way intersection . Here , NY 380 turned back to the north and descended into another valley surrounding the Bear Lake Outlet . The route crossed the outlet and followed the waterway into the hamlet of Stockton , centered on the intersection between NY 380 and NY 424 ( now part of CR 58 ) . NY 380 continued to run along the Bear Lake Outlet to a junction known as Kelly Corners southeast of Bear Lake . At this point , NY 380 turned westward and crossed over the outlet on its way to a more isolated area of the town . It intersected CR 37 before curving back to the north and passing through the town of Portland on its way into the village of Brocton . Here , NY 380 overlapped with US 20 for about 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) before exiting the village . NY 380 crossed over the New York State Thruway ( Interstate 90 ) just before it came to an end at an intersection with NY 5 on the southern shore of Lake Erie . Lake Erie State Park is about a few hundred feet up the road on NY 5 eastbound . = = History = = NY 380 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York and extended from NY 60 north of Jamestown to NY 5 north of Brocton , a routing that remained in place up to and through the 1970s . Although the highway was signed as a state route , most of the route was actually maintained by Chautauqua County . The only section of the route that was maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation was the portion between NY 424 in Stockton and US 20 in Brocton . NY 380 's short overlap with US 20 in Brocton was also state @-@ maintained . On April 1 , 1980 , ownership and maintenance of NY 380 's lone independent , state @-@ maintained portion from NY 424 to the east end of its overlap with US 20 was transferred from the state of New York to Chautauqua County as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . The county also assumed maintenance of NY 424 , NY 428 , and two reference routes in Dunkirk and Fredonia in the swap . In exchange , the state received ownership and maintenance of NY 394 between US 20 and NY 5 in the town of Westfield , US 62 from NY 60 to NY 394 east of the city of Jamestown , and Forest Avenue from the Pennsylvania state line in Busti to NY 60 in Jamestown . Forest Avenue became NY 952P , an unsigned reference route . Although the entirety of NY 380 was now maintained by Chautauqua County , save for the portion that overlapped US 20 in Brocton , the NY 380 designation remained in place until August 7 , 1980 , when it was redesignated as CR 380 . Unlike NY 380 , CR 380 continues south from the hamlet of Kimball Stand , intersecting NY 394 in Falconer and passing through the town of Stillwater to the town of Busti , where it ends at Forest Avenue in the hamlet of Busti 15 miles ( 24 km ) south of Kimball Stand . The highways that comprise the " extension " of the 380 designation were already county routes prior to 1980 . A small portion of NY 380 's routing in Kimball Stand is now part of CR 44 . = = Major intersections = = The entire route was in Chautauqua County .

= Edgar Towner = Edgar Thomas Towner , VC , MC ( 19 April 1890 – 18 August 1972 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . A lieutenant in the Australian Imperial Force during the First World War , Towner was awarded the Victoria Cross in 1918 for his actions during an attack on Mont St. Quentin on the Western Front . Born in Queensland to a farming family , Towner enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force in 1915 . Posted to the transport section of the 25th Battalion , he served in Egypt until his unit was sent to the Western Front . He then transferred to the 2nd Machine Gun Battalion where he was commissioned as a lieutenant and twice mentioned in despatches for his leadership . During June 1918 , Towner led a machine gun section in attack near Morlancourt and assisted the infantry in reaching its objectives under heavy fire , for which he was awarded the Military Cross . In September , again commanding a machine gun section , he was involved in the Allied counteroffensive that broke the German lines at Mont St. Quentin and Péronne . Fighting for thirty hours after being wounded , his " conspicuous bravery , initiative and devotion to duty " earned him the Victoria Cross , which was presented by King George V in April 1919 . Discharged in August , Towner returned to Australia . He was appointed a director of the Russleigh Pastoral Company , and briefly re @-@ enlisted during the Second World War , when he was promoted to major . A keen geographer , he was awarded the Dr Thomson Foundation Gold Medal in 1956 for his geographical work . Unmarried , he died in 1972 at the age of 82 . = = Early life = = Edgar Towner was born on 19 April 1890 , at Glencoe Station near Blackall , Queensland , to Edgar Thomas Towner , a grazing farmer , and his Irish wife Greta ( née Herley ) . He was educated at Blackall State School and in Rockhampton , although he also received private instruction from his mother . After leaving school Towner worked on his father 's grazing property until 1912 , when he acquired land of his own . He named the property " Valparaiso " and worked on its development until the outbreak of the First World War . = = First World War = = On 4 January 1915 , Towner enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force . Assigned to the transport section of the 25th Battalion as a private , he embarked aboard HMAT Aeneas from Brisbane on 29 June , bound for Egypt . The troopship arrived in August , and the battalion spent the rest of the month training in the desert before transferring to the Gallipoli Peninsula . Towner , however , remained in Egypt with the army 's transportation elements . Following the Allied evacuation of Gallipoli , the 25th Battalion returned to Egypt in December 1915 , where Towner rejoined its ranks on 10 January 1916 . He was promoted to sergeant on 1 February , before departing with the battalion at Alexandria the following month to join the British Expeditionary Force on the Western Front . Disembarking at Marseilles , the unit was the first Australian battalion to arrive in France . In July 1916 , the 25th Battalion took part in its first major Western Front action at the Battle of Pozières , part of the Somme offensive . The battalion suffered 785 casualties between 25 July and 7 August . It was briefly transferred to a " quieter sector of the front in Belgium " before returning to action on the Somme in October . On 3 November , Towner was transferred to the Australian Machine Gun Corps and was assigned to the 2nd Machine Gun Battalion of the 2nd Australian Division , and was allotted to the 7th Brigade 's Machine Gun Company . He was commissioned as a second lieutenant fifteen days later , and assumed command of the battalion 's transport section . Promoted to lieutenant on 24 February 1917 , Towner 's service with his transport section earned him praise for his " devotion to duty and consistent good work " , and on 9 April he was Mentioned in the Despatches of Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig . Towner was granted leave to the United Kingdom in January 1918 . He received a second Mention in Despatches on 7 April 1918 , the notification of which was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 28 May . On the night of 10 / 11 June 1918 , Towner was in command of a machine gun section during an attack to the south of Morlancourt . One of the first to reach the objective , he deployed his section and got its guns into action " very quickly " . By using captured German machine guns he was able to increase his section 's fire and provide support to the company on his right as it advanced , seized , and consolidated its position . During the morning of 11 June , one of the posts held by the Australian infantry was blown in by German artillery ; braving machine gun and sniper fire , Towner went out in daylight to help reorganise the post . Cited for his " cheerful and untiring attitude " and for " set [ ing ] a conspicuous example " , Towner was awarded the Military Cross for his actions . The announcement of the award and accompanying citation was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 24 September 1918 . = = = Victoria Cross = = = On 1 September 1918 , Towner was in command of No. 3 Section of the 7th Machine Gun Company during an attack on Mont St. Quentin , near Péronne . Armed with four Vickers machine guns , the section was attached to the right flank of the 24th Australian Infantry Battalion , whose principal objective was to seize the summit of Mont St. Quentin . To accomplish this , the battalion would have to advance through the village of Feuillaucourt before moving down to the Péronne road . The Australians began their advance at 06 : 00 behind an artillery screen , with Towner 's section covering a front of 1 @,@ 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 500 yd ) . Visibility was limited by rain , and Australian casualties soon began to mount . Locating a German machine gun that was causing heavy losses among the advancing troops , Towner rushed the position and single @-@ handedly killed the crew with his revolver . Having captured the gun , he then turned it on the Germans . Once Feuillaucourt had fallen , the 24th Battalion continued to the Péronne road . However , the Germans had occupied a copse of trees and put up strong resistance , halting the advance . German troops were observed massing for a counter @-@ attack , so Towner moved forward with several of his men , two Vickers guns , and the captured German gun , and brought the assembling Germans under concentrated fire , inflicting many casualties . Attempting to retire , a party of twenty @-@ five German soldiers were cut off by Towner 's guns and taken prisoner . Under heavy incoming fire , Towner then scouted over open terrain to locate advantageous positions from which his guns could offer further support . When he moved his section forward , the machine gunners were able to engage more groups of German soldiers ; their aggressive action enabled the advance to be renewed , and the battalion attained the cover of a sunken section of the Péronne road . However , on rejoining them Towner found that his section was growing short of ammunition , so he made his way back across the fire @-@ swept ground and located a German machine gun , which he brought forward along with several boxes of ammunition . This he brought into action " in full view of the enemy " ; his effective fire forced the Germans to retire further , and allowed one of the stalled Australian flanks to push ahead . German machine gunners had occupied a commanding vantage overlooking the sunken road , and began to rain down heavy fire around Towner 's position . One of the bullets struck his helmet , inflicting a gaping wound to his scalp . Refusing to be evacuated for medical treatment , Towner continued firing his gun as the German pressure increased and the situation grew critical . Eventually the Australian infantry were forced to retire a short distance , but with all its crew having become casualties , one gun was left behind . Alone , Towner dashed out over no man 's land and retrieved the weapon . With this gun he " continued to engage the enemy whenever they appeared " , putting a German machine gun out of action with his accurate fire . Throughout the night , Towner frequented the front lines and " continued to fight and ... inspire his men " . He provided supporting fire for the 21st Australian Infantry Battalion as they assaulted a heavily fortified crater on Mont St. Quentin 's summit , and repeatedly reconnoitred the German position to reported on troop movements . The next morning his section assisted in repulsing a large German counterattack before Towner was finally evacuated with exhaustion — thirty hours after being wounded . Initially admitted to the 41st Casualty Clearing Station , he was transported by train to the 2nd Red Cross Hospital at Rouen . For his actions during the battle , Towner was awarded the Victoria Cross — the third of six Australians to receive the medal during the fighting around Mont St. Quentin and Péronne . The full citation for Towner 's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette on 14 December 1918 , reading : War Officer , 14th December , 1918 . His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officers , Warrant Officer , Non @-@ commissioned Officers and Men : — Lt. Edgar Thomas Towner , M.C. , 2nd Bn . , Aus . M.G. Corps . For most conspicuous bravery , initiative and devotion to duty on 1st September , 1918 , in the attack on Mont St. Quentin , near Peronne , when in charge of four Vickers guns . During the early stages of the advance he located and captured , single @-@ handed , an enemy machine @-@ gun which was causing casualties , and by turning it on the enemy inflicted severe losses . Subsequently , by the skilful , tactical handling of his guns , he cut off and captured twenty @-@ five of the enemy . Later , by fearless reconnaissance under heavy fire , and by the energy , foresight and promptitude with which he brought fire to bear on various enemy groups , he gave valuable support to the infantry advance . Again , when short of ammunition , he secured an enemy machine @-@ gun , which he mounted and fired in full view of the enemy , causing the enemy to retire further , and enabling our infantry to advance . Under intense fire , although wounded , he maintained the fire of this gun at a very critical period . During the following night he steadied and gave valuable support to a small detached post , and by his coolness and cheerfulness inspirited the men in a great degree . Throughout the night he kept close watch by personal reconnaissance on the enemy movements , and was evacuated exhausted thirty hours after being wounded . The valour and resourcefulness of Lt. Towner undoubtedly saved a very critical situation , and contributed largely to the success of the attack . = = = Later war service = = = Following his recuperation , Towner was granted three weeks leave to England from 14 September 1918 . He rejoined his unit on 12 October and , for six days , was attached to the School of Instruction . Following thirteen days leave in France during late November , he returned again to the 2nd Machine Gun Battalion on 12 December . On 10 April 1919 , Towner attended an investiture ceremony in the ballroom of Buckingham Palace , during which he was decorated with his Victoria Cross and Military Cross by King George V. Three weeks later he boarded HT Karagola , bound for Australia . Disembarking at Sydney on 14 June 1919 he made his way to Brisbane , and was discharged from the Australian Imperial Force on 16 August 1919 . = = Later life = = Towner resettled on his property , but was forced to sell Valparaiso in 1922 after he was unable to raise sufficient funds to purchase livestock . He spent the next three years working as a jackaroo , until he entered into a partnership on Kaloola station , a property located near Longreach , in 1925 . Towner eventually bought out his partner and assumed another partnership with the Russleigh Pastoral Company , Isisford . He was later appointed a director of the company . With the Second World War looming , Towner enlisted in the Citizens Military Force on 8 August 1939 and was appointed a captain to the 26th Battalion . After a period as a company commander he was promoted to temporary major and second @-@ in @-@ command of the battalion , under fellow Victoria Cross recipient Lieutenant Colonel Harry Murray . However , Towner retired from the army due to ill health on 21 February 1942 , and returned to his property at Kaloola . A keen geographer , Towner would often disappear into the bush for weeks on end , for study or exploration . As a fellow of the Royal Geographical Society of Australia and member of the Royal Historical Society of New South Wales , he took a particular interest in researching the life of the explorer Sir Thomas Mitchell . In 1946 , he successfully lobbied the Australian Government to issue a postage stamp commemorating the centenary of Mitchell 's discoveries in central Queensland . He addressed the Royal Geographical Society of Australasia in Brisbane in 1955 , and was awarded the Dr Thomson Foundation Gold Medal for his geographical work the following year . Towner 's address was published in 1957 , in a booklet entitled Lake Eyre and its Tributaries . Towner never married , and on 18 August 1972 died at Longreach Base Hospital at the age of 82 . His funeral took place three days later , with a large number of Longreach citizens lining the streets to see his coffin pass by atop a gun carriage . Following a service at St Andrew 's Church , he was buried with full military honours at the Longreach Town Cemetery . By the time of his death , Towner had amassed an 80 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 320 km2 ) farm containing 25 @,@ 000 sheep . He remains the highest @-@ decorated serviceman from Queensland . On 24 April 2009 , a statue of Towner crafted by Melbourne sculptor William Eicholtz was unveiled in his birth town of Blackall . Inspired by an essay written by a local schoolboy , the community raised A $ 80 @,@ 000 to commission a monument in Towner 's memory .

= 1959 Mexico hurricane = The 1959 Mexico hurricane is the deadliest eastern Pacific tropical cyclone on record . First observed south of Mexico on October 23 , the cyclone tracked northwest . It intensified into a Category 3 hurricane on October 25 and reached Category 4 intensity the following day . After turning toward the northeast , the hurricane maintained Category 4 status and made landfall near Manzanillo , Mexico . The system continued on that trajectory prior to dissipating the next day . Impact from the hurricane was severe and widespread . Initially forecast to remain offshore , the system curved northeast and moved ashore , becoming one of Mexico 's worst natural disasters at the time . Up to 150 boats were submerged . Countless homes in Colima and Jalisco were damaged or destroyed , large portions of the states were inaccessible by flash flooding , and hundreds of residents were stranded . All coconut plantations were blown down during the storm , leaving thousands without work and instating fear that it would take the economy years to recover . Torrential rainfall across mountain terrain contributed to numerous mudslides that caused hundreds of fatalities . In the aftermath of the cyclone , convoys delivering aid were hindered by the destruction . Residents were vaccinated to prevent the spread of disease . Overall , the hurricane inflicted at least $ 280 million ( 1959 USD ) in damage . = = Meteorological history = = On October 22 , a low pressure area was present south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec , having originated out of an area of disturbed weather in the region the day before . That day , two ships reported gale @-@ force winds , suggesting that a tropical storm formed by 12 : 00 UTC . Moving west @-@ northwestward parallel to the southwest coast of Mexico , the system steadily intensified , reaching hurricane status by late on October 23 . The storm continued to intensify , although there were few ships in the path to record the intensity until October 26 . During that time , interpolation of observations suggests that the storm attained major hurricane intensity – a Category 3 on the modern Saffir @-@ Simpson scale – with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) on October 25 . On October 26 , the hurricane turned abruptly to the northeast toward the Mexican coast . At 00 : 00 UTC on October 27 , a nearby ship recorded winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) , confirming the increase in intensity . Six hours later , another ship recorded winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) . At around 12 : 00 UTC on October 27 , the hurricane made landfall just northwest of Manzanillo , Colima , with an eye 13 mi ( 20 km ) in diameter . The Mary Barbara – a ship in Manzanillo Harbor – estimated winds of 155 mph ( 250 km / h ) , which was the basis for the previous estimated landfall intensity of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) , which was later determined to be an overestimate . The same ship reported a minimum barometric pressure of 958 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) in the southeastern periphery of the eyewall ; this , in conjunction with other nearby readings , suggested a minimum central pressure of 955 mbar ( 28 @.@ 2 inHg ) . A reanalysis in 2016 indicated that the hurricane 's peak intensity at landfall was 140 mph ( 220 km / h ) , based on uncertainties in the wind estimates , the central pressure , as well as the storm 's small size and slow movement . The hurricane rapidly weakened over the mountainous terrain of southwestern Mexico . Within 12 hours of landfall , the system weakened to tropical storm status , and on October 28 the storm dissipated . = = Preparations and impact = = Thousands of people were unprepared for the storm . Thus , the system was dubbed " a sneak hurricane " . After passing well offshore from Acapulco , it was forecast to head out to sea . Instead , it recurved east and made landfall . The hurricane had devastating effects on the places it hit . It killed at least 1 @,@ 000 people directly , and a total of 1 @,@ 800 people . At that time , it was Mexico 's worst natural disaster in recent times . Most of the destruction was in Colima and Jalisco . A preliminary estimate of property damage was $ 280 million ( 1959 USD ) . The storm sank three merchant ships , and two other vessels . On one ship , the Sinaloa , 21 of 38 hands went down . On another , the El Caribe , all hands were lost . As many as 150 total boats were sunk . A quarter of the homes in Cihuatlán , Jalisco , were totally destroyed , leaving many homeless . In Manzanillo , Colima , 40 percent of all homes were destroyed , and four ships in the harbor were sunk . Large portions of Colima and Jalisco were isolated by flooding . Hundreds of people were stranded . Minatitlán , Colima , suffered especially , as 800 people out of its population of 1000 were dead or missing , according to a message sent to President Adolfo López Mateos . In Colima , all coconut plantations were blown down and thousands of people were left out of work . That state 's economy was damaged enough that officials thought it would take years to recover . The hurricane also dumped heavy rains along its path . This water @-@ logged the hills near Minatitlán , and contributed to huge mudslide late on October 29 that claimed 800 victims . The slide uncovered hundreds of venomous scorpions and snakes , which killed tens more people in the aftermath . Additional hordes of scorpions were driven from their nests when the adobe walls crumbled away . The Governor of Colima , Rodolfo Chávez Carrillo and his wife issued a plea for venom inoculations afterwards . In some places , the mud was 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) deep . Water supplies were badly polluted , both by debris and dead bodies . = = Aftermath and records = = In the aftermath , air rescue operations were conducted , but the destruction of roads in the area hindered convoys carrying aid . Planes also made supply drops , but rescue operations were hindered by broken roads and rails . Survivors were vaccinated against typhoid and tetanus . Part of Manzanillo was placed under quarantine . The cyclone was the deadliest east Pacific hurricane . Its death totals are higher than any other known Pacific hurricane , including Hurricanes Paul and Liza .